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Can you guess what fruits and/or vegetables are described below and what they all have in common?
- The ancient Greeks and Romans used the leaves of this vegetable in the wreaths that adorned winners of athletic competitions.
- Essential oils pressed from the tiny fruits of this plant are used for their calming, relaxing and uplifting effects…
- Curly and flat-leafed versions of this green plant have been cultivated and used throughout the world for more than 2,000 years as medicine, culinary ingredients and garnish.
- In England in the 1600s, ladies would decorate their coats, dresses and hats with the feathery leaves of this root vegetable.
Modern research shows compounds in all these plants can help reduce the risk of various types of cancer.
Read on to discover the answers, and how these plants fit into the cancer-fighting arsenal of today’s complementary and alternative medicine landscape.
Continued below. . .
A Note from Lee Euler, Editor
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The answers are:
- Celery seed
And do you know what they all have in common?
They’re all members of the apiaceae family, which has been shown to have powerful anti-cancer properties. Other members of the apiaceae family include coriander, cilantro, fennel, parsnips, dill and cumin.
They’re all packed with antioxidants, anti-inflammatory agents, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols and trace elements.
You probably know these foods are good for you, but more and more research keeps coming forward to show just how important these foods are to good health.
Here’s what they give you. . .
Celery’s powerhouse nutrients
Domesticated celery that’s grown as a crop and found in grocery stores contains apigenin, a bioactive flavonoid that is effective against a variety of cancers.
A study published in the December 2016 issue of the journal Cancer Prevention found that apigenin can regulate cellular response to inflammation and protect against DNA damage. It can also prevent angiogenesis, the process where cancer cells create their own system of blood vessels to feed themselves.
Apigenin can promote cell cycle arrest, induce apoptosis (programmed death) in cancer cells, stop cancer cells from spreading and also alter gene expression associated with cancer growth.1
That’s quite a list of benefits.
Studies have proven apigenin is effective against breast cancer cells. Research results published in 2017 noted that senescent cells (aging cells that are often damaged by stress and inflammation) can display a certain variation denoted SASP that can drive or exacerbate several age-related pathologies, including cancer.2
In the study, the researchers found that treating these cells with apigenin suppressed SASP and concurrently reduced an aggressive type of human breast cancer. This lead them to conclude “apigenin is a promising natural product for reducing the impact of senescent cells on age-related diseases such as cancer.”
Wild celery has cancer-fighting compounds that domesticated celery does not. One of them is called iso-furanodiene. An article published in 2014 found iso-furanodiene could induce apoptosis in human colon cancer cells.3
Celery seeds also contain large concentrations of these beneficial compounds. In many cases the seeds are richer in these compounds than the leaves and stalks.
Compounds extracted from the celery seed have been shown to induce apoptosis in human prostate cancer cell lines,4 as well as in liver cancer in animal studies.5
Parsley can stop the spread of breast cancer
Flat-leafed parsley is used in thousands of recipes around the world. The curly-leafed variety is commonly used as a garnish at restaurants. Many of us ignore the garnish, but studies show it’s smarter to eat it.
Parsley contains apigenin, which by itself is good stuff. But the stems and leaves also contain other flavonoids such as apiin, crisoeriol and luteolin.
A 2017 study published in Cancer Research found that luteolin inhibits triple negative breast cancers (TNBC) from spreading to the lungs, a common and deadly occurrence.6 TNBC cancers are resistant to chemotherapy. People diagnosed with them would do well to check out natural remedies.
Luteolin is one of them. This nutrient can suppress several steps in the metastasis process, helping to keep the cancer local, and giving treatment a better a chance of working.
Anti-cancer carrots and their leaves
The carrot root is full of flavonoids, vitamins and minerals similar to those in the other family members mentioned above. But interest tends to focus on anthocyanins – a particular type of flavonoid that can help prevent and suppress the spread of colon cancer.7 The color of the carrot comes from the anthocyanins.
And you might want to step outside your usual habits. We usually think of carrots as orange in color, but they come in purple, red and yellow varieties as well. Those varied colors are rich in nutrition.
Now here’s something few people know: the carrot greens are also edible and highly nutritious.
Carrot greens have a slightly bitter taste, like a milder dandelion leaf. They’re good in salads and stir-fry dishes, and can be made into a medicinal tea.
Carrot greens contain six times the vitamin C of the root. They’re also rich in protein, trace minerals, vitamins and flavonoids that fight inflammation.8 Reducing inflammation and getting enough vitamins and nutrients is the first step to preventing cancer.
How to benefit from members of the apiaceae family
By now you see that these foods are great additions to your meals. There are dozens of ways you can include them. A few examples are:
- In a mirepoix (blend of carrots, celery and onion) whenever you make a soup or sauce
- Juiced with other vegetables
- In fruit smoothies to balance out the sugar and get the vegetable “in disguise”
Other great ideas are adding small amounts of parsley to your cooking (small amounts won’t alter the flavor of the dish), eating those parsley garnishes in restaurants, and using celery seed essential oil in a diffuser or blended with salad oil. Use essential oil of parsley as directed, it can be powerful stuff.
Whatever way you decide to incorporate the apiaceae family into your eating habits, be sure you choose organic. These fruits and vegetables have a high water content, which means they absorb a lot of heavy metals and pesticides from the soil.
Not a good idea for two medical conditions
Parsley contains oxalates, organic acids that our bodies produce and get from foods. Too many oxalates in the blood can crystalize and cause problems such as calcium oxalate kidney stones and joint inflammation. If you’ve had kidney stones or are at risk of developing them, ask your doctor about a diet high in oxalate-containing foods.
And apigenin, while helpful in cancer prevention, may interfere with the leukemia drug vincristine.9 So if you’re undergoing treatment for leukemia, check with a doctor before loading up on carrots, celery and the like. | <urn:uuid:b006a152-abcd-40cb-95e3-ef49ab8cc10b> | {
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A little over 12 billion years ago, more than seven billion years before the Earth and Sun had formed, there was an epoch that marked the Universe's peak of star formation as well as black hole growth. It's during this period that the black holes that lie at the heart of every galaxy were expanding to supermassive proportions. The brightest and most active of these are called quasars, for "quasi-stellar radio source." These can be, on their own, up to 100 times brighter than the combined light from our own Milky Way galaxy's 200 to 400 billion stars.
To shine so brightly, they need to feed on an incredible amount of matter, producing light as the infalling material heats up due to friction. Where this material comes from is not well understood, but a new study using the Hubble Space Telescope may have an answer.
One model held that quasars are formed when two galaxies collide. The mash-up of both galaxies’ material could cause a lot of it to fall in toward the new galaxy’s core, thus providing fuel for the quasar. This material is normally held in place by angular momentum, but its orbital path can get disrupted as the two galaxies move through each other, leading it to fall in toward the core of the newly merged galaxy.
(To clarify, both galaxies probably had supermassive black holes before the collision, but it's the collision that gives them a sudden supercharge of fuel, making them produce enough light to be classified as quasars. The two supermassive black holes may also merge as a consequence of the galaxy merger, the consequences of which are discussed in the sidebar.)
To find out whether that was the case, the researchers needed a way to see past the quasars’ brilliant light to the comparatively dim galaxies in which they reside. It’s difficult to see even bright objects next to a quasar—imagine trying to make out Christmas lights sitting right next to a spotlight that's pointed right at your face. Even worse, the quasars chosen for the study are among the brightest known in the Universe.
In the near-infrared wavelengths of light, however, the disparity isn’t so great, and the host galaxies become more visible. And Hubble has an instrument that’s sensitive to the near-infrared. Additionally, the quasars chosen for the study were selected because their light is somewhat dimmed by dust in the way, which helps reduce the disparity in brightness and makes the host galaxy more visible.
In total, 11 quasars were involved in the study, all at about 12 billion light-years away, meaning we’re seeing them as they were during their peak epoch of growth. At that time, the Universe was smaller and denser, so galaxies would have been colliding with each other more often. That could power quasar activity, according to the model. And this turns out to be the case: the images show that the quasars’ host galaxies seemed to be in the process of merging.
“The Hubble images confirm that the most luminous quasars in the Universe result from violent mergers between galaxies, which fuels black hole growth and transforms the host galaxies,” said C. Megan Urry, the Israel Munson professor of astronomy and astrophysics at Yale University and the study’s co-author.
“The Hubble observations are telling us that the peak of quasar activity in the early Universe is driven by galaxies colliding and then merging together,” added Eilat Glikman of Middlebury College in Vermont, lead author of the study. “We are seeing the quasars in their teenage years, when they are growing quickly and are all messed up.”
The quasars, in other words, are not exactly in the beginning stage of their formation. “The new images capture the dust-clearing transitional phase of the merger-driven black hole scenario,” explains Glikman. “The Hubble images are both beautiful and descriptive.”
And quasars seem to be tied into the large-scale Universe by some unknown mechanism, so understanding how quasars came about can play into an understanding of the Universe as a whole. They also happen to make for great pictures; you can check out the rest of the new Hubble images used in the study here.
This post originated on Ars Technica | <urn:uuid:8f588d47-d7d9-48a5-a6fe-5c4c324e42a1> | {
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September is National Ovarian Cancer Awareness Month! It is time to bring attention to a female reproductive cancer that kills more women than other female reproductive cancers. Ovarian cancer takes more lives each year than breast cancer yet it does not have the same amount of exposure in the news and media.
If ovarian cancer is caught early there is a very high survivor rate. Because of this excellent news it is important to have early detection for it. During this month we in the medical community want to raise your awareness about your reproductive health.
Ovarian cancer is not a common cancer however it can be deadly because women sometimes do not detect any symptoms or their symptoms can be confused with other disorders.
If is caught early, before it spreads outside of the ovaries, there are treatments to put it into remission. If it is caught after it has metastasized and traveled outside of the ovaries, the survivor outcomes are much lower.
How can ovarian cancer be detected?
First and foremost, you have to trust your intuition about your body. If you feel that there is something wrong or you are having vague symptoms go to your primary care physician or gynecologist for an evaluation.
It is better to go to your doctor and find out it is just a stomachache or irregular periods, than not to go and find out a year later it is ovarian cancer.
Take notice if you experience any of the following symptoms for longer than a month:
• Gas or bloating, a feeling of fullness in the pelvis
• Frequent or urgent urination
• Nausea, indigestion, constipation, diarrhea
• Menstrual disorders, pain during intercourse
• Pain in the lower abdomen
• Bleeding from the vagina
• Weight gain or loss
• Unexplained back pain that gets worse
What are the next steps?
Your doctor will perform a physical and pelvic exam to identify the problem. Lab testing, ultrasounds, or biopsy may follow to confirm diagnosis. Once the diagnosis is made your treatment options can include surgery or chemotherapy.
Ovarian cancer is a very treatable cancer if it is caught early. | <urn:uuid:6d4a65ca-4ab2-4dcb-91be-e954e808c54b> | {
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Who Am I? is a simple icebreaker useful for classrooms.
- Materials Required: Post-it notes or small sheets of paper, pens.
- Number of Players Recommended: 5-30.
- Time Required: 15 minutes
How Do You Play Who Am I?
Ask everyone to form a circle. Hand a post-it note and a pen to each player. Tell each player to write a famous person on the post-it note.
Playing the Who Am I? Game
Have each player stick a post-it note on a nearby person, with the name of the person showing. Go around the room and have a player ask the “yes/no” question to the group. The goal is for each player to successfully guess the person written on their forehead. If the player does not guess correctly, the next person gets to ask a question. Continue play until everyone successfully guesses their name, or until time runs out. | <urn:uuid:6ef25553-6804-40d0-9355-75b98c928d12> | {
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Question: We filled our new raised vegetable beds with good stuff: humus, peat moss and vermiculite, but our plants are puny! What's wrong?
Answer: Neither peat moss nor vermiculite has nutritional value. Your plants are starving. Vegetable crops need fertilizer in some form. Also, peat moss makes soil more acid, but vegetables don't like an acid soil. They need a pH close to neutral, about 6.5-6.8. Mix the soil amendments you added with the natural soil at the bottom of the raised bed. Then take a soil test to learn the pH and the nutrient levels. The soil test recommendations that are sent back to you will tell you how much to lime and fertilize.
Question: Can I transplant perennials during dry periods?
Answer: Yes, but be sure to take these steps to ease the transition: Water the plants well a day or two before transplanting. Hydrating them will ensure that they are not in a stressed condition. Dig the planting hole in advance and fill it with water. Let the water be absorbed by the surrounding soil. Repeat. Try to transplant when it is not sunny or breezy. Follow our online factsheet, "Planting Tips for Trees and Shrubs." For the next two years, water your transplants during drought.
Keep raspberries and blackberries picked. Over-ripe berries invite disease.
Do not apply fertilizer or weed killer to grass dormant because of drought.
Why won't my vegetable plants grow?
We've upgraded our reader commenting system. Learn more about the new features. | <urn:uuid:6c7a72e1-e115-4599-a500-cccbb48ca91d> | {
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Shrovetide - The count down to Shrove Tuesday begins on Egg Saturday. Did you know the day before Shrove Tuesday is known as Collop Monday? Find out why here
In the UK, Shrove Tuesday is also known as Pancake Day (or Pancake Tuesday to some people) because it is the one day of the year when almost everyone eats a pancake.
What happens on Pancake Day in England?
Read on to find out why we eat pancakes on Shrove Tuesday and other facts about this special time of year.
Pancake Day ( also known as Shrove Tuesday) is the last day before the period which Christians call Lent. It is traditional on this day to eat pancakes. copyright of projectbritain.com
Lent is a time of abstinence, of giving things up. So Shrove Tuesday is the last chance to indulge yourself, and to use up the foods that aren't allowed in Lent. Pancakes are eaten on this day because they contain fat, butter and eggs which were forbidden during Lent.
Shrove Tuesday is celebrated the day before Ash Wednesday and is therefore the final day before the commencement of Lent, a Christian festival leading up to Easter Sunday (Easter Day).
Shrove Tuesday always falls 47 days before Easter Sunday, so the date varies from year to year and falls between 3 February and 9 March. (See our Lent page for a visual explanation why Shrove Tuesday is 47 days and not 41 days before Easter)
In 2014 Pancake Day will be on 4 March
|2008 — 5 February
2009 — 24 February
2010 — 16 February
2011 — 8 March
2012 — 21 February
|2013 — 12 February
2014 — 4 March
2015 — 17 February
2016 — 9 February
2017 — 28 February
The name Shrove comes from the old word "shrive" which means to confess. On Shrove Tuesday, in the Middle Ages, people used to confess their sins so that they were forgiven before the season of Lent began. copyright of projectbritain.com
Shrove Tuesday is a day of celebration as well as penitence, because it's the last day before Lent. Throughout the United Kingdom, and in other countries too, people indulge themselves on foods that traditionally aren't allowed during Lent. Pancakes are eaten on this day because they contain fat, butter and eggs which were forbidden during Lent. copyright of projectbritain.com
A pancake is a thin, flat cake, made of batter and fried in a pan.
The photograph shows a pancake
being cooked in a frying pan.
Caster sugar (superfine sugar) is sprinkled over the top and a dash of fresh lemon juice added. The pancake is then rolled. Some people add golden syrup or jam. copyright of projectbritain.com
(Click here for a pancake recipe)
Pancake Day in England
United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia - Shrove Tuesday, Pancake Day or Pancake Tuesday
- Terça-feira gorda - Fat Tuesday - the final day of Brazilian Carnival.
- Apocreas, which means "from the meat" since they don't eat meat during Lent, either.
- Fettisdagen (Fat Tuesday).
In Catholic and French-speaking parts of the United States this day is called Mardi Gras.
- "Fastnacht" (Also spelt "Fasnacht", "Fasenacht", "Fasteloven" (in the Rhine area) or "Fasching" in Bavaria.)
In they call it Mardi Gras, which means Grease or Fat Tuesday.
In the day is known as "Sprengidagur" (Bursting day).
Click here to find out how Pancake day is celebrated in other countries around the world.
Click here to download this page
Pancake Day in England
A few of our comments from our visitors
"I was searching for a simple explanation of Shrovetide and Lent for my 6 year old daughter. I was very lucky to find your website first."
Sue Keenan, Leics
"I found your site while looking up Shrove Tuesday. In the U.S.A., most Protestants don't celebrate Lent, so I knew nothing about it. I homeschool my children and after reading about it, we will have Pancakes today and discuss the history and meaning of Lent. Great site!"
"I must compliment you on the clear and informative style of your presentation. As a Christian believer of many years, and also a retired secondary school teacher I am pleased to note that a school is prepared to present information about the Christian festivals which is so desperately needed in our country today. Many people do not know about these festivals let alone having any experience of faith,regular worship, or attending church on a Sunday. " | <urn:uuid:5d99f293-78e2-4b7e-a0ab-41a36ae559bc> | {
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The Wisdom of Crowds and The Open Source Way
by Nikki Tyson
What do high-speed rail, ash tree dieback, and changing world demographics have in common?
These are just three projects that are actively harnessing what James Surowiecki refers to as, The Wisdom of Crowds.
Open Source Design
Let’s start with Elon Musk’s Hyperloop proposal for high-speed public transportation. Musk has taken an incubator approach, with Telsa and SpaceX staff involved in getting it this far, and how he is now passing it on for others to evolve. As a Bloomberg Businessweek article sums up:
The critics of California’s high-speed rail may be dismayed to learn that Musk does not plan to commercialize the Hyperloop technology for the time being. He’s posting the plans and asking for feedback and contemplating building a prototype. “I’m just putting this out there as an open source design,” he says. “There are sure to be suggestions out there for making this better, correcting any mistakes, and refining the design.”
Giving Evolution a Helping Hand
For a complete contrast in the UK there is a new Facebook game, Fraxinus, which aims to harness the power of social media to analyze genetic data on the disease threatening the UK’s 80 million ash trees. Losses in continental Europe have been dramatic.
Apparently, humans are better at analyzing this type of data than computers!
“The aim was to harness "people power" to get cumulative information… By getting people in, by matching patterns, we might be able to identify what the diversity is of the different individual fungi that are causing this disease," Prof Allan Downie, also of the John Innes Centre.
For this project there is an immediate time pressure – to give evolution a helping hand before the majority of trees are lost:
“We can get a fast start on evolution rather than leaving these trees out there to find a way to fight the pathogen over decades or even centuries,” Dr Joan Webber, Forest Research.
Learning, Discovering & Problem Solving
And finally, Oxford University’s Saïd Business School has recently developed an online community that powers the school’s Global Opportunities and Threats: Oxford initiative (GOTO). Launched in 2013, the community connects students and alumni with faculty and their research to discuss and drive business ideas that address global issues.
In 2013, GOTO is focusing on the implications of an aging population and changing demographics on the world.
“GOTO is a completely new online learning environment. GOTO creates and enables an online community that supports learning, discovery and problem solving,” Professor Peter Tufano, Peter Moores Dean, Saïd Business School.
As someone committed to the open source way, where the collaborative and crowd-sourced approach to both problem solving and developing software solutions is a natural reflex, these projects are inspirational and indicative of a growing international trend in both commercial and non-commercial environments. | <urn:uuid:fd361d14-610a-4bf8-b6c2-b123f9936ea2> | {
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The term Dakota Group (Meek and Hayden, 1862) was first applied to the varicolored clay, sandstone, and lignite beds beneath the Benton Group in exposures near Dakota City, Dakota County, Nebraska. The use of this grouping has been discontinued (Plummer and Romary, 1942), and the Dakota Formation now includes strata between the Kiowa Shale below and the Graneros Shale above.
Character and subdivisions--The Dakota Formation consists of variously colored clays, dark-gray shale, sandy shale, and lenticular beds of siltstone and sandstone. Yellow-brown to brown ironstone and quartzitic sandstone characterize outcrops of the Dakota. Owing to the resistance of sandstone beds, the Dakota Formation in outcrop may appear to be mostly sandstone, but much of the formation is clay and shale. In Kansas the Dakota Formation has been divided into two members, the lower called the Terra Cotta Clay member and the upper called the Janssen Clay member (Plummer and Romary, 1942). In Mitchell County only the upper part of the Dakota Formation is exposed.
Distribution and thickness--The Dakota Formation crops out along the Solomon Valley in the eastern part of Mitchell County and along the Salt Creek valley in the southeastern part (Pl. 1). In the rest of the county the Dakota Formation is concealed by younger overlying formations. Leonard (1952) determined the top of the Dakota Formation to lie at a depth of about 100 feet near Downs, just west of the Mitchell-Osborne County line. At a test hole drilled in the SW cor. sec. 8, T. 7 S., R. 5 W., in western Cloud County near the Mitchell County line, the thickness of the Dakota was about 350 feet (C. K. Bayne, personal communication). The Kiowa Shale, if present, could not be differentiated; no Cheyenne Sandstone was present, and Permian red beds were penetrated below 350 feet.
Water supply--The Dakota Formation contains lenticular sand bodies that are sources of moderate supplies of water. In eastern and southeastern Mitchell County this supply is adequate for domestic and stock use (Fig. 17). In the rest of the county, to the west, water from the Dakota Formation is too mineralized for use. Water from the Dakota Formation in most of Mitchell County is under artesian pressure but rarely flows at the surface. Figure 17 illustrates the areas in Mitchell County where potable water is available from the Dakota Formation. The chemical character of water obtained from the Dakota is shown by analyses in Table 5 and graphically in Figure 14.
Figure 17--Map of Mitchell County showing generalized areas where water in Dakota Formation is fresh. Ground water in Dakota Formation in unshaded areas is too mineralized for ordinary uses.
Along the Solomon Valley in the eastern and central parts of Mitchell County, sand and gravel of the alluvial terrace deposits are underlain by the Dakota Formation. Water within the Dakota Formation is under artesian pressure, and under certain hydraulic conditions it contaminates the overlying fresh water. Water from terrace deposits is known to be salty at several localities in the Beloit area. Chemical analysis 7-7-15cbc (Table 5) of water from a well penetrating terrace deposits about a mile southeast of Beloit in the SW sec. 15 shows 2,000 ppm of chloride, 1,710 ppm of sodium, and 1,090 ppm of sulfate. Analysis 7-7-21bbb from a well obtaining water from terrace deposits about a mile south of Beloit in the NW sec. 21 also shows the water to be salty. Water too salty for domestic or stock use is present in the alluvial deposits south and southwest of Beloit in sec. 16, 17, and 18. An irrigation well drilled in March 1956 about 2 miles east of Beloit in the NE sec. 14 was reported to be too salty for use.
Character--The Graneros Shale was named by Gilbert (1896) from exposures of marine shale along Graneros Creek, south of Pueblo, Colorado. The Graneros Shale is a noncalcareous dark-blue-gray clayey shale that weathers gray and tan. Included locally in the formation are interbedded thin layers of bentonite and thin lenses of ferruginous sandstone. Selenite crystals are common. The formation is soft and forms a gentle slope between the Dakota Formation and the Greenhorn Limestone.
Distribution and thickness--The Graneros Shale crops out in the eastern and southeastern parts of Mitchell County, but because the formation is soft, good exposures are rare. The only outcrop in Mitchell County where an entire section of the Graneros Shale is exposed is in the SE sec. 24, T. 8 S., R. 6 W., where the shale is about 25 feet thick.
Water supply--No wells in Mitchell County are known to obtain water from the Graneros Shale. A sandstone lens in the shale could yield water if penetrated below the water table by a well, but because of the low permeability of the sediments, the yield would be small.
Character and subdivisions--Gilbert (1896, p. 564) named the Greenhorn Limestone from outcrops of interbedded limestone and shale near Greenhorn Station, south of Pueblo, Colorado. Central Kansas rocks referred to as "Benton" were correlated with the Colorado section of the Greenhorn by Logan (1897, p. 232). In Kansas, the Greenhorn Limestone is divided into four members (Rubey and Bass, 1925; Bass, 1926), which in ascending order are the Lincoln Limestone, Hartland Shale, Jetmore Chalk, and Pfeifer Shale members. The Greenhorn Limestone consists of interbedded chalky limestone and chalky shale, including some thin bentonite seams, and lies conformably between the Carlile Shale above and the noncalcareous Graneros Shale below. Plate 5 shows typical sections of the upper part of the Greenhorn Limestone. The top of the Greenhorn Limestone is marked by the Fencepost Limestone bed, which is a hard, dense limestone about 1 foot thick having an iron-stained layer near the center. The measured section below illustrates the lithology of the Greenhorn Limestone.
|Section of Greenhorn Limestone and Graneros Shale measured in quarry and road cut in SE sec. 24 T. 8 S., R. 6 W., by A. R. Leonard, C. K. Bayne, and K. L. Walters, August 13, 1953.||Thickness,
|Pfeifer Shale member|
|69.||Fencepost Limestone bed, iron-stained in center, split||avg. 0.7|
|68.||Shale, calcareous; has concretionary limestone at 1.4 ft. above base and bentonite seam 2.2 ft. above base||2.7|
|67.||Limestone, brown, concretionary||0.3|
|66.||Shale, calcareous; has 12'-in. bentonite 0.3 ft. above base||2.1|
|65.||Limestone, concretionary, split in center||avg. 0.2|
|64.||Shale, calcareous; contains concretionary limestones at 0.7, 1.4, 2.2, 3.0, 3.9, and 4.5 ft. above base and 0.1-ft. bentonite 0.1 ft. below top||5.5|
|63.||Limestone, chalky, persistent||0.2|
|62.||Shale, calcareous. Concretionary zones at 1.0 and 2.0 ft. above base, sandy limestone at top, and bentonite streak below limestone||3.1|
|61.||Limestone, blocky, persistent, laminated||0.2|
|Jetmore Chalk member|
|59.||Limestone, chalky, very fossiliferous-"Shell rock"||1.0|
|55.||Limestone, gray streak at top||0.5|
|54.||Shale, calcareous, fossiliferous; contains bentonite layer at base||0.8|
|53.||Limestone, stained brown in center||0.6|
|47.||Limestone, chalky, limonitic stained||0.3|
|45.||Limestone, chalky, white, solid||0.4|
|43.||Limestone, shaly, irregular||avg. 0.25|
|41.||Limestone, similar to 39||0.2|
|40.||Shale, limy; brown limonitic zone 0.6 ft. above base||0.9|
|39.||Limestone, chalky, white||0.3|
|38.||Shale, limy, fossiliferous, light gray||0.6|
|37.||Limestone, massive, blocky; brown zone in center||0.4|
|Hartland Shale member|
|36.||Shale, calcareous, limy zones 1.4 and 2.3 ft. above base||6.4|
|35.||Bentonite, gray and orange||0.5|
|34.||Limestone, chalky white||0.2|
|33.||Shale, chalky, basal part brownish||2.3|
|32.||Limestone, blocky, persistent, fossiliferous||0.2-|
|31.||Shale, calcareous, has 0.4-ft. limy zone 1.0 ft. above base and 0.2-ft. bentonite 1.8 ft. above base||2.5|
|27.||Shale; contains bentonite seams at 0.5, 0.8, 1.5, 1.7, and 2.0 ft. above base and 0.2-ft. laminated limestone 2.2 ft. above base||4.4|
|26.||Bentonite, orange brown||0.1|
|25.||Shale, calcareous; contains bentonite layer 0.2 ft. below top||2.9|
|23.||Shale, slabby, limy||0.4|
|22.||Bentonite, uniform and persistent||0.25|
|20.||Bentonite, orange brown||0.25|
|19.||Shale, calcareous, creamy; contains 0.6-ft. slabby limestone at 1.4 ft. above base and bentonite layer at 0.6 ft. above base||2.7|
|17.||Shale, limy, slabby||1.3|
|Lincoln Limestone member|
|15.||Shale, calcareous, dark gray||0.5|
|14.||Bentonitic clay, granular, gray||0.15|
|13.||Limestone, granular, soft; upper part shaly||0.4|
|12.||Shale, calcareous, gray||0.3|
|11.||Bentonite, brown and gray||0.3|
|10.||Shale, calcareous, tabular, weathers fissile, black to blue gray, top very limy||4.5|
|8.||Shale, gray, some brown; generally noncalcareous, but contains calcareous zone 2 ft. below top (bedding planes covered with powdery gypsum coating)||8.8|
|7.||Shale, brown, generally calcareous, gypsum coating||1.4|
|6.||Limestone, petroliferous, very fossiliferous, thin bedded to slabby. Some beds are hard, dark, and crystalline. Contains 0.2-ft. noncalcareous shale 0.2 ft. above base and 0.1-ft. shale 0.5 ft. above base||3.3|
|(Total Greenhorn Limestone)||86.55|
|5.||Shale, noncalcareous; contains sand and gypsum crystals||0.4|
|4.||Bentonite, orange and white||1.0|
|3.||Shale, noncalcareous, blue gray||10.0|
|2.||Shale, noncalcareous; contains ochre and sandy zones in upper part||6.5|
|1.||Shale, noncalcareous (partly covered slope)||3.5|
|(Total Graneros Shale exposed)||21.4|
Plate 5--A, Upper part of Greenhorn Limestone exposed in SW sec. 18, T. 7 S., R. 7 W. B, Greenhorn Limestone exposed in railroad cut in SW sec. 27, T. 6 S., R. 9 W.
The Lincoln Limestone, basal member of the Greenhorn Limestone, is about 22 feet thick in Mitchell County and consists principally of gray calcareous shale. Thin gray and orange bentonite seams and thin limestone beds occur irregularly within the member. The limestone beds are shaly and slabby except in the basal part, where they are hard, dark, and crystalline. Limestone beds in the lower part are generally petroliferous, giving off a petroleum odor when freshly broken.
The Hartland Shale member of the Greenhorn Limestone is composed of about 26 feet of gray calcareous shale containing interbedded brown to orange bentonite seams and chalky limestone beds. The Hartland Shale member has a relatively obscure outcrop.
The Jetmore Chalk member consists of alternating thin beds of chalky limestone and calcareous shale. The "Shell-rock limestone" bed marks the top of the Jetmore and forms a rocky hillside bench. The "Shell-rock limestone" bed is shaly, contains many Inoceramus shells, and is about 1 foot thick. The Jetmore Chalk member in Mitchell County is about 19 feet thick.
The Pfeifer Shale, uppermost member of the Greenhorn Limestone, is about 19 feet thick in Mitchell County and consists principally of alternating beds of thin chalky limestone and calcareous shale. The limestone is concretionary and contains abundant Inoceramus shells. The shale is calcareous, fissile, and light gray. A few thin bentonite layers occur in this member at some localities. The top of the member is marked by the Fencepost Limestone bed, a hard chalky limestone about 1 foot thick having an iron-stained layer near its center. This bed, the thickest persistent limestone bed in the Pfeifer Shale member, is easily recognized by its creamy color, its uniform thickness, the iron-stained band, and the hillside bench it forms (Pl. 6A). The Fencepost Limestone bed has been quarried extensively in north-central Kansas for fence posts and building stone. Plate 6B shows building stone being quarried and cut from the Fencepost Limestone bed about 3 1/2 miles south of Simpson on the Mitchell-Cloud county line.
Plate 6--A, Contact of Greenhorn Limestone and Carlile Shale 1.5 miles south of Beloit on Kansas Highway 14. Thick bed containing iron-stained band near middle of section is Fencepost Limestone bed, marking top of Greenhorn Limestone. B, Building-stone quarry in Fencepost Limestone bed in SE sec. 24, T. 8 S., R. 6 W., south of Simpson.
Distribution and thickness--The Greenhorn Limestone is the most prominent bedrock formation in Mitchell County, but in many places it is concealed by the overlying Carlile Shale or by the mantle of eolian silt characteristic of the upland. The Fencepost Limestone bed and "Shell-rock limestone" bed form prominent rocky shoulders along hillsides where they are not masked by loess. The thickness of the Greenhorn Limestone in the SE sec. 24, T. 8 S., R. 6 W., measured 86.5 feet and is representative of the formation in Mitchell County. The areal distribution of the Greenhorn Limestone is shown on Plate 1.
Water supply--The water-yielding capacity of the Greenhorn Limestone is low, but wells that intercept cracks and fissures or solution openings may yield small amounts of water. Nearly all wells obtaining water from the Greenhorn Limestone in Mitchell County are dug wells. In the upland area many rural domestic and stock wells obtain water from the Greenhorn Limestone, and during times of normal rainfall these wells are generally adequate. Because water in the Greenhorn Limestone is replenished by local rainfall, many wells obtaining water from this formation are dry during prolonged dry periods when the water level drops below the bottom of the well. Most of these wells probably would withstand dry periods longer before failing if they were deepened. Many farm wells in Mitchell County are dependent upon water from the Greenhorn Limestone, although where possible other sources of water such as the underlying Dakota Formation or the alluvial terrace deposits are used. The chemical character of water from the Greenhorn Limestone is shown by analyses in Table 5 and graphically in Figure 14.
Character and subdivisions--The Carlile Shale was named by Gilbert (1896) from exposures of gray argillaceous shale along Carlile Creek, 21 miles south of Pueblo, Colorado. Logan (1897) correlated Gilbert's section with Cretaceous beds along Solomon River from Beloit in Mitchell County westward into Norton County. Rubey and Bass (1925) divided the Carlile Shale into two members, the Fairport (chalky shale) Member below and the Blue Hill Shale above. Bass (1926) named the Codell Sandstone zone in the upper part of the Blue Hill Shale member from exposures along Saline River in Ellis County, Kansas.
The Fairport Member consists of alternating beds of calcareous shale and thin nodular chalky limestone. Ostrea shells are abundant. The limestones are soft and chalky; they are cream color to gray in fresh exposures and tan to brown in weathered exposures. The shale is chalky and contains thin bentonite seams near the base. The lower part of the member contains abundant chalky limestone beds and resembles the underlying Pfeifer Shale member of the Greenhorn Limestone.
The Blue Hill Shale member is a noncalcareous gray to blue-black clayey shale containing abundant ordinary and septarian concretions and selenite crystals. Septarian concretions 3 to 4 feet in diameter containing crosscutting veins of brown calcite are common in the upper part of the member (Pl. 7A). The Codell Sandstone zone marks the top of the Blue Hill Shale member and crops out in the Blue Hills area. In Mitchell County the sandstone is about 2 to 3.5 feet thick. It is fine grained to silty and contains considerable clay; the color is characteristically yellow brown.
Plate 7--A, Septarian concretions 3 to 4 feet in diameter common in the upper part of Carlile Shale, NW sec. 19, T. 19 S., R. 9 W. B, Contact of Carlile Shale and overlying Fort Hays Limestone member of Niobrara Formation, SW sec. 12, T. 9 S., R. 10 W.
Distribution and thickness--In Mitchell County the Carlile Shale is almost everywhere concealed beneath eolian silts of the Sanborn Group or, as in the Blue Hills southeast of Tipton, beneath the Fort Hays Limestone member of the Niobrara Formation. In the eastern part of the county the Carlile Shale is exposed in only a few places, where it caps some of the uplands in the interstream areas. In the western part of the county, particularly the southwestern part, exposures of the Carlile Shale are more extensive.
The total thickness of the Carlile Shale is about 300 feet. The Fairport Member is about 100 feet thick and the Blue Hill Shale member, including the Codell Sandstone zone, is about 200 feet thick.
Water supply--The Carlile Shale is impervious and does not yield water to wells in Mitchell County. The Codell Sandstone zone is well above the water table and yields no water to wells. A few wells in the Blue Hills area, where ground-water supplies are meager, obtain water from slope-wash deposits resting on slopes of the Carlile Shale.
Character and subdivisions--The Niobrara Formation was named by Meek and Hayden (1862) from exposures of calcareous marl and chalky limestone near the mouth of Niobrara River in northeastern Nebraska. In 1897 Logan (p. 219) described the Niobrara in north-central Kansas and subdivided it into the Fort Hays Limestone member below and the Smoky Hill Chalk member above. He described a section of Cretaceous rocks in Mitchell County from Beloit to Tipton (Pl. 31, fig. 1). Williston (1897, p. 235) discussed the paleontology and stratigraphy of the Niobrara in western Kansas. Landes (1930, p. 16) described the appearance and occurrence of the lower part of the Niobrara Formation in Mitchell and Osborne counties.
In Mitchell County only the Fort Hays Limestone, lower member of the Niobrara Formation, is present. The Fort Hays Limestone member consists of thick to massive layers of soft chalky limestone separated by thin layers of chalky shale. The color ranges from creamy white to light brown. The beds of chalky limestone typically become platy when weathered. The contact of the Fort Hays Limestone member with the underlying Carlile Shale is marked by a distinct change from light-colored calcareous beds of the Fort Hays to the dark noncalcareous sand and shale of the Carlile Shale (Pl. 7B).
Distribution and thickness--The Fort Hays Limestone member crops out in the Blue Hills area in the southwestern part of Mitchell County, where it caps the butte-like hills. The maximum thickness of the Fort Hays in Mitchell County is about 45 feet.
Water supply--The Fort Hays Limestone member is well above the water table in Mitchell County and does not yield water to wells.
Quaternary deposits in Mitchell County are of continental origin and are assigned to the Pleistocene Series. The deposits are both fluviatile and eolian and are composed of clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Fluviatile deposits are associated with the present drainage system or with ancient drainage systems. Eolian deposits generally mantle the upland but locally extend into the valleys and rest on older fluviatile deposits. The Pleistocene Epoch as defined by the State Geological Survey of Kansas is the last of the major divisions of geologic time and has been called the "Ice Age," owing to the presence of continental glaciers in North America and other parts of the world. The Pleistocene Epoch has been divided into four main glacial stages, the Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoian, and Wisconsinan, and three interglacial stages, the Aftonian, Yarmouthian, and Sangamonian.
Deposits of Quaternary age, although relatively thin in Mitchell County, are near-surface materials in much of the county, as shown by the geologic map (Pl. 1). Deposits of Nebraskan or Kansan age were not recognized in Mitchell County. Quaternary deposits are classed in this report as the Sanborn Group and Recent alluvium. The Sanborn Group includes deposits of Illinoian and Wisconsinan ages and is composed of the Crete Formation, silts of the Loveland and Peoria Formations, and terrace deposits. Because it is impracticable to differentiate between the Loveland Formation and the Peoria Formation in ordinary field mapping, these formations were mapped as a unit. The Crete Formation and the Wisconsinan terrace deposits were mapped separately.
In 1931, Elias (p. 163) described unconsolidated late Pleistocene deposits consisting mostly of silt in northwestern Cheyenne County, Kansas, and named these deposits the Sanborn Formation. In 1944, Hibbard, Frye, and Leonard made a reconnaissance of Pleistocene deposits of north-central Kansas and concluded that the Sanborn in most of north-central Kansas consisted of wind-deposited silt. In 1947, Frye and Fent divided the Sanborn into three members, in ascending order the Loveland, Peoria, and Bignell Silts. This classification was modified by Frye and Leonard (1949) when they applied the name Crete to the sand and gravel underlying the Loveland Silt. In 1952, Frye and Leonard recognized the Crete (sand and gravel) Member, Loveland (silt) Member, early Wisconsinan alluvial deposits, Peoria (silt) Member, late Wisconsinan alluvial deposits, and Bignell (silt) Member within the Sanborn Formation.
A Pleistocene conference was held in Lawrence, Kansas, on June 28-29, 1956, for the purpose of developing a correlative stratigraphic nomenclature for Pleistocene deposits of Kansas. Names of some formations and members were dropped and some other names were changed in rank. New names were selected to replace some that were dropped. The Sanborn was elevated to group rank and the Loveland, Peoria, and Bignell within the Sanborn were elevated to formational rank. In November, 1956, this classification of the Sanborn Group was modified by the State Geological Survey of Kansas, and the Crete was elevated to formational rank. In Kansas the Sanborn Group now includes, in ascending order, the Crete Formation, Loveland Formation commonly containing the Sangamon buried soil at the top, early Wisconsinan terrace deposits, Peoria Formation commonly containing the Brady buried soil at the top, late Wisconsinan terrace deposits, and Bignell Formation.
Stream-deposited sand, gravel, and silt overlying Cretaceous bedrock and forming high terraces along the Solomon Valley and its larger tributaries represent the Crete Formation, of Illinoian age. The terrace is dissected, discontinuous, and in a position higher than the younger Wisconsinan terrace deposits that constitute the major part of the valley fill. Scattered remnants of the Crete Formation, most of which are being excavated for sand and gravel, are all that remain of these alluvial deposits. They are more numerous along the north side of the Solomon Valley and its tributaries from the north than they are along the south side. There are also several deposits along the Salt Creek Valley in the southeastern corner of the county, mostly along the north side of the valley. The Crete Formation consists of poorly sorted silt, lenses of sand and quartz gravel, and angular to partly rounded fragments of indigenous chalky limestone (Pl. 8A). The deposits are as much as 20 feet thick and grade upward into sandy silt, classed as the Loveland Formation. Unexposed sand and gravel deposits of the Crete Formation possibly underlie the Loveland and Peoria Formations at other places in Mitchell County. The Crete Formation is above the water table in Mitchell County and does not yield water to wells.
Plate 8--A, Crete Formation, SW sec. 33, T. 8 S., R. 8 W. B, Pit silo showing eolian silts classed as Peoria Formation overlying Carlile Shale, SW sec. 11, T. 7 S. R. 8 W.
Loveland and Peoria Formations
In the upland of Mitchell County, eolian silts form the most extensive outcrop, blanketing much of the county with a cover of loess ranging from a featheredge to more than 40 feet in thickness. Eolian silts in Mitchell County represent the Loveland Formation of Illinoian age and the Peoria Formation of Wisconsinan age. The Bignell Formation was not recognized in Mitchell County and if present is incorporated within the modern soil profile. Loess in Mitchell County occurs as an upland phase, in which it caps the rolling topography of the uplands, as well as a valley phase, in which it masks the valley walls of the larger streams. Colluvium, material deposited by slope wash and consisting of reworked loess and Cretaceous bedrock fragments, has been mapped with the Loveland and Peoria Formations where it is sufficiently thick to conceal the underlying bedrock.
The Loveland Formation is a reddish-tan silt, in part eolian, at the top of which is the Sangamon buried soil. In much of Mitchell County the Loveland Formation is almost entirely within the Sangamon soil profile and consists of 2 or 3 feet of silt forming a fossil soil resting on the eroded surface of Cretaceous rocks. In places the pre-soil material seems to represent local slope-wash deposits consisting mostly of eroded Cretaceous rocks. The bulk of the upland silt mantle in Mitchell County consists of the Peoria Formation, which overlies the Loveland Formation. The Peoria Formation is a massive tan to gray-buff calcareous eolian silt that extends in an almost unbroken blanket over much of the upland (Pl. 8B). The deposits mapped as Peoria and Loveland Formations in this report consist mostly of relatively thin wind-deposited silts overlying Cretaceous rocks and are generally well above the water table. In the southwestern part of Mitchell County and in parts of the upland of the county where ground-water supplies are meager, however, shallow wells obtain some water from colluvial and slope deposits classed as Sanborn Group in this report.
Character and extent--The extent of the terrace deposits is shown on the geologic map (Pl. 1). Their thickness and character are shown on cross sections in Plate 2 and are described in logs of test holes at the end of this report. Broad smooth terrace surfaces interrupted by a relatively narrow flood-plain belt characterize the Solomon Valley (Pl. 9A). The terrace deposits along the Solomon Valley are continuous with the terrace deposits along the valley of North Fork, where the level upper surface has been called the Kirwin Terrace (Leonard, 1952). The Kirwin Terrace is the most prominent physiographic feature in the Solomon Valley, and the underlying deposits constitute the most important aquifer in Mitchell County. The width of the Kirwin Terrace ranges from about 1 1/2 miles in the western part of the county to slightly more than 3 miles in the eastern part. The height of the terrace above the alluvial flood plain is about 15 or 20 feet. Narrow prongs of the Kirwin Terrace extend into the valleys of the larger tributaries. The Salt Creek valley is characterized by broad smooth Wisconsinan terraces consistent with the Kirwin Terrace and entrenched by a narrow channel of Recent age incised very little into the older alluvial deposits.
Plate 9--A, Kirwin Terrace in Solomon Valley, northeast from NW sec. 27, T. 7 S., R. 7 W. B, Kirwin Terrace scarp, NE sec. 33, T. 6 S., R. 9 W.
The deposits underlying the Kirwin Terrace represent a single cycle of valley cutting and filling during late Wisconsinan time, but minor terrace scarps on the terrace surface suggest a complex of several partly developed episodes in the closing stages of the terrace cycle. The more recognizable breaks (Pl. 9B) in the terrace surface--where a flat terrace surface drops to a slightly lower level--are shown by dashed lines on the geologic map. The presence of distinctive humic bands in the upper part of the terrace deposits further indicates short periods of surface stability.
Test-hole data show that, in general, the terrace surface in the Solomon Valley is underlain by about 45 to 60 feet of unconsolidated deposits in the main part of the valley fill. The Cretaceous bedrock beneath the terrace fill is overlain by moderately well sorted gravel grading upward into sand and gravel, which in turn grades upward into fine sand and silt. Clay lenses are common within the terrace fill, and the upper part of the terrace deposits consists of clay, silt, and sandy silt. Gravel within the terrace deposits is predominantly from the Rocky Mountains, derived secondarily from the Ogallala Formation to the west. Also present is a small amount of chalky limestone gravel derived from eroded Cretaceous rocks. The terrace deposits fill a well-developed valley, which is cut considerably below the older stream deposits of the Crete Formation of early Illinoian age along the valley margins. The Peoria Formation of the Sanborn Group, which mantles the upland and its slopes, is seemingly truncated along the valley walls.
That the terrace deposits of the Solomon Valley are relatively youthful is exemplified by the relation of the terrace deposits to the channel of Solomon River. Meanders are incised into the terrace surface from a meander belt that is not fully developed. At many places along Solomon River, peninsulas and islands of terrace deposits extend into meander loops of the stream (Pl. 1). As the meanders move downstream, they will cut off the peninsulas to form islands, which eventually will be removed completely. In a short span of geologic time, a meander belt of uniform width without projections of terrace deposits will be established.
Water supply--Wisconsinan terrace deposits constitute the principal source of ground water in Mitchell County. The relatively coarse sand and gravel in the lower part of the fill of the Solomon River valley is fairly permeable and lies below the water table. The broad flat terrace surface also constitutes a large recharge area. In addition, many small streams that drain adjacent uplands and that flow only after periods of rainfall do not have channels across the terrace but fan out and disappear on the terrace surface, contributing water to the ground-water reservoir. Some ground water also moves from the upland into the terrace deposits, contributing to the replenishment of water in the alluvial material. Ground water moves laterally through the terrace deposits and into the alluvium or into the channel of Solomon River. The chemical character of water obtained from the terrace deposits is shown by analyses in Table 5 and graphically in Figure 14.
Character and extent--Alluvium of Recent age underlies the flood plain of the Solomon Valley and narrow extensions in the tributary valleys. Recent alluvium is the stream-deposited material that has accumulated since the close of the alluvial cycle during which the broad Kirwin Terrace was formed. The alluvium occupies channels cut into Wisconsinan terrace deposits. As most of the alluvium was derived from the terrace deposits it is similar in composition to the terrace deposits and consists predominantly of coarse sand and gravel. Because of the similarity of the unconsolidated deposits in the tributary valleys, the separation of alluvium and terrace deposits is difficult, and alluvium along the smaller streams could not be shown at the mapping scale used. In places the alluvium and terrace deposits of the small tributary streams grade headward into colluvium, slope wash, and eolian silts of the Sanborn Group. Thus, the alluvial contact in the tributary valleys is arbitrary, and in the upland areas the contact between the area mapped as terrace deposits and the area mapped as silt deposits of the Sanborn Group also is arbitrary. The areal extent of the alluvium is shown on the geologic map (Pl. 1). The precise thickness of the alluvium is not generally determinable, but the inferred thickness at several places is shown on cross sections in Plate 2.
The Recent alluvial flood plain along Solomon River is about one-fourth mile to nearly a mile in width. The surface of the flood plain is about 10 to 25 feet below the level of the Kirwin Terrace and about 15 to 20 feet above the normal water surface of the river. The Recent alluvium fills a narrow valley cut into the terrace deposits and represents a single cycle of cutting and filling. It consists of gravel and coarse sand grading upward into fine sand and silt and represents a reworking of the older alluvial material. The alluvium in the valleys of tributary streams is representative of the bedrock making up their drainage basins and consists predominantly of fragments of bedrock material mixed with stratified deposits of clay and sandy silt. For the most part, however, the larger tributaries contain in their lower parts fairly coarse alluvial material, mostly below the water table. Such deposits constitute sources of moderate supplies of ground water. Cross section C-C' on Plate 2 shows the character of deposits across Limestone Creek.
Water supply--Along the Solomon Valley there are only a few wells in the area mapped as alluvium, as it is subject to frequent floods. The alluvial deposits are an important potential source of ground water, however, and wells penetrating the alluvium can be expected to yield adequate amounts of water.
The alluvium of the smaller streams contains less sand and gravel and more silt and clay than that of the main valley, and has a lower transmissibility. In the upland, the thin alluvial material of the minor tributaries constitutes a poor aquifer, but in places it is the only source of ground water. Chemical analyses of water from wells in Recent alluvium are given in Table 5 and are shown graphically in Figure 14.
Kansas Geological Survey, Geology
Placed on web June 16, 2009; originally published April 1959.
Comments to [email protected]
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A transition is something you add between TWO clips. You don’t add a Transition on a clip. You add a Transition BETWEEN two clips.
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|Add Titles and Rolling Credits|
Editing Your Movie Maker Project
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|60||Create new Movie Maker project||Edit|
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|80||How to Split or Overlap a Video Clip||Edit|
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|AST 307 · Introductory Astronomy
Chapter 3 Sep. 12-15
- What is a wave?
- Define, and give the relationships between wavelength,
frequency, and speed of a wave.
- In a light wave, what is waving?
- How do radio waves, infrared radiation, visible light, and
ultraviolet radiation differ? In what ways are they the same?
- What is a blackbody? What is blackbody radiation?
- How does the spectrum of a blackbody depend on its temperature?
Specifically, how does the wavelength at which it is brightest
and the power emitted by it depend on its temperature?
- Quantitatively, how does the Doppler effect change wavelength
of a light wave? | <urn:uuid:4f3a50d8-2795-4857-9a42-3cd5519d5c39> | {
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Approaching solutions to poverty may seem like a daunting task. With so much to overcome, some folks are paralyzed into doing nothing at all. But making a difference doesn’t have to be overwhelming.
Here are some tips:
• Remember that you don’t have to do everything, and you don’t have to do anything alone. Just like every drop of water adds to what’s in the bucket, small contributions of talent, time or money always add to the whole.
• Get better informed about the issue. Question commonly held perceptions about who is poor and why. Learn about the history and roots of poverty in America. Try not to generalize; the reasons for poverty are complex, as are the solutions.
• Don’t ignore it. Be willing to talk about poverty, challenging yourself and others to break out of stereotypes and clichés.
• Volunteering doesn’t have to consume a lot of time or resources. Find an area you’re interested in (or, better yet, passionate about) and seek out volunteer opportunities that fit your abilities and schedule. Are you an artistic type? Check into local arts organizations and museums. Do you have a teachable skill? Look into after-school programs or youth development organizations. Can you wield a hammer or a paintbrush? Join neighborhood organizations or programs building or fixing low-income housing.
• Are you on the other side of poverty? Your story can influence and change lives. Volunteer to speak to groups at your place of worship, at schools and with organizations that work with the poor. Contact local papers to pitch your story.
• Write to your legislators about your concerns; write letters to the editor.
• Shop ethically. Know where your food, goods and services come from, and avoid companies and products that exploit people or resources. Buy fair-trade products whenever possible.
• Money is always welcome, and even small amounts can go a long way. Loan money with micro loans or donate to organizations working to eradicate poverty.
Source: International Baccalaureate (ibo.org) | <urn:uuid:6903b412-6213-42f6-b025-2a57e1854eeb> | {
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Designating the Urban Interstates
Urban Design Principles
To help the authorities, Interregional Highways included a 16-page section on "Principles of Route Selection in Cities" and followed it with a 4-page section on "Illustrations of Principles of Route Selection." The principles (quoted here with minimal ellipses for ease of reading) were:
Connection with city approach routes: For the service of interregional traffic and other traffic bound in and out of the city to and from exterior points, the problem is one of convenient collection and delivery. The State highway department should have the primary responsibility of determining the detailed location of routes leading to the city, as it will have the essential knowledge of origins and destinations of the traffic moving on the adjacent rural sections of the routes. Once the routes enter the environs of the city, however, they become a part of the sum total of urban transportation facilities, and as such must bear a proper relation in location and character to other parts of the street system. In addition to the traffic to and from exterior points, they will carry a heavy flow of intraurban movement of which city authorities will have knowledge or will be best able to measure or predict.
Penetration of city: By actual time studies it is demonstrated that through travelers would be saved time and annoyance and much of the cost of stopping and starting at numerous street intersections if convenient routes were provided around all cities. But the common impression that provision of such routes would constitute invariably a complete, or even a substantially adequate solution of the highway problem at cities is not well-founded. From the standpoint of the cities it fails as a solution of the most serious aspects of the problem. The root of the fallacy, so far as the rural highways are concerned, lies in the fact that on main highways at the approaches to any city, especially the larger ones, a very large part of the traffic originates in or is destined to the city itself. It cannot be bypassed. Among the smaller cities differences of geographic location and intercity relationship may somewhat disturb the rule. It nevertheless remains true, and among larger cities almost without exception, that the larger the city the larger will be the share of the traffic on the approach highways that has its origin or destination in the city. Furthermore, of this city-concerned traffic, the largest single element originates in or is destined to the business center of the city.
Location internally through wedges of undeveloped land: [The] improvement of highways at urban centers has in the past stimulated outward extension of city growth, and has left wedges of relatively undeveloped land between these ribbons of development along the main highways entering the city. Whatever their cause, existing wedges of vacant land may offer the best possible locations for city-entering routes of the interregional system. So placed, the routes may often be extended far into the city before they encounter the greater difficulties of urban location. In choosing these locations for the arterial routes, however, it should be recognized that the undeveloped lands which lie so favorably for highway purposes also present opportunities equally favorable for other purposes of city planning. Properly preserved and developed, they can become the needed parks and playgrounds for residents of adjacent populated areas. Alternatively, they can be developed as new residential communities in the modern manner, unhampered by previous commitment to the traditional rectangular street plan. Wherever possible, plans for all uses of the land should be jointly developed and acquisition for all purposes of public use should proceed simultaneously. It will be at once apparent, however, that if the improvement of main highways in the past has resulted in the stringing out of city growth along them, the superior improvement contemplated for the new arterial routes would have the same effect in exaggerated degree. The improvement of the interregional system should be so designed as to discourage ribbon development and the unwise subdivision of large tracts of suburban land. Special preventive measures will prove helpful in this connection. One of these measures . . . would be to provide additional circumferential routes . . .and then, as the interradial spaces widen, to add branches to the radial arteries, thus encouraging uniform development of whole areas rather than ribbon-like settlement along the radials. Another, which involves no principle of route location, is mentioned here only because of its bearing upon city development. It is the control and limitation of access to the arterial routes. Unlimited access to the existing main highways has undoubtedly encouraged the outward extension of settlement along them. Per contract, the denial of access to the new arterial highways for a substantial outward distance beyond any desired points on these highways would probably discourage the creeping of settlement along them much beyond the selected points, and this is endorsed by the committee in principle.
Circumferential and distribution routes: Although . . . a large part of the traffic on interregional routes approaching the larger cities will generally have its origins and destinations in the center of the city, substantial fractions will consist of traffic bound to and from other quarters of the city. Another portion-its volume depending usually upon the size of the city in relation to the sizes of other nearby cities-will consist of traffic bound past the city. To serve this traffic bound to or from points other than the center of the city, there is need of routes which avoid the business center. Such routes should generally follow circumferential courses around the city, passing either through adjacent suburban areas or through the outer and less congested sections of the city proper. Generally, such routes can be so located as to serve both as arteries for the conveyance of through traffic around the city between various approach highways and as distribution routes for the movement of traffic with local origins and destinations to and from the various quarters of the city. In the larger cities more than one circumferential route may be needed. A series of them may be provided to form inner and outer belts, some possibly within the city itself, others without. In the largest cities one such route may be required as a distributor of traffic about the business center.
Relation to traffic-generating foci and terminals: Railway terminals, both passenger and freight, wharves and docks and airports, generate large volumes of street and highway traffic. Location of the interregional routes at cities-both the city-penetrating main routes and the circumferential or distribution routes-should be so placed as to give convenient express service to these various major traffic-generating foci within and in the environs of the city, and also to the business center of the city, the wholesale produce market, main industrial areas, principal residential sections, new housing developments, and the city parks, stadium, baseball park, and other sports areas. Location of the routes should be determined in relation to such foci in the positions where they are planned or are likely to be in the future and not where they are at present, if change is reasonably to be expected. Thus the closest possible cooperation is needed between highway, housing, and city planning authorities, railroad, motorbus, and truck interests, air transport and airport officials, and any other agencies, groups and interests that may be in a position to exert a determining influence upon the future pattern and development of the city. Moreover, the highways themselves should have their own adequate terminal facilities-facilities hitherto sadly lacking. There are two general classes of highway terminals-those designed for the daily or overnight accommodation of private vehicles (principally passenger cars) with destinations at the center of the city, and those serving the organized transportation business of bus and truck lines.
Relation to other transportation media: At cities, especially, it is important that the location of interregional routes be so chosen as to permit and encourage a desirable coordination of highway transportation with rail, water, and air transportation. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that opportunities for joint use of new structures by the interregional routes and mainline railroads should not be neglected where they may appear. [It] is at the cities-terminals alike for the interregional routes and all other transportation media-that the closest attention should be paid to the possibilities of common location, and also to such location of the highways as will best and most conveniently serve to promote their use in proper coordination with other transportation means. In many cities the surface location of railways remains as one of the more acute problems facing the city planner. Instead of attacking this problem piecemeal by elimination of grade crossings one or two at a time, a practice which tends merely to ameliorate a generally unsatisfactory condition, it would be far better if it were dealt with in accordance with a plan for the complete and permanent insulation of the railway. Since the interregional routes and other express highways require, in some degree, a similar insulation, a plan for the common location of the two facilities might offer not only the advantage of a minimum obstruction of cross streets but also a substantial possibility of reducing the total costs of achieving the two purposes, particularly the right-of-way element of such costs.
Relation to contemplated developments requiring large tracts of land: Wherever it is possible to do so, the location of interregional routes in cities should be considered simultaneously with the projected location of new housing developments, city centers, parks, greenbelts, and other contemplated major changes in the existing city pattern that call for the acquisition of land in large tracts. This is necessary for the avoidance of conflicts in plans; it is necessary from the standpoint of adequate transportation accommodation; and it is highly desirable from the viewpoint of common land acquisition and financing.
Minimization of street intersections: The frequency of street intersections is the cause of excessive stops and starts in cities. Every intersection also introduces substantial elements of delay and congestion. Street intersections also involve the hazard of accidents. Reduction of the number of intersections presents problems in the design of arterial routes and the control of traffic flow more difficult of solution than similar problems encountered on rural highways. One solution is to eliminate intersections by means of grade separations. They involve expensive construction, however. A judicious choice of location to minimize the number of intersections is one means of avoiding this expense. Wherever it is possible to do so with satisfactory accommodation of the local arterial traffic, arterial routes should enter the city at points from which it is possible to proceed as near as desirable to the city center and thence to connection with the continuing rural routes at the opposite side of the city, by locations parallel to one or the other direction of the normal rectangular street plan. The valley of a small stream penetrating a city may offer excellent opportunity for the location of an intersection-free artery. In many case such small valleys exist in a wholly undeveloped state. In others they are the locations of a very low order of development-neighborhoods of cheap, run-down houses and shacks, abject poverty, squalor, and filth. Where these conditions exist, steep declines into the valley have generally made the site unfavorable for the development of high-class improvements. Other locations favorable for the reduction or simplification of intersections on the arterial routes may be found within or along the boundaries of parks and other large tracts of city or institutional property that interrupt the regular rectangular street plan. After an interregional route has been carefully located so as to minimize the number of cross routes, a considerable number will still exist. The grade of all that cannot be avoided should then be separated.
Relation to urban planning: It should be borne in mind that the interregional routes, from the standpoint of the city, will provide only a partial facility for movement of the city's traffic. That part, whether great or small, should be determined in location and designed in character to be a consistent and useful part of the entire urban transportation plan. As previously suggested, the entire plan should be conceived in relation to a desirable pattern of future city development. The interregional routes, however they are located, will tend to be a powerful influence in shaping the city. For this reason they should be located so as to promote a desirable development or at least to support a natural development rather than to retard or to distort the evolution of the city. In favorable locations, the new facilities, which as a matter of course should be designed for long life, will become more and more useful as time passes; improperly located, they will become more and more of an encumbrance to the city's functions and an all too durable reminder of planning that was bad. It is very important, therefore, that the interregional routes within cities and their immediate environs shall be made part of the planned development of other city streets and the probable or planned development of the cities themselves. In many cities there are city planning commissions that . . . have reached quite definite decisions regarding many of the elements that will affect the location of interregional highways in and near the city. Usually the decisions of the planning commission have grown out of studies of the city as it is, and as the commission desires it to be. And these studies will usually afford the principal data and bases for agreement upon the general locations of the interregional routes. It is especially desirable that the agreement have the full concurrence of housing and airport authorities and other public agencies that may be concerned with the acquisition of large tracts of land in and near the city. This is desirable in order that the routes may be properly located for adequate service of the developments planned, and that the lands needed for the highways and the new facilities and developments they are designed to serve may be mutually agreed upon and simultaneously and cooperatively acquired. | <urn:uuid:9b586a67-7967-4ee0-ad22-698ac40e7422> | {
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Presented by David Bunde and Kyle Burke.
Workshop at SIGCSE 2014. (Workshop 28, scheduled Saturday 3-6pm)
Chapel is a programming language being developed for high-performance applications. It is well suited for teaching parallelism in a wide variety of undergrad courses. Chapel is easy to learn since it supports a low-overhead style like a scripting language as well as a full OO style. It is concise, needing a single keyword to launch an asynchronous task, run a parallel loop, or perform a reduction. This helps undergrads focus on the main point of examples and lets them quickly try different parallel algorithms. It is also versatile, usable on both multicore systems and clusters. In this workshop, attendees will learn basics of Chapel, complete hands-on exercises, and see possible uses in algorithms, programming languages, and parallel programming courses. Laptop with SSH client required.
In the workshop, you'll be given an account on a system with Chapel pre-installed. to access this system, you'll need an SSH client. I suggest PuTTY for Windows systems. The client ssh should be pre-installed on a Linux or Mac OS system; try typing ssh on a terminal to check.
If you would like to run Chapel on your own system rather than using our accounts, you can download it from here. Some installation advice is here. It installs easily on Linux or Mac OS systems. You will need to use Cygwin on a Windows system. If you're using your own system, you should also download our given code (in tar or zip format).
If you have any trouble, please contact the workshop organizers.
You can also get all the slides in one file. | <urn:uuid:acbd1af4-ecda-438a-bd53-862c9827c867> | {
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Sumerian Tablets Of Creation Pdf
Literature portal Ancient Near East portal Mythology portal. However, no other king list mentions Zi-ud-sura.
Creation stories of the Middle East. Sumerian tablet depicting Enki in the creation myth.
By Leonard William King
Half-human half-beast creatures are found loving and lusting, warring and whoring in myths and legends of nearly every, if not all, cultures in the world. But, man tries to make sense of the unknown and occasionally concludes similar answers, even independently of one another.
From that material the first human being was created, in likeness to the gods. Lines and paragraphs break automatically. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. The remainder of the poem is lost. After a missing section in the tablet, we learn that the gods have decided not to save mankind from an impending flood.
But, I have read that Sumeria and Indus River civilization were culturally swapping for quite a while. The White Slaves of Barbary. That sounds alot like the story of Prometheus. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us.
Enlil became the adversary of man, introduction to sensors pdf and the Sumerian tablet mentions that men served gods and went through much hardship and suffering. Mesopotamian mythology Sumerian literature Creation myths Flood myths Clay tablets. Opinions vary on the similarities between this creation story and the biblical story of Adam and Eve in Eden.
The Ancient Invention of the Water Clock. Their religious system was a complex one comprised of hundreds of gods. An Alternative View of the Heretic King.
The most high or anu as you call him isn't the evil one here the one who corrupted us in the garden, fell to the earth and now rules on earth is the evil one, the devil himself. One huge flaw in your story, you say that this god serpent saved us from slavery in the garden to what just enslave us on the entirety of the planet instead? Sumerian Myths of Origins.
Ancient Kings were held in high regard and were often regarded as Gods. The city of Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, is known for many things. He is both a co-owner and co-founder of Ancient Origins. Sumerian mythology claims that, in the beginning, human-like gods ruled over Earth.
They too was banished to earth right? The Secrets of the Kabbalists Garden. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
The origins of human beings according to ancient Sumerian texts. Sumerian chaos monster and sun god.
An Exotic Bloodline or Random Mutation? The revolutionary invention of the wheel. Initially human beings were unable to reproduce on their own, but were later modified with the help of Enki and Ninki.
On the right arm of the sun god. When the tablet resumes, it is describing the flood. Ten amazing inventions from ancient times.
Enuma Elish - The Epic of Creation. More information about text formats. The Wheel of the Year follows the cycle of pagan festivals. The sacred symbol of the Djed pillar. After a missing section in the tablet, we learn that the gods have decided to send a flood to destroy mankind.
The origins of human beings according to ancient Sumerian texts
Two Anthropological characters. The Origins of Abracadabra. Thus, Adapa was created as a fully functional and independent human being. Although it may be a long time if ever before pagans reclaim their Yule from Christmas or their Samhain from Halloween, it is worthwhile to explore these ancient religious traditions.
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- Diccionario de nutricion y dietoterapia pdf download | <urn:uuid:3d003fb6-1587-43e0-bb24-1577928c36e8> | {
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Scientists know more and more about climate change (check out the facts and links at RealClimate blog for a consistent updates on this body of knowledge). However, according to Dr. Doug Parker, there's a lot we don't know about the volatile West African climate, and he
believes that predictive global climate models will be 'useless' until detailed studies into the regions tropospheric composition (the area from which all weather occurs) are conducted. "We can't claim to be able to accurately predict global climate change if one huge area is systematically wrong," said the earth and environment senior lecturer. (Innovations Report)65 international institutions have joined forces in forming the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analyses (AMMA), a multidisciplinary approach to a better understanding of the complex interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere that ultimately determine the nature of the WAM.
The word "monsoon" is derived from the Arabic "mausim," for "season" (or "season of winds"), originally used to describe seasonal shifts in prevailing winds in the area around the Indian Ocean. Surface monsoonal winds are caused by differences in the temperature of land and ocean. The West African Monsoon is complex, variable, and hard to predict, and as the population of West Africa increases, so does its vulnerability to climate variations. The AMMA project has three aims, described in its International Science Plan (pdf):
Very interesting satalite images, thanks. mh
where can I get a large version of that image? | <urn:uuid:8fbda8e7-3603-454d-8a1c-0f22df13a5ae> | {
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When it comes to using data to make government operations more efficient and affordable, generating the data is just the first step. The next step is edge computing, a process that involves a combination of Internet of Things devices and cloud processing, which is revolutionizing how local governments are distributing, processing and analyzing data.
"You can have your edge computations run with real-time data and have a system that is remotely managing and computing data, which is then being collected [and] transformed into shared information without operationally being tethered to the cloud," says Tiffany Sargent, chief IoT architect for Intel's Americas public sector division, in an interview with WashingtonExec.
Instead of collecting data from a sensor or camera and then sending it into the cloud to compute, you can instead bring the compute to the edge, says Sargent. This allows data to compute on remote systems through preloaded algorithms, which can be sent to several entities in the field, such as first responders, directly on their local devices. This sort of process can help empower practices such as predictive policing, which relies increasingly on real-time data.
"This is a really big change in IoT where you can run an entire system on an edge remotely, only linking to the cloud in case of changes or updates — or if you want to share [information] with a central command center," Sargent tells WashingtonExec.
With Data on the Edge, First Responders Can Arrive Faster
Edge devices from vendors such as VMware and Intel, and the real-time analytics they can help provide, can be game-changers for first responders, particularly when disaster strikes. Researchers at Georgia Tech, for instance, are looking at ways that edge computing and a subset of it known as fog computing, can help to maintain communication and timely data even in the absence of connectivity.
"One thing that happened with Hurricane Harvey was that there was no way to coordinate all of the people in Houston who wanted to help," Kishore Ramachandran, computer science professor at Georgia Tech, tells GCN. "There was no way of communicating with one another because of internet outages."
To remedy this, he and other researchers are working on a way to use these edge devices in the absence of connectivity in a way that will allow first responders "to share images, text, voice and so on — to be able to do things that they would be able to do if there was connectivity to the internet," he says.
When connectivity is available, edge devices can enable first responders to access data more quickly by bypassing the cloud, which can save valuable time, and possibly even lives.
"We want to push the computation close to the edge of the network near the sensor sources so that we can do the processing quickly," Ramachandran tells GCN.
Kentucky DOT Takes Snow Removal to the Edge
First responders and law enforcement officers aren't the only ones who stand to gain from edge computing. As data-rich IoT-based analytics begin to permeate several aspects of government — in everything from lighting to traffic flow to waste management — several state and local departments can make use of the capability.
Kentucky's Department of Transportation, for instance, recently called on edge computing in combination with data analytics to drastically cut its spending on snow removal, Government Technology reports. After a nasty storm in 2015 threatened to clean out its snow removal budget, the department called on data from road and snowplow sensors, the driving app Waze, weather reports and more to dynamically shape its plow and de-icing routes. By crafting algorithms that took into account everything from car speeds to wind and temperature, the Kentucky DOT was able to cut its snow and ice removal costs by 5 to 10 percent.
"Every 60 seconds, more than 80,000 records of information are fed into the department's computers, where engineers are able to deal with snow on roads more efficiently and in real time," Government Technology reports.
While these use cases are still relatively rare in government, the proliferation of IoT devices mean that more departments are likely to tap edge computing going forward in order to make the most of their data.
"As a data economy emerges, and IoT is a prime data collection point for systems, we will optimize our systems by driving more intelligence to the edge," Intel's Sargent tells WashingtonExec. | <urn:uuid:ffd95cac-7d00-4876-8b08-bd60c48095e4> | {
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Experts have long suspected that complex social interaction drove the evolution of large brains in humans. Now a study in wasps supports and refines that theory: it seems that dominant individuals have larger brain regions responsible for higher-order cognitive processes.
Biologists at the University of Washington observed the behavior of paper wasps (Mischocyttarus mastigorphorus) in the Costa Rican rain forest and then measured the size of their brains. The researchers found that the so-called mushroom bodies, the lobes that underlie learning and memory in insects, were larger in dominant wasps than in their subordinate peers.
Mushroom bodies are the insect equivalent of the human neocortex, the outer layer of our brain, which handles complex cognition. Scientists have already established that the neocortex and the mushroom bodies are larger in social species such as humans and wasps, as compared with solitary animals such as bears and lone spiders. The new study suggests that competition for rank may have been a key factor in the evolution of this intelligence.
This story was originally printed with the title, "Big Brains Dominate". | <urn:uuid:58bdb708-150f-4230-99a3-bdaca24d374a> | {
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Illinois Standards. The Earth is a dynamic planet. Its interior is actually in motion! The crust on its surface is also in motion. It was not until the 20th century that geologists truly began to understand Earth's dynamic movements. New theories, supported by ever-improving technologies, have made it possible to more clearly understand the forces working within the planet we call home. | <urn:uuid:3ff72483-dcf9-4993-aed2-0f00e9d5528d> | {
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A notable change in the dog from the wolf is that females enter first estrus at six months to one year of age. Breeders in the rural South have long bred their dogs at first heat, and it may well be a custom dating back centuries. Australian dingoes, living in packs independent of men, start breeding around two years of age, according to dingo expert Laurie Corbett in The Dingo in Australia and Asia. Beyond that, my searches fail to pull down any calculation for the generation time for dogs. Clearly, that needs more examination.
In a commentary accompanying Nature’s presentation of the genome, Hans Ellegren, an evolutionary biologist at Uppsala University, raised another qualifier, saying that if “repeated back-crossing has occurred” between dogs and wolves, Lindblad-Toh’s model of the dog’s origins “would have to be revised.”
The Broad Institute team’s analysis appears on firmer footing when it comes to placing breed formation within the past 200 to 300 years. Breeds are formed through consolidation of working dogs of an existing type into a more consistent form, through hybridization and inbreeding to reconstruct a breed, and through building on a small number of imported animals. Early dogs bred rather freely, and—because in sexual reproduction, the chromosomes from the sire and the dam are recombined to form the single chromosome passed on from each and because alignments are not perfect—haplotypes were broken up, becoming shorter and more scattered over the generations of random breeding.
Through inbreeding from a small gene pool to create their particular breed, humans unknowingly selected a small group of overlapping chromosomes carrying the genes for the traits they wanted—and for some diseases they didn’t want. From that came the breed’s distinctive pattern of large homogeneous haplotype blocks and shorter heterogeneous ones, which selective breeding has sustained.
A notable exception to this model appears to be the Labrador Retriever, which replaced the “old yellow dog,” or cur dog, as America’s most abundant big dog and so is less inbred than other breeds, except in some lines. The English Springer Spaniel and Golden Retriever are more inbred than Labs but less than most other breeds. But all three show the pronounced influence of “favorite sires,” whose overuse also serves to limit diversity. In an interview, Elaine Ostrander said research in her lab has indicated a clear genetic break between show Labs and field-trial Labs, and between show and hunting Beagles.
Breeds that passed through a formation bottleneck typically have four of around 10 possible haplotypes, the researchers said. Although the haplotypes and their proportions vary from breed to breed, haplotypes are also shared between them. As the Akita indicates, this arrangement might not extend beyond breeds of western dogs. But it means that researchers can use 10,000 SNPs, a relatively small number, to scan the genomes of dogs within the breed and compare them with those of other dogs in the same breed in order to find genes.
“We now have a whole new tool kit for looking at the evolutionary history of canines and the origins of dogs, where they originated and how they spread, and how often they interbred with local wolf populations,” said Robert K. Wayne, an evolutionary biologist at the University of California, Los Angeles. A 60,000-SNP GeneChip (similar to a computer chip but incorporating DNA) soon to be available from Affymetrix should speed the search for genes that regulate a dog’s phenotype, he added.
Wayne and his lab contributed a new family tree, or phylogeny, of 34 canid species for the Nature paper, showing the time of their emergence during the past 40 million years and solidifying the already strong argument that the wolf is the dog’s nearest relative, while the wolf’s wild kin are, in order, the coyote, golden jackal, Ethiopian wolf, dhole and African wild dog. | <urn:uuid:5572b8b9-6017-4c50-aa5d-40ab55916932> | {
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Bone marrow (stem cell) donationStem cell transplant - donation; Allogeneic donation; Leukemia - bone marrow donation; Lymphoma - bone marrow donation; Myeloma - bone marrow donation
Bone marrow is the soft, fatty tissue inside your bones. Bone marrow contains stem cells, which are immature cells that become blood cells.
People with life-threatening diseases, such as leukemia , lymphoma , and myeloma can be treated with a bone marrow transplant . This is now often called a stem cell transplant. For this type of treatment, bone marrow is collected from a donor. Sometimes, people can donate their own bone marrow.
Leukemia is a type of blood cancer that begins in the bone marrow. Bone marrow is the soft tissue in the center of the bones, where blood cells are ...
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is cancer of the lymph tissue. Lymph tissue is found in the lymph nodes, spleen, and other organs of the immune system. W...
Multiple myeloma is a blood cancer that starts in the plasma cells in the bone marrow. Bone marrow is the soft, spongy tissue found inside most bone...
Bone marrow transplant
A bone marrow transplant is a procedure to replace damaged or destroyed bone marrow with healthy bone marrow stem cells. Bone marrow is the soft, fat...
Bone marrow donation can be done either by collecting a donor's bone marrow surgically, or by removing stem cells from a donor's blood.
Types of Bone Marrow Donation
There are two types of bone marrow donation:
- Autologous bone marrow transplant is when people donate their own bone marrow. "Auto" means self.
- Allogenic bone marrow transplant is when another person donates bone marrow. "Allo" means other.
With an allogenic transplant, the donor's genes must at least partly match the person's genes. A brother or sister is most likely to be a good match. Sometimes parents, children, and other relatives are good matches. But only about 30% of people who need a bone marrow transplant can find a matching donor in their own family.
Bone Marrow Registries
The 70% of people who do NOT have a relative who is a good match may be able to find one through a bone marrow registry. The largest one is called Be the Match ( www.bethematch.org ). It registers people who would be willing to donate bone marrow and stores their information in a database. Doctors can then use the registry to find a matching donor for a person who needs a bone marrow transplant.
How to Join a Bone Marrow Registry
To be listed in a bone marrow donation registry, a person must be:
- Between the ages of 18 and 60
- Healthy and not pregnant
People can register online or at a local donor registry drive. Those between the ages of 45 to 60 must join online. The local, in-person drives only accept donors who are younger than age 45. Their stem cells are more likely to help patients than stem cells from older people.
People who register must either:
- Use a cotton swab to take a sample of cells from the inside of their cheek
- Give a small blood sample (about 1 tablespoon or 15 milliliters)
The cells or blood is then tested for special proteins, called human leukocytes antigens (HLA). HLAs help your infection-fighting system (immune system) tell the difference between body tissue and substances that are not from your own body.
Bone Marrow Matching
Bone marrow transplants work best if the HLAs from the donor and the patient are a close match. If a donor's HLAs match well with a person who needs a transplant, the donor must give a new blood sample to confirm the match. Then, a counselor meets with the donor to discuss the bone marrow donation process.
What Happens During a Bone Marrow Donation
Donor stem cells can be collected in two ways.
Peripheral blood stem cell collection. Most donor stem cells are collected through a process called leukapheresis.
- First, the donor is given 5 days of shots to help stem cells move from the bone marrow into the blood.
- During the collection, blood is removed from the donor through a line in a vein (IV). The part of white blood cells that contains stem cells is then separated in a machine and removed to be later given to the recipient.
- The red blood cells are returned to the donor through an IV in the other arm.
This procedure takes about 3 hours. Side effects include:
- Sore bones
- Discomfort from needles in the arms
Bone marrow harvest. This minor surgery is done under general anesthesia. This means the donor will be asleep and pain-free during the procedure. The bone marrow is removed from the back of your pelvic bones. The process takes about an hour.
After a bone marrow harvest, the donor stays in the hospital until they're fully awake and can eat and drink. Side effects include:
- Bruising or discomfort in the lower back
You can resume normal activity in about a week.
There are very few risks for the donor and no lasting health effects. Your body will replace the donated bone marrow in about 4 to 6 weeks.
American Cancer Society. Stem Cell Transplant for Cancer. Cancer.org web site. Updated May 11, 2016. www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/treatment-types/stem-cell-transplant.html . Accessed September 22, 2016.
Dey BR, Spitzer TR. Haploidentical hematopoietic cell transplantation. In: Hoffman R, Benz EJ Jr., Silberstein LE, Heslop HE, Weitz JI, Anastasi J, eds. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice . 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2013:chap 107.
National Cancer Institute. Blood-Forming Stem Cell Transplants. Updated August 12, 2013. www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/stem-cell-transplant/stem-cell-fact-sheet . Accessed October 22, 2016.
Review Date: 8/15/2016
Reviewed By: Todd Gersten, MD, Hematology/Oncology, Florida Cancer Specialists & Research Institute, Wellington, FL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. | <urn:uuid:af41abcc-b2d8-495f-9130-bb34412c8389> | {
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The Heart Of The Matter: All You Wanted To Know About Heart Disease
The human heart is a marvel of nature. It beats almost 1 lakh times a day, pumping blood in the body with each beat of the heart. For its proper functioning, the heart muscle has to be healthy.
The heart gets its nutrition and oxygen through blood that is supplied by coronary arteries. The heart is divided into two parts, right and left. The right heart has two chambers, right atrium and right ventricle. Similarly left side heart has two chambers - left atrium and left ventricle. In all, there are four chambers in the heart. The right side of the heart receives impure blood from the body and pumps it into the lungs. Blood gets purified in the lungs and returns back to the left side of heart from where it is pumped back into the body. Four valves, two on left side (mitral and aortic) and two on the right side of the heart (pulmonary and tricuspid) act as one-way doors to direct blood flow.
The coronary arteries bring oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle. They divide into smaller branches so that each part of the heart muscle receives nutrients. The left coronary artery feeds the left side and front of the heart muscle. The right coronary artery feeds the right side of the heart and has branches that extend to the back. Over the time, these arteries can get damaged and be influenced by the way you live. They can become narrowed or even blocked completely from years of smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, high fat/cholesterol food, too little exercise and too much stress. The result is poor blood flow and in some cases, a heart attack. When there is partial or total block of these coronary arteries, it is known as coronary artery disease.
Coronary artery disease (CAD)
CAD occurs because of deposition of fats and cholesterol (which usually occurs when fats are high in blood but may occur even when fats are normal) and clotting of blood in the coronary arteries. The various reasons responsible are family history, increased fat intake in diet, diabetes, smoking, high blood pressure, lack of exercise, stress etc.
When the coronary arteries are partially blocked (>50% but <100%), the oxygen supply may be adequate at rest but on activity it falls short, as oxygen demand of heart increases with activity. Angina (symptom of a blocked artery) usually manifests as suffocation, pressure, heaviness or pain in centre of chest which then may go to neck, jaw, back and left arm. However, it can occur only in jaw, neck, arm or back. Some times it can only cause a sense of gas in upper abdomen, or breathlessness on activity. When angina occurs at slight activity or at rest, it is called unstable angina or pre-heart attack angina. If not treated in time, heart attack may occur in many of these patients.
When the blood supply is totally blocked suddenly by blood clot formation, it causes heart attack. This presents as severe prolonged angina not relieved by tablet Sorbitrate and usually associated with perspiration and sense of sinking or impending doom. However, it can also manifest just as vomiting, gas in upper abdomen, sudden onset of shortness of breath, dizziness or sweating. In some cases, (especially in diabetics) heart attack may be without any symptom, what is known as silent heart attack.
One must remember that sooner the treatment is begun, better are the chances of saving the heart muscle and patients life. Hence no time should be wasted. The patient should be on absolute rest, tablet Sorbitrate should be placed underneath the tongue and a tablet of Disprin should be given dissolved in water. Once the patient is in hospital, he is either given treatment to dissolve the clot (which has caused total block of coronary artery) by giving Streptokinase injection or where possible, angiography followed by opening of the clogged artery with a balloon (primary angioplasty).
Coronary angiography is a technique in which the coronary artery can be seen on specialised X-ray machine. It is a diagnostic method, and not a treatment by itself. It is done under local anaesthesia. The patient remains fully conscious and can see his angiography image on the monitor. Usually through the thigh arteries and sometimes through the arm, special tubes are introduced to the mouth of coronary arteries and a drug (dye) is injected which fills the coronary artery enabling the doctor to see any blocked areas. It is a safe procedure.
Balloon angioplasty and stenting - Balloon angioplasty is done exactly in the same way as coronary angiography. This is done under local anaesthesia. A special tube with a balloon at the tip, is placed at the site of narrowing in the coronary artery and the balloon is inflated. This results in widening of the coronary artery. Stents are metallic springs which are put after ballooning to prevent recoil/reclosure of the artery. There are 10-20% chances of narrowing again of an artery after ballooning plus stenting.
Coronary artery bypass graft surgery
CABG surgery is an open heart operation in which arteries or veins are taken from another part of the body to channel needed blood flow to the coronary arteries. The arteries or veins used in the operation are nonessential, removing them does not significantly affect the blood circulation of the part they are taken from.
The arteries used are on the inside of the chest along the side of the breast bone on the inner forearm and along the stomach. The vein that is typically used comes from just beneath the skin on the inside of the leg and thigh. Some times veins may be removed from the back of legs or arms. During surgery these arteries or veins are connected directly to the coronary arteries on the surface of the heart beyond the blockages. This way blood can flow through them to bypass the narrowed or closed points.
Coronary artery bypass operations are performed either by using a heart-lung machine or on the beating heart. A heart-lung machine makes it possible to stop the beating of the heart as it takes over the blood circulation through the body. Then the grafts can be precisely connected to the tiny coronary arteries. In the latter technique, the heart beat is not stopped. Instead an external stabiliser system is used to reduce the mobility of heart in the area the doctors are operating.
DoctorNDTV is the one stop site for all your health needs providing the most credible health information, health news and tips with expert advice on healthy living, diet plans, informative videos etc. You can get the most relevant and accurate info you need about health problems like diabetes, cancer, pregnancy, HIV and AIDS, weight loss and many other lifestyle diseases. We have a panel of over 350 experts who help us develop content by giving their valuable inputs and bringing to us the latest in the world of healthcare. | <urn:uuid:542ee346-4bbe-4af9-a99a-d2468a13693e> | {
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Assumptions: These are the necessary preconditions for fitting a given type of model to data. No form of generalisation from particular data is possible without assumptions. They provide the context for, and the means of evaluating, scientific statements purporting to truly explain reality. As with any statistical test, ANOVA assumes unbiased sampling from the population of interest. Its other assumptions concern the error variation against which effects are tested by the ANOVA model: (i) that the random variation around fitted values is the same for all sample means of a factor, or across the range of a covariate; (ii) that the residuals contributing to this variation are free to vary independently of each other; (iii) that the residual variation approximates to a normal distribution. Underlying assumptions should be tested where possible, and otherwise acknowledged as not testable for a given reason of design or data deficiency.
Doncaster, C. P. & Davey, A. J. H. (2007) Analysis of Variance and Covariance: How to Choose and Construct Models for the Life Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | <urn:uuid:56f3d5e7-0237-4764-aa32-876b51c21ff7> | {
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Diphtheria (dif-THEE-ree-a) is a serious, sometimes fatal bacterial disease caused by Corynebacteria diphtheriae that begins with nose and throat symptoms.
for searching the Internet and other reference sources
What Is Diphtheria?
Descriptions of diphtheria date from antiquity. The microorganism that causes it, a bacterium called Corynebacterium diphtheriae (ko-rin-ee-bak-TEE-ree-um dif-THEE-ree-eye), enters the body through the tonsils, nose, and throat, and multiplies there, producing a thick, gray membrane made of bacteria, dead cells, and a tough protein called fibrin that can eventually block breathing and swallowing. The word diphtheria comes from the Greek for "leather hide." The bacteria also produce a toxin, or poison, called diphtheria exotoxin, which spreads by way of the blood to other tissues of the body, such as the heart and nerves. In severe cases, the damage the toxin causes can result in heart failure and paralysis leading to death.
* contagious means transmittable from one person to another.
How Is Diphtheria Caught?
Diphtheria is highly contagious * . Although it is now rare in the United States and Europe, it was a leading cause of death in infants and children until the twentieth century. It still occurs in other places in the world, and in 1993 and 1994, some 50,000 cases were reported in the former Soviet Union.
Diphtheria is spread when a person breathes in particles that someone with diphtheria releases into the air when sneezing or even talking. People with diphtheria can infect others for up to 4 weeks. Unimmunized people at greatest risk of catching diphtheria are children under 5 and adults over 60, as well as people who live in crowded, unsanitary conditions or who do not get adequate nutrition.
75 Years Ago: Nome, Alaska
In 1925, an epidemic of diphtheria struck the small Alaskan town of Nome. There was not enough antitoxin to treat all the townspeople, and severe winter weather prevented airplanes from delivering the serum. So a relay of sled dog teams from Nenana (675 miles away) rushed the antitoxin to Nome, arriving in just under 27.5 hours and saving the lives of many people. The Iditarod Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome commemorates this historic serum run each year.
What Are the Symptoms of Diphtheria?
Symptoms of diphtheria usually appear 2 to 4 days after infection. At first, the infection feels like a bad sore throat. A person may also have a mild fever and swollen glands. Children frequently have nausea, vomiting, chills, headache, and fever. The thick coating that forms in the nose, throat, or airway can make it hard to breathe or to swallow.
A doctor diagnoses diphtheria by taking a swab from the throat and doing laboratory tests to detect the bacterium, or by doing blood tests for antibodies to diphtheria toxin, that is, substances produced by the body to protect it from the toxin.
How Is Diphtheria Treated?
Children and adults with diphtheria are treated in the hospital. An antitoxin is given to neutralize the diphtheria toxin in the body and to keep the disease from progressing. Antibiotics are given to destroy the diphtheria bacteria. Patients are kept isolated, and doctors will also examine members of their families who may have been exposed to the bacteria, and recommend appropriate treatment.
How Can Diphtheria Be Prevented?
With treatment, most people recover from diphtheria. But unlike diseases such as measles or chickenpox, getting diphtheria once does not mean a person will never get it again. So the best way to prevent the disease is to be vaccinated against it. Diphtheria vaccine is usually given together with vaccines that protect against two other diseases: tetanus (also called lockjaw) and pertussis (also known as whooping cough). This DTP vaccine is given at 2, 4, and 6 months of age, with additional shots given at 12 to 18 months and again at 4 to 6 years to boost the body's defenses. After age 11 to 16, booster vaccinations against diphtheria and tetanus should be given every 10 years.
In Sinclair Lewis's novel Arrowsmith, the inexperienced young doctor Martin Arrowsmith must choose between cutting an opening in the windpipe of a girl dying of diphtheria or making a long trip to try to fetch antitoxin that will lessen the effects of the disease.
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1600 Clifton
Road, NE, Atlanta, GA 30333. The United States government authority for
information about infectious and other diseases, the CDC posts
information about diphtheria on its website at:
The World Health Organization (WHO), Avenue Appia 20, 1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland. This group's website posts a fact sheet about
Williams, William Carlos. "The Use of Force." In Telling Stories: An Anthology for Writers, edited by Joyce Carol Oates. New York: Norton, 1998.
"Childhood Infections: Diphtheria." Helpful information
for parents about diphtheria from the Nemours Foundation. | <urn:uuid:2ac1517e-21a2-4c11-a05d-eecc9d9c8657> | {
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The chemistry of transition metal compounds
The chemistry of transition metal compounds is characterised by variable oxidation states, coloured complex ions and extensive redox reactions. Any one of the first row transition metals could be used to exemplify these types of reaction.
download AQA PSA 11
The chemistry of copper
Copper is element number 29 in the periodic table. It has an electronic configuration of [Ar] 4s1 3d10, but, perhaps surprisingly, its most common oxidation state is +2.
Copper sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O, is probably the most well known of all of the compounds encountered in chemistry education. It is bright blue crystalline compound which loses water of crystallisation on heating to form the white anhydrous salt. This is a reversible reaction and addition of water caused a release of energy and the blue hydrated copper sulphate is regenerated.
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
Dissolution of copper salts
Copper salts dissociate in aqueous solution and the metal ions are complexed by the water molecules:
Cu2+ + 6H2O(l) [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq)
The octahedral hexaaquacopper(II) complex ions are blue in solution. This is the species that is produced by all copper salts when dissolved.
Addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid contains a high concentration of chloride ions. These undergo a ligand replacement reaction with the water ligands in the hexaaquacopper(II) complex.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl- [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O(l)
The complex changes coordination number from 6 to 4 (the chloride ions cannot fit around the central atom in an octahedral arrangement) and the solution changes from blue to bright green.
Addition of potassium iodide solution
This is a redox reaction with the copper(II) complex being reduced to copper(I) while the iodide ions get oxidised to iodine. The colour change is from a blue solution to a white suspension of copper(I) sulfate mixed with the brownish iodine.
2Cu2+ + 2I- 2Cu+ + I2
This reaction may be used to determine copper solutions. The iodine released can be titrated against sodium thiosulfate using starch solution as an indicator.
2S2O32- + I2 S4O62- + 2I-
When the blue-black colour of the starch indicator disappears the end-point has been reached.
Addition of sodium hydroxide solution
Sodium hydroxide provides hydroxide ions that replace abstract protons from the water ligands around the copper ion. Once two protons have been removed the copper complex becomes neutral and precipitates from solution. This can be represented in a simple format:
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 2Cu(OH)2(s)
There is no further change on addition of excess hydroxide ions.
Addition of ammonia solution
Ammonia is also able to abstract hydrogen ions from the water molecule ligands around the central copper(II) ion:
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2NH4+(aq)
However, in this case, addition of more ammonia causes the blue precipitate to redissolves as the ammonia molecules replace the water (and hydroxide) ligands around the central copper(II) ion.
The final complex contains four ammmonia ligands arranged in a square planar arrangement (the equatorial positions of an octahedral structure) with two axial water ligands.
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)
The final solution is the deep blue tetraamminediaquacopper(II) ion solution. In many cases this is shortened to the tetraamminecopper(II) complex.
A2 Inorganic Chemistry experiments
|Carry out a redox titration||The analysis of iron tablets by titration using acidified potassium manganate(VII)|
|Investigate the chemistry of transition metal compounds in a series of experiments||The chemistry of copper compounds|
|Prepare an inorganic complex||The preparation of hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride or the preparation of iron(II) ethandioate|
A2 Physical Chemistry experiments
|Carry out a kinetic study to determine the order of a reaction||An iodine clock experiment e.g. the reaction of sulfite ions with iodate(V) ions|
|Determine an equilibrium constant||Determine a value of Kc for the reaction of ethanol with ethanoic acid.|
|Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid reacts with a strong base or when a strong acid reacts with a weak base.||Determine the pH curve for ethanoic acid reacting with sodium hydroxide|
A2 Organic Chemistry experiments
|Prepare a solid organic compound||The preparation of aspirin|
|Purify an organic solid||The recrystallisation of impure benzenecarboxylic acid from hot water|
|Test the purity of an organic solid||Determine the melting point of benzenecarboxylic acid|
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Mudd Manuscript Library’s new exhibition features women at Princeton, from the days of Evelyn College (1887-1897), mainly attended by daughters of Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary professors, to the appointment of Shirley Tilghman as the first woman president of Princeton University in 2001. For the first time our exhibit is accompanied by historical film footage from the archives. This compilation of segments from films and videos, most of which was featured previously in The Reel Mudd, is shown here.
The footage covers forty years of history of Princeton women, from the admission of Sabra Meservey as the first woman at the Graduate School in 1961 to Shirley Tilghman’s presidency. Subjects covered include the introduction of coeduation, student activism and Sally Frank, and activities of the Women’s Center and SHARE (Sexual Harassment/Assault Advising, Resources, and Education).
The compilation opens with footage of the Class of 1939’s junior prom in 1938 (taken from its Class film), which was attended by 606 women (all listed by name in the Daily Prince). Women only entered academic life at Princeton in 1961, when Sabra Meservey was admitted at to the Graduate School. The footage at 0:37 shows Meservey’s humorous account of her initial conversation with President Robert Goheen, who ultimately oversaw the introduction of undergraduate coeducation in 1969, and wanted to use Meservey as a “test case” at the Graduate School. (For the full story, see the the blog about the Celebration of Coeducation at the Graduate School.)
The only filmed recollections about the early years of coeducation were found on the documentary Looking Back: Reflections of Black Princeton Alumni (1:32), created on the occasion of Princeton’s 250th anniversary in 1996. The changes on campus did not please everybody. In 1974 Princeton icon Frederick Fox ’39 reached out to disgruntled alumni in the film A Walk in the Springtime, pointing out, perhaps tongue in cheek, that Nassau Hall’s two bronze tigers were male and female (3:19). In the following fragment, taken from the short Academy award winning film Princeton, A Search For Answers (1973), women feature prominently (3:55).
The last fragments feature woman activism and the gains of the women’s movement of the 1970s and the 1980s. Two fragments were taken from the Class of 1986’s Video Yearbook: a speech from Sally Frank ’80, who sued the last three all-male eating clubs (4:18), and a Women’s Center sit-in in May 1, 1986 (4:45). The last two fragments have not been featured yet in The Reel Mudd but will be shortly. The first is a sketch from “Sex on a Saturday Night,” a theater performance for freshmen about sexual harassment, presented by SHARE (5:11), The film ends with the inauguration of Shirley Tilghman (5:11) in 2001, taken from the documentary “Robert F. Goheen ’40, *48; Reflections of a President” (2006).
The exhibit “She Flourishes:” Chapters in the History of Princeton Women may be visited during Mudd Library’s opening hours on weekdays between 9.00 am and 4.45 pm. from now until the end of August 2012. | <urn:uuid:c5bbad98-505f-4591-bb16-062c40d2e7f5> | {
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But Shifra and Puah did not – would not –
Could not do as Pharaoh commanded.
Would not – could not – kill the sons of Israel –
Saved the children of Israel
From death decreed by Pharaoh.
That we may not forget, their names are inscribed in Torah.
And a woman of the tribe of Levi
Had a little son
And she hid him, that the soldiers of Pharaoh
Might not kill him.
Out of reed she wove a little ark
And waterproofed it,
And placed her little boy within
And set it among the bulrushes at the edge if the river Nile.
And Miriam the boy's sister, hid among the rushes
To watch over him.
Came the daughter of the Pharaoh
And bathed in the waters of the Nile.
And she picked up the baby out of the basket.
And she smiled at the weeping infant.
Then from her place of hiding
The brave slave-girl, Miriam,
Approached the daughter of the king.
"Shall I find thee a nurse from among the Hebrew women?"
Thus did Pharaoh's daughter hire the baby's mother
To be his nurse
And paid her wages to nourish him –
For he was as the son of the daughter of Pharaoh
And he lived at the palace of the Pharaoh
And she called him Moses.
As it is written in Torah.
And thus, children, does the Torah tell
How the loving-kindness of Shifra, Puah and Miriam
And of Pharaoh's daughter
Saved the lives of the children of Israel,
Saved the life of Moses, our teacher.
From Out of the House of Bondage, edited by Adele Bildersee (New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1982). Used with permission of the UAHC. | <urn:uuid:0186d2d4-003d-40e0-979b-0f3e6e35077a> | {
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Basic macroeconomic relationships
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Basic macroeconomic relationships
Start studying chapter 10 basic macroeconomic relationships learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Basic macroeconomic relationships + report.
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Chapter 27 - basic macroeconomic relationships 27-1 chapter 27 basic macroeconomic relationships questions 1 what are the variables (the items measured on the axes. Economics (mcconnell) ap edition, 19th edition chapter 27: basic macroeconomic relationships the content of this chapter may be included on the ap. To print or download this file, click the link below: 3p basic macroeconomic relationshipspptx — application/vndopenxmlformats-officedocumentpresentationml. Basic macroeconomic relationships before developing the keynesian aggregate expenditures model, we must understand the basic macroeconomic relationships that are the. [pdf]free basic macroeconomics relationships study guide answers download book basic macroeconomics relationships study guide answerspdf mcg create 2017 chemistry. Essential graphs for microeconomics basic economic concepts production possibilities curve a points on the curve there is no relationship between mc and afc. Macroeconomics basic topics - free download ackly gardener an economic model consist of set of economic functional relationship and in each function relation. | <urn:uuid:5692ea9a-6eaf-469b-89b7-3ee513bf8910> | {
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vs. Endurance: What is the difference?
Patience has a greater focus on our response to wrongs committed
Endurance has a greater focus on our response to bad circumstances and
to the trials of life.
[The following comparisons, taken from New Testament Greek reference books,
are also included in the two studies about these character traits.]
Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon:
PATIENCE / LONGSUFFERING: The self-restraint which does not
hastily retaliate a wrong - opposed to wrath or revenge.
- ENDURANCE / PERSEVERANCE: The temper which does not easily
succumb under suffering - opposed to cowardice or despondency.
Vine's Expository Dictionary of N.T. Words:
PATIENCE / LONGSUFFERING: That quality of self-restraint in
the face of provocation which does not hastily retaliate or promptly
punish; it is the opposite of anger, and is associated with mercy,
and is used of God.
- ENDURANCE / PERSEVERANCE: The quality that does not
surrender to circumstances or succumb under trial; it is the opposite
of despondency and is associated with hope; it is not used of God.
Both of these words are found in 1 Corinthians 13, the
chapter which gives us a rather extensive description of what "love" is all
LINKS TO THESE STUDIES:
See also: Patience and Self-Control - vs. - Anger, Rage and Revenge
Dennis Hinks © 2004
"Thayer's" and "Vine's" are both public domain. | <urn:uuid:7b873859-b7d7-4acc-bb12-bfe06ebfdade> | {
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Lake muds are composed of the organic remains of plants which grew under water in lake or pond systems. Radiocarbon determinations from this type of environment must be analysed with care because of the variable sources of carbon available to the plants which form the gyttja. Sources of carbon include; bicarbonate in the water, dissolved CO2 from the atmosphere, dissolved bicarbonate from limestone and other weathered rocks, old or young organic carbon from humus within the vicinity. These 'inputs' to the lake system may make radiocarbon dates of lake muds problematic. In addition, there may be errors due to post-depositional movement in situ and leaching and adsorption of humic remains in the profile. Humic acids are the decayed remains of old plants. Physical and chemical pretreatment methods usually involving acid-base-acid routines will be required to remove some of these contaminants and validate radiocarbon results. | <urn:uuid:1b16adc4-9283-4dd7-81ba-79ac401b3802> | {
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Infectious disease control needs to be made more “sustainable”. We need to reduce selective pressure on pathogens to evolve antibiotic resistance. We need to control infectious disease outbreaks and associated immune disorders with a better understanding of the genetic, environmental and social factors that impact disease spread and severity.
Genomics and bioinformatics provide powerful methods that can aid such efforts and improve our understanding of microbial virulence, microbial evolution and ourselves. The Brinkman laboratory comprises an interdisciplinary bioinformatics and “wet-lab” environment, investigating key infectious disease-causing microbes and their diseases in the following ways:
(1) Investigating the role in disease of both the microbe and its host (i.e immune system failure), using genomics and systems biology-based approaches
(2) Using genomics and network analysis to characterize disease outbreaks and their environmental/social/genetic causes, and
(3) Identifying new anti-infective and immune modulating therapies/biomarkers.
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The familiar adage, “The rich get richer and the poor get poorer” has taken on greater concern in the wake of the Great Recession.
“In the US, the wealthiest one percent captured 95 percent of post-financial crisis growth since 2009, while the bottom 90 percent became poorer,” reported Oxfam, a consortium of organizations that work to rectify poverty and social injustice around the world.
Worldwide, Oxfam reports, the wealthiest 1 percent of people — the top 85 — have more wealth than the poorest half of the world, about 3.5 billion people. And the picture becomes more and more distorted by the year:
• Seven out of 10 people live in countries where economic inequality has increased in the past 30 years.
• The richest one percent increased their share of income in 24 out of 26 countriues for which Oxfam had data between 1980 and 2012.
This isn’t just a matter of the haves and the wish-they-haves. It is a matter endangering the economic stability of the world and the function of democratic government.
“Oxfam is concerned that, left unchecked, the effects are potentially immutable and will lead to ‘opportunity capture’ — in which the lowest tax rates, the best education, and the best healthcare are claimed by the children of the rich,” the report states.
The belief is already in place throughout the world.
Among low-wage earners in the U.S., another recent Oxfam poll shows that 65 percent believe Congress passes laws that predominantly benefit the wealthy.
Statistics bear out that belief: In the United States, the wealth disparity is growing faster than in any other country — and at more than twice the rate it grew 30 years ago.
And it’s no coincidence that as the economy slowly recovers, low- and middle-income workers are not sharing in that recovery. Employment and wage levels are not recovering at the same pace as the economy.
We’ve heard politicians talk about the bottom 40 percent of the U.S. population as irrelevant — and we fear that belief is even more widespread than publicly stated, among both parties.
This is not only having a negative impact on the poor, but on the middle class. The once-comfortable majority continues to shrink.
Oxfam made its plea for a move toward greater equality at Davos to the World Economic Forum, asking these wealthy individuals to:
• not dodge taxes in their own countries,
• not use wealth to seek political favor,
• make public the investments in companies and trusts for which they are the ultimate beneficial owners,
• support progressive taxation on wealth and income,
• challenge governments to use tax revenue for universal healthcare, education and social protection, and
• demand a living wage in all the companies they own.
What happens if more effort isn’t made to have the rich pay their fair share? The same thing that is happening now: A dearth of full-time, living wage jobs. A shrinking middle class. Increasing worldwide poverty. Social and political destabilization.
Wealth, when put to use can serve as an economic engine that benefits more than a select few.
Hoarding of vast riches makes them essentially nothing more than a marker in a rigged game. | <urn:uuid:89688182-fec6-44cf-bffa-e1ad1fdab099> | {
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NSF, USDA, DOE Award Grants to Improve Predictions of Climate Change on Regional, Decadal Scales
Research will lead to better understanding of climate change effects on shorter, more local scales
What will Earth's climate be like in a decade--or sooner? And what will it be like where you live, and around the globe?
To help find answers, the National Science Foundation (NSF) and other federal agencies have awarded new grants to study the consequences of climate variability and change.
The awards were made through the interagency Decadal and Regional Climate Prediction Using Earth System Models (EaSM) Program. At NSF, EaSM is part of the Science, Engineering and Education (SEES) portfolio of investments.
"NSF is strongly supportive of the EaSM goal of improved understanding of the climate system," says Roger Wakimoto, NSF assistant director for Geosciences.
"Better climate predictions will arm decision-makers with the quantitative information they need to help chart the appropriate future course for society," says Wakimoto.
Other agencies awarding grants in the interagency EaSM Program are the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
NSF has invested $22.7 million in the awards; USDA, $5.2 million; and DOE, $3.3 million.
Among the subjects addressed by the EaSM awards are:
According to scientists, the EaSM program addresses one of the most pressing problems of the millennium: climate change and how it is likely to affect the world--and how people can plan for its consequences.
That challenge calls for the development of next-generation Earth system models that include coupled and interactive representations of ecosystems, agricultural working lands and forests, urban environments, biogeochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, ocean and atmospheric currents, the water cycle, land and sea ice and human activities.
EaSM projects will expand the limits of scientists' understanding of Earth's climate system, leading to better ways of predicting climate change.
The consequences of climate variability and change are becoming more immediate and profound than anticipated, research has found.
Prolonged droughts on several continents, increasing stresses on natural and managed ecosystems, losses of agricultural and forest productivity, degraded ocean and permafrost habitats, global sea-level rise, the rapid retreat of ice sheets and glaciers, and changes in ocean currents have shown that climate variability and change will likely have significant effects on decade and shorter time scales.
Those effects on humans and other animals, plants, and planet-wide systems such as the oceans, may be far-reaching.
Among the goals of the EaSM program is achieving reliable global and regional predictions of decadal climate variability and change through an understanding of the coupled physical, chemical, biological and human processes that drive the climate system.
Awardees are working to quantify the effects of climate variability and change on ecological, agricultural and other human systems, and to identify and quantify "feedback loops" through which humans affect the environment.
"As climate becomes more variable, precipitation extremes become more frequent and temperatures rise, agricultural producers, foresters and natural resource managers will need to plan and adapt in order to meet the needs of Earth's population," says Sonny Ramaswamy, director of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture at the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
"Understanding the climate system and being able to predict climate trends on decadal and regional scales will be important to helping the agriculture industry remain profitable. These grants will help us move science forward so we can make the best decisions for adaptive management and planning for the future."
Adds Sharlene Weatherwax, DOE associate director for Biological and Environmental Research, "To advance a robust predictive understanding of Earth's climate, and to inform the development of sustainable solutions to our energy and environmental challenges, a deeper understanding of natural climate variability and change is needed.
"The projects DOE supports through EaSM are expected to efficiently enhance the ability to design and deploy the most effective energy solutions for the nation."
Scientists are maximizing observational and model data for impact and vulnerability/resilience assessments, and translating model results and their uncertainties into the scientific basis for well-informed human adaptation to and management decisions for climate change.
These decisions need to happen, say climate researchers, in the coming years--not decades or centuries.
2013 NSF-USDA-DOE EaSM Awards
Collaborative Research: EaSM2--Quantifying and Conveying the Risk of Prolonged Drought in Coming Decades: Jonathan Overpeck, University of Arizona
Collaborative Research: EaSM2--Linking Near Term Future Changes in Weather and Hydroclimate in Western North America to Adaptation for Ecosystem and Water Management: Richard Seager, Columbia University
Collaborative Research: EaSM 2: Stochastic Simulation and Decadal Prediction of Large-Scale Climate: Dmitri Kondrashov, University of California, Los Angeles
Collaborative Research: EaSM2--Wildfires and Regional Climate Variability - Mechanisms, Modeling, and Prediction: Yuhang Wang, Georgia Tech (jointly funded with DOE)
Collaborative Research: EaSM 2 Advancing extreme value analysis of high impact climate and weather events: Daniel Cooley, Colorado State University (jointly funded with DOE)
Attribution of changes in precipitation intensity over the central US (USDA-funded): Ray Arritt, Iowa State
Forest Die-off, Climate Change, and Human Intervention in Western North America (USDA-funded): Phil Mote, Oregon State University
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2016, its budget is $7.5 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives more than 48,000 competitive proposals for funding and makes about 12,000 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $626 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Useful NSF Web Sites: | <urn:uuid:bfde2f66-08af-460d-942f-c71b1373488e> | {
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Books, stories, music, and artistic activities make Street Libraries places where discovery and creativity grow into lifelong learning skills for children and families living in under-resourced communities.
Children and families join a respectful and stimulating atmosphere where they gain valuable skills and relationships that are essential to overcoming the daily challenges of poverty. Street Libraries create a space of peace and learning, reinforce the efforts families make, and develop deep, long-lasting relationships with members of the communities to overcome poverty.
Street Libraries developed from the principle of reaching towards a community’s aspirations and the aim of sharing knowledge in the heart of the community. The format is simple: colorful blankets on the ground, a communal time of reading and stories, followed by an activity promoting discovery, highlighting skills, and encouraging creative expression.
Behind the simplicity, however, are rigorous methods. Street Library volunteers from outside the community arrive at the same time every week, week after week. They invite all children, but keep a special eye out for those with the most difficulties. They solicit and rely on input and support from parents and other community members. They prepare achievable activities with quality materials.
From the collective art projects in which children work together towards the same goal, the simple actions of the Street Library program build a consistent, long-term, and trusted presence in low-income communities and with families struggling with persistent poverty. This relationship leads to further projects and partnerships that promote positive changes at different levels of society for families and communities in poverty.
Every summer, Festivals of Arts and Learning happen as extensions of weekly Street libraries. Throughout the United States, children living in poverty have less access to learning activities during a summer break, hence leaving them further behind when a new semester starts. Summer Festivals of Arts and Learning aim to bridge the learning gap between the end of the school year and summer vacation. Here’s an example of what we do. | <urn:uuid:96e71c6d-82bc-47f2-addb-154c556d11d0> | {
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It makes sense intuitively that when we buy from a locally owned store, that more money would stay in the local economy. Well, it turns out there is hard empirical evidence to support that intuition. A study commissioned by Michigan’s Local First showed quite a contrast:
A 2008 study of Kent County by Civic Economics — commissioned by Local First — determined that just a 10% shift in consumer spending toward locally owned businesses would result in an estimated $140 million in new economic activity, 1,600 new jobs, and $50 million in new wages.
According to Civic Economics, when West Michigan consumers choose a locally owned business over a non-local alternative, $73 of every $100 spent stays in the community. By contrast, only $43 of every $100 spent at a non-locally owned business remains in the community.
Click on the above chart to enlarge and see more detail.
NPR has an eye opening report on the common use of roxarsone in poultry like that big Thanksgiving turkey that’s thawing out in the sink right now. Roxarsone has been widely used in the poultry industry to help meat birds grow faster and to fight disease, which is especially important considering the nasty conditions many birds are raised in these days. The only problem is that roxarsone contains arsenic, and when the birds eat it, the arsenic takes up residence in the meat.
I reported on this awhile back regarding some backyard laying hens that passed on arsenic to children through the eggs. Go here and here for more background on that particular story. At the time I noted that roxarsone is the organic kind of arsenic, which is less nasty than the inorganic form.
But NPR shares enough details to make me really glad I got my turkey this year from a local farmer:
Keeve Nachman is the science director for the Center for a Livable Future at the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health. He studies arsenic in the food system and has recommended to Congress and the state of Maryland (a big poultry producer) that it ban roxarsone from all poultry feed.
So how big a problem is it for humans?
According to the Poultry & Egg Institute, an industry group, “the benefits of continued use of roxarsone far outweigh the concerns expressed by the media and special interest groups.”
But Nachman says certain chemical forms of arsenic are toxic and have been linked to cancer. Recent studies have shown that 65 percent of arsenic in poultry is the inorganic form – the bad one.
Even though poultry producers have been using roxarsone for decades, scientists have only just begun to study how it makes its way through the food chain to humans.
Recently, the Environmental Protection Agency, which is responsible for setting toxicity values for chemicals, reported that arsenic’s cancer causing power is 17 times higher than previously believed.
You can bet the cheaper your turkey, the more likely roxarsone was used to fatten it up. The quicker they get it fat the less they have to feed it and the cheaper they can sell it. But as is the case with most cheap food, there are hidden costs. This is a good reminder that when we eat the meat of any animal, we are essentially eating what the animal ate. As consumers we deserve to know what the animals we are eating ate and what they were injected with. For now, the onus is on consumers to do a lot of the leg work and one of the best ways to ensure healthy food is to buy it from a local farmer that you know.
This reminds me of one of Michael Pollan’s Food Rules: Pay your farmer more than you pay your doctor.
Some helpful words for a Thanksgiving feast from Wendell Berry:
People who know the garden in which their vegetables have grown and know the garden is healthy will remember the beauty of the growing plants, perhaps in the dewy first light of morning when gardens are at their best. Such a memory involves itself with the food and is one of the pleasures of eating….The thought of the good pasture and of the calf contentedly grazing flavors the steak….A significant part of the pleasure of eating is in one’s accurate consciousness of the lives and the world from which food comes.
Eating with the fullest pleasure - pleasure, that is, that does not depend on ignorance - is perhaps the profoundest enactment of our connection with the world. In this pleasure we celebrate our dependence and our gratitude, for we are living from mystery, from creatures we did not make and powers we cannot comprehend.
When we gather around the table tomorrow I’ll take great pleasure in the thought of our turkey frolicking at Rocky Ridge Ranch and in the mystery of our multi-hued potatoes that were miraculously birthed from the soil in our backyard.
(Note: One of the hopes for my upcoming book is that it will introduce the writing and thought of Wendell Berry to a new audience. If there were a sub-subtitle for the book it would be, “What Happens When Wendell Berry Meets the Suburbs”)
As the above chart shows, sweet potatoes at one time had a small niche in the American dining repertoire. But after WWII for, some reason they fell out of favor. It could be because we started eating so much cheese:
But there are indications that the sweet potato is making a comeback, especially in Europe:
With U.S. consumption growing slowly, farmers have found a market for the vitamin-packed, cholesterol-free sweet potato on the tables of health-conscious Europeans. Between 2005 and 2009, the value of U.S. sweet potato exports more than doubled to $51.4 million, with much of that growth coming from Europe, especially Great Britain.
I tried to grow sweet potatoes in the garden a couple of years ago without much success. I’ll have to give it another go next summer. In case you’re wanting to grow your own, you have to order them as small dry root plants that you then plant in the ground. It’s different from other varieties of potatoes. Irish Eyes is a good place to order the starts online.
Friday, November 26 will be celebrated by most as a way to get the Christmas shopping season kicked-off. A lesser known way to celebrate the day after Thanksgiving is to pay homage to Buy Nothing Day. It’s not that complicated. It just means buying nothing as a way to say “No” to our crazy consumer culture. There is a Christian movement that has some affinity with BND called the Advent Consipiracy where the invitation is to give “presence” instead of presents.
It was almost three years ago at the end of 2007 that we devised our own little conspiracy to subvert the status quo and explore more life-giving patterns of consumption. That plan turned into a year of consuming everything local, used, homegrown, or homemade. At the time we felt so stuck that it was hard to see that there are different ways of going at these rhythms of life. But after only a couple of months we realized that what we had thought was our fated destiny was actually a choice, and that our consumer ways need not be inevitable. At the time I said:
One lesson we’re learning is that our previous patterns of consumption seemed so unchangeable. It was just the way the world was. Everybody did it that way. It was hard to imagine that there were other ways of doing things. We’re learning as a family that all habits, patterns, and practices of consumption are changeable. It might take 5 months to feel comfortable with them, but nothing need be inevitable or set in stone.
Here’s and excerpt from one of my favorite Wendell Berry poems to give inspiration for your own experiments and ways of living that don’t compute with the status quo.
Manifesto: The Mad Farmer Libertation Front
Love the quick profit, the annual raise,
vacation with pay. Want more
of everything ready-made. Be afraid
to know your neighbors and to die.
And you will have a window in your head.
Not even your future will be a mystery
any more. Your mind will be punched in a card
and shut away in a little drawer.
When they want you to buy something
they will call you. When they want you
to die for profit they will let you know.
So, friends, every day do something
that won’t compute. Love the Lord.
Love the world. Work for nothing.
Take all that you have and be poor.
Love someone who does not deserve it.
Denounce the government and embrace
the flag. Hope to live in that free
republic for which it stands.
Give your approval to all you cannot
understand. Praise ignorance, for what man
has not encountered he has not destroyed.
Ask the questions that have no answers.
Invest in the millenium. Plant sequoias.
Say that your main crop is the forest
that you did not plant,
that you will not live to harvest.
Say that the leaves are harvested
when they have rotted into the mold.
Call that profit. Prophesy such returns….
As soon as the generals and the politicos
can predict the motions of your mind,
lose it. Leave it as a sign
to mark the false trail, the way
you didn’t go. Be like the fox
who makes more tracks than necessary,
some in the wrong direction.
Go watch this lovely video that offers a window into how the Incredible Edible program in Todmorden, England is transforming the city’s food culture, which happens to include a community garden popping up in a graveyard (at around 4:07 in the video.) I love the commentary of the graveyard gardener at the end of the video:
I think what we’re into in this sort of work isn’t all the planting and that stuff. That’s really good, and it’s symbolically important, but it’s not the core thing. It’s about thinking about what we could be, and what our communities could be, and what our businesses could be. And just how we live on the earth…so we grow stuff, so we share it, so we celebrate it, we have events, and we constantly sort of tumble forward into a better future…Food is just such a lovely connecter to do that with. It’s just such a lovely way in.
Tumbling forward into a better future. Amen.
The New York Times has done a great service by writing a story on the Estrella Family Creamery in Washington State, as an example of how the current national debates about small farms and food safety land in the real world. (Go here, here, and here for background)
The Estrella family, pictured to the right, left the city to make world-class artisanal cheeses. Here’s how Kelli tells their story:
2001 we left home and business for an abandoned dairy on 164 acres. They
laughed at our young family and said it couldn’t be done, and I’ll
admit I had my fears! My faith was put to the test during the blood,
sweat and tears of the early years. But we started with three cheeses
and now have a list of 18, and at last the farm even feels like home. Sometime
last year I noticed that there was a lot of food on our table and some
empty chairs, so we adopted 3 more kids from Liberia. Together the
kids are learning that hard work won’t kill them, and that the pursuit
of excellence in our craft and careful nurturing of the creatures
placed in our care yield a tremendous reward. Over and over at our
farmers markets and in our emails they say thank you, thank you!! And
they tell us stories of some of the finest moments of their lives that
were enriched by our cheese. We are so blessed. We hope you enjoy the fruit of our labors as well, and thank you.
In 2001 we left home and business for an abandoned dairy on 164 acres. They laughed at our young family and said it couldn’t be done, and I’ll admit I had my fears! My faith was put to the test during the blood, sweat and tears of the early years. But we started with three cheeses and now have a list of 18, and at last the farm even feels like home.
Sometime last year I noticed that there was a lot of food on our table and some empty chairs, so we adopted 3 more kids from Liberia. Together the kids are learning that hard work won’t kill them, and that the pursuit of excellence in our craft and careful nurturing of the creatures placed in our care yield a tremendous reward. Over and over at our farmers markets and in our emails they say thank you, thank you!! And they tell us stories of some of the finest moments of their lives that were enriched by our cheese. We are so blessed.
We hope you enjoy the fruit of our labors as well, and thank you.
Since establishing their cheesemaking operation with 36 cows and 40 goats they have gone on to win a a series of awards that would make any cheese-maker jealous, and a loyal base of customers at farmers’ markets and Manhattan restaurants.
But according to the Times, recent actions of the FDA threaten to shut down the whole operation after they found the presence of listeria in her cheese and in the building where the cheese is aged. They did a thorough clean-up of the facility but the FDA found the bacteria again:
Last month, the F.D.A., which does not have the power to order a recall (the food safety bill in the Senate would give it that authority), went to court, saying the “persistent presence” of listeria meant all of Ms. Estrella’s cheese should be considered contaminated. In response, a federal judge sent marshals to effectively impound the cheese, preventing her from doing business.
No one is arguing that the Estrella’s shouldn’t have a safe product, but there is a debate about the role of the FDA in overseeing small artisinal operations vs. the large industrial cheesemakers.
“If the F.D.A. wanted to shut down the U.S. artisan cheese industry, all they’d have to do is do this environmental surveillance and the odds of finding a pathogen would be pretty great,” said Catherine W. Donnelly, co-director of the Vermont Institute for Artisan Cheese of the University of Vermont, referring to the listeria testing at cheese plants. “Is our role to shut these places down or help them?”
Kurt Beecher Dammeier, owner of Beecher’s Handmade Cheese, an artisan cheesemaker and retailer in Seattle, said the F.D.A. needed to work harder to understand artisans like Ms. Estrella. “The F.D.A. comes from an industrial, zero-defect, highly processed, repeatable perspective, and she comes from a more ancient time of creating with what she gets,” he said. “I’m not sure they can really even have a conversation.”
The key question is, do we want a food system where there is room for artisanal operators, or do we want a system where only industrial, highly processed foods are legal? There is concern that without the small farms amendments in the Food Safety Modernization Act, the American food system will be so inflexible, small farmers’ will be unable to comply. Just as the American food landscape is beginning to localize and diversify, the Food Safety act could undo the progress that has been made in recent years.
The Bill that passed cloture was essentially tabled this week when big ag lobbyists rallied legislators to halt the passage of the bill because of the small farms’ amendments.
I was surprised yesterday to find that Year of Plenty, the book based on this blog, now has a page at Amazon and all the other major online outlets. I guess the publisher is getting things in place even though we’re still a ways out from the March 1 publish date. The graphic artist is working on the cover design and we still have to do final editing on the manuscript so there is not much on the Amazon page yet. But it sure was fun to see my name listed as an “author.” It will be even more fun to hold the book in my hand. If you want to be the first to buy it you can actually pre-order it now. It will also be available on Kindle and in other digital formats.
Here’s the book description at Amazon:
In 2008, Pastor Craig Goodwin and his young family embarked on a year-long experiment to consume only what was local, used, homegrown, or homemade. In Year of Plenty, Goodwin shares the winsome story of how an average suburban family stumbled onto the cultural cutting edge of locavores, backyard chickens, farmers markets, simple living, and going green. More than that, it is the timely tale of Christians exploring the intersections of faith, environment, and everyday life.
This humorous yet profound book comes at just the right time for North American Christians, who are eager to engage the growing interest in the environmental movement and the quandaries of modern consumer culture.
I have a group of folks reading the manuscript so they can help prepare a small group curriculum that will be available for free download as a companion to the book. (It will make a good book for church small groups and book groups.) One of the readers offered some very encouraging feedback, saying that the story really drew him in and made it difficult to put the manuscript down. He called it “pleasure reading” and said the style of writing reminded him of Bill Bryson.
When I set out to write the book, my first priority was to craft a compelling narrative that would bring to life the issues covered in the book that are so dear to my heart. So I’m very encouraged that at least one reader found it to be so engaging. Let’s hope others feel the same way.
I’m really looking forward to the conversations the book will help spark and facilitate. Of course, we’ve already been having a great conversation on this blog for more than two years. Thanks to all of you who have commented, encouraged, and challenged me along with the way. | <urn:uuid:e8b7f071-43ef-41fa-8683-3894d51e4dcd> | {
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Be sure that you have an application to open
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Your students will enjoy this fall themed, maze-like math activity. Help the children find the apple tree by multiplying and then coloring. Color all even answers red and odd answers green to find the red path to the apple tree.
* Would be a wonderful addition to an apple unit.
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All manner of largef-than-life 19th-century Americans struggled financially in that century despite their great celebrity. P.T. Barnum lost everything. Edgar Allen Poe never had anything. Mathew Brady was turned away from easy street despite having in his possession the photographic history of the Civil War.
Thomas Nast suffered a similar fate. As Poe was to the short story, Nast was to the political cartoon: The father, more or less, of the U.S. version of an enduring genre that has survived numerous technological and media shifts. He was wildly influential into the 1880s, credited in the previous decade with helping to bring down the corrupt Boss Tweed and his Tammany Hall cohorts, as well as responsible for creating the Republican elephant symbol and the popular visual concept of Santa Claus. Nast was ahead of his time as an abolitionist and integrationist, though he wasn’t perfect in regards to race and ethnicity, repeatedly displaying in his drawings a fervent anti-Irish strain, for whatever reason.
Despite wide renown and handsome paydays, Tweed went broke in 1884 after investing his wealth in a brokerage firm operated by a swindler. He never really recovered. By the time of his death in 1902, the artist was referred to as “once famous” and, having been forced to push his pencil aside, was employed as Consul General to Ecuador, essentially a gift position from President Roosevelt, a longtime fan of his work.
The cartoonist’s death from yellow fever was reported in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.
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Asụsụ Igbo is a language spoken in Nigeria by around 20-25 million people, the Igbo, especially in the southeastern region once identified as Biafra and parts of Southsouthern region of Nigeria. The language was used by John Goldsmith as an example to justify deviating from the classical linear model of phonology as laid out in The Sound Pattern of English. It is written in the Roman script. There is also the Nsibidi alphabet which is used by the Ekpe society. Igbo is a tonal language, like Yoruba and Chinese. There are hundreds of different dialects and Igboid languages that the Igbo language comprises such as Ikwerre Enuani (linguistics) and Ekpeye dialects.
Igbo has a number of dialects, distinguished by accent or orthography but almost universally mutually intelligible, including the Idemili Igbo dialect (the version used in Chinua Achebe's epic novel, Things Fall Apart), Bende, Owerri, Ngwa, Umuahia, Nnewi, Onitsha, Awka, Abiriba, Arochukwu, Nsukka, Mbaise, Abba, Ohafia, Ika, Wawa, Okigwe Ukwa/Ndoki and Enuani. It is considered to be a dialect continuum. There is apparently a degree of dialect levelling occurring.
The wide variety of spoken dialects has made agreeing a standardised orthography and dialect of the Igbo language very difficult. The current Onwu orthography, a compromise between the older Lepsius orthographyInternational Institute of African Languages and Cultures (IIALC), was agreed in 1962. and a newer orthography advocated by the Central Igbo, the dialect form gaining widest acceptance, is based on the dialects of two members of the Ezinihitte group of Igbo in Central Owerri Province between the towns of Owerri and Umuahia, Eastern Nigeria. From its proposal as a literary form in 1939 by Dr. Ida C. Ward, it was gradually accepted by missionaries, writers, and publishers across the region. In 1972, the Society for Promoting Igbo Language and Cultureloan words. (SPILC), a nationalist organisation which saw Central Igbo as an imperialist exercise, set up a Standardisation Committee to extend Central Igbo to be a more inclusive language. Standard Igbo aims to cross-pollinate Central Igbo with words from Igbo dialects from outside the "Central" areas, and with the adoption of Igbo is both spoken and written language mainly in southeastern Nigeria but this usage also extends beyond these confines to southsouthern Nigeria covering some parts of Rivers and Delta States where the Ikweres, Anioma and others are geographically situated. In Anioma (Among the Eneani) especially, the Igbo language is still referred to as "Asusu Igbo" and retains much of Igbo words and idiomatic expressions. | <urn:uuid:d0326518-82c6-4b37-bb63-685c23448082> | {
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Generation 2- Google Docs- LMS
In generation 2, students used the same GeoTol training videos, workbooks, timeframes, and online exercises. However, the training employed a new LMS (learning management system) based on Google Docs as the means to collect responses and manage grades. In addition, the training program added three to four training evaluation questions, based on the Kirkpatrick training evaluation model, after each workshop unit. After completing the workshop exercises, each student received an automated follow up email detailing their results, including how they answered each question, the correct responses, and how they responded to the training evaluation questions.
Here we will look at four more instances, four learning groups from four companies. The results provide insight into the effect of company leadership presence on learning outcomes.
Learning Group #1: This instanceexamines the learning outcomes of 26 students from alarge aerospace company participating in GeoTol Level 1&2 Training from June 2013 through October 2013. The facilitator displayed a heavy presence communicating directly with students, responding to student comments and responses to training evaluation questions.
Learning Group #2 and Learning group #3 In these two instances weexamine the outcomes of 14 students from a medical device maker and the outcomes of seven students from a global technology company, participating in GeoTol Level 1&2. These two groups had similar experiences and outcomes. The facilitator displayed little presence directly with students, however communicated regularly with the sponsoring leaders in their companies providing progress reports.
Learning group #4 This instanceexamines the learning outcomes of 30 students from an aircraft lighting and simulation systems company who participated in GeoTol Level 1&2 Training. Here the facilitator displayed high presence with both the students and manager coordinating the training effort.
The following charts provide visuals, indicating grades and outcomes from the four learning groups. As you review the charts, pink shows an incomplete outcome, blue shows a successfully completed course outcome, yellow indicates “other” such as a manager auditing the class, or a student who could not continue because the left the department or company. After the charts, the research will compare and contrast the outcomes from each instance.
The four instances describing grades and outcomes from the aerospace company, medical device maker, global technology company, and aircraft lighting can be used to illustrate a point, a phenomenon that many face-to-face trainers know from experience. Leadership presence matters, without leadership presence, success of workforce training investments are doubtful.
For instance, in the case of the Aerospace Company, the students exhibited great excitement, the learning group had excellent representation from various departments, initial feedback from training evaluations where not only positive , but also plentiful. As facilitator of the course, I had not seen such a good response rate and quality of responses. I felt this was going to be a huge success. However, at about half way through the training program I saw a marked difference. Students stopped participating. I assumed this was a temporary delay due to work priorities, (perhaps a launch event) and the students would come back. They never did, nor did the company leader who sponsored the training initially. Although the facilitator exhibited the most presence with individuals in the learning group, I had no contact with the company leader. I sensed the leader left the company, the learning group was left without direction, and competing priorities from the students’ immediate supervisors took precedence. In the end, only five of the 26 original students completed the course. These five students were willing to go back, form a small team to lead the training effort through, but company leadership did not support their effort. With the sponsoring leader absent/non responsive the effort failed.
The Medical Device and Global technology company combined for they had similar outcomes with a very high successful completion percentage. This surprised me for as facilitator, I had very little contact with students. I worked with the sponsoring leader each week to provide grade and progress reports. The leaders were fully engaged in inspiring or motivating the learning group members. The result 18 of the 21 original students completed the training successfully. I have no data if these companies saw a return on investment.
The Aircraft Lighting Company was a surprise. The training effort started rough. As facilitator, I was receiving negative feedback. By the third unit, I finally was asking students “if this is such a waste of time why are you doing the training?” The response surprised me. They had to take the training to keep a contract with a valued customer. They said they really did not need this training nor wanted it. They had more important things to do.” One of the team coordinators, a quality manager stopped taking the course. Things looked doubtful. However one of the leaders (high level in the company) insisted that every student had to complete the full course. I am not sure what motivation he used but with his leadership presence, the learning group transformed.
Each week I responded to the students work and their comments. I also copied their manager. At first, I was suspicious – perhaps I was getting coerced positive responses, and I am sure I got a few, however, the responses became more positive, more personal, and showed more critical thinking. Some students responded directly to me and created a more personal connection. I found myself helping students go to higher levels in the learning process. For instance if a student responded “hey Joe loved unit 6 and learned so much”- My response was “great- now let’s go further- your learned something, how did you apply it at work?”. Or “Hey Joe, I applied position on a drawing today.” I pushed further, “hey how did this impact the company- will it eliminate rework or save time? “Keep Going” was a phrase used often. I kept weekly contact with the Quality manager who oversaw progress and kept the grade books up to date. I saw his correspondence also get more personal and engaging.
In the end, the top leader made the difference. Without his presence, the training would have collapse about week 3. It would be interesting to go back now and see what return on investment they made as a result of their training investment. | <urn:uuid:c88603a3-fa6a-4da4-96f1-ca5425172970> | {
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12/30/2011 10:39AM ● Published by Style
Whether legitimate or “quack,” the first doctors to arrive at a Gold Rush mining camp staked out their medical claims.
Some even threatened to fight anyone who jumped them. One such tight-fisted protagonist set up his office in Old Hangtown (Placerville). According to author and historian George W. Groh, a picaresque figure who called himself “Dr. Hullings” staked his claim as the first physician in the fledgling settlement and announced his intentions to defend his turf at all costs.
Groh describes him as a tall, heavy-bodied man who “swaggered about in a costume of black coat, Mexican sash, and velvet calzonera of bright green.” He was said to be competent enough, when sober. A vicious brawler, with a hot temper fueled by alcohol, Dr. Hullings had supposedly left New Orleans after killing a man in a café, and since his arrival in Hangtown, he had driven off several physicians who attempted to practice in the camp he considered “his privileged domain.”
But, there appeared in town one day, a competitor who could not be driven off. Doctor Edward Willis, a soft-spoken Englishman who had graduated with a medical degree from the esteemed Edinburgh University, set up a canvas tent and opened for business. He spread out his instruments on rugged pine shelves and an un-planed table. “There he laid out surgical tools, splints, jars of leeches, a microscope, stethoscope, instruments of dentistry, chemical retorts and vessels used in distilling,” says Groh. “In addition, he displayed several jars of anatomical parts preserved in alcohol which, he confided to a friend, were just for show because the miners expected it.”
Meanwhile, a seething Dr. Hullings had had enough of his rival. Allegedly, he strode into Dr. Willis’ tent, spat tobacco juice at a pile of pills he was rolling, and ordered him to “make tracks.” Calmly, Dr. Willis wiped away the tobacco juice and proclaimed that he “did not ‘make tracks’ at any man’s bidding.” Infuriated that Willis would neither run nor fight, Dr. Hullings left the tent, determined, once and for all, to banish the Englishman from his medical claim.
A few days later, after working himself into a heated frenzy, Dr. Hullings again barged into the English physician’s tent, but this time, he was accompanied by “a nasty looking gang of miners.” Hullings demanded to see his rival’s diplomas, which he instantly tore to pieces. He then spit tobacco juice in the face of Dr. Willis’ companion, a young Virginian named Paul Cham. Before Dr. Willis could react, Cham had felled the tobacco-spitting intruder with a blow. Dr. Hullings came up bellowing with a bowie knife in his hand, but someone got a hold of him before any blood was shed.
Further enraged, Dr. Hullings challenged both Willis and Cham to a duel, claiming that he would kill both of them, but Cham first. They set up the contest as “Cham vs. Hullings,” with Dr. Willis standing by for a second round, if necessary.
The duel took place in a deep, abandoned mining pit near Placerville. Hullings and Cham took their positions; an inquisitive and enthusiastic crowd leaned over the top of the pit. The Sheriff called, “Ready,” clapped his hands, and the pit exploded with the roar of gunfire.
Dr. Hullings lay dead, shot through the heart. Cham lay unconscious, three bullets in him. Fortunately, his friend, Dr. Willis was able to successfully treat his wounds. Some assert that Dr. Willis’ first “official” act upon returning to Placerville was to sign Dr. Hullings’ death certificate. | <urn:uuid:9bc4e8d1-2118-4a79-9f29-c77c0e4d76da> | {
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Aug. 29, 2013 at 7:15 PM ET
Consuming whole fruits at least three times a week may lower your risk of developing type 2 diabetes, according to a new long-term study published Thursday in the British Medical Journal. Earlier studies have been mixed whether fruit raised or lowered risk for type 2 diabetes.
Researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health combined the self-reported intake of fruit in three study populations over a period of about 20 years. While the reasons for the reduced risk cannot yet be explained, surprisingly, it appears that the glycemic index of different fruits are not connected. The glycemic index – the rate at which a fruit raises blood sugar -- defines different types of carbohydrates, known as “glycemic load.” The higher the glycemic index, the faster the rise in blood sugar.
Study participants were obtained from three prospective long-term study populations: 66,105 women from the Nurses’ Health Study (1984 – 2008); 85,104 women from the Nurses’ Health Study II (1991-2009); and 36,173 men from the Health Professionals Follow Up Study (1986 – 2008). Data from self reported food intake (food frequency questionnaires every other year) was evaluated to estimate consumption of whole fruits, specific types of fruits and fruit juice consumption -- and associated risk of type 2 diabetes. Data were analyzed for each group, then pooled for the final analyses.
Although the data also suggested that certain fruits - apples, blueberries, and grapes - might be better choices to reduce risk, this was only an interesting trend, and more study is needed before definitively recommending these over any other whole fruits. Different fruits do vary in their impact on blood sugar (the glycemic ondex), but these differences did not explain why certain fruits might have a stronger effect on risk reduction.
While this study relies on self-reported fruit and fruit juice intake over many years, and does not demonstrate a definitive cause, it does provide yet one more reason why fruit consumption is an important health-boosting habit (along with maintaining a stable weight, and being active) that appears to have an impact on the development of at least one chronic disease, type 2 diabetes. High in water and fiber – a natural thirst and hunger quencher, fruit sugars also satisfy a sweet tooth.
While out-of-season fresh fruits can be pricey at the supermarket, frozen fruit or canned (in water) are an affordable option, especially berries. Dried fruits are a great especially for an on-the-go snack. Aim for at least 1-2 servings of fruit every day, and rounded out with 2-3 servings of vegetables. | <urn:uuid:b0fa390e-391c-402a-a378-ebb20270411f> | {
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Keulemans, John Gerrard, 1842-1912 :Heteralocha acutirostris [Huia. Male and female] 2/3 [natural size]. London, 1873
Reference Number: PUBL-0134-063
A pair of huia perched on a branch, the male with its long curved beak to the left (marked with a small male symbol), the female (marked with a small female symbol) to the right, turned in towards the male.
Buller, Walter Lawry (Sir) 1838-1906 :A history of the birds of New Zealand. 1st ed. London, 1873, Reference Number PUBL-0134 (4 digitised items)
Extent: 1 colour art print(s)Lithograph, hand-coloured, 310 x 240 mm. Single art work
Conditions governing access to original: Partial restriction - Use photographic copies in preference to original.
Other copies available: File PrintIn Drawings & Prints under Artist/Title (DFP-006724)
Usage: You can search, browse, print and download items from this website for research and personal study. You are welcome to reproduce the above image(s) on your blog or another website, but please maintain the integrity of the image (i.e. don't crop, recolour or overprint it), reproduce the image's caption information and link back to here (http://mp.natlib.govt.nz/detail/?id=33732). If you would like to use the above image(s) in a different way (e.g. in a print publication), or use the transcription or translation, permission must be obtained. More information about copyright and usage can be found on the Copyright and Usage page of the NLNZ web site. | <urn:uuid:ec074e96-d73d-4cc5-938a-6b5019488dfe> | {
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The Children’s National Medical Center in Washington, D.C., opened a new pain care complex on April 3, aiming to eliminate pain in young patients by using video games.
Utilizing specially designed games combined with Microsoft's Kinect technology, participants can improve their health without realizing they're receiving treatment. The gamification places kids in an intergalactic world where they can paint, play and exercise, all while doctors analyze their range of motion.
The program changes the way medical professionals address pain medicine, says Dr. Sarah Rebstock, clinical director and a leader in the initiative. It's often difficult to understand pain, particularly in children, due to its subjective nature. Usually, doctors only have measurements on a scale of one to ten to use as reference, and patients are released with improved conditions but still suffer from discomfort.
The video games serve as a distraction for the children but also target their bodies the same way a physical therapy session would. Not only can doctors monitor heart rate or motion, but based on the observations, they can change treatment and therapy in real-time to adjust to kids' abilities.
If a child can only stretch his or her shoulder a few inches during a game, the Kinect software will detect the motion in degrees and indicate a problem area. The gaming system is able to target and track 24 musculoskeletal points in the body.
"Pain is one of the most underserved areas in medicine in general," Rebstock tells Mashable. "Until now, it has been impossible to quantitatively measure and monitor chronic pain in children ... This is one of the largest advancements in pain medicine in the last several years."
Most children with chronic pain undergo lengthy, expensive evaluations before receiving treatment, and one in four parents of patients have quit their job or reduced working hours to care for them. With the new technology, families will be able to save time and money, Rebstock says.
Compared to therapy sessions in a gym, patients who used the video game had a better range of motion and reported greater distraction from pain. Data collected as a part of the initiative will be used to optimize care for individuals and also help evaluate the success of past treatments.
What do you think of healthcare centers using video games for treatment? Let us know in the comments.
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Alcestis, the earliest extant tragedy by Euripides, was written when the dramatist was in his forties. It is therefore the work of a fully matured man. First staged in 438 b.c.e., the play is in part a product of Athens’s Age of Pericles, that period between the end of the Persian Wars and the onset of the Peloponnesian War. This play shares some of the piety and optimistic confidence of that golden era when Athens reached its greatest power and achieved its finest cultural successes, including the great tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
In Alcestis, Euripides reworks an old legend that had earlier been dramatized by the tragic poet Phrynichus. The work bears Euripides’ inimitable stamp in the keen psychological portraiture, in the rare mixture of comic and tragic elements, and in the deus ex machina ending. Presented as the fourth drama in a tetralogy, which is traditionally a satyr-play, Alcestis is best described as a tragicomedy.
The opening confrontation between Apollo and Thanatos, or Death, sets forth the opposition that is the play’s main underlying theme. Apollo is a radiant god, the representative of light, health, and life, whereas Thanatos is a dark, dismal underworld divinity with an awesome power over all living creatures. Both deities have a claim on Admetus and Alcestis, yet because they belong to different supernatural spheres a compromise between them is impossible. However, Apollo, with his prophetic gift, foresees a resolution in the arrival of Hercules, who will rescue Alcestis from Death.
From that point on, the action proceeds on purely human terms. All the characters are recognizable as persons, with private attitudes, emotions, and choices. Euripides reveals the feelings of Alcestis, a woman who freely sacrifices her life so that her husband may live; of Admetus, who asks for and accepts such a sacrifice; of the child of such a marriage; of Admetus’s old father, Pheres, reviled by his only son for refusing to lay down his life; and of Hercules, who accepts hospitality from the grieving Admetus, drunkenly amuses himself, and then...
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Good looks, food production and pleasing fragrances all help attract gardeners to plants, but so do qualities that make them pleasing to touch. Gardens such as the Betty Ott Talking Garden for the Blind in Cleveland, which cultivates varieties with different textures, is well attuned to how plants feel. But anyone, whether they are sighted or or not, can enjoy such an experience. Grow some soft plants and caress them at will.
Lamb's ear (Stachys byzantia) is well-known for soft, velvety foliage from its stems to leaves. This mounding member of the mint family is hardy in USDA Zones 4 to 7. Its light green color, dusted with downy white, is pleasing.
The leaves of standard varieties grow between 2 to 4 inches in length, while the leaves of larger cultivars can reach up to 10 inches across. The flower spikes of light purple blooms, reach up to 18 inches tall.
Grow lamb's ear in moist, well-drained soil and in full sun or partial shade in hot climates. Use it along landscaped edges and in the front of the garden so you have easier access to touch it.
Rabbit's Tail Grass
Rabbit's tail grass (Lagurus ovatus) is an annual ornamental grass. It thrives in full sun and well-drained soil. Rabbit's tail grass, also called hare's tail grass, grows up to 2 feet tall, making it suitable for planting along borders. It features 2-inch fuzzy white panicles at the tips of the stems that can also be used in dried flower arrangements.
Dusty Miller (Senecio cineraria) has silvery gray foliage that is similar in color to lamb's ear. This perennial is hardy in USDA Zones 8 to10. Dusty Miller is grown as an annual in cooler climates and places that experience wet summers. The lobes on many of it leaves can grow similar in shape to ferns, but their texture resembles felt.
This mounding plant can grow up to 2 feet tall and is drought tolerant. Grow Dusty Miller in full sun and well-drained, sandy soil. Water it regularly, particularly during prolonged dry periods. Plant it along edges or in window boxes and containers as a backdrop for brightly-colored flowers and foliage.
Pussy willow (Salyx caprea) is shrub that produces soft, velvety buds along bare stems in late winter. In February and March, the buds break dormancy and shed their dark red coats. Florists harvest stems at this stage to use in arrangements that need structural enhancement. Garden willows will form 18-inch long fuzzy catkins. Resembling caterpillars, male catkins will produce yellow anthers. Grow pussy willows in full sun and fertile soil. Use a pruning technique called stooling to keep their rapid growth under control. | <urn:uuid:8d1d3674-3edd-4b7a-84da-52ce630d6b0c> | {
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Chris Edwards, a U.K. resident traveling in Japan, took this
photo after his train was halted and evacuated in Tokyo
following the March 11 Great Tohuku Earthquake.
For more on the photographer's recollections of that moment,
visit our blog.
It began far out at sea, in a little-watched segment of a fault off Sendai, Japan. It reached land first as sound, the bass drum roll of heaven, amped up so that even hundreds of miles away the sound blotted everything else out, pushed against ribs, even before the earth beneath began to shake.
Later measurements showed March 11’s Great Tohuku Earthquake moved the entire island of Honshu 8 feet closer to the U.S. and released nearly 500 megatons of energy—the rough equivalent of half of all the officially acknowledged nuclear weapons on earth.
The sound of the quake itself was not audible as far away as Tokyo some 200 miles to the south, but the vibrations traveled in seconds. Buildings shook, some lost tiles and sheathing. There was damage at Tokyo Disneyland, located in Chiba prefecture (the Japanese equivalent of provinces), and every earthquake detector in the whole Kanto area and beyond registered the seismic waves. Some train stations outside Tokyo were in places that lost power entirely as Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) substations were affected by the Fukushima nuclear reactor shutdown and were unable to switch quickly enough to other sources.
It was 2:46 p.m. on a Friday, three hours before most of Tokyo’s huge population of office workers would head home. The transit system was busy with typical off-peak riders, such as shoppers, tourists and children returning from school.
With the confirmed detection of a major earthquake (the exact magnitude was, at first, underestimated), all of the major trains were shut down on the spot by operators whether they had power or not.
Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images
Tokyo office workers look at the smoke rising over the skyline after
the earthquake struck.
In a report by the United Nations Secretariat for International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), the near collapse of infrastructure (electricity, telecom, transportation and water) was termed a “synchronous failure.” The idea of synchronous failure in such a highly modern, hard-wired society may seem counterintuitive. We are always told that modern technological society is more adaptable, more redundant, better able to cope with the unexpected. The Internet was partly designed to serve as series of redundant nodes in the event of a nuclear attack.
And of all places, Tokyo, with its huge LED displays and bright-as-daylight-even-at-night intersections, has so often served as the ultimate showplace: Here is how the future will look and how it will work.
But the earthquake kicked it over as easily as Godzilla wreaked havoc on cardboard and plaster versions of Tokyo in one of the old movies. Those modern pieces of infrastructure—all hooked together like nerves and circuits to make the city actually run—failed. Sometimes they failed singly, sometimes in groups, but altogether they left a very large metro- politan area minus much of its vital infrastructure, including, of course, the rail systems that weave Tokyo and the larger Kanto area together.
Power Loss Tips Dominos
Although the electricity did not completely fail in the city, it did in many places throughout the greater Kanto region, which includes Tokyo and a half-dozen surrounding prefectures. Where it failed, however, it did not simply turn off the lights. Homes and offices with Internet phones lost communications because servers lost power. Laptops with batteries and certain wireless connections fared better initially, but in many places the power was off far longer than the life of the average mobile phone or laptop battery. The mobile phone network (Japan has 96.8 percent mobile
penetration) collapsed partly due to the inability of the system to cope with the number of calls and partly due to the loss of power, which left many mobile base stations with nothing but their own standby batteries.
Tokyo is a city that is dependant upon commuters traveling in or around the city by train, far more than even New York does. Those trains circle the city and have hundreds of underground stations as well as a large number of overhead lines. They are in turn fed by a huge network of commuter lines from the greater Kanto area all the way up to Tohoku (the northern quarter of Japan’s largest island, Honshu), the epicenter of the quake.
Of course, there are cars and buses, but their total capacity is a fraction of what the trains carry. When the trains are stopped in their tracks, as they were, there are no immediate replacements, or even remotely foreseeable replacements. And when the trains are stopped, there are passengers immediately at risk, and there is no possibility of restarting them without first clearing the systems—a procedure that should be done by manual inspection of track beds to see if the rails are buckled, fractured or otherwise weakened. In this case, the procedure had to be carried out in the midst of ongoing, large magnitude aftershocks.
In less than one hour after the initial quake there were three aftershocks of magnitude 7 or greater (7.0 at 3:06 p.m., 7.4 at 3:15 p.m. and 7.2 at
3:26 p.m.). Any one of those could have counted as a major quake itself. All were hitting as evacuation attempts had begun, each posing additional hazards, some obvious, some not. Earthquake damage can be immediate or cumulative. In Tokyo, where even the initial damage to tracks, tunnels and overhead railways was not immediately known, each large aftershock raised the possibility that minor damage could become major, and major damage could become catastrophic.
Transit Operators Proceed
The main island of Honshu’s electric grid divided into two separate and independently functioning zones, with the Fujigawa River in Shizuoka Prefecture and the Itoigawa River in Niigata Prefecture forming the borders.
This setup meant that although there was spare power on the western side of Honshu, there were no lines capable of carrying it to the areas that had lost power. A total of three transformer stations still have a fraction of the capacity they had before the earthquake. In response, the flashing billboards that illuminated some of Tokyo’s most famous districts went dark to conserve power.
The giant television
screens are turned off to preserve
electricity in Shibuya, Tokyo’s famed fashion center, a week
after the earthquake.
One immediate effect of the power loss, of course, was to strand millions of people who would ordinarily have been headed home later that afternoon in offices across Tokyo, without any immediate means of communicating with family or friends. The other immediate effect was that all the trains in the Tokyo Metro and Japan Railway (JR) systems shut down, stranding trains across a large area. Narita Airport, the main international airport in the Tokyo area was also shut down.
Toshiake Kogure, manager of the Technology Section in the Safety Affairs Department of Tokyo Metro, said 176 of its trains were operating as the first shock hit at 2:46 p.m. An emergency stop order was immediately transmitted via the railway radio system.
“This enabled all train engineers to apply emergency braking systems,”
Kogure said. “The second, stronger shock resulted in an automatic power shutoff throughout the system. We had to restore our own signal system power, but after that was restored, we proceeded the trains that were between stations to the next station at a speed of 5 kph or less. This slow speed allows the train to be stopped instantly if something is seen to be wrong or the line is broken or otherwise damaged.”
According to Kogure, Tokyo Metro’s dedicated communications systems were not damaged and the transit company did not call for assistance from police, fire or other emergency crews. He noted that moving the trains at 5 kph was an improvised response.
“We train personnel how to evacuate from trains and stations and how to assist passengers, and we test that the automatic earthquake signal/alarm systems in the crew cabins of the trains are in good working order,” he said.
The ‘Long Walk Home’
Once the train systems were shut down, all of the crowds being evacuated from offices, residences, hotels, etc., in Tokyo, had to be steered away from the train stations, both a crowd control and a logistical problem.
General announcements were made over the loudspeakers in the stations but were inaudible due to all of the people and ambient noise. Railway personnel did their best to verbally share instructions to the crowds and used bullhorns just outside some stations. The JR system alone handles 35 Greater Tokyo and Kanto area lines in addition to five Shinkansen lines (also known as “bullet trains”). Millions of riders were moving onto the streets to find that the transit systems had shut down.
In a survey conducted by Japanese research company Survey Research Center Co., Ltd. one month later, 30 percent of over 2,000 respondents reported that they had walked home. Some walked within Tokyo, others out to Chiba, Kanagawa or Saitama. The time it took to get back varied between an hour and a half and more than
Concerned people flood into the streets of Tokyo’s West
Shinjuku district moments after the earthquake.
That was the experience of Ushioda Steven, visiting from the U.S. Steven’s train was at a station on the line to Shinagawa, when the car, in relation to the platform, began to go up and down a couple of feet in each direction. “No one screamed, but there was a lot of chatter,” Steven said. “Some people got off immediately, eventually everyone did, and we were told to wait, the train would continue in a while. But it did not, so I went up the street. I could not reach my girl- friend or my father, so I just walked for hours, [and] finally managed to make a call back to the U.S.”
In fact, although roughly one-third did walk home, another survey found that about 20 percent did not get home that night. It is unclear what percentage of those respondents were traveling into areas where there was no train service or power, how many were fortunate enough to get a hotel room, or were just unable to get beyond a certain point until the next morning.
The almost self-guided nature of the “long walk home,” which involved millions of people, is typical of the day’s events (including the evacuation of the transit systems). While there were emergency crews on the streets of Tokyo, and personnel to open public places as rest stops, there was, as yet, no national or general mobilization of the armed forces. And when there was, they were needed for the very urgent tasks at Fukushima, searching for victims of the tsunami and clearing highways.
The population was not so much left to its own devices as it was that the authorities relied on the population not to panic and to help each other, at least during that first night. Many restaurants stayed open and served soup and food until their supplies ran out.
Key roadways were also rendered impassable. Many highways would not be reopened until after the Ground Self Defense Forces had been mobilized to help with clearing them.
However, the trains that had been stopped within the various systems posed a very different set of problems. The passengers and crew, spread across the entire metro area, had to be evacuated.
This was done without any government assistance. According to a department head in the Emergency Services Section of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the city government cooperated at ground level in such matters as helping wards set up emergency shelters, opening up certain public facilities for use and helping to direct crowds away from transit stations that had been closed. However, the official confirmed that no emergency, fire, police or paramedics were dispatched directly to the transit stations or facilities, nor were any requested.
The long walk home has already proved to be a small bonanza for a Japanese company that had previously published street atlases with the best earthquake escape routes, complete with useful information like public restrooms and possible hazards along the way. More than 150,000 copies have reportedly sold since the quake and in July, one of the company’s subsidiaries launched a smartphone app version that shows the user’s coordinates by GPS and indicates the best route to take home.
“Bullet Trains” Safely Halted
JR runs 35 train lines within Greater Tokyo and Kanto including the famous Yamanote Green Circle Line and others that connect East and West Tokyo and stretch way into the suburbs, to other cities, such as Yokohama, and well up into other prefectures in Kanto (such as Utsunomiya, the capital of Tochigi Prefecture). It also operates the Shinkansens that travel the northern route, up into the Tohoku region (including the areas worst hit by the
tsunami) and the local train lines.
The Japanese Ministry of Infrastructure, Land and Transportation (MILT) lists 957 trains that were within a 30 km (18 miles) radius of Tokyo. MILT estimates the trains were carrying 190,000-plus passengers at the time the quake struck. Of those trains, 613 trains were actually at stations (either on their route or at their end terminals) and another 344 were between stations when the quake hit. Of those, 134 trains had to evacuate passengers along the rails on foot. Published reports also cite 27 Shinkansens that were actually traveling the routes in the Tohoku region but were stopped and evacuated without injury or loss, though there was substantial damage to various rail lines and trackbeds.
The Shinkansens represent a special case. In the Tohuku region, their routes do not follow the coast, and their trackbed is special and hardened.
However, a Shinkansen traveling at top speed (near 200 mph) requires 3-4 miles to come to a full stop.
A total emergency braking maneuver would result in a catastrophic high speed derailment. However, the Shinkansens that were in/around the 30 km radius of Tokyo would not have been traveling at top speed and would not have required the same time and distance to decelerate to a complete stop. All of the Shinkansens outside the 30km radius were successfully stopped and evacuated without incident.
Views on the Ground
The Diet (Japan’s parliament) was in session as the quake hit. In the main parliament hall, a very large crystal chandelier began to swing violently as the walls shook. The building was evacuated and a national emergency command center set up within four minutes. By 3:37 there was an emergency meeting of the top advisers to the Prime Minister. Ten minutes before, the first of three waves had already struck Fukushima, and a larger tsunami had hit Sendai and points further south. Six months later, now former Prime Minister Kan would reveal in interviews that the worst case contingency that was considered was a complete evacuation of an area 250 km south of Fukushima, including all of Kanto—a total of
35 million people, or half the total
population of Honshu.
Isabell Von Rein
Stunned riders crowd around a TV inside Tokyo’s Ueno Station for news
about the earthquake.
The disaster, the synchronous failure, had in fact begun before anyone had time to react. In Tokyo, however, most people did not know anything about what was happening further north. They knew what was happening around them.
Isabell von Rein, an exchange student originally from Leipzig, Germany, was at the Hard Rock Café at Ueno Station with her brother, who had come to visit her a few days earlier.
“We did not hear anything before. There was a kind of jolt, hard. I joked with my brother that there was an earthquake, but the shaking continued and several people inside the café ran out, and other people started screaming,”
she said. “Then the café staff told everyone to get out of the café. Most people were standing in the main hall or just outside the plaza. There was no panic, but there was confusion.”
The hostel she and her brother were staying in was about 2 miles away in Akihabara, so they walked back. “All of the convenience stores were being emptied,” she said. “There were only toys and drinks with alcohol left.”
The hostel had not lost power or phone service. After reaching her parents in Germany, they told both children to return as quickly as possible.
However, Narita International Airport, which handles the majority of international traffic in and out of Japan, had been closed and evacuated Friday night. (Several U.S. flagged airliners were permitted to land at a nearby U.S. military base under a special agreement, a government spokesperson confirmed.)
Isabell Von Rein
Commuters queue on the street outside a Tokyo rail station
after the earthquake.
“The next day, getting to Narita, we had to take three separate side lines as direct service was not available. The airport was filled with people, very chaotic and we wound up sleeping there that night,” von Rein said. “On Sunday, we were finally able to get seats on a flight to Vietnam, where we were able to transit for a flight back to Frankfurt.”
Hajime Saito, a Systems Engineer with an applied robotics company in Tsukuba, was in Chiba (about 18 miles west of Tokyo) for a meeting sponsored by the Society of Mechanical Engineering when the building began to shake.
“It was not just the jolt from the usual earthquake or tremor, it was a rolling motion that went on and on,” Saito said. “People began to scream and we threw open the doors of the hall to let people out as quickly as possible. Outside, I could see that there was no power for at least 3 to 4 kilometers. I was also concerned about liquefaction from such a prolonged quake with aftershocks coming so frequently.”
Liquefaction is a physical process in which saturated soils exposed to extreme stress or repeated vibrations in certain frequencies, such as earthquakes, begin to behave like liquids. The results are devastating for any structures unless they have support piers all the way down into the bedrock. In an area like Chiba, where so much development was done on reclaimed rice fields and manmade lands without support piers, the threat was imminent. Liquefaction was observed at Uriyaso and Abiko in Chiba and Kuki in Saitama Prefecture. A part of Tokyo Disneyworld had to be shut down because of liquefaction in one of the parking lots, according to a government official.
“I decided the best way was to walk into Tokyo, where I hoped there would be power, and I would be better able to judge what to do next,” Saito said. “Walking the
30 kilometers took about five hours, so I was in Tokyo before
10 p.m. By then the hotels were filled, but there were Tokyo Metro Government personnel on hand and they opened the Tokyo International Forum for people who needed to rest.”
Saito has family in Yokohama, which had not lost power. He was able to reach there the next day and then to return to Tsukuba on a Tsukuba Express train, run very slowly and only as a local.
Creating Their Own Luck
According to MILT, trains operating in the Tokyo region are equipped with automatic shutdown mechanisms, and, when these are not operating, the standard procedure is for a train engineer to stop the vehicle and report on their situation and location. All of these reports are conveyed to an emergency center which acts as a clearinghouse for information, a dispatcher of specialists and control center for the system. This was the way it had been practiced and prepared for based on previous quakes and predicted scenarios.
AP Photo/Koji Sasahara
Riders walk on elevated tracks after the earthquake
halted train service.
Once the trains have been halted, there are several factors that determine what will happen next: the objective conditions (in this case, the quake and aftershocks), the train engineer’s assessment of track conditions, the information reaching the emergency center, the immediate needs of the passengers and the availability of emergency or rescue crews if they are needed.
As Kogure of Tokyo Metro noted, the steps taken by the railway company were influenced by training they had conducted for various situations, a strong familiarity with the rail systems and a very necessary element of improvisation. MILT, which oversees the local commuter and long-distance railways, is now conducting a thorough evaluation of what went according to plan, what improvisation was necessary, and what infrastructure and procedures must be improved in order to handle future emergencies (see sidebar at top right).
Joe Zearfoss, a senior consultant with Aon Global Risk Consulting who has specialized in rail transportation risk analysis for over 20 years, was impressed by the level of order that the transit operators maintained, given the potential for so much more to go wrong. He credited their handling of the situation largely to the experience level and professionalism of the regional transit companies’ employees.
“Despite the overwhelming nature of the disaster, their command and control was intact and they were individually and collectively organized,” Zearfoss said. “It is clearly a success story, but that kind of success does not happen accidentally. There had to have been a structure in place that was flexible enough to allow it to happen. And that never happens by accident.
That happens when drills and exercises are continuously followed up by good critiques.”
Zearfoss pointed the decision to proceed the trains at 5 kph as an example of the kind of experience-based improvisation that helped keep people calm and safe.
“That is a clear indication of a risk assessment made under pressure, even made on the fly, but one that takes into account that the prime goal is to get the people in the trains to the safest possible point in the safest possible manner,” he said. He added that walking on the side in a tunnel with active power is not the safest way to evacuate riders, particularly in a situation where there are continuing strong aftershocks.
“There were certainly elements of luck that entered into it—the number of trains that were already in stations and only had to let passengers out, the time of day, and certainly the fact that they retained the ability to communicate between particular crews, stations and sub-command or command centers,” Zearfoss said. “It was not a crisis that self-resolved, but it was a crisis where the elements to resolve it were, fortunately, in place and/or well deployed. And there are certainly lessons in that.”
Richard P. Greenfield is a freelance writer based in Japan.
InTransition would like to acknowledge Kiwa Wakabayashi and Maki Isozaki for providing their time and assistance with interpretation and translation for this story.
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Since a bad reed valve can be the cause of a variety of problems, knowing if
you even have these can be useful - not all 2 stroke engines use reed valves.
|NotTaR of small Gasoline Engines and Rotary Lawn Mowers : Does your 2 stroke engine use reed valve..
1994-2007, Samuel M. Goldwasser. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction of this document in whole or in part is permitted if both of the following conditions are satisfied: 1. This notice is included in its entirety at the beginning. 2. There is no charge except to cover the costs of copying.
I may be contacted via the Sci.Electronics.Repair FAQ (www.repairfaq.org) Email Links Page.
<< Discussion of 2 stroke en.. |
| Some problems with Briggs.. >>
(From: John Barry ([email protected]).)
One easy way to tell is to note where port is behind carburetor. If it just
"dumps" into crankcase, like diametrically opposite cylinder, most likely it's
got a reed-valve. If the passage from the carb connects to the cylinder at a
point closer to the crank center-line than the exhaust port, perpendicular to
cylinder axis and perpendicular to crank, it's mostlikely piston-ported. If
the carb passage is parallel to the crank eventually (starts out perpendicular
on Rotax engines), most likely you have a rotary-valve engine; this is usually
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Science Friday (SciFri) is a superb web site for science lecturers and college students. SciFri is a non-profit group that gives all kinds of instructional supplies to assist make science studying enjoyable and pleasant. “Overlaying the outer reaches of area to the tiniest microbes in our our bodies, Science Friday is the supply for entertaining and academic tales about science, know-how, and different cool stuff.”
Science Friday options classes, STEM supplies, studying actions, science information and several other different sources. It is usually obtainable as a public radio station for listeners. SciFri sources are organized into three three foremost classes: Hear which embeds audio supplies and radio reveals that includes numerous science tales and information, Discover is a bit the place you get to entry science sources designed particularly for instructional functions. You may type these supplies by grade ranges (PreK- 12), uration and/or topic (e.g., English Language Arts, Bodily Science Arithmetic, Life science, Earth Science, Chemistry, and extra). There may be additionally a bit to trace science occasions and reveals which could be discovered below Occasions. Head over to SciFri and provides it a strive.
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The sound barrier, in aerodynamics, is the point at which an object moves from transonic to supersonic speed. The term, which occasionally has other meanings, came into use during World War II, when a number of aircraft started to encounter the effects of compressibility, a collection of several unrelated aerodynamic effects that "struck" their aircraft like an impediment to further acceleration. By the 1950s, new aircraft designs routinely "broke" the sound barrier.[N 1]
- 1 History
- 2 References
- 3 External links
Some common whips such as the bullwhip or sparewhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip breaks the sound barrier and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom. Firearms since the 19th century have generally had a supersonic muzzle velocity.
The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago. Some paleobiologists report that, based on computer models of their biomechanical capabilities, certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Apatosaurus and Diplodocus may have possessed the ability to flick their tails at supersonic velocities, possibly used to generate an intimidating booming sound. This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field. Meteorites entering the Earth's atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound.
The tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is particularly noticeable on the Stearman, and noticeable on the North American T-6 Texan when it enters a sharp-breaking turn. This is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to these effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the power output of the propeller can compensate. This problem was one that led to early research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany, who were led to their research specifically in order to avoid these problems in high-speed flight.
Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive. Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them. In its case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse. Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal. This was solved in later models with changes to the wing. Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances. Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. in 1946. A similar problem is thought to be the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union.
All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" that makes it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.[N 2]
Another early vehicle to break the sound barrier was probably the first successful test launch of the German V-2 ballistic missile on October 3, 1942, at Peenemünde in Germany. By September 1944, the V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent.
There are, however, several claims that the sound barrier was broken during World War II by manned aircraft. In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts. Harold E. Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in the P-47 Thunderbolt. Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in an early German jet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262. Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again. He also reported engine flame out. However, this claim is widely disputed by various experts believing the Me 262's structure could not support high transonic, let alone supersonic flight. The lack of area-ruled fuselage and 10 percent thick wings did not prevent other aircraft from exceeding Mach 1 in dives. Chuck Yeager's Bell X-1, the North American F-86 Sabre (with Me 262 profile ) and the Convair Sea Dart seaplane exceeded Mach 1 without area-rule fuselages. Computational tests carried out by Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University in 1999 suggest the Me 262 was capable of supersonic flight during steep dives. Recovering from the dive and the resumption of severe buffeting once subsonic flight was resumed would have been very likely to damage the craft terminally.
Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal. No vertical dives were made. At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight. The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually. It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored.
The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document.
In his book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier when steep diving the rocket plane and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms. Heini Dittmar had been accurately and officially recorded at 1,004.5 km/h (623.8 mph) in level flight on October 2, 1941 in the prototype Me 163 V4. He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting. The craft's Walter RII-203 cold rocket engine produced 7.34 kN (750 kgp / 1,650 lbf) thrust. The flight was made after a drop launch from a carrier plane to conserve fuel, a record that was kept secret until the war's end. The craft's potential performance in a powered dive is unknown, but the Me 163B test version of the series rocket plane had an even more powerful engine (HWK 109-509 A-2) and a greater wing sweep than the Me 163A. Ziegler claims that on July 6, 1944, Heini Dittmar, flying a test Me 163 B V18 VA + SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph).
The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (April 7, 1922 - March 1, 1945) may have inadvertently became the first man to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945. This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first manned vertical takeoff of a rocket in history. In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8.7 miles). Unfortunately, there was a crash and he perished violently in this endeavor. Very little of his remains were found in the 15 ft deep crater, but he did receive a funeral with full military honors.
Similar claims for the Spitfire and other propeller aircraft are more suspect. It is now known that traditional airspeed gauges using a pitot tube give inaccurately high readings in the transonic regime, apparently due to shock waves interacting with the tube or the static source. This led to problems then known as "Mach jump".
Breaking the sound barrier
In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M.52 turbojet powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 sec.
Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1.38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; a unique achievement at that time which validated the aerodynamics of the M.52.
A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M.52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics. In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds. The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag. The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft. The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top.
Another critical addition was the use of a power operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column. Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive. A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents. An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control. The Miles was the first instance of this solution, and has since been universally applied.
Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W.2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive. To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft a new innovation was incorporated; a reheat jetpipe - also known as an afterburner. Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust. Finally the design included another critical element, the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine.
Sound barrier officially broken in aircraft
The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its' high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52, but the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return. Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail and they were battling the problem of control.
They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1. The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M.52 version. Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1. It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first man to break the sound barrier in level flight on October 14, 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13.7 km). George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre. He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on October 14, 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1. Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized. The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on April 26, 1948.
On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first manned supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis. The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway. XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, at Mach 1.06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807.2 mph) peak speed; however, Yeager and many other personnel believe Flight #49 (also with Yeager piloting), which reached a top recorded speed of Mach 0.997 (339 m/s, 1,221 km/h), may have, in fact, exceeded Mach 1. (The measurements were not accurate to three significant figures and no sonic boom was recorded for that flight.)
As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1948 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program. Honored at the White House by President Harry S. Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions.
The sound barrier fades
As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual disappearance of the "sound barrier". Among these were the introduction of swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance. By the 1950s many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck. Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without it even being noticeable.
By the late 1950s the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution. History has proven this not to be the case, at least yet, but Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 regardless, both entered service in the 1970s.
Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier. On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1.012 or 1,240 km/h (776.2 mph) while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m). The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new leading-edge design for the wing. A China Airlines 747 may have broken the sound barrier in an unplanned descent from 41,000 ft (12,500 m) to 9,500 ft (2,900 m) after an in-flight upset on 19 February 1985. It also reached over 5g.
Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle
On January 12, 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier. At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails.
On October 15, 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules. The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight.
Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile
In January 2010, it was reported that Felix Baumgartner was working with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull to attempt the highest sky-dive on record. The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier. The launch was scheduled for October 9, 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on October 14. Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U.S. test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to become the first man to officially break the sound barrier in an aircraft.
Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24.26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833.9 mph (1342 km/h or Mach 1.26). In the press conference after his jump, it was announced he was in freefall for 4 minutes, 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes, 36 seconds.
- See "Speed of sound" for the science behind the velocity called the sound barrier, and to "Sonic boom" for information on the sound associated with supersonic flight.
- Quote: "For various reasons it is fairly certain that the maximum attainable speed under self-propelled conditions will be that of sound in air," i.e., 750 mph (1,210 km/h).
- "APOD: 19 August 2007 – A Sonic Boom." NASA. Retrieved: August 30, 2010.
- "F-14 Condensation cloud in action." web.archive.org. Retrieved: August 30, 2010.
- May, Mike. "Crackin' good mathematics." American Scientist, Volume 90, Issue 5, September–October 2002. p. 1.
- Wilford, John Noble. "Did Dinosaurs Break the Sound Barrier?" The New York Times, December 2, 1997. Retrieved: January 15, 2009.
- Yoshimura 1996, p. 108.
- Portway 1940, p. 18.
- Durant, Frederick C. and George S. James. "Early Experiments with Ramjet Engines in Flight." First Steps Toward Space: Proceedings of the First and Second History Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, September 26, 1967. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974.
- "Me 262 and the Sound Barrier." aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: August 30, 2010.
- Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 15.
- Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 32.
- Käsmann 1999, pp. 17, 122.
- "Historical Footnote: On March 1st 1945, did Lothar Sieber become the first person to break the sound barrier?" Doug's Darkworld: War, Science, and Philosophy in a Fractured World, November 25, 2008. Retrieved: November 18, 2012.
- Jordan, Corey C. "The Amazing George Welch, Part Two, First Through the Sonic Wall." Planes and Pilots Of World War Two, 1998–2000. Retrieved: June 12, 2011.
- Brown 1970.
- Beamont, Roland. Testing Early Jets. London: Airlife, 1990. ISBN 1-85310-158-3.
- "Miles on Supersonic Flight" Flight 3 October 1946 p355
- Wood 1975, p. 36.
- Bancroft, Dennis. "Faster Than Sound." NOVA Transcripts, PBS, air date: 14 October 1997. Retrieved: 26 April 2009.
- Miller, Jay. The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45. Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-109-1.
- Wagner 1963, p. 17.
- barrier/source.html "Sound Barrier." DiracDelta.co.uk: Science and Engineering Encyclopedia. Retrieved: October 14, 2012.
- "Douglas Passenger Jet Breaks Sound Barrier."dc8.org. Retrieved: August 30, 2010.
- "China Airlines Flight 006." aviation-safety.net. Retrieved: August 30, 2010.
- "A rocket powered sled runs along the ground on the rails in Muroc." Universal International News, January 22, 1948. Retrieved: September 9, 2011.
- "NASA Timeline." NASA. Retrieved: September 9, 2011.
- Sunseri, Gina and Kevin Doak. "Felix Baumgartner: Daredevil Lands on Earth After Record Breaking Supersonic Leap." ABC News, October 14, 2012.
- "Breaking the Sound Barrier." Modern Marvels (TV program). July 16, 2003.
- Brown, Eric. "Miles M.52: The Supersonic Dream." Air Enthusiast Thirteen, August–November 1980. ISSN 01443-5450.
- Hallion, Dr. Richard P. "Saga of the Rocket Ships." AirEnthusiast Five, November 1977 – February 1978. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press Ltd., 1977.
- Käsmann, Ferdinand C.W. Die schnellsten Jets der Welt (in German). Berlin: Aviatic-Verlag GmbH, 1999. ISBN 3-925505-26-1.
- Miller, Jay. The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45, Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-109-1.
- Pisano, Dominick A., R. Robert van der Linden and Frank H. Winter. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: Breaking the Sound Barrier. Washington, DC: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (in association with Abrams, New York), 2006. ISBN 0-8109-5535-0.
- Portway, Donald. Military Science Today. London: Oxford University Press, 1940.
- Radinger, Willy and Walter Schick. Me 262 (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996. ISBN 3-925505-21-0.
- Wagner, Ray. The North American Sabre. London: Macdonald, 1963.
- Winchester, Jim. "Bell X-1." Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft (The Aviation Factfile). Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2005. ISBN 978-1-84013-809-2.
- Wolfe. Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979. ISBN 0-374-25033-2.
- Yeager, Chuck, Bob Cardenas, Bob Hoover, Jack Russell and James Young. The Quest for Mach One: A First-Person Account of Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Penguin Studio, 1997. ISBN 0-670-87460-4.
- Yeager, Chuck and Leo Janos. Yeager: An Autobiography. New York: Bantam, 1986. ISBN 0-553-25674-2.
- Yoshimura, Akira, translated by Retsu Kaiho and Michael Gregson. Zero! Fighter. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Praeger Publishers, 1996. ISBN 0-275-95355-6.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sound barrier.|
- Fluid Mechanics, a collection of tutorials by Dr. Mark S. Cramer, Ph.D
- Breaking the Sound Barrier with an Aircraft by Carl Rod Nave, Ph.D
- a video of a Concorde reaching Mach 1 at intersection TESGO taken from below
- An interactive Java applet, illustrating the sound barrier. | <urn:uuid:47963246-da00-4e83-81aa-74628a0ab408> | {
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Late pre-term infants face challenges that might go overlooked
When babies are born early, but not by much, they can still be at risk for problems. But because they may look like their full-term counterparts, late pre-term infants can often fool those who care for them.
Late pre-term infants, born between 34 weeks and 36 weeks and 6 days gestation, may need a little extra care. They definitely need extra attention.
“In 2008, the American Academy of Pediatrics came out with a statement that there was a population of infants that are at a higher risk category,” said Kelli Scheibenhoffer, OB service educator for Bon Secours St. Francis Health System. “They look like full-term babies, but they are great pretenders.”
Scheibenhoffer said nurses at St. Francis Eastside came together recently to get refocused on how to best care for those babies. They went back through medical literature and doctors’ orders, and then they found a way to make those great pretenders stand out from the rest. In labor and delivery, most babies are outfitted with a tiny pink and blue hat. Late pre-term infants now get a red hat.
“We chose the color red to say, ‘Stop and pay attention to me,’” Scheibenhoffer said. “A lot of these babies will stay out of the NICU. They go to the mother/baby unit.”
Along with the red hat given at delivery, parents get a packet that includes a second red hat, parent education information, a crib card and door magnet that identify the baby as late pre-term and a thermometer for monitoring baby’s temperature.
“These babies tend to be smaller and they tend to drop their temperature faster than a full-term baby,” Scheibenhoffer said.
That thermal instability is addressed by delaying the baby’s first bath, keeping that special hat on and having parents give baby lots of skin-to-skin contact.
Late pre-term babies could potentially face several challenges, including respiratory issues, hypoglycemia, infections, jaundice and feeding issues. They may lack the feeding stamina of a full-term baby, but lactation consultants are prepared to help mothers.
“In South Carolina, about 11 percent of all live births are pre-term,” she said. “Out of those, 70 percent are late pre-term.” | <urn:uuid:91988375-61c0-4b43-88d2-f100aca6a2ef> | {
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THERE lived in the land of the Yaqui an Indian called Teta Hiapsi and he was very industrious. He enjoyed building good things. For this reason, he talked one day with a large group of Yaquis to see if they would work for him if he paid them a fair salary. In those days, there were no dollars, or half-dollars. Instead, the Yaquis used for money some silver discs, lacking any stamp, discs about four inches in diameter and an inch thick. They called them te'okita, which means pure silver. They also used similar discs of gold which they called sawai tomi, which is the same as saying yellow money.
All of the Indians wanted to work with Teta Hiapsi, so he put them to work cutting sticks and branches to make a serco, or fence. This serco was twenty-four kilometers in circumference and in its center, a little creek ran all the time. In this corral there were lions, bears, tigers, and snakes of many sizes. In fact, Teta Hiapsi's serco surrounded an immense forest containing in it a number of water-holes.
Thus Teta Hiapsi considered himself very rich indeed. Also he had a cave, quite wide and deep, full of te'okita and sawai tomi. From it he paid his workers every Saturday.
One Saturday arrived and he paid all of his workers except one Yaqui whose name was Takochai. To Takochai he said, "You didn't get any money. So you may do anything you want to me to get even." Teta Hiapsi was a very curious man. He enjoyed jokes and pranks, and he knew that Takochai was a clever trickster. He knew that something would happen.
Well, Takochai went away to think of something to do to Teta Hiapsi to get even.
To a little stream which lies west of Cumuripa among some low hills, to a little valley fertile and picturesque, Takochai took his bow and arrows. In this place he met a big Indian. This Indian was so strong that to amuse himself he walked along tearing up mesquite trees by the roots as if they were onions. He would give one jerk and the tree with all its root would come up and he would toss it off into the distance. He did the same with sahuaros. This Yaqui was very strong.
Takochai came up to him and said, "What are you doing?"
"Oh, I'm just pulling up these little sticks," answered the Indian, Hoso Hoseli.
"May I go along with you?" asked Takochai.
"Why yes, it would give me pleasure," said Hoso Hoseli, and the two walked on a little distance together. It was late and they stopped to sleep under a tree.
The next day they took to the road again. They had only traveled a little distance when they met a Yaqui who was pointing an arrow at a mountain range which was so far away that it could hardly be seen.
"What are you doing?" asked Takochai.
"I wanted to kill a deer that was over there in those mountains, but you disturbed me and the deer has gone."
"Oh, but how distant are those mountains!" exclaimed Takochai. "They are barely visible."
"More distant deer have I killed," responded the hunter whose name was Mekkata'obia, which
means Light that Illumines the Distance. Takochai invited Mekkata'obia to come along with him and Hoso Hoseli, and the three adventurers went off.
They soon met a tall, thin Indian. He was standing on one foot holding a rope made of hide and tying the other leg which was doubled up. They saluted him and asked, "What are you doing, tying up your leg like that?"
He answered, "I am tying up this leg so I won't walk so fast. With two legs I run as fast as the wind, and with one tied I can walk about as fast as a light breeze." This Yaqui was called Yuku Beo'oti, or Lightning. Takochai and Hoso Hoseli and Mekkata'obia invited Yuku Beo'oti to accompany them, and the four went on together. They went on until it was late and they stopped to sleep.
The next day they again took to the road. After walking only a short distance they met a very short little Yaqui who wore a skin cap. One side of this cap was decorated with red feathers and the other side with green ones. When he put it on with the red feathers to the right the weather became hot, and when he put it on with the green feathers to the right it became cold. He kept making this change every minute, never stopping. This little fellow was called Tasa'a Bali, which means Cool Summer. He is called this because he made heat and cold by moving his headdress of two colors.
The four companions invited Tasa'a Bali to come along with them, and now there were five.
The next day they encountered a man on top of a little hill. He stood with his feet upon a rock and one hand against a tree. With the
other hand he stopped up one of his nostrils. Through the other nostril he blew mightily, a volcano of air. The travelers came up to him and asked him what he was doing.
The man on the hill said that over on the other side of the green monte were many Yaquis milling earth and rock to take out the gold. "I make the mills run by blowing with this nostril. There are four mills for the stone and three to draw up water. When I stop blowing, those windmills stop. Right now while I am chatting, they are quiet."
His name was Hekkateni'a.
Takochai and his companions invited this great blower to come along with them.
So the six companions all went on to the serco of Teta Hiapsi.
Takochai greeted Teta Hiapsi and said, "I have come to bet with you, Teta Hiapsi, to win from you all that you own."
And Teta Hiapsi agreed to run a race.
Now, Teta Hiapsi had a daughter who was something of a witch woman. It was known that she knew how to fly like a bird. But Takochai was now the chief of five clever men.
Many Indians, men and women and boys, gathered to see the race between the witch and the swiftest of the companions, Yuku Beo'oti. Since Takochai had no money, he put up his life against this witch whose name was Sochik, meaning Bat.
The race was to be from ili bakam to bemela ba'am, such a great distance that a man on a good horse traveling at a run does not arrive there in one long summer day.
The people gathered and the racers were ready. Someone gave the shout to start. Sochik flew off through the air as fast as she could, and Yuku Beo'oti disappeared like the wind. He soon arrived at bemela ba'am, filled his canteen with water and started back. This was the agreement. He who should arrive there and fill his canteen and be the first back in ili bakam was to win the race.
When Yuku Beo'oti was about half way back, he lay down to sleep, putting his head on a stump.
Sochik had hardly started for bemela ba'am. When she came upon Yuku Beo'oti and saw him sleeping, she threw the water out of his canteen and went on her way toward the waterhole. Then Mekkata'obia, from the great distance saw that the water had been thrown out and he shot an arrow into the tree trunk that served Yuku Beo'oti as a pillow. Yuku Beo'oti awoke and noticed that his water had been thrown out. Taking his canteen, he ran past Sochik to the waterhole, filled it, and returned to ili bakam with the water. Thus Yuku Beo'oti won the race and Sochik lost, for she arrived very late.
"I have lost," said Teta Hiapsi pleasantly. And he gave Takochai half of a cave full of silver and gold. "Now, in order for you to win from me all that I own, you and your men must sleep inside of that oven all night."
The oven was big and square. It was used to cook large animals in. There were no windows in it. It was on top of four big flat stones.
Takochai looked at the oven and said, "Very well, we shall all sleep there. And tomorrow you must give me all of. your money and your well and your animals."
Takochai and his five companions entered the oven, and Teta Hiapsi, with the help of other Indians, covered it. They put firewood below and above and lit the fire and it burned all night.
When the men inside began to feel the heat, Tasa'a Bali put his cap on with the green side to the right and they felt no more heat.
Dawn came and Teta Hiapsi thought that they must be well cooked. But when he opened the door they all stepped out, alive and shivering from cold.
Thus Teta Hiapsi had to give all of the gold and silver in his cave to Takochai. The companions made a huge purse of many skins. In it they put the money and Hoso Hoseli tossed it up on his shoulders as if it were nothing. He was very strong, Hoso Hoseli, that man who pulls up mesquite trees.
"Now, let us go," said Takochai to his companions. "We will come back for the rest later." And they marched away in triumph.
Teta Hiapsi then gathered together some six hundred Yaquis to follow and kill Takochai and his men. But Mekkata'obia, who could see far, discovered them. The friends stopped at the foot of a little hill above a large plain.
When the Yaquis of Teta Hiapsi came across the plain, Takochai ordered Hekkateni'a, he of the great wind, to blow at them. Hekkateni'a covered one nostril and blew so strongly that the Yaquis were blown high into the air, very high. Then he stopped blowing and the Yaquis fell to the earth like stones. Here ends this tale. | <urn:uuid:b7647941-47bd-4eb8-915a-4d8e3758f352> | {
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I just learned about Google Forms. You can create your own forms or surveys and have all the information immediately downloaded into a spreadsheet in Google Docs. I have had some experience with Survey Monkey. I like this even better. For one thing, it’s free. Second it is simple and easily editable. Once you create a survey you can email it out anyone you wish.
The possibilities are endless in your classroom. You can have each student show what they learned about a topic by creating a survey for the class. You can also have them create a survey to gather information from the class. Create a survey that will allow the students to vote for which party in the Knesset they would like to win the election.
A years ago I created a survey with InspireData that allowed the students to choose the president. We had our election via the SMART Board. I think if I create a survey with Google Forms it would be nicer and easier to work with.
To get to Google Forms, open up Google Docs and click on “Create New” then click “Form”. Follow directions and enjoy. Here is a sample that I created, hope you enjoy it.
As part of a class I am taking on Educational Technology, I watched a session from ISTE 2011. I decided to watch a session a session called “60 in 60”. The presenter, Brandon Lutz, shared 60 web tools in 60 minutes. I want to share a few of them with you.
A simple question and answer site with various categories. For every question you get correct 10 grains of rice is donated to the hungry. A few minutes of learning can make a meal.
A site that allows you to create and edit, music, audio, pictures etc. I find it to be a fun site to play with. I spent most of my time trying out the music and audio sections of the site. I am going to hold my judgement of the educational benefits because I am not musically inclined.
I have tried this site with my classes and experienced mixed results. Most of my students do not have email accounts, so it can be difficult to save them. I think that this is a wonderful tool for older students. I might try it again with my 5th grade and see what happens.
After looking at this site, I find it an OK site that will reference many different topics. I need to research it more to see exactly how reliable the information is, but it is a start.
There are a lot more sources that you can use, try them at https://60in60.wikispaces.com/ISTE2011. Some maybe good for you, some may not. That one is one thing that i like about this. Nothing is perfect for everyone, it just has a lot of stuff so somethings should be good for you.
Check out my new wiki. It is intended for everyone to use to share different topics and resources in Educational Technology.
Please join and share your own resources. This is a Work in Progress – so please be kind.
Every year in the fifth grade at my school they do a research paper on a particular state. It is called the State Report. Part of my responsibilities in this assignment is teaching the students how to do better research . Inevitably someone brings up Wikipedia and such begins my explanation of wiki’s – the good, the bad and the ugly.
Wiki’s allow students (or other users) to collaborate on a website or project. A group of students can work on a Hagaddah. The teacher will be able to see who gave their input (based on their screen names) and who did not. It therefore fosters individual accountability on a group project. Students can also edit each other’s parts to ensure a better outcome.
Wikis are editable. Unfortunately, there are people who will wrongly edit a wiki, either by accident or on purpose and some people may not even know. In the past few years, Wikipedia has gotten better at reviewing changes and making sure that they are correct. But not all wikis are that aware of changes. I tell my students that Wikipedia is a good secondary source. They cannot use it alone, they need to corroborate the info with another source.
Not so much ugly. Wiki’s are a good and useful tool that many teacher’s currently use and more should use.
My grandmother’s favorite expression was, “Every pot has a cover.” She was usually referring to people and to the people they marry. I feel it is appropriate now as well. It means that everyone has different views and opinions and needs that fit them and not others. Well, I am not a big fan of Second Life. I appreciate it more than I do Twtter, because I can see a useful purpose for it.
With Second Life it allows you to navigate through another world, as yourself or someone else, and see things in a way that you may not be able to before in this life. The possibilities are endless when it come to education. You can create a world such as the wilderness B’nai Yisrael went through 3000 years ago and have them explore all that is there. Let them see the Mishkan. You can have them go into the Beis Hamikdash and see what it is like. Although that would require someone to actually spend all that time and probably money to create those worlds.
You could navigate through different areas such as the inside of a computer and see what parts are inside. You could also go under the sea and swim in awe of all the fish and marine life there.
My problem with Second life was that it was not easy to navigate through. I kept going to far to the right and kept walking into walls (or through them) and into places I did not want to be in. It very well could be that since I am not a regular video game player I am not very good at it and I need more practice. Children today are more familiar and play more of these virtual games.
So I feel the same way about Second Life that I do about Barney – I am not crazy about him, but i see the educational value in the purple dinosaur.
Ever try to explain how to do something on the computer? Did you every have to explain it over and over and over again. The answer to that is to use Jing. Jing is a screen capture tool that will record your moves on the computer while you voice over directions.
The applications for this is endless. There are many times that I have had to explain things and my students need to use a specific skill while at home. Some specific skills that can be taught are inserting pictures into a Word document, animating objects in PowerPoint or creating a formula in Excel.
I plan on creating a series of tutorials using Jing (if my mic works properly) on how to use specific skills with the SMART Board. If you have any thoughts on tutorials you would like me to do let me know.
Facebook is a wonderful tool. I have been on it for a few years now and I find it very useful. I have found friends from college that I have not heard from in twenty years, I have even had two apologies from people about the way they treated me in high school and I even found a way to get rid of Silly Putty from my couch. I share photos with my family who are across the country as well as friends who live down the block who I don’t get to see very often.
I currently have 478 friends and yes I know them all. I have friends that have over 2000 “friends” . The problem with that is that, if you are not careful, all of your “friends” can see your info, pictures and everything else. Even if you do set proper privacy settings Facebook routinely changes them and they get changed.
Is Facebook wrong to use? No. Can it be used with students? Yes – Carefully! If you are going to use it be careful. My suggestion is that you create a separate account. Do NOT friend any students on your personal account. Do NOT link your personal account to one that you are creating to work with students. I have known many people who have gotten into trouble because of their Facebook account.
In my school we had a teacher that did many wonderful activities and lessons on Facebook. It allowed her students to write and get descriptive about topics that they normally would not have done if she did it through conventional matters. As I have stated elsewhere, a great activity in Jewish Education would be to create a Facebook page for Anne Frank or Oscar Schindler and have the students update their statuses about what is going on. It would be the “New Diary of Anne Frank”.
In the end my answer is friend, but friend carefully and if you do friend students (I would only for a special project) then create a separate Facebook account. | <urn:uuid:64f87950-ceb1-4fcb-9330-76a9b9bd3070> | {
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EPA has awarded nearly $900,000 in grants to strengthen state, tribal and local government capacity in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska to protect and restore wetlands.
These Wetland Program Development Grants provide tribes, interstate agencies and local governments with funding to develop and refine comprehensive state, tribal and local wetlands programs.
“Healthy wetlands provide important benefits including buffering from storms and flooding, filtering stormwater, protecting fish and wildlife habitat and offering recreational enjoyment,” said EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt. “Wetlands also help our economy because of their key role in fishing, hunting, agriculture, and recreation.”
EPA has awarded funding for 14 projects across the Northwest and Alaska.
Healthy wetlands perform important ecological functions, such as feeding downstream waters, trapping floodwaters, recharging groundwater supplies, removing pollution, and providing habitat for fish and wildlife, said EPA in their release.
The funded grants are:
- Sitka Tribe of Alaska – Sitka Tribe of Alaska Wetlands Program Plan Development;
- Alaska Center for Conservation Science – University of Alaska, Anchorage;
- Alaska Department of Natural Resources – Alaska Wetland Collaborative.
- Nez Perce Tribe – Wetland Program Plan Development and Adapting a Functional Assessment Tool for Regional and Tribal Use;
- Coeur d’Alene Tribe – Coeur d’Alene Tribe Wetland Program Development: Assessment and Conservation Planning.
- Oregon Department of State Lands – Design of a Monitoring Framework and Training for Oregon’s Aquatic Resource Mitigation Program;
- Oregon Department of State Lands – Assessment and Planning Tools: Oregon Aquatic Resources Mitigation Program;
- Lane County Council of Governments – Wetland Planning Tools for Local Resource Managers.
- Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation – Wetland Program Plan (WPP) Development;
- Washington Department of Natural Resources – Measuring Land Use Impacts to Peatland Hydrology, Water Chemistry, and Vegetation. Implications for Peatland Management, Restoration and Conservation;
- Tulalip Tribes of Washington – 2013 – 2019 Tulalip Wetland Program Plan Update, and Development of Wetland and Riparian Rehabilitation standards;
- Washington Department of Ecology – Washington State Wetlands Classification Training;
- Washington Department of Ecology – Washington State Tool for Online Wetland Rating;
- Snoqualmie Indian Tribe – R10 Tribal Wetland Working Group (TWIG). | <urn:uuid:0335a944-2184-4009-b68e-257eb3a7e6fc> | {
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Learn more physics!
I need to write what friction is and give some examples. I know some little toy cars are called friction cars. Can you help?
- Anna Campbell (age 9)
Mexico City, Mexico
Friction is a force which causes the motion between two surfaces to be reduced. [see below for a more general discussion/ mw] Friction happens because most surfaces are not perfectly smooth. Even a table top which may appear smooth has little bumps in it if you looked at it with a really good microscope. When two surfaces try to move past each other these little bumps collide and slow the motion of the surfaces down causing what we call friction. The rougher a surface is the more and bigger bumps it has and the more friction will affect it. Some examples of this are sliding a wood block down a ramp. If you slide a wooden block down a ramp it is slowed by friction. If you cover the block in sand paper (making it rougher) the block will slide slower because friction is slowing it down more. Friction also increases if you push the surfaces together more. So a full suitcase will have more friction opposing it's motion if you try to slide it across the floor than an empty one. Other examples of friction are very numerous because friction happens any time you move two surfaces that are touching. Try looking around your house and experimenting on your own with rough and smooth surfaces.
(republished on 07/12/06)
Follow-Up #1: friction types
Q is there more than one type of friction
- millie sykes, (age 9)
Yes. Friction is a 'catch all' phrase for any force opposing the relative motion of objects in contact. Examples include the 'friction' supplied by a parachute in air, or the force opposing the sliding motion of a brick on a table, etc, etc.
w. Mike W.
(published on 01/27/08)
Follow-Up #2: types of friction
i want to know how many types of frictions exist
- k.suresh,lecturer (age 25)
Friction occurs in lots of situations in lots of different ways, not just by the bumpy surfaces Dan discussed. For example, there's a type of friction between a magnet and a moving electrical conductor, caused by eddy currents, even though the magnet and the conductor don't touch. Some old-fashioned phonograph turntables used this to adjust the speed by moving the magnet. There is friction between any object and the fluid (liquid or gas) through which it moves. I don't think that it helps much to try to make a list of some specific number of types of friction, because the categories often overlap.
(published on 01/26/09)
Follow-Up #3: what is the formula for friction?
what is the formula for friction?
There is no 'Formula'. There are several kinds of friction and several kinds of empirical rules that people have developed to describe friction.
We have described this problem in many of the previous posts to this question. If you want more details I suggest you visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction
(published on 10/21/09)
Follow-Up #4: velocity and friction
Does the velocity of the object have an affect on the magnitude of friction?
- Brandon (age 18)
There's a special type of friction, between two solid surfaces sliding against each other, for which the friction force is almost independent of the relative velocity. That's often the first sort of friction introduced in physics courses, so students often think that friction is velocity-independent. Even for those sliding surfaces, that's just an approximation. The same courses often teach about static friction, between two surfaces that aren't sliding. It has a higher coefficient, and thus can be a bit bigger than the sliding friction. For things that are sliding very, very slowly, the coefficient of sliding friction goes up toward the static coefficient.
For objects moving slowly through fluids, there's a friction force that's just proportional to their relative velocity. That's probably the simplest type of friction to describe and understand, so in a way it's a shame it isn't the first one taught. Faster motion relative to the fluid leads to more complicated velocity dependence.
(published on 12/12/10)
Follow-Up #5: friction and the fundamental forces
If friction is a force, how does it relate to the 5 Fundamental Forces: STRONG, ELECTROMAGNETIC, WEAK, and GRAVITY?
First: I count 4 fundamental forces in your list, unless you're counting electrical and magnetic separately. If you were to do that, however, you'd have to include the magnetic-like part of each of the fundamental forces separately. So let's say you have 3 or 4 forces: gravity, strong nuclear force, and electroweak.* (You might choose to count the electroweak as 1 or 2.)
OK, what about the frictional forces? Generally, these are forces which convert the kinetic energy of large-scale relative motions to various forms of small-scale random thermal energy. Almost all the familiar visible forces are forms of electromagnetism, and that includes common frictional forces.
I guess that on large scales, gravity plays a role in friction. For example, tidal stresses in the earth and moon are part of the path by which large-scale orbital and rotational energy is converted to thermal energy. The last step, however, in which the energy of big tides is converted to slightly warmer oceans, for example, is always electromagnetic. That's because on the scale of molecules gravity is tiny compared to electromagnetic forces.
* Now we should also add Higgs.
(published on 03/08/11)
Follow-Up #6: What if there were no friction?
What would happen if there is no friction? Can you give me some examples?
- Leighann (age 14)
I you tried to walk you would fall on your butt; consider very, very slippery ice. If you tried to drive a car, first of all you couldn't get it going, second of all if you managed to get it going you couldn't stop. All of these processes involve friction of one sort or another.
(published on 10/26/11)
Follow-up on this answer. | <urn:uuid:eadf5404-dddd-4c23-b6c7-299a9f2ae155> | {
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Marketplace: Economy of Architecture
Glossary terms from:
One of many choices or courses of action that might be taken in a given situation.
An amount that must be paid or spent to buy or obtain something. The effort, loss or sacrifice necessary to achieve or obtain something.
A conclusion reached after considering alternatives and their results.
Reaching a conclusion after considering alternatives and their results.
Economic side-effects or third-party effects, in which some of the benefits or costs associated with the production or consumption of a product affect someone other than the direct producer or consumer of the product. Can be positive or negative.
The chance that an individual, business or government will not be able to return money invested.
Although there is no one precise definition, the term usually refers to the increased flow of trade, people, investment, technology, culture and ideas among countries.
A piece of work usually done on order at an agreed-upon rate. Also a paid position of regular employment.
Anything that is generally accepted as final payment for goods and services; serves as a medium of exchange, a store of value and a standard of value. Characteristics of money are portability, stability in value, uniformity, durability and acceptance.
Income received for entrepreneurial skills and risk taking, calculated by subtracting all of a firm's explicit and implicit costs from its total revenues.
Property such as land, houses and office buildings.
The exchange of goods and services for money or other goods and services.
Effort applied to achieve a purpose or result, often for pay; skills and knowledge put to use to get something done; employment at a job or in a position; occupation, profession, business, trade, craft, etc. | <urn:uuid:d7bc79a4-c966-437c-b2b5-927c81859a98> | {
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Date of this Version
Brown, M. B., J. G. Jorgensen, and Lauren R. Dinan. 2013. 2013 Interior Least Tern and Piping Plover Monitoring, Research, Management, and Outreach Report for the Lower Platte River, Nebraska. Joint report of the Tern and Plover Conservation Partnership, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, and the Nongame Bird Program, Wildlife Division, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln, NE.
This document reports on our monitoring, research, management, and outreach activities during the past 12 months (2012–2013). We prepared it to inform our partners, cooperating agencies, funding sources, and other interested parties of our activities and to provide a preliminary summary of our results.
The lower Platte River and its major tributaries provide important nesting and migratory stopover habitat for two bird species of special conservation concern: the state and federally endangered Interior Least Tern (Sternula antillarum athalassos) and threatened Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus). The Tern and Plover Conservation Partnership (TPCP), based at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln School of Natural Resources, and Nongame Bird Program (NBP), based at the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission (NGPC), work cooperatively on tern and plover monitoring, research, management, and outreach activities in Nebraska. The TPCP and NBP focus monitoring and research efforts along the Lower Platte, Loup, and Elkhorn rivers in the eastern part of the state. We also work on tern and plover issues across the state, including Lake McConaughy, and the region.
The report is divided into five sections:
1. Introduction—describes the project area and summarizes conditions encountered during the 2013 field season.
2. Monitoring—describes the data we collect every year for basic demographic analysis and includes the number of nests, adults, eggs, chicks, and fledglings found in the focus area. These data are collected and summarized in a form that allows comparison across the ranges of both species.
3. Research—describes our research objectives, data collection, and data analyses.
4. Management—describes our actions intended to protect Interior Least Terns and Piping Plovers and their nests from interference and disturbance.
5. Outreach—describes our efforts to increase public awareness and understanding of Interior Least Terns and Piping Plovers and to promote environmental literacy. | <urn:uuid:ad01a7ed-4948-47fe-9df0-e5371b6fff12> | {
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I guarantee, you already know these patterns. However, the patterns terminology is useful, if only to communicate the concepts quickly.
An object used to build another object. The most obvious implementation of this pattern in the framework is StringBuilder. It can be quite useful to have a builder in cases where what you’re constructing is complex and you don’t need to read from the constructed object as you’re going. (If you do, just using the object’s own method is often simpler.) The Builder pattern is used in fluent interfaces to support method chaining. In this case, the builder constructs the object internally, but returns itself.
Arguably, this pattern should be marked “Caution: Hazardous Material”. Although everyone is familiar with it, every so often someone gets it into their head that every object should have a builder. The code rapidly becomes a mass of useless indirection.
You want to expose one interface from an object, but it exposes a different interface. You write an adapter object to translate calls from one to the other. Differs from the proxy pattern only in as much as the proxy pattern mandates that the exposed and the internal interface should be the same, but it’s definitely a proxy in the looser sense that we commonly use.
Adapters usually occur at sub-system or system boundaries. Third-party libraries should typically be wrapped
Now, this pattern is so general it’s going to cover a lot of code you’ve written over time, but the terminology is actually useful, simply because we do actually need a word for it. Say you’ve got an extremely complex trading system. However, all that your code needs is a list of accounts and the cash in each. A Facade is an interface that just exposes the bit you need.
Facade, Builder and Adapter are amongst the most common patterns in software development. Most developers will have independently come up with these solutions, since they’re pretty obvious. The terminology can, however, be useful to communicate between developers.
Bridge and Template are also obvious, but unlike Facade, Builder and Adapter, aren’t really useful for communication.
- In the case of bridge, typically just saying that you’ve hidden something behind an interface is more clear.
- In the case of Template, it’s better to refer to what you’re doing as a parameterized algorithm, irrespective of the form that parameterization takes.
The Flyweight pattern is part of a general principle that objects can have more than one representation. I wouldn’t personally use the term.
There’s one more “obvious” pattern: factory. However, when you should use it isn’t as obvious, so it’s getting a post of its own. | <urn:uuid:2d9b8f03-0ccc-44c4-ae57-96786b46de62> | {
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George P. Landow created this formatted version of The Book of Wonder, which was first oublished in 1915, using the Project Gutenberg text produced by Anne Reshnyk, Suzanne L. Shell, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
Fame as she walked at evening in a city saw the painted face of Notoriety flaunting beneath a gas-lamp, and many kneeled unto her in the dirt of the road.
"Who are you?" Fame said to her.
"I am Fame," said Notoriety.
Then Fame stole softly away so that no one knew she had gone.
And Notoriety presently went forth and all her worshippers rose and followed after, and she led them, as was most meet, to her native Pit.
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Reducing environmental and health risks in Belarus
Strengthening the country’s capacity to dispose of obsolete pesticides
April 15, 2014
Belarus never produced POPs and discontinued their import and use in the 1980s, but thousands of tons were used and stored in the country until that time. The country’s commitment to POPs elimination was sealed through its accession to the Stockholm Convention. The project’s overall risks were considered to be substantial, given that it involved securing, relocating, transporting, and disposing of hazardous wastes and other dangerous substances.
In addition, during the excavation at the Slonim stockpile site, more POPs waste that needed to be handled and destroyed was discovered, with evidence of further contamination of the surrounding soil by other obsolete pesticides due to a rupture of the containers and a pesticide leak from the cell that had been buried nearly 40 years ago. The recovered POPs waste was 700 tons more than estimated, and still more remained. In the end, project funds were not sufficient to destroy all the excess material.
We managed to excavate these dangerous substances, pack them properly in barrels and ship them to Germany for disposal at a specialized facility. In a year’s time, we intend to plant trees here, which 20 years from now will grow into a good forest.
The project activities helped implement environmental and health monitoring, measures to address dispersed polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) stockpiles, the expansion of regulations to manage the PCBs still in use, and the final disposal of obsolete pesticides that posed an immediate threat of leakage into the environment. Belarus’ national capacity to manage hazardous waste was also strengthened.
The recovery, repackaging, and safe storage of POPs pesticides from the Slonim obsolete pesticide storage site was completed. The challenge of the excessive recovered waste was addressed thanks to an additional allocation of Government cofinancing (US$1.5 million), the use of project cost savings, and a reallocation of Global Environment Facility (GEF) project funds.
After all these toxic chemicals are removed, local villagers will walk in the forest freely and feel perfectly safe. And they will no longer be afraid to drink the water.
Project activities helped to ensure environmentally sound management of the destruction of high-priority stockpiles of POPs and associated contaminated equipment, provide secure storage for lower-risk stockpiles, and support planning infrastructure to manage the future generation of POPs. Specific results included:
- About 3,000 tons of POPs stockpiles and wastes were recovered and packaged, about 1,800 tons have already been destroyed, and about 1000 tons of remaining stockpiles have been stored at a secure location, which significantly exceeded the original project objective of eliminating 1,800 tons of the dangerous substance.
- The project improved living conditions and eliminated POPs-associated health risks for 116,000 people living and working in the vicinity of the POPs waste area.
- The project’s partners received valuable practical experience in conducting cleanup operations, as the scope of the activities performed was unique for Belarus.
Bank Group Contribution
The project was supported by a GEF grant of US$5.5 million.
A US$5.5 million GEF grant was cofinanced by a Government contribution of US$1.5 million.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Protection implemented the project with the close support of GEF and the World Bank.
Belarus is determined to fulfill its obligation under the Stockholm Convention on POPs to minimize any release of the harmful substances into the environment and plans to dispose of any obsolete pesticides by 2028. Over the next two and a half years and building on the results of the GEF operation, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) will continue to provide support to the country, which will be coordinated by the World Bank. FAO will provide technical assistance to Belarus in managing its stocks of obsolete pesticides and enhancing the country’s capacity to minimize the threats from hazardous waste to human health and the environment.
The main beneficiaries of the POPs Stockpiles Management were: (i) the Government in the form of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Protection and the Ministry of Health, as well as line ministries responsible for sectors involving POPs (agriculture, emergency situations, etc.), national laboratories, and local governments; (ii) the Belarusian population as a whole and local populations more directly, as well as PCB-using enterprises in major sectors; and (iii) the world’s population more widely, given the project’s global objective of reducing environmental and health risks posed by the presence and release of POPs.
- Philippines: World Bank Group President Speech at the Daylight Dialogue
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- Joint Vietnam-World Bank Group Study Will Seek Path for Higher Economic Growth
- Forests Are Creating Momentum for Climate Negotiations
- How Tanzania Plans To Achieve "Big Results Now" in Education | <urn:uuid:944934ba-038f-4bb7-adbb-a8fec4c458a8> | {
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Influenza is an important cause of respiratory disease in swine throughout the world. It was first recognized in the midwestern United States in 1918, when the virus moved from humans to swine during the pandemic known as the Spanish flu.
For 80 years, this virus, known as the classical H1N1, remained relatively stable in U.S. swine. Seasonal outbreaks of flu characterized as an abrupt onset of a loud, barking cough, respiratory distress, decreased feed intake and lethargy were caused by the classical H1N1.
During that time, sporadic introductions of influenza viruses from different species or subtypes may have occurred, but they did not become established in the swine population.
Today, swine flu continues to evolve, and the emergence of diverse viruses has generated monitoring and surveillance efforts, which are important factors in maintaining animal and human health.
Although clinical signs of swine flu have remained relatively consistent over the years, the viruses responsible for current outbreaks are much different from the classical H1N1 virus originally isolated from swine in 1930.
Influenza viruses have the unique ability to interchange segments of their genome through a process known as viral reassortment. When this occurs with two viruses of differing subtypes (H1N1 and H3N2, for example), the resulting variant virus may represent an “antigenic shift” that can escape the population immunity from a prior infection, causing outbreaks that can potentially spread locally, regionally and sometimes globally.
Emergence of a human H3N2 subtype in swine in 1998 significantly impacted the genetic diversity that is recognized in current influenza viruses endemic in U.S. swine. The H3N2 virus was a triple reassortant, meaning it contained a mixture of gene segments derived from swine, human and avian influenza virus lineages.
Triple reassortant influenza viruses that quickly became established in pigs after 1998 are well adapted to the swine host and are consistently isolated from cases of swine flu.
Reassortment continues to significantly contribute to the diverse influenza ecology that is recognized in U.S. swine. After the emergence of the H3N2 virus in 1998, viral reassortment with the classical H1N1 virus resulted in the development of the three subtypes currently endemic in swine — H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2.
Interspecies transmission accompanied by virus reassortment and the emergence of variant influenza viruses in swine have been demonstrated numerous times since 1998. But these occurrences drew little attention from the influenza community.
Novel Pandemic Virus
When a novel pandemic H1N1 virus emerged in 2009 (H1N1pdm09) in the human population in North America, things changed. This virus became infamously known as “swine flu” due to the origin of genes from North American and Eurasian lineages of swine influenza viruses.
Of note, this combination of genes was never recognized in swine before the 2009 human outbreak, but since that time, transmission of the H1N1pdm09 virus from people to pigs has been documented.
The H1N1pdm09 virus is now endemic in U.S. swine and reassortment between contemporary flu viruses and H1N1pdm09 virus is also contributing to the diverse influenza ecology seen in swine (Figure 1).
Approximately 20% of the swine respiratory cases diagnosed at the Iowa State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (ISU-VDL) are due to influenza A viruses. The vast majority of influenza viruses isolated and sequenced from swine cases at the ISU-VDL are of the H1 subtype.
Prior to 2009, no H1N1pdm09 viruses were sequenced at the ISU-VDL. However, in 2010, one year after the pandemic H1N1 outbreak in people, 37% of H1 swine viruses sequenced were H1N1pdm09, confirming the transmission of virus from people to pigs in the Midwest. This value dramatically declined to 11% of H1N1pdm09 sequences in 2011. However, the 2011 percentages do not reflect the number of reassorted viruses that contained genes from the H1N1pdm09 virus (Figure 2).
Reference to the H1N1pdm09 as “swine flu” led to a false alarm over the safety of U.S. pork products and the subsequent loss of revenue due to decreased consumer confidence and decreased exports. The emergence of the H1N1pdm09 virus demonstrated the lack of publicly available influenza surveillance data in human and swine populations prior to that time, especially in some parts of the world.
New Variant Emerges
Surveillance and monitoring of emerging influenza viruses have become increasingly important, from human and swine health aspects. Efforts that help recognize unique features of isolates with pandemic potential may allow time to adequately prepare for preventative measures as well as reduce the adverse economic impact on the U.S. pork industry.
In the fall of 2011, the emergence of a variant H3N2 virus found in humans (H3N2v), a virus with seven genes from the North American triple reassortant swine viruses and one gene from the H1N1pdm09 virus, further emphasizes the importance of influenza surveillance.
USDA Surveillance Program
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) initiated a surveillance system in 2009 after the emergence of the H1N1pdm09 virus, and recognizing the need for a more integrated and coordinated surveillance strategy in the United States. The system is conducted in cooperation with the National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN) and will facilitate monitoring of changes in circulating influenza virus strains in swine. The program establishes an objective database for genetic analysis of endemic influenza isolates in swine and assists the development of relevant diagnostic reagents, assays and potential vaccines.
Influenza surveillance in swine is currently conducted through both an anonymous and traceable data entry protocol. Anonymous submissions collected from clinical respiratory cases submitted to participating NAHLN laboratories, like the ISU-VDL, are tested for the presence of influenza. If identified, influenza viruses are isolated and sequenced for subsequent genetic analysis and monitoring of unique isolates. Results are submitted to the USDA anonymously with no owner or submitting veterinarian information. Client-requested diagnostic lab results are reported back to the submitter under current laboratory confidentiality protection.
Veterinarians submitting swine respiratory cases to NAHLN laboratories may voluntarily participate in the traceable surveillance system and receive SIV diagnostic results free of charge. Results are submitted to the USDA with owner and submitting veterinarian information at the permission of producers.
Traceable surveillance provides additional information that aids in detailed analysis of influenza virus genetic diversity and possibly transmission and movement in the swine population. Veterinarians and producers receive free diagnostic test results and sequence information. All virus sequences from the anonymous and traceable cases are deposited in the publically available database, GenBank, anonymously and identified by state of origin only.
Samples submitted to the diagnostic lab for influenza testing should be from pigs acutely affected with the disease. Nasal swabs or lung tissues are the currently approved samples for USDA surveillance testing.
Use Dacron swabs for nasal swab submissions and place in a tube of viral transport media prior to shipment. Ship all samples chilled and overnight if possible. The diagnostic lab will conduct tests requested by the veterinarian as part of routine diagnostic processes and report results to the submitter as usual.
Influenza testing requested under the traceable program will be reported to the veterinarian when the virus is isolated and sequenced. Results from the USDA SIV diagnostic workup from samples entered into the anonymous surveillance stream will not be reported back to the submitter and will remain anonymous when reported to the USDA.
Results from submitter-requested tests, conducted at the owner’s expense, are reported back to the client as usual. Contact a NAHLN veterinary diagnostic laboratory with questions regarding this program.
The ISU-VDL has received more than 2,000 samples from 22 states for SIV surveillance. Samples submitted from Iowa, Minnesota, Indiana, Illinois, North Carolina and Nebraska account for approximately 86% of samples. All influenza isolates have been subtyped H1N1, H1N2, H3N2 or mixed infections. Among H1 viruses, 13% had H1N1pdm09 HA, NA and M genes (HA-Hemagglutinin, NA-Neuraminidase, and M-Matrix). Remarkably, an additional 49% of other H1 viruses had incorporated the M gene from H1N1pdm09.Among H3 viruses, 46% contained the H1N1pdm09 M gene.
This demonstrates that the H1N1pdm09 virus is co-circulating in U.S. swine, resulting in reassortant viruses with endemic H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 swine viruses.
In the fall of 2011, an H3N2 variant virus emerged, resulting in 13 human infections in Indiana, Maine, Pennsylvania, Iowa, Utah and West Virginia. Sequencing of these H3N2v from human cases revealed that the M gene was from the H1N1pdm09 virus, but HA and NA genes were from endemic H3N2 swine influenza viruses. This particular combination of influenza genes had not been previously detected in humans.
ISU-VDL surveillance sequence data indicates a virus with HA, NA and M genes closely related to the human H3N2v virus was detected in the swine population as early as Aug. 22, 2011. Similar H3N2 viruses have been detected at the ISU-VDL from Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio and North Carolina swine since that time.
Prevention and Control
As influenza viruses circulating in swine continue to change, prevention and control efforts have become more complex. Inactivated vaccines used in swine herds may not protect against new variant viruses that emerge through genetic changes. It is difficult for one vaccine to include enough strains to cover all of the multiple subtypes and variants present.
Additionally, it is difficult to update fully licensed commercial vaccines as often as the virus changes in swine.
In recent years, this has spurred increased use of autogenous, inactivated vaccines made from viruses specific to a particular farm. However, these vaccines also may not cross-protect against new strains that unexpectedly infect a herd.
In the future, veterinarians will rely on genetic sequencing more and more to determine if a new strain is present and as a potential predictor of whether a vaccine may cross-protect against a variant virus. The sequence analysis should be paired with serologic tests.
Good animal health management, hygiene and biosecurity remain essential to prevent herds from being infected with new influenza viruses.
Swine can be infected with human- and avian-adapted influenza viruses, resulting in pigs being labeled as “mixing vessels” for generating novel, genetically diverse viruses with epidemic or pandemic potential.
However, humans, other mammals and many species of birds also play a role in the evolution of influenza viruses. This highlights the importance of surveillance in human and avian populations, as well as swine and other non-human mammals.
One can only speculate as to why influenza viruses have changed so rapidly in swine over the past 13 years. However, genetically and antigenically diverse influenza viruses will likely continue to emerge in both the human and swine populations in the future.
Monitoring and surveillance of emerging influenza viruses will require the cooperation of human and animal health officials, researchers and diagnostic laboratories.
Continued surveillance and sharing of information, particularly in the swine sector, demonstrates an ongoing concern, as well as responsibility, that the U.S. pork industry has for its producers and consumers.
Ultimately, the goal is to prevent costly flu-related respiratory disease in swine, protect the pork industry from misleading information, and protect the human population to which the pork industry provides protein.
These early years of the USDA surveillance program will provide the baseline from which the benefits of long-term surveillance for SIV can come to fruition.
Additional authors include Jianqiang Zhang, MD, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Iowa State University; and Amy Vincent, DVM, National Animal Disease Center. | <urn:uuid:d3a798bb-30b7-4e13-82e9-8c6db27d205b> | {
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Itís hard to believe that something exists if we canít see it. How does one explain the benefit of something that didnít happen Ė much less actually quantify it? No, Iím not talking physics or philosophy here Ė Iím talking public health and one of its major components: prevention. Preventing diseases from happening, preventing injuries from occurring and preventing substance abuse from even starting.
In doing our work at San Juan Basin Health Department, these nonevents are ďproductsĒ that society does not see, and therefore, often does not comprehend or appreciate. While this is understandable, itís important that we in public health help the community grasp our mission.
So every year since 1995, National Public Health Week is celebrated to raise awareness of what public health is and its value to our communities. This yearís theme is ROI (Return on Investment): Save Lives, Save Money. The week will document the preventive value of many of our services and programs.
Routine immunizations save $9.9 million in direct health-care costs, save 33,000 lives and prevent 14 million cases of disease. San Juan Basin Health provides adult vaccinations as well as its Vaccine for Children program, which makes low-cost, routine immunizations available. Immunizations ROI: $1 spent, $18.40 saved.
Our home- and community-based services help 340 clients stay in their homes with support services, thus preventing placement in a nursing home. One study found home programs produced a savings of $43 million in Colorado in just one year.
Nationally, pre-term births cost $26 billion a year. Women, Infants and Children prenatal benefits reduce the rate of low birth weight babies by 25 percent and very low birth weight babies by 44 percent. SJBHís WIC supplemental nutrition education and assistance program serves more than 1,000 clients each month. Benefits continue after the mother gives birth, as WICís Breast-feeding Peer Support program works with mothers to breast-feed their babies for at least six months. Breast-feeding up to six months ROI: $3.5 billion.
Less than 15 percent of adults and 10 percent of adolescents eat the recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables each day. WIC also addresses this, but so do SJBHís promotora (bilingual-bicultural health educator) and worksite wellness program. Chronic diseases cause Americans to miss work each year, resulting in lost productivity totaling more than $1 trillion. Worksite wellness ROI: $1 spent, $3.27 in medical savings.
If every state without a comprehensive smoke-free policy adopted one, smoking-related deaths could be reduced by 624,000. They also would save more than $316 million in lung-cancer treatment and more than $875 million in heart attack and stroke treatment over five years. Fortunately, Colorado has the Clean Indoor Air law. Our Celebrating Healthy Communities coalition educates people and local businesses about the smoke-free law and helped expand the provisions to cover outdoor parks and recreational trails.
The U.S. spends far more on health care than any other country, with costs rising tenfold from 1980 to 2010. However, a Trust for Americaís Health study found that investing in proven, community-based public-health efforts could save $16 billion over 5 years. Public Health ROI: $1 spent, $5.60 saved.
Sometimes, it really is the things that you canít see that have value. People can help public health be more visible by standing up for the value of public health and prevention in our lives and spreading the word that investing in public health is an investment in our nationís health and future.
Jane Looney is the communications director for the San Juan Basin Health Department. | <urn:uuid:dede359a-31c4-4dd8-980d-d9e72df02ccb> | {
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Television in the United Kingdom started in 1936 as a public service which was free of advertising. Currently, the United Kingdom has a collection of free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription services over a variety of distribution media, through which there are over 480 channels[nb 1] for consumers as well as on-demand content. There are six main channel owners who are responsible for most material viewed. There are 27,000 hours of domestic content produced a year at a cost of £2.6 billion.[nb 2] Since 24 October 2012, all television broadcasts in the United Kingdom have been in a digital format, following the end of analogue transmissions in Northern Ireland. Digital content is delivered via terrestrial, satellite and cable, as well as over IP.
Free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription providers are available, with differences in the number of channels, capabilities such as the programme guide (EPG), video on demand (VOD), high-definition (HD), interactive television via the red button, and coverage across the UK. The UK's five most watched channels, BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5, are available from all providers.
Broadcast television is distributed as radio waves via terrestrial or satellite transmissions, or as electrical or light signals through ground-based cables. In the UK, these use the Digital Video Broadcasting standard. Most TVs sold in the UK come with a DVB-T (terrestrial) tuner for Freeview – a rare thing in Europe. Set-top boxes are generally used to receive channels from other providers. Most services have also integrated their broadcast TV services with additional video streams distributed via the Internet, or through their own Internet Protocol network.
|Provider||Years||Free or pay||No. broadcast channels||Households||On demand||Notes|
|Yes||Catch-up TV available via Freeview Play devices|
|Sure TV||2013–||Broadcast: Free
|Broadcast: As Freeview||Unknown||Yes||Hybrid Freeview + pay TV service. Guernsey, Jersey and Isle of Man only|
|Broadcast: As Freeview||Unknown||Yes||Hybrid Freeview and catch-up service|
Optional pay services via BT TV, TalkTalk TV or Plusnet broadband
38 (radio)[nb 3]
|Freesat from Sky||1998–||Free + PPV||240+ (TV)
|Virgin Media||2006–||Pay||250+ (TV)
YouView is also distinctly marketed although it provides the same free channels as Freeview as it uses the same transmitter network.
The TV channels are transmitted in bundles, called multiplexes, and the available channels are dependent on how many multiplexes are transmitted in each area. 3 multiplexes, carrying channels from BBC, ITV, Channel 4, S4C, Channel 5 as well as radio, are available to 98.5% of the population from 1,154 transmitters. A further 3 multiplexes transmit to 90% of homes from 80 transmitters, and another 2 multiplexes are available to 76% of homes from 30 transmitters. The terrestrial service consisting of just the 3 public service multiplexes, available to 8.5% of the population, is informally called 'Freeview Light' by some websites. In Northern Ireland, a multiplex carrying channels from the Republic of Ireland is available to 90% of Northern Irish homes from 3 transmitters. Local TV and radio is available from an additional multiplex at 42 transmitters.
Catch-up TV services such as BBC iPlayer are available via the broadband connection of both Freeview and YouView receivers. On YouView, subscription TV services from BT, TalkTalk, Plusnet, and global streaming services can also be received via the broadband connection. SureTV is a similar service in Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man.
There were many regional companies when cable television services were developed in the late 1980s and 1990s. Today they have amalgamated to become Virgin Media, which is available to 55% of households. Cable TV is a subscription service normally bundled with a phone line and broadband.
WightFibre operates on the Isle of Wight, however acts as a distributor for Sky and YouView instead of having an integrated TV service.
There are three distinctly marketed direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) services (also known as direct-to-home (DTH), to be distinguished from satellite signals intended for non-consumer reception).
Sky TV is a subscription service operated by Sky Ltd, owned by Comcast, which launched in 1998 as SkyDigital. Compared to the previous analogue service, it provided more channels, widescreen, interactive TV and a near video on demand service using staggered start times for pay-per-view content. Innovations since have included high definition, 3d TV, a digital video recorder, the ability to view recordings on other devices, remote operation via the Internet to add recordings, and on demand content via the satellite receiver's broadband connection of both Sky and 3rd party TV. The Sky subscription also includes access to Sky Go, which allows mobile devices and computers to access subscription content via the Internet.
Freesat from Sky, is a free satellite service owned by Sky Ltd. Existing Sky TV customers can end their ongoing subscriptions, and opt for the Free-To-View viewing card, giving them the Freesat from Sky service. Freesat from Sky does not provide digital recording or video on demand. Freesat from Sky has more channels than Freesat, which are mostly international or shopping channels. The on-screen programme guide lists subscription channels even thought they can't be viewed.
Freesat is a free satellite service created jointly by the BBC and ITV. In contrast to Freesat from Sky, it does not need a viewing card. Like Sky, it provides high definition content, digital recording and video on demand via the broadband connection. The on-screen programme guide lists the available channels, rather than encrypted channels which need a subscription to view.
Freesat, Freesat from Sky and Sky TV transmit from SES Astra satellites at 28.2° east (Astra 2E/2F/2G). As the satellites are in geostationary orbit, they are positioned above the earth's equator ( ) approximately 35,786 km above mean sea level; this places them above the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
TV via the Internet can be streamed or downloaded, and consist of amateur or professionally produced content. In the UK, most broadcasters provide catch-up TV services which allow viewing of TV for a window after it was broadcast. Online video can be viewed via mobile devices, computers, TVs equipped with a built in Internet connection, or TVs connected to an external set-top-box, streaming stick or games console. Most of the broadcast TV providers have integrated their set-top-boxes with Internet video to provide a hybrid broadcast and online service.
Since 2006, UK channel owners and content producers have been creating Internet services to access their programmes. Often, these are available for a window after the broadcast schedule. These services generally block users outside of the UK.
|Service name||Owner||Broadcast channels with catch-up||Catch-up period||Additional content||Streamed||Download||Free/Pay||Site|
|All 4||Channel Four Television Corporation||Channel 4, E4, More4, 4seven, 4Music||30 days||Yes||Yes||Yes||Free|||
|BBC iPlayer||BBC||BBC channels, S4C||30 days||Yes||Yes||Yes||Free|||
|ITV Hub||ITV plc||ITV, ITV2-4, ITVBe, CITV||30 days||No||Yes||With subscription||Streaming: Free
|My5||Viacom International Media Networks Europe||Channel 5, 5USA, 5STAR, 5Spike||30 days||Yes||Yes||No||Free|||
|Sky Go||Sky UK||Up to 65 channels||Unknown||Box sets with additional subscription||Yes||With additional subscription||Subscription|||
|STV Player||STV Group||STV, STV2||30 days||No||Yes||No||Free|||
|UKTV Play||UKTV Media||Dave, Really, Yesterday, Drama||30 days||Yes||Yes||No||Free|||
There are numerous online services targeting the UK, offering a combination of subscription, rental and purchase options for viewing online TV. Most are available via any Internet connection, however some require a specific broadband connection. Some services sell 3rd party services, such as Amazon's Prime Video. For brevity, the following table does not include catch-up-only or amateur-only services, individual channels, distributors of illegal or adult content, services which solely redistribute free broadcast channels, or services which don't target the UK. In July 2018 Ofcom statistics showed that the 15.4 million subscribers to commercial online video services exceeded the number of traditional pay TV service subscribers for the first time.
|Service||Owner||Availability||On-demand TV||Scheduled channels/streams (IP)||Downloads||UHD||Notes|
|All 4||Channel 4 Television Corp||Internet||Yes||No||No||No||Yes||No||No||Yes||No|
|BBC iPlayer||BBC||Internet||Yes||No||No||No||Yes||No||No||Yes||Test content|
|BT TV||BT Group||BT Broadband||No||Yes||Yes||Yes||No||Yes||Unknown||No||Unknown|
|Curzon Home Cinema||Curzon Cinemas||Internet||No||No||Yes||No||No||No||No||No||Unknown|
|EE TV||BT Group||EE Broadband||No||No||No||No||No||No||No||No||Unknown||On-demand content via 3rd party services|
|My 5||Viacom Int'l Media Networks||Internet||Yes||No||No||No||No||No||No||Unknown||Unknown|
|NOW TV||Sky UK Ltd||Internet||No||Yes||No||No||No||Yes||Unknown||Unknown||Unknown|
|Plusnet TV||BT Group||Plusnet Broadband||No||No||No||No||No||Yes||No||No||No|
|Prime Video||Amazon.com, Inc||Internet||No||Yes||Yes||Yes||No||Yes||Unknown||Yes||Yes||Streamed channels via 3rd party subscriptions|
|Sky Go||Sky UK Ltd||Internet||No||Yes||No||No||Yes
|Yes||Unknown||Unknown||Unknown||Subscription fee included in Sky TV (satellite) subscription|
|Sky Sports Mobile||Sky UK Ltd||Internet||No||No||No||No||No||Yes||No||Unknown||Unknown|
|Sky Store||Sky UK Ltd||Internet||No||No||Yes||Yes||No||No||No||Yes||Unknown|
|TalkTalk TV||TalkTalk Group||TalkTalk Broadband||No||No||Yes||Yes||No||No||No||Yes||Unknown|
|UKTV Play||UKTV Media||Internet||Yes||No||No||No||No||No||No||No||Unknown|
The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) measures television ratings in the UK. As of November 2017, the average weekly viewing time per person across all broadcast channels was 24 hours 16 minutes. 12 channels have a share of total viewing time across all channels of ≥ 1.0%.
|Channel||Owner||Free/Pay||Weekly viewing time per person (hours:minutes)||Share of total viewing time (%)|
|ITV or STV||ITV plc or STV Group||Free||3:15||13.38|
|Channel 4||Channel 4 Television Corp||Free||1:10||4.83|
|ITV HD||ITV plc||Free||0:46||3.15|
|ITV 3||ITV plc||Free||0:26||1.78|
|ITV 2||ITV plc||Free||0:24||1.66|
|E4||Channel 4 Television Corp||Free||0:18||1.22|
|Film4||Channel 4 Television Corp||Free||0:16||1.12|
For October 2017, there are 9 channel owners with a total viewing share across their channels of ≥ 1.0% (although BARB has separated Viacom channels into two groups, and it's unclear whether STV Group channels are included with ITV plc channels)
|Channel owner||Share of total viewing time (%)||Top 3 channels|
|BBC||32.27||BBC 1, BBC 2, Cbeebies|
|ITV plc||21.84||ITV, ITV HD, ITV2|
|Channel 4 Television Corp||10.76||Channel 4, Film4, E4|
|Sky UK||7.86||Pick, Sky 1, Sky Sports Main Event|
|Viacom: Channel 5 channels||6.39||Channel 5, 5USA, 5Spike|
|UKTV Media||5.35||Drama, Dave, Really|
|Discovery||2.16||Quest, Quest Red, TLC|
|Viacom||1.95||Comedy Central, Nick Jr, Nick Jr 2|
|CBS||1.47||CBS Reality, Horror Channel, CBS Action|
|Sony Pictures Television Networks||1.29||True Entertainment, Pop, True Movies|
The BBC is the world's oldest and largest broadcaster, and is the country's principal public service broadcaster. The BBC is funded primarily by a television licence and from sales of its programming to overseas markets. It does not carry advertising. The licence fee is levied on all households that watch or record TV as it's being broadcast and the fee is determined by periodic negotiation between the government and the BBC.
Its first analogue terrestrial channel, the BBC Television Service, launched in 1936. It rebranded to BBC 1 in 1964, the same year that BBC 2 launched, the UK's third analogue terrestrial channel after ITV. Both channels styled as BBC One and BBC Two from 1997. BBC News 24 launched as an analogue cable channel in 1997, later rebranding to BBC News. BBC Parliament, which was originally an analogue cable channel known as The Parliamentary Channel, was acquired by the BBC in 1998. From 1998 onwards the BBC started digital TV transmissions, launching new channels and broadcasting via satellite in addition to terrestrial and cable. BBC Three closed as a broadcast channel in 2016, continuing as an Internet video service.
|Public service channels||Commercial channels|
|Free channels||BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Four, BBC News, BBC Parliament, CBBC, CBeebies, BBC Scotland, BBC Alba, BBC Red Button||See UKTV for the BBC's jointly owned commercial channels|
|Internet TV services||BBC Three, BBC iPlayer|
ITV is the network of fifteen regional commercial television franchises, founded in 1955 to provide competition to the BBC. ITV was the country's first commercial television provider funded by advertisements, and has been the most popular commercial channel through most of its existence. Through a series of mergers, takeovers and relaxation of regulation, thirteen of these companies are now owned by ITV plc; the other two are owned by STV Group. ITV plc, the operator of all English, Welsh, Southern Scotland and Channel Island franchises, had branded the channel as ITV1 since 2001, with regional names being used prior to regional programmes only since 2002. The ITV name was restored in 2013. ITV plc also operate the Northern Ireland franchise under the UTV brand name. STV Group, which operates the two other Scottish franchises, has now unified the regions under the single name of STV. ITV has been officially known as Channel 3 since 1990, although this is seldom used to identify itself.
ITV plc also operates digital channels ITV2, ITV3, ITV4, ITVBe and CITV, some with HDTV streams. ITN, a subsidiary, currently holds the national news franchise, and ITV Breakfast operates the breakfast franchise.
|ITV plc||STV Group|
|Free channels||ITV, ITV2, ITV3, ITV4, ITVBe, CITV||STV|
|Subscription/pay-per-view channels||ITV2 HD, ITV3 HD, ITV4 HD, ITV Box Office||None|
|Internet TV Services||ITV Hub||STV Player|
Launched in 1982, Channel 4 is a state-owned national broadcaster which is funded by its commercial activities (including advertising). Channel 4 has expanded greatly after gaining greater independence from the IBA, especially in the multi-channel digital world launching E4, Film4, More4, 4Music, 4seven and various timeshift services. Since 2005, it has been a member of the Freeview consortium, and operates one of the six digital terrestrial multiplexes with ITV as Digital 3&4. Since the advent of digital television, Channel 4 is now also broadcast in Wales across all digital platforms. Channel 4 was the first British channel not to carry regional variations for programming, however it does have 6 set advertising regions.
With Bauer Media Group, Channel 4 jointly owns a range of music channels under the Box Plus Network banner.
|Channel 4 channels||Box Plus Network|
|Free channels||Channel 4, More4, Film4, E4, 4seven||The Box, Box Upfront, Box Hits, 4Music, Kiss, Magic, Kerrang!|
|Internet TV Services||All 4||Box Plus Network|
Channel 5 was the fifth analogue terrestrial channel to launch, in March 1997. Due to constraints with the available UHF frequencies at the time, many households had to retune their video recorders, which shared the frequency on their RF output with the frequency used by Channel 5's new broadcasts. Channel 5 was the first terrestrial channel to also broadcast via satellite. From 2006 onwards, Channel 5 would launch new digital channels and an Internet on-demand service. After changing ownership several times, in May 2014 Channel 5 and its sister channels would be acquired by Viacom, an American media conglomerate.
By the time it acquired Channel 5, Viacom already operated a large number of subscription channels in the UK, including the MTV, Nickelodeon and Comedy Central channels, which are available via Sky TV, Virgin Media and NOW TV. In terms of viewing share, the combined viewing across Viacom's free and subscription channels make Viacom the UK's fourth largest broadcaster, after BBC, ITV plc and Channel 4 Corp, according to BARB's viewing figures for January 2018.
|Free channels||Channel 5, 5Star, 5USA, 5Spike, 5Select|
|Subscription||MTV, VH1, MTV Base, MTV Classic, MTV Dance, MTV Hits, MTV Music, MTV Rocks, Nickelodeon, Nicktoons, Nick Jr., Nick Jr. Too, Comedy Central, Comedy Central Extra, BET|
|Internet TV Services||My5|
On 18 January 2011, then Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport Jeremy Hunt announced his intentions to set up a network of local television stations across the UK. The initial plan was to create a network of local television stations, connected through a national backbone. This plan would create a television network similar to that of the network-affiliate model in the United States and Canada. In June 2011, however, it was announced that the national spine plan would be scrapped, and a 'bottom-up' approach would be followed instead, where stations are individually licensed.
Richard Horwood, a former Trinity Mirror executive, announced that when the local television stations are first licensed, he intends to create a television network called Channel 6; this will be a network of local television stations, with Channel 6 supplying the prime time schedule (similar to the American network-affiliate model). Another operator, which has announced its intentions to set up a network of local television stations with a television network connecting them, is City TV Broadcasting. That company says it is basing its operations on the Citytv television system in Canada, but there does not appear to be any official affiliation with the latter's owner, Rogers Communications. City TV is initially bidding on a station to be based in Birmingham.
Sky is a European broadcaster owned by global American media conglomerate Comcast. They operate a satellite television service and numerous television channels including Sky One, Sky Two, Sky News, Pick, Challenge, Sky Atlantic, Sky Witness, Real Lives, Sky Arts, Sky Cinema and Sky Sports.
British television differs from other countries, such as the United States, in as much that programmes produced in the United Kingdom do not generally have a long 'season' run of around 20 weeks. Instead, they are produced in a series, a set of episodes varying in length, usually aired over a period of a few months. See List of British television series.
100 Greatest British Television Programmes was a list compiled in 2000 by the British Film Institute (BFI), chosen by a poll of industry professionals, to determine what were the greatest British television programmes of any genre ever to have been screened. Although not including any programmes made in 2000 or later, the list is useful as an indication of what were generally regarded as the most successful British programmes of the 20th century. The top 10 programmes are:
|2||Cathy Come Home (The Wednesday Play)||BBC1||1966|
|3||Doctor Who||BBC1||1963–1989, 1996, 2005–present|
|4||The Naked Civil Servant||ITV||1975|
|5||Monty Python's Flying Circus||BBC2||1969–1974|
|7||Boys from the Blackstuff||BBC2||1982|
|9||Yes Minister / Yes, Prime Minister||BBC2||1980–1988|
100 Greatest TV Moments was a list compiled by Channel 4 in 1999. The top 10 entries are:
|1||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1969||The Apollo 11 moon landing|
|2||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1990||The release of Nelson Mandela|
|3||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1997||Michael Portillo loses his seat in the general election, which came to symbolise the end of the period of Conservative government which had begun in 1979 with Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister|
|4||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1997||The death of Diana, Princess of Wales|
|5||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1989||The fall of the Berlin Wall|
|6||1966 FIFA World Cup||BBC One / ITV||1966||Final: England beats Germany 4–2; commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme's quotation "They think it's all over"|
|7||Only Fools and Horses||BBC One||1989||"Yuppy Love": Del Boy falls through a bar flap|
|8||Live Aid||BBC One||1985||The multi-venue rock concert to raise funds for the famine of Ethiopia|
|9||Blackadder Goes Forth||BBC One||1989||"Goodbyeee": the protagonists go over the top|
|10||News||BBC One / BBC Two / ITV||1963||John F. Kennedy assassination|
The majority of special events attracting large audiences are often carried on more than one channel. The most-watched programme of all time on a single channel is the 1973 wedding ceremony of The Princess Anne, shown only on BBC1. The figures in these tables represent the average viewership achieved by each broadcast during its run-time and do not include peak viewership.
|1||1966 FIFA World Cup Final: England v West Germany||32.30||30 July 1966||BBC One/ITV|
|2||Funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales||32.10||6 September 1997||BBC One/ITV|
|3||Royal Family (documentary)||30.69||21 June 1969 and 28 June 1969||BBC One/ITV|
|4||Apollo 13 splashdown||28.60||17 April 1970||BBC One/ITV|
|5||1970 FA Cup Final replay||28.49||29 April 1970||BBC One/ITV|
|6||Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer||28.40||29 July 1981||BBC One/ITV|
|7||Wedding of Princess Anne and Mark Phillips||27.60||14 November 1973||BBC One|
|8||2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony||24.46||12 August 2012||BBC One|
|9||2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony||24.24||27 July 2012||BBC One|
|10||Torvill and Dean – Olympic Ice Dance Championship||23.95||21 February 1994||BBC One|
The 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows was a poll conducted by the British television channel Channel 4 in 2001. The top 5 UK-produced programmes are:
|1||The Muppet Show||1976–1981|
The British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series is one of the major categories of the British Academy Television Awards. The last 5 winners are:
Weekday programming on terrestrial channels begins at 6 am with breakfast national news programmes (along with regional news updates) on BBC One and ITV, with Channel 5. BBC Two also showed children's programming all morning until the start of 2013. That channel now broadcasts repeats of BBC One's daytime programmes. Channel 4 predominately broadcasts comedy and music programmes such as Everybody Loves Raymond and Freshly Squeezed in its morning slot. The weekday breakfast news programme ends at 9:15 am on BBC One and 8:30 am on ITV.
Following this on BBC One, lifestyle programming is generally shown, including property, auction and home/garden makeover. BBC One continues this genre until after the lunchtime news, whereby afternoon has a soap called Doctors followed by dramas currently occupy the schedule. BBC Two broadcasts repeats of recent BBC One programmes with on-screen signing before airing news and politics programming between 11 am and 1 pm. ITV on the other hand takes over from GMB at 8:30 am, and generally broadcasts more human-interest chat-style shows, including Lorraine, The Jeremy Kyle Show, This Morning and Loose Women, in the morning to mid-afternoon slots, with the ITV Lunchtime News (including a regional bulletin) at 1:30 pm. Channel 4 often shows home-project and archaeology lifestyle programming in the early afternoon after a Channel 4 News summary. Channel 5 broadcasts chatshow programmes in the morning including The Wright Stuff with regular news bulletins followed by the last nights Big Brother (when the show is on air). In the afternoon it shows a drama followed by an hour of Australian soaps such as Home and Away and Neighbours and a film.
Until the end of 2012 BBC One showed children's programmes in the late afternoon but the channel now continues to show lifestyle programming until broadcasting the game show Pointless at 5:15 pm. BBC Two used to show lifestyle programming such as Animal Park in the late afternoon before these programmes were switched to BBC One. BBC Two now broadcasts repeats unless it is showing sporting events. ITV shows a lifestyle programme followed by a chat show such as The Alan Titchmarsh Show before repeats of classic ITV shows, such as Heartbeat, Poirot and Midsomer Murders in late-afternoon, before a gameshow-style programme at 5:00 pm, which have included Golden Balls and The Price Is Right.
News bulletins are broadcast between 6 pm and 7 pm on both BBC One and ITV, with BBC One beginning with the national BBC News at Six and ITV with the flagship regional news programme. At around 18.30, BBC One broadcasts the regional news programmes whilst ITV broadcasts the ITV Evening News. Channel 4 News starts at 7 pm.
Primetime programming is usually dominated by further soaps, including Doctors, EastEnders on BBC One, Coronation Street and Emmerdale on ITV, and Hollyoaks on Channel 4. These soap operas or 'continuing dramas' as they are now called can vary throughout the year, however weekly dramas, such as Holby City, are also fixed to scheduling. Because of this, the UK can often rely more heavily on TV guides, be it with the newspaper, online, via information services on the television such as the BBC Red Button service or the built in Electronic Programme Guides.
After midnight, when late evening films are shown, many channels cease broadcasting "normal" programming or simulcast with another channel. Before 2000, the channels simply closed down. However, since then programming has been shown continuously. BBC One will join BBC News in a multichannel simulcast and BBC Two shows a continuous loop of forthcoming programme previews and trailers, although prior to the completion of Digital switchover BBC Two had filled its overnight downtime with Pages from Ceefax. Between 2005 and 2007 ITV broadcast the ITV Play strand of phone-in participation TV programmes but now much of the night is dedicated to the text-based ITV information service ITV Nightscreen. Previously, Channel 4 had closed down to show live feeds of Big Brother (in the summer) and its spin-off, Celebrity Big Brother (in January). However, since 2010, repeats of Channel 4 daytime shows have typically been shown. Until the end of the 2000s Channel 5 generally showed various sports from around the world, including boxing and football from European leagues as well as live American sport, with phone-in participation-TV Quiz Call on weekends. Quiz Call is now shown every night of the week.
Weekend daytime programming traditionally consists of more lifestyle programming, as well as afternoon live and recorded coverage of sporting events and films. There are further battles for viewers in the weekend primetime slot, often featuring reality or talent game shows in the evening. Lunchtime, early evening and late evening news programmes continue on BBC One and ITV although the length of the bulletins are shorter than during the week.
In 1963 Mary Whitehouse, incensed by the liberalising policies followed by Sir Hugh Greene, then director general of the BBC, began her letter writing campaign. She subsequently launched the Clean Up TV Campaign, and founded the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association in 1965. In 2008, Toby Young in an article for The Independent wrote: "On the wider question of whether sex and violence on TV has led to a general moral collapse in society at large, the jury is still out. No one doubts that Western civilization is teetering on the brink ... but it is unfair to lay the blame entirely at the feet of BBC2 and Channel 4."
In 2005, the BBC's broadcast of Jerry Springer: The Opera elicited 55,000 complaints, and provoked protests from Christian organisation Christian Voice, and a private prosecution against the BBC by the Christian Institute. A summons was not issued.
In 2007, the General Synod of the Church of England claimed that programmes such as Celebrity Big Brother and Little Britain were eroding moral standards. The Synod criticised broadcasting trends that "exploit the humiliation of human beings for public entertainment", and called for research to determine the behavioural impact of sexual or violent images.
The British Academy Television Awards are the most prestigious awards given in the British television industry, analogous to the Emmy Awards in the United States. They have been awarded annually since 1954, and are only open to British programmes. After all the entries have been received, they are voted for online by all eligible members of the Academy. The winner is chosen from the four nominees by a special jury of nine academy members for each award, the members of each jury selected by the Academy's Television Committee.
The National Television Awards is a British television awards ceremony, sponsored by ITV and initiated in 1995. Although not widely held to be as prestigious as the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards are probably the most prominent ceremony for which the results are voted on by the general public. Unlike the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards allow foreign programmes to be nominated, providing they have been screened on a British channel during the eligible time period.
Ofcom is the independent regulator and competition authority for the communication industries in the United Kingdom, including television. As the regulatory body for media broadcasts, Ofcom's duties include:
In 2008, Ofcom issued fines to the total of £7.7m. This included £5.67m of fines to ITV companies, including a £3m fine to LWT over voting irregularities on Saturday Night Takeaway, and fines totalling £495,000 to the BBC. Ofcom said phone-in scandals had contributed significantly to the fine totals.
The Committee for Advertising Practice (CAP, or BCAP) is the body contracted by Ofcom to create and maintain the codes of practice governing television advertising. The Broadcast Advertising Codes (or the TV codes) are accessible on CAP's web site. The Codes cover advertising standards (the TV Code), guidance notes, scheduling rules, text services (the Teletext Code) and interactive television guidance. The main sections of the TV Code concern compliance, programmes and advertising, unacceptable products, political and controversial issues, misleading advertising, harm and offence, children, medicines, treatments, health claims and nutrition, finance and investments, and religion.
The Advertising Standards Authority is an independent body responsible for resolving complaints relating to the advertising industry within the UK. It is not government funded, but funded by a levy on the advertising industry. It ensures compliance with the Codes created by CAP. The ASA covers all forms of advertising, not just television advertisements. The ASA can refer problematic adverts to Ofcom, since the channels carrying the adverts are ultimately responsible for the advertising content, and are answerable to Ofcom. Ofcom can issue fines or revoke broadcast licenses if necessary.
In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies, a television licence is required to receive any publicly broadcast television service, from any source. This includes the commercial channels, cable and satellite transmissions. The money from the licence fee is used to provide radio, television and Internet content for the BBC, and Welsh-language television programmes for S4C. The BBC gives the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income:
As of 2002, 27,000 hours of original programming are produced year in the UK television industry, excluding news, at a cost of £2.6bn. Ofcom has determined that 56% (£1.5bn) of production is in-house by the channel owners, and the remainder by independent production companies. Ofcom is enforcing a 25% independent production quota for the channel operators, as stipulated in the Broadcasting Act 1990.
ITV plc, the company which owns 12 of the 15 regional ITV franchises, has set its production arm ITV Studios a target of producing 75% of the ITV schedule, the maximum allowed by Ofcom. This would be a rise from 54% at present, as part of a strategy to make ITV content-led chiefly to double production revenues to £1.2bn by 2012. ITV Studios currently produces programmes such as Coronation Street, Emmerdale and Heartbeat.
In contrast, the BBC has implemented a Window of Creative Competition (WOCC), a 25% proportion over and above the 25% Ofcom quota in which the BBC's in-house production and independent producers can compete. The BBC produces shows such as All Creatures Great and Small and F***off I'm a Hairy Woman.
Channel 4 commissions all programmes from independent producers.
As a consequence of the launch of Channel 4 in 1982, and the 25% independent quota from the Broadcasting Act 1990, an independent production sector has grown in the UK. Notable companies include Talkback Thames, Endemol UK, Hat Trick Productions, and Tiger Aspect Productions. A full list can be seen here: Category:Television production companies of the United Kingdom
|1936||Analogue terrestrial||Following mechanical television test transmissions starting in 1926, and the first official broadcast in 1929, the BBC launches electronic television broadcasts, the BBC Television Service, from Alexandra Palace. The picture format is monochrome, 405-line, and the transmission analogue terrestrial VHF. The service rebrands to BBC TV in 1960.|
|1938||Analogue cable||Community Antenna TV launches in Bristol and Kingston upon Hull, the UK's first cable services, distributing the 405 line service|
|1939||Analogue TV||The BBC Television Service ceases from September 1939 to June 1946, during World War II|
|1955||Regulation||The Independent Television Authority (ITA) is appointed to oversee the creation of ITV by the Television Act 1954|
|1955||Analogue terrestrial||ITV, the UK's second channel, begins when Associated-Rediffusion, the first ITV franchise, launches. ITV is initially arranged as 14 regional franchises, with three of these (London, Midlands and North) being further split into weekday and weekend franchises. The franchisees launch between September 1955 and September 1962, the franchise holders being Associated-Rediffusion, Associated TeleVision (holds two franchises, ATV London and ATV Midlands), Associated British Corporation, Granada Television, Scottish Television, Television Wales and the West, Southern Television, Tyne Tees Television, Anglia Television, Ulster Television, Westward Television, Border Television, Grampian Television, Channel Television and Wales (West and North) Television|
|1964||Analogue terrestrial||BBC Two launches, in a higher definition 625-line format (576i). As it is broadcast in UHF frequencies and a different format, owners of 405 line TVs are unable to receive it. Simultaneously, BBC TV rebrands to BBC One|
|1960s||Analogue cable||Rediffusion Vision start a 625-line cable service|
|1966||Programming||The 1966 World Cup Final broadcasts on BBC One and ITV, with 32.3 million viewers in total making it the most watched broadcast|
|1967||Analogue terrestrial||Colour transmissions begin on BBC Two using the PAL format|
|1968||Analogue terrestrial||The ITA made changes to the ITV franchises: the weekday/weekend split for the Midlands and North franchises is removed, but the North was split into North West and Yorkshire. From 1968, Telefusion Yorkshire held the new Yorkshire franchise. Thames Television was created for the London weekday franchise, formed from ABC and Rediffusion. London Weekend Television replaced the London weekend franchise holder, ATV.|
|1968||Analogue terrestrial||The ITV Emergency National Service replaces the regional ITV network in August 1968 due to strike action as a consequence of the implementation of the franchise changes|
|1969||Analogue terrestrial||Colour transmissions begin on BBC One and ITV|
|1969||Programming||The Apollo 11 moon landing broadcasts on BBC One, BBC Two and ITV, listed as the Greatest TV Moment in a 1999 list compiled by Channel 4|
|1972||Regulation||The Sound Broadcasting Act 1972 reconstitutes the ITA as the Independent Broadcasting Authority|
|1972||Analogue cable||Licenses issued for experimental community cable stations in Bristol, Greenwich, Sheffield, Swindon and Wellingborough|
|1974||Analogue terrestrial||Ceefax and ORACLE, the UK's first teletext services, launch|
|1975||Programming||Fawlty Towers firsts broadcasts, listed as the Greatest British Television Programme in a list compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000|
|1979||Analogue terrestrial||Almost all ITV broadcasts and production ceased due to a 10-week industrial dispute. When programming resumed on 24 October, there was a lack of original programming, so ITV showed repeats of 3-2-1. Original programming resumes two and a half months later|
|1982||Analogue terrestrial||ITV franchise changes took effect: Central Independent Television was created from a restructured ATV. Television South (TVS) replaced Southern Television. Television South West (TSW) replaced Westward Television. A new national ITV franchise is created for breakfast television, and awarded to TV-am|
|1982||Analogue terrestrial||Launch of Channel 4 and S4C, the UK's second and third independent channels. S4C broadcast to Wales, and Channel 4 the remainder of the country. The ITV companies sold Channel 4's airtime until the end of 1992. ITV and Channel 4 cross-promoted each other's programmes until 1998.|
|1985||Analogue terrestrial||The two-station analogue terrestrial VHF transmissions cease on 3 January|
|Late 1980s||Analogue cable||Issue of franchises to local cable operators, which will eventually merge to become Virgin Media and WightFibre|
|1989||Analogue satellite||Sky launches, a subscription satellite service, with pay-per-view movies and events|
|1990||Regulation||The Broadcasting Act 1990 abolishes the Independent Broadcasting Authority and Cable Authority and replaces them with the Independent Television Commission. The Act makes mergers between ITV franchises possible – the regional franchises will ultimately consolidate to ITV plc (holds 13 franchises) and STV Group (2 franchises). Most Franchises that would ultimately be owned by ITV plc adopt the ITV1 brand in 2001, and drop regional identity in 2002. The two STV Group franchises standardise on the STV brand in 2006, with Channel Television taking on the ITV1 brand despite being independent of ITV plc at that time.|
|1990||Analogue satellite||BSB launches, a subscription 5-channel satellite service|
|1991||Analogue terrestrial||Two ITV regions and Channel 4 broadcast stereo sound transmissions using NICAM, with the rest of the ITV network following in the next couple of years. The BBC launches NICAM stereo broadcasting on 31 August, having started test transmissions in 1986|
|1992||Analogue satellite||After merging with Sky, BSkyB ceases transmissions on BSB's old satellite|
|1992||Programming||Ghostwatch broadcasts on BBC One, listed as the Most Controversial TV Moment in a 2005 list compiled by Channel 4. The programme had 2,215 complaints following the broadcast|
|1993||Analogue terrestrial||ITV franchise changes took effect: Westcountry Television replaced Television South West; Carlton Television replaced Thames Television; Meridian Broadcasting replaced Television South; Good Morning Television replaced TV-am; Teletext Ltd replaced ORACLE, the national teletext franchise holder|
|1997||Analogue terrestrial||Channel 5 launches; it is the UK's first terrestrial broadcaster to also launch on Sky|
|1998||Digital satellite||BSkyB launches SkyDigital, now marketed as Sky TV, the UK's first digital satellite service. Unlike the analogue service, it includes an Electronic Programme Guide, interactive TV and text services, widescreen picture format from certain channels (16:9), audio description and near video-on-demand pay-per-view movie channels. This also sees the BBC, Channel 4 and S4C to broadcast via satellite for the first time; as such, Channel 4 becomes available in Wales, and a new Welsh-only version of S4C broadcasts nationally. The BBC is initially encrypted and non-regional; it will drop encryption and launch regional variations from May 2003. ITV will not join SkyDigital until October 2001. SkyDigital launches with around 200 TV or radio channels|
|1998||Digital terrestrial||Launch of OnDigital, a subscription digital terrestrial service|
|1998||Digital cable||NTL, Telewest and Cable & Wireless begin digital cable services with similar characteristics to Sky Digital. Unlike Sky Digital, cable remains a regional service, carrying all versions of BBC channels and ITV|
|1999||IPTV||Kingston Interactive Television (KIT), the UK's first IPTV service, launches in Hull. It is the UK's first video on demand service|
|2001||Analogue satellite||BSkyB ceases its analogue satellite service|
|2002||Digital terrestrial||Closure of ITV Digital (né OnDigital)|
|2002||Digital terrestrial||Launch of Freeview, a free digital terrestrial service to replace ITV Digital|
|2003||Regulation||The Communications Act 2003 abolishes the Independent Television Commission and replaces it with Ofcom|
|2004||Digital terrestrial||Launch of Top Up TV, a subscription service on digital terrestrial|
|2006||Cable||Merger of NTL and Telewest; they will later merge with Virgin Mobile and relaunch as Virgin Media|
|2006||Cable||The UK's first public high-definition broadcasts, as BBC and ITV show the 2006 FIFA World Cup in high-definition via NTL:Telewest|
|2006||IPTV||Kingston Communications cease KIT|
|2006||IPTV||Launch of BT Vision, a subscription video on demand service combined with a Freeview receiver. It later rebrands to BT TV|
|2006||Internet television||BSkyB launches Sky Anytime, a program to download television shows to PCs via the Internet, for subscribers to Sky TV. It later rebrands to Sky Go|
|2006||Internet television||Channel 4 launches 4 on Demand, allowing free and paid-for downloads via the Internet of television shows. It later rebrands to All 4|
|2007||Internet television||ITV relaunch itv.com as an on-demand portal. It later rebrands to ITV Hub|
|2007||Analogue terrestrial||The digital switchover begins as a consequence of switching off analogue terrestrial UHF transmissions|
|2007||Internet television||The BBC launches BBC iPlayer, a tool for watching BBC programmes online|
|2008||Digital satellite||Freesat launches, a free satellite television service|
|2009||Analogue cable||Virgin Media closes the last analogue cable areas|
|2011||Internet television||Lovefilm Instant, a streaming TV service, launches in December. It will later be integrated with Amazon's website and rebrand as Prime Video.|
|2012||Internet television||Netflix launches their streaming TV service in the UK|
|2012||Analogue terrestrial||Analogue terrestrial UHF transmissions cease in all regions.|
|Provider||Years||Free or pay||No. of channels||Colour||Digital||VOD||Transmission|
|VHF terrestrial TV||1936–1985||Free||2||No||No||No||Analogue terrestrial|
|405-line cable service||1938–?||Unknown||2||No||No||No||Analogue cable|
|UHF terrestrial TV||1965–2012||Free||5 (or 6)||Yes||No||No||Analogue terrestrial|
|Multiple cable services||1970s–2013||Unknown||Free and pay||Yes||No||No||Analogue cable|
|Sky [analogue]||1989–2001||Pay||Unknown||Yes||No||No||Analogue satellite|
|OnDigital / ITV Digital||1998–2002||Pay||Unknown||Yes||Yes||No||Digital terrestrial|
|Top Up TV||2004–2013||Pay||Unknown||Yes||Yes||No||Digital terrestrial|
The following Internet TV services have closed:
The following services were aborted before launch:
Analogue TV was transmitted via VHF (1936) and later UHF (1964) radio waves, with analogue broadcasts ending in 2012.
VHF transmissions started in 1936 and closed in 1985 (with a gap 1939–1946), carrying two channels. The launch channel was the BBC Television Service, known as BBC 1 since 1964. This was joined by Independent Television, a network of regional franchises launching between 1955 and 1962. The channels transmitted in monochrome using the 405-line television system at 25 frames per second, initially with an aspect ratio of 5:4, switching to 4:3 in 1950.
UHF transmissions started in 1964 and closed in 2012. The launch channel was BBC 2. This would be joined by BBC 1, the ITV network, Channel 4 or S4C in Wales, Channel 5 as well as a network of local TV channels. Transmissions started using the System I standard, a 625-line monochrome picture at 25 frames/second (576i) and a 4:3 aspect ratio. Technical advancements included colour (1967), teletext (1974), and stereo sound (1991). The drive to switch viewers from analogue to digital transmissions was a process called the digital switchover.
Whilst there are no longer any analogue broadcasts in the UK, a PAL signal may be present in closed RF distribution systems, e.g. a video feed from an intercom in a block of flats, or a security system.
|Common channel position||Channel name||Channel owner||Regions[nb 5]||VHF launch date||UHF launch date|
|1||BBC One||BBC||18 regional variations||2 November 1936||15 November 1969|
|2||BBC Two||BBC||4 regional variations[nb 6]||N/A||20 April 1964|
|3||ITV (on-air brand ITV, STV or UTV; legal name Channel 3)||ITV Network Ltd (ITV plc, STV Group)||17 regional variations (14 ITV, 2 STV, UTV); 24 advertising regions; 13 Teletext regions||From 22 September 1955 – 14 September 1962||15 November 1969|
|4 (English regions, Scotland and Northern Ireland)||Channel 4||Channel Four Television Corporation||6 advertising regions||N/A||2 November 1982|
|4 (Wales)||S4C||S4C Authority||1 region||N/A||1 November 1982|
|5||Channel 5||Viacom International Media Networks Europe||4 advertising regions||N/A||30 March 1997|
|6||Restricted Service Licence channels||Various||18 channels (approx)||N/A||From Oct 1998|
There are around 100 defunct British channels. For a list, see List of former TV channels in the UK or Category:Defunct British television channels.
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1927 to develop radio broadcasting, and inevitably became involved in TV in 1936. The BBC is funded by income from a "Broadcast Receiving Licence" purchased by UK residents. The cost of this is set by agreement with the UK Government.
Television caught on in the United Kingdom in 1947, but its expansion was slow. By 1951, with only two transmitters, near London and Birmingham, only 9% of British homes owned a television set. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to have a regular daily television schedule direct to homes and it was the first to have technical professions to work on TVs. (A. Smith, Television: An International History 1995)
Up until 1972, television broadcasting hours were tightly regulated by the British government, under the control of the Postmaster General. Before the launch of the commercial channel ITV in 1955, the BBC was restricted by law to just five hours maximum of television in a day. This was increased at the launch of the commercial channel ITV to a 7-hour broadcasting day for both channels. Gradually the number of hours were increased. Typically during the late 1960s the law regulated a 50-hour broadcasting week for all television channels in the UK. This meant BBC One, BBC Two and ITV could only broadcast normal programming for 7 hours a day Mondays to Fridays, and 7.5 hours a day on Saturdays and Sundays.
Until 1957, television in the United Kingdom could not air from 6.00pm-7.00pm. This was called "Toddler's Truce", where the idea was that parents could put their children to bed, before prime time television would commence. This restriction was lifted in 1957. However, on Sundays, television remained off the air from 6.00pm-7.00pm. This was in response to religious leaders fears that television would interfere with people attending church services. In 1958 a compromise was reached, where only religious programming could be aired during this time slot. This restriction was lifted in January 1972.
The Postmaster General allowed exemptions to the regulations. All schools programming, adult education, religious programming, state occasions, political broadcasts and Welsh language programming were totally exempt from the restrictions. Sport and outside broadcasting events were given a separate quota of broadcasting hours which could be used in a year, starting off at 200 hours a year in the mid 1950s, rising to a quota of 350 hours a year by the late 1960s. Broadcasting on Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Eve and New Year's Day were also exempt from the tightly controlled restrictions.
The election of a conservative government in June 1970 brought in changes to the control of broadcasting hours. At first the typical broadcasting day was extended to 8 hours a day, with an increase in exemptions over Christmas and an increase in the sport/outside broadcasting quota. On 19 January 1972, the then Minister for Posts and Telecommunications, Christopher Chataway, announced to the British House of Commons that all restrictions on broadcasting hours on television would be lifted from that day, with the broadcasters allowed to set their own broadcasting hours from then on. By November 1972 a full daytime schedule had been launched on ITV from 9.30am each day, with the BBC also expanding their schedules to include more daytime programming.
The UK Government previously appointed people to the BBC's Board of Governors, a body responsible for the general direction of the organisation, and appointment of senior executives, but not its day-to-day management. From 2007, the BBC Trust replaced the Board of Governors. It is operationally independent of BBC management and external bodies, and aims to act in the best interests of licence fee payers.
Commercial television was first introduced in the United Kingdom, in 1955. Unlike the US, there was a distinct split between advertisements and programming. Advertisers purely purchased spots within pre-defined breaks within programming, and had no connection to the programme content. The content and nature of adverts being strictly controlled by the ITA the body controlling commercial television.
The first commercial direct-broadcast satellite (DBS, also known as direct-to-home) service in the United Kingdom, Sky Television, was launched in 1989 and used the newly launched Astra satellite at 19.2° east, providing four analogue TV channels. The channels and subsequent VideoCrypt video encryption system used the existing PAL broadcast standard, unlike the winner of the UK state DBS licence, British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB).
In 1990, BSB launched, broadcasting five channels (Now, Galaxy, The Movie Channel, The Power Station and The Sports Channel) in D-MAC format and using the EuroCypher video encryption system which was derived from the General Instruments VideoCipher system used in the USA. One of the main selling points of the BSB offering was the Squarial, a flat plate antenna and low-noise block converter (LNB). Sky's system used conventional and cheaper dish and LNB technology.
The two companies competed over the UK rights to movies. Sky operated from an industrial park in Isleworth in West London, whereas BSB had newly built offices in London (Marco Polo House). The two services subsequently merged to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). BSB's D-MAC/EuroCypher system was gradually replaced with Sky's VideoCrypt video encryption system.
By 1998, following the launch of several more satellites to Astra's 19.2° east position, the number of channels had increased to around 60 and BSkyB launched the first subscription-based digital television platform in the UK, offering a range of 300 channels broadcast from Astra's new satellite, at 28.2° east position under the brand name Sky Digital. BSkyB's analogue service has now been discontinued, with all customers having been migrated to Sky Digital.
Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdonwas invoked but never defined (see the help page).
The annual Miss World Contest, which is often the single most popular program of the year — attracting half the British population — is a natural for BBC 1; so was the Ali-Frazier fight, which was watched by 27.5 million people.
'Ali is so tired he cannot raise his hands. ' The next moment Ali raised his fists and Foreman was knocked out. The 26 million who saw the same fight with the same commentary on BBC-1...did not hear that line. "Yes, we cut it out, ' said a BBC man last night, 'to spare Harry Carpenter's blushes.'
Analogue television in the United Kingdom includes terrestrial, satellite and cable services that were broadcast using analogue television signals. Following the termination of Virgin Media's analogue cable television service in Milton Keynes in November 2013, all television in the United Kingdom is broadcast in digital only.Analogue terrestrial television in the United Kingdom
Analogue terrestrial television in the United Kingdom was originally the method by which the significant majority of viewers in the UK, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man received television. Analogue terrestrial television broadcasts have ceased everywhere in the UK with Northern Ireland being the last region to have ceased broadcasting analogue terrestrial television broadcasts. Northern Ireland switched off the last analogue television signals, making all of the United Kingdom only capable of receiving digital television, in the early hours of 24 October 2012. It has been completely replaced by digital terrestrial television and other non-terrestrial means as of the end of 2012.BBC Genome Project
The BBC Genome Project is a digitised, searchable database of programme listings initially based upon the contents of the Radio Times from the first issue in 1923, to 2009. TV listings post 2009 can be accessed via BBC Programmes siteBritish Film Institute
The British Film Institute (BFI) is a film and charitable organisation which promotes and preserves filmmaking and television in the United Kingdom. The BFI utilises lottery funds to encourage film production, distribution, and education. It is sponsored by the Department of Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.It was established by Royal Charter to:
Encourage the development of the arts of film, television and the moving image throughout the United Kingdom, to promote their use as a record of contemporary life and manners, to promote education about film, television and the moving image generally, and their impact on society, to promote access to and appreciation of the widest possible range of British and world cinema and to establish, care for and develop collections reflecting the moving image history and heritage of the United Kingdom.Crystal Palace transmitting station
The Crystal Palace transmitting station, officially known as Arqiva Crystal Palace, is a broadcasting and telecommunications site in the Crystal Palace area of the London Borough of Bromley, England (grid reference TQ339712). It is located on the site of the former television station and transmitter, operated by John Logie Baird, from 1933.The station is the fifth-tallest structure in London, and is best known as the main television transmitter for the London area. As such, it is the most important transmitter in the UK in terms of population covered. The transmitter is owned and operated by Arqiva.Digital television in the United Kingdom
There are four major forms of digital television (DTV) broadcast in the United Kingdom: a direct-to-home satellite service from the Astra 28.2°E satellites provided by Sky UK, a cable television service provided by Virgin Media (known as Virgin TV); a free-to-air satellite service called Freesat; and a free-to-air digital terrestrial service called Freeview. In addition, an IPTV system known as BT Vision is provided by BT. Individual access methods vary throughout the country. 77% of the United Kingdom has access to HDTV via terrestrial digital television. Satellite is the only source of HDTV broadcast available for the remaining 23%.Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom
Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom encompasses over 100 television, radio and interactive services broadcast via the United Kingdom's terrestrial television network and receivable with a standard television set. The majority of digital terrestrial television (DTT) services, including the five former analogue channels, are broadcast free-to-air, and a further selection of encrypted pay TV services (such as BT Sport) are also available.
Freeview is the only DTT service since Top Up TV closed in 2013. BT TV offers only BT Sport on DTT and their other services are carried via IPTV signals.
The digital broadcasting technology adopted in the UK is the DVB-T system (Digital Video Broadcasting – Terrestrial) carrying compressed digital audio, video and other data in a combined transport stream, using COFDM modulation. A total of eight national and one local 'multiplexes' are broadcast in the UK, guaranteed to reach over 90% of the country. Three of the multiplexes, carrying the free public service channels operated by the BBC, ITV, Channel 4, S4C and Channel 5, are guaranteed wider coverage still, reaching 98.5% of the country including areas dependent on low-power local relays.In the UK, the switchover from analogue to digital TV started on 17 October 2007 and was completed on 24 October 2012. Each group of regional transmitters had its analogue broadcasts switched off at a certain point between those dates.Eleven Sports (UK and Ireland)
Eleven Sports UK & Ireland is an online streaming service that launched in August 2018. It is part of the Eleven Sports Group which is owned by Andrea Radrizzani.Elstree Studios
Elstree Studios is a generic term which can refer to several current and defunct British film studios and television studios based in or around the towns of Borehamwood and Elstree in Hertfordshire. Studios have been located here since film production began in the area during 1914.
While some facilities have been built and demolished since then, two sites remain in use in Borehamwood; Elstree Studios on Shenley Road and the BBC Elstree Centre on Eldon Avenue.Freesat
Freesat is a British free-to-air satellite television service, provided by joint venture between the BBC and ITV plc. The service was formed as a memorandum in 2007 and has been marketed since 6 May 2008. Freesat offers a satellite alternative to the Freeview service on digital terrestrial television, with a broadly similar selection of channels available without subscription for users purchasing a receiver.
The service also makes use of the additional capacity available on satellite broadcasting to offer a selection of 17 (as of October 2018) high-definition channels from the BBC, ITV, Channel 5, Arirang TV, Bloomberg, Daystar, Discovery Networks, France 24, NHK, RT UK and TRT World.Freesat's main competitors are Freeview, Freesat from Sky, Virgin Media and BT. TalkTalk also offer a YouView service (with Channel 4HD and All 4 catch up).High-definition television in the United Kingdom
High-definition television in the United Kingdom is available via cable, IPTV, satellite and terrestrial television. The first high-definition broadcasts began in 2006 and since then the number of channels available to view has grown to a maximum of 87 that can be viewed on pay-TV service, Sky.The majority of channels in the United Kingdom remain broadcast, and largely viewed, in standard-definition but most major broadcasters have begun or are soon beginning their initial forays into high-definition television. Similarly, the vast majority of viewing still takes place in standard-definition though penetration of high-definition displays and receivers is increasing.
High-definition broadcasts are available on satellite services: Freesat, Freesat from Sky and Sky; cable services Smallworld Cable and Virgin TV and terrestrial Freeview HD.ITV Box Office
ITV Box Office is a pay-per-view channel from ITV plc launched in February 2017. It is currently only used to show boxing matches. The channel is available in HD-only on Sky, and events are also available on demand only on Virgin Media and TVPlayer.Lime Grove Studios
Lime Grove Studios was a film, and later television, studio complex in Shepherd's Bush, west London, England.
The complex was built by the Gaumont Film Company in 1915. It was situated in Lime Grove, a residential street in Shepherd's Bush, and when it first opened was described by Gaumont as "the finest studio in Great Britain and the first building ever put up in this country solely for the production of films". Many Gainsborough Pictures films were made here from the early 1930s. Its sister studio was Islington Studios, also used by Gainsborough; films were often shot partly at Islington and partly at Lime Grove.
In 1949, the complex was purchased by the BBC, who used it for television broadcasts until 1991. It was demolished in 1993.Local television in the United Kingdom
Local television in the United Kingdom, described in legislation as Local Digital Television Programme Services (L-DTPS), provides a television station for a specific local area. Successful applicants are awarded a sole licence for their chosen area, and are expected to locate their studios within the same area. They broadcast on the digital terrestrial (DTT) system, as used by the national Freeview service.
The independent regulator, Ofcom, invites applications in all areas where transmission is technically possible, and assesses proposals against the statutory criteria.Milkshake!
Milkshake! is a British preschool television programming block on Channel 5, aimed at children two to seven years old. The block debuted in 1997 and is broadcast on weekdays from 06:00 to 09:15 and weekends from 06:00 to 10:00. The block has a number of presenters, and features a range of children's programming. Its programmes include Thomas and Friends, Roary the Racing Car, Peppa Pig, Ben & Holly's Little Kingdom, Fireman Sam, PAW Patrol' , Floogals, Wissper, Jelly Jamm, City Of Friends, Fifi And The Flowertots, Shane The Chef, Little Princess, Oswald and Make Way For Noddy. From 1997–2002 and 2007–2016, Milkshake! also aired programmes for older children. These programmes moved to Shake!, which used to run on weekends after Milkshake!
When Five Life launched in 2006, Milkshake! was shown on the channel between 9 am and 1 pm each day. By April 2011, the channel had reduced its broadcast hours and the block was replaced by teleshopping. On 21 August 2017, Milkshake relaunched on 5Star, where it aired from 9:15 to 11am. Milkshake! on 5 Star was later dropped and removed in 2018. On 6 July 2017, Channel 5 announced a rebranding of Milkshake! that launched on 24 July, including updated branding, a new studio, and the launch of a YouTube channel that will feature digital content related to the block.Now TV (Sky)
Now TV (stylised as NOW TV) is a division of pan-European telecommunications company Sky Limited with operations in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Italy. It offers a subscription-based internet television and video-on-demand service. In the United Kingdom, Now TV also provides contract-free broadband internet, and landline telephone services. The majority of services available by Now TV are designed to cater for consumers who do not want to be tied to a contract. An almost identical service known as Sky Ticket (formerly known as Sky Online) operates in Germany and Austria.
Now TV was first announced in the UK in February 2012 as an internet television service, and launched on 17 July 2012 originally offering a Sky Cinema subscription; from March 2013 offering a Sky Sports television channels subscription; from October 2013 offering an entertainment television channels subscription; from June 2016 offering a children's television channels subscription. On 24 June 2016 the Now TV internet television service was launched in Italy. On 29 June 2016, Now Broadband was launched in the UK. On 26 April 2017 the Now TV internet television service was launched in Ireland. From July 2018 Now TV started offering a Hayu video on demand subscription. Now Broadband is not currently available in the Republic of Ireland or Italy with no future plans announced.Shepherd's Bush Empire
Shepherd's Bush Empire (currently known as O2 Shepherd's Bush Empire for sponsorship reasons, and formerly called BBC Television Theatre) is a music venue in Shepherd's Bush, London, run by the Academy Music Group. It was built in 1903 as a music hall and in 1953 became the BBC Television Theatre. Since 1994, it has operated as a music venue. It is a Grade II listed building.Sky Sports Racing
Sky Sports Racing (formerly At The Races) is a British and Irish pay television channel devoted to horse racing. A joint venture between Sky and Arena Racing Company, it broadcasts coverage of domestic, European and international horse racing events.
In January 2019, after previously operating autonomously from its sisters, the channel was re-launched as part of the Sky Sports family of channels.Student television in the United Kingdom
Student television in the United Kingdom is the act of students from universities and colleges around the United Kingdom producing and publishing video content independently, operating in a similar fashion to a small television station. Student television stations exist all around the United Kingdom.
Content is not generally output across traditional media, as a broadcast licence may be prohibitively expensive to small non-profit organisations. Most student television stations use the Internet as a primary method of distributing content; either on a dedicated website, via their university's pages or on video sharing sites such as YouTube. Student television encapsulates a variety of different programming styles and techniques: from large stations funded by their universities who broadcast into student accommodation and buildings, to a single student uploading occasional shows to the web.
Some student stations are affiliated with The National Student Television Association (abbreviated NaSTA), which has forty member stations. The association holds an awards ceremony once a year to reward the best work submitted by the member stations across a number of categories. | <urn:uuid:68035777-6dde-4253-a58f-cca81ef7c6f6> | {
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Geoscientists in the Workforce: An Overview
People with geoscience expertise can be found in many parts of the workforce. This page lays out information about what geoscientists do, what kinds of preparation are necessary, and what the earning potential is in various parts of the geoscience workforce.
There are a wide array of careers available to people with degrees in geoscience but they require different levels of preparation. Students can use the information on this page to plot their own route to a satisfying career in the geosciences.
Geoscience Employment Trends
The landscape of career opportunities in geoscience is constantly changing. To help your students prepare for their future careers, you need to know what their options will be. This page from the Building Strong Geoscience Departments site has predictions based on recent trends. The page also has links to salary data for professional geoscientists.
There are many professional societies in the geosciences that offer guidance and resources for students interested in that particular field of work. There are also professional networks to support women and minorities in geoscience and in science careers in general.
If students don't personally know someone with a geoscience background, it can be difficult for them to imagine themselves as a geoscientist. This collection of career profiles combines personal descriptions of the individual career paths of many geoscience professionals. From academia, to industry, to government, and beyond, there are many ways that a geoscience degree can set our students up for success. | <urn:uuid:16c951af-ac41-4b7a-9051-277987346a54> | {
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The Haman Hoax
The similarities between Haman in the Bible and Haman in the Qur’an
1. The Name
In this series, we have seen that various apologists for Islam have attempted to identify the quranic Haman with a certain person, whose name “hmn-h” was found on an Egyptian grave inscription. Having examined these claims it turned out that these two names agree in only two consonants, m and n (see here).
Against this background, it is noteworthy to observe that the name of Haman in the book of Esther (הָמָן) and the name Haman in the Qur’an (هامان) do not only have “some” letters in common, but they are identical in pronunciation, having the same consonants1 and the same vowels. The reader can easily look these letters up on Wikipedia in the entries for the Arabic alphabet (*) and the phonology for Biblical Hebrew (1, 2).2
It is also significant that this name is singular in both Hebrew and Arabic. It is a foreign name in both languages.3 Neither the Hebrew nor the Arabic languages have words with root consonants “h-m-n”. Moreover, in Arabic Bible translations the name Haman in the book of Esther is written just like the name Haman in the Qur’an.
2. The Position
Regarding his position or role in government, we read about Haman in the book of Esther:
After these events, King Xerxes honored Haman son of Hammedatha, the Agagite, elevating him and giving him a seat of honor higher than that of all the other nobles. (Esther 3:1, NIV)
Haman boasted to them about his vast wealth, his many sons, and all the ways the king had honored him and how he had elevated him above the other nobles and officials. (Esther 5:11, NIV)
This matches the position of Haman in the Qur’an, who is also recognized as the second in authority after Pharaoh, see Appendix 1: Who was Haman according to the Qur’an?
Interesting side note: When we compare the Wikipedia entries of Haman in the Bible and in Islam, we (currently4) find this as the first sentence in each:
In the Qur'an, Haman was the chief minister of Pharaoh at the time of Moses. (Source; 20 September 2009)
Haman (or Haman the Agagite המן האגגי) is the main antagonist in the Book of Esther, who, according to Old Testament tradition, was a 5th Century BC Persian noble and vizier of the empire under Persian King Ahasuerus, traditionally identified as Artaxerxes II (most scholars identify him as Xerxes I). (Source; 20 September 2009)
3. The Character and the action taken by Haman
In the book of Esther, Haman is a sinister, evil person. He plots against the Jews and plans a systematic genocide against them (Esther 3:5-15). It is Haman who approaches king Xerxes on how to take action against the Jews and to eliminate them. In the Qur’an, Haman is said to be “ever sinning” (S. 28:8) and his great sinfulness is again emphasized in S. 29:40. Comparing S. 7:127 with the passages that mention his name, it may well have been Haman who is (partly?) responsible for suggesting / commanding5 to slay the sons of the Israelites, although the Quran is confusing, ascribing this plan of action variously to different people.6 Nevertheless, it is significant to observe that together with the person of Haman, the idea of killing Jews (or their sons) is introduced into the story of the confrontation between Moses and Pharaoh.7 In the Bible, the response of Pharaoh was to implement a heavy increase in the workload of the enslaved Israelites, but not the killing of them.
Though probably a minor issue, note that Haman is not only the “vizier” of Xerxes, the top official at the imperial court, he also receives the advice to build a high gallows for hanging Mordecai, the Jew, on it (Esther 5:14), while in the Qur’an he receives the command to build a high tower as part of Pharaoh’s strategy to oppose Moses’ message. The reason for Haman’s rage against Mordecai was the latter’s refusal to bow to Haman and pay him homage (Esther 3:1-7), which he clearly refused because of his Jewish faith. As such, his Jewish faith led to the confrontation with the powerful Haman and implicitly with the society and religion of the country in which Mordecai lived in exile. Similarly, when the religion of Pharaoh was challenged by Moses, Pharaoh commanded Haman to build a tower that reaches into heaven to determine whether or not the God of Moses really existed.
Nevertheless, even though the above detail is interesting and may have supported the adaptation of Haman into the Qur’an, the motive of the high tower reaching heaven was most likely imported from another story, the tower of Babel (Genesis 11), which is explicitly said to have been built from burned bricks and for the purpose of reaching heaven.
The above outlined similarities strongly support the understanding that the person of Haman in the Qur’an is actually the Haman of the book of Esther who was transferred into another story by the author of the Qur’an.8 Whether this happened due to ignorance and confusion on the side of the author or it was done deliberately9, that is another topic.
Even the authors of the article at Islamic Awareness testify involuntarily that these similarities cannot be accidental when they claim in their concluding section in regard to the Haman of the book of Esther:
… This unhistorical Haman is portrayed as the prime minister of Ahasuerus, King of Persia. The plot of the unhistorical Haman to annihilate the Jews in the Persian Empire in retaliation for Mordecai's refusal to bow to him, seems to be the corrupt version of the original event when Haman had a hand in suggesting and executing the second massacre of the Israelites newborn males, to demoralise the Israelites and discourage them from following Moses. … (Source; underline emphasis mine)
Non-Muslims usually see the figure of Haman in the Qur’an as being dependent on or derived from the person of Haman in the book of Esther. In principle, the Muslims could have argued that these are simply two unrelated stories. Names are usually not unique, so why should there not be two independent people bearing the name of Haman? This scenario would also mean that the truth of these unrelated stories would then have to be examined independently. The historical truth or fictitious nature of one story has no consequence for the credibility or veracity of the other. On the other hand, if there is a literary dependency between the stories, i.e. if one story is derived from the other by way of corrupting the original story (e.g. by transferring a person from one story into another), then this immediately implies that the derived version of the story is fictional, and it does not even matter whether the original story was history or fiction. The dependent story in its new setting is necessarily fictitious.10 The Muslim problem is that the later quranic version appears as a confusion or corruption of the earlier biblical story. Had the Muslims been able to successfully argue the independence of the two stories, the main problem would have been resolved.
Interestingly and significantly, the Islamic Awareness team did not even try to disconnect the two Hamans. Their conclusion can only mean that they agree that the similarities between the two characters by the name of Haman are too strong to claim that they are independent.
Their “creative” approach, however, to argue a reverse dependency, i.e. that the earlier story is a corrupted version of the later story, is a clear sign of desperation. It goes against every principle of literary analysis.11
In any case, it is highly significant that Islamic Awareness did not even attempt to disconnect the two stories but merely tried to shift the blame of corruption or fictitiousness from the Qur’an to the Bible.
This observation becomes even more significant when we see that Maurice Bucaille tried to disconnect them, but the Islamic Awareness team does not follow him in this attempt although much of their argument regarding the name Haman is based on the claims of Maurice Bucaille.
Recapitulating earlier attempts to explain the name Haman, Bucaille writes:
… One has been searching for consonances with the Egyptian god “Amun,” which would have been badly transliterated into the Arabic language. Other authors have suggested that through “Haman” there might have been an allusion to Aman, a counselor of Assuerus (biblical name of Xerxes) who was an enemy of the Jews: such a comparison does not take account of the historical chronology. … (Source)
Bucaille claims that the quranic Haman cannot be an allusion12 to (or dependent on) the biblical figure Haman because the two stories are placed in very different times. That is obviously a very weak argument. The observation that Haman was transposed into a different time and location is exactly the problem because in the Qur’an Haman appears in the wrong time and in the wrong place. Seeing the many strong similarities between the two Hamans that are discussed above, this is not sufficient to make the two stories independent.
There is, however, a deliberate manipulation of the linguistic facts in Bucaille’s attempt to separate the Haman of the Qur’an from the Haman of the Bible. There is absolutely no justification that he spells the two names differently in English, i.e. Haman and Aman, when they are identical in their original languages (see the first point above).13 Even though in French the letter “H” is silent, so that Haman and Aman still have the same pronunciation in French, it is nevertheless an attempt to deceive the reader about their equivalent spelling and identical pronunciation in Hebrew and Arabic by introducing an artificial difference on the visual level.
A detailed investitgation into the literary background and potential sources for the appearance of Haman in the Qur’an, as well as its combination with the story of the Tower of Babel, is presented by Masud Masihiyyen in the series “Esther’s Loss and Haman’s Time Travel” (Part 1A, Part 1B, Part 2). | <urn:uuid:71055d4a-31f0-4e31-989e-bdc99de7f0ae> | {
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Title I is a federal program that provides funds to school districts and schools with high numbers or high percentages of children who are disadvantaged to support a variety of services. Its overall purpose is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging state academic achievement standards and assessments. The grant contains provisions for ensuring that children who are disadvantaged enrolled in private schools also benefit from the academic enrichment services funded with Title I, Part A funds.
Critical program elements are:
- needs assessment and program plan design,
- Family Engagement,
- services to eligible students enrolled in private schools,
- appropriately licensed teachers,
- coordination of services for students experiencing homelessness, migratory students, and students residing in neglected and delinquent institutions, and
- support for Title I Focus and Priority schools. | <urn:uuid:c79fc2e6-169b-4c8f-84f7-429905382f8c> | {
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Snap Collection - Grade 3
Subjects: Language Arts, Special Education
User Access: Teacher
Do you spend a lot of time searching for engaging Common Core aligned reading material? Look no further, the Grade 3 app for Edmodo is here.
Grade 3 is a digital library of engaging fictional and non-fictional books in history, science, and language arts.
With this app, teachers can now access an entire library of engaging complex text, to provide sufficient reading experience and material to their students.
• Leveled Reading Books written by teachers for teachers
• Informative non-fiction and fictional reading library
• Across genres and subjects including history, science and language arts
• Saves you valuable time and effort in searching for reading material
About the Edmodo Store
In the Edmodo Store, you can discover innovative apps that integrate seamlessly with Edmodo to help create engaging learning experiences for students.
Visit our help center to learn more about using apps with your students.
Edmodo helps connect all learners with the people and resources needed to reach their full potential.
Sign Up with Edmodo and start using it with your students today. | <urn:uuid:72f1c6d8-562b-45f6-ad47-739240a213e5> | {
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Candy maker plans to fight cavities through video games
Major Japanese food conglomerate Morinaga had a dilemma to face. Children have loved their fruity Hi-Chew candies for a long time but the high sugar content means eating too much can be bad for their teeth.
Just as tooth decay ravages ones pearly whites, so does poor hygiene affect Morinaga’s bottom line. You can’t eat chewy candy without teeth after all.
That’s why the confectioner has declared war on tooth decay. To do this they have invented and are testing the “world’s first” toothbrush training video game to prefect the nation’s tykes’ dental habits.
The game works like others in the rhythm genre such as guitar hero. The toothbrush controller has built in sensors which measure the movement and position of the brush.
Along the top of the screen little microbes float across which you must brush away at the right moment. Successful brushing will cause an avatar in the middle to evolve.
The toothbrush controller connects to a PC wirelessly to play the game. However, this controller is still in development and no official release date has been announced.
Just to make sure the little ones don’t get too carried away with proper dental hygiene the brush is stamped with the Hi-Chew logo to remind them of their sugary masters.
Fearing that this could lead to fewer trips to the dentist’s, the Japan Dental Association is mulling over plans for Fork Chewing Hero.
Source: Morinaga via IT Media
Read more stories on RocketNews24.
—Terrifying Stuffed Animal Used To Teach Oral Hygiene
—Electronic Tooth Brushing Coach uses Bluetooth to Make Teeth White
—You Got Caramel In My Bread! | <urn:uuid:a68fce97-c16f-466d-81b8-c3ae397d6b1a> | {
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What to do if your dog has been bitten
Even if your dog is calm and collected, another dog may bring out their aggressive tendencies. Dog fights are fairly common occurrences and may result in wounds or other issues that require immediate treatment. VCA Animal Hospitals recommends that pet owners bring their dog to the veterinarian immediately if their dog has been in a fight. If an actual dog fight was not witnessed but the animal has open wounds or if the dog is limping, crying or whining, an owner should seek medical attention.
The most common results of a fight with another dog are bite wounds. Bites can be a very serious problem if left untreated and can cause significant damage to a dog's skin and tissue. Apart from the immediate physical damage from the actual bite, open bite wounds have a high chance of getting infected and should be treated by a veterinarian immediately to avoid complications.
Immediate medical attention is important to ensure a full recovery from dog bite wounds. Wounds that are treated within the first six hours have a good chance of healing with no major issues. A veterinarian will perform a very thorough cleaning of the wound and will usually prescribe an antibiotic to prevent infection. Pain medications or sedatives may also be prescribed for your dog if needed. A pet owner will be given specific instructions on how to care for open wounds in their dog.
Once the dog is home, it will be the owner’s duty to keep the wound clean and dry and follow any instructions on bandage care. Some dogs are known to bite at their wound dressings out of pain or fear, so it may be necessary to put the dog in an Elizabethan (lampshade-style) collar until the wound heals. It is important to schedule follow-up appointments with your veterinarian so they can monitor the progress of the wound healing to avoid more serious complications. | <urn:uuid:c448bca8-0eae-4590-add5-a283e3e68e21> | {
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The good folks at the Virtual Telescope Project and at Slooh both will broadcast another asteroid flyby on Sunday night, March 9, 2014. This asteroid is an estimated 180 meters across, or about the length of two American football fields. It’ll pass about 8 lunar distances (2 million miles, or 3 million km) away from Earth on March 11, 2014 at 9:05 UTC/5:05 a.m. EDT. But – for both Virtual Telescope Project and for Slooh – the show begins Sunday night. Check their pages for updates on exact start times. Virtual Telescope Project is here and appears to be starting earlier Sunday evening. Slooh is here.
Discovered on February 11, 2014 by the Mt. Lemmon Survey, asteroid 2014 CU13 is traveling at 43,173 mph (19.31 km/s). It is not coming anywhere near enough Earth to be a threat to us. Astronomers want to pin down the exact orbit of this asteroid, and they’re asking amateur astronomers to help.
Slooh in particular is trying to call attention to this asteroid so that amateur astronomers will help further pinpoint its orbit. Slooh’s live image stream will be accompanied by discussions led by Paul Cox, Slooh Host and Observatory Director, along with special guest, Dr. Jose Luis Galache from the Minor Planet Center. Viewers can watch free on Slooh.com or by downloading the Slooh iPad app, and viewers can ask questions during the show by using hashtag #asteroid.
Slooh said it was providing orbital data to the Minor Planet Center all last week in order to help improve our knowledge of the asteroid’s orbit. Slooh said in a press release:
Citizen astronomers should tune into the show to learn how to track asteroids, either through Slooh’s robotic observatories or using their own equipment.
Jose Luis Galache of the Minor Planet Center said:
Discovering near-Earth asteroids has become an automatic process for the survey telescopes, but discovery is just the beginning. There is so much science to do after that! Amateur astronomers with access to pro-level telescopes under dark skies are in a great position to learn more about an asteroid than just where it’s going. | <urn:uuid:f7b0b7fa-6f22-4100-9a15-41955b4ddecf> | {
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Five Crowns is rummy, with a twist. The set collection aspect of rummy is basically the same; with groups of 3 cards in either runs or denominations making a valid meld. The difference is that in each hand the number of cards increases, from 3 cards in the first hand to 13 in the last. The game, therefore, consists of 11 hands. In each of these hands, in addition to the 6 Jokers, there are other wild cards. These are determined by which hand it is. In the first hand 3s are wild in the second hand it's the 4s, and so on until in the last hand the Kings go wild. This is made easy to remember because the wild card is the same as the total number of cards you hold. (ie. in the first hand 3 cards, 3s are wild). A hand finishes when someone can meld all cards in their hand (after the discard) and, as the designers say, "the game isn't over 'til the Kings go wild!" | <urn:uuid:97fab876-5e28-47c1-936d-c5e09d6913b6> | {
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You may be surprised to know just how often 3D technology is able to help in saving the lives of innocent animals. Whether you are an all-out vegan, PETA-loving activist for animals, or just a more laid-back lover of all creatures, we can all generally come together to agree that if testing on animals could be completely eliminated, that would be a relief. And technologies such as bioprinting are definitely going to play a large role, as we’ve seen already with researchers able to use it for processes like experimenting on brain tumors through the creation of cellular structures in the lab—all without putting animals in the line of fire. Such testing is important as it allows for the study of diseases along with how they react to certain treatments—ultimately, offering hope to cure more patients.
Now, 3D imaging is being used to study animals themselves, without harming them. Sadly, in the collecting of data and working to understand animals, they often lose their lives. But what if that problem could be eliminated altogether, with the element of learning expanded as well? That’s what biologist Duncan Irschick, hailing from the University of Massachusetts, is working toward—and with great progress.
With the previous creation of Geckskin, Irschick showed the world that he could produce a unique and powerful adhesive developed from the inspiration of how gecko feet work in sticking to things. He has also, this year, invented the Beastcam. With this portable camera, he can take pictures of live animals that are automatically converted to 3D images. That’s handy, of course, but he has great ambitions for the Beastcam, which is comprised of 30 cameras altogether, bearing ten arms that hold three cameras each.
Irschick plans to make 3D models of all living species on our planet. Once that part of the project is complete, he will publish the data using his Digital Life platform.
“In the field, people often have to kill an animal to preserve it,” Irschick said in a recent interview. “With our 3D models, the animal can stay alive.
“If you discovered a new species in the wild, how fantastic would it be if you could create a 3D model of the living animal right there,” he asks, “capturing its color, shape, and posture?”
Irschick and his team also have a handheld version that they use for larger animals; for example, when scanning sharks (yes, sharks!) they have used the handheld Beastcam.
“The current system is designed for smaller animals who pose really well for photographs,” says Irschick. “So the current range is from about three-and-a-half inches to 10 inches, but in the next several months we’ll have the capacity to capture animals from half an inch to six feet or more.”
Irschick and his team are planning to begin making 3D models of frogs and sea turtles in the very near future. Because these groups of animals face major survival threats, this was an excellent starting point.
“We are excited to use the Beastcam technology to preserve the digital heritage of all life on Earth,” said Irschick. “This will take several lifetimes, but we are thrilled to begin the journey. Digitally preserving the heritage of life on Earth is especially important given the rapid decline of many species, and this technology can recreate organisms in a way that has never been done before.”
Discuss in the Beastcam forum at 3DPB.com.UMassAmherst; Digital Trends / Images: Irschick Lab] | <urn:uuid:0845950b-5d8c-4107-9cd7-a35ea2c7eb98> | {
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school report card faq
Frequently Asked Questions about the new school report card:
1. What is the school report card?
The school report card is a new way of measuring overall performance of individual public schools in Wisconsin. It will be issued each year. It will show which of five accountability ratings the school has achieved based on analysis of student test scores, student growth as measured by year-to-year achievement improvement, and other factors.
2. Why are there so many priority areas?
Accurately measuring a school's performance is a complex task that takes into account as many of the factors influencing student achievement as possible. In addition to comparing students' level of knowledge and academic skills against state academic standards, the card measures year to year student achievement improvement, gaps in achievement among students of various ethnic groups and income levels and students with disabilities, and how likely students are to achieve post-secondary success.
3. What is an accountability score?
Each year, a school's report card will show which of five accountability ratings it has received based on its accountability score. The score is calculated by an analysis of data in the four priority areas and whether or not the school has met three student engagement indicators. The scores range from 0 to 100. The rating areas are: fails to meet expectations (0 to 52.9); meets few expectations (53 to 62.9); meets expectations (63 to 72.9); exceeds expectations (73 to 82.9); and significantly exceeds expectations (83 to 100).
4. What is a student engagement indicator?
These are measures of three key factored that are critical to understanding a school's true performance. The indicators are test participation, or what percentage of all students take an individual test; absenteeism or how many students are there whose absences exceed a level associated with poor academic performance; and dropouts, or how many students drop out of school before graduating.
5. How will this information make my school better?
Because the report card provides so much data on various accountability measures, it will provide valuable insights into a school's weaknesses and strengths and give administrators, teachers and board members information that can be used for school improvement efforts. It also gives parents and other members of the school community a clear picture of a school's performance.
6. How will this information help my child succeed?
Giving schools this valuable tool for tracking performance and making improvements is part of a comprehensive effort to raise educational standards in Wisconsin and make sure that all students are reading for college and careers in today's rapidly changing global society and economy. | <urn:uuid:f73e94a9-e439-4ea1-8e83-91d0d281675d> | {
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Herpes Zoster (more commonly known as Shingles) and Herpes SImplex are two of the most common forms of herpes. When referring to herpes, this article will mean oral or genital herpes and when referring to shingles, it will mean herpes zoster.
Anatomy of the human skin
Oral or genital herpes (Herpes simplex) is usually considered a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Shingles, on the other hand, is the result of latent chicken pox infection that has been re-activated. Shingles usually affects the body. It manifests as vesicles or blisters along patches of skin that usually start from the spine and can envelope a large area of the body. The genitals and the mouth (oral cavity) are the body areas usually affected by herpes.
While the viruses and mechanisms that result in these conditions are viewed in a different way by Western medicine, they are seen as almost the same in Chinese medicine. This enables traditional Chinese medicine practitioners and acupuncturists to address shingles and herpes easily and successfully, no matter what part of the body the outbreak occurs.
What are the Symptoms and Causes of Shingles and Herpes?
Caused by a viral infection, shingles is a painful rash that can develop on any part of the body. It usually occurs unilaterally (on one part of the body) and be restricted to a wide strip of skin known as a dermatome that starts at the spine. The virus responsible for this condition is the varicella zoster (chickenpox) virus. A person who never had chickenpox, will never develop shingles. The virus remains dormant in certain cells residing in the spinal cord after the person has had his chickenpox infection. After several years and during times of great stress and/or when the immune system is weak, the virus is reactivated resulting in shingles. Although not a potentially fatal disease, it usually is an extremely painful condition. When a shingles outbreak occurs, burning, searing, and/or electric vesicles or blisters develop along the dermatome areas, forming a crust that then heals.
Sufferers usually still feel pain even after the blisters heal and crust over. This is known is known as post-zoster pain or post-herpetic neuralgia Chinese herbs and acupuncture can be used to relieve the pain and lessen the severe symptoms of the outbreak. They are effective treatments for post-herpetic neuralgia, as well.
As mentioned a while ago, herpes can develop on the genital region or in the mouth. Symptoms that accompany genital herpes include blisters, sores, itching and pain. Still, there may also be infected individuals who may not manifest any obvious symptoms or signs at all. But, regardless if there are or no symptoms, herpes is a highly contagious disease. It is the result of an infection to the HSV (herpes simplex virus) and can be transmitted from mouth-to-mouth, mouth-to-genital, genital-to-mouth, skin-to-mouth, mouth-to –genital, or skin-to-skin. When the person has been infected, the virus initially remains dormant in the body; it can reactivate several times in a year.
Is acupuncture able to treat Shingles and Herpes?
Pain and Itching are the two most common symptoms of shingles and herpes. Scientists who have studied acupuncture’s potency in treating herpes have found that that the treatment can help relieve itch and pain related to these two diseases. Acupuncturists are certain that acupuncture treatment acts on the neurotransmitters and nerves to alleviate pain and itch signals traveling to the brain. From the viewpoint of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture has the ability to regulate the energetics and organ systems of the body to help neutralize pain and itching caused by shingles and herpes.
When combined with acupuncture, Chinese herbal medicine produces faster and better results. Acupuncturists usually treat their herpes and shingles patients with topical herbs to stop the itching and pain. The herbs given usually come in the form of teas, which is placed on the affected areas. The tea can also be used as gargle if the case is oral herpes or utilized for stitz bath or as a douche for genital herpes. It can be applied with a cotton ball if the patient is suffering from shingles. Your acupuncturist may also recommend the use of herbal medicine internally (as a teat to drink). These herbs can used to help relieve itch and pain during flare-ups. For certain patients, herbs can be used in between flare-ups as prophylactic in case of outbreaks.
Ivelisse DeJongh is a Miami acupuncturist and the medical director at DeJongh Acupuncture Clinic. | <urn:uuid:7d38df52-b607-4fe9-98a7-3d5a150c0b31> | {
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Click on the picture to see an enlarged version.
In 1742, Boucher submitted this picture to the Salon for exhibition. It is a refined and delicate painting, finished in a manner appropriate to its rather modest size. Immediately hailed as a masterpiece, Boucher made a copy which was shipped to Sweden in June 1742 where it has remained ever since. The original was throught to have been lost but was discovered and identified in the 1980s. Its free style and soft contours make it one of Boucher's loveliest.
The story of Leda and the swan was extremely popular in both renaissance and baroque art, but Boucher has presented the subject with unerring pictoral instinct, obviously less concerned with sticking to the original story. Nowhere in the various accounts of Jupiter's seduction of Leda, wife of King Tydnareus of Sparta by the god taking the form of a swan, is there mention of a second female as beautiful as Leda herself. And although by their coupling, Leda and Jupiter would produce Castor and Pollux as well as Helen and Clytaemnestra, Boucher's painting hints at none of this. Unlike most representations of the scene, Cupid, the little god of love, is nowhere present. Nor does this craning swan invoke the usual menacing lust of the most powerful of the gods. Indeed the swan is depicted in a way which seems deliberately calculated to contradict the phallic symbolism of its outstreteched neck. | <urn:uuid:20f79b4a-fb4e-48bb-92d8-0304ff1c3c2c> | {
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Good Manners Responsibility Flash Cards
This product is unavailable
Good manners have never been so easy to learn! A polite piggy walks your little ones through a series of situations requiring good manners. One side of the card asks what approach or response would be suitable for a situation while the reverse side provides a good suggestion. This set was lovingly designed by eeBoo.
- Recommended For Kids 5 Years And Older, But Appropriate For As Young As 3 Years
- Includes 48 durable flashcards and a sturdy storage box with pullout drawer
- Laminated cards measure 4.5 x 6 inches
- Designed in New York City by the talented artists at eeBoo
- Made in China
- CHOKING HAZARD--Small Parts. Not For Children Under 3 Years. | <urn:uuid:947b43bf-0786-4e6f-beaa-acce1dfad5bf> | {
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Changing Our Approach Towards Charity
Giving back to the world and helping those in need is a concept we are taught from a young age. Philanthropy is considered to be a noble initiative, and with incomes growing around the world there is more money going to charitable causes than ever before. In fact, it has been estimated that since 1960, over four trillion dollars have been spend on aid, an amount that is too huge to even comprehend. While there have been tremendous accomplishments in international development, from the eradication of polio in India to the astonishing economic growth of East Asia, there are nevertheless 2.8 billion people living under $2 a day – that is almost half the people on the planet – and this is an unacceptable statistic.
In the last few decades, a new movement has been forming that is changing the way altruism is being approached: this movement is called Effective Altruism (EA), spear-headed by Princeton professor Peter Singer. Rigorous cost-benefit analysis is conducted in order to understand which causes are most effective to give to; effectiveness is evaluated in terms of the most good/impact of a unit of money donated.
A charity called GiveWell has deemed four charities as conducive to effective giving, in terms of most impact per donation. These are the Against Malaria Foundation, Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (treatment for parasitic intestinal worms), De-worm the World and GiveDirectly (directly transferring money to poor individuals, allowing them to purchase that which they believe will help them most). These charities are doing some great work- for example a child can be de-wormed for only 53 cents, and a bed net to protect against malaria-carrying mosquitoes can be bought for around $5. Donations are going directly to these tangible solutions that are making a direct impact on the health and wellbeing of those in need.
Effective altruism equips the heart with the tools of the head. Doing philanthropy is more rewarding when you have a clear picture of what it is you’re accomplishing and when those accomplishments are significant.
-Johnstuart Winchell, a final-year student at McGill University in Montreal, Canada
In the Photo: Charity Credit: Impakter/Maha Kabir.
Despite the trillions of dollars that have been spent on aid in the last several decades, there are still so many pressing problems in the world, from maternal health to lack of education to extreme hunger. Therefore there is an inherent need for our aid to be more effective, for it to make more of a difference than the aid has before. Consequently, Evidence Action places great emphasis on getting the most bang for the buck. Johnstuart Winchell – a final-year student at McGill University in Montreal, Canada who started the first chapter of EA McGill last year – agrees that this is imperative to the altruistic process. He says that “not getting the most bang for your buck means that you could have saved more lives, cured more ailments, sent more children to school, and so on.”
While this makes sense and it would be hard to justify not giving to a cause where your money would be doing the most good, the question arises of what altruism should really be about. As Johnstuart says, “Effective altruism equips the heart with the tools of the head. Doing philanthropy is more rewarding when you have a clear picture of what it is you’re accomplishing and when those accomplishments are significant.”
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On a trip to a village in rural Bangladesh after my high school graduation, I met a young boy named Robi who was one of the brightest and kindest children I have ever met. He was completely deaf, and communicated through hand actions and facial expressions. He was the only child in the village who didn’t attend school, though the primary school teachers told me that in terms his level of cleverness and perception he was one in a million. I was so touched by Robi’s story, and so saddened that in the circumstances of poverty he was born into, there was no system to integrate deaf individuals into society and thus he would never have the chance to reach his full potential.
One of the most prominent charities for breaking down barriers for deaf children in developing nations is Deaf Child Worldwide. Through donations Deaf Child Worldwide facilitates transportation to cities to learn sign language, awareness campaigns to challenge the stigma, and training courses in skills to help deaf people find employment, each costing approximately $15, $15 and $85 respectively.
Since meeting Robi the challenges of deaf children in the developing world has become an important issue to me, but effective altruists would say that it would be more optimal to give those $85 to de-worming 170 children rather than training sessions for one deaf individual. By helping 170 children be cured from intestinal worms, yes, I would be getting the most bang for my buck, but where do Robi or the millions of other deaf children fit into the equation?
Johnstuart also addressed the philosophy behind the EA movement. As he says, “effectiveness in altruism is important if you believe that all human lives are of equal value. Assuming you hold this belief, helping more people rather than fewer is the consistent thing to do,” he says. “If you give to a charity that will use your money to help one person instead of a charity that would help two, you are implicitly valuing that one life over the lives of two.”
In the Photo: Robi in his village of Gush Kande. Credit: M. Ash Zul Parquear.
This is where I see a problem with the core philosophy of EA. It has a very black and white outlook on altruism; if you give to fewer people with the same amount of money you are valuing some lives more than others. I find that to be a harsh and unrealistic claim. By giving $85 to training a deaf individual in skills to find employment, I am not giving less value to the lives of children with malaria.
Altruism is not about doing a constant cost-benefit analysis in our minds. Sometimes there are experiences that we have that shift our attention towards one cause, without valuing that human life over the millions of others in need. Altruism is about making a difference in the lives of others, and I think that EA sometimes leaves out this human connection and empathetic aspect of giving.
Johnstuart argues that “giving would be more effective if people were more empathetic. Where is our empathy for children dying far away, if we are giving to causes that do much less, all because the beneficiaries live closer to us or suffer from ailments we are familiar with?” While I agree with this, I think that giving to a cause with which you have a close familiarity/connection is not necessarily akin to a lack of empathy towards other causes.
Mathew Snow – a Ph.D. student in philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh who wrote an excellent piece in the Jacobin Magazine, “Against Charity” – was also kind enough to give his views on EA. He pointed out the flaws in EA by examining the inconsistent application of its core moral principle. “We ought to reduce the suffering of others so long as doing so does not require sacrificing anything nearly as important. The reason we need philanthropists is that things like food, water, shelter, and basic medical care are produced and/or distributed according to capitalist market logic,” says Mathew. “Philanthropy makes human needs profitable where it otherwise wouldn’t be. I think the moral principle behind EA naturally lends itself to anti-capitalism. Yet most EAs are either pro-capitalism or neutral.”
In “Against Charity,” Mathew looked at the relationship between EA and capitalism. Many effective altruists encourage millennials to work for Wall Street, for example so that their large salaries can make a big difference if put to effective causes. But Mathew argues that capitalism is what has created many problems in the first place; “As charities and Effective Altruists publicize how badly the global poor need food, for example, capital acquires and controls their fertile land, using it to grow crops that can be sold for higher returns to populations with deeper pockets.”
In the Photo: Effects of capitalism. Photo Credit:Impakter/Maha Kabir
As he further argues in his article, “the capitalist class is transformed into our most potent possible savior, and the moral philosophers behind it all turn into accountants and marketers for charities…This insidious state of affairs could be avoided if we just consistently applied the uncontroversial moral principle underlying Effective Altruism: we ought to help others when we can do so without sacrificing anything nearly as important.”
One could argue that the world capitalist system is very much entrenched in the functionings of our world, and that EA is merely trying to make the most impact out of the global economic structure we are currently in. Mathew disagrees: “the movement cannot be conceived as trying its best to make the most difference given our global economic situation. That involves understanding the situation, seeing its problems for what they are, guarding against misconceptions about the significance of charity in this context, and actively fighting to change that global economic situation with more than just money. As it stands, EA doesn’t promote any of these things as a movement. Some members of it might, but this has no bearing on how we should evaluate the movement itself. The movement can do better. We can do better.”
Apart from the moral and philosophical roots of EA, what impact is it having on sustainable international development? Development is a very complex, multilayered phenomenon, with political, social, economic, cultural and environmental dimensions, to name a few. Yes, de-worming a child would substantially increase their quality of life and increase their ability to learn/be a contributing member of their community. But does it really contribute to the long-term development of a society, or is it more of a quick “Band-Aid” solution? What actions are being put in place to ensure that child does not get intestinal worms again, or that healthy children in a rural village will have the opportunity to make something of themselves?
Johnstuart explains that there are some EA organizations such as Open Philanthropy Project that focus on systemic change and tackling large structural problems. He also argues that non-systemic change can contribute to systemic change: “If people are healthier and more educated, they are more able to stand up to systemic injustice. Simply giving money to poor people [through GiveWell, which gives unconditional cash transfers to those most in need] may seem like a Band-Aid solution, but numerous randomized trials have demonstrated that these transfers have long-term effects.”
If people are healthier and more educated, they are more able to stand up to systemic injustice.
Mathew has an alternative view on the relationship between EA and development, addressing that EA interventions “may save lives but it leaves those saved in the same precarious position. This position of powerlessness is the deeper problem for which more “Band-Aids” will always be necessary. In some cases, they do consider how to empower the impoverished. People like Peter Singer praise micro-lending, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg preach of empowerment by education and internet connectivity, etc. The idea is familiar: give a man a fish and he’ll eat for a day, but teach a man to fish and he’ll eat for a lifetime. The problem is that, in practice, these interventions are more akin to charging people to learn how to fish and loaning them money to buy fishing equipment, only to enter a global marketplace in which most will fail and those who succeed only do so at the expense of others in that community and around the world. This is not what empowerment looks like.”
It is important to remember the true goal of philanthropy: to do our best to give back to the world, and make a difference to the lives of those who have not been as lucky as we have. There is much debate on the true effectiveness of EA, not just on its effects on development but the very philosophical crux of its existence. EA is a relatively new field, and despite the limitations that have been discussed in this article, it is a revolutionary approach to philanthropy. It is an incredible feeling to know that the few dollars in my wallet can make such a profound difference to those suffering around the world.
Looking at the cost-effectiveness of aid is important, considering the plethora of problems our world faces despite the trillions of dollars that have been poured into development projects and humanitarian giving. Going forward however, altruism needs to be coupled with challenging the systems that are in place if we want to make a long-term, impactful difference in our world. | <urn:uuid:88c7daa4-8c11-4729-88a5-11337808efc2> | {
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Vitamin E refers to a group of eight fat-soluble compounds that include both tocopherols and tocotrienols. There are many different forms of vitamin E, of which .-tocopherol is the most common in the North American diet.
-Tocopherol can be found in corn oil, soybean oil, margarine and dressings. In the North American diet,
-Tocopherol, the most biologically active form of vitamin E, is the second most common form of vitamin E. This variant of vitamin E can be found most abundantly in wheat germ oil, sunflower, and safflower oils. It is a fat-soluble antioxidant that stops the production of reactive oxygen species formed when fat undergoes oxidation.
Vitamin E has many biological functions; the antioxidant function being the most important and/or best known. Other functions include enzymatic activities, gene expression and neurological function(s).
It's also been suggested that the most important function of vitamin E is in cell signaling (and, that it may not have a significant role in antioxidant metabolism).
As an antioxidant, vitamin E acts as a peroxyl radical scavenger, preventing the propagation of free radicals in tissues, by reacting with them to form a tocopheryl radical which will then be oxidized by a hydrogen donor (such as Vitamin C) and thus return to its reduced state. As it is fat-soluble, it is incorporated into cell membranes, which protects them from oxidative damage.
. As an enzymatic activity regulator, for instance, protein kinase C (PKC), which plays a role in smooth muscle growth, can be inhibited by .-tocopherol. .-Tocopherol has a stimulatory effect on the dephosphorylation enzyme, protein phosphatase 2A, which in turn, cleaves phosphate groups from PKC leading to its deactivation, bringing the smooth muscle growth to a halt.
Vitamin E also has an effect on gene expression. Macrophages rich in cholesterol are found in the atherogenetic tissue. Scavenger receptor CD36 is a class B scavenger receptor found to be up-regulated by oxidized low density lipoprotein (LDL) and binds it. Treatment with alpha tocopherol was found to downregulate the expression of the CD36 scavenger receptor gene and the scavenger receptor class A (SR-A) and modulates expression of the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF). CTGF gene, when expressed, is responsible for the repair of wounds and regeneration of the extracellular tissue that is lost or damaged during atherosclerosis.
. Vitamin E also plays a role in neurological functions, and inhibition of platelet aggregation.
Vitamin E also protects lipids and prevents the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs.)
Vitamin E deficiency can cause:
- spinocerebellar ataxia
- peripheral neuropathy
- skeletal myopathy
- impairment of the immune response
- erythrocyte hemolysis
ReferencesRef: ^ Brigelius-Flohe, B; Traber (1999). "Vitamin E: function and metabolism". FASEB 13: 1145.1155.
. ^ Traber, MG (1998). "The biological activity of vitamin E". The Linus Pauling Institute. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
. ^ Bieri, JG; Evarts (1974). ".-Tocopherol: metabolism, biological activity and significance in human vitamin E nutrition". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 27 (9): 980.986. PMID 4472121.
. ^ a b c Brigelius-Flohé R, Traber MG (1 July 1999). "Vitamin E: function and metabolism". FASEB J. 13 (10): 1145.55. PMID 10385606.
. ^ Reboul E, Richelle M, Perrot E, Desmoulins-Malezet C, Pirisi V, Borel P (15 November 2006). "Bioaccessibility of carotenoids and vitamin E from their main dietary sources". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (23): 8749.8755. doi:10.1021/jf061818s. PMID 17090117.
. ^ a b c d e f g h i National Institute of Health (4 May 2009). "Vitamin E fact sheet".
. ^ a b Herrera; Barbas, C (2001). "Vitamin E: action, metabolism and perspectives". Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry 57 (2): 43.56. doi:10.1007/BF03179812. PMID 11579997.
. ^ Packer L, Weber SU, Rimbach G (2001). "Molecular aspects of .-tocotrienol antioxidant action and cell signalling". Journal of Nutrition 131 (2): 369S.73S. PMID 11160563.
. ^ a b c d Bell, EF (1987). "History of vitamin E in infant nutrition". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46 (1 Suppl): 183.186. PMID 3300257.
. ^ Azzi (2007). "Molecular mechanism of alpha-tocopherol action". Free radical biology & medicine 43 (1): 16.21. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.013. PMID 17561089.
. ^ Zingg; Azzi, A (2004). "Non-antioxidant activities of vitamin E". Current medicinal chemistry 11 (9): 1113.33. PMID 15134510.
Fri May 19 12:17:44 CDT 2006
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The Internet's best source of news and information about Vitamin C - ascorbic acid! | <urn:uuid:c5b438b8-b752-472c-becc-6c23a5f33997> | {
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A marriage of new and old technology
By Greg Napert
Because of its size, the Rolls-Royce Tay engine is considered somewhat of a transitional engine between corporate aircraft and transport category aircraft. But it's more than its size that makes it a transitional engine. Its technology is such that it combines older hydromechanical controls with sophisticated aircraft electronics to bring proven and reliable technology up to the 21st century. There are over 1,500 Rolls-Royce Tay engines operating worldwide on Gulfstream, Fokker-100, and some Boeing 727 aircraft. There are basically four derivatives of the Tay — the 611, 620, 650, and 651 with thrust ratings from 13,850 pounds to 15,400 pounds.
According to John Masella, senior instructor for Rolls-Royce Product Support Canada Inc., "If you are familiar with the Spey, you see that the Tay has many of the same components, so one might assume that it works the same way. That's essentially true at the component level, but the way in which the Tay engine is controlled is quite different." To understand the control system on the Tay, it helps to have an understanding of the older Spey engine. Masella explains, "The older Spey's control system is designed from the outset to be a full throttle, fully-automated control system. Speys use engine pressure ratio (EPR) just for takeoff. During the climb and cruise phase, the pilot sets the thrust using temperature and shaft speed.
"When the Tay came along, some method had to be created to adapt a 30-year-old hydromechanical control system to a 1980s electronic aircraft. The key to doing that was to introduce digital EPR. Unlike the Spey, the Tay has an EPR system that's used throughout the flight envelope. Because it's digital, it can talk to the autothrottle system and the flight management system. The important difference on the Tay is that the control system isn't intended to give the pilot takeoff thrust at full throttle — instead the pilot (or autothrottle system) moves the throttle lever until the required EPR for the day is achieved. A digital EPR that can talk to an autothrottle system is the key," he says.
"In other words," Masella says, "the Tay's digital EPR signal can be used by a modern aircraft's autoflight system for thrust management while allowing the engine to retain the N2 governing hydromechanical fuel control system, which was originally designed for use on the Spey engine.
"It's the best of a hydromechanical design that's inherently quite reliable and simple, and vastly cheaper than fitting a brand new electronic control system."
Troubleshooting and maintenance
Besides the required overhauls, the Tay is relatively maintenance free. Even the fuel nozzles and igniters experience very few problems and need to be addressed only on rare occasions.
David J. Hewitt, director of Customer Support and Marketing for Rolls-Royce Canada, agrees, "The Tay is generally a very reliable engine. It doesn't give too many on-wing problems and we're very fortunate."
As with any piece of equipment of such a complex nature, there are always problems which need to be addressed as part of the troubleshooting and maintenance regime.
Hewitt says, "Of the few problems we experience with the Tay, one of them that can be troublesome is vibration problems related to the low pressure fan. Generally speaking, this is rectified by a trim balance of the fan, where we actually do a balance by putting weights on the fan disc and balancing the fan out itself with the fan installed on the aircraft. The flight crew will notice the vibration through a combination of instrument indications and a buzz in the cockpit. It then is verified through a spectrum analysis conducted with vibration monitoring equipment. The noticeable vibration is sometimes interpreted by the flight crew as a synchronization problem similar to that which is encountered with propeller-driven aircraft. However, this is not the case with turbine fans — it is strictly related to vibration/balance characteristics. As little as 3.0 to 4.0 grams of weight removed from or added to a blade can have a large impact on the vibration characteristics of the engine," he says.
"We have always had success eliminating these vibrations in a minimal amount of time. The Tay is easy to balance because the imbalance is almost always a condition of uneven weight distribution. We don't really have problems on the Tay with blade hang-up or what we call 'shingling' as is the case on the older Spey. The Tay fan is a 'wide chord' fan — there is no mid span supports onto which the blades can hang up."
A common question from the field is how the fan becomes out of balance in the first place. Doesn't the fan get balanced during the manufacturing process, and aren't these problems worked out in the test cell prior to installation on the aircraft?
Hewitt explains, "It's really impossible to totally eliminate this problem in the overhaul shop. It's simply a characteristic of the engine we have to deal with. For instance, we can have an engine that is perfectly balanced in the shop and it passes the test on the test bed and has gone through all the vibration surveys, and we install it on the wing of the airplane and may have problems with balance. Although vibrations were not registered in the test cell, the fact that an airplane is a relatively good amplifier results in minute vibrations being picked up and transmitted throughout the aircraft to the rudder pedals, power levers, and in other areas of the aircraft as a buzzing sound.
"Some of the other vibration indications that we see in the cockpit often turn out to be false. We occasionally see stray signals that are the result of dirty cannon plugs or connectors for the transducers, or a bit of oil gets on the transducer which transmits a false signal. Under these circumstances, you will not hear the vibration or feel it. Instead, you will see it on the vibration monitor and it is typically a fluctuating signal. This is often indicative of a contaminated plug or loose cannon plug. Air in the engine fuel system could have a similar effect. This slug of air can be induced via the fuel drains mechanism," he says.
Real balance problems," Hewitt explains, "typically only occur after a major event such as an overhaul or a fan change, or if you have had some damage that required blade dressing. Once you've performed the trim balance, it's very rare to have any repeat problems. I don't recall having to go back after several years and having to rebalance the fan. The fan is a very robust piece and once you trim it properly, there shouldn't be any further problems.
"In the event of a blade that is damaged, for one reason or another, it is quite easy to find a replacement blade that is the exact same weight as the damaged one. If we can't do that, we replace the damaged blade and the blade directly opposite it with two evenly weighted blades. The manufacturing processes and engineering involved in manufacturing the blades is so good today that the blades are very closely matched in terms of weight and form. As a result, it is rare that we have to change opposite blades. If we have a bird strike, for instance, we can usually get away with changing the damaged blades and then performing a trim balance," Hewitt says.
On rare occasions, a trim balance may not work. Hewitt says, "This may be due to the blade and hub combination and in this case, we resort to actually pulling the fan blades from the engine and re-indexing the blades to the hub. This simply consists of removing the blades from the hub and shifting their position relative to the hub. A final step, if all else is unsuccessful, would be to 're-clock' or 're-datum' the hub. This entails removing the blades from the hub, removing the fan hub, and reclocking the same hub up to 180 degrees from its original coupling location. Blades are then replaced in their original slots. The trim balance operation will confirm success. This procedure can be accomplished with the engine installed."
The typical Tay installation today, such as on the GIV, includes a continuous vibration monitoring system which monitors the LP and the HP system. You can actually select each one of these frequencies to monitor it during flight or at any time.
A marriage of new and old technology
By Greg Napert
P3 air gasket leaks
Another problem that can challenge technicians and create troublesome operational characteristics on the Tay is related to P3 air gasket leaks. Hewitt explains, "The fuel flow regulating system on the engine is such that you set the power lever at an HP speed setting and the engine will automatically maintain that HP setting with minimal throttle lever movement. The fuel flow regulator controls the HP setting and senses various delivery air pressures throughout the engine such as P2.6 and P3 — that's HP1 inlet pressure and HP12 delivery pressure. If you get a leak at either of those air signals to the fuel flow regulator, it will give you a false scheduling for your particular climb performance, cruise performance, or takeoff.
"Any of these could cause the fuel flow regulator to malschedule. Some external seals on the fuel flow regulator have generated leaks, which usually show up as slow acceleration or "hunting throttles" with autothrottle selected. Hunting throttles occur when throttles are set at cruise and one throttle hunts back and forth and all of the parameters follow suit. What's really happening at the fuel control is that there may be an uncontrolled air scheduling leak and the unit is trying to correct for that leakage.
"These seals or gaskets, once made from asbestos, held up well in the heat being generated by air coming off the HP compressor and into the fuel flow regulator. Following the ban on asbestos, other materials have been used, but they haven't worked as well.
"Lucas, which manufactures the fuel control, has been working on modifications which should eliminate the occasional air leak problem, but it still exists as we speak.
Hewitt continues, "When any of these symptoms appear, we change these seals in the field right away. We were not allowed to change the seals previously because of the procedures necessary to seat the seals properly. We now have clearance to change the majority of these external seals with the engine installed on the aircraft. Specific procedures for installing these seals involve removing the fuel flow regulator from the engine, installing the new seals, heating the unit in an oven, and heat soaking it for about five hours with the new seals, which are re-torqued throughout the heat soaking process. An alternative is to remove the unit and send it to Lucas and they will perform the procedure and have it back to you in a short time.
"To determine whether or not you have a problem, use a soapy solution and spray it in the general area of the seals with the engine running. If you see small bubbles, you know you have a problem, because even a small amount of leakage can cause a scheduling problem. Some internal seals in the fuel regulator can cause problems which are more difficult to diagnose. Essentially, if you have performance problems or throttle hunting problems, and you can't find a leak externally, you can pretty much deduce that it's an internal malfunction," he says.
Masella adds, "There were some fundamental changes made to the fuel flow regulator which have reduced the number of seals for both the fuel and air, resulting in less leakage. The problem principally is at the inlet connector, so using soapy water at the inlet connector can tell you if it is leaking. A note of caution: next to the inlet connector, there is a small pinhole moisture vent that will produce bubbles during a leak check. Don't mistake this for a leak — it's perfectly normal, but there shouldn't be any bubbles anywhere else. Masella continues, "To repair the seals, you need to remove the P3 block which is removed with four bolts. Keep in mind that if you do that, the P3 block must be returned to the same fuel flow regulator as they are calibrated together as a unit.
Hewitt says, "Quite often if we are unsure of exactly what the problem is, we will change the fuel flow regulator as a matter of course to verify that the problem is with the regulator."
Hewitt continues, "I like to think of the fuel flow regulator as the carburetor of your engine — it houses all the control functions of the engine.
"A problem with hunting throttles can also be attributable to programming of the autothrottle electronics. There have been some software updates and this can also solve the problem. I have seen cases where correcting a hunting autothrottle can require a combination of fixing P3 air leaks and software upgrades."
Increase in LP at the top of climb
Hewitt says, "All Rolls-Royce engines have what we refer to as a Ôbelt and braces' controlling mechanism. There are four of these control mechanisms or Ôlimiters': the LP governor, HP speed, overspeed high turbine gas temperature (TGT) control mechanism, and P3. If the engine goes into an overspeed condition or the temperature rises to the maximum limit, the engine will be controlled automatically.
"The Tay is known as a pilot's engine because if an emergency requires the use of full throttle, the limiters within the control system will prevent engine rotor speeds, temperatures, and pressures from reaching unsafe values. One of these limiters is the LP speed governor which limits low pressure fan rotational speed. We have had events related to the LP governor, associated with a sudden increase in LP speed and a resulting exceedence at the top of climb when the aircraft levels off at cruise. We have found that this is generally caused by the LP governor setting drifting on the high side. This results in a minor exceedence of the LP assembly that is dispatched as an alert on the flight panel. If this happens, the pilot can simply pull back on the throttles to correct it temporarily and report it to the maintenance department. Typically, all that is required is a simple adjustment to the LP governor."
By-pass duct air leak
Hewitt adds, "Another area that can cause the crew to report a discrepancy between LP engine speeds is if you have any kind of an air leak at the outer bypass duct panels. This can be as simple as one of the bypass panels not being shrouded properly. A small leak of bypass air in the outer air duct could offload the LP compressor and the speed will rise marginally. Any of the access panels or a combination of panels on the outer bypass duct can cause this. It's like opening a bleed air valve and releasing bleed air — the rpm will go up. A dark stain on the trailing edge of a panel can be a tip-off to this leakage.
"We had an instance where the crew had been complaining for over a year that the LP speed on one engine was consistently higher. The maintenance department checked but couldn't find anything. It wasn't until later, when the time expired engine was removed, that we exposed a certain bushing on the inboard side of the engine that was causing an air leak. It was where the fuel burner nozzle or arm goes through the bypass panel. The sleeve had caulked, and there was air being released from this sleeve," Hewitt says.
Hewitt explains, "A power run-down is a tendency for the engine to run down to sub-idle condition. We saw only one case on the GIV but more on the F-100. This turned out to be a calibration drift of the fuel flow regulator or incorrect acceleration settings. During service, you can check the acceleration time, and if the acceleration time is slow, you could have an under-fueling condition. That under-fueling condition has an effect on the operation of the engine throughout its operating range. If you've lost power, or the load on the engine changes with increased air bleeds or electrical loads, the engine doesn't have the degree of over-fueling that's required to maintain the selected power. That degree of over-fueling is set by the acceleration control on the fuel flow regulator. If your acceleration times and deceleration times are set incorrectly, it can have an effect on the engine throughout its operating range — including the engine start sequence. Results can be hot or hung starts, etc. Setting the acceleration and deceleration settings correctly will usually rectify run-down and starting problems. Occasionally, however, you do have a calibration drift of the fuel flow regulator and you will need to pull it and have it recalibrated on the bench."
Too much oil
Hewitt says, "Remember to wait 15 to 30 minutes after shutdown to service the oil on the Tay engine. By over-servicing the Tay you'll end up with oil covering the engine. If you leave it longer than 3/4 hour, then you should fire up the engine and run it at idle for a couple of minutes and then shut it down to check the oil."
Masella adds, "Despite the use of correct servicing procedures, the engine can still show evidence of air/oil mist, for example, at the engine's cooling air outlet duct. A current Mod Action from Gulfstream improves the sealing between this vent outlet and the cowl to reduce the amount of oil staining on the engine."
Ready to go
Masella says that Rolls-Royce is continuously working on making changes to improve the operating characteristics of the Tay engine. In addition to working with Lucas to eliminate P3 air leaks, upcoming changes to the Tay include elimination of the temperature limiting actuator to simplify engine controls; the addition of an air canister which serves as an "air capacitor" for the pneumatic chamber on the fuel flow regulator (to dampen the rate of engine response at altitude to prevent surges); and a modification to the fuel drain collector tank to reduce overboard spills.
Hewitt adds, "The name of the game in corporate aviation is dispatch reliability. When the chairman of the company calls and says he needs the aircraft at such and such a time, it better be ready. Because of this, the corporate aircraft can be a bit more expensive to maintain than the average airline aircraft. The corporate operator wants 100 percent dispatch reliability and this can cost money. Nonetheless, it's the maintenance personnel that must take the wrath of the chairman if the aircraft isn't ready — that's just the nature of corporate aviation." | <urn:uuid:17c53247-8806-4178-b1ec-71929f4b31ae> | {
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Injection Moulding (or Molding to use the US spelling) ranks as one of the primary manufacturing processes for producing plastics articles. It is a fast process and is used to produce large numbers of identical items – from high precision engineering components to disposable consumer goods.
Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials, including thermoplastics. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel and melted by use of electrical heating and friction. The melted plastic is then injected (forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity.
Injection moulding tools (moulds)
The central part of the process is the die, or mould which contains the cavities and the cooling system. moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. A single tool can contain from 1 to several hundred cavities, depending on the size and complexity of the part.
Production quality moulds are made from hardened steel, the grade is chosen based on the type of plastic to be moulded, the surface finish required and the temperature at which the tool will run. Prototype moulds or those where production volumes are very low, are often made of aluminium or unhardened steel.
Carmo work together with a carefully selected group of toolmakers. The supplier for a particular mould is carefully chosen from the competences required, price and delivery deadlines. Our engineers work very closely with the toolmaker to achieve the optimal mould design for short cycle times and accurate part geometry.
Where to use Injection molding
Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process; the material used for the part, the desired shape and features of the part, the material of the mould, and the properties of the moulding machine must all be taken into account. The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations and possibilities.
A thorough understanding of both the toolmaking and injection moulding process is a huge advantage in designing both cost effective and functional parts. It is often possible to combine several parts into one moulding process or assemble and print finished parts directly from the moulding machine. Carmo have a team of experts, with many years of experience, ready to explore possibilities with the customer, as early in the design process as possible.
2K injection moulding
By using two or more plasters, 2 or more materials can be used to fill cavities concurrently og sequentially, allowing for the realisation of very complex components. An example is Carmo’s range of sample port connectors featuring PP, PVC and TPE for tailored properties in the functionality of the end product, and the integration into the assembly line.
It is also possible to mould plastic over other materials, even aluminum and steel. This opens up new possibilities for the part designer. For instance, metal snap fasteners overmoulded with PVC, enabling HF welding to projector screens. Or applicator tips used in operating theatres with inbuilt aluminium wire overmoulded with flexible TPE, enabling previously impossible bending radii. | <urn:uuid:8d30d1e0-2bb1-46b0-931b-84a5c98c0e53> | {
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It’s hard to argue with the importance of teaching students how to use computers — how to turn on, log on, search the Web, and use applications. These skills are absolutely necessary for students’ academic success as well as for their future job prospects.
Being able to use the Internet and operate computers is one thing, but it may be just as valuable to teach students how to code. Giving students an introduction to programming helps peel back the layers of what happens inside computers and how computers communicate with one another online. Programming knowledge, even at a very basic level, makes technology seem less magical and more manageable. Programming also teaches other important skills, including math and logic.
Many students don’t have access to computer science courses until college, and that’s a missed opportunity to introduce younger students to programming. There are many tools out there that provide a great introduction to computer science for K-12 students, but here are a few of our favorites.
Developed by the MIT Media Lab, Scratch is a visual programming language for children age 6 and up. Since its release in 2007, over 800,000 users have joined the Scratch website and have shared over 1.7 million projects — from games to animations. That sharing aspect is an important part of the Scratch community, so the projects that are uploaded to the site are licensed under the Creative Commons attribute and share alike license so that others can download and remix them. Scratch is available free of charge and runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux computers.
Alice is a free and open source 3D programming environment designed to teach students object-oriented and event-driven programming. With Alice, students drag and drop graphic tiles in order to animate an object and create a program. A variant of Alice, Storytelling Alice was developed by Caitlin Kelleher as part of her doctoral work in Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University. By emphasizing animations and social interactions, this approach was found to greatly increase the level of student interest in programming.
Hackety Hack is an open source application that teaches the basics of programming in the popular Ruby language. Hackety Hack offers an interactive tutorial that runs on Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems. While both Scratch and Alice use a graphical programming language with “blocks,” Hackety Hack teaches the basics of Ruby syntax. The tutorial and the text editor are well-integrated, so there isn’t any flipping back-and-forth to move between the How-To guide and the actual coding. Hackety Hack gives students a solid foundation in the language so they can quickly and easily start building their own apps in Ruby.
Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform with both hardware and software components. Arduino’s hardware is programmed with a language similar to C++, and although it may not be the easiest of entry points for learning programming, there’s something about building things that actually move that can be pretty compelling. Projects that use Arduino to introduce children to programming include a modification of Scratch to support simple programming on the Arduino hardware. As Google recently announced that it would allow Android mobile devices to communicate with Arduino hardware, look for more opportunities to work with this platform in the future, perhaps even via the Android App Inventor, a tool that provides a visual interface for building Android apps.
One of the most popular toys in history, Lego may be best known for its brick-building. But Lego Mindstorms also enables robotics-building. Lego Mindstorms’ kits — which can be purchased in educational and consumer versions — include sensors and motors, and the programming is command-box rather than code programming. The kits come with languages supplied by Lego, but can be modified to work with third party languages. Like several of the tools on this list, Lego Mindstorms has its roots at the MIT Media Lab.
These are just a few of the options for introducing someone to programming. What other languages or tools have you used — in the classroom or at home? | <urn:uuid:529ceae9-d505-496b-96f9-fed6e589d5f8> | {
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WASHINGTON — Two hundred years ago Sunday, roads out of Washington, D.C., were clogged with wagons hauling household belongings, bank cash, even government documents.
Citizens of the capital city were on the run in the face of invading British forces. Along with the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attack and the attack on Pearl Harbor, Sunday marks one of the darkest days in United States history.
By the time darkness fell, the nation’s capital was ablaze. The British burned the White House, Capitol, Library of Congress and other government buildings in the young city.
Americans put the torch to the Washington Navy Yard to prevent armaments from falling into enemy hands. Flames from the burning city were visible for miles.
In those chaotic days of the War of 1812, before the United States would chalk up battlefield victories in the fall and in early 1815 in New Orleans, President James Madison sought safe haven in the small Montgomery County town of Brookeville.
He spent two nights in northern Virginia, from where he watched the capital burn then wound up, for a night, in Brookeville along with cabinet members and other Washington refugees. They brought congressional documents and cash from Washington and Georgetown banks to escape the flames.
And this week, Brookeville will commemorate those extraordinary events.
On Saturday, the town that calls itself “U.S. Capital for a Day” will reenact Madison’s arrival.
There will be other historic reenactments plus ceremonies, music, a period- military encampment, craft demonstrations, games for children and a Quaker style dinner at the Longwood Community Center.
On Aug. 30 and 31, weekend festivities in Brookeville will close portions of Route 97 and Market Street.
Shuttle buses will ferry visitors to town from the Glenmont Metro Station, Camp Bennett and Medstar Montgomery Medical Center’s construction lot. | <urn:uuid:a7d1241c-4de5-438e-a129-11df64cf79c2> | {
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by PAUL FASSA
According to the National Coffee Association (NCA) coffee consumption in the U.S. is increasing. More than three-quarters of Americans are confirmed coffee drinkers with 59% reporting they drink a cup of Joe each and every day, while 71% drink it at least once per week. In fact, it ranks as America’s second most popular beverage after water. Americans consume around 400 millions cups of coffee every day. Most coffee beans are imported.
But is it a Healthy Habit?
“Overall, the research shows that coffee is far more healthful than it is harmful; for most people, very little bad comes from drinking it, but a lot of good.”
–Tomas DePaulis, PhD, research scientist at Vanderbilt University’s Institute for Coffee Studies.
Something to Consider
Organic coffee is always a healthier choice than conventional coffee, which is loaded with chemical toxins. Coffee beans are one of the most chemically laden crops. According to the CS Monitor (Christian Science Monitor) 250 Pounds of chemical fertilizers are sprayed on coffee beans per acre. That’s a lot of toxicity, especially if you drink coffee daily. All the coffee studies cited in this article used conventional coffee. If conventional coffee offers such stellar health benefits then logically organic coffee will do the same minus the toxic exposure. While you’re at it be sure and use purified water to make your coffee; not only will your coffee taste better, but you will avoid over 2000 nasty chemicals including fluoride.
Research Confirms a Daily Cup or More of Java is Better than None
Note: All the U.S. coffee studies cited in this article used a standard U.S. 8-ounce cup. The studies did not provide information about the type of coffee used or the method of preparation (espresso, boiled, filtered, etc.) with the exception of the Greek Study. Some researchers, for example, in the Greek study (later in the article) are curious to know what effect if any coffee brewing methods may have on the health promoting compounds in coffee.
Several large studies found that people who drink coffee live longer than those who abstain. Research shows that those who regularly drink coffee, have a lower risk of dying from serious diseases. Approximately 19,000 studies have examined the health benefits of drinking coffee.
In 2012, an innovative and very large observational coffee study was published in the New England Journal of Medicine by Neal D. Freedman Ph.D, et al. entitled: Association of coffee drinking with total and cause-specific mortality.
Researchers questioned 402,260 individuals between 50 and 71 years of age who were all members of the American Association of Retired Persons, about their coffee consumption habits and then did follow-ups on each study participant for approximately 12-13 years.
The study results were unanticipated… those who drank a little less than six cups of coffee significantly lowered their risk of death compared to those who drank less coffee or no coffee.
Observational studies cannot establish a cause and effect relationship between variables. However, they can reveal correlations between variables. In this study, drinking specific amounts of coffee was positively correlated with a lowered risk of death.
As the graph shows the longevity target is around 4-5 cups of coffee per day. Women who drank 2-5 cups of coffee per day reduced their risk of mortality by 16%, whereas men had a 12% reduced risk of death at the same consumption level. Drinking more than 5 cups of coffee per day showed no increased benefits.
Even moderate consumption of coffee (1 cup per day) was correlated with a 5-6% reduction in mortality.
Maybe you’re thinking it’s the caffeine that’s responsible for this effect? Guess what? It’s not the caffeine, because both decaf and regular coffee produced the exact same results.
Bottom Line: “Not only did the results show a clear association between coffee and longevity, Freedman said, but they also indicated people who drank the most coffee tended to have greatest health benefits.”
Greek Coffee, Heart Health and Longevity
A recent study found that Greek coffee may be linked to greater longevity because it protects the heart. The majority of long lived, senior citizens in Ikaria, Greece drink at least one cup daily, according to the study.
Numerous studies have already documented the unusually high rates of longevity among the elderly residents of Ikaria, a pristine island in Greece. The New York Times described Ikaria as “The Island Where People Forget to Die.” In fact, it has one of the highest longevity rates in the world. For example, 10x more Ikarians live beyond the age of 90 compared to Europeans where a mere 0.1 percent of the population is alive and kicking beyond 90. Best of all, Ikarians tend to remain robustly active and engaged in life throughout old age.
Cardiovascular researchers, led by Dr. Gerasimos Siasos of the University of Athens Medical School, decided to investigate the relationship between Ikarians’ custom of drinking Greek coffee and their health. The research team specifically targeted the relationship between coffee consumption and the endothelial layer of cells that line blood vessels to observe the effect on endothelial function. Previous studies had revealed that endothelial health was improved by moderate coffee intake, which reduced the risk of heart disease. The researchers decided to explore Ikarians’ daily habit of drinking boiled Greek coffee and the risk of heart disease as a proxy longevity factor.
The study demonstrated that 87 percent of the participants who drank boiled Greek coffee daily had better endothelial function compared to those who drank other types of coffee. Researchers noted that even those with high blood pressure had better endothelial function when they drank boiled Greek coffee.
“Boiled Greek type of coffee, which is rich in polyphenols and antioxidants and contains only a moderate amount of caffeine, seems to gather benefits compared to other coffee beverages,” Siasos stated.
Coffee is a Major Source of Antioxidants
“Coffee is a rich source of disease-fighting antioxidants. And studies have shown that it may reduce cavities, boost athletic performance, improve moods, and stop headaches — not to mention reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, liver cancer, gall stones, cirrhosis of the liver, and Parkinson’s diseases”
It’s loaded with disease fighting antioxidants. In fact coffee contains more antioxidants than blueberries and broccoli.
Coffee beans contain disease-ravaging antioxidants, called quinines, which become more potent after roasting. According to an American Chemical Society news release, coffee is the leading source of antioxidants in American diets — in part because we drink a ton of it. This type of antioxidant, along with the magnesium found naturally in coffee, affect blood sugar levels and are thought to be responsible for the link to a lower risk of type 2 diabetes.
NOTE: Researchers found that the coffee drinkers were less likely to die from: infections, injuries and accidents, respiratory disease, diabetes, stroke and heart disease.
Coffee and Diabetes
A meta-analysis that examined data from 18 studies with a total participation of 457,922 individuals found: “… every additional cup of coffee consumed in a day was associated with a 7% reduction in the excess risk of diabetes.”
Coffee has an especially protective effect in type II diabetics. For example, in this study, diabetics who regularly drank coffee had a 30% lower risk of death during a 20 year study period.
Bottom Line: Coffee drinkers have a significantly reduced risk of developing type 2 Diabetes.
Coffee Alzheimer’s and Dementia
Bottom Line: Coffee drinkers have a significantly lower risk of succumbing to Alzheimer’s disease, which is the primary cause of dementia worldwide.
Coffee and Parkinson’s
Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, right after Alzheimer’s. It’s characterized by the death of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.
Same as with Alzheimer’s, mainstream medicine has no cure, which makes it that much more important to focus on prevention.
Bottom Line: Those who drank Coffee (with caffeine) lowered their risk of Parkinson’s disease by an impressive 60%. It’s the second most common neurodegenerative disorder.
Coffee and Various Types of Cancer
Coffee was found to be protective against liver cancer, the third leading cause of disease and colorectal cancer the 4th leading cause of disease.
A very large study consisting of 489,706 subjects found that those who drank 4-5 cups of coffee per day had a 15% lower risk of colorectal cancer.
Bottom Line: Coffee drinkers have a statistically significant lower risk of liver and colorectal cancer.
Another study found that coffee drinkers have a lower risk of premature death from all causes.
More Reasons to Start Drinking Coffee on a Daily Basis: Scientific Reasons Coffee is Healthy
Paul Fassa is a contributing staff writer for REALfarmacy.com. His pet peeves are the Medical Mafia’s control over health and the food industry and government regulatory agencies’ corruption. Paul’s valiant contributions to the health movement and global paradigm shift are world renowned. Visit his blog by following this link and follow him on Twitter here. | <urn:uuid:3a96bb53-28b4-4611-b8b1-26d18a8b99de> | {
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We hear it and teach it frequently: Building construction and fire behavior are areas in which firefighters and officers must be well versed.
However, we never really identify the specifics of those two topics, which are broad at best, leaving us with the same old classes of construction types and light-weight construction. It is high time we get specific with building construction and what it means tactically for firefighter and officers.
With the recent event involving a metal roof at a residential structure, it is a good idea to address some challenges when operating on and below metal roofs. Every type of construction and its components creates a different set of challenges that we must be prepared for.
Although, in this case, the residential structure was wood frame, it had components more commonly found on commercial buildings. The differentiation between residential and commercial construction methods is becoming much less obvious.
No matter what type of roof we are operating on there are some very basic tactics that should be employed.
- Use a roof ladder and operate off of it.
- Operate from the up-wind side.
- Have more than one way off the roof.
- Use full PPE including SCBA, and be on air when there is active fire below.
- Have the right tools to do the job; this may include saws, blades, hooks and axes.
- Communicate with the interior crew and command about your efforts and the effectiveness of those efforts.
- Get down as soon as your task is complete.
Residential metal roofs aren't all that new, but we are seeing an increase in their use, primarily due to the economics and durability of the material. These metal roofs are not those of your grandparents or great-grandparents where they were just plain metal or tin. Today's metal roofs are coated to withstand ultraviolet rays and harsh weather conditions and to allow for attractive colors.
What lies beneath
The real problem is not so much the metal roof as much as what lies beneath it. The unknown layers of asphalt shingles or other roofing material is what really creates the problems for us on the inside.
Not knowing what and how much material is below the metal roof means ventilation may take longer — and the need for multiple tools and blades is very real. We must expect problems when operating on these roofs and venting them.
Additionally, these materials insulate the attic spaces, like they are supposed to, and when these roofs try to off-gas this insulation creates more heat and gas that has nowhere to go. The metal roof does not off-gas and deflects the heat to the only place it can, down.
This forced downward pressure can cause the interior environment to change for the worse rapidly and unexpectedly for firefighters operating on the interior. There are only three ways to avoid this, don't make the interior, get to the fire fast to make a quick knock down and finally to ventilate the space to allow trapped heat and gases to escape.
Making the push faster is dependent upon the training and experience of the suppression crew and the number of firefighters moving the line. If we don't have the resources to move the line quickly on a progressing fire, we may have to alter our interior attack tactics until we can get appropriate resources or get the space vented.
Not going in is an option, but one we don't like, especially if the space is tenable when we arrive. But, any time we are making the push on the interior and deciding to put crews inside, we must consider what is going to happen minutes from now and plan for those expectations. That might mean that we keep crews out of the building.
Venting is a viable option if we can determine some characteristics about the fire and the roof.
- Do we know where the fire is?
- Do we know where the fire is going?
- Can we determine what type of roof assembly we are dealing with, such as truss versus legacy rafters?
- Do we have the resources to make an efficient, coordinated attack with ventilation?
We cannot blindly put firefighters on any roof. We must have a very good idea where the fire is in order to effectively perform vertical ventilation on any roof, especially a metal roof. Venting at the wrong location can contribute to fire spread and making conditions worse.
We also need to understand where the fire is going. For the same reasons we need to know where it is, we must have an educated idea of where it is going. We don't want to get crews trapped on a roof by fast advancing fire in an attic or upper level.
Obviously, we have more stability and mass to deal with when operating on a legacy-built roof as compared with engineered truss roof systems. It does buy us a little time, but don't get a false sense of security. If the roof sheeting becomes compromised, falling into the space below is a real hazard.
Finally, we must have the resources to perform the tasks. You may need to consider alternate tactics like horizontal ventilation due to the lack of resources to perform all of the functions of a well-coordinated attack.
While actually operating on a metal roof some hazards and extra challenges that you need to be prepared for are:
- Metal roofs can be slick even when dry, but especially so when wet or covered with ice and snow.
- They cover older roofing materials; take extra tools that will allow you to penetrate multiple materials.
- Look for discoloration on the metal as a sign of where the roof sheeting is very hot or compromised.
- Roof ladder hooks may not penetrate and grab the metal roofing material, extra effort may be needed to seat the roof ladder.
As with any tactic, training and knowledge are key. You must understand how these systems work and choose tactics based on that knowledge. Practice placing ladders and operating on pitches if at all possible and know the capabilities of your tools. Communicating that your progress is positive or negative is an absolute so that the interior crew can make a safe exit or alternative ventilation tactics can be deployed in a timely manner.
Train hard and learn the lessons from others and be productive. I'll see you next month, right here From the Fireground. | <urn:uuid:ef3d35f2-58b1-4c0b-9e5d-547bce05d267> | {
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Something's rotten in the port of Manila -- and the stench is 100 per cent "Made in Canada."
In June, 2013, 50 school bus-sized shipping containers arrived at the docks of the Philippines' capital city. They were marked as plastic from Canada, destined for recycling in the Philippines. The containers sat unclaimed for eight months until they began to emit a potent stink impossible to ignore. In February, Philippine media reported how port officials cracked the giant crates open to find tonnes of plastic mixed with garbage -- including dirty diapers. More than 20,000 Filipinos have added their names to a Change.org petition calling on Canada to take back our trash.
How would you feel if your neighbour dumped his garbage in your yard?
Every week, Canadians vigilantly set our recycling bins at the curb, piled high with empty yogurt tubs and plastic water bottles. Increasingly, we take our obsolete cell phones and broken TVs to depots rather than trashing them. Canada has a strong recycling system that sees a majority of our used plastics and old electronics reclaimed. But it's not perfect. According to international environmental groups, tonnes of our recyclables are still shipped overseas, causing environmental and health problems in developing nations like China, India and the Philippines. And Canada's government opposes stronger international laws to ban rich nations from dumping their trash on the world's poor.
When the city truck collects your recycling bin, the materials go to a facility to be sorted. Once the plastic is separated from metal and glass, it is sold on the open market. According to the Canadian Plastics Industry Association, 83 per cent is purchased for processing in North America by privately-owned recycling facilities. But 14 per cent -- 39,900 metric tonnes in 2012, equal to 2,400 school buses -- is purchased by businesses that resell it overseas.
Environmental groups like the Seattle-based Basel Action Network (BAN) tell us that in developing countries the plastics are often burned, not recycled. Paeng Lopez, of the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives in the Philippines, told us in his country the plastics and other waste are purchased by cement factories to burn for heat and power.
When it comes to our old electronics, the Electronic Products Recycling Association (EPRA) has established systems in eight provinces (Alberta established its own system, and New Brunswick has not joined yet) for collecting and safely processing e-waste here in Canada. The EPRA estimates the businesses participating in its system are recycling 100,000 metric tonnes of e-waste every year.
But it's impossible to count the many more tonnes that are not caught by EPRA systems, and find their way overseas, according to BAN's Jim Puckett. He has tracked hundreds of shipping containers of Canadian e-waste in the past six years to places like Hong Kong. From there it is illegally funnelled into mainland China.
In developing countries, e-waste is usually brought to massive facilities where it is processed by impoverished labourers who have little protection against the toxins they are exposed to, according to BAN and India's Toxic Links organization. The electronics are burned to melt away plastic casings and get at the valuable metals inside, like copper and gold. Workers -- including children and pregnant women -- spend every day in clouds of poisonous smoke. Other hazardous materials like lead from the glass in old TVs and computer monitors coats workers' hands and seeps into groundwater.
The 1992 Basel Convention was designed to control the export of toxic materials from rich nations to developing ones. Exporting nations must get permission from the recipient country to ship hazardous waste. But even when countries refuse to take waste, Puckett told us shipments slip through because of poor enforcement by Environment Canada, and corruption among customs officials in the recipient countries.
In 1995, European countries proposed an amendment to the Basel Convention to ban rich nations from dumping any toxic waste on less developed countries. Canada is one of four nations blocking the amendment. An Environment Canada spokesperson told us the government opposes the amendment because, "It would impact the trade of materials destined for recycling facilities operating in an environmentally sound manner if they were found in a developing country." However, once recyclables leave our shores, we have no control over whether they are recycled at a proper facility, or burned.
We have built a good recycling system in Canada, but we can make it better. Our governments at all levels must invest in measures like business grants to encourage the growth of profitable recycling businesses here. As consumers, we can take our old electronics to EPRA-accredited depots for recycling. And our country must end its opposition to the Basel Convention amendment to ban all dumping of hazardous waste on developing countries.
Meanwhile, in Manila, Filipinos are still waiting to hear when we'll get our garbage out of their back yard.
Craig and Marc Kielburger are co-founders of international charity and educational partner, Free The Children. Its youth empowerment event, We Day, is in 11 cities across North America this year, inspiring more than 160,000 attendees from over 4,000 schools. For more information, visit www.weday.com.ALSO ON HUFFPOST:
A Sudanese youth holds plastic bottles collected from a garbage container in Khartoum on June 14, 2013. An increasing number of Sudanese are scouring garbage to make a living in the troubled economy of Sudan, a country ranked near the bottom of a United Nations index measuring income, health and education. Sudanese have struggled to cope with soaring inflation and a weakened currency since South Sudan separated in July 2011 with about 75 percent of united Sudan's oil production. (ASHRAF SHAZLY/AFP/Getty Images)
A Sudanese youth collects plastic bottles from a garbage container in Khartoum on June 14, 2013. (ASHRAF SHAZLY/AFP/Getty Images)
Sudanese boys arrive with bags to scour garbage in Khartoum on June 14, 2013. (ASHRAF SHAZLY/AFP/Getty Images)
A Sudanese youth walks with a sack filled with items collected from garbage containers in Khartoum on June 14, 2013. (ASHRAF SHAZLY/AFP/Getty Images)
Follow Craig and Marc Kielburger on Twitter: www.twitter.com/craigkielburger | <urn:uuid:cb360f2d-5718-42b0-91f8-4ff62b20078d> | {
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Asked in Waste and RecyclingNuclear EnergyRadioactive Waste
Waste and Recycling
Where does nuclear waste go?
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Were does nuclear waste go when it is no longer of use?
Where does nuclear waste go when it is no longer of use?
Asked in Health, Food & Cooking, Waste and Recycling
What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear waste?
Two disadvantages of nuclear waste are: disposal of nuclear waste is very expensive and takes a long time, and nuclear waste is radioactive. The advantages are: nuclear power plants are usually built on a coast, so the risk of contaminating drinking water is low; nuclear waste does not emit carbon into the air. | <urn:uuid:8f4e7941-c8cb-4dad-b867-caa218b0d22e> | {
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Useful and informative work safety videos are one click away on the new YouTube channel, “U.S. Agricultural Safety and Health Centers,” www.youtube.com/USagCenters. The channel is a joint project of 10 research, education and prevention centers funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), including the Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention at the University of Kentucky.
The channel is being offered as a service to farm families, Extension agents, agricultural mechanics instructors and other teachers, as well as employers and managers in forestry, logging and commercial fishing/aquaculture. Videos can be used during job orientation, safety and health education, 4-H or FFA meetings, and high school or college classes. One benefit of YouTube is that videos can be accessed from mobile devices to conduct tailgate trainings in the field.
“The channel is an inexpensive way to reach diverse audiences with safety and health information,” said project administrator Allison DeVries, High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (HICAHS/ Colorado).
The Centers look forward to receiving feedback on the videos from YouTube users: “Any stakeholder can quickly establish an account and exchange comments or ideas with us,” DeVries said.
Together with their colleagues at HICAHS and 8 other NIOSH-funded centers, the faculty and staff of the Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention seek to advance the safety and health workers in production agriculture, forestry, and commercial fishing/aquaculture. These men and women suffer higher rates of fatal occupational injuries than workers in all other U.S. industrial sectors. “Our first goal is to prevent hurt and heartache among individuals and families,” said Dr. David Mannino, Director of the Southeast Center. “Our second is to avert the debilitating economic costs associated with work-related injuries, illness, and death.”
It is expected that nearly 60 peer-reviewed videos will be on the site by the end of the year, said technical administrator Aaron Yoder, Central States Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (Nebraska). Topics include: respiratory protection, livestock safety, tractor and machinery safety, child development, emergency response, grain safety, pesticide safety, heat illness prevention and hearing protection. Visit the channel at http://www.youtube.com/USagCenters. Written inquiries may be directed to [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:686a45e0-903f-450c-ba4a-3f2cb4db67be> | {
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“I am not a guinea pig” – It’s the slogan of an Environmental Defense Fund initiative to raise awareness about all the synthetic chemicals in our life and what they may be doing to us.
By EDF’s estimate, more than 80,000 chemicals are available for use in the U.S. Only a small fraction of these (200, according to its website) have been required to be tested for their safety.
Among the chemicals on its radar screen is a group of industrial surfactants known as nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs). You won’t see these compounds listed as such in the many household products that contain them, and you’d need a Ph.D. anyway to track them in their many guises as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, dispersants, de-icers and dust control agents.
NPEs are not removed during sewage wastewater treatment, and unlike other cleaning agents, they become more toxic and stable as they break down, meaning that aquatic organisms get higher doses and longer exposures to the more toxic degradation products.
This is recipe for environmental stress, and it explains why the Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen’s Associations joined the Sierra Club and others in a petition requesting that the EPA tighten its regulations on NPEs.
A new CA Sea Grant project is examining the toxic effects of one NPE break-down product, called 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), an endocrine disruptor that has been detected at startlingly high levels in oysters, mussels and arrow gobies in Morro Bay, California.
The researchers will be looking at whether 4-NP exposure in Pacific oysters hurts the animal’s ability to fight bacterial disease and might explain declines in other shellfish species.
Below is a technical summary of the project published in our Program Directory.
Impacts of 4-nonylphenol on immunocompetence and disease susceptibility in Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas
Kristin Hardy [email protected]
Sean Lema [email protected]
Lars Tomanek [email protected]
Nonylphenol ethoxylates are industrial compounds (often surfactants) used as detergents, emulsifiers and foaming agents in a long list of household products including toilet paper, plastics, pest sprays and personal care products. In the aquatic environment, they degrade into compounds that include 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), an endocrine disruptor that has been detected at elevated levels in marine organisms in California estuaries. The scientists leading this project suspect that septic tanks and toilet paper are a main source of 4-NP in the coastal environment and in this project will examine the consequences of the compound on the Pacific oyster, focusing on how (or if) the chemical alters the shellfish’s immune system. In experiments, oysters will be injected with the bacterium Vibrio campbellii (non-pathogenic in oysters) and V. harveyi (pathogenic in oysters). Scientists will then monitor the animals’ immune response vis-a-vis total hemocyte counts, superoxide anion production levels and hemocyte lysozyme activity. Changes in protein production in gonadal tissues and hemocyctes will be examined, and there will be an effort to detect changes in the transcription profiles (number of copies of mRNA from a specific segment of DNA) for genes involved with antimicrobial defense. Results will be shared with the California Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, which has identified a critical need for targeted studies of 4-NP toxicity on marine organisms.
Written by Christina Johnson, [email protected] | <urn:uuid:5a0de8b0-7faa-4396-bd7a-43e1171e7817> | {
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Your endocrine system is a complex group of glands located throughout your body that produce different hormones. For example, there’s the pituitary gland in your brain, the thyroid gland at the base of your neck, the pancreas in your abdomen and your ovaries. The hormones that these and other glands secrete regulate a variety of bodily functions such as your metabolism and your reproductive system. Certain endocrine disorders, such as thyroid problems, are much more common in women, while other conditions are related to the female hormone estrogen and happen exclusively in women.
Menopause and Perimenopause
Menopause is a normal and natural life event that signals the end of a woman’s childbearing years. Doctors consider a woman to be in menopause when she hasn’t had a menstrual period for 12 consecutive months. The age at which women reach menopause can vary from anywhere between the early forties and late fifties, but the average age in the U.S. is around 51. In many cases, a woman will reach menopause at around the same age that her mother and sisters did. Studies show that smokers often reach menopause an average of two years earlier than nonsmokers. In rare cases, a woman’s ovaries may stop producing estrogen at a younger age, a condition known as premature ovarian failure.
The four to eight year transition phase leading up to a woman’s final menstrual period is known as perimenopause. Some women don’t have any symptoms during perimenopause, but in many cases, the first sign is a change in your menstrual periods. When you’re in perimenopause, your periods may be shorter and heavier, and the time between your periods may lengthen. Keep in mind that even though your periods are becoming more irregular, there is still a chance you can become pregnant, which is why birth control is still important in the perimenopausal years. Common symptoms that can occur during perimenopause and menopause include hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness (which can make sex painful), sleep disturbances and mood swings. All of these symptoms are primarily due to fluctuating levels of the hormone estrogen. During the year after your last period, these symptoms will typically become more severe and can often continue for two or three years afterwards.
Certain birth control options have the added benefit of regulating your menstrual periods and can make your flow lighter during perimenopause. Once you reach menopause, there are a variety of treatments that can help, depending on your symptoms.
- Hormone therapy (HRT-estrogen plus progesterone or estrogen alone for women without a uterus) can help alleviate hot flashes, night sweats and other symptoms, but it may not be recommended for women with a history of breast cancer or for those with heart disease.
- Lifestyle changes such as wearing lighter nightclothes or pajamas made out of material that wicks the sweat away from your body can help make night sweats and hot flashes more tolerable.
- Over-the-counter vaginal lubricants and moisturizers and prescription estrogen creams can help relieve discomfort and painful sex due to dryness. An oral prescription medication that works like estrogen to counteract the dryness and thinning of your vaginal tissues has also recently become available.
- Low-dose antidepressants can help combat mood changes and sleep disturbances.
- Relaxation and stress-reducing techniques, such as meditation, yoga and deep breathing, can also help with menopause-related mood changes.
Your thyroid, a small, butterfly-shaped gland that sits near the base of your neck, is crucial to the functioning of many organs, including your brain, heart, liver, kidneys and skin. Thyroid disorders are five to ten times more common in women than in men. While there are several different thyroid disorders, the two most common conditions, especially in women, are an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and an overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism). An estimated 15 million people in the U.S. have an undiagnosed thyroid problem. When thyroid disease goes untreated, you’re at an increased risk of developing high cholesterol, heart disease, osteoporosis and infertility.
The most common type of thyroid disorder is an underactive thyroid, also known as hypothyroidism. When your thyroid isn’t producing the amount of hormone it needs to function properly, many of your bodily functions can slow down. You may feel tired and cold all of the time or gain weight even though your eating habits haven’t changed. Hypothyroidism can also cause depression. One of the most common causes of hypothyroidism is an autoimmune disease known as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, which is when your immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys your own thyroid gland. There is also a genetic component to hypothyroidism, and having a first degree relative with the disorder increases your risk. Certain medications, including lithium and amiodarone—a medication used to treat cardiac arrhythmias—can cause hypothyroidism.
Iodine is necessary for your thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone, and in the past, many people developed hypothyroidism because they weren’t getting enough iodine in their diets. Today, many foods are fortified with iodine, so this deficiency rarely occurs anymore. Some women develop an underactive thyroid after giving birth, and while in many cases their thyroid functioning eventually returns to normal, it can also become permanent.
Signs and Symptoms
The most common symptoms of an underactive thyroid include extreme fatigue, drowsiness, memory problems, dry and brittle hair and nails, dry, itchy skin, unexplained weight gain and heavy menstrual periods. Doctors make the diagnosis by ordering a blood test to measure levels of thyroid stimulating hormone, or TSH.
The standard therapy for an underactive thyroid is a single daily dose of a synthetic thyroid hormone known as levothyroxine. It can often take several months of adjusting the dose to hit on the right amount of thyroid hormone, which is enough to alleviate symptoms but not so much that you develop signs of an overactive thyroid.
When your thyroid gland produces more hormone than necessary, the result is an overactive thyroid, otherwise known as hyperthyroidism. In this case, it’s as if many of your body systems are working on overdrive. You may have a racing pulse, feel overheated and irritable, have trouble sleeping, and lose weight even though you’re hungrier than ever and eating all the time. The most common cause of an overactive thyroid is an autoimmune disorder known as Graves’ Disease, which results in an enlarged thyroid gland. Like all types of thyroid problems, it is much more common in women than in men, and tends to occur at younger ages. Graves’ Disease patients often develop bulging eyes and double vision, too.
Signs and Symptoms
Some of the most common symptoms of an overactive thyroid include anxiety, irritability, difficulty sleeping, fatigue, a rapid heartbeat, trembling hands, hair loss, muscle weakness, unexplained weight loss, increased hunger and diarrhea. As with an underactive thyroid, doctors make the diagnosis primarily with a blood test to check thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels.
If your thyroid is overactive, there are two main treatment options available to you. One option is to take a medication that slows down your thyroid’s production of thyroid hormone. The other option is to have a treatment with radioactive iodine, which will destroy your thyroid. This makes your thyroid become underactive, which means that you may need to take thyroid hormone daily.
Diabetes is a disease involving the way your body processes glucose, which is commonly known as blood sugar. Glucose is your main source of fuel, and provides energy for all the cells in your body. In order for the cells to process glucose they need insulin, which is a hormone that’s produced by your pancreas. If you have diabetes, either your body is making little or no insulin (as with type 1 diabetes) or it makes insulin but your cells aren’t able to use it (as with type 2 diabetes). In both conditions, glucose builds up in your bloodstream, and over time it can damage your heart, nerves, eyes and kidneys. Among adults, diabetes in the leading cause of blindness, limb amputation and kidney failure in the U.S. There are an estimated 24 million Americans living with diabetes today. Roughly 90 percent of them have the type 2 form, which is the type that’s related to obesity, and that number has risen sharply in the last decade.
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is also known as juvenile diabetes because the disease most often develops in childhood. An autoimmune disease, it occurs when your body’s immune system attacks the cells in your pancreas that produce insulin. Roughly five to ten percent of people with diabetes have type 1, and it occurs equally in men and women. Having a parent of sibling with type 1 diabetes slightly increases your risk for the disease, and researchers also believe that exposure to certain viruses (such as the Epstein-Barr virus) may trigger the autoimmune response that destroys your pancreatic cells. Type 1 diabetes is more common among Caucasians than among African-Americans, Hispanics or Asians.
Signs and Symptoms
The symptoms of type 1 diabetes can come on very quickly and include excessive thirst and hunger, frequent urination, increased fatigue, blurred vision, unexplained weight loss and loss of feeling or tingling in the feet. If your blood glucose levels are extremely high, you may also have abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting and your breath may smell fruity. If your doctor suspects diabetes, he or she will order a blood glucose test. If the results are abnormal, you’ll need to have a second blood test to confirm the diagnosis, in which you have to fast for at least 8 hours before having your blood drawn.
If you have type 1 diabetes, you will need to take insulin every day, usually in the form of injections. A newer option is a wearable insulin pump which monitors your blood sugar levels over the course of the day and gives you small amounts of insulin when you need it. Keeping your blood glucose levels well controlled by closely monitoring your carbohydrate intake and checking your glucose levels frequently is also necessary to avoid developing complications from type 1 diabetes.
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes occurs when the cells in your body become resistant to insulin. It’s often called adult-onset diabetes, but that has become a misnomer now that rising numbers of children and teens are being diagnosed with the disease. Having a family member with type 2 diabetes increases your risk, and doctors believe that there is a genetic predisposition towards developing the disease. Being overweight and getting little or no daily exercise are also significant risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes. People who carry excess weight around their waist (apple-shaped) rather than their hips and thighs (pear-shaped) are also at an increased risk. African-Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans and Pacific Islanders are all more prone to developing type 2. Another risk factor for women is developing gestational diabetes, or diabetes during pregnancy. Roughly half of all women who are diagnosed with gestational diabetes will continue to have it post-pregnancy or develop type 2 diabetes later in life.
Signs and Symptoms
The warning signs of type 2 diabetes are similar to those of type 1 diabetes— excessive thirst and hunger, frequent urination, increased fatigue, blurred vision, unexplained weight loss and loss of feeling or tingling in the feet. However, the symptoms can develop more slowly and some people may have no symptoms at all for several years. In fact, many patients find out they have type 2 diabetes after a routine blood glucose test. But if your doctor suspects type 2 diabetes, you’ll be given a fasting blood glucose test. Another diabetes screening is called an oral glucose tolerance test, which is generally given during pregnancy to check for gestational diabetes.
Steps to lower your risk
Unlike type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes is often preventable, even if you have a family history or other non-controllable risk factors. Taking steps to prevent diabetes is especially important if you’ve been diagnosed with pre-diabetes, which means your blood glucose levels are elevated but not high enough to meet the criteria for diabetes. An estimated 79 million Americans over the age of 20 have pre-diabetes. These healthy lifestyle habits are key:
- Lose excess weight. A large national study known as the Diabetes Prevention Program showed that losing a relatively modest amount of weight — roughly 5 to 7 percent of your overall body weight (for example, 10 to 14 pounds if you weight 200 pounds) — can significantly reduce your risk of developing diabetes. Losing excess weight helps because it allows your body to process insulin more effectively.
- Exercise regularly. The Diabetes Prevention Program revealed that doing some sort of physical activity for 30 minutes at least five days a week was a key factor in whether participants were able to lose excess weight.
- Eat healthy. Aim to lower your total calories, eating less fat (especially saturated and trans fats), and eat a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean sources of protein.
The same lifestyle habits that can help prevent diabetes—losing excess weight, staying physically active and following a healthy diet—are critical for anyone who is diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. In fact, some patients are able to avoid taking medication altogether by following these steps. If medication is required, there are several drugs available, and they each work differently. For example, some drugs increase insulin production, others make the body more sensitive to insulin, and others decrease blood sugar production. As with type 1 diabetes, frequent monitoring of blood sugar levels can help patients better control their disease and prevent long-term complications such as heart attacks and strokes, nerve damage and blindness.
How North Shore-LIJ Can Help You
The combined Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism is staffed by recognized leaders in clinical endocrinology who have expertise treating a wide variety of endocrine issues, including menopause and polycystic ovarian syndrome, hypo/hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancers; pituitary disorders and adrenal disorders. Through the inpatient and outpatient care facilities, the Division provides state-of-the-art screenings and treatments including ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the thyroid and thyroid ultrasonography. We also have an American Association of Diabetes Educators-accredited diabetes education program, provide insulin pump training and offer nutritional counseling. Our partnerships give us the ability to leverage skill, experience and cutting edge equipment, allowing us to best meet the needs of every individual patient. | <urn:uuid:668486ac-338d-4a1f-9e2e-1bb20fbe0a93> | {
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Bay. Near the water's edge on the north side of the Island the land was barren; but about three or four miles from the shore they saw large trees. They dug a pit about five feet deep, and so found plenty of very good water; they dug through sand first, and then light earth till they got to the clay, where they found water.
He remained on the Island three weeks, and the weather was very fine the whole time.
The report of the Island by MM. Baudin and Freycinet is not inviting, and shows that they were not disposed uniformly to praise. It is worthy of remark that although they describe the soil as sterile, they corroborate fully the account of the vast number and large size of the kangaroos found there; and if their picture were strictly correct, it would be difficult to imagine how these animals could be supported.
"From Cape Bedout to the Ravine des Casoars, the country exhibits a range of hills exactly like those of the south, but higher; and although destitute of wood of any kind, one may perceive here and there some traces of verdure. The Ravine des Casoars cutting through this chain exhibits to us in the interior other hills, some parts of which are wooded. The northern coast is arid and naked like the southward, and exhibits throughout an analogous appearance. The shores of Nepean Bay consist of hills of small elevation; but the verdure by which they are covered, and the forests, the tops of which are seen at different points, give to this part of the Island a more smiling and agreeable aspect.
The picture which I have just traced, though strictly correct as regards the coast of this Island, would doubtless have been more interesting and more varied, had we had an opportunity of penetrating into the interior of the country. Destitute of mountains, and devoid of that active vegetation which a humid soil supports, Kangaroo Island appeared to us to be almost without fresh water. It is true that it was then the hottest sea- | <urn:uuid:29fe5289-3c8e-4b77-a556-b72b995f6191> | {
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March 16, 2009
VLT Spies Curious Pair Of Galaxies
The ESO Very Large Telescope has taken the best image ever of a strange and chaotic duo of interwoven galaxies. The images also contain some surprises "” interlopers both far and near.
Sometimes objects in the sky that appear strange, or different from normal, have a story to tell and prove scientifically very rewarding. This was the idea behind Halton Arp's catalogue of Peculiar Galaxies that appeared in the 1960s. One of the oddballs listed there is Arp 261, which has now been imaged in more detail than ever before using the FORS2 instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope. The image proves to contain several surprises.Arp 261 lies about 70 million light-years distant in the constellation of Libra, the Scales. Its chaotic and very unusual structure is created by the interaction of two galaxies that are engaged in a slow motion, but highly disruptive close encounter. Although individual stars are very unlikely to collide in such an event, the huge clouds of gas and dust certainly do crash into each other at high speed, leading to the formation of bright new clusters of very hot stars that are clearly seen in the picture. The paths of the existing stars in the galaxies are also dramatically disrupted, creating the faint swirls extending to the upper left and lower right of the image. Both interacting galaxies were probably dwarfs not unlike the Magellanic Clouds orbiting our own galaxy.
The images used to create this picture were not actually taken to study the interacting galaxies at all, but to investigate the properties of the inconspicuous object just to the right of the brightest part of Arp 261 and close to the centre of the image. This is an unusual exploding star, called SN 1995N, that is thought to be the result of the final collapse of a massive star at the end of its life, a so-called core collapse supernova. SN 1995N is unusual because it has faded very slowly "” and still shows clearly on this image more than seven years after the explosion took place! It is also one of the few supernovae to have been observed to emit X-rays. It is thought that these unusual characteristics are a result of the exploding star being in a dense region of space so that the material blasted out from the supernova ploughs into it and creates X-rays.
Apart from the interacting galaxy and its supernova the image also contains several other objects at wildly different distances from us. Starting very close to home, two small asteroids, in our Solar System between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, happened to cross the images as they were being taken and show up as the red-green-blue trails at the left and top of the picture. The trails arise as the objects are moving during the exposures and also between the exposures through different colored filters. The asteroid at the top is number 14670 and the one to the left number 9735. They are probably less than 5 km across. The reflected sunlight from these small bodies takes about fifteen minutes to get to the Earth.
The next closest object is probably the apparently bright star at the bottom. It may look bright, but it is still about one hundred times too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. It is most likely a star rather like the Sun and about 500 light-years from us "” 20 million times further away than the asteroids. Arp 261 itself, and the supernova, are about 140 000 times further away again than this star, but still in what astronomers would regard as our cosmic neighborhood. Much more distant still, perhaps some fifty to one hundred times further away than Arp 261, lies the cluster of galaxies visible on the right of the picture. There is no doubt, however, that a much more remote object lies, unrecognized, amongst the faint background objects seen in this marvelous image.
Image Caption: This color composite image of Arp 261 was created from images obtained using the FORS2 instrument on the ESO Very Large Telescope (VLT), at the Paranal Observatory in Chile. Located 2600 m above sea level, in the mountains of the Atacama Desert, the Paranal Observatory enjoys some of the clearest and darkest skies on the whole planet. This image was created from images through blue, green, red and infrared filters and the total exposure time was 45 minutes. (ESO)
On the Net: | <urn:uuid:066bd5de-2396-4360-a02a-129fc8364c12> | {
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10 ways to ensure the fish you are eating is sustainably caught and healthy.
One of the most confusing oceans to navigate is that of seafood. First there’s the question of mercury and other contaminants. How do you avoid those? Then comes the issue of a reliable source. Where breeds the healthiest fish, and sustainably so at that? Lastly, and equally as important, how’s the fish supposed to look, feel and smell? All these considerations are quite overwhelming and often end with a frustrating shrug and sigh.
With so much to consider, it can be tricky to get your buck’s worth in terms of your health and the environment. Luckily, we’ve done the research and have put together ten ways you can ensure you are eating the most sustainable fish the world has to offer.
Do Your Homework
Before going to the grocery store, check out the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch for a comprehensive guide to ocean-friendly seafood. According to the organization’s Communications Director Ken Peterson, “Seafood Watch is far and away the source used by consumers and major seafood buyers in North America to shape their seafood buying decisions in ways that promote healthy fisheries and healthy oceans.” The site outlines each fish’s market name, where it is caught and how it is caught, indicating which variation of a particular fish is the “Best Choice,” a “Good Alternative,” or one to “Avoid.”
Have Your Cake and Eat It Too
Choose seafood that is not only good for you, but also good for the environment. Monterey Bay Aquarium has created a “Super Green” list including seafood with the highest levels of omega-3s and the lowest levels of contaminants as well as a summary of the “Best Choice” ranked fish on the organization’s Seafood Watch. These recommendations apply to women of childbearing age, men and children, so they can be trusted to take everyone into account.
Know How Fish is Caught
Select fish that is caught using methods with lower environmental impact such as hand-lining or potting. The Marine Conservation Society explains the various fish-catching methods and why some are better than others.
Carry a Pocket Guide
Most of us don’t have the time to research when making an impromptu stop at the fish market, so being equipped with a fish list is a way to ensure you always make the most well-informed decision come check-out time. The Environmental Defense Fund has put together the easy-to navigate Pocket Seafood Selector and Pocket Sushi Selector to give you a helping hand.
Choose a Reliable Market
Keep tabs on your local grocery stores and inquire how often each receives its seafood shipments and what the regular turnover is. The higher the rate of seafood turnaround, the more likely the fish you buy is as fresh as can be.
Don’t Buy Fishy Fish
Given that we associate the “fishy” smell with something that has gone putrid, under no circumstances should you purchase fish that smells nasty, acidic, or pungent. Fresh fish has the scent of clean water with a slightly briny or cucumber overtone.
Look Skin Deep and Beyond
On the outside, look at the fish and confirm that it is clean and metallic as opposed to dull or discolored. The eyes should be bright and clear and the gills should bear a vibrant red tone – fish that has gone old bears gills with a faded brick color. On the inside, make sure that if there is liquid on the meat, that it is clear instead of milky. Rotting fish will have milky flesh. Don’t forget to press against the flesh of the fish – if an indentation appears and stays, the fish has gone bad.
When perusing the seafood section of your grocery store or market, take your assumptions with a grain of salt. Engage in conversation with a salesperson, asking questions that aren’t answered by packaging or labeling, and get the scoop on some of the details that aren’t so readily available. It’s rare to be offered information about how fish is caught, so ask for it! Developing a relationship with seafood personnel is also a great way to get the most comprehensive information time and time again.
Rotate Your Fish
Try to venture outside your repertoire of, say, three types of fish and try your hand at making dishes with other fish deemed the healthiest and most environmentally friendly by the “Super Green” list. Eat sustainably across the board, not just with one type.
Spread the Word
Tell your friends and family about seafood sustainability and encourage them to apply these tips to their culinary seafood escapades. The best way to share, you ask? Why, only whilst devouring seared salmon over lentils.
Aylin Erman currently resides in Istanbul and is creator of plant-based recipe website GlowKitchen. | <urn:uuid:6fbd657f-9c91-445c-87e4-b8f3496ad21e> | {
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Researchers at the San Francisco VA Medical Center report that they have found a potential molecular cause for the aggressive growth and spread of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, a highly malignant form of cancer with a very high death rate.
The discovery could potentially lead to new treatments as well, say the researchers.
Their key finding is the triple interaction between three players: CD44, a surface receptor molecule that plays an important role in a variety of cellular functions; hyaluronan (HA), a complex carbohydrate found in the connective tissues between cells; and LARG, a signal activator found in tumor cells.
That interaction apparently initiates two molecular pathways that simultaneously cause tumor cell growth and tumor cell migration, says lead author Lilly Bourguignon, PhD, a research career scientist at SFVAMC and a professor of medicine at the University of California, San Francisco.
The study results are reported in the current on-line "In Press" section of the Journal of Biological Chemistry.
Working with human cancer cells in culture, Bourguignon and her team found that HA mediates the interaction between CD44 and LARG in a way that stimulates a molecular pathway called RhoA. Through a series of complex steps, the RhoA pathway causes the tumor cell's cytoskeleton - the structure that maintains the cell's shape - to reorganize in a way that causes tumor cells to migrate to other sites in the body, resulting in cancer metastasis.
At the same time, the HA-mediated CD44/LARG complex also binds with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), located on the tumor cell's surface, which sets off a second molecular pathway called Ras. In turn, the Ras pathway promotes tumor cell growth.
The result, according to Bourguignon, is an aggressive, fast-growing, and invasive cancer. "The combination of RhoA and Ras pathway activation is deadly," she says.
Read more at Steve Tokar, UCSF News Services | <urn:uuid:f6670a20-7572-424a-83b0-cc2bcc1408c9> | {
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Alfred Adler called his theory “Individual Psychology." Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and strategies that each individual creates in childhood and which then serve as the individual’s reference for attitudes, behavior, and one’s private
view of self, others and the world.
Adlerian psychotherapy favors a therapeutic relationship which is interactive, cooperative, supportive, empathic, non-dogmatic and “common-sensical”. We use and encourage a creative approach to problem solving. IndividualPsychology is a system of theory and practice built upon psychodynamic,cognitive-behavioral, existential and humanistic principles. | <urn:uuid:52443a24-6395-40e7-8066-2d991f53bcb2> | {
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States of matter
Have you ever wondered what whipped cream, jelly, and milk have in common? Aside from all being tasty, they are also all made up of tiny, solid particles that are dispersed, or distributed, in water. This type of mixture is called a colloidal solution. Colloidal solutions have some very interesting physical properties, such as acting like a solid and a liquid at the same time! In this activity you'll get to create a colloidal solution that's made using cornstarch and water, and then explore these properties firsthand.
Colloidal solutions (also called colloidal suspensions) contain little particles, ranging from one to 1,000 nanometers in diameter. (A nanometer is very small—a human hair is about 100,000 nanometers wide!) In this activity the particles used are cornstarch, and they're evenly dispersed throughout a quantity of water. These particles are so small that you can't see them with the naked eye—and when you look at the colloidal solution it appears homogenous, or uniform. If you put it under a microscope, however, it would look heterogeneous, or as if things had been mixed together.
Having the right particle size is essential for making a colloidal solution. If smaller particles are used, they will dissolve in the water and not be visible, even with a microscope. For example, think of how sugar dissolves in water, making a homogenous solution. On the other hand, if larger particles are used, such as grains of sand, they will not dissolve in the water. Instead, they separate from the water, and are so large they form a heterogeneous mixture of particles that can be seen with the naked eye. Particles of cornstarch are just the right size (about 100 to 800 nanometers in diameter) to make a colloidal solution with water.
• Small bowl or cup
• Cup, mug or drinking glass
• Medicine dropper
• Add one tablespoon of the cornstarch to the small bowl or cup.
• Fill the empty cup, mug or drinking glass with water.
• Use the medicine dropper to add water from the cup to the small bowl that holds the cornstarch. Add the water one drop at a time, counting as you go. What happens as the water touches the cornstarch?
• After you have added 20 drops, stir the cornstarch with the fork. Break up any clumps that formed.
• Keep adding drops one at a time, stirring with the fork after every 20 drops. What happens as you add more water?
• Once you have added 100 drops of water total, stop for a moment and observe the cornstarch. How does it look? How has it changed?
• Continue adding drops, but now mix the cornstarch after every 10 drops.
• Stop adding water when all of the cornstarch has flowed together like a liquid. It will probably take around 150 to 170 drops of water total. How many drops did it take for you? How would you describe the solution’s appearance?
• Play around with the solution in the bowl. Poke it with your finger and put some on your fork or in your hand. How does it move? What does it feel like? What do you think this tells you about colloidal solutions and their physical properties? Tip: If it seems to get chalky while you're investigating it, try adding and mixing in a few more drops of water.
• Extra: Colloidal solutions can be made out of other common products aside from cornstarch, such as other starches (for example, potato, tapioca and rice starches) as well as gelatin. Try making colloidal solutions out of other substances. How do these compare with the colloidal solution made using cornstarch?
• Extra: Starches are often used to make gels. Try heating the solution and see what happens. How does it change? Are there new physical properties that you can observe?
• Extra: Clay soil behaves like a colloidal material when it has just the right amount of water in it. You could try making a colloidal clay soil solution and test the effect of different forces on it. Colloid solutions can appear solid against strong downward forces, but weak against lateral forces that push sideways. In which direction is your colloid solution the weakest? If your sample were clay soil in the real world, how could this contribute to landslides or earthquakes?
Observations and results
Did the cornstarch solution resemble a sluggish white liquid? Did it become a hard solid when you pressed on it, but turn into a liquid when it was allowed to freely move?
Colloidal solutions can act like both a solid and a liquid. The colloidal solution you made does not behave like a typical solid or a typical liquid. Phases of matter such as liquid, gas, solid and plasma are physical properties of matter. The cornstarch solution is a non-Newtonian fluid, which means it does not behave like a Newtonian fluid. When most liquids experience a sideways shearing force, such as by pushing your finger down against them, they move out of the way. The liquids also have a proportionate response, meaning if you push harder, they move out of the way faster. The liquids' viscosity, or resistance to flow, doesn't change. Water, and most fluids, are Newtonian and behave in this way. Because the cornstarch solution is non-Newtonian, however, you should have seen that it does not behave like this. When you put stress on it, such as by pressing down on it or poking it with the fork, it responded by becoming harder, changing to a solid state. When you did not put stress on it, for example by simply holding it in your hand, it again changed its state, this time becoming a runny liquid.
More to explore
Colloids, from University of California, Davis, ChemWiki
Outrageous Ooze, from Exploratorium
Non-Newtonian Fluid, from Discovery Communications
Particle Sizes, from The Engineering ToolBox
Making Mixtures: How Do Colloids Size Up?, from Science Buddies
This activity brought to you in partnership with Science Buddies | <urn:uuid:98d44248-3916-47d7-a15c-76bf6dbad8bd> | {
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Mysteries of Genesis, by Charles Fillmore, , at sacred-texts.com
THE BOOK OF GENESIS is the key to the Bible. In the New Testament it is quoted twenty-seven times literally and thirty-eight times substantially. It tells in a very few words how God first imaged man and the universe and then turned the development over to Jehovah, who has been in a process of manifestation for ages and aeons.
The "Five Books of Moses," of which Genesis is the first, have always been credited to Moses, but that he was the author seems doubtful in the face of the many stories of creation found in the legends and hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt, Chaldea, and other nations that are almost identical with those of Genesis. It would thus seem that Moses edited the legends of the ages and compiled them into an allegorical history of creation.
As printed in English translations there is little to reconcile Genesis with creation as revealed by modern geology. It is said that Hugh Miller, the brilliant Scottish geologist, went insane in his efforts to reconcile Genesis with the geological record. However more accurate translations of the Hebrew show that the literal reading of the English is often not warranted by the original text. For example, the English Bible reads, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." Fentons translation renders it thus: "By periods God created that which produced the Suns; then that which produced the Earth." When we realize that God is mind (Spirit-mind), we see that this latter rendition is correct. God creates the ideas that form the things. Here we have the key that unlocks not only the mysteries
of Genesis but the whole Bible. God's creations are always spiritual. This includes the spiritual man, called Jehovah, through whom all things, including personal man, Adam, are brought into manifestation.
We ask our readers to dwell on this initial proposition until its truth is established in consciousness, because it is repeated over and over in both the Old and the New Testament. Jesus said, "I speak not from myself: but the Father abiding in me doeth his works." Jesus was here referring both to His personality, the external I, and to the inner spiritual entity that He named the Father, in Genesis called Jehovah.
Hebrew words are composite; they contain a variety of meanings, to be determined by the context. For example the Hebrew word yom, translated "day" in the English Bible, means "to be hot"; that is, with reference to the heat of the day as compared with the cool of the night. The word yom was also used to represent a period of time, an age.
It will readily be seen that the translator had a rich field of ideas from which to choose and that he could make his text historical or symbolical according to his consciousness. If he thought the original story was a statement of facts his translation would be to that end. The Pharisees of Jesus' time were condemned by Him for teaching the letter of the Scriptures and neglecting the spirit. The same charge can be brought today against those who study the Bible as history rather than as parable and idealistic illustration of the spiritual unfoldment of man.
The Bible veils in its history the march of man from innocence and ignorance to a measure of sophistication and understanding. Over all hovers the divine
idea of man, the perfect-man pattern, the Lord, who is a perpetual source of inspiration and power for every man. Those who seek to know this Lord and His manifestation, Jesus Christ, receive a certain spiritual quickening that opens the inner eye of the soul and they see beyond the land of shadows into the world of Spirit.
The truths in this book will be revealed to you through your own spiritual unfoldment. Spiritual things are spiritually discerned. The spiritual revelations that you seem to get from books and teachers already existed as submerged experiences in your own soul. The essential truths have been worked out in this or previous incarnations, and when you were reminded of the buried idea it blazed forth as a light from without. So all that you are or ever will be must come from your own spiritual achievements.
"Seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you." | <urn:uuid:095c4767-1d13-4bae-a0c5-5a5479466494> | {
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This chapter focuses upon channel management and the related topic of physical distribution. The selection of distribution channels will impinge upon decisions about every other element of the marketing mix. Pricing decisions will be greatly affected by whether the company attempts to mass market through as many wholesale and/or retail outlets as possible, or purposively target a relatively small number of outlets offering its customers high service levels. The amount of promotional effort required of an organisation will be a function of how much, or little, of the selling effort is undertaken by the channels of distribution it uses. The product and/or its packaging may have to be designed to suit the storage and physical handling systems of the distributor.
In this chapter an attempt is made to explain:
The purposes and forms of distribution channels
How intermediaries improve the effectiveness and efficiency of a marketing system
Sources of conflict in distribution channels
Considerations in developing a customer service policy
The behaviour of costs attached to physical distribution functions
The key elements of transport and warehouse management and
How vehicles can be routed in such a way as to control total transport costs whilst delivering an acceptable level of customer service.
The chapter begins by explaining how distribution decisions relate to the overall marketing strategy. There then follows a discussion of the contribution which intermediaries can make to the efficiency and effectiveness of a marketing system and the key decisions to be made regarding the appointment of intermediaries. A description of the main types of intermediary is provided and this is followed by an explanation of what is necessary in order to market to middlemen. The topic of power and conflict in channels is given some consideration. Attention is subsequently focused upon the costs and functions involved in physical distribution. The key aspects of transport and warehouse management are discussed, as are vehicle scheduling models.
Decisions relating to the channels of distribution for a product or service are part of the strategic marketing plan. In that plan, the target market will have been specified along with target levels of market share, market coverage, customer service and so on. The channels of distribution used by an organisation must be capable of assisting in reaching these targets. Moreover, the establishment of a distribution system can take a long time, perhaps several years, and so decisions about the channels of distribution cannot be taken lightly, and have to be taken with a view to the longer term since it is not usually that easy to switch between channels.
A distribution channel may be defined as:
“…the set of firms and individuals that take title, or assist in transferring title, to a good or service as it moves from the producer to the final consumer or industrial user.”1
The importance of channel decisions has not always been recognised. For a long time, marketers only gave thought to appropriate channels of distribution after the product had been developed. However, Bennett2 claims that:
“… in today's competitive and increasingly global marketplace, managers plan for product distribution as they plan their products.”
The same author goes on to state that:
“Modern distribution systems are based on strategic planning, adhere to the marketing concept, focus on target markets, and are consistent and flexible.”
Strategic planning: Distribution channels must be compatible with the strategic marketing plan. If, for instance, a skimming strategy has been adopted or the product requires technical sales support, then mass marketing is probably inappropriate. Alternatively, if large volume sales are required in order to achieve particular profit targets, then selective distribution would be inappropriate.
As new products are introduced, existing channels have to be reassessed since they may not be the right channels for the new product. In some cases, a company will decide not to launch a new product because it does not fit in with existing distribution channels and existing strategy. A few years ago Ciba, the Swiss chemicals company, was looking for new growth opportunities in the animal health market. Sales of its animal health and hygiene products for farm animals were beginning to plateau and the company considered diversifying into products for domesticated pets. The biggest barrier for Ciba was the differences in the distribution systems for the two markets. Ciba's strategy in the agricultural market was to deal with a small number of relatively large wholesalers, who then sold on to smaller wholesalers and agricultural merchants. This was a cost-effective distribution system for Ciba. However, the distribution system for health and hygiene products for pets is altogether more fragmented and would have involved dealing with very large numbers of very small independent stores. Ciba simply did not have the staffing levels to cope with a large number of accounts. Moreover, Ciba would have found the costs prohibitive since each store ordered very small quantities.
Another consideration is the stage of the product's life cycle. It can happen that as the product proceeds through its life cycle the appropriateness of the distribution channel can change. When developing the strategy, thought should be given to how the needs of the product might differ over its life span.
An organisation's distribution strategy is often interconnected with its promotional strategy. As figure 9.1 illustrates, the distribution system can be depicted as a channel through which products and services move from producer to end user. If the agribusiness concerned believes that its product(s) can be meaningfully differentiated from others on the market, then it may elect to direct the greater part of its promotional effort towards end users. This is termed a pull strategy, whereby the objective is to create such a strong preference for the product among end users that the resulting demand pulls the product through the channel of distribution. Where the product is perceived by end users to be a commodity (or one where there is little difference between brands) then the channel strategy of the agribusiness may be to target much of its promotional effort on intermediaries. If intermediaries can be persuaded to stock the product, in preference to those of competitors, then when customers visit a sales outlet and ask for a product by its generic name it is the product of the company which is supplied. This is termed a push strategy. In practice, the promotional strategies of most agribusinesses will be a combination of pulling and pushing the product through the channel of distribution, but there is likely to be more emphasis on one or the other.
Figure 9.1 Push and pull strategies
Adherence to the marketing concept: Agribusinesses which themselves have adopted the marketing concept often experience a problem when their products and services have to be delivered to the end user through intermediaries who are more sales than market-oriented. This should be one of the primary criteria when selecting distributors, i.e. the degree of market orientation. In many cases, the producer or supplier will find it difficult to find market oriented intermediaries and in these instances will have to embark on training and education programmes.
Target marketing: Another important criteria on the selection of distribution channels is the extent to which these focus on the specific market segments that the producer or supplier wishes to penetrate. For example, Sri Lanka's Farm Service Centres distribute a wide range of agricultural inputs to smallholders but do very little business with plantations and estates. Therefore, Farm Service Centres would be the wrong type of outlet to handle, say, coconut or tea harvesting equipment since these crops are mainly grown on large estates or plantations.
Thus, it can be seen that channel decisions are central to the organisation's overall marketing strategy. Bennett2 puts it succinctly when he makes the point that:
“Channels are interlocking, highly interdependent, and often complex. Effective distribution is not a patchwork quilt of randomly selected channel members; rather it requires a carefully planned network whose members have clearly assigned functions. The flow of products from manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to the final buyer depends on systematic, strategic planning and management.”
There are many functions to be carried out in moving the product from producer to customer. Those functions each require funding and, often, specialist knowledge and expertise. Few producers have either the resources or the expertise to carry out all of the necessary functions to get a product/service to the ultimate user. A middleman's remuneration should depend upon the number of marketing functions he/she performs and, more especially, by the efficiency with which they are performed.
The advantages of using middlemen as opposed to marketing direct to end-users can be demonstrated very easily. The efficiency of most marketing systems is improved by the presence of effective intermediaries. This is illustrated in figures 9.2 a and b. These show that an intermediary between a number of producers and consumers reduces the number of transactions and thereby procurement and selling costs and time are all reduced.
Figure 9.2 A direct marketing system and a marketing system with intermediaries
A middleman's existence is justified just so long as he/she performs marketing functions which others cannot or will not, or can perform his/her marketing functions more efficiently than can the producer and/or alternative intermediaries. Gaedeke and Tootelian3 cite three additional reasons why middlemen are commonly employed by producers:
intermediaries provide wider market exposure
few producers have sufficient capital to market direct and
producers can usually earn a higher return on investment by employing available capital in activities other than those of direct marketing.
All too often, in developing countries, middlemen are dismissed out of hand as parasites. The argument made is that it is the producer who, by the sweat of his labour, provides the physical commodity and it is he/she who deserves to gain most from marketing transactions in that product. When it is observed that marketing costs are sometimes four or five times the price paid to the farmer, a sense of injustice can arise. However, the value, if any, that the intermediary adds to the product, by virtue of the functions performed, must be taken into account. McVey4 states that:
“You can do away with the middleman but you cannot do away with his functions.”
In other words, those functions have to be carried out by someone and the expense and risk of doing so has to be met. The real question is not whether middlemen are needed but whether the middleman's remuneration is commensurate with the levels of risk carried and the services provided in the form of marketing functions performed. Furthermore, intermediaries can only be justified if they can perform these functions more efficiently and effectively than the other actual or potential market participants.
There are a number of key decision areas pertaining to the appointment of intermediaries. These include: price policy, terms and conditions of sale, territorial rights and the definition of responsibilities. In addition, a choice has to be made between extensive and intensive coverage of the market.
Price policy: List prices, wholesale/retail margins and a schedule of discounts have to be developed. These have to reflect the interests of the intermediary, as well as those of the producer/supplier if lasting alliances are to be formed with channel members.
Terms and conditions of sale: In addition to price schedules the producer/supplier must explicitly state payment terms, guarantees and any restrictions on where and how products are to be sold. If the product enjoys a sizeable demand then the producer/supplier may evaluate intermediaries on the basis of performance criteria such as the achievement of sales quota targets, inventory levels, customer delivery times, etc. Intermediaries whose performance is below target may have their right to handle the product withdrawn.
Territorial rights: In the case of certain products, distributors will be given exclusive rights to market a product within a specified territory. This happens, for example, with agricultural equipment. In deciding upon the boundaries of territories the manufacturer or supplier has to strike a balance between defining territories which are sufficiently large to provide good sales potential for distributors but small enough to allow distributors to adequately service the customers within the territory.
Definition of responsibilities: The respective duties and responsibilities of supplier and distributor have to be clearly defined. For instance, if a customer experiences a problem with a product and requires technical advice or a repair needs to be effected, then it should be immediately clear to both the supplier and the distributor as to which party is responsible for responding to the customer. In the same way, the agreement between the producer/supplier and the distributor should clearly specify which party is responsible for the cost of product training when new employees join the distributor or new products are introduced.
The intensity of distribution i.e. the total proportion of the market covered, will depend upon decisions made in the context of the overall marketing strategy. In simple terms there are two alternatives: skimming the market and market penetration. These strategies were described in the previous chapter. It will be remembered that a skimming strategy involves being highly selective in choosing target customers. Normally, these will be relatively affluent consumers willing and able to pay premium prices for better quality, sometimes highly differentiated, products. It will also be recalled that a penetration strategy is one where the decision has been made to mass market and the object is to make the product available to as many people as possible. The decision as to which of these is adopted as with immediate implications for distribution strategy. Three principal strategies these being; intensive, selective and exclusive distribution.
Extensive distribution: Those responsible for the marketing of commodities, and other low unit value products, are, typically, seek distribution, i.e. saturation coverage of the market. This is possible where the product is fairly well standardised and requires no particular expertise in its retailing. Mass marketing of this type will almost invariably involve a number of intermediaries because the costs of achieving extensive distribution are enormous. In developing countries, the decision to sell commodities nationwide has, in the past, been more often politically inspired than the result of commercial judgements. Many marketing boards, for example, have discovered just how great a financial burden pan territorial distribution can be and have found their role in basic food security incompatible with the objective of breaking even in their finances. In fact, except in social marketing of this nature, it is rare to find organisations which try for 100% distribution coverage. It is simply too expensive in most cases. Where commercial organisations do opt for extensive distribution, channels are usually long and involve several levels of wholesaling as well as other middlemen.
Selective distribution: Suppliers who appoint a limited number of retailers, or other middlemen, are chosen to handle a product line, have a policy of selective distribution. Limiting the number of intermediaries can help contain the supplier's own marketing costs and at the same time enables the grower/producer to develop closer working relations with intermediaries. The distribution channel is usually relatively short with few or no intermediaries between the producer and the organisation which retails the product to the end user.
Selective distribution is common among new businesses with very limited resources. Their strategy is usually one of concentrating on gaining distribution in the larger cities and towns where the market potential can be exploited at an affordable level of marketing costs. As the company builds up its resource base, it is likely to steadily extend the range of its distribution up to the point where further increases in distribution intensity can no longer be economically justified.
Exclusive distribution: Exclusive distribution is an extreme form of selective distribution. That is, the producer grants exclusive right to a wholesaler or retailer to sell in a geographic region. This is not uncommon in the sale of more expensive and complex agricultural equipment like tractors. Caterpillar Tractor Company, for example, appoints a single dealer to distribute its products within a given geographical area.
Some market coverage may be lost through a policy of exclusive distribution, but this can be offset by the development and maintenance of the image of quality and prestige for the product and by the reduced marketing costs associated with a small number of accounts. In exclusive distribution producers and middlemen work closely in decisions concerning promotion, inventory to be carried by stockists and prices.
The details of an exclusivity agreement can have important ramifications for both producer and distributor. Some involve tied-agreements where an enterprise wishing to become the exclusive dealer for a given product must also carry others within that agribusiness's product line. For instance, a chemicals manufacturer could have a fast selling herbicide and will tie the exclusive distribution for such a product to a slower moving specialist product like a nematacide.
Agribusinesses which are considering becoming involved in exclusivity agreements need to be aware of their legality. In some markets, exclusivity agreements are either prohibited altogether or are restricted in some way because they are judged, by regulatory authorities, to lessen competition in the marketplace.
Figure 9.3 The principal types of distribution system
Direct marketing systems: Where distances between producers and consumers are short, direct transactions between the two groups can take place. Farmers who elect to market their products directly have to trade off the benefits of doing so against the time they are away from farming activities. In the case of industrial markets, direct transactions are common where there are a relatively small number of customers (e.g. equipment designed for abattoirs).
Retail institutions: The retail sector includes a wide range of outlets such as merchants, equipment dealers (in the case of farmers), department stores, supermarkets and smaller grocery stores. They are characterised by their dealing with the end user of the product or service.
Wholesalers: Wholesalers make marketing systems more efficient by buying a variety of products, in fairly large quantities, and selling these items on to other businesses who require relatively small quantities of a variety of goods. Wholesalers may service consumer and/or industrial retail outlets. For instance, fruit and vegetable wholesalers often sell to both grocery stores (consumer) and hotels, hospitals, schools, prisons, etc. (industrial). Some wholesalers offer a full-service i.e. they perform all the distribution functions such as selling, pre-delivery inspection (in the case of machinery), technical advice, extension of credit, storage, and delivery. Other wholesalers provide only a limited service. An example would be cash-and-carry wholesalers who require customers to collect the goods and to pay cash. Patrons of cash-and-carry wholesalers are usually compensated for the lower service levels by lower prices.
Sales agents and brokers: Sales agents and sales brokers are distinguished from the other types of channel member already described in that they do not take title to the goods. The role of agents and brokers is to facilitate distribution by bringing buyers and sellers together. Sales agents often have close relations with particular growers/processors/manufacturers and contract to sell on their behalf in return for a commission. Some agents negotiate sales for a number of non-competing clients, whilst others handle sales for only one client and usually have the exclusive right to do so, within a specified geographic area. In many respects the sales agent behaves as though he/she were an extension of the client's own sales organisation. Brokers, on the other hand, earn a commission for informing buyers of possible sellers and informing sellers of possible buyers. Clients use the services of a broker intermittently since their supply of the product to the market is intermittent.
Whilst figure 9.3 is helpful in structuring a discussion on the different types of distribution system, it is an oversimplification and this has to be recognised. For instance, whilst sales agents and wholesalers are categorised separately in this diagram, they often operate together. This is common in fruit and vegetable wholesale markets where sales agents sell produce, on a commission basis, on behalf of growers.
Auctions: Auctions are frequently used to transfer ownership of agricultural commodities. The system involves bringing prospective buyers and sellers together under the auspices of an independent auctioneer. The auctioneer is an employee of the organisation managing the auction market. Neither the auctioneer nor his/her employer participates in buying or selling the commodity on their own account. The auction company makes its profits from facilitating the purchase and sale of the commodity. The auctioneer invites bids for specific lots with the produce being sold to the highest bidder. Two distinct methods of auctioning may be employed: upward bidding and the Dutch method (or clock auction). The upward bidding method is where the auctioneer declares a starting price for the lot and prospective purchasers offer increasing amounts until a point is reached where no further bids are received because no one is willing to go beyond the value of the last bid. The Dutch method traditionally makes use of a clock that moves in a downward direction. The auctioneer displays an opening price on the clock and invites bids. If no bids are forthcoming then the auctioneer causes the clock hand to display decreasing prices. At the moment a bid is made the clock is stopped and the sale is made.
Auction selling makes prices transparent since all of the buyers and sellers present hear the bids and are therefore aware of prevailing price levels.
Vertical marketing systems: This is a system in which the producer(s), wholesaler(s) and retailer(s) act as a unified system. Usually one channel member owns the others, or has contracts with them, or has franchises with others in the channel. The argument for vertically integrated marketing systems is based upon increased efficiency of the system by the removal of duplicated services. They also achieve economies through size, bargaining power and reductions in potential conflicts of interest. In some instances there is a physical coming together of operations and enterprises such as when an abattoir and packhouse physically integrate to provide slaughter, processing, packing and cold store services within a single enterprise. On other occasions the integration has no physical dimension. Examples include:
Franchisers operate by vertically linking several levels of the marketing system. Thus Coca Cola ‘wholesales’ its syrup concentrate (product) to franchisees who carbonate and bottle and distribute the brand (processing, packaging and physical distribution) to consumers who have been targetted by Coca Cola's heavy advertising (promotion).
In many parts of the world agricultural equipment manufacturers supply machinery (product) to appointed distributors who are given exclusive rights to sell and maintain their whole goods and parts (physical distribution and service) within a specified geographical area. The manufacturer will often provide sales support (promotion) to authorised dealers. In return, these independent distributors agree to abide by the manufacturer's decisions regarding pricing, service levels, stockholding policy and a wide range of other terms and conditions.
Small scale retailers have responded to the competitive advantage of supermarkets by voluntarily integrating their buying and/or wholesaling and marketing operations. This has enabled them to achieve lower operating costs and to offer consumers lower prices than they otherwise could. Some of these organisations, such as SPAR enjoy a high profile among consumers across a large number of countries around the world.
Horizontal marketing systems: Channels can also develop into horizontal marketing systems in which two or more companies, at the same channel level, cooperate to pursue marketing opportunities. The basis of the marriage is that in combining resources and expertise the partners can achieve some goal that individually they could not. Thus, for example, a seed company and a grain merchant might set up a joint venture to offer farmers a complete package where he buys certified seed from the new enterprise which guarantees to buy his/her grain crop at prevailing market prices.
Strategic alliances of this type are likely to increase in the future. In newly liberalised markets they can be especially useful in protecting local agribusinesses whose low level of capitalisation, outdated technology and inexperience of operating within a competitive marketplace makes them vulnerable when foreign competitors with better resources enter their market.
No matter how well a product meets the needs of customers, without effective and efficient distribution it is unlikely to succeed in the marketplace. However, it would be misleading to suggest that producers or suppliers were entirely free to choose which organisations should form the channel for their product (s). In reality, the distribution strategy adopted by most producers more often reflects what is possible rather than what is ideally desired. McVey4 underlines the point when he states that:
“The middleman is not a hired link in a chain forged by a manufacturer, but rather an independent market, the focus of a large group of customers for whom he buys.”
Thus, we are advised by McVey to see all members of the channel we wish to use as customers and we must market to them not through them. To successfully market to middlemen we must:-
|Understand their problems||Milk marketers in India became aware that small retailers had only a limited amount of room to stock fresh milk. The solution was for the milk processor to make several deliveries during the day. The same system exists in certain parts of Canada.|
|Understand their competitors||Wakomet, a manufacturer of hammer mills and plate mills in Nigeria sold their products through independent number of machinery distributors in various parts of Nigeria. Their distributors complained that there was a prejudice in favour of imported hammer mills, although there was very little difference in the designs of foreign and domestically manufactured mills and no real difference in their performance. Wakomet observed that dealers representing foreign-made hammer mills rarely took care to import a range of screen sizes with each machine. Consequently, Wakomet convinced their dealers to stock 3 popular screen sizes for every hammer mill. Thus, anyone buying a Wakomet hammer mill could easily switch from milling sorghum to millet, for human consumption, and could also process grains suitable for poultry feed. This gave Wakomet dealers and products a competitive edge.|
|Understand their customers' needs and wants||Zimbabwe Cotton Marketing Board came to appreciate that the spinners, who were the customers of the brokers, merchants and trading houses handling cotton, wanted advice from their suppliers on the best cotton characteristics to produce a given quality of spun product. CMB established a 24 hour advisory service, for these middlemen, and so helped their customers, the middlemen, to help the spinners. Thus, CMB enabled their customers to offer a level of service to spinners which others found difficult to match.|
|Understand their relationship in the channel distribution||During the mid 1980s Lesotho began to export canned white asparagus. When initial shipments were being planned, contact was made with large retail organisations in a number of European countries. It became clear that the emphasis in these organisations was upon selling large volumes of low cost foodstuffs. Because of the early stage of development of production and the methods of production, the Lesotho asparagus is relatively expensive, but high quality. The product is consequently retailed through European epicure and delicatessen outlets which specialise in selling premium-priced quality products and where sales volumes are more closely matched to Lesotho's production levels.|
|Be aware of changes in distribution trends:||The only thing which is certain about tomorrow is that it will be different from today. The distributors of agricultural products do undergo change over time. New forms of distribution emerge, such as supermarkets and the technology of distribution changes. Agribusinesses must continually review their current distribution arrangements and monitor developments within the distributive channels.|
Within a distribution channel there is usually a balance of power, and the characteristics of the channel are shaped by the manner in which power is exercised. Sometimes the balance of power in a channel lies with the producer/manufacturer and in other it lies with the intermediary. Moreover, there is always the potential for conflict between channel members.
Conflict between channel members can arise for one or more of the following reasons:
Incompatibility of goals: Organisations can have conflicting goals. A grower may want to grade the produce in order to achieve a price premium for the top quality produce or to develop a brand image, but the wholesaler may only be interested in selling large volumes of undifferentiated produce.
Confusion over roles and rights: For example, a grower may sell part of the produce through local agents and part direct to supermarkets. This may cause conflict because the local agent believes that all sales should go through him/her.
Differences in perceptions: Among the many potential differences in perceptions, which can result in conflict, are: who the customer is; what the market wants; the objectives of other channel members in participating in the market; and the role which other channel members play in helping the organisation achieve its own objectives.
Members of a distribution channel can also differ in how they perceive themselves. There is an argument as to whether the ‘distribution channel’ is more than an abstract academic concept. Whilst manufacturers and producers may think in terms of a distribution system, intermediaries do not necessarily see themselves as part of some other party's ‘system’, but instead consider themselves as independent operators. If intermediaries do lack a systems orientation, then there are additional prospects of conflict since they will be, naturally, reluctant to compromise their own interests in deference to those of the distribution system as a whole.
Degree of interdependence: The greater the degree of interdependence between two members of the distribution channel, the greater the potential for conflict. This is because the actions of one directly impinge upon the performance of the other.
Gaedeke and Tootelian10 define physical distribution as:
“…all activities involved in planning, implementing, and controlling the physical flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption. The main activities include customer service, inventory control, material handling, transportation, warehousing and storage.”
Thus, it is suggested that physical distribution has two components: materials management and marketing logistics. Materials management is concerned with physical supply operations such as procurement and the storage and movement of raw materials to and through processing into a finished product. Marketing logistics deals with the transfer of finished goods to intermediaries, final buyers and end-users.
Figure 9.4 The elements of business logistics
Physical distribution is often viewed as a necessary support system for the organisation's marketing programme. However, there is an alternative, and more creative perspective which can be taken and that is to see an efficient physical distribution system as a potent marketing tool in its own right, and one which is capable of creating a competitive advantage for the organisation. An organisation which is able, for instance, to supply a wide variety of products speedily at specified times helps reduce the inventory holding costs of the intermediaries being served. Thus the level of interest in the way physical distribution is managed is explained by its potential as a powerful marketing instrument, the opportunity to realise significant savings in marketing costs and by the importance of physical distribution to customer service levels.
The level of customer service provided by a company is part of the marketing mix. In some instances, a company offers an exceptionally high level of customer service as the principal means of differentiating itself from competitors. Customer service levels are as pertinent to the intermediaries which the agribusiness serves.
For many customers the level of customer service provided by the agribusiness enterprise is as important as any other attribute which it may possess, including the excellence of its products. There are aspects of customer service which have little to do with physical distribution, such as the after-sales service, warranties and the handling of customer complaints, but a large part of customer service is effected through the physical distribution function. A wide range of criteria may be used in evaluating the service level offered by an agribusiness but these are likely to include:
timeliness of delivery
order size and assortment constraints
order cycle time, i.e. time interval between order placement and delivery
percentage of items out of stock
percentage of times an item cannot be supplied from stock (or within a prescribed number of days from order placement)
percentage of orders filled accurately
percentage of orders arriving in good condition,
ease and flexibility of order placemen, and
competitors' service levels.
Maintaining high levels of customer service carries heavy costs and can only be justified when doing so results in marketing opportunities which otherwise would not be realised. At the same time, the logistics manager must monitor the effects of operating a given level of customer service on profitability. As figure 9.5 seeks to illustrate, as the customer service level gets nearer to 100 percent, the costs of doing so rise sharply. This means considering the trade-offs between the costs involved and the service level offered. It is possible, after all, to provide a level of service above that required or appreciated by the customer. There is likely to be no discernible difference in the service levels of two suppliers, one of whom is able to immediately supply a spare part from stock on 99 of 100 occasions and another who is able to supply from stock on 97 of 100 occasions.
Figure 9.5 The relationship between customer service level and cost
Given the need to deliver a level of customer service which is acceptable to the market and the level of cost which can be incurred in doing so, it is important to approach the establishment of a customer service policy in a systematic way. A six-step procedure is recommended as follows:
|1. Identify the key aspects of service:||This step involves determining which aspects of service are important to customers, otherwise resources can be misdirected. It is also necessary to find out how customers measure service levels. Marketing research and the organisation's sales force can help in identifying key service elements and how these are measured.|
|2. Establish the relative importance of each aspect of service:||It is likely that aspects of customer service will vary in their importance to customers and an organisation will wish to concentrate its resources on those which really matter to the customer. Again, marketing research can help ascertain the key service elements upon which to focus.|
|3. Determine how, if at all, the key aspects of service, and their relative importance, vary in different market segments:||The process of segmenting a market is based upon a recognition that customers vary in their needs and wants. So, too, might their assessment of what are important aspects of customer service.|
|4. Assess current organisational competitiveness on customer service, in each market segment:||Customers and potential customers can be asked to make comparisons, on the key service elements, between the organisation and its main competitors in each major segment of the market.|
|5. Develop cost-effective customer service packages for each of the main market segments:||Targets should be established for each element of the service packages, e.g. 80 percent of parts will be available from stock or will be despatched within 3 working days, a minimum of 98 out of 100 orders will be delivered without damaged items, 90 percent of all orders will be delivered complete. Such standards have to be based upon a careful assessment of the organisation's capabilities, the attendant costs and what is acceptable to customers.|
|6. Establish monitoring and control procedures:||Once standards have been established, the organisation must put into place monitoring systems to check on what is actually being achieved so that remedial action can be taken at an early stage. Feedback on the levels of service being achieved should be given to personnel involved in delivering the service. Such feedback can be a powerful motivation.|
The total distribution concept and the total cost approach are widely applied by managers of physical distribution. They are based on the notion that all elements of physical distribution are so interdependent that a decision made about one element will impact on some or all of the others. Thus, for example, the decision to reduce the number of depots operated by a grain merchant may well reduce costs associated with staffing, wastage, and inventory levels but will also increase transportation costs. The real question is whether the savings in one area match, exceed or fall short of the increased costs in another.
Since, in general, physical distribution managers appreciate that their challenge is to minimise the total costs of the distribution system, rather than the costs of a particular element, they tend to employ the total cost concept. To this end, management must calculate the trade-offs between three categories of cost: transportation costs, order processing costs and stockholding costs. Figure 9.6 shows the general relationship between these different categories of cost.
Figure 9.6 The components of the total costs attached to physical distribution
Storage costs: Because of economies of scale a large warehouse can be operated at a lower cost than can several smaller warehouses. These economies include the fact that larger warehouses are often better able to achieve better utilisation of space and equipment, overheads incurred in a large warehouse can be spread over a higher throughput of stock items and the amount of money tied up in stock tends to be less for a large depot than for several smaller warehouses11. In addition, each separate site will require its own management team and this increases distribution costs further. At some point, however, diseconomies of scale set in and the single central warehouse becomes less attractive in financial terms. This happens, for instance, when depots reach a size where they are difficult to manage and the distances between the warehouse and many of the organisation's customers is so great that transport costs rise to unacceptable levels and the level of service to the customer is adversely affected.
As figure 9.6 shows, increasing the number of warehouses will, almost invariably, increase storage costs but this may be necessary to meet customer expectations with a minimum standard of service.
Figure 9.7 The effect of increasing the number of warehouses upon total storage costs
Transportation costs: As can be seen in figure 9.7, the increase in storage costs may be offset, either in whole or in part, by savings made in transportation costs As the number of warehouses increases, unit transport costs decline due to lower mileages being travelled by delivery vehicles.
Figure 9.8 The effect of increasing the number of warehouses on total transport costs
For most manufacturers and producers transportation is the major physical distribution cost.
Inventory carrying costs: The cost of maintaining sufficient stocks to meet any level of demand is usually prohibitive. Instead, the firm seeks to reach a balance between inventory carrying costs and an acceptable level of customer service.
Among the chief determinants of inventory carrying costs are:
With respect to the effect of increasing the number of warehouses located in various areas, this would be, as was said earlier, to increase stock holding costs.
Figure 9.9 The effect of the increasing the number of depots on total inventory carrying costs
System Costs: The last category of the costs are those termed system costs. These include costs attached to order processing activities, the maintenance of information systems and communications between sites. The total cost of these services will, as figure 9.10 suggests, increase with number of sites.
Figure 9.10 The effect of increasing the number of warehouses on total system costs
Total distribution cost: At the outset of this chapter, it was emphasised that changes in one element of the distribution system can have a dramatic, and often unexpected effect on other elements of the system and upon the system as a whole. Hence the need to view the physical distribution system as a whole. Total distribution costs analysis can be used to this end. By bringing together the various types of distribution cost, the effects of proposed changes in one area of distribution can be assessed in terms of their impact on other individual elements and upon the system as a whole.
Direct product profitability: The conventional approach to assessing the profitability of products has been to average costs over the entire product range. DPP, or direct product profitability, is a process involving the allocation of all distribution costs, including space, to specific products and so arriving at a figure for the direct product costs (DPCs) then subtracting these from the gross margin of the products. McGoldrick's12 explanation of DPP emphasises that distribution costs are a major component of direct product costs.
“The DPP of an item is therefore the gross margin, after adjustments, minus direct product costs (DPCs). These direct product costs arise at the warehouse, in transport, in the store and in the head office functions. The largest single element of DPC is likely to be incurred in the store. Here a cost is allocated, possibly using work-study techniques, for the labour involved in receiving, sorting, moving, price-marking, shelf-loading and checking out the item. A space cost is a allocated, being a function of the square or cubic footage occupied and the rate of the stockturn of the item.”
Thus, DPP seeks to monitor the actual costs and profits involved in distributing a product. The adoption of DPP is motivated by the desire to identify and eradicate inefficiencies within the distribution system. In addition, since DPP has the potential to pinpoint the costs of delivering specific products to specific customers, it also has the potential to help in devising cost-effective marketing strategies. Some of the other areas of decision-making in which managers in manufacturing and retailing are applying DPP are:
DPP is a useful measure for manufacturers or producers, wholesalers and retailers but it does require a sound management information system in order to be able to perform the detailed calculations. It probably also requires access to a computer, although this need only be an inexpensive personal computer.
Just-in-time: The purpose of JIT is to eliminate all production activities which do not directly add value to the product. The just-in-time (JIT) concept was developed with manufacturing in mind but it has implications for distribution. Whilst the organisations that have implemented this system tend to be large enterprises, the system also has implications for the smaller and middle-sized firms who may be their competitors, suppliers or customers.
JIT has four specific objectives13
JIT ensures, for example, that components and raw materials arrive at the manufacturer's or processor's factory at the precise time they are required for production or processing. For JIT to work, there has to be good coordination of production schedules between suppliers and manufacturers/processors so that both parties can satisfy demand whilst carrying mini stocks.
The implementation of a JIT programme usually has a number of complementary elements. The most common are:
|Pull scheduling||Where production is a function of ‘demand pull’ rather than ‘schedule push’. This means that only the actual materials required for a production run are drawn from suppliers and this eliminates inventories;|
|Mixed production||Products are only processed or manufactured as orders are received for them. This eliminates stocks, improves cash flow and allows capacity to be switched to producing what is currently in demand;|
|Fast set up times||Investment is made in systems and equipment which allow almost continuous production of different products;|
|Preventative maintenance||Ensures unbroken production;|
|Revised plant layout||Redesigned to minimise handling and movement;|
|Total quality control||Systems for identifying and rectifying defects at source;|
|Supplier liaison||The extension of JIT to suppliers.|
Organisations marketing to enterprises which have adopted JIT will find that new opportunities and challenges are created. The most likely effects of JIT are:
|Strict quality control||The buyer will expect the supplier to have already carried out a pre-delivery inspection of the materials or components. This reduces the buyer's costs since, in theory, part of the quality control task is passed to the supplier. In addition, the quality standard is likely to be high or the economies promised by JIT will not be realised;|
|Frequent and reliable deliveries||To keep inventory to a minimum, manufacturers will ask for frequent, perhaps daily, deliveries. They will also insist that suppliers adhere precisely to the agreed delivery times and may apply penalties for early as well as late deliveries;|
|Relocation||It may be necessary for suppliers to relocate their production and/or warehouse facilities to be close to customers in order to consistently meet orders placed at very short notice;|
|Investment in new technology||It may be necessary to invest in modern, and expensive, production technology to match the quality targets of the customer. Even if this is not the case, investment in computer systems and communications equipment will almost certainly be necessary so that the supplier and industrial customer can coordinate their management systems to the extent required to achieve the goals of JIT;|
|Single supplier arrangements||JIT requires suppliers and customers to work closely on cost control, product development and design, improvements in production methods and so on. It is therefore common to find that adopters of JIT have reduced the number of suppliers with which they deal with. Sometimes they rely on a single supplier with whom a long-term relationship has been developed;|
|Value engineering||JIT simultaneously pursues cost reduction and quality improvement. To this end, a customer will closely examine its own business operations and will also require suppliers to seek ways of reducing their own costs whilst maintaining or even improving the quality of their supplies.|
Materials requirement planning: The materials requirement planning system (MRP) most commonly found in modern manufacturing or processing concerns is based on the Japanese Kanban system. MRP is a computerised inventory control system intended to minimise the investment in manufacturing/processing materials and components, consistent with matching production levels to current demand.
The word Kanban translates as ‘visible record’ which may be a ticket, job or route card, or a computer code. A computer is used to plan production over several periods and using the Kanban system automatically triggers the production or purchase of components or materials at the time they are required for the manufacturing or processing of the finished product.
All materials or components are lodged in specially designed containers which have two Kanban cards attached to them. Those responsible for the production or supply of the material or the component will make use of the P-Kanban whereas the users of those materials or components will use the C-Kanban (C = conveyance). Each container is conveyed between the work areas of the materials/parts producers and users with one kanban being exchanged for another along the way. The production of a part can only be undertaken if there is a P-Kanban to authorise it. In the absence of a P-Kanban the workforce will engage in other activities such as cleaning, maintenance, training etc.
The Kanban system removes the need for managers to forecast (or guess) what level of materials or parts must be held in stock to meet production/processing requirements and thereby reduces inventories. Kanban is intended to work within the context of a just-in-time production programme. Oakland14 says that:
“A JIT programme can succeed without a Kanban-based operation, but Kanbans will not function effectively independently of JIT.”
Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) has been extended into Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II). MRP II represented a move towards an integrated approach to the entire manufacturing process. Distribution Requirement Planning (DRP) applies the techniques of MRP II to warehousing and transportation activities.
The functions of warehouses are to provide cost-effective storage, in suitable conditions, for the organisation's products and materials. The existence of a warehouse is justified by the extent to which it contributes to the efficiency and effectiveness of physical distribution functions. The main warehousing operations are listed in table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Warehouse operations
|Goods Inwards||receiving - unloading and temporary hold|
checking - right goods received, grade, package, quantity, quality, damage or shortages
record receipts and discrepancies
unpack/repack if required
|Warehouse Storage||consign goods to a specific area of store|
record goods location
ensure stock rotation
provide security against shrinkage
|Order picking||order picking according to customer orders|
marshall or assemble goods by customer or vehicle load
consign to vehicle loading area
|Goods Despatching||provision of suitable loading areas|
develop efficient vehicle schedules
The geographical location of a warehouse should be determined by production sites and the physical position of target markets. In some developing countries, however, political consideration have sometimes over-ridden economic arguments and facilities such as warehouses, godowns, assembly areas and buying points for government organisation have been sub-optimally sited.
Warehouse managers have a number of important challenges including:
The management of inventory can have a major impact upon the profitability of an organisation. If inventory levels are too low then there is the risk of stockouts, i.e. the inability to meet an order. This can result in a loss of revenues, profits and customer goodwill. On the other hand, if the inventory levels are too high then the organisation can experience cash flow problems since so much of its capital is tied up in stocks. When inventory levels are high then there is also an increased risk of spoilage, pilferage and obsolescence.
Managing stocks involves balancing two sets of costs: Inventory carrying costs and order processing costs. Consider the position of a company making a range of biscuits and breads. For such a company wheat will be a major raw material. The company could be so anxious to secure supplies of this vital component of its finished products that it is prepared to place a single order for its total requirement for the next year. However, this course of action would maximise the bakery's inventory carrying costs, comprised of costs of capital, storage charges, insurance, depreciation, obsolescence and shrinkage. As Figure 9.11a illustrates, inventory carrying costs increase in line with the average stock held.
Since production within a bakery tends to be a batch process, the company could adopt an alternative approach and place orders large enough to ensure that wheat stocks are only just sufficient to meet the requirements for the next batch, i.e. a just-in-time approach. This would minimise the bakery's inventory carrying costs but would mean placing a large number of orders and so order processing costs would be maximised. Order processing costs include monitoring residual stocks, selecting a supplier (which could mean having to compare a number of alternatives), raising and processing a purchase order, checking goods inwards, and processing payment. Figure 9.11b indicates that if the bakery elected to place small order for wheat they would have to place a number of orders over the year and so order processing costs would be high. The same figure shows that order processing costs decline as the size of the orders increases and the number of orders placed declines.
The optimal order size is determined by studying how these two sets of costs interact. Figure 9.11c depicts the total inventory cost which is, of course, the sum of inventory carrying costs plus order processing costs. The optimal order size is at point Q, i.e. the lowest point on the total cost curve commonly referred to as the economic order quantity (EOQ).
Figure 9.11 The Economic Order Quantity
The calculation of the economic order quantity involves only simple mathematics. The following nomenclature may be used:
O = the cost of placing a order
Q = quantity ordered
N = number of times that quantity is ordered,
S = Q × N (i.e the total number of units demanded)
C = cost per unit per annum
Order processing costs = O × N
Average carrying costs = C × Q/2
Total costs = (O × N) + C × Q/2
Since NQ = S then N = S/Q
Total costs = OS/Q + CQ/2
Therefore EOQ = √OS/C
It will quickly be realised that the EOQ model, as just described, is an over-simplification of the real world. It does not incorporate such realities as the variation in sales volumes over time, variable lead times between order placement and delivery, discounts for purchasing in larger quantities and the need for safety stocks. If the EOQ model is to be useful in practice then it must be adapted to cope with these variables.
Order cycles and sales fluctuations: There are two basic approaches to incorporating sales volume variations in inventory management models: fixed order quantities and fixed order times. A fixed order quantity system allows time between orders to vary whilst the EOQ is held constant. A fixed order time system allows the size of orders placed to vary but the times between orders are fixed. Where the fixed order time system is applied, EOQ does not determine the order size. Instead, a forecast is made of demand over the next lead time and the size of the order to be placed is determined accordingly.
Both of these approaches have their advantages and the choice between them is entirely dependent upon the circumstances of the particular organisation. For instance, a supermarket chain might organise the scheduling of its transport fleet so as to minimise delivery costs. This could mean that each retail outlet is given a fixed delivery date for receiving orders. In these circumstances each store must place orders on a fixed time schedule but can vary its order quantities for each item. Where transport costs are not an overriding consideration then the same supermarket chain could apply a system of fixed order quantities but varying periods of order placement, because order processing and inventory carrying costs outweigh transport costs.
It sometimes happens that an organisation will apply one system at the retail level and the other at the warehouse level. Consider, for example, the position of a large food retailer with multiple retail outlets and several regional warehouses. With each warehouse serving a number of large retail outlets the variation in sales is likely to be greater at store level than at warehouse level (the downward fluctuations in some stores will be compensated by upward swings in others). Where this is the case, a fixed order quantity system could be imposed at the warehouse level whilst a fixed order time system applies at the retail level.
Bulk purchase discounts: Where discounts are received for placing orders of a given size these must be taken into account because they affect the EOQ. The organisation has to conduct a trade-off analysis in order to determine whether the ‘savings’ accrued from placing larger orders and the lower order processing costs due to the need to place fewer orders, outweigh the additional inventory carrying costs. The additional carrying costs are calculated as follows:
Additional inventory carrying costs = C(Q2 - Q1)/2
Q1 is the EOQ before taking any quantity discount into consideration, and
Q2 is the EOQ after taking any quantity discount into consideration
The savings accrued from placing fewer orders and incurring lower order processing costs are calculated as follows:
OS/Q1 - OS/Q2
A comparative analysis of the two sources of savings, those from bulk discounts and those from lower order processing costs- against the additional inventory carrying costs will guide management as to whether a quantity discount should be taken or not.
Safety stocks: Inevitably, there will be occasions when demand exceeds expectations. If an organisation has not anticipated this eventuality then a stockout will occur. If the item is a raw material or component then production will be interrupted and this will add to production costs. If the item is a finished good then customers will be adversely affected and their goodwill and custom may be lost altogether. Since the costs of a stockout are potentially great, organisations usually plan to carry a safety stock as a buffer between supply and demand levels.
Decisions relating to the levels of safety stocks involve a trade-off between additional inventory carrying costs and the costs of a stockout. If customers are likely to place the order elsewhere then the cost of a stockout is the contribution to fixed costs (i.e. the sales revenue minus the variable costs). If customers are lost forever, as a result of the stockout, then the cost is the present value of the discounted stream of expected future contributions on orders lost.
A critical issue in the management of physical distribution activities is whether the organisation should own transport facilities or hire them. There are three types of carriers which an organisation might choose between when deciding how to ship its product; private carriers, common carriers and contract carriers. Where a company owns and operates its own transport fleet it is termed a private carrier. This fleet is not usually available to any party other than the owner. Common carriers are available to any party wishing to transport goods. Common carriers charge standard rates which are published and freely available to anyone who is interested. A contract carrier serves individual shippers on a medium to long-term basis. The contract usually extends over a specified period with an option to renew the contract.
Calculating the cost of owning transport vehicles
In order to make a decision as to whether the organisation should purchase its own transport vehicles or use a common or contract carrier, the costs of ownership must be calculated. The two elements of transport costs are the fixed costs and the operating costs. Some costs are incurred irrespective of whether the vehicles are actually moving or not. These fixed costs include such items as vehicle licence duties, insurance and interest due on loans obtained to purchase vehicles. Operating, or running, costs are a function of the distances travelled by the vehicle and include fuel, tyres and repair and maintenance costs. A list of fixed and operating costs appears in the table below.
Table 9.2 Fixed and operating costs of owning transport vehicles
|Fixed Transport Costs||Operating Costs|
|Administration||Driver's overtime payments|
|Depreciation on vehicles*||Fuel|
|Driver's basic wage||Oil & other lubricants|
|Driver's licence fees||Repairs and maintenance|
|Insurance on vehicle|
|Interest on loans|
* Depreciation is partly a function of distances travelled by the vehicle
A simple approach to calculating the depreciation on a vehicle would be:
Alternatively, if the organisation has a policy of replacing vehicles by selling them off at set intervals then the formula becomes:
It can be seen that only the purchase price and perhaps the estimated period of ownership, if the firm has a set replacement policy, will be fixed figures whereas the others will need to be estimated. In these circumstances it is sometimes useful to obtain estimates of depreciation from other sources. These might include:
vehicle distributors, although these may tend to be optimistic or even exaggerated
other vehicle operators
vehicle insurers and/or
financial institutions who give loans for the purpose of purchasing vehicles.
Unitisation in physical distribution
There are two aspects of unitisation of physical loads and these are palletisation and containerisation. Both palletisation and containerisation serve to reduce damage to agricultural and food products whilst these are in transit, and to increase the efficiency of the distribution system as a whole.
In international trade, there is a widespread adoption of a standard pallet size of 100cm × 120cm. Any exporter who ignores this standard when trading with countries that have adopted the standard will probably incur additional costs because of the need to repalletise the load. The argument in favour of a standard pallet size is simply that the operations of each of the parties in the physical distribution system will be more efficient if they all work to a common pallet size. Ships, lorries, rail freight cars, aircraft holds and warehouses can be designed to handle the standard pallet size and achieve maximum utilisation of space15.
The introduction of trailer size containers has allowed various forms of transportation to integrate their services since these units are interchangeable between different modes of transport. Containerization has made possible the transfer of loads between ships direct on to road and rail-based carriers and, of course, between road and rail. The main advantages of containerisation are the minimisation of damage to the goods, little or no pilferage and handling times reduced to 50 percent of those achieved with other systems.
Computerised scanners: Modern retail supermarkets and wholesalers are increasingly using electronic scanners at the checkout to speed up customer flow and improve inventory management. This type of electronic point of sale (EPOS) system depends upon each product having been labelled with a unique bar code which can be read by a laser. The two main coding systems are the Universal Product Code (UPC), originating in the USA, and the European Article Number (EAN). Both coding systems have found acceptance in a large number of countries and are compatible with one another. The UPC system uses 11 digits whilst EAN uses 13 digits. The first five digits of the EAN code identifies the manufacturer or producer, the next five digits give specific product information, followed by two digits that denote the country of origin with a final check digit. These digits are represented by a series of alternate black and white bars, of varying widths, which are read by the laser scanner.
In addition to reducing the time which the customer spends at the checkout, computer linked scanners can instantly transfer the item sold from stock records to sales records. Not only does scanner technology add to customer convenience, it also provides the seller with a level of detail on inventories and sales which can significantly improve profitability. Scanners enable the distributor to not only record the product sold, or held in stock, but the pack size and the form of package. Thus, for example, a retailer using scanners will know that it is the 2 litre milk packs which are gaining in sales volumes whilst, perhaps, the 250 ml packs are increasingly slow to move off the shelves. This helps the retailer respond more quickly to changing consumer preferences and at the same time improves profitability through reducing wastage rates.
Distribution is usually a sizeable component of total marketing costs. Moreover, the costs of procuring and operating transportation are generally high, sometimes prohibitive as this is often a very scarce resource. It follows that if transport facilities can be managed efficiently this can have a dramatic effect upon total marketing costs and the effectiveness of the firm's marketing system.
In turn, the efficiency and effectiveness achieved with the logistics operations of an enterprise are greatly influenced by the routing and scheduling of the vehicles available. Slater16 defines the problem of optimising the performance of the transport function in terms of load planning as follows:
“Load planning is a method or technique used to match existing customer orders with vehicles and available manpower by the generation of routes or schedules for vehicles. The efficiency of these routes or schedules determines the operating cost for the transport fleet and the potential customer service level offered by the company.”
Figure 9.12 The composition of total transport costs
Thus the motivation to work on maximising the efficiency of vehicle routing and scheduling lies in the potential to contain total transport costs whilst also retaining control over the level of services provided to customers. Where the enterprise operates a fleet of vehicles then load planning has the potential to minimise total mileage whilst maximising operating times, thereby enabling the organisation to reduce the size of its fleet or increase the number of customers/area of territory covered, or some compromise between the two.
Transportation costs are comprised of several major elements, as can be seen in figure 9.12. Nonetheless, it can be readily seen that vehicle scheduling efficiencies, or a lack of them, will have a major effect on total costs. In particular, load planning will impact upon the cost of fuel, labour, maintenance and vehicle depreciation.
Any manager charged with responsibility for the efficient operation of the transportation function will have a diverse range of factors to consider. These include the nature of the customers to be served, the vehicles available, labour force, company policies, the physical characteristics of loads, the environment and vehicle scheduling methods. These factors are more fully listed in table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Factors affecting vehicle scheduling
|Manpower Characteristics||Vehicle Characteristics||Company Characteristics|
|Number of men||Number of vehicles||Customer service policy|
|Type of licence held||Type of vehicle (mix in fleet)||Vehicle operating policy|
|Training level||Maintenance/repair needs||Vehicle load capacity policy|
|Union operating restrictions||Carrying capacity||Product characteristics|
|Hours of work||Height/width||Depot locations|
|Shift patterns||Return load policy|
|Rota patterns||Operational target levels|
|Customer Characteristics||Environmental Characteristics||Routing and scheduling|
|Order patterns||Road pattern||Techniques adopted|
|Locations relative to depots||Road works||Legal requirements|
|Delivery point features||Climatic conditions|
|Earliest/latest delivery times||Legal restrictions|
|Return load availability|
Slater goes on to illustrate how these factors are sequenced and how they interact, to impinge upon vehicle scheduling decisions.
Figure 9.13 Formulating the load plan
Figure 9.13 emphasises the principal objectives of vehicle routing and scheduling, i.e. the delivery of a given level of customer service, with maximum efficiency and at minimum cost.
At their most basic level, vehicle scheduling and routing methods are dichotomous: fixed routes and variable routes. In a “fixed route” system, vehicles follow a prescribed route each day and customer orders for that day are matched to the delivery route. The advantage of this system, to the customer, is that he/she knows the day and time of delivery, and he/she can plan accordingly. On the other hand, the system does not accommodate customers who require immediate delivery, unless by chance the vehicle was scheduled to be in their vicinity the same day or the day after the order was placed. In terms of efficiency, the “fixed route” system has fundamental shortcomings. It will only periodically happen that vehicle capacity and order levels, for a given day, will match exactly. On most occasions, vehicle capacity will be under-utilised or over-subscribed.
The “variable route” system is more customer oriented. This approach seeks to develop routes which match customer order patterns and is capable of amendment to meet fluctuations in day-to-day demand levels. Operating efficiency is improved since the number of drivers and vehicles on the road each day is determined by that day's order level and so total mileage and variable transport costs are minimised. However, there can be disadvantages of this system to customers since they are not always sure of the time and/or day of delivery.
It is sometimes possible to adopt a hybrid approach where a “variable route” system is operated within fixed geographical areas. Such an approach yields the benefits of both the fixed and variable routing system. Unfortunately, it does not overcome the problems of orders exceeding transport capacity, vehicle breakdowns or absenteeism on the part of drivers.
Vehicle scheduling can be a simple paper exercise or can become so complex that computer based mathematical models have to be used. Having a transport supervisor or manager plan the delivery schedule on the basis of a detailed knowledge of each driver's capabilities, the geographical area and the particulars of the customers have inherent advantages. However, fleets quickly become too large for individual personnel to produce scheduling plans which maximise efficiency and effectiveness at minimum cost. Moreover, in highly competitive markets, physical distribution costs have to be carefully managed if the marketing margin is not to be entirely eroded. Thus, to some point, most organisations will have to give consideration to applying mathematical models to vehicle scheduling decisions. In most instances, these mathematical models will prove unready unless they are manipulated by a computer.
There are a number of standard computer “packages” available for the task of vehicle scheduling. The earliest versions of these packages were fairly inflexible in that they had certain in-built assumptions. Typical, an understandable, assumption might include vehicle capacity limitations, driver's time limitations, customer earliest/latest delivery times, etc. These computerised models did not incorporate all of the constraints placed upon the logistics operations of an enterprise. For instance, programmers could not anticipate how transport personnel would react to the “imposition” of a mathematically calculated route that test no cognisance of their local knowledge and experience or the idiosyncratic wishes of some customers. This being the case, programmers were unable to build in all of the factors which should be taken into account when designing a delivery route. As a consequence, computer generated vehicle schedules were sometimes sub-optimal, sometimes unrealistic and often resented by those who had to implement them. To improve computer-based routing, interactive computer scheduling has been introduced. Interactive computer scheduling allows the transport manager to alter any of the parameters in the mathematical model in line with his/her view of the real situation. Thus, contemporary computer-based vehicle scheduling models combine the manager's knowledge with the computer's ability to process complex mathematical models, quickly, to produce flexible schedules.
There are a range of models which can be applied to vehicle scheduling. In this text, the savings method, the simplified delivery service model and the TRANSIT model will be briefly described. It is beyond the scope of this text to deal with the more complex computer-based scheduling models.
Savings method: Clark and Wright's17 “savings method” is perhaps the best known of all the vehicle scheduling models and can be applied either manually or via a computer. Suppose that retailers A and B, who are seperated by x kilometers, both receive maize meal from National Foods' depot at O. This situation is depicted in figure 9.14.
Figure 9.14 The savings method
The distances between the depot at O and retailers A and B are a and b respectively. If two vehicles were used to make the two deliveries separately, the total distance traveled would be 2a + 2b. Alternatively, if only one vehicle were used to make the two deliveries the distance covered over the round-trip is a + b + x. The saving achieved by assigning one vehicle to the round trip would be (2a + 2b) - (a + b + x) = a+b - x. More generally, the savings method formula is denoted as:
Sij = doi + doj - dij
Sij = distance saved by linking together any two delivery points i and j.
doi = distance between depot O and delivery point i
doj = distance between depot O and delivery point j
dij = distance between the delivery points i and j.
Where there are more than two delivery points a matrix of distances saved is developed. This matrix displays the distances between all delivery points and between the depot, or factory, or farm, and each delivery point. The first link to be chosen will be the one showing the largest saving, given two deliveries. The sum of the orders for these two deliveries will be checked against the vehicle capacity and drivers' time constraints. If the initial linking leaves spare vehicle and driver capacity then it might be possible to add other delivery points to the link by selecting the next biggest saving. Again a check is carried out to ensure that neither vehicle capacity nor drivers' time constraints is exceeded by the new combination of deliveries. The process continues to the point where all deliveries are scheduled or the available vehicles are fully utilised.
To better understand the method of calculating the savings accrued from linking deliveries, consider the hypothetical data in figure 9.15
Figure 9.15 Applying the savings method to a vehicle scheduling problem
(Note: Numbers in brackets indicate the order size).
|Maximum driving day||:8 hours|
|Maximum Working Day||:11 hours|
|Maximum Vehicle Capacity||:100 units|
|Multi-trip turn-around time||:30 minutes|
|Delivery time per unit||:2 minutes|
|First route selected: OCDO is 67km with 88 (units) = 5.16 hours|
Second route selected: OABO is 54 km with 82 units = 4.53 hours
Total Working time for both routes (including turn-around time) = 10.19 hours
Total Driving Time for both routes = 4.03 hours
Figure 9.16 The savings method matrices
The savings matrix shows that route O - C - D - O gives the maximum savings in terms of distance to be travelled (17 km). To service this route 88 units of product have to be carried and this is well within the vehicle's carrying capacity. It would take 5.16 hours to complete this route (2.23 hours driving and 2.93 hours to unload the 88 units). Once this route has been completed, retailers A and B are left awaiting delivery. The O - A - B - O route takes 4.53 hours to complete and can be undertaken within the time and capacity constraint. Indeed, as the data in figure 9.16 shows, both routes can be completed within the same working day.
The simplified delivery service model: The SDS model involves the geographical division of the marketing territory into sub-areas. Each sub-area is identified by an alphanumeric code (e.g. D2). The alpha part of the code indicates a main route from the depot into a particular sales area and the numeric component breaks that sales area into suitably sized sub-areas. These sub-areas are often but not always delineated by physical boundaries such as rivers, valleys, mountains, etc. Consideration is also given to the number of customers in each area categorisation used for the purpose of the simplified delivery service.
Figure 9.17 The simplified delivery service
As orders are received, a log is built up for each delivery point sub-area. Vehicle loads are built up starting at the remotest sub-area and working inwards to the depot.
The individual responsible for vehicle scheduling will only start to combine loads intended for different sub-areas when those territories are in close proximity to the depot (e.g. A1 to G1). The principal advantage of SDS is that the delivery system is made more efficient by following convenient routes which minimise delays caused by continually crossing difficult terrain. It is a method that is especially well suited to developing countries where roads are often poor.
TRANSIT: Transit is an acronym for Time Routing And Scheduling of Industrial Transport. Like SDS, TRANSIT makes use of maps. The sales territory is overlaid with a grid with each square representing 10km square are allocated; as are driving times are allocated within each square. When this is done the scheduler follows a set procedure:
Orders are sorted for each 10 km square.
The 10km square furthest from the depot is identified.
The remotest 10km square is further divided into 1km squares and the orders re-sorted for each of these.
The scheduler begins to build up a load for the furthest 1km square.
As the orders are re-sorted, the total time required is calculated by adding together the driving time and the loading/unloading times for each delivery point and the driving time to the next delivery point.
The scheduler moves on to build up the load for the next most remote 10km square and so on.
The TRANSIT method tends to produce good, efficient and effective delivery times and make full use of the available vehicles. The routes themselves, however, are rarely as good as those produced by SDS because they take no account of natural barriers and difficult cross-country terrain.
Although having the benefit of simplicity, manual methods of vehicle scheduling tend to be inefficient. The task is mentally taxing and schedules are prone to making mistakes, resulting in a sub-optimal schedule. This has given impetus to the development of computerised models for vehicle scheduling.
The advantages of computer based scheduling include speed, accuracy and the potential to interface vehicle scheduling models with other components of the overall management information system (e.g. stock control, invoicing, sales analysis). The main disadvantages are that the software is complex, and is therefore expensive, and, of course, it requires a computer with a maths co-processor to run the model. Another disadvantage is that because of the complex algorithms involved in the model, most managers will not understand it well enough to correct data input errors. That is, the non-mathematical manager will fail to recognise errors in the schedules produced by the model. Robson3 however, puts a strong case for computer - based vehicle scheduling when he says that:
“Measured against present costs the likely benefits of computerised scheduling are still very significant. On a global scale it has been estimated that some 25% of the $4,000 million spent each year on distribution could be saved by the increased utilisation of vehicles.”
Channel decisions are integral to the strategic marketing plan. Distribution systems should adhere to the marketing concept, focus on target markets and have sufficient flexibility to enable an organisation to respond to market changes and new market opportunities.
A middleman's remuneration should depend upon the number of marketing functions he/she performs and, more especially, by the efficiency with which they are performed. The efficiency of most marketing systems is improved by the presence of effective intermediaries. Whilst it always possible to by-pass or remove intermediaries from a marketing system, the functions which they performed in the past will remain to be performed, as will their costs.
There are several key decision areas pertaining to the appointment of intermediaries. These include: price policy, terms and conditions of sale, territorial rights and the definition of responsibilities. In addition, a choice has to be made between extensive and intensive coverage of the market. An important aspect of the relationship with intermediaries is the recognition that intermediaries are independent of suppliers and must be marketed to rather than through. Much of the conflict between parties within the distribution system arises from incompatible goals, confusion over roles and rights and differences in perceptions of the market. Moreover, the greater the degree of independence between two members of the distribution channel, the greater the potential for conflict because the actions of one party are likely to impinge upon the performance of the other.
Marketing logistics involves both materials management and physical distribution. An efficient system of materials management can be a potent marketing instrument, as can an efficient physical distribution system. As well as helping to control costs, these two areas of management can contribute greatly to the level of customer service achieved by the organisation. The level of service offered by an organisation can be as important, sometimes more important, to its prospective customers than any other attribute which it might possess.
Total distribution costs are very much influenced by procurement costs, inventory carrying costs, and transportation costs. Management needs to understand the interrelationships between these categories of cost and to develop an understanding of the trade-offs that must be made between them. There are a number of current developments in the field of logistics management which are likely to have a major impact on the way in which this function is managed in the future. These developments include: the drive by retailers to account for direct product profitability, the move towards just-in-time materials and product supply and the evolving methodology of materials requirement planning.
Inventories are a major cost element in the management of physical distribution and as such must be carefully controlled. Managers are required to find the economic balance between order processing costs and stockholding costs. At the same time, they need to consider order cycles, fluctuations in demand and the size of the safety stock required. In transport management the key issues relate to the efficient and effective scheduling and routing of vehicles. Three of the most commonly used models are the savings method, the simplified delivery service model and TRANSIT. Each of these is aimed at reducing the time and cost of delivery and the improvement of customer service levels.
|Channel conflict||Intensity of distribution||Order processing costs|
|Customer service levels||Inventory carrying costs||Push and pull strategies|
|Direct marketing||Just-in-time||Sales agents|
|Direct product profitability||Marketing logistics||Total distribution concept|
|Economic order quantity||Materials management||Vehicle scheduling|
|Horizontal marketing systems||Materials requirement planning||Vertical marketing systems|
From your knowledge of this chapter, give brief responses to each of the following questions:
Explain what is meant by a pull strategy.
Which costs decline as the number of warehouses operated by an organisation increases?
For what type of products is extensive distribution most likely to be used?
How would you respond to the charge that all middlemen are parasites?
In what important respect do sales agents and brokers differ from most other kinds of intermediary?
What is the ‘Dutch method’?
In your own words, define the term ‘vertical marketing system’.
Give two examples of items that could be classed as order processing costs.
What is meant by the term ‘tied agreement’?
Name 5 criteria that could be used in measuring the customer service levels achieved by a particular warehouse.
Outline the key steps in developing a customer service policy.
Name 3 areas of decision making in which DPP can be applied by retailers
Complete the following sentence: “The key to establishing good working relations with intermediaries is…”
What is a Kanban system?
What is the essential requirement before JIT can be made to work?
Explain the terms ‘fixed and variable routing systems’.
1. Kotler, P., and Armstrong (1989) Principles of Marketing. Prentice-Hall, p349.
2. Bennett, P.D. (1988) Marketing, International Student Edition, McGraw-Hill, P390.
3. Gaedeke, R.M. (1983) Marketing Principles and Applications, West Publishing Company, Minnesota, p.221.
4. McVey, P. (January 1960) “Are Channels of Distribution What the Textbooks Say?” Journal of Marketing, pp 61–64.
5. Knipscher, H.C., Sabrani, M., Soedjana, T.D. and De Boer, A.J. (1987) The Small Ruminant Market System in Indonesia: A Review, Agricultural Systems, pp. 87–103.
6. Business Week, (May 4, 1981) “Caterpillar - Sticking to Basics to Stay Competitive.” p.77.
7. Rosson, P. (1974) “Changing Traditional Distribution Systems”, Physical Distribution, No. 4, Vol. 5, pp. 305–316.
8. McHenry, D.E., (1969) “A Problem in Development: An Attempt to Form a Viable Fisherman's Cooperative Society for Lake Tanganyika”, In: Universities Social Sciences Council Conference Proceedings, Kampala, University of East Africa, Makere College.
9. Lawson, R.M. (1969) “Marketing Constraints in Traditional Societies,” British Journal of Marketing, Winter, pp. 248–258.
10. Gaedeke, R.M. Tootelian (1983) Marketing Principles and Applications, West Publishing Company, Minnesota, p.300.
11. Bowersox, D.J., Smykap, E.W. and La Londe, B.J. (1968) Physical Distribution Management, The MacMillan Company. pp. 27–28.
12. McGoldrick, P. (1990) Retail Marketing, McGraw-Hill, New York p.148.
13. Rushton, A. and Oxley, J. (1991) Handbook of Logistics and Distribution Management, Kogan Page, p.22.
14. Oakland, J.S. (1993) Total Quality Management: The Route to Improving Performance, Second Edition, Butterworth-Heinmann, p.96.
15. Beechner, E.S., Crawford, I.M., Hill, R.W., Tomlinson, F.R., (1994) How To Export Fresh Fruit And Vegetables To The E.C. Cranfield University Press.
16. Slater, A., “Vehicle Load Planning”, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, vol.10, No.2, 1979,pp. 79–99.
17. Clarke, G. and Wright, J.W. (1964) “Scheduling of Vehicles from A Central Depot To a Number of Delivery Points.” Operations Research, Vol. II, pp. 568–581.
18. Robson, A. “An Introduction To Computerised Vehicle Scheduling.” (1982) Institute Of Grocery Distribution Research Services, p.32. | <urn:uuid:b3c72b22-588a-4b84-a4e6-03880db30b5a> | {
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I am in the final weeks of the semester taking a basic c++ class. I have already registered for classes next semester and I will not continue to pursue this degree. Sadly, I am not as interested in programming as I believed I would be. I really just want to get these assignments done and save my credit for the class by passing before I move on to my new major. Please help . . .
Use a single-subscripted array to solve the following problem. Read in 20 numbers, each of which is between 10 and 100, inclusive. As each number is read, print it only if it’s not a duplicate of a number already read. Provide for the “Worse case” in which all 20 numbers are different. Use the smallest possible array to solve this problem.
I understand you are supposed to ask for help not just for answers here, but I am simply trying to get through this class, I will not be learning any computer language next year nor will I need it.
A lot of "real life" is non-interesting work that one has to do anyway in order to make the fun possible. You should have learned something on the course. Use that knowledge. Write as much as you can. If you show effort first, some of us can help.
A credit should be an indication that the student has learned certain amount.
This is a pretty neat question, IMO. It requires an algorithm instead of just syntax...
So, the idea is to use an array to store values and as they are input you have to iterate through the array and verify that it was not already added. Your array only has to store already-input values so in the worse case it needs a size of 19. | <urn:uuid:8f1821bf-ec28-4e24-a029-99d6d043a14b> | {
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The Mystery of Day of the Dead
Held each year on the evening of November 1st, Dia de los Muertos is an historic ritual celebrated primarily in Mexico, bringing together the living and the dead. Through the creation of altars, known as ofrenda, and other acts of kindness, the living offer their love and respect for those who have passed on.
In The Hour of Our Death, Phillip Aries wrote, "Generally speaking, the dead are not regarded as separate from the living.
They belong to the same unbroken family."
Bringing communities together, Dia de los Muertos is witnessed all over Mexico. Customs vary according to region; however there are observances commonly practiced country-wide. In the most widely celebrated, and favorite of Mexican holidays, it is impossible to not experience Dia de los Muertos in
some fashion while in Mexico. Elaborately decorated shop windows, families cleaning and decorating cemeteries, and temporary markets selling special bread, treats and toys seem to be everywhere.
The ritual of Dia de los Muertos, as we know it, has experienced a number of transformations in the last 500 years due to Spanish influence.
As the colonizing Spanish began enforcing Christianity throughout “New Spain,” any means possible to indoctrinate the indigenous populations were employed. Many readily accepted the beliefs of the more powerful Spanish, and many would not. However, the Christian holidays All Saints Day and All Souls Day seemingly synchronized with indigenous beliefs in that both cultures celebrated the immortal nature of the soul.
With the desire for a comprehensive understanding of Dia de los Muertos, photographer Nicholas Beatty has devoted several years to creating the photographs and resources presented here. There is hope that visitors of this site will find a new understanding of Dia de los Muertos, and learn to appreciate the different cultures and beliefs that make our planet as beautiful and interesting as it is.
"Peace cannot be kept by force, it can only be achieved by understanding."
- Albert Einstein | <urn:uuid:8cc1367b-6d85-4669-a03a-32041fd7d79d> | {
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Death By Power Point
Does Lecture Based Learning Work?
GOAL: To improve emergency services education.
Physics professors are challenging the idea of using lecture as the primary tool for teaching. Physicist David Hestenes’ study found that using the lecture format, students could memorize specific formulas, but weren’t fully grasping the overall concepts.
For example, an EMT student may be able to regurgitate the definition of shock, but cannot perform in a shock/trauma scenario .
Arizona State professor Joe Redish says that lecture based classes only seem to work for about 10 percent of the students, and those 10 percent would likely learn it without the instructor. Harvard Physics professor Eric Mazur tackled this problem by restructuring his classes to include “peer instruction”. Peer instruction (as defined by Wikipedia), is “as a learning system [involving] students preparing to learn outside of class by doing pre-class readings and answering questions about those readings using another method, called Just-in-Time-Teaching”, or JiTT. In an NPR article Mazur said , “Students have to be active in developing their knowledge. They can’t passively assimilate it.”
But Lecturing Has Been the Standard for Years
Years ago, when a fire engine was no more than a wooly mammoth with a snout full of pond water, books weren’t readily available. Thus lecture-based education was developed. Teachers would read directly from a book and students would copy it down. But things have changed. Information is readily available in many forms. Books don’t even need to be in book form anymore. Think of the newest apple announcement regarding textbooks and how that will change the face of education.
So what does this mean for educators? The research conducted over the past few decades shows that students typically can’t take on and process all of the information presented during a classic lecture. Cognitive scientists have been talking about this for a long time, and the physicists really just backed it up with hard data.
If Not Lecture, What?
So if lecture is not the optimal method for educators to convey information to students, what is?
Professor Mazur taught a concept to his physics class and, when tested, fifty per cent of them got it wrong. So he retaught it, believing that he outdid himself in an effort to impart the information again. But when asked if they had any questions, the students had none, and it became clear to him that they still didn’t truly understand it. A thought occurred to him, however, that fifty percent of them DID get it, so maybe they could teach the fifty percent who didn’t. When he grouped the students for discussion, it worked – they were able to connect with each other in a way he wasn’t able to. Ironically it comes down to this, and this is as important to leadership as it is to education, that once you’re an expert in your field you’re also very far away from understanding WHY someone new might have difficulty understanding it.
Group discussion can be tremendously effective and infinitely more engaging and interesting for attendees of your class. Additional student-centered or peer-based learning techniques can also be affective including “front-of-class” group activities (e.g. having students work together to summarize, in their own words, the importance of key points).
Students are better able to explain these concepts to their peers because they’re the ones who’ve just wrapped their heads around it. Thus, they know why it’s tough to understand and why other students might also be having a hard time.
Is PowerPoint Bad?
Recently a discussion group of EMS Educators on LinkedIn heatedly debated the topic of “Death by PowerPoint”. Is PowerPoint and, by extension, lecture based learning a stimulating, engaging and effective teaching tool? Well, yes and no.
Just as there are exceptional students who learn on their own so long as they have access to the content, likewise there are instructors who can teach using PowerPoint and make it the most engaging class in the world. Conversely, though, there are those who could teach with pyrotechnics and dancing girls and still have students snoozing in their seats.
PowerPoint, like any tool, needs to be used wisely, inventively, and with an eye toward engaging students. In 2012 the question “DO you use technology in your classroom” has become “HOW do you use technology in your classroom?” Educators have access to many technology-based tools to engage students, and many of them are free and instantly available. In-class web-polling can engage class discussions. YouTube videos can be used for students to perform in-class skills asynchronously (outside of regular class times) so that their peers can watch, discuss and critique. Study groups no longer have to meet in person when they can now use Skype, FaceTime and Google+ Hangouts.
Technology in the classroom can be used to keep students engaged; thinking in new ways can enhance their understanding, retention and application of knowledge. Textbook publishers provide case studies and supplementary online questions along with flashcards, games, and interactivities to help students study and test themselves.
By engaging in student centered learning (moderated and facilitated by the educator) we are putting the responsibility to connect with the material into the hands of those who need it most: the students themselves.
APPLICATION: Make your education programs student-centered through activities such as:
- Facilitated small group discussion
- Mind mapping
- Adding in-line links to great online explanations and resources. | <urn:uuid:a4abec2c-e1d7-42bb-8344-b261232a186f> | {
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The ring-tailed lemur is a diurnal species (2) (6) and spends much of its time on the ground, although it is also able to move well through the trees (6). This lemur can often be seen sunning itself by sitting on its haunches and spreading its limbs in a yoga-like position, exposing its underside to the sun. The ring-tailed lemur often sleeps with its nose tucked between its hind legs and its long tail curled up over its back (6).
The diet of the ring-tailed lemur is quite varied, consisting of fruit, leaves, flowers, bark and sap (10), as well as large insects and even small vertebrates such as chameleons (9). This species usually feeds primarily on fruit, but the exact composition of the diet varies between habitats and seasons (2) (6). The ring-tailed lemur is also known to supplement its diet by consuming soil, possibly to increase its sodium intake (6).
A social species, the ring-tailed lemur occurs in larger groups than any other primate in Madagascar (2). Groups usually contain equal numbers of males and females, plus their young, and typically number between 3 and 25 individuals (2). Within the group, females are dominant over males (2) (6), with the ‘alpha female’ forming the focal point of the group as a whole (2). There are well-defined dominance hierarchies between group members (2).
Ring-tailed lemur groups are not strictly territorial, but do occupy preferred, overlapping home ranges and show strong territorial defence when they come into contact with another group. Territorial confrontations are generally dominated by females, and involve facing off against the opposing group, sometimes calling and alarm barking and occasionally fighting (2) (6). After such an encounter, the group will usually retreat towards the safety of the centre of its home range (2).
Both male and female ring-tailed lemurs use scent marks to mark their home range. Females use genital smears and males use scent from a wrist gland which has a horny pad that allows the male to gouge scent into bark (2). The ring-tailed lemur also communicates using a wide range of vocalisations (6).
Mating in the ring-tailed lemur is highly synchronous, taking place over a short period in mid-April (2) (6). The young are then born around September (2) (6) (9), after a gestation period of about 130 to 144 days (6), with this careful timing ensuring that the young lemurs are weaned just as food becomes most plentiful (2) (9). Male ring-tailed lemurs compete for access to females by daubing their tails with scent from their wrist glands and wafting this pungent odour towards their opponent (2) (6) (9). These ‘stink fights’ are usually sufficient to establish rank, but physical aggression can also occur (2) (9).
The female ring-tailed lemur occasionally gives birth to twins, but a single infant is more common. The young lemur clings to the female’s underside at first, but after two weeks or so it moves around to ride on the female’s back, and begins to explore its environment (2) (6). The ring-tailed lemur reaches sexual maturity at about 2.5 to 3 years old, and females usually give birth once a year (2) (6). Female ring-tailed lemurs rarely leave the group into which they were born, but males leave the group on reaching maturity, and will continue to move between groups every three to five years throughout their lives (2) (6) (9).
In the wild, the ring-tailed lemur is thought to live for up to 15 or 16 years (6). Predators of this species include the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), Madagascar harrier-hawk (Polyboroides radiatus) and Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus) (2) (6). | <urn:uuid:59d3228a-4bc7-40ec-b1b4-0b767702db1c> | {
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Constitutional Convention of 1787
The Constitutional Convention took place from May 25 through September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, PA to address concerns in governing the United States, which up this point had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from England. The Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one.
The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the United States history.
Delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention
Gunning Bedford, Jr.
William Jackson, Secretary (attesting)
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
William Samuel Johnson
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Richard Dobbs Spaight
George Washington, President of the Convention
Delegates who left the Convention without Signing
William Richardson Davie
John Lansing, Jr.
John Francis Mercer | <urn:uuid:f1af36b0-286f-43cd-ac3f-a4d37b80a422> | {
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