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The big dog trots across the southern evening sky this week. It’s quite easy to spot because it’s home to Sirius, the brightest star in all the night sky. It’s in the southeast in early evening, with the rest of the constellation below it and to the sides.
Sirius really is a fairly bright star, but it’s a mere firefly compared to some of the other stars of Canis Major. One example stands close to the right or upper right of Sirius during the early evening.
Mirzam looks much fainter than Sirius, but that’s a bit of a trick. The star is really thousands of times brighter than Sirius, but it’s also much farther — about 500 light-years, versus less than nine light-years for Sirius.
That means that Mirzam is quite a stunner. When you add up all forms of energy, it’s thousands of times brighter than Sirius, and tens of thousands of times brighter than the Sun.
The key to its brightness is the star’s great mass. It’s so heavy that its gravity squeezes its core tightly. That’s like mashing your foot down on the gas pedal of your car — it revs up the nuclear reactions in the star’s core, making it produce much more energy. But also like your car, mashing down the pedal uses up the fuel much more quickly. So despite its great size, Mirzam will live less than one percent as long as the Sun will. When its time is up, it’ll explode as a supernova — a brilliant ending for a brilliant star.
We’ll have more about the big dog tomorrow.
Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2013
For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine. | <urn:uuid:d591c099-fadc-4ce5-a14c-ab8843786167> | {
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Lot 459: Scientific Tables. The Student's Classical Guide to the Sciences. Comprising: Geography, Ancient History, Modern History, Biography, Animal Kingdom, Vegetable Kingdom, Mineral Kingdom, Astronomy, printed for the author and published by T. Gardiner and Sons, 1818, 10pp. text including preliminary leaves, hand-coloured double-page double hemisphere world map and 18 hand-coloured double-page tables, a few detached, a little spotting, old toning from damp staining at front and rear, ownership signature of Elizabeth Senhouse dated 1821 to front pastedown, original half roan over boards with printed paper labels, torn and worn, covers detached, 4to Rare with only two copies located at British Library and Edinburgh University. According to the upper cover this was only available in a coloured version for twenty-five shillings. (1)
Dominic Winter's Travel & Natural History Maps, Prints & Sporting Art Early Printed Books Military History
Wednesday, 11th November 2015
Write a response... | <urn:uuid:59348fd3-116c-4678-82e7-00e7fa952d8b> | {
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|Enzmann's Echo Lance|
By: Dr. Robert Duncan-Enzmann and Joanna Enzmann
It is possible – indeed technically quite simple to accelerate particles such as electrons, protons, and heavier nuclei to great velocities, easily to the 100 McV (100 Mc v/c2 ) and even GcV (+1,000,000,000,000 electron volt) levels. In such beams, rest masses of particles increase
where m=m_0/√(1-v^(2 )/c^2 )
and their momenta,
where p=〖(m〗_0/√(1-v^(2 )/c^2 ))*v
relative to the inertial continuum are enormous. Such beams charged (±) may be neutralized to eliminate charge (Coulomb) build-up on a vehicle
where (1,000,000,000W/(~750W/HP))((500 H/M/ dRP)/(2000 Kg/ton))
with (G ≈ 32 ft/sec).
200 M.W.E. applied to a beam could accelerate a 10,000 ton vehicle at 1G.
Even in the 1950s – 1970s the momentum of beams in the worlds larger accelerators were on the order of a 500 pound artillery shell moving at about 2-5 miles a second; while the rest masses of the beams were tiny fractions of grams.
I have always felt that while such beams could end once and for all the missile threat to all and any countries, that the true application of such beams should be for propulsion of space ships – both within the solar system and on interstellar voyages. Such beams – the Echo Lance – reduce the mass ratios needed for interstellar flight by at least 50, easily 200, and theoretically better than 1000. So 14,000,000 tons of fuel could be reduced to between 140,000 and 10,000 tons.
Perhaps surprisingly fusion-fission, or fusion cycles are not needed to drive such ships. Consider: a 1,000 MWE (one thousand million watts electric output) can be gained from a fission reactor by burning perhaps 35 tons of fissile metal a year (ideally in breader reactors).
m=m_0/√(1-v^(2 )/c^2 )
The Echo Lance is, in a sense, a transformer operating upon the inertial action/reaction of space itself.
We could have built star ships using such beams in the 1950s and launched them in the 1960s. Unfortunately all such work was stopped circa 1960, with the statement that never anywhere should it be revived or even mentioned lest the imaginations of the public be flared to the point where they would demand its construction.
An unusual name. Why? Because it’s thermo-nuclear combustion chamber operates in two inertial systems at the same time. The ship and its payload in one. The thermo-nuclear pulses “outside” in normal inertial space.
Dr. Robert Duncan-Enzmann, designer of the Enzmann Starship
physicist, scientist, astronomer, geologist, archaeologist, historian, linguist, medical doctor
British Embassy School, Peking, China; Univ. London; WW II USN, AC; RN, AB Harvard; ScB Hon., London; Standard, MSc, Witwatersrand; Nat Sci Scholar; MIT course work; Royal Inst. Uppsala Swed.; PhD/MD Cuidad Juarez, Mex.; Pacific Radar: Greenland Gap-filler, Canada DEW-line; SAGE; Pacific PRESS; California ATLAS, BMEWS; ICBM; Kwajalein Atoll ICBM intercept; TRADEX; Mars Voyager; Cryptography. | <urn:uuid:b331e11d-cc74-4518-9b55-ac591594a7ed> | {
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March is prime freshwater fishing season for many species of fish, because bass and bream are getting geared up to hit the shallows. During spring, sunfish such as bass and bluegill move close to shore to find suitable spawning habitat. Shallow areas (ideally 2 to 6 feet deep) with sandy or firm soils and nearby vegetation tend to attract sunfish. Often the same areas are used year after year, because sunfish do best when they construct beds in sheltered areas without too much current and away from prevailing winds (often coves or the north shores of lakes).
Beds for both bass and bream are constructed by males, who protect the eggs after the females come for a conjugal visit. Bass typically spawn before bluegill, preferring water temperatures of about 60 to 65 degrees, whereas optimal temperatures for bluegill spawning are around 65 to 80 degrees. Redbreast sunfish, redear sunfish and crappie may also be in the shallows during this time, and normally, precede bluegill. Full and new moons generate additional activity.
Since bass and bream are especially susceptible during the spawn, an emphasis on quick and effective catch-and-release is appropriate for fish that cannot be legally harvested (due to size or bag limits). Don’t keep fish that you intend to release out of the water longer than you can hold your breath, and release them as close to the capture point as possible.
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) freshwater fisheries biologists annually compile information on some of the top fishing sites around the state for bass and bream (see MyFWC.com/Fishing and select “Freshwater,” “Sites & Forecasts”).
Additional lakes in your area with public boat ramp access can now be found on MyFWC.com/Boating, and many of these provide outstanding recreational angling as well. The new boat ramp finder is a great way to learn about new opportunities. For instance, you can type in a specific address, city and ZIP code, and a map will appear showing available ramps within a given radius.
The site lists nearly 1,000 public freshwater boat ramps. About a quarter of these ramps are owned and maintained by the FWC, primarily using your Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration funds (SFR). All of those ramps provide free access.
With so many ramps to document and the effects of weather and other variables to contend with, the website is an ongoing project.
Consequently, the FWC cannot guarantee the completeness or accuracy of the information and suggests that you check with local resources to verify conditions prior to planning long trips. The FWC is constantly seeking user feedback to provide updates (including site photos) via email to [email protected].
The FWC operates several boating-related grant programs, most using SFR funds. Those funds are collected for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, mostly from excise taxes on fishing tackle, import duties on yachts, and motorboat fuel taxes. In return, the USFWS provides grant funds to the states for fishery projects, boating access and aquatic education.
The SFR was created as a user-pays, user-benefits program to restore and better manage America’s declining fishery resources and later to enhance safe recreational boating opportunities. The USFWS apportions funds based on a formula based primarily on land area and the number of paid license holders. Florida in 2010-11 received nearly $12 million of these funds to reinvest in recreational fishing and boating, which provide, respectively, $7.5 billion and 79,000 jobs, and $16.8 billion and 203,000 jobs in economic benefits to the state.
The bottom line is that SFR is behind a great deal of the sport fish management and research activities conducted in Florida. These funds also provide a three-to-one match for the FWC’s major boating safety and access (ramps) programs. Without fishing license fees and these matching federal dollars, the fishing and boating opportunities here in the Fishing Capital of the World would be vastly reduced and fish populations depleted.
Instant licenses are available at MyFWC.com/License or by calling 888-FISH-FLORIDA (347-4356). Report violators by calling 888-404-3922, *FWC or #FWC on your cell phone, or texting to [email protected]. Visit MyFWC.com/Fishing or scr.bi/Fish-busters for more Fish Busters’ columns. | <urn:uuid:897020ff-c4d2-4552-868f-a221644924e2> | {
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New research increasingly shows that not only are many cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's and other forms of dementia related to inflammation in brain tissues, but even so-called ‘classic’ mental diseases such as schizophrenia and depression may be connected to brain inflammation. Further, recent research from Japan's Kyushu University Medical School and Saga University have shown that many mental disorders are the direct result of inflammation involving microglial cells of the brain.
Microglia are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia constantly scavenge the CNS for plaques, damaged neurons and infectious agents. The brain and spinal cord are separated from the rest f the body by a series of cells known as the blood-brain barrier, which prevents most infections from reaching vulnerable nervous tissue. In the case where infectious agents and toxins are directly introduced to the brain or cross the blood-brain barrier, microglial cells react quickly to decrease inflammation and destroy the infectious agents before any damage occurs. Because antibodies from the rest of the body cannot penetrate the blood-brain barrier, microglia must be able to recognize foreign bodies, swallow them and act as antigen-presenting cells activating T-cells. This process must be done quickly to prevent potentially fatal damage; hence, the microglia are extremely sensitive to even small pathological changes in the CNS.
Buildup of amyloid plaque is seen in certain brain cells in Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia, and is believed to be a result of damage from oxidative stress. Microglia prevent this buildup and clean up amyloid plaque. No wonder that when microglia are damaged, the brain and nervous system become increasingly susceptible to mental disorders such as dementia, schizophrenia and depression.
Neuro-inflammation is the result of damage to the brain and nervous system. Healthy microglia work to block neuronal inflammation and prevent damage to brain cells. When brain cells do get damaged, microglia work to repair the damage by producing a variety of inflammatory factors. Like other macrophages, microglia are formed within the bone marrow. Once they migrate to the brain, they differentiate into particular responsibilities and different regions. Some microglia deal with infections, others are focused upon toxins or damaged cells. Still others stimulate the repair of brain tissues.
Research has connected mental disorders such as schizophrenia, depressive states and other cognitive health issues to increases in microglia-related inflammatory factors, such as nitric oxide and cytokines. Microglia produce these inflammatory factors in response to damage to brain cells. The brains of schizophrenia, depression and dementia patients have increased levels of microglia-related inflammatory factors. Furthermore, research shows that one of the central mechanisms of psychiatric drugs is that they reduce levels of these inflammatory factors—but only temporarily. This temporary reduction of inflammatory factors does little to prevent or address the original cause of the inflammation. By blocking inflammatory factors, these drugs interfere with microglia-driven damage repair that is taking place; as is often the case when drugs act on symptoms, rather than causes of a disease condition.
The cause of neuro-inflammation, as shown in numerous dementia studies, appears to be oxidative damage. Oxidation is caused by an imbalance between toxins that form harmful oxidative radicals and a range of antioxidants that neutralize those radicals. When there are not enough antioxidants in a given system, oxidation takes place; for example, in the cells of the cardiovascular system as well as in brain cells. This is why recent research has linked cognitive decline to increased obesity, diabetes and heart disease.
A new French and Finnish INSERM study, with support from the U.S. National Institutes of Medicine, examined 6,401 adults between 39 and 63 years old. People who were obese and suffered from metabolic disorders, including cardiovascular disease and/or diabetes, were seen to exhibit more than a 22% greater cognitive decline than those of normal weight with no metabolic disorders. The results of this study are supported by other studies that have related cognitive decline to cardiovascular disease, sedentary lifestyles, obesity and increased levels of toxins, all of which are associated with higher levels of inflammation.
Numerous studies have shown that antioxidants neutralize oxidative radicals that produce inflammation. The very term ‘antioxidant’ is founded upon research showing that particular naturally produced phytochemicals directly neutralize the oxidative effects of radicals formed by toxins. For example, in another large French study, researchers found that a healthy diet with greater antioxidant intake was associated with reduced risk of cognitive decline after the researchers removed factors relating to exercise, alcohol intake, calories, gender, age, education and obesity. Other research has shown that obesity, smoking and lack of exercise all increase the rate of cognitive decline.
What this all means is that mental disorders are no longer conditions that necessarily fall neatly within the abstract domain of behavioral psychology and psychiatry. Rather, recent research suggests that poor diets and poor lifestyles likely contribute significantly to the development of mental disorders, which are thus, to a great degree, preventable. In other words, such research brings mental disorders within the realm of natural health and nutrition. What is now known is that a person with a healthy diet containing plenty of antioxidants, together with an active lifestyle, has a significantly reduced risk of having a mental disorder. More importantly, a person with a healthier, antioxidant-rich diet will also stand a better chance of remaining alert into their elderly years. | <urn:uuid:2dff1b3b-d012-4407-ba17-afce83e48381> | {
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A short sale occurs when someone borrows a security (or a futures contract) from a broker and sells it, with the understanding that he or she will later buy it back (hopefully at a lower price) and return it to the broker. Investors use short selling (or "selling short") to try to profit from the falling price of a stock.
For example, if an investor believes stock x is overpriced and will fall, he might want to sell short 100 shares of x. His broker will borrow the shares from someone who owns them with the promise that the investor will return them later. The investor immediately sells the borrowed shares at the current market price. If the price drops, he "covers" the short position by buying back the shares, and his broker returns them to the lender.
The profit is the difference between the price at which the stock was sold and the cost to buy it back, minus commissions and expenses for borrowing the stock. If the price goes up, however, the potential for loss is unlimited, because at some point the investor must replace the 100 shares of x he sold.
SEC Vote To Restrict Short Sales Of Stock
On Feb. 24 of 2010, SEC commissioners voted 3-2 to restrict short sales of a company’s stock once it falls 10 percent from the previous day’s closing price. When the 10 percent threshold is triggered, traders could only execute short sales for the stock at a price above the market’s best bid. The curb would be in place through the following day.
Short Sales On Financial Companies Prohibited in UK and US in 2008
On Sept. 18, 2008, the board of the Financial Services Authority (FSA) announced it would introduce new provisions to its Code of Market Conduct to prohibit the active creation or increase of net short positions in publicly quoted financial companies. The goal was to protect the fundamental integrity and quality of markets during disorderly market conditions. The new provisions were implemented at midnight.
One day later, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission said it would temporarily ban investors from short selling 799 financial companies. The temporary ban, aimed at helping restore falling stock prices that shattered confidence in the financial markets, took effect immediately.
The SEC ban is set to expire on Oct. 2, but it is expected to be extended past that date.
CBOE Creates Short Sale Update Information In September of 2008, Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) launched a "Short Sale Update" Web Page (http://www.cboe.com/ShortSale) to keep options traders, customers, and CBOE Members fully informed on recently enacted restrictions on short sales. It contains a full compendium of links to lists of the prohibited financial securities, by exchange, and lists relevant SEC and CBOE information documenting the various restrictions. No one source had previously been created to lay out the broad swath of regulatory information on this issue.
Because regulations can and do change, CBOE plans to keep the Web page updated.
- "Short Selling: Nasty, Brutish and Short". The Economist.
- "SEC Curbs Short Selling, Disappointing Goldman Sachs". Bloomberg.
- FSA Statement on Short Positions in Financial Stocks. FSA.
- SEC bans short-selling. CNNMoney.com.
- "Short Sale Ban Chases High-Frequency Traders From the Market". Traders Magazine. | <urn:uuid:20ffafde-a29b-4cea-82c5-fae4982c3f2c> | {
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Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus (KSHV) (En español)
Also known as: Human Herpesvirus 8
A type of herpesvirus that causes Kaposi sarcoma. Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) is primarily transmitted through genital fluids and saliva. Most people infected with KSHV do not develop Kaposi sarcoma. In people with weakened immune systems, including people with HIV, the viral infection is much more likely to advance to Kaposi sarcoma than in people with healthy immune systems.
See Related Term(s): Herpesviruses, Kaposi Sarcoma | <urn:uuid:a4f210c0-be76-4765-a2f2-5bb096b6cd93> | {
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Dating the time of viral subtype divergence
© O'Brien et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2008
Received: 28 January 2008
Accepted: 09 June 2008
Published: 09 June 2008
Precise dating of viral subtype divergence enables researchers to correlate divergence with geographic and demographic occurrences. When historical data are absent (that is, the overwhelming majority), viral sequence sampling on a time scale commensurate with the rate of substitution permits the inference of the times of subtype divergence. Currently, researchers use two strategies to approach this task, both requiring strong conditions on the molecular clock assumption of substitution rate. As the underlying structure of the substitution rate process at the time of subtype divergence is not understood and likely highly variable, we present a simple method that estimates rates of substitution, and from there, times of divergence, without use of an assumed molecular clock. We accomplish this by blending estimates of the substitution rate for triplets of dated sequences where each sequence draws from a distinct viral subtype, providing a zeroth-order approximation for the rate between subtypes. As an example, we calculate the time of divergence for three genes among influenza subtypes A-H3N2 and B using subtype C as an outgroup. We show a time of divergence approximately 100 years ago, substantially more recent than previous estimates which range from 250 to 3800 years ago.
Precise estimates are sorely lacking for dating the emergence and divergence of viral subtypes. Improved estimates equip epidemiologists and virologists to begin to correlate these important establishing events with historical demographic changes, geographical invasions and zoonoses, the transferring of a virus from one host species to another [7, 1, 25]. For example, archeological sequence data can furnish accurate dates and show that substantial genomic changes associate with geographical invasion and zoonosis [14, 17]. Further, the recent availability of viral gene sequences sampled at a pace commensurate with their rate of nucleotide substitution vastly augments the ability to rigorously infer the time scale of phylogenies and hence determine the time of the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for different viral types [18, 26, 6].
Systematic studies characterize the substitution process and substitution rate process of several classes of viral subtypes in, for example, Dengue, influenza subtype A, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the virus responsible for sudden acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). For the last three viruses, a unique zoonotic transfer appears to co-occur with substantial changes in both the composition of nucleotides and amino acids as well as alterations in the rate of nucleotide substitution [15, 14, 1]. In Dengue, where a single subtype simultaneously inhabits two hosts (humans and Aedes aegypti) in a persistent zoonotic process, the introduction of the virus to new geographical environments associates with a dramatic increase in sequence diversity . Unfortunately, no studies thus far analyze the rate of nucleotide substitution during either geographical invasion or zoonosis. Consequently, studies of the date of origins of viral subtypes must use strong a priori assumptions on the rate structure of nucleotide substitution.
Two primary methods find use to date the time of viral subtype divergence. The most commonly employed approach determines the divergence time of subtypes using a molecular clock assumption (MCA) over an entire phylogeny [18, 21, 5, 26]. In its strict formulation, the MCA posits a proportional relation between the number of substitutions and the intervening time period over the entire phylogeny. Looser forms of MCAs require only that the proportionality hold along individual branches, with the rates across branches drawn from a pre-specified distribution . Committed to some variant of the MCA, current algorithms then estimate the rate of nucleotide substitution over all taxa in a given set. Consequently, these methods provide inference most suitable for situations where sequence evolution follows a MCA (e.g. influenza A-H3N2 in human hosts, as in ) or deviates from the MCA homogenously in time (e.g. perhaps influenza A in wild fowl, see ). In considering divergence events between viral subtypes, even when the MCA well-approximates nucleotide substitution within a given subtype, the above methods may incorrectly infer the time of divergence across subtypes. By either assuming that a single rate of nucleotide substitution holds for the region preceding the common ancestor of each subtype or by smoothing the rate of nucleotide substitution over clades with different numbers of taxa, the adherence to a MCA prevents direct inference of the rate during subtype divergence.
Suzuki and Nei (2002) propose an alternative, more heuristic method of estimation to counteract the problem of differing rates of substitution before and after zoonotic events [23, 25]. In these studies, the evolutionary models draw a distinction between the rate of substitution within a given subtype and the rate of substitution between subtypes. However, trouble arises since there are no methods for estimating the latter quantity. Consequently, the models assume that the rate of substitution for portions of the phylogeny between the subtypes equals the mean rate in the initial host species population. For instance, in dating the time of divergence between influenza B hemagglutinin and influenza C hemagglutinin-esterase, Suzuki and Nei use the rate of amino acid substitution for water fowl for the portions of the phylogeny previous to the TMRCA of these two proteins . While this method may accurately reflect the rate within avian and human hosts, it neglects whatever additional changes in the rate of substitution are due to the process of zoonotic adaptation, likely leading to a substantial underestimation of the date of the TMRCA.
The study here focuses on influenza, although the techniques are readily applied to other rapidly evolving organisms. Influenza has three types, A, B and C, classified based on serological analysis. To date, only type A sequences have been demonstrably associated with global pandemics . Since modern surveillance began in the 1930s, type B has only been responsible for mild epidemics while type C has been nearly asymptomatic in human infection. Several subtypes of A, notably H1N1 and H3N2, are currently co-circulating in the human population. As the H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes may be as divergent from each other as they are from types B and C, we will refer to all types and subtypes simply as subtypes for the remainder of this paper. We select for this study three genes, coding for hemagglutinin (HA), the matrix protein (MP) and the non-structural protein (NS) responsible for interfering with host immune response. Subtype C has a hemagglutinin-esterase gene that is analogous to the hemagglutin gene in other subtypes . We hence refer to the hemagglutinin gene generally and the hemagglutinin-esterase gene when referring specifically to the subtype C sequences.
We present a simple estimation tool to determine the date of divergence among viral subtypes that overcomes the difficulties encountered with use of the MCA by measuring the pairwise rate of substitution between taxa. Our estimator derives from the triplet statistic developed in [26, 22, 13], where each sequence member of the triplet draws from a different subtype. In this manner, we generate from each triplet an estimate of the rate of nucleotide substitution between the most recently diverged subtypes, and consequently provide an estimate of the TMRCA. This circumvents the problems posed by earlier methods by directly estimating the pairwise rate of nucleotide substitution over the set of pairs of sequences straddling the subtype divergence without any further rate assumptions other than the existence of a mean. However, this method is only capable of determining the rate between two subtypes where a third, more distantly related, subtype functions as an outgroup. This method thus trades the ad hoc rate assumptions of the previous methods with two implicit conditions: (i) that subtypes have a unique divergence and (ii) a third, comparable subtype is available to serve as an outgroup. In exchange, we arrive at a precise statistical measure of the TMRCA that converges as the number of taxa increases and is robust to the balancing of the numbers of taxa between different subtypes. We show that applying this method to dating the divergence of influenza subtypes A-H3N2 and B gives a time of divergence approximately 100 years before present, substantially more recent than previous estimates.
Subtracting the first equation from the second equation yields D ik - D jk = p ij (t j - t i ), which is equivalent to Equation 1. This derivation makes clear that the estimator (1) measures the rate along the path from sequence i to sequence j, with only incidental dependence on sequence k.
We note that the term t i + t j - 1 is used rather than t i + t j to account for the expected error coming from the uniformly distributed ν i and ν j .
As nucleotide data increases without bound, K ij → D ij and → p ij , ensuring that → α ij . For finite sequence lengths, this relation ensures that . To gain an understanding of this estimator, we note that with a standard model of substitution (e.g. JC69, HKY85), a rate of substitution of 10-4 (s/s/yr) and a sequence of 2000 nucleotides, the above estimator yields a standard error of approximately 23 years .
where P is the sum of the inverse variance of each estimate, .
where P α is the sum of the inverse variance of each estimate, . Having found , we estimate its variance by a bootstrap resampling of sequences from each subtype .
The computational efficiency of this estimator is on the order O(n3) for a tree of n taxa. This is natural as each of the initial rate estimates is composed of information concerning three taxa. While the growth of computational expense in the number of taxa may appear unpleasant, in practice this algorithm is both fast and stable, owing to the absence of costly optimization procedures for parameter inference, and is able to handle data sets of thousands of taxa. The authors detail the computational efficiency of a similar statistic in . As an example, for the data presented below all computations required only a few seconds on a desktop computer.
Data and Results
Within-subtypes rates of nucleotide substitution for hemagglutinin (HA), matrix (MP) and non-structural (NS) genes for subtypes A-H3N2, B and C.
3.21 ± 0.43
2.31 ± 0.37
0.68 ± 0.18
1.57 ± 0.38
2.20 ± 0.48
1.31 ± 0.33
2.14 ± 0.25
1.92 ± 0.20
1.68 ± 0.51
Assuming a molecular clock within a subtype and with the rates above, we generated the corresponding dates of the TMCRA. Figure 3 shows histograms of the TMRCA estimates for different genes and subtypes. All genes are similar in dating the TMRCA for A-H3N2 to approximately 1965 (1964, 1965, and 1962 for HA, MP and NS genes, respectively). These dates are consistent with the emergence of the A-H3N2 subtype into global circulation during the 1968 pandemic . Both the MP and NS genes date the TMRCA of subtype B to 1943, while the HA rate places the TMRCA at 1953. This latter value is inconsistent with the influenza B sub-epidemics of 1950–51 but is consistent with the emergence of the more lethal Victoria strain of influenza B in 1953 . Each of these estimates has a standard error of approximately 2 years and so these discrepancies may be accounted by measurement uncertainty. The 10 year gap between the TMCRA suggested by the different genes can be explained by a reassortment event. Finally, the TMRCA of subtype C is calculated as 1952 and 1953 by the MP and NS genes, respectively, while the HA gene places the TMCRA at 1906. This nearly half century discrepancy suggests that the subtype C HA gene experienced a markedly different evolutionary history than either the MP or the NS gene. A biologically plausible explanation would be a reassortment event. Another possible explanation is that non-MCA rate behavior has lead to substantial bias in dating the TMRCA.
Across-subtype rates of nucleotide substitution between subtypes A-H3N2 and B for hemagglutinin (HA), matrix (MP) and non-structural (NS) genes.
We present a new method for ascertaining the rate of nucleotide substitution between subtypes and apply this method together with traditional MCA methods to date the divergence of influenza subtypes A-H3N2, B, and C. We use three genes, HA, MP and NS, to date two types of divergence events: the time of the most recent common of each subtype and the time of divergence between two subtypes, A-H3N2 and B. For the former event type, we show that the three genes are loosely consistent in their dating of the TMRCA of the subtypes, with the notable exception of the HA-derived estimate of subtype C's TMRCA approximately 50 years before the MP- and NS-derived estimates. This discrepancy may indicate either that subtype C's hemagglutinin-esterase gene engaged in a biologically significant event, such as reassortment, or that MCA estimation does not adequately model the evolution of the gene.
For the divergence between subtypes A-H3N2 and B, previous studies using the MCA generally place a time of divergence of several hundred years ago, ranging from the 16th to early 19th centuries. Other analysis have yielded estimates of 3600 years ago . In the current study, application of the MCA yielded estimates in the last half of the 18th century. However, applying the pairwise rate estimate developed above we find uniformly, across genes, that the divergence likely occurred in the very early 20th century. The discrepancy between these two measures is likely due to the increased modeling flexibility of the pairwise rate estimate relative to the MCA.
This discrepancy between the rates and corresponding TMCRA estimates has important biological consequence. The phylogenetic divergence between subtype A-H3N2 and B corresponds to a subspeciation event for the virus. The results in this study indicate that the process of speciation is not neutral but instead a period of rapid and intense genetic change. The three genes studied here consistently show large acceleration in the rate of nucleotide substitution for the divergence period relative to the rates observed within a stable subtype. This study gives strong evidence that, at least for influenza viral subtype divergence, the process of subspeciation is associated not just with large genomic changes but also with an accelerated, finite process of adaption.
Assuming that the more recent estimate is correct, a subsequent question is whether or not a pandemic or epidemic associates with subtype A-H3N2/B divergence. In the twentieth century, all influenza pandemics associate with the emergence or reemergence of subtypes (A-H1N1 in 1918, A-H2N2 in 1957 and A-H3N2 in 1968). Serological analysis indicates that the 1897 pandemic was likely due to subtype A-H2N2. However, the pandemic of 1900 is of uncertain type, although it is commonly reported in the literature as being due to A-H3N2 . The above analysis suggests that it is possible to postulate that the cause of this pandemic is due to the emergence of subtype A-H3N2 or B.
As noted above, we condition the results presented here on a specific sequence alignment. As the question under consideration concerns the divergence of specific genes and proteins over a (presumably) long time scale, the capacity to generate reasonable alignments diminishes with increasing time of divergence between types, conditional on the rate of substitution. We find that for the hemagglutinin gene, a proportion of sequence alignments support the split of subtype B from subtype C after the split between subtypes A-H3N2 and B, in opposition to the topology enforced in our analysis. Hence, to some unknown degree, our analysis is necessarily biased by the choice of alignment. This suggests that improved dating can be found by integrating estimation procedures over an ensemble of alignments .
where is the total time over the phylogeny and p is mean rate over the phylogeny . This relation dictates that as divergence events become more remote the ability of the triplet method to resolve the time of divergence diminishes. While this limit prohibits the calculation of remote divergence events, the example presented above lies within the appropriate scale.
In place of a specific MCA, the estimates presented here directly calculate the rate of substitutions between taxa from different viral subtypes. As such estimates span paths between subtypes, they simultaneously capture the rate evolution along branches both within and between subtypes. From these estimates, we are able to directly infer the time of divergence between subtypes. As a trade-off for limited MCAs, the method requires an outgroup subtype to function as an origin relative to the subtypes under consideration. We feel that the triplet method provides a simple and widely applicable way to calculate the dates of divergence of rapidly evolving organisms without the pitfalls of the MCA.
We present a simple method for calculating the time of viral subtype divergence that does not assume a molecular clock over the entire phylogeny. Additionally, the estimator of this method, a weighted sum of pairwise estimates, furnishes a defined variance for the time of the most common ancestor between subtypes. As a tradeoff for this increased precision, the structure of the triplet statistic requires an outgroup set of sequences, usually a closely related subtype. We apply this estimator to the case of influenza subtype divergence, considering three genes. We show that the estimated divergence time of subtypes A-H3N2 and B is more than a century later than those calculated with a molecular clock.
that has been previously used in the paper outlining the TREBLE algorithm , and originates in . However, this apparently natural statistic is substantially biased when the sampling times of sequences i and j are close. To be seen in the following derivation, this bias is the result of the time sampling error structure.
JD O'Brien was supported by the NIGMS Systems and Integrative Biology Training Grant for the duration of this work. MA Suchard is supported by an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship in Computational and Evolutionary Molecular Biology and a John Simon Guggen-heim Memorial Fellowship.
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This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. | <urn:uuid:3b09cb4a-b2ed-497b-b29f-f1f4f7d39c56> | {
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Russia's Phobos-Grunt probe, which had been slated to head off this year on a sample-return mission to Phobos, the larger of Mars's two moons, will not launch until at least 2011, according to the Russian Interfax news agency.
Citing "a source in Russia's space industry," the news agency reported that the Russian Federal Space Agency and the Russian Academy of Sciences would make the postponement official in the next few days. As noted in a recent feature article about the Phobos-Grunt mission on ScientificAmerican.com, the delay has been rumored for months.
As was the case with NASA's mammoth rover, the Mars Science Laboratory, pushing a mission start date back from late 2009 requires a lengthy delay. The launch window to the Red Planet and its environs, based on the relative positions of Earth and Mars, only comes about every 26 months or so.
Aside from returning soil samples from Phobos, the probe is designed to ferry a collection of living organisms—bacteria, yeast, and tiny invertebrates called tardigrades among them—to Mars orbit and back. The LIFE experiment, spearheaded by the California-based Planetary Society, would assess the deep space environment's effects on living things, testing the theory that life might have shuttled between planetary bodies on asteroids or comets.
Bruce Betts, the LIFE experiment manager for the Planetary Society, says that no official word has reached his organization yet on Phobos Grunt's fate. "We know a possible delay has been under serious consideration, but so has a launch this year," Betts says. "Regarding LIFE, obviously human nature makes us want it to fly sooner rather than later, but it is far more important to take the time to prepare a successful mission."
Image of Phobos: NASA | <urn:uuid:f6f477f1-7c4f-4af3-a772-7b1515a6183d> | {
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- n. An offensive odor; a stench. See Synonyms at stench.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- n. An unpleasant smell.
from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English
- n. A strong, offensive smell; stench; fetidness.
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- n. Any strong offensive smell; stench.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. a distinctive odor that is offensively unpleasant
Harry and Giselle sank into the cat hair and fetor of his double bed.
It appeared to be opaque glass, but it exuded the pungent fetor of magick.
It is a fetor that frequently accompanies the predictable libidinous lapses of pious \ "family values\" conservatives.
It is a fetor that frequently accompanies the predictable libidinous lapses of pious "family values" conservatives.
This is the raw, cutting odor of the jungle, the gash of the tropics, the fetor of equatorial darkness, the essence of everything Western civilization glosses over, dyes and tries to not think about.
The lather and fetor of horse sweat, the whitened eyes.
I say the fetor anti-judaicus is just as perceptible on them.
There is more of life and humanity in the driver of a battered Ford who picks up a hitchhiker in the darkling valleys of Tennessee than in the moral fetor and vanity of Washington.
He was excited; I could feel his heart pounding, too, and smell the reek of fresh sweat over the fetor of stale clothes and body.
After fording the rapid Luia, we left our former path on the banks of the Zambesi, and struck off in a N.W. direction behind one of the hill ranges, the eastern end of which is called Mongwa, the name of an acacia, having a peculiarly strong fetor, found on it. | <urn:uuid:a7656a73-595b-4120-9b70-f04760c62a9f> | {
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Flashcards in Origins of the resting membrane potential Deck (47):
Why do ions migrate at different rates?
According to the size of their hydrated molecules
How are migration rate of ions measured?
Under standard conditions
How are migration rates expressed?
In terms of the mobility of an ion
What is another way of saying mobility potentials?
What does the magnitude of diffusion potentials depend on?
What is the difference in diffusion potentials with KCl and NaCl?
KCl- barrier removal will cause a slight change in potentials, lasting until all ions are dispersed evenly
NaCl- barrier remval will cause a much larger potential
Why does NaCl cause a larger potential than KCl?
As there is a bigger difference in mobility's of Na and Cl ions
What is a semi-permeable membrane?
A membrane that is selectively permeable to some ions, but impermeable to others
What is the mobility of an impermeant ion?
In an electrical membrane potential what direction and charge is on the K ions?
Down their concentration gradient
Carry positive charge
In an electrical membrane potential what direction and charge is on the Cl ions?
They do not move as they are impermeant
What does the electrical membrane potential of K and Cl result in?
Positive charge build up in the right compartment
What then steps in?
Electrical gradient which opposes the movement of K ions
What is the result when there is no further net movement of K ions?
Electrical gradient equals the concentration
The system is in equilibrium
What does Em stand for?
Electrical membrane potentail
Does the Em remain after the system is back in equilibrium?
Remains indefinitely since the unequal distribution of ions remain indefinitely
What are the major impermeant anions in cells?
Proteins carrying net negative charge, including neurons
What is the resting membrane potential inside the cell?
What are the most permeant through the membrane of a neurone at rest?
What is the permeability of K+ due to?
The existence of ion channels in the membrane that are open in the resting state and are most selective for K+ ions
What are these selective channels called?
What do leak channels allow?
A very small number of Na+ ions to pass through
How quickly does K+ diffuse?
How do the concentration and electrical gradient for K+ ions act?
In opposite directions
When is an equilibrium struck between the concentration and electrical gradients?
When these two forces exactly match each other
How do the electrical and concentration gradients reach equilibrium?
Electrical gradient must increase slightly from the resting Em
What is the value of the equilibrium potential for K+?
Why is the inside of the cell negative?
Na+ and K+ pump
3 Na+ pumped out of the cell
2 K+ pumped into the cell
Accumulates to give more positive ions outside the cell, and more negative ions inside the cell
Why would sodium like to move down it's concentration gradient but can't?
As there is a higher number of Na+ inside the cell and it would like to go into the cell but can't because of the membrane
What is the concentration and electrical gradient for Na+ ions?
Initially act in the same direction
How should sodium enter the cell?
Why doesn't sodium move very quickly into the cell?
Permeability for Na+ is very low
When is a Na+ equilibrium reached?
When the cell interior becomes sufficiently positively charged to exactly counteract the inward concentration gradient
What is the equilibrium potential for Na+?
ENa= + 54mV
Why must the resting membrane potential be a K+ potential?
As the resting intracellular membrane potential is -73mV and with K+ its -74mV whereas with Na+ it's 54mV meaning it had to be a K+ potential
Where does the Na+/K+ exchange pump act?
Across the membrane
What happens to Na+ and K+ ions in this exchange pump?
Ions are moved aross their concentration gradients
How does the exchange pump consume energy?
As the exchange of ions is coupled to the splitting of ATP
Why is the sodium potassium pump electrogenic?
As it produces a change in the electrical potential of a cell.
What is intracellular recording?
Measures the voltage across or passing through membranes by inserting an electrode inside the cell
What is extracellular recording?
Measures electrical activity between two points outside the cell
What is the resting potential mainly dictated by?
What is the threshold in an action potential?
The level of depolarisation required to cause an increase in Na+ permeability (pNa)
Beyond this point the action potential is an 'all-or-none'event
What is the rising phase of an action potential?
The rapid depolarisation occurs as the large driving forces causing Na+ entry (negative potential inside and concentration gradient) come into play
What is the overshoot in an action potential?
The inside of the neurone becomes negative to the outside, as the system is driven towards ENa
What is the falling phase in an action potential?
The switch from high pNa to high pK allows the driving forces causing K+ exit (+ve potential inside and concentration gradient) to come into play | <urn:uuid:0199488d-f290-44a4-8041-bbf79b374241> | {
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Slavery and the Birth of an African City
Publication Year: 2007
As the slave trade entered its last, illegal phase in the 19th century, the town of Lagos on West Africa's Bight of Benin became one of the most important port cities north of the equator. Slavery and the Birth of an African City explores the reasons for Lagos's sudden rise to power. By linking the histories of international slave markets to those of the regional suppliers and slave traders, Kristin Mann shows how the African slave trade forever altered the destiny of the tiny kingdom of Lagos. This magisterial work uncovers the relationship between African slavery and the growth of one of Africa's most vibrant cities.
Published by: Indiana University Press
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This book draws on data collected over a long period of time, beginning with my dissertation research in Nigeria and England during the 1970s and continuing to the present. Financial support from a number of government agencies and private organizations...
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This book investigates the relationship between long-term changes in the economy and culture of the Atlantic world and the history of a small but globally significant portion of the West African coast. The slave trade, which in the roughly 350 years of its existence forcibly exported approximately...
1. The Rise of Lagos as an Atlantic Port, c. 1760–1851
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In the second half of the seventeenth century, Europeans began arriving on the coast of West Africa’s Bight of Benin in significant numbers to buy slaves for use on New World plantations. The rapid growth of this new international trade...
2. Trade, Oligarchy, and the Transformation of thePrecolonial State
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The rise of the slave trade at Lagos increased the income of its obas and a number of its leading chiefs. These individuals used their new wealth to expand their commercial activities and augment their military and political power, which strengthened their position within the kingdom and made the state a...
3. The Original Sin: Anti-slavery, Imperial Expansion, and Early Colonial Rule
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In 1851, Britain bombarded Lagos, drove Kosoko into exile at Epe on the northeastern shore of the lagoon, and replaced him as oba with Akitoye, whom the Foreign Office believed would make a more compliant local ally. A decade later, Britain annexed the kingdom, commencing a century of...
4. Innocent Commerce: Boom and Bust in the Palm Produce Trade
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Abolitionists and policymakers in mid-nineteenth-century Britain expected that the production and trade of cotton to supply Britain’s burgeoning textile industry would rescue the peoples of the Bight of Benin from the slave trade. Yoruba farmers had in fact long grown cotton for use in domestic cloth weaving....
5. Britain and Domestic Slavery
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The abolition of the external slave trade formed an essential part of the program of reform that drew Britain into Lagos. From the time of the bombardment in 1851, British officials and Christian missionaries in the town worked steadily to end the foreign commerce in slaves from the Bight of Benin...
6. Redefining the Owner-Slave Relationship: Work, Ideology, and the Demand for People
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Although Britain did little to emancipate the many thousand slaves in Lagos, economic, political, and legal changes occurring in the colony created new opportunities for some of them to begin to redefine their relationships with their owners. The abolition of the foreign and, more slowly, the domestic...
7. The Changing Meaning of Land in the Urban Economyand Culture
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Commercial development and population growth in Lagos, fueled by the importation of gradually diminishing numbers of slaves as well as by the influx of runaway slaves and free immigrants, combined in the second half of the nineteenth century to increase the demand for dwellings, stores, and...
8. Strategies of Struggle and Mechanisms of Control: QuotidianConflicts and Court Cases
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Slavery was such a sensitive subject in Lagos during most of the second half of the nineteenth century that Europeans and Africans were both normally disinclined to discuss it. Their reticence has left historians with a dearth of records that illuminate the institution’s gradual demise. Silences on the subject...
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The slave trade and abolition, slavery and emancipation were closely related themes in the history of nineteenth-century Lagos. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century, the Atlantic slave trade on the Slave Coast of West Africa began...
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Page Count: 488
Illustrations: 1 b&w illus., 3 maps
Publication Year: 2007 | <urn:uuid:4bac97f6-c561-4698-83d8-340ff94f1b49> | {
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|Developer(s)||Apple Inc. (formerly Apple Computer, Inc.)|
|Stable release||2.4.1 / 1998|
Apple IIGS: System Software 5, System Software 6Macintosh: System Software 6, System 7, Mac OS 8, Mac OS 9
This combination of features – simple form layout, database capabilities and ease of programming – led to widespread use in many different roles. Some HyperCard users employed it as a programming system for Rapid Application Development of applications and databases, others for building interactive applications with no database requirements, command and control systems, and many examples in the demoscene.
HyperCard was originally released in 1987 for $49.95 and was included for free with all new Macs sold at the time. It was withdrawn from sale in March 2004, although by then it had not been updated for many years.
HyperCard is based on the concept of a "stack" of virtual "cards". Cards hold data, just as they would in a Rolodex card-filing device. Each card contains a number of interactive objects, including text fields, check boxes, buttons, and similar common GUI elements. Users "browse" the stack by navigating from card to card, using built-in navigation features, a powerful search mechanism, or through user-created scripts.
Users build new stacks or modify existing ones by adding new cards. They place GUI objects on the cards using an interactive layout engine based on a simple drag-and-drop interface. Additionally, HyperCard also included prototype or template cards known as "backgrounds"; when new cards are created they can refer to one of these background cards, which causes all of the objects on the background to be copied onto the new card. This way a stack of cards with a common layout and functionality can be created. The layout engine was similar in concept to a "form" as used in most rapid application development (RAD) environments (such as Borland Delphi, Visual Basic and Visual Studio).
The database features of the HyperCard system are based on the storage of the state of all of the objects on the cards in the physical file representing the stack. The database did not exist as a separate system within the HyperCard stack, that is, there was no database engine or similar construct. Instead, the state of any object in the system was considered to be live and editable at any time; from the HyperCard runtime's perspective, there was no difference between moving a text field on the card and typing into it, both operations simply changed the state of the target object within the stack. Such changes are immediately saved when complete, so typing into a field caused that text to be stored to the stack's physical file. The system operates in a largely stateless fashion, with no need to "save" during operation. This is in common with many database-oriented systems, although somewhat different from document-based applications.
The final key element in HyperCard was the "script", a single code-carrying element of every object within the stack. The script was a text field whose contents were interpreted in the HyperTalk language (detailed below). Like any other property, the script of any object could be edited at any time and changes were saved as soon as they were complete. When the user invokes actions in the GUI, like clicking on a button or typing into a field, these actions are translated into "events" by the HyperCard runtime. The runtime then examines the script of the object that was the target of the event, like a button, to see if its script object contains code for that event, code known as a "handler". If it does, the HyperTalk engine runs the handler, if it does not, the runtime examines other objects in the visual hierarchy.
These concepts make up the majority of the HyperCard system; stacks, backgrounds and cards provide a form-like GUI system, the stack file provides object persistence and database-like functionality, and HyperTalk allows handlers to be written for GUI events. Unlike the majority of RAD or database systems of the era, however, HyperCard combined all of these features, both user-facing and developer-facing, in a single application. This allowed rapid turnaround and immediate prototyping, allowing users to author custom solutions to problems with their own personalized interface. "Empowerment" became a catchword as this possibility was embraced by the Macintosh community, as was the phrase "programming for the rest of us", that is, anyone, not just professional programmers.
It was this combination of features that also made HyperCard a powerful hypermedia system. Users could build backgrounds to suit the needs of a particular system, say a rolodex, and use simple HyperTalk commands to provide buttons to move from place to place within the stack, or provide the same navigation system within the data elements of the UI, like text fields. Using these features, it is easy to build linked systems similar to hypertext links on the Web. Unlike the Web, programming, placement and browsing were all the same tool – similar systems have been created for HTML but traditional Web services are considerably more heavyweight.
The programming language within HyperCard is called HyperTalk and is object oriented. Objects exist in a message path hierarchy and respond to messages generated by either the user or the system itself (timers for instance). Objects inherit properties and attributes from those above them in the hierarchy. HyperTalk object classes are predetermined by the HyperCard environment, although others can be added by the use of externals (see below). HyperTalk is verbose, hence its ease of use and readability. HyperTalk code segments are referred to as "scripts", a term that was considered less daunting to beginning programmers.
Each HyperCard object class, contains a number of "properties". For example, buttons are a type of object, and come in standard styles. To determine, say, whether a checkbox style button is in fact checked, a script can simply call the "checkmark" property, which would return either true or false. In a similar way, objects can be analyzed via functions. For example, the number of lines in text field (another type of object) can be determined by a variant of the "number" function, called simply as "the number of lines of field 'fieldName'". This is very useful when performing a particular action on each separate line of the field. The script that implements the action need only call the function to know exactly the number of lines it must deal with. Should the field data change, the already coded function call will still be accurate.
HyperTalk is a weakly typed language. All variables, and in fact all values of any kind, are stored as typeless character strings handled by the interpreter as numbers or text based purely on context. This has a cost in speed but makes it far easier to write (and to read) code. Variables need not be declared, but rather are created on the fly as they are required. For example, the following expression creates a variable named “total”, and sets its initial value: "put 15 into total". Then the expression "add 3 to total" would result in the string "18" being stored in that variable. Taking this further, a powerful and intuitive structure known as "chunking" allows precise manipulation of text and number strings. It is possible, for example, to have the second character of the value "123" (the 2) added to the last character of the value "12345", yielding "12347". For another example, word 3 of "life is cruel" (cruel) can be appended after the first word of "Hello world", yielding "Hello cruel world". It would then be possible to put "Goodbye" into (thus replacing) the first word of that string, yielding "Goodbye cruel world". The above mentioned terms: "character", "word", "first", "last", "after", and "into", among many others, offer exquisite control over the ability to crunch numbers and parse text, down to the character level.
HyperTalk supports most standard programming structures such as "if-then" and "repeat". The "if-then" structure is so flexible that it even allows "case" structured code.
HyperTalk scripting allows the system to be easily modified and extended. Unlike many procedural languages, and even many scripting languages, HyperTalk proved to be far more accessible to a wide range of users, partly because scripts were more or less readable as English. For instance,
put the first word of the third line of field "hello" into field "goodbye" did exactly that. Referring to objects and the items on cards or backgrounds was easy. The example above shows how to access data within a field on a particular card, but one could refer to any object in the same fashion — including the stack itself. All objects could be named or renamed, as in the example above. In addition, each object (including the stack itself) had unique numeric IDs that remained unchanged throughout the life of the object.
Adding scripts is also easy. The user simply "command-option-clicked" (or he could click the "Script" button in the item's property dialog) on any element in the stack, and an editor would pop up. The script may then be edited, saved, and used immediately. In addition, HyperCard contains a "Message Box", an interactive command-line in a floating window that can execute single lines of script. This also includes the "find" command, so it doubles as a search dialog. HyperCard 2.0 added a debugger, as well.
HyperTalk was sufficiently popular that one of its main uses was not as a database, but as a programming tool that empowered ordinary computer users. Thousands of "stacks" were written and distributed as "stackware" in the years when HyperCard was widely available. As stated above, programming "for the rest of us", that is, for non-professionals, allowed many thousands of personal applications to be created by individuals with a need for personal software solutions. Some are still in use today.
Many hardware and software vendors provided their tutorials as HyperCard stacks, since the application was bundled with all Macs.
The power of HyperCard could be increased significantly through the use of external command and external function modules, more commonly known as XCMDs and XFCNs. These were code libraries packaged in a resource fork that integrated into either the system generally or the HyperTalk language specifically; this was an early example of the plug-in concept. Unlike conventional plug-ins, these did not require separate installation before they were available for use; they could be included in a stack, where they were directly available to scripts in that stack.
During HyperCard's peak popularity in the late 1980s, a whole ecosystem of vendors offered thousands of these externals for everything from HyperTalk compilers to graphing systems, database access, internet connectivity, and animation. Oracle offered an XCMD that allowed HyperCard to directly query Oracle databases on any platform. This was later superseded by Oracle's Oracle Card product. BeeHive Technologies offered a hardware interface that allowed the computer to control external devices. Connected via the ADB bus, this instrument could "read" the state of connected external switches or "write" digital outputs to a multitude of devices.
Externals allow access to the Macintosh Toolbox, which contained many lower level commands and functions not native to HyperTalk, such as control of the serial and ADB ports.
HyperCard was created by Bill Atkinson. Work for it began in March 1985 under the name of WildCard (hence the creator code of 'WILD'). In 1986 Dan Winkler began work on HyperTalk and the name was changed to HyperCard for trademark reasons. It was initially released in August 1987, with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if they promised to release it for free on all Macs. Apple timed its release to coincide with the MacWorld Conference & Expo in Boston, Massachusetts to guarantee maximum publicity. HyperCard was a huge hit almost instantly. Many people who thought they would never be able to program a computer started using HyperCard for all sorts of automation and prototyping tasks, a surprise even to its creator.
Apple itself never seemed to understand what HyperCard's target market for users should be. Project managers found it was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally. Bug reports and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in, demonstrating it had a wide variety of users. Since it was also free, it was difficult to justify dedicating engineering resources to improvements in the software. It was not lost on Apple or its mainstream developers that the power HyperCard gave to people could cut into the sales of ordinary shrink-wrapped products.
In late 1989, Kevin Calhoun, then a HyperCard engineer at Apple, led an effort to upgrade the program. This resulted in HyperCard 2.0, released in 1990. The new version included an on-the-fly compiler that greatly increased performance of computationally intensive code, a new debugger and a number of improvements to the underlying HyperTalk language.
At the same time HyperCard 2.0 was being developed, a separate group within Apple developed and in 1991 released "HyperCard IIGS", a version of HyperCard for the Apple IIGS system. Aimed mainly at the education market, HyperCard IIGS had roughly the same feature set as the 1.x versions of Macintosh HyperCard, while adding support for the color graphics capabilities of the IIGS. Although "stacks" (HyperCard program documents) were not binary-compatible, a translator program (itself a HyperCard stack) allowed stacks to be moved from one platform to the other.
Then, Apple decided that most of its application software packages, including HyperCard, would be the property of a wholly owned subsidiary called Claris. Many of the HyperCard developers chose to stay at Apple rather than move to Claris, causing the development team to be split. Claris, in the business of selling software for a profit, attempted to create a business model where HyperCard could also generate revenues. They wrote a new "viewer only" version, the HyperCard Player which Apple distributed with the Macintosh operating system, while Claris sold the "full" version commercially. Many users were upset that they had to pay to use software that had traditionally been supplied free and which many considered a basic part of the Mac.
Despite the new revenue stream, Claris did little to market HyperCard. Development continued with minor upgrades, as well as the first failed attempt to create a third generation of HyperCard. During this period, HyperCard began losing market share. Without a number of important, basic features, HyperCard authors began moving to systems such as SuperCard and Macromedia Authorware. Nevertheless HyperCard continued to be popular and used for a widening range of applications, from the game The Manhole, an earlier effort by the creators of Myst, to corporate information services and many thousands in between.
Apple eventually folded Claris back into the parent company, returning HyperCard to Apple's core engineering group. In 1992, Apple released the eagerly anticipated upgrade of HyperCard 2.2 and made many HyperCard enthusiasts happy by including licensed versions of Color Tools and Addmotion II, adding support for color pictures and animations. However, these tools were limited and often cumbersome to use because HyperCard still lacked true, internal color support.
Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple. Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia-authoring tool it was rolled into the QuickTime group. A new effort to allow HyperCard to create QuickTime interactive (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language. The resulting HyperCard 3.0 was first presented in 1996 when an alpha-quality version was shown to developers at Apple's annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC). Under the leadership of Dan Crow development continued through the late 1990s, with public demos showing many popular features such as color support, internet connectivity, and the ability to play HyperCard stacks (which were now special QuickTime movies) in a web browser. Development of HyperCard 3.0 stalled when the QuickTime team was focused away from development of QuickTime interactive to the streaming features of QuickTime 4.0. Finally in 2000 the HyperCard engineering team was reassigned to other tasks after Steve Jobs decided to abandon the product. Calhoun and Crow both left Apple shortly after in 2001.
In the years that followed, the program saw no additional support from Apple. Apple finally ceased selling HyperCard in March 2004.
HyperCard runs natively only in Apple Mac OS versions 9 or earlier, but it can still be used in Mac OS X's Classic mode on PowerPC based machines (G5 and earlier). The last functional native HyperCard authoring environment is Classic mode in Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) on PowerPC based machines (although it can be run on modern Intel-based machines by using an emulation layer such as SheepShaver).
HyperCard has been used for all sorts of hypertext and artistic purposes. Before the advent of PowerPoint, HyperCard was often used as a general-purpose presentation program. Examples of HyperCard applications include simple databases, "choose your own adventure"–type games, and educational teaching aids.
Due to its rapid application design facilities, HyperCard was also sometimes used for prototyping of applications and sometimes even for version 1.0 implementations. Inside Apple, the QuickTime team was one of HyperCard's biggest customers.
A number of commercial software products were created in HyperCard, most notably the original version of the interactive game narrative Myst, the Voyager Company's Expanded Books, and multimedia CD-ROMs of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM, the Beatles' A Hard Day's Night, and the Voyager MacBeth.
In Quebec, Canada, HyperCard was used to control a robot arm used to insert and retrieve video disks at the National Film Board CinéRobothèque.
HyperCard was also used to prototype a fully functional prototype of SIDOCI (one of the very first experiments in the world to develop an integrated electronic patient record system) and was heavily used by Montréal Consulting firm DMR to demonstrate how "a typical day in the life of a patient about to get surgery" would look like in a paperless age.
Activision, which was until that time primarily a game company, saw HyperCard as an entry point into the business market. Changing their name to Mediagenic, they published several major HyperCard based applications, most notably Danny Goodman's Focal Point, a personal information manager, and Reports For HyperCard, a program by Nine To Five Software that allowed users to treat HyperCard as a full-fledged database system with robust information viewing and printing features.
The HyperCard-inspired SuperCard for a while included the "Roadster" plug-in that allowed stacks to be placed inside Web pages and viewed by browsers with an appropriate browser plug-in. There was even a Windows version of this plug-in allowing computers other than Macintoshes to use the plug-in.
The first HyperCard virus was discovered in Belgium and the Netherlands in April 1991.
Because HyperCard executed scripts in stacks immediately on opening, it was also one of the first applications susceptible to macro viruses. The Merryxmas virus was discovered in early 1993 by Ken Dunham, two years before the "Concept" virus. There were very few viruses based on HyperCard, and their overall impact was minimal.
HyperCard is one of the first products that made use of and popularized the hypertext concept to a large popular base of users.
Jakob Nielsen has pointed out that HyperCard was really only a hypermedia program since its links started from regions on a card, not text objects; actual HTML-style text hyperlinks were possible in later versions, but were awkward to implement and seldom used. Deena Larsen programmed links into HyperCard for Marble Springs. Bill Atkinson later lamented that if he had only realized the power of network-oriented stacks, instead of focusing on local stacks on a single machine, HyperCard could have become the first Web browser.
The Myst computer game franchise, initially released as a HyperCard stack and included bundled with some Macs (for example the Performa 5300), still lives on, making HyperCard a facilitating technology for starting one of the best-selling computer games of all time.
According to Ward Cunningham, the inventor of Wikis, the wiki concept can be traced back to a HyperCard stack he wrote in the late 1980s, making HyperCard one of the grandparents of the Wiki idea.
Other companies offered their own versions. Four products are currently available which offer HyperCard-like functionality:
- HyperNext is a software development system that uses many ideas from HyperCard and can create both standalone applications and stacks that run on the freeware Hypernext Player. HyperNext is available for Mac OS X & Mac OS 9, and Windows XP & Vista.
- HyperStudio, one of the first HyperCard clones, is, as of 2009, currently developed and published by Software MacKiev.
- LiveCode, published by RunRev, expands greatly on HyperCard's feature set and offers color and a GUI toolkit which can be deployed on many popular platforms (IOS, Android, Classic Macintosh system software, Mac OS X, Windows 98 through 7, and GNU Linux/Unix). LiveCode directly imports existing HyperCard stacks and provides a migration path for stacks still in use.
- SuperCard being the first HyperCard clone, is similar to HyperCard, but with many additional features such as: full color support, pixel and vector graphics, a full GUI toolkit, and support for many modern Mac OS X features. It can create both standalone applications and projects that run on the freeware SuperCard Player. SuperCard can also convert existing HyperCard stacks into SuperCard projects. It runs only on Macs.
Past products included:
- Hyper DA by Symmetry was a Desk Accessory for classic single-tasked MacOS that allowed viewing HyperCard 1.x stacks as additional windows in any existing application, and was also embedded into many Claris products (like MacDraw II) to display their user documentation.
- HyperPad from Brightbill-Roberts was a clone of HyperCard but written for DOS. It made use of ASCII linedrawing to create the graphics of cards and buttons.
- Plus was a product similar to HyperCard for Windows and Macintosh.
- Oracle purchased Plus and created a cross-platform version as OracleCard, later renamed Oracle Media Objects, used as a 4GL for database access.
- Asymetrix's Windows application ToolBook resembled HyperCard, and later included an external converter to read HyperCard stacks (the first was a third-party product from Heizer software).
- TileStack was an attempt to create a web based version of HyperCard that is compatible with the original HyperCard files. The site closed down January 24, 2011.
In addition, many of the basic concepts of the original system were later re-used in other forms. Apple built their system-wide scripting engine AppleScript on a language similar to HyperTalk; it is often used for DTP workflow automation needs. In the 1990s FaceSpan provided a third-party graphical interface, and continues to do so today. AppleScript also has a native graphical programming front-end called Automator, released with Mac OS X 10.4, codenamed Tiger, in April 2005. One of HyperCard's strengths was its handling of multimedia, and many multimedia systems like Macromedia Authorware and Macromedia Director are based on concepts originating in HyperCard.
AppWare, originally known as Serius Developer, is sometimes seen to be similar to HyperCard, as they were both rapid application development systems. AppWare was sold in the early 90s and worked on both MS Windows and Apple Mac systems.
- Apple Media Tool
- Automator (software)
- Morphic (software)
- Stagecast Creator
- Needle, David (August 11, 1987), "HyperCard: Rumors or Reality", Computer Currents.
- "Hypercard – How About New Mac Owners", Mac GUI.
- Kahney, Leander (August 14, 2002), "HyperCard Forgotten, but Not Gone", Wired.
- "A Hypercard Primer", InfoWorld, November 6, 1989, p. S3 (sidebar)
- Winograd, Terry (1996), "HyperCard, Director, and Visual Basic", Bringing Design to Software, Addison-Wesley.
- Adams, Douglas (2002) . Frank the Vandal. "The Salmon of Doubt". MacWorld. Pan MacMillan.
- Colby, Clifford (September 1996). "HyperCard's new deal: QuickTime authoring". MacWeek.
- Duncan, Geoff (November 2, 1998). "Alas, HyperCard!". TidBits.
- Oren, Tim (March 26, 2004), "A Eulogy for HyperCard", Due diligence (blog), Type pad.
- "Ahead of their time: Nine technologies that came early", IT World.
- "Latest Mac viral infection hits the stacks: HyperCard affliction turns up in Europe (includes related article on forms virus attacks take)". MacWEEK. April 16, 1991.
- Antivirus software for Macintosh (list), University of Michigan, retrieved March 18, 2010 includes/mac/util/virus/merryxmaskiller.sit.hqx 8 4/27/93 BinHex4.0,StuffIt3.50 Eliminate a script-based virus called "merryxmas." Requires HyperCard 2.0.
- "HyperCard", Pantechnicon (wiki), CA: UQAM.
- "PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS, Dr. Dobbs Journal, Jun 1990". "The biggest failing of HyperCard for anyone interested in hypertext is the lack of text links."
- HyperCard: What Could Have Been, "Cult of Mac", Wired, Aug 2002.
- Cailliau, Robert, How It Really Happened, Computer (on the WWW proposal).
- Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Web was born: The Story of the World Wide Web. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-19-286207-3. "I got a HyperCard manual and looked at it and just basically took the concepts and implemented them in X-windows [sic]."
- Granneman, Scott, "1987", Computing history 1968–present.
- "Part 33: Myst", The Essential 50, 1UP.
- "Wiki History" (wiki), C2.
- Bruning, Kim, Wikinewsie discusses Wikimania (Interview).
- Cunningham, Ward; Gag, John, "An Evening in Conversation with the Wiki Inventor", Video, Google.
- "HyperStudio". Software MacKiev. Retrieved August 31, 2009.
- HyperCard comes back from the dead to the web, "Developers", Slashdot, June 7, 2008
- "Farewell to Tilestack".
- "Official TileStack account". Twitter.
- Atkinson, William ‘Bill’; Winkler, Dan (1987), "Demonstrating HyperCard", Computer Chronicles (Interview) (Archive.org).
- A list of HyperCard links, America OnLine, archived from the original on April 3, 2007.
- Teach Yourself HyperCard, Folk stream.
- Hypercard (PDF) (manual), Apple.
- HyperCard and AppleScript (in French), Scripteur.
- Differsifier, Economy X talk. HyperCard conversion utility.
- "A HyperCard walkthrough: making a four-function calculator", Loper OS. | <urn:uuid:03fbd8ba-a9eb-480e-a4e3-eddb8c1e8317> | {
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Overweight people are at increased risk for dying prematurely, even if they exercise regularly. The largest study of its kind ever shows that being fit in your teens helps to prevent premature death later on (Int. J. Epidemiol, December 20, 2015). However you lose this exercise protection against dying prematurely if you are overweight, and the heavier you are, the higher your risk for dying prematurely.
The Study More than 1.3 million Swedish 18-year old men were weighed and asked by their draft boards to cycle until they had to stop. Thirty years later, the researchers found that 44.000 of the men had died. Those in the highest fifth of the group on fitness tests had a 41 percent lower risk of death than those in the lowest fifth. The heavier the men were in their teens, the less they benefited from their level of fitness.
Men in the highest fifth level for aerobic fitness had a 48 percent lower risk of death from any cause compared with those in the lowest fifth. Not being overweight in the teen years reduced chances of: • dying in the next 30 years by 80 percent, • dying from heart disease by 45 percent, • dying from abusing alcohol or drugs by 40 percent, and • dying from suicide by 59 percent.
Being fit did not reduce the death rate of men who had BMIs greater than 35. A 6' tall man who weighs 250 pounds has a BMI of 35. (Calculate your BMI here)
The Swedish study agrees with many others that show that having too much fat in your body shortens your life, no matter what you do. The only way that you can prevent the health damage of being overweight is to lose weight, no matter how much exercising or dieting you do. Many studies have shown that being overweight in the teen years predicts being overweight as an adult. However, being overweight under the age of ten does not predict obesity as an adult.
Why Obesity and Lack of Exercise are Damaging To Your Health Lack of exercise and weak muscles increase risk for heart attacks (BMC Med, April, 2014;12:62). Being overweight and having full fat cells releases chemicals that turn on your immunity to cause inflammation, which increases risk for heart attacks (BMJ, Oct 2013;347:f5446). Then the cells and chemicals that kill germs do that same thing to you that they are supposed to do to invading germs. The chemicals that are supposed to dissolve the outer membranes of invading bacteria dissolve the inner linings of your arteries to form plaques which increases risk for a heart attack.
Where You Store Fat Predicts Risk for Heart Attacks Storing fat primarily in your belly is a far stronger risk factor for heart attacks, strokes and premature death than just being overweight. A study of 5696 adults used dual energy X-ray absorptiometry to classify them as storing fat primarily in their bellies or buttocks (Clinical Endocrinology, June 2014;80(6)). The more fat you store in your belly, the more likely you are to have high total cholesterol, triglycerides and bad LDL cholesterol. Storing fat primarily in your buttocks is associated with lower triglycerides and higher good HDL cholesterol.
When you store fat in your belly, you are likely to also store fat in your liver. Having extra fat in your liver prevents the liver from responding to insulin and controlling your blood sugar levels. High rises in blood sugar can damage every cell in your body to increase risk for diabetes, heart attacks, strokes, cancers and death.
Your liver controls blood sugar levels. When blood sugar levels drop, your liver is supposed to release sugar from its cells to raise blood sugar levels. When blood sugar levels rise, your liver lowers blood sugar levels by responding to insulin which drives sugar from the bloodstream into the liver cells.
How Exercise Helps to Prevent Disease and Prolong Life This is not to say that exercising doesn't prolong lives; it does. Resting muscles remove virtually no sugar from the bloodstream, while contracting muscles can remove sugar from the bloodstream without even needing insulin. The more intensely you exercise, the more effectively muscles can remove sugar from the bloodstream.
My Recommendations If you can pinch more than three inches of fat under the skin on your belly, you are overweight and are at increased risk for many diseases and premature death, even if you exercise regularly and eat a reasonably healthful diet (high in plants, low in meat, sugar and fried foods). You should make an extra effort to lose the excess weight.
I think that the most effective way to lose weight is Intermittent Fasting. This program does not recommend total fasting, which would be painful. On my "fast days", I eat oatmeal for breakfast and then snack on vegetables, fruits and nuts during the day. You can use any combination of foods you prefer, with a goal of no more than about 600 calories for the day. On your other days, follow your regular healthful eating pattern. While you are working to lose weight, do a fast day twice a week or as often as every other day. Once you have reached your desired weight, weigh yourself every morning. Do a fast day when your morning weight increases by more than two pounds.
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December 6th, 2018 | <urn:uuid:7228b852-4f83-4829-9127-e362bd3dc48c> | {
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This weekend marks the 16th annual Great Backyard Bird Count (GBBC)! This four-day event from February 15 to 18 engages communities across the country in bird watching and also provides researchers with valuable snapshots of how different populations are doing.
Why counting birds is important
Scientists and bird enthusiasts can learn a lot by knowing where birds are. Bird populations are dynamic and constantly in flux. This makes it very difficult for a single scientist or team to document and understand the behaviors and migrations of the many species that live in the United States.
Researchers can use information collected during the GBBC to better understand how environmental changes are impacting bird populations.
According to national organizer the Audubon Society, participants turned in more than 104,000 online checklists last year, creating the continent's largest instantaneous snapshot of bird populations ever recorded! Let's DOUBLE that number this year!
How YOU can participate
Everyone is welcome (from first-time watchers to experts) to participate over the weekend. Birding is an easy way to spend time as a family and connect with nature in a way that "counts"! Participating in this weekend's count is as easy as creating an account on GBBC's website and counting birds in your backyard for at least 15 minutes.
To help make the most of this experience, National Aquarium will be offering bird count activities throughout the weekend to get visitors of all ages interested in birding!
Highlights of activities happening at our Baltimore venue this weekend include:
So, what are you waiting for? Get out there and start counting!
Do you have a favorite species of bird you're hoping to spot this weekend? Tell us in the comments or join the conversation on Twitter using #GBBC! | <urn:uuid:f1a21285-1425-4064-bc7b-520246d723c3> | {
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Allergies and Hay Fever
What is Hay Fever or Allergic Rhinitis?Rhinitis or nasal allergies commonly known as hay fever are very common in United States. If you are sensitive to certain allergens- small particles that can irritate the inner linings of your nasal cavity- you may experience inflammation, sneezing, runny nose and watery and itchy eyes among many other annoying symptoms.
A skilled and experienced allergy doctor can help you better manage your allergies and avoid complications. If your allergies are acting up, do not hesitate to call at 440-352-1474 to set up an appointment with a board-certified ENT doctor.
What Causes Allergies?Your immune system protects your body from foreign bacteria and virus. However, an over-responding immune system may respond to non-infectious small particles such as pollens, dust mites or certain foods to activate your body’s defense mechanism. Your antibodies attach themselves to histamine producing cells, in your lungs, skin and mucous membranes. Histamine is released opening the blood vessels up and leading to swollen and inflamed membranes. This is what causes sneezing, runny nose and watery eyes. Some common allergens that can trigger allergic rhinitis are:
- Tree pollens
- Pollens from grasses and weeds
- Dust mites
- Animal dander
- Animal hair
- Wood dust
Types of Allergic RhinitisThere are two main types of allergic rhinitis, depending on the kind of allergen and the time of the year, your allergies flare up: Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis or Hay Fever usually shows up in late summer or spring. Ragweed is the main causal factor of in the spring, while pollen exacerbates the allergies in people with sensitivity to tree pollens in March and April. Mold spores can also lead to allergies in early winter. Perennial Allergic Rhinitis is usually caused by allergens and dusts from wallpaper mold, carpeting, pet hair, houseplants, and upholstery. This type of allergic rhinitis occurs year round and can be made worse by chronic bacterial infection in the nasal passage.
What are the Symptoms of Allergies?Some immediate symptoms of your allergies may be:
- Hay allergy rash
- Runny nose
- Postnasal drip
- Watery eyes
- Itchy ears, nose, throat and eyes
- Loss of smell
- A stuffy nose
- Breathing through your mouth
- Light sensitive eyes
- Sleep disorders
- Hearing difficulties
- Feeling of fatigue and tiredness
What are the Risk Factors for Allergies?Following factors may increase your risks for developing allergies:
- Allergies in your family
- Living or working in a polluted area
- Excessive use of hairspray or perfumes
- Working with certain chemicals
- Exposure to cold temperatures
- Working outdoors can trigger pollen allergy
When Should I see a Doctor?Whether you are experiencing discomforting symptoms of your seasonal allergies and acute allergic rhinitis, or an allergic reaction caused by an unknown source is making you restless, an experienced allergist should be contacted to treat your symptoms.
How are Allergies Diagnosed?Your ENT specialist may use the following procedures to diagnose the nature and severity of your allergies: A Physical Exam: Your ENT doctor may ask you some questions and conduct a physical examination to thoroughly check out the symptoms. A Skin Test: Your doctor may place small amounts of allergens under your skin with the help of small needles, to pin point the substance responsible for your allergies. If you are allergic to a particular allergen, you may develop itching, bumps and redness that goes away in a while.
How are Allergies Treated?Your allergies can be managed with the help of combination of following treatment options:
- Eye Drops
- Nasal Sprays
- Prescription Medication
Allergies can significantly reduce the quality of your life and may be accompanied with certain serious ENT diseases and disorders. A skilled and experienced allergy doctor can help you better manage your allergies and avoid complications. If your allergies are acting up, do not hesitate to call at 440-352-1474 to set up an appointment with a board-certified ENT doctor in east Ohio.
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OTHER HELPFUL NOSE, SINUS & ALLERGY FACT SHEETS:
- Allergies and Hay Fever
- Allergic Rhinitis, Sinusitis, and Rhinosinusitis
- Antihistamines, Decongestants, and Cold Remedies
- Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate
- Facial Sports Injuries
- Fungal Sinusitis
- Nasal Fractures
- Nose Surgery
- Pediatric Obesity and Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders
- Post-Nasal Drip
- Salivary Glands
- Secondhand Smoke
- Sinus Pain: Can Over-the-Counter Medications Help?
- Sinusitis: Special Considerations for Aging Patients
- Smell & Taste
- Stuffy Nose
- Tips for Sinus Sufferers
- Your Nose, the Guardian of Your Lungs | <urn:uuid:a7ddde53-7f5d-4afb-8a6c-0612027d4df2> | {
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LGBT Hispanics 50 and older also face additional obstacles: workplace discrimination, hate crimes, financial/inheritance laws, and the lack of health insurance.
Where can older LGBT Hispanics go for help when so few services are tailored or welcoming to them? Language and cultural barriers already keep many LGBT Latinos from using services for the general public. Then, within their own culture, they face homophobia. "That’s why many Hispanic older LGBT don’t seek services," Cruz said. "They need services where they can openly be who they are and don’t have to hide."
With so little known about the needs of older LGBT Hispanics, Cruz hopes research might provide more answers. "It’s hard to develop programs [and] to advocate funding and legislation without data," she said.
And it’s hard to reach the community without visibility, said Jose Gutierrez, who worked at LLEGO and founded the Latino GLBT History Project, which collects and preserves the history of the GLBT community in Washington, D.C., with plans to expand nationally. "Stonewall helped create more visibility for Hispanic LGBT people," he related. LGBT Hispanics need to remember the role they played in the movement, he said, both to remember the past and build momentum for the future: "It’s important to preserve our history so that new generations empower themselves to make greater positive changes within the community."
Stonewall’s milestone anniversary serves as a reminder that equality for all is not a given. As Puerto Rican author and activist Carlos Mock wrote after President Barack Obama’s first 100 days in office: "We must all fight our fights. These next four years need to be when the rights of LGBTs become as inalienable as anyone else’s—when our life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness are as indisputable as anyone else’s."
Acosta, Cruz, and Gutierrez believe the spirit of Stonewall—and its impact—lives on every time someone takes a stand for equality. | <urn:uuid:31281f77-ea06-4682-80a2-f8eabc901457> | {
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Scientists have embarked on a 3-week expedition aboard the R/V Walton Smith in the Gulf of Mexico to understand how surface ocean currents near the site of the Deepwater Horizon influence the fate and transport of oil/dispersants, like those from the 2010 spill. In other words, they will investigate where pollutants travel, and how fast they get there. This experiment is an essential step in understanding the elusive surface ocean currents that transport pollutants.
This unprecedented expedition marks the first time that a study of this magnitude will map the relatively unknown surface currents found in the GoM. In the past, only a handful of monitoring devices were set adrift along the currents. This summer, more than 300 custom-made buoys known as "drifters" will be released during the Grand Lagrangian Deployment (GLAD.)
"In the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill it became clear that understanding the various scales of oceanic currents and flows lies at the very heart of being able to improve our understanding and prediction of oil spills," explained Dr. Tamay Ӧzgökmen, University of Miami (UM) Professor and Director of the Consortium for Advanced Research on Transport of Hydrocarbons in the Environment (CARTHE), a project funded by the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI). "In this case we are like detectives uncovering clues and following the 'trail' to find out exactly where pollutants might go."
UM Professor and Chief Scientist Brian Haus will oversee the release of drifters from UM's 96-foot catamaran, the R/V Walton Smith. "The drifters will collect a wealth of oceanic information that will be plugged into predictive models to help us better understand the role of near-surface ocean flows in spreading and dispersing materials in the marine environment," said Haus.
The GLAD experiment is one of two inaugural CARTHE research expeditions this summer. Haus leads the drifters' deployment, while Dr. Brad Rosenheim at Tulane University led sediment and water sampling along select Florida Panhandle beaches aboard the RV Pelican earlier this summer. Data from Rosenheim's experiment will help scientists confirm the presence or absence of oil and the type of weathering that has occurred to the oil in both the sedimentary and shore-line water environment.
For a few months following the GLAD experiment, the drifters will continue to drift along the Gulf of Mexico currents. All CARTHE data derived during the project will be shared with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to improve their search and rescue operations.
"This joint research operation between the USCG and CARTHE combines our expertise and resources it is a partnership that can truly save lives," said Art Allen, a physical oceanographer with the USCG Office of Search and Rescue in Washington, D.C. Allen worked with CARTHE researcher Bruce Dr. Lipphardt from the University of Delaware to release five drifters by aircraft. The drifters deployed by USCG aircraft in advance of the GLAD experiment helped CARTHE researchers to identify appropriate locations for the larger deployment.
CARTHE's field work at sea, combined with laboratory experiments and the development of interconnected modeling systems, will produce a comprehensive, four dimensional description of the oil/dispersant fate and transport in the GoM, as well as its impact on other coastal environments across all relevant time and space scales. "Our research goes well beyond the Deepwater Horizon incident," Ӧzgökmen said. "These experiments are complex and painstaking, but the results will be key to generating vast improvements in how and where emergency responders are deployed in the event of another oil spill or at-sea emergency."
Explore further: Study finds winds played important role in keeping oil away from S. Fla.
The CARTHE program includes twenty-six principal investigators from twelve research institutions in eight states. Together these scientists are engaged in novel research through the development of a suite of integrated models and state-of-the-art computations that bridge the scale gap between existing models and natural processes. For more information about CARTHE, please visit www.carthe.org or like us on Facebook at www.Facebook.com/carthe.gomri | <urn:uuid:3b238730-de3e-4e2b-b292-9580d422ecce> | {
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[Flooding on the Indus river around Hyderbad, Pakistan, 19 August 2010; image via NASA Earth Observatory.]
At Weather Underground, Jeff Masters reflects on the extreme weather of 2010 — which included monsoon flooding in China, the Pakistani floods (the most expensive disaster in Pakistan’s history), the Queensland flood (Australia’s most expensive natural disaster), Colombia’s record rains and flooding (also the most expensive disaster in that nation’s history), and the thousand-year flood in Nashville:
“It is difficult to say whether the weather events of a particular year are more or less extreme globally than other years, since we have no objective global index that measures extremes. However, we do for the U.S.–NOAA’s Climate Extremes Index (CEI), which looks at the percentage area of the contiguous U.S. experiencing top 10% or bottom 10% monthly maximum and minimum temperatures, monthly drought, and daily precipitation. The Climate Extremes Index rated 1998 as the most extreme year of the past century in the U.S. That year was also the warmest year since accurate records began in 1895, so it makes sense that the warmest year in Earth’s recorded history–2010–was also probably one of the most extreme for both temperature and precipitation. Hot years tend to generate more wet and dry extremes than cold years. This occurs since there is more energy available to fuel the evaporation that drives heavy rains and snows, and to make droughts hotter and drier in places where storms are avoiding. Looking back through the 1800s, which was a very cool period, I can’t find any years that had more exceptional global extremes in weather than 2010, until I reach 1816. That was the year of the devastating “Year Without a Summer”–caused by the massive climate-altering 1815 eruption of Indonesia’s Mt. Tambora, the largest volcanic eruption since at least 536 A.D. It is quite possible that 2010 was the most extreme weather year globally since 1816.
…I don’t believe that years like 2010 and 2011 will become the “new normal” in the coming decade. Many of the flood disasters in 2010 – 2011 were undoubtedly heavily influenced by the strong El Niño and La Niña events that occurred, and we’re due for a few quiet years without a strong El Niño or La Niña… But the ever-increasing amounts of heat-trapping gases humans are emitting into the air puts tremendous pressure on the climate system to shift to a new, radically different, warmer state, and the extreme weather of 2010 – 2011 suggests that the transition is already well underway. A warmer planet has more energy to power stronger storms, hotter heat waves, more intense droughts, heavier flooding rains, and record glacier melt that will drive accelerating sea level rise. I expect that by 20 – 30 years from now, extreme weather years like we witnessed in 2010 will become the new normal.”
Read the full post at the Weather Underground. | <urn:uuid:afea20a9-7dfd-457c-a64f-4aeb80edcdff> | {
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THE HISTORY OF SCIENTOLOGYS EXPANSION
The Flag Land Base Established
Another milestone for 1975 was the landing of the Sea Organization and establishment of the Flag Land Base in Clearwater, Florida. Located in the eleven-story Fort Harrison Hotel and the nearby Clearwater Bank Building, the Flag Land Base constituted the largest single Scientology organization in history. As the spiritual headquarters of the Church and the only place where preclears could receive the special L Rundowns, it was soon drawing Scientologists from all over the world.
Nineteen seventy-five also saw the opening of Chicagos Church of Scientology, another church in Philadelphia and the first Canadian paperback edition of Dianetics.
A new Spanish translation of Dianetics was released in Mexico in 1976, and some
12 million television viewers watched as Hispanic celebrities told of its benefits.
More statistical facts about Scientology | <urn:uuid:99a8a17d-3c66-455e-be91-f5632aa84594> | {
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Dossier 17: Women in the Discourse of Crisis
Publication Author:Dr. Nasr Abu-Zeid
|Word Document||89.72 кб|
number of pages:170
The following extracts from the book "Women in the Discourse of Crisis" by Prof. Nasr Abu-Zeid have been translated from Arabic by Marlene Tadros.
The discourse over women in the Arab world is generally discriminatory. It is a discourse that places women in comparative relationships with the men. When a relationship between two parties is identified this way, then it means that one party succumbs to the other and obeys him. It is natural that the party that believes it is strong produces a racial discriminatory discourse. This is not the case with the religious discourse alone, but is also part of the current Arab discourse that is dominant in both culture and media. It is also not difficult to find in the discourse of “equality” and “participation” an undertone of superiority that emanates basically from the discourse which places males in the centre. When woman is equal to man, and when she is allowed to participate, she is merely participating with the man. But in all cases, the man becomes the centre of everything. The matter seems to be incontrovertible. And in some human societies, a woman’s social, cultural, and political activities are marginal and without meaning if a man is not involved as well.
Contemporary Arab discourse has its roots in language itself. It is a language that insists on differentiating between Arab names and foreign names with a sign that is called al-tanween. This is a sign that is put at the end of Arab names only when they are pronounced and not when they are written. One can therefore say Mohamadon or Aleyon. But this sign is not attached to non-Arab names like Bush or Abraham. We should also note that the term Aagam or Aagem (non-Arab or barbarian) refers to non-Arabs - the term is usually used for animals. This is a categorization that gives Arabs a superior status. It also gives their language the place of “the” language, as though any other language is not important, and that those who speak another language are like animals that cannot express themselves.
This linguistic discrimination between Arabs and non-Arabs on the basis of language and its meaning breeds another discrimination between males and females in Arab names. Female Arab names are also considered to be less important. In addition to the female “t” used to differentiate between males and females, the tanween is absent from female names just as it is absent from foreign names. There is therefore a linguistic racial discrimination not only against the “other” but also against females of the same race. This is noticeable in all existing contemporary discourse, in which women are treated as minorities since they are required to be under the “protection” and the “authority” of men. The linguistic discrimination is widespread. All nouns in the language are either male or female and there is no neuter in the Arabic language, like there are in other languages such as German, for example. Language professors differentiate between the true female word and the figurative female word, but this discrimination does not mean that the figurative female is exempt from succumbing to all the mechanisms of categorization to which she actually does succumb. On the other hand, we do not find a difference between the “true” male and the figurative male which reveals that there is a preconception that males are active, while females are inactive. Based on this assumption, the plural is treated as a male plural even if it is about a group of women, on the condition that one single male is present among that group of women. This means that one man’s presence is more important than the presence of a whole group of women. It is therefore called the male plural and not the female plural.
If we were to say that this does not concern the Arabic language alone and that is concerns many other languages on earth, this does not disprove its significance. Instead, it shows how widespread it is in human consciousness in general. If that is the case on the linguistic level, it is not always the case in the consciousness of groups throughout history. In some contemporary societies that speak English, for example, there is a growing consciousness of the ideology of language and the danger of succumbing to it. There are, for example, some attempts to change the language and replace it with a different consciousness, for example, when people try not to overuse “he” by using he or she alternately. People also avoid using the male or female to describe certain positions where we no longer say chairman but chairperson and spokesman but spokesperson. This new consciousness is absent from Arabic discourse and this is what concerns us here.
If language treats women from a racial and ethnic perspective that equals them to aagem, then it also reflects the level of consciousness of the people who created this language. Although consciousness does not develop in isolation of the language and language does not develop in isolation of those who speak it, every type of consciousness has its independent history and distinct path. Sometimes the two clash, which can lead to crucial changes in the structure of the language. This might sometimes lead to a victory of the traditional consciousness over the new consciousness. In the history of the Arabic language, which represents the history of the people who speak it, there is a distinct consciousness represented in the Qur'an, which addresses women as it addresses men. Addressing women has been performed in an indirect manner through addressing men; but the Qur’an is not so. In this context, we have to dismiss some of the illusions that people have concerning the inferiority of women’s status in Qur'anic discourse based on the fact that a woman’s inheritance is half that of the man’s. The real criteria for evaluation has to be the status of women and their position in the society before the Qur’an, not just a comparison between Qur’anic discourse and our legitimate wishful thinking concerning a woman’s status. Based on this criteria, addressing women independently from men in Qur’anic discourse is a new form of consciousness that is unprecedented except in some insignificant poems.
But this consciousness in Qur’anic discourse has entered into conflict with a consciousness already present in the language, and this is through a complex conflict on the ground of politics first and then on the level of religious thinking and the entire Arab culture after that. As much as the conflict has leaned towards the new consciousness, women’s status has developed, and as much as the balance has leaned towards traditional consciousness and what it represents in terms of enclosed tribal values, women’s status has changed from group to group and from state to state in the Islamic Empire. The status of women in Andalusian society was worthy of praise, so much that women had the right to stipulate that her husband would not marry another. None of the scholars at the time said that those conditions conflicted with the principle of superiority which became the norm in later eras.
In eras of backwardness and retardation, women are hidden, and they are seen as lacking intelligence and religion. The idea that women are not to be made love to during menstruation has evolved into avoiding speaking with her and eating with her, which goes back to mythical taboos. The story of Adam’s departure from paradise is rehashed in the Old Testament version, where Eve is tantamount to a snake and Satan. A discourse is created even in the film industry, where movies are called, The Devil is A Woman. Woman is transformed into a lust-inciting creature that provokes temptation. The only solution becomes burying women alive as the Bedouin Arabs in the Jahiliya (pre-Islamic period) did, but instead the modern reaction is to bury a live woman inside a black dress with two holes for eyes!
Following military defeat in 1967, Arabs increasingly felt a sense of shame. To compensate for his impotence, he resorted in escaping to the past, to his original identity, to the illusion of manhood. In politics, there was a move against unity, and on the social level, sectarianism instead of nationalism began to blossom. Religion substituted nation, history and geography.
Only fragmentation, sectarianism and religion were left. When the three are together they only breed terrorism that finds expression through the self: it is violence and terrorism on all levels: Muslim against the Christian, Christian against Muslim, Sunni against Shia’a and vice versa. In this environment charged with violence and terrorism, man turns against women: does he further need a partner to compete with him or something to defend or die for and protect? Let women go to hell. Let them stay at home, serve their husbands, sweep the floors and raise the kids to avoid all headaches.
Are we confronting religious discourse? It is wrong to say that. We are facing a backwardness that might use the language of religion or the language of politics or sociology or economics. But it is not merely a discourse of backwardness. It is also a terrorist aggressive discourse against women, not only through harassment and rape, but also through sentences such as those found in Mostafa Mahmoud’s article in Al Ahram 18/2/92, where he said: “These days, we hear rebellious calls by our sweeter halves - women - most of whom are wives of wealthy men, who demand to go out to work and leave their children in the street. Each one shouts to her husband that she wants to ‘find her identity’ and that she is equal to him. This sort of logic puzzles me: what kind of identity will a woman find as a secretary to so and so or a sewage engineer or bank teller or supermarket vendor. There is a lost identity in all those jobs. Achieving identity is merely words fit for novels.”
We notice here that the author begins with his point of view, which says that women must not go out to work except to fulfil their economic needs. This prescribes that males are wealthy, which makes it illogical for women to want to achieve. Mostafa Mahmoud therefore makes women going out to work a matter that enters into the field of the prohibited - something that is allowable only when necessary. Note how Mostafa Mahmoud is surprised that the women who want to go out are wives of wealthy men, and how, tragically they throw their kids in the street although they are wealthy and of course could bring in maids. But he does not say this - instead he says they throw them in the street. Look how Mostafa Mahmoud’s discourse changes to the melodramatic when he says “she shouts in the face of her husband, wanting to be equal to him”. If we assume this scenario is true, then what sort of man is this whose wife has to shout that sort of sentence to him? Undoubtedly it is the husband who thinks he has bought his wife with his money, a husband who treats her like he treats the most trivial things. Undoubtedly, a wife who speaks to her husband in this manner is responding to inhumane treatment. We suspect that Mostafa Mahmoud listened to some of the complaints of his wealthy friends concerning the rebellion of their wives so he simply wrote an article about it. That is why his discourse resorts to debasing women’s work through naming some jobs that he despises such as secretary, sewage engineer (note the mechanism of debasement) and so on. He then refers to his previous assertions and concludes that all these desires are bad. He therefore moves from sarcasm to debasement to social injury. Sarcasm to him is a manner of debasement, which leads to wounding that is not different from physical violence in the street.
Reproduced from: Peoples Rights a Quarterly Women’s Rights Journal. Issue 2, August 1996
(A chapter from his book with the same name, translated by Dr. Marlyn Tadros.) Peoples Rights, Legal Research and Resource Centre for Human Rights, 7 Al Higaz Street, Roxi, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt. | <urn:uuid:2697caec-8615-41af-99de-5037adefde09> | {
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Bellicum pennatum or Maraca Aerii
4.5 to 5.5 meters
|Behind the scenes|
Description and Biology Edit
The most striking feature of the warbonnet fern is the iridescent blue of the leaves, which contain abundant anthocyanin pigments. These pigments are light-reactive chemicals that reflect blue light and give color to the blue and purple flowers and fruit. The warbonnet fern was aptly named for the primary use of this plant--as headwear during times of both war and peace. Special pattern of bioluminescence in rays lures in insects to plants for nectar. Birds feed on insects and protect plant from insect feeding. The warbonnet fern has evolved a close relationship with a particular species of forest bird, which is also a pale iridescent blue color and well camouflaged against the leaves of the plant. These birds feed on insects that are attracted to the blue leaves that have red lines radiating out from the center of the plant. Insects accumulate on the enlarged central apex or meristem, from which the leaves grow, and the small birds swoop in to feed.
It is fortunate that warbonnet ferns sprout readily from belowground buds because they are gathered and used regularly by the Na'vi. The dark nights are often illuminated by single leaves that have been mounted on trees with their glowing arrow-like pattern pointing to a special destination, reminiscent of earthly neon signs.
The Na'vi use this plant as headwear during times of both war and peace. The similarity to Native American headwear made from feathers is obvious, as Pandoran colonists have noted. Individual leaves are also used as nighttime signals for directions, due to the arrowlike shape of each leaf.
The warbonnet fern is among the many bioluminescent flora that are featured prominently when Jake Sully is first aware of the phenomenon at night.
- ↑ Pandora ROVR, Ingame wiki
- ↑ James Cameron's Avatar: An Activist Survival Guide pg 110-111 | <urn:uuid:51eccf08-b59b-4f21-9475-0212c8cfcf4c> | {
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Social & Industrial History
Perfect Wives in Ideal Homes
The Story of Women in the 1950s
What did it feel like to be a young woman in the 1950s? Virginia Nicholson examines the pressures under which women lived in a post-war culture characterized by sex discrimination, inhibition, conservatism and hierarchy, and in thrall to the ideals of marriage, home and the perfect wife. With the emphasis on real women's experience, she explores topics from coronation fever, through 'how to get your man' manuals, housework and paid employment to the pervasive fear of atomic war. Slightly off-mint.
Ancestors in the Arctic
A Photographic History of Dundee Whaling
Drawn from the collections of Dundee Art Galleries and Museums, this volume of early photographs shows the sailing ships and the highly skilled crews of the Dundee whaling industry, often set against the dramatic ice seas and landscapes of the Arctic. Offering insights into an almost forgotten aspect of Dundee’s history, the book demonstrates the importance of whaling for the city between the mid 18th century and the First World War.
Jane Austen's England
Drawing on contemporary sources including diaries, letters, newspapers and trial proceedings as well as Jane Austen's own correspondence and writings, Roy and Lesley Adkins have created a wide-ranging and richly detailed social history of English life in the early 19th century that offers new perspectives on the world of the great novelist. Covering everything from childbirth, education and work to the darker side of Georgian society, poverty and crime, the book provides an illuminating companion to Austen's novels. | <urn:uuid:c8e73b20-b869-42a6-8193-d8b7304e837c> | {
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11. Determination of water potential of plant tissues
The water potential of a plant tissue can be determined by the following principle. If the tissue shows no net gain or loss of water when immersed in a solution of known molarity, its water potential is equal to that of the external solution. Samples of the tissue are allowed to come to equilibrium in a range of solutions of different concentrations. When the tissue shows neither an increase nor a decrease in mass or length, the water potential of the potato tissue is the same as that of the external solution. A. By length
Procedure 1. Use 1M sucrose solution and distilled water to prepare a series of 10 cm3 sucrose solutions in boiling tubes of different concentrations: 1M, 0.8M, 0.6M, 0.4M 0.2M and 0.0M. Label the boiling tubes. 2. Use a cork borer to obtain cylinders of potato tissue with the same diameter. Cut them all to the same length of 5 cm. It is important to work quickly to avoid loss of water through evaporation as this would lower the water potential of the tissue. 3. 4. Immerse two cylinders of potato tissue in each tube and cover the tubes with sealing film. Leave the set up for one hour.
Remove the cylinders from each tube. Measure the length of the cylinders, and calculate the percentage change in length using the formula below: % change in length = final length – initial length initial length x 100%
Find the mean percentage change in length of the cylinders at each concentration. Plot a graph of the mean percentage change in length (vertical axis) against the concentration of sucrose solution (horizontal axis).
From the graph, determine the concentration of sucrose solution which causes no change in length of the tissue.
The water potential of the potato tissue can be expressed in terms of the molarity of sucrose solution that causes no change in length of the tissue. | <urn:uuid:677a23c4-a1c8-4aff-928d-4e93efa2cf3f> | {
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Fungicides for Field Crops provides an overview of the current knowledge of fungicides and their use on field crops. This comprehensive book, which includes the contributions of 40 professionals from 20 universities and other organizations, combines past knowledge about fungicides with recent developments in the realm of field crop fungicides.
Fungicides for Field Crops highlights the use of fungicides as key tools in the management of important diseases of field crops. Management is presented as a decision-making process—one in which factors as diverse as weather conditions and economics must be considered. Having a more complete understanding of fungicides will inform that decision making and help determine when fungicides should be included as part of a management plan.
Daren S. Mueller and his co-editors have organized the book in a general-to-specific format, making the content accessible to readers of all backgrounds:
Parts I, II, and III establish a foundation of knowledge about fungicide use, addressing basic terms and concepts, key factors in decision making, and concerns for fungicide stewardship, respectively.
Part IV presents details about using fungicides to manage diseases of 16 field crops. Each crop is treated in a separate section that begins with a discussion of general issues of foliar application and seed treatment and ends with an inclusive table identifying diseases of that crop, including what causes them and how fungicides may be used to treat them.
131 color photographs illustrate disease symptoms and show techniques and enhance the key concepts described in the text.
Fungicides for Field Crops will serve as a valuable resource for agribusiness professionals, researchers and extension personnel, farmers and crop production advisors, and teachers and students. Both current and future agronomists and farmers can rely on this book not only for useful baseline information but also for crop-specific details about the effective and responsible use of fungicides.
Thank you to the sponsors who helped make this book possible.
The American Phytopathological Society thanks the sponsoring companies and organizations that have made it possible to distribute Fungicides for Field Crops at a significantly reduced price, even though the book has been produced with the same high-quality standards as other APS PRESS publications. Because of the support of the following sponsors, this book will be affordable for a broad agricultural audience. We are pleased to partner with these organizations and the book’s authors to publish science-based fungicide information for this important group of crops.
Fungicides for Field Crops
Part I - Introduction
Part II - Decision-Making Factors for Fungicide Use
Decision-Making Process for Applying a Foliar Fungicide
Factors in the Success or Failure of Foliar Fungicide Application
Conducting On-Farm Comparisons to Test Fungicides
Part III - Fungicide Stewardship
Fungicide Resistance and the FRAC Code
Part IV - Using Fungicides to Manage Diseases on Field Crops
Pulse Crops (Chickpea, Lentil, and Field Pea)
Small Grains (Barley and Wheat)
Publish Date: 2013
Format: 8.5" x 11" softcover print
Images: 131 color images
Publication Weight: 2 lbs
Edited by Daren Mueller, Kiersten Wise, Nicholas Dufault, Carl Bradley, and Martin Chilvers | <urn:uuid:030d6701-4fee-4a88-9b8c-b34976b7940b> | {
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Danville, VA-- More than 5 million Americans are living with Alzheimer's, according to the Alzheimer's Association. However, a new breakthrough in medical research has brought a ray of hope.
The study published by the Journal of the American Medical Association showed vitamin E might slow the progression of mild to moderate Alzheimer's.
The study involved just over 600 Alzheimer's patients, and followed them for about two years.
Vitamin E did not cure Alzheimer's or prevent memory loss. However, for those patients that stopped taking dementia medicine and only took doses of vitamin E, they had a delay in decline of daily living skills. These are skills such as bathing, getting dressed, and being able to feed yourself.
The executive director of Emeritus at Danville said this research is great news.
Alzheimer's patients being able to be independent for a little longer, means a longer life for them and also less pressure on caregivers.
"A lot of the time when you have an elderly spouse trying to take care of someone with Alzheimer's, they're physically not able to provide that care, so the longer someone can do those tasks by themselves, it's tremendous. We're very excited. Any breakthroughs are great news," said Amy Bracey, executive Director of Emeritus at Danville.
One key thing, the study did not prove that vitamin E prevents healthy people from developing dementia. | <urn:uuid:73fffd62-ec9d-40f0-a599-4759b6d84402> | {
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Disrespect Creates Educational Disasters
- Rebecca Hagelin Author, 30 Ways in 30 Days to Save Your Family
- 2010 19 Oct
Two veteran public school teachers "lost it" recently over student misbehavior. A Tennessee algebra teacher tried vainly to quiet his class as students talked, laughed, walked around, and mocked him. Finally, he said, "You want entertainment?" and then promptly smashed a desk and hurled chairs. He was placed on administrative leave. In New York, a music teacher "snapped," pushing a misbehaving student against a locker and throwing a backpack at him. He too is on administrative leave.
While the teachers' loss of control is unacceptable, so too is a classroom environment that makes learning impossible. Certainly, the litigious atmosphere in schools is partly to blame—teachers have few options for dealing with unruly students. (Typical classroom "behavior contracts" offer rewards for good behavior but no consequences for bad behavior.)
But a large measure of responsibility falls on our shoulders as parents. When even good students text during class, talk out loud, or speak disrespectfully to teachers, it's a failure of parenting more than a failure of the schools. It's up to us to hold our children to a higher standard, one that shows respect in dress, tone of voice, words, and actions. And it all starts at home.
How to Save Your Family By Teaching Respect
Walk through the halls of nearly any school and you are likely to see motivational posters declaring the need for "respect" in the school community. But posters do little good when students don't have a clue what "respect" looks like. That's our job.
Label respectful and disrespectful behavior for your child. Eye-rolling, heavy sighs, and body language should not be tolerated at home. Insist that your child listen to others' viewpoints, and express his or her own views, with a thoughtful demeanor. Because the pop culture models sneering sarcasm and disrespect as the norm, it's easy for our children to assume that the norm is acceptable. The earlier you teach a child the right way to behave, the more likely they are to live that way throughout their lives.
Children's TV shows and videos feature wisecracking adolescents whose one-liners and sarcastic comebacks dominate any conversation with adults. It seems the child always gets the last word. That was called backtalk when I grew up.
Point out that sometimes respect is best conveyed by silence—not saying the very thing that comes to mind. It takes maturity to restrain the impulse to toss off a funny comment, just to get a few laughs from their peers, when that comment undermines the teacher's authority.
A teacher friend of mine reminded me that parents should guide their "good kids" to make a difference in creating a classroom culture of respect. Some of our children are gifted leaders. Their leadership is meant not only for the sports field, student government, or clubs but also for the classroom, supporting a culture that takes learning seriously.
If the smartest student in the class openly brags how little time she spends on homework, it suggests disrespect for the teacher and the value of education as well. While the bright student may skate by on natural brains, the less gifted child who displays the same attitude is likely to fail. Similarly, a classroom leader who chooses to text in class or check sports scores on their cell phone erodes the climate of respect within the classroom. Alternatively, a well-timed encouragement for others to "Listen!" can make a difference. Remind your children that when they step up to the plate and demonstrate respect for authority, it sets the tone for others to follow.
Lastly, if your child is in a school where the principal and teachers have lost all control and refuse to foster a civil environment, then your best bet may be to home school or find alternative means of education. After all, if a school does not teach that Golden Rule than they have little hope of teaching anything else.
(c) 2010 Rebecca Hagelin www.howtosaveyourfamily.com | <urn:uuid:98f13d57-f40c-418c-8037-23c2327761d1> | {
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The formal education system teaches us poor learning habits. Instead of promoting deeper understanding, it forces students to memorize. Instead of creativity, it promotes rule-following. The skills of collaboration that are crucial in the outside world are labeled cheating or academic dishonesty.
Unfortunately, I don’t feel universities will change much. But the advantage is that you don’t need to apply these bad habits to your self-education efforts. University education has been shaped to make it fit easily into lectures and multiple-choice tests. If you don’t run your self-education that way, you can learn more and actually enjoy the process.
Why Memorization Sucks
It’s no secret that I don’t believe in memorization. For a classroom environment, I dislike rote memorization because there are better ways to reliably store information. For a real-world environment, I dislike memorization because nobody is going to demand you answer a question without the benefit of Google or Wikipedia.
There is value in having knowledge outside of reference materials. But that value doesn’t come in a list of memorized facts and figures. It comes from deeper understandings that allow intelligent intuitions.
The 70% Rule for Educating Yourself
Formal schooling pushes memorization. The way it does this is in the grading system itself. Understanding 70% of the course content is a C or C+ in most classes. In some settings, missing 30% of the information is a failing grade.
The problem is that in the real world, knowledge isn’t neatly divided into course curricula. Understanding 100% about one narrow topic and 0% about everything else, is far less useful than having 70% knowledge on several topics.
I use the 70% rule when educating myself. Learn something with roughly 70% accuracy and then move on. Remember: self-education isn’t school; if you forget something important, you can always read it again later. The laws of diminishing returns mean that the time it takes to go from 70% accuracy to 95% accuracy in a topic are often longer than going from 0% to 70%.
Unfortunately, formal schooling often fails people who follow the 70% rule, even when life rewards those people for knowing more.
70% for Technical Subjects
What if one topic is a necessary foundation for the next? If you only understand algebra with 70% accuracy, you won’t have as much success with calculus. The 70% Rule works here too on the principle that the best way to learn something is to need to learn it.
When I first taught myself computer programming I used a version of the 70% rule. Computer programming is definitely a subject where topics build. If you don’t understand a variable, you’ll have difficulty understanding conditional statements, which are necessary to understand loops, functions, object-inheritance and then polymorphism. Every step is a building block, so it seems foolish to only learn the foundational blocks 70%.
But in practice, it never works that way. Although in a school environment, lectures are one-way, learning isn’t. After you learn 70% of one topic, moving on to the next will force you to go back and nail prerequisite concepts when you get stuck. If I forgot a few details from Chapter 1, I can go back to there while in Chapter 2.
If, in contrast, you try for 99% accuracy before moving on, you won’t know which blocks are foundations and which are details. Some pieces of information in Chapter 1 may be used in every subsequent chapter. Other details were just used for the first assignment and never again. By using a nonlinear strategy, you spend all your time learning what is important.
70% for Learning Languages
I’m currently have 4 months to learn French before I’m living in France for a year. The 70% rule has been a great help in learning. Instead of trying to master the vocabulary for each lesson, I strive for 70%. I know that, if I forget a word or conjugation, I can always go back and check.
By using the 70% rule, I’ve enabled two things in learning French:
- I’ve exposed myself to more of the language in shorter period of time.
- By going back to check for missing information, my time is focused on the most frequently used parts of the language.
70% for Reading Books
When I read a book, my goal is to retain 70% of the key ideas. Sure, I may miss ideas from that 30% which were truly valuable. However, by trying to retain 95% of the ideas, I read fewer books. I’d rather miss 30% of the ideas from one book, than 100% of the ideas from a book I never got the chance to open.
70% Makes Self-Education Enjoyable
Learning is an enjoyable event. Considering most people’s experiences with schooling, it’s often hard to remember that. Children and animals play with each other to learn. Mystery movies are exciting because they are a problem for your brain to solve. Learning is one of primary forms of entertainment, but few people seriously self-educate because the school system has drained any enthusiasm for the process.
Focusing on 70% makes it learning more enjoyable. Instead of trying to memorize every detail, you pick out the information your brain feels is useful or interesting. If you do miss something important, you can always go back and check. | <urn:uuid:537811ae-0196-410e-8523-5befa3377c42> | {
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A genetic kidney disease where the kidneys become enlarged and covered in fluid filled cysts
A hormone which controls how fast new red blood cells are made
Medicine that acts against bacterial infections. Penicillin is an example of an antibiotic.
The process of replacing a damaged or diseased organ with a healthy organ from a dead or living donor.
High frequency sound which cannot be heard by human beings
Inflammation of the kidneys which may be caused by infection by bacteria.
The process of cleansing the blood through a dialysis machine after the kidneys have failed
Single-celled organism. Has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm. Its DNA is loosely-coiled in the cytoplasm and there is no distinct nucleus
Sometimes the kidneys become inflamed. This is called nephritis. It may be because the kidneys have become infected by bacteria - if so, it can be treated by antibiotics.
Kidney stones are hard mineral deposits formed in the kidney. They can pass into the urine and larger ones may stick in the ureter. Kidney stones can be very painful.
The stones can be smashed into smaller pieces using ultrasound. Then the pieces are passed out of the body in the urine.
Serious kidney disease may stop the kidneys working properly. When both kidneys stop working, this is kidney failure. Kidney failure can also be caused by injury, high blood pressure, poisoning or dehydration.
If the kidneys don't work, waste products build up in the bloodstream and the person will die without treatment. Treatment must replace the functions of the kidneys to remove waste and balance the water and salt levels of the blood. At the moment there are two types of treatment which can replace these kidney functions - either dialysis or a transplant. | <urn:uuid:198cabce-0c64-4a9f-aee9-7e521a57f05a> | {
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Imhotep might have been the first to document it. An Egyptian surgeon who lived around 3000 BC, he is thought to be the original author of the "Edwin Smith" papyrus. In this ancient textbook (named after its discoverer) is the first known mention of cancer. <br><br>"If thou examinest a man having tumors on his breast, (and) thou findest that swelling has spread over his breast; if thou puttest thy hand upon his breast upon these tumors, (and) thou findest them very cool, there being no fever at all therein..." says the text.Imhotep might have been the first to document it. An Egyptian surgeon who lived around 3000 BC, he is thought to be the original author of the "Edwin Smith" papyrus. In this ancient textbook (named after its discoverer) is the first known mention of cancer.
"If thou examinest a man having tumors on his breast, (and) thou findest that swelling has spread over his breast; if thou puttest thy hand upon his breast upon these tumors, (and) thou findest them very cool, there being no fever at all therein..." says the text.
The author concludes grimly "there is no treatment."
Cancer has probably been around for as long as humans, and even before in other animals. Even today, with surgeons that can open a man's chest, stop his heart while they provide synthetic replacement arteries, and then sew him back together and send him on his way, the causes of the myriad cancers remain largely unknown.
The incidence of cancer throughout history is largely unknown too. Perhaps cancers are as prevalent now as they were in Egyptian times, perhaps not. It was not until recently that we developed the technology to diagnose it accurately.
But as we seek out reasons for this pernicious disease, fingers have increasingly pointed at modern chemicals as the culprit. Benzene, an ingredient in petrol, definitely causes cancer. Asbestos is another famous man-made carcinogen.
This week, Choice magazine released a study, modelled on a similar US study, into the levels of a chemical called bisphenol-A (BPA) in canned food. The reason they were concerned about the amount of BPA: it's thought to cause cancer.
BPA is a molecule that consists solely of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms arranged in a way that looks a little like a pair of spectacles.
It is a marvellously useful chemical because it makes many plastics tough and durable. Humans most usually come into contact with BPA because it is used in the plastic that lines the inside of cans to prevent the food from corroding the steel of the can.
But in recent years people have started to wonder about the effects of BPA on their health.
Study after study has shown BPA as being linked to every disease under the sun, including neurological problems, ADHD, thyroid function, heart disease, digestive problems, obesity and, predictably, cancers. Of course, BPA being 'linked' to these problems does not necessarily mean that it causes them, but it shows that the two seem to go together and so the full extent of their connection should be investigated.
Like phthalates, polyvinylchloride (PVC), hexachlorobenzenes (HCB) and a host of other modern chemicals the exact nature of their interaction with our biology remains murky, but doesn't look good.
To address the question of these mysterious toxins, the authorities adopt a risk analysis approach. Based on animal studies, the authorities recommend an overly cautious maximum daily intake.
In the case of BPA, for example, Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FSANZ) recommend 0.05 mg per kilogram of body weight per day. So a 70 kg person can have 0.0035 grams of BPA each day.
Lydia Buchtmann, communications manager from FSANZ said, "The highest level found by Choice was in canned baby custard and our analysis shows a nine month old baby weighing nine kilograms would have to eat more than one kilogram of custard containing BPA every day, assuming that the custard contained the highest level of BPA found."
In other words, the level of BPA in cans of food being sold in Australia falls within FSANZ's recommended range.
But in the US and Europe, various groups have started agitating for that recommended range to be revised. A host of recent scientific studies have suggested that the current recommendations might be too high.
The US Natural Resources Defense Council has recently gone so far as to bring a law suit against the US Food and Drug Administration for failing to ban BPA outright.
In Denmark the use of BPA in baby food containers has been banned.
In Australia we are certain to see a mirror of the many campaigns currently being waged overseas to ban BPA in food containers - particularly baby food containers because the unborn or very young are thought to be particularly susceptible to BPA's effects as they grow. Choice's article on its BPA tests opened with the suggestion that readers email the Parliamentary Secretary for Health and Ageing asking for a ban on BPA in kids' food containers.
Whether or not humans can cope with small amounts of toxic substances in our bodies with no ill effects, and just how small these amounts should be is a matter that science is unlikely to conclusively resolve any time soon.
Our daily lives involve an enormous amount of exposure to all kinds of chemicals that are possibly causing us harm: traffic smog, passive smoking, non-stick frying pans and chlorine in swimming pools are just a few examples. Separating out the effects of BPA or any other single chemical is difficult in the real world, compared to a lab.
In the meantime there is the precautionary principle. This says that if someone (for example can manufacturers) want to do something (have BPA in the plastic lining of their cans) that may or may not do people harm, then it is up to them to prove that it is definitely safe before doing it. Otherwise they shouldn't do it.
Alternatives to BPA containing plastics are available. Several retailers and manufacturers in the US have voluntarily moved to a BPA-free process, simply because of the precautionary principle. Heinz is phasing out BPA-containing cans. Other manufacturers are investigating the possibility.
FSANZ is reviewing its BPA standards, the results of which should be available later in the year. In the meantime, if you are personally concerned about exposure to BPA through canned food, the advice is to buy fresh food, use glass or ceramic receptacles and don't microwave plastic containers. | <urn:uuid:4b739c14-bef0-448e-bb4f-4e72c5bc21f8> | {
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Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine. Anything human!
5 posts • Page 1 of 1
i can only tell u dat it is highly recessive and we humans have the tail bone and gene responsible for it. I have also seen a human baby born with a tail. But, it was removed surgically.
Dis is wat i saw in a search in unrelated link
Indian baby born with a tail
Crowds converged on temples in India to see a baby born with a “tail” in 2001.
Many believed the boy was a reincarnated Hindu god. The boy, at one-year old when this report came out in early 2002, was named Balaji, another name for the monkey-faced god Lord Hanuman.
The Indian baby's “tail” was 10 centimeters long, and the boy was being exhibited in temples throughout India, where people paid to see him.
Indian newspaper The Tribune said the boy's grandfather showed journalists nine spots on the baby's body, which is what Lord Hanuman supposedly had.
Cases of babies with “tails” surface occasionally. A paper in The New England Journal of Medicine in 1982 by Dr. Fred Ledley was titled “Evolution and the Human Tail.” But are human “tails” really evidence of evolution?
There are two types of tails involved in this discussion. The non-bony tail, and the bony tail.
This Indian baby's “tail”, like nearly all cases of human “tails”, is not a real tail. And it is not evidence of evolution. It doesn't have any bones in it, doesn't have fur like a monkey's tail, and doesn't have a nerve cord.
Also, the boy can't use it like a monkey uses its tail to wrap around branches, and it is so different from a monkey's tail that it shouldn't be called a tail at all. No monkey or ape would be proud to have this “tail”, because it is a useless, non-functioning appendage.
Does this baby's tail have anything to do with the idea that humans and monkeys may be related? Not in the slightest. It is just skin and fatty tissue, and can easily be cut off.
As biologist Dr. Gary Parker once said about these fatty tumor tails: “So far as I know, no one claims we evolved from an animal with a fatty tumor at the end of its spine.”
The second type of “tail”, a rarer type, is one that has bone in it. For some strange reason, a few otherwise-intelligent evolutionists suspend their commonsense on this subject and claim that this is evidence that humans evolved from creatures with tails.
But this is like recognizing faces of your friends in clouds. You read into the facts an assumption that is not supported by the facts.
Even if every human had a bony tail a few inches long, it couldn't possibly show that humans have evolved from monkeys. That's because the existence of something is not evidence of its origin.
In August 2004 there were reports of a baby born in Cambodia with a 10-centimetre (4-inch) “tail”. But at least the media reported this simply as “a spine considerably longer than normal”, and did not make incorrect assertions that it had anything to do with evolution.
Baby with tail cartoon
Abnormalities, sadly, occur in humans as well as in animals. And sometimes simple ailments such as back aches are wrongly claimed to be a result of evolution.
It is worth looking at this “tail” claim from another angle.
Evolutionists have for decades pooh-poohed anyone who says humans evolved from monkeys. They insist we evolved not from monkey-like creatures, but from ape-like creatures (they usually phrase it: “humans share a common ancestor with apes”).
Did we evolve from monkeys or apes?
Monkeys generally have tails and apes don't. If evolutionists believe that the bony tail is evidence that we evolved from monkey-type creatures, why do they insist that we evolved from a common ancestor with apes, which don't have tails?
Which tailed ape is this anomaly supposed to be throwing back to anyway? If you go through the apes and alleged ape-men claimed to be in humans' evolutionary lineage, you can't find one that had a tail like this baby's appendage, because it is useless as a tail.
And isn't natural selection supposed to favor improvements, and not impediments? Why then would natural selection cause something as useful as a tail to wither into an encumbrance and then disappear?
The TalkOrigins website thinks that some “tail” abnormalities on humans are evidence of evolution, and at the time of writing they point out that there is “at least one known example of a primate tail that lacks vertebrae, as found in the rudimentary two-inch-long tail of Macaca sylvanus (the 'Barbary ape')”.
Unfortunately, we could not find any other evolutionists who were willing to say that a tail that lacks vertebrae on a human is evidence that a Barbary ape turned into a human. And we must point out that the Barbary “ape” is actually a monkey, not an ape, and most monkeys have tails anyway. So how does it help the evolutionists' belief that ape-like creatures turned into humans by saying that a monkey has a tail?
We also could not find evidence that the Barbary macaque is considered to be closer to humanity than, say, the rhesus macaque, which has a long tail (see drawing at right). But we will continue looking.
Evolutionists notoriously change their evidence to suit the occasion. So they can't blame people for treating evolution as something of a “fairy tail”.
Baby born with 4 arms and 4 legs
As further evidence that evolutionists' claims about abnormalities such as baby tails have nothing to do with evolutionary throwbacks, consider the more recent case of a girl in India who was born with 4 arms and 4 legs.
The case of Lakshmi Tatma got worldwide media attention in November 2007 when doctors successfully operated on the 2-year-old girl. (See Daily Mail article with photos.)
The girl was joined at the pelvis to what was, in effect, a headless, undeveloped twin.
If it suited diehard evolutionists' purposes, some would surely say this unfortunate 8-limbed girl was evidence that humans evolved from spiders. But they don't claim that, and rightly so, because everyone knows humans didn't evolve from spiders.
Baby born with 24 fingers and toes
And look at the case of a baby boy born with 24 fingers and toes, reported by the BBC and other media outlets on February 5, 2009. The boy was born in California at the Bay Area Hospital, and had 6 digits on each hand and foot.
As far as we are aware, no evolutionist has claimed this is an evolutionary throwback to a time when some creature with 24 digits was evolving into a human. That's because it doesn't suit their agenda to link a 24-digit creature with human evolution. Yet the link would be no more far-fetched than is their imaginative link to a baby with a tail.
Baby born with two heads
And take the sad case of a baby boy born in Bangladesh on August 25, 2008. He had two heads, and lived only a few days.
The boy, named Kiron, was born from one embryo. The mother's gynecologist, Mohamad Abdul Bari, said the baby had one stomach and ate normally with his two mouths. He had one genital organ and a full normal set of limbs.
No evolutionist claimed that the boy's two heads indicated anything about evolution. Because there is no creature with two heads they can link with this baby.
Yet the “tail” abnormality is promoted by a few imaginative evolutionists as evidence that we evolved from monkeys or apes with tails.
It is nothing of the sort.
Human babies born with tails are no more evidence that humans evolved from apes or monkeys than human babies born with 8 limbs are evidence that we evolved from spiders.
Last edited by JackBean on Tue Sep 10, 2013 4:39 pm, edited 1 time in total.
Reason: unrelated link removed
We all have had tails - they develop in the embryo but are resorbed (not in all cases, the ones that have some appearance at birth), and they are definitely tails. Tails (post-anal) are a shared feature of all mammals, and the embryonic persistence is definite evidence of shared ancestry.
Thanks about that kelly. I usually dream about things and debate about it. But please people let us try our best about it and help me to know more. Who knows if we can become microbiologists anyday????
I really aspire for AIIMS,New Delhi, India. We can definitely get help from their website or the faculty in person They are really knowledgeable.
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Java Tools is a lightweight IDE for creating, compiling, executing and debugging Java applications and applets. Java Tools includes point and click access to the Java commands, documents, directories and files. It also includes a built-in text editor and user interface for the Java debugger.
Java Tools makes learning and using Java easier. It's for the new Java user who needs help getting started. It's also for the more experienced Java user who wants easy access to the Java commands and a text editor.
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Java Runtime Environment (JRE) (64-Bit) provides the libraries, the Java Virtual Machine, and other components to run applets and applications written in the Java programming language. In addition, two key deployment technologies are part of the JRE: Java Plug-in, which enables applets to run in popular browsers; and Java Web Start, which deploys standalone applications over a .... Free download of Java Runtime Environment 64bit 7 Update 51
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Monitor changes between one source code version and another from any location. Free download of Mercurial 3.1.2 | <urn:uuid:0af15aba-52b2-4962-8949-6a68a372af7a> | {
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Reproduced below is a recently published treatise on genetically modified foods, their safety aspects and advantages. This is quoted below without any bias or prejudices and readers are free to come to any conclusion regarding the issues covered here:
In 2008, Duane Grant, who runs farms in Idaho and northern Oregon, began growing sugar beets from seeds that were genetically modified. As a result, he says he now uses fewer chemicals, tills the soil less often and gets larger yields from the same acreage — increasing profits and reducing his environmental footprint along the way. "I am proud of that fact," he said. But that pride does not translate into support for a burgeoning consumer movement that would have mandatory labels placed on products containing sugars like his, such as juices, soft drinks and breakfast cereals, and on any other product containing a genetically modified organism, or GMO. Grant considers such labels irrational — a sentiment that aligns with the broader food industry, which has been spending tens of millions of dollars in recent years to avoid them, fearing they would drive customers away. Despite two decades of assurances from biotechnology firms, food processors, federal regulators and even a substantial share of scientists that GMO foods are safe, ballot initiatives and citizen petitions seeking labels on GMO foods are springing up as quickly as the industry can pay — or sue — to defeat them. Meanwhile, sales of foods labeled GMO-free have been steadily gaining ground on consumer shopping lists, and polls suggest that more Americans than ever favor labels that identify GMO foods.
This has even some supporters of genetic engineering wondering if it's time to rethink the labeling question. "If you give people a choice and value, that wins," said David Ropeik, a risk-communication consultant. He has begun calling on the industry to let go of its "fear of fear" and embrace GMO labeling, which is required in at least 64 other nations, including Japan, Australia, Russia, Brazil and more than a dozen European countries. But Grant, like many industry stakeholders, remains skeptical. "To allow popular perception of harm — or benefit — to be the basis for mandatory labeling would not result in food being safer," he argued. "It would result in the scientific community being pushed to the sidelines in favor of food-fad-of-the-day mob regulation."
Whether or not that's true, food makers are spending lavishly to avoid mandatory GMO labels. In 2012, for example, opponents of a California labeling proposition — including Monsanto, ConAgra and other genetically modified seed makers alongside food companies like Sara Lee, Coca-Cola and Kellogg's — spent a staggering $46 million, primarily on lobbying and advertising, to defeat the measure. Similar efforts in Washington the following year prompted the state's attorney general to sue the Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA), alleging that the leading food industry lobby was hiding the identity of the contributors to its anti-labeling campaign in violation of state election laws. The GMA eventually came clean, revealing that dozens of contributors — including Nestle, Del Monte, Coca-Cola and Hershey — had chipped in $7 million to kill the measure. In almost all such battles, the companies easily outspend label supporters. Monsanto and Dupont Pioneer, for example, were among a long list of food industry interests that contributed over $15 million to defeat a labeling measure in Colorado during November's elections, according to state records. Supporters of the bill managed to raise a tiny fraction of that amount. The initiative failed. Dupont, Monsanto, Kraft Foods, PepsiCo and other food industry players pumped more than $30 million into efforts to quash a similar ballot initiative in Oregon — twice the amount supporters were able to muster. The industry is now locked in a fierce legal battle with Vermont, which passed a GMO labeling law last year, and companies have lobbied hard for federal legislation that would bar other states from following suit. A bill that would do that was introduced last spring by Rep. Mike Pompeo, a Republican from Kansas who, as it happens, received the largest single contribution — $10,000 — from the GMA for the 2014 election cycle, according to federal data. The bill did not make it out of committee, but Heather Denker, a spokeswoman for Pompeo's office, said he plans to reintroduce the bill in coming weeks.
The industry justifies all these expenditures on a variety of grounds. For starters, companies say, a hodgepodge of differing state labeling laws would be unworkable, and even a federal labeling rule would make food more expensive. They also argue that genetic modification, which involves the insertion of foreign genes into an organism — so far mostly crops like corn and soy — so that it expresses a new and ostensibly desirable trait, is really just one among a variety of plant breeding techniques that have been used for decades without complaint.More substantively, GMO supporters argue that there is no evidence to suggest genetically modified foods present any more risk than conventionally bred fare, a view generally held by a long list of scientific organizations, including the American Medical Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the World Health Organization. Taking a similar position, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which regulates food from GMO crops in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency, has seen fit to leave GMO labeling a strictly voluntary affair. "As a public health agency, we base our policy decisions on the best science available," said Theresa Eisenman, an FDA spokeswoman, in an emailed statement. "The agency is not aware of any information showing that foods derived from genetically engineered plants, as a class, differ from other foods in any meaningful or uniform way or that, as a class, such foods present different or greater safety concerns than their non-GE [genetically engineered] counterparts."
Although the FDA's review process is voluntary, virtually all producers of new GE products submit them to the agency for approval. Since the mid-1990s, the FDA has signed off on over 150 varieties of genetically engineered crops, though not all proved commercially viable. Most GMO-derived ingredients found on shelves today are from crops that were tweaked to improve resistance to pests and certain herbicides, but newer products with consumer-facing traits are in the pipeline. This includes the Arctic apple, which has been engineered to resist browning.
On Feb. 13 the USDA determined the apple was safe to grow, and the FDA is currently reviewing it. Eisenman also said that the agency is reviewing two citizen petitions urging the FDA to create a mandatory GMO label but that no decisions has been made — much to the chagrin of many consumers who remain unconvinced that GMOs are safe. A survey published last month by the Pew Research Center, for example, found that while nearly 90 percent of scientists surveyed said they considered genetically modified foods safe to eat, only 37 percent of the general population agreed. An ABC News poll from last summer found similar results, with more than half of respondents saying they believed GMO foods were unsafe. In a 2013 New York Times survey, 93 percent of respondents said they wanted GMO ingredients identified on food labels.
Critics of such surveys argue that they only demonstrate ignorance of GM technology. Ropeik, for example, pointed to a 2013 study conducted at Rutgers University, in which participants were asked, in an open-ended question, what sort of information they would like on their food labels that isn't already there. Only 7 percent mentioned genetic modification. A more recent survey from Oklahoma State University found that 80 percent of respondents said they supported mandatory GMO labels. The same large percentage, however, also wanted labels on foods containing DNA. Such cognitive dissonance suggests to industry stakeholders that environmental advocates are simply exploiting consumer ignorance to force a label on technology they don't like. "It's clear to us that it's really meant as a skull and crossbones," said Cathleen Enright, the executive vice president for food and agriculture for the Biotechnology Industry Organization, a trade group representing Monsanto, DuPont and other GE seed makers. "We shouldn't be using labels as a scare." Scott Faber, the vice president of government affairs with the Environmental Working Group, a public health advocacy based in Washington, D.C., disagreed. "If you're framing this as a debate about technology, you're really missing the bigger picture," he said. "It's about what consumers are entitled to know, broadly, about their food." He argued that the jury remains out on questions of GMO safety, not just at the dinner table but also in the fields, where cross-pollination with conventional crops is difficult to control and where heavy reliance on GM seeds is contributing to the emergence of new herbicide-resistant weeds, which in turn drives farmers to ramp up use of toxic chemicals. "These things have only been in the market for 15 years," Faber said, "and they've not been submitted to long-term studies, so it's still way too early to render a judgment one way or another on their safety." In the absence of consensus, the marketplace may be providing the differentiation many advocates seek. Labels certifying GMO-free foods are booming, with the lead certifier, the Non-GMO Project, placing its imprimatur on over 20,000 food, beverage and body care items. Nielsen, the market research firm, said sales of such products increased 15 percent last year, to nearly $10 billion, and it ranks the GMO-free sector among the fastest-growing food trends in the market today.
The USDA's organic certification already acts as a vouchsafe against GMO ingredients, and Whole Foods has taken the lead among major retailers in catering to consumer demand, requiring that by 2018, all products in its U.S. and Canadian stores either avoid GMOs or carry labels to indicate that they contain them. U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack has floated an even broader long-term solution: placing special bar codes on food packages that consumers can scan with their smartphones, obtaining all the information they could ever want about the food involved — where it was made, how it was processed, whether it was grown using hormones or antibiotics, what sort of allergens it might contain and, of course, whether it involved genetic modification. Brian Kennedy, a spokesman for the GMA, suggested that the bar code solution has merit. "Our members are always looking for ways to use technology to provide consumers with more information about their product choices," he said. Until that happens, though, the GMA and its like-minded industry partners plan to keep battling the mandatory label movement — and to let voluntary non-GMO labeling provide consumers with the choice they're looking for.
In Idaho, Duane Grant suggested that identifying and labeling products that don't contain GMOs would be a lot easier to do these days anyway. "The fact is, about 80 percent of the food in the U.S. now contains ingredients produced using GM technology," he said, "and it has been that way for years."
After reading the above, what type of conclusion a lay man can come to? More confusion and more questions! One thing which strikes one is that both sides have their own strong views and may have some merits in their contentions and unless there is a unanimity consumers may not accept GMO foods unreservedly! | <urn:uuid:70478506-9414-4d53-8ba7-1146253c95b6> | {
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Being declared a saint is one of the Vatican's highest honors -- but sainthood is hardly a tenured position.
The Catholic Church removed 93 saints from the universal calendar and revoked their feast days in 1969 when Pope Paul VI revised the canon of saints and determined that some of the names had only ever been alive as legends or not enough was known about them to determine their status.
But they weren’t actually de-sainted, just downgraded, said Christopher Bellito, a history professor at Kean University.
Two Women Helped Put Pope John Paul II on the Path to Sainthood
"The purpose was to clean up a crowded liturgical calendar,” he said. "They decided to remove particular feast days of those saints whose origins were shrouded in more mystery than manuscripts."
As the Vatican prepares to elevate Popes John XXIII and John Paul II on Sunday, here’s a look of some famous demoted saints:
Among Catholicism’s most popular saints, Christopher was listed as a martyr.
Legend had it he carried a child who grew increasingly heavy across a river -- the child was supposed to be carrying the weight of God.
But there wasn’t enough historical evidence the man ever existed, so Pope Paul VI dropped him.
Saint Ursula suffered a similar fate when the Catholic Church decided she was only a myth. She is thought to have been the leader of a group of virgins who were murdered at Cologne.
Ursula was also a princess whose father had arranged for her to marry a powerful pagan king.
Who can forget Saint Nicholas, the man who gave us the story of Santa Claus?
He was also known for his extreme generosity and only eating on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Saint George is remembered as a brave martyr -- often depicted as a hero slaying a dragon in paintings.
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Armenia story place essays images
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city, Honolulu county, central Oahu island, Hawaii, U.S. Lying 22 miles (35 km) northwest of Honolulu, it is situated on the 1,000-foot- (300-metre-) high Leilehua Plateau between the two forks of the Kaukonahua Stream. The area was once used as a training ground for Oahu warriors, and from at least the 14th century it was considered a sacred place where royal mothers went to give birth to ensure the status of their children; Kukaniloko Birthstones State Monument marks the location of this ancient site. Founded in 1898, the city of Wahiawa (Hawaiian: "Place of Noise") is a commercial centre for nearby plantation communities and military installations (Schofield Barracks and Wheeler Army Airfield). Pineapples are the area's leading crop. Popular tourist sites include the 27-acre (11-hectare) Wahiawa Botanical Garden and the Dole Pineapple Pavilion, which features a pineapple garden maze and a garden with several varieties of pineapples. Pop. (1990) 17,386; (2000) 16,151.
Learn more about Wahiawa with a free trial on Britannica.com. | <urn:uuid:620e7174-f81a-48e5-929c-c9190acbef7c> | {
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What to Do for CO Safety
What to Do in the Event of a CO Leak
If your CO alarm activates, you should always assume CO has been detected in your home. A loud alarm is a warning that unusually high and potentially lethal levels of CO are present. Never ignore this alarm as further exposure could be fatal. Immediately check residents for symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning (see product manual), and contact the proper authorities to resolve all CO problems. NEVER IGNORE ANY ALARM.
What to Do During a CO Alarm
◆ Keep calm and open the doors and windows to ventilate the property.
◆ Stop using all fuel-burning appliances and ensure, if possible, that they are turned off.
◆ Evacuate the property leaving the doors and windows open.
◆ Ring your gas or other fuel supplier on their emergency number; keep the number in a prominent place.
◆ Do not re-enter the property until the alarm has stopped. When exposed to fresh air, it can take up to 10 minutes for the sensor to clear and the alarm to stop, depending on the level of CO detected.
◆ Get medical help immediately for anyone suffering the effects of carbon monoxide poisoning (headache, nausea, drowsiness), and advise that carbon monoxide poisoning is suspected.
◆ Do not use the appliances again until they have been checked by an expert. Contact a Gas Safe-registered engineer in the case of a malfunctioned gas appliance. | <urn:uuid:0d1fc5b3-fbb6-4cf0-b2e1-e94e10e7b3c1> | {
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March 5, 1963 Noted country music vocalist and Virginia native, Patsy Cline, dies in an airplane crash in Tennessee. She is buried at Shenandoah Memorial Park in Winchester.
March 7, 1956 In an attempt to circumvent the U.S. Supreme Court's desegregation ruling, a constitutional convention in Virginia amends the state's laws to permit the payment of public funds for tuition to parents who send their children to private, segregated schools.
March 9, 1862 The first battle of ironclad ships takes place in the waterways of Hampton Roads when the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia (Merrimac) engage in a five-hour fight that ends in a draw.
March 12, 1612 England's King James I issues the third charter of the Virginia Company of London. This charter remained in force until May 1624, when the company was dissolved and Virginia became a royal colony.
March 12, 1956 In response to the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, 101 southern members of Congress draft the Declaration of Constitutional Principles, popularly known as the "Southern Manifesto," pledging to "use all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation."
March 16, 1751 James Madison is born near Port Conway in King George County. Madison served as the fourth president of the United States and was the primary author of the U.S. Constitution.
March 16, 1861 Texas governor Sam Houston is removed from office for refusing to take the Confederate oath of allegiance. Robert E. Lee, a U.S. Army officer stationed in Texas, is ordered out of the state after its secession. Houston and Lee are both native Virginians.
March 21, 1617 Pocahontas dies while visiting England. She became ill as her ship left London for Virginia, and she died of an unknown illness. She is buried at St. George's Church in Gravesend.
March 22, 1622 Powhatan Native Americans stage an uprising on Good Friday in which more than 300 English settlers are killed.
March 23, 1775 Patrick Henry delivers his famous speech "Give me liberty or give me death" at Henrico Parish, now named St. John's Church, in Richmond.
March 23-24, 1849 Henry "Box" Brown, a Virginia slave, escapes from Richmond to Philadelphia by mailing himself in a shipping crate. In a trip that lasted twenty-six hours, Brown was transported by train, boat, and wagon.
March 29, 1901 Fire levels much of the Jefferson Hotel in Richmond. It is not fully refurbished until 1907.
March 30, 1791 President George Washington issues a proclamation to establish a permanent seat for the U.S. government on the Potomac River, on land ceded by both Virginia and Maryland. The nation's new capital site is called the District of Columbia. | <urn:uuid:baaf4efe-137a-49a1-8f32-1e0443c615be> | {
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That’s not to say that radon isn’t real, because it is. It’s also invisible, odorless and deadly.
In fact, more people die from radon exposure than car crashes, accidental falls and house fires combined.
Want to see the chart? Radon health risk
So why worry?
For the same reason you don’t worry about getting hit by a train. At some point in your life someone convinced you that playing on railroad tracks was a bad idea. Do you remember? You were probably pretty young. A lot of people warned you with stories and pictures about the dire consequences of disregarding safety warnings. Remember “Stop, look and listen”? (Okay, so I also played on the tracts, but that’s not the point.)
My point is that if you did just a couple of things, you can rest assured that high radon levels are not, and will not be an issue in your home.
- Test to see if the radon levels in your home are high.
- Lower the levels if they are.
Well, sort of. The EPA says that you should re-test every couple years, or if you remodel or before or after the house is sold, but you take my point. Want to know what folks in England say about radon? Click UK radon stuff
But first, some basics.
Like, what is radon?
Radon is a radioactive gas that is formed when uranium in the soil disintegrates. It gets drawn into the house because has a very slight vacuum. The vacuum is caused by a “stack effect”, where warm air rises to the top of the house.
Why is it deadly?
Radon breaks down (decays) and form “radon decay products” (RDP). As it decays from one form to another, Alpha rays are emitted. In that form, they cause damage to human and animals.
But if you breath them into your lungs at just the right moment, it could damage the tender cells and start cancer cells. If asbestos and/or smoke gets in your lungs, it’s the same potential result, but when combined the result is pretty much a sure thing, lung cancer.
Is there a safe level?
No. But lower levels are a lot better. Why? Imagine playing darts while wearing a blindfold. (I don’t have to imagine. I’m the reason why Peter Liberko looks the way he does. Sorry, Pete.) If you had one dart, you probably couldn’t hit the bull’s eye. But if you had a thousand (or a million) darts, and 24 hours a day for several years, you might. Then again you might not hit the bull’s eve. That’s where statistics come in.
Lets get to the point, what needs to be done to lower the levels?
This part is easy, and not too pricy. A mitigating company (make sure they’re certified), drills a hole in your basement floor, and runs a pipe from the soil below (where the uranium is) through the roof, where won’t bother you any more. They use a small fan, about the size (and about as loud) as the fan in your laptop computer. The fan should be in the attic, in case the fan housing ever gets cracked. The cost goes from $1,000 to $4,000, usually around $1,500.
A lot of people have a short (2-day) test when they buy the house, because the seller might be inclined to help cover the cost of mitigation.
Having said that, a longer test will be more accurate, because there are more hours to sample. You can get a kit at the home center. Be sure to follow the instructions exactly or hire a home inspector to have the testing done for you.
Further information about radon in the home is provided and can be found by Googling the EPA. | <urn:uuid:ec86b2bf-387d-4dbb-af5b-5810381c9bf5> | {
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“Caretaker status” means all non-essential staff will be sent home and planned research cancelled. The stations will only be staffed enough “to ensure human safety and preserve government property, including the three primary research stations, ships and associated research facilities.” USAP received its last round of funding on Sept. 30. It expects to run out of cash by Oct. 14.
The ramifications of this decision are enormous. Even if the US government comes back online soon after, not all of USAP’s work will recommence: “some activities cannot be restarted once seasonally dependent windows for research and operations have passed,” the agency said. Expeditions to hostile environments such as Antarctica are carefully planned years in advance and do not take well to last-minute changes.
Second, many projects that involve field work at the south pole are several-year-long efforts, such as a 20-year-census of Adélie penguins. A year of missing data renders the whole data set incomplete, or even useless. For work on climate change, missing data makes it much harder for scientists to make their case to an already skeptical global audience. And much money that has been spent in preparation for the upcoming research season would effectively go to waste.
The fallout is not restricted just to American operations. The third major effect of a shutdown of U.S. bases in Antarctica would be on other countries that rely on American infrastructure such as helicopters and runways. In the short run that means polar researchers—and penguins—will spend a quieter summer than they would have liked. But the more lasting effects of the U.S. government shutdown could show up in historical data sets for centuries to come.
This article available online at: | <urn:uuid:d648fd00-6057-4f17-ab42-3b5f1ade0192> | {
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Table of Contents
Using the smart drug Modafinil to study is becoming increasingly common in academia. There has been increased interest in this drug due to widespread reports of everyone from White House staff members to Silicon Valley entrepreneurs using Modafinil (Provigil) for the purposes of enhancing their cognitive faculties and allow them to work for extended amounts of time.
Is it safe to take Modalert for memory, learning, and other academic pursuits?
Like many other drugs, a medication that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved for one purpose can potentially provide other benefits to patients. Even if the drug has not been approved by the FDA for the other purposes, physicians can at their discretion still prescribe the medication for those “off-label” benefits.
For thousands of years, all different kinds of people have searched for drugs as well as other substances to increase their mental powers and memory. There are some health care professionals who believe that when Modafinil is used for memory it provides excellent benefits that help to foster recall and learning.
Others believe that the drug might have side effects that relate to withdrawal and tolerance. When coffee isn’t sufficient some individuals are tempted to use cognition enhancers.
How It Works:
- Enhances energy, motivation, and focus
- Promotes processing and mental acuity
- Stimulate wakefulness inside of the brain
- Dosage: Between 100 to 200 mg daily
- Safety Some side effects have been reported
History and Uses of Modafinil (Provigil)
A French professor by the name of Michel Jouvet created Modafinil during the 1970s. Modafinil is actually a general form of Provigil – a brand name product.
In 1986 Modafinil was used experimentally for treating narcolepsy and was approved by the FDA in 1998 for the disorder. Modafinil, as a type of wakefulness-promoting agent, is used for treating excessive daytime sleepiness that is associated with narcolepsy
Another thing that Modafinil is prescribed for is hypopnea syndrome/sleep apnea (OSAHS). The medication is taken by others in pill form for treating shift work sleep disorder.
Given the fact that the drug was first approved by the FDA for treating narcolepsy, it has been increasingly prescribed by physicians as off-label for addressing issues including depression, multiple sclerosis, attention span, and memory.
People without sleep disorders who take the drug think that it improves numerous mental functions. There are some students that also view it as a so-called “study drug” and buy it to improve their academic success and boost their test scores.
Modafinil for Studying
Although it has not been indicated officially for those effects, there is evidence that suggests that when the medication is prescribed as Provigil in healthy people it can enhance cognition. Cognition enhancing drugs improve mental functions such as planning, making decisions, perception, memory, language, learning, and attention.
Modafinil’s exact action mechanism is not known. Research studies have not shown it to act as a stimulant drug, and it also doesn’t activate the body’s sympathetic nervous system.
Modafinil in numerous research studies has been shown to affect various neurotransmitter and hormone systems within the brain, including Glutamate, GABA, Serotonin, and catecholamines (i.e. Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Dopamine).
A 2007 review of earlier studies found that Modafinil use, in general, displayed cognitive enhancement specifically in episodic and working memory areas. Researchers from a different review where 24 different studies were analyzed from 1990 through 2014 stated that it was suggested by the body of evidence that Modafinil might affect executive and higher cognitive functions, particularly when difficult or complex tasks were being completed.
It was concluded by a German clinical trial that Provigil produced “subtle” benefits to boost memory. A lot of the information that suggested that major memory improvements are created by the drug have been relayed by word of mouth.
It appears that Modafinil improves concentration and helps an individual remain focused on a specific task. However, it doesn’t appear to directly affect memory’s physiology if the person is not sleep deprived.
For people who have poor memories or are lacking in sufficient sleep, there seems to be a greater improvement when Modafinil is considered for learning and memory activities. That is why so many students attempt to obtain Modafinil to take when studying for a major exam.
The greatest improvement takes place in the short-term span of verbal memory. It is suggested by studies that some individuals show improved visual memory and spatial planning.
Research Into Modafinil’s Effects
There was an informal survey conducted that included 1,400 participants who stated they had taken Ritalin, Provigil, or beta-blockers in order to stimulate their concentration, focus, or memory.
Out of the group, 44 percent had taken Provigil. The satisfied users had either purchased it online or obtained the medication via prescription for off-label purposes.
It has been concluded by some small studies that Modafinil slows an individual down instead of increasing cognitive abilities. There was a double-blind placebo-controlled study with 64 volunteer subjects that were considered to be healthy and young. Modafinil was taken by half of the subject. The other half were given a placebo. Afterward, they all took sentence completion and reading tests.
Although the two groups of subjects had results that were fairly equal, it those who took Modafinil a bit longer to answer the test questions. That suggested that although alertness is improved by the drug in some individual, it doesn’t necessarily mean their performance was improved.
Due to limited evidence on the effectiveness of Waklert 150 and its other stronger forms in treating memory issues that are linked to attention deficits, the drug is considered to be an alternative treatment for certain conditions like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and attention deficit disorder (ADD).
Some individuals with ADHD who were prescribed Ritalin or Adderall and who experienced negative side effects might be interested in speaking to their doctor about having Modafinil prescribed for the off-label use. In the United States, there are more prescriptions written for off-label users than approved on-label uses.
How Modafinil Affects Memory and Focus
To date, researchers have not been able to precisely isolate how brain functions are affected by the drug that involves cognitive processes.
Neuropharmacology is the study of medications interacting with brain neurons involving sensation, thinking, behavior, and mood. There has been a great deal of interest in studying the brain and modafinil.
Although it is still not known what the exact action mechanism is, numerous research believe that the drug’s activity centers within the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus, the amygdala’s central nucleus, and the subregions of the hippocampus. A couple of animal studies have suggested that modafinil is capable of boosting glutaminergic transmission within the thalamus and hippocampus.
Modafinil’s effects, unlike amphetamines as well as other stimulants affecting the central nervous system, do not appear to be mediated by dopamine, which is a neurotransmitter.
Modafinil is called a nootropic drug. It is referred to as a so-called smart drug as well. These drugs increase an individual’s motivation, learning abilities, memory, and attention. Those who advocate all-label usage of this medication state that it improves an individual’s performance who is suffering from not enough sleep or who is fatigued. Many looked for cheaper meathods of getting their modafinil needs, and many have found satisfaction in Modvigil as a great alternative.
The way the medication works has not been extensive research to the point that scientists can list all of the various factors that govern the way it operates. It is suggested by some research that it affects memory and learning by changing the levels of histamine within the central nervous system, which results in elevated locomotor and histamine activity.
Using Modafinil to study is very appealing to college students who think that it helps them focus intently on their academic work. It allows them to sustain cognitive levels that are higher than normal while sleeping significantly less. It is an example of where a medication that is designed for treating a disorder being used by healthy individuals for other reasons.
Modafinil for Studying Side Effects and Dosage
Since taking Modafinil to study is an off-label usage, there are no recommended dosages that are available. For prescribed conditions like shift work disorder and narcolepsy individuals frequently take 200 mg per day.
Reviews from individuals who use Modafinil for other reasons often start with a lower dosage of about 100 mg and increase their dosage up to 200 mg per day as necessary.
Although MOdafinil might be used by some people on a regular or daily basis, most individuals state that they don’t take it every single day. Instead, they take a dose whenever they need it to study for an exam or for a very busy day at work.
For users that do not relate to sleep disorders, many individuals take their dosage early on in the day, since Modafinil promotes wakefulness. When it is taken later on in the day and too close to going to bed it may cause insomnia.
The FDA has approved Modafinil for use as a drug in adults. The FDA has not approved its use in children.
There was a study conducted on the use of a form of Modafinil called Sparlon to improve attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children. A severe mucous membrane and skin side effect called Stevens-Johnson syndrome was seen potentially in a small percentage of the study participants. Since that time it has not been recommended for use in children.
The most common side effects experienced by adults when taking Modafinil are nervousness, nausea, headaches, and anxiety. More serious and rare side effects include rash (might be a sign of having Stevens-Johnson syndrome), peeling, severe skin blistering, muscle weakness, pain, numbness, severe tingling, and vomiting. If you are experiencing any of these side effects, see your doctor. | <urn:uuid:c77aed5c-d4c0-464a-8ac9-c4d43a1e4d1f> | {
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The Freedmen's Bureau
by W. E. Burghardt Du Bois
The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line; the relation of the darker to the lighter races of men in Asia and Africa, in America and the islands of the sea. It was a phase of this problem that caused the Civil War; and however much they who marched south and north in 1861 may have fixed on the technical points of union and local autonomy as a shibboleth, all nevertheless knew, as we know, that the question of Negro slavery was the deeper cause of the conflict. Curious it was, too, how this deeper question ever forced itself to the surface, despite effort and disclaimer. No sooner had Northern armies touched Southern soil than this old question, newly guised, sprang from the earth,—What shall be done with slaves? Peremptory military commands, this way and that, could not answer the query; the Emancipation Proclamation seemed but to broaden and intensify the difficulties; and so at last there arose in the South a government of men called the Freedmen's Bureau, which lasted, legally, from 1865 to 1872, but in a sense from 1861 to 1876, and which sought to settle the Negro problems in the United States of America.
It is the aim of this essay to study the Freedmen's Bureau,—the occasion of its rise, the character of its work, and its final success and failure,—not only as a part of American history, but above all as one of the most singular and interesting of the attempts made by a great nation to grapple with vast problems of race and social condition.
No sooner had the armies, east and west, penetrated Virginia and Tennessee than fugitive slaves appeared within their lines. They came at night, when the flickering camp fires of the blue hosts shone like vast unsteady stars along the black horizon: old men, and thin, with gray and tufted hair; women with frightened eyes, dragging whimpering, hungry children; men and girls, stalwart and gaunt,—a horde of starving vagabonds, homeless, helpless, and pitiable in their dark distress. Two methods of treating these newcomers seemed equally logical to opposite sorts of minds. Said some, "We have nothing to do with slaves." "Hereafter," commanded Halleck, "no slaves should be allowed to come into your lines at all; if any come without your knowledge, when owners call for them, deliver them." But others said, "We take grain and fowl; why not slaves?" Whereupon Fremont, as early as August, 1861, declared the slaves of Missouri rebels free. Such radical action was quickly countermanded, but at the same time the opposite policy could not be enforced; some of the black refugees declared themselves freemen, others showed their masters had deserted them, and still others were captured with forts and plantations. Evidently, too, slaves were a source of strength to the Confederacy, and were being used as laborers and producers. "They constitute a military resource," wrote the Secretary of War, late in 1861; "and being such, that they should not be turned over to the enemy is too plain to discuss." So the tone of the army chiefs changed, Congress forbade the rendition of fugitives, and Butler's "contrabands" were welcomed as military laborers. This complicated rather than solved the problem; for now the scattering fugitives became a steady stream, which flowed faster as the armies marched.
Then the long-headed man, with care-chiseled face, who sat in the White House, saw the inevitable, and emancipated the slaves of rebels on New Year's, 1863. A month later Congress called earnestly for the Negro soldiers whom the act of July, 1862, had half grudgingly allowed to enlist. Thus the barriers were leveled, and the deed was done. The stream of fugitives swelled to a flood, and anxious officers kept inquiring: "What must be done with slaves arriving almost daily? Am I to find food and shelter for women and children?"
It was a Pierce of Boston who pointed out the way, and thus became in a sense the founder of the Freedmen's Bureau. Being specially detailed from the ranks to care for the freedmen at Fortress Monroe, he afterward founded the celebrated Port Royal experiment and started the Freedmen's Aid Societies. Thus, under the timid Treasury officials and bold army officers, Pierce's plan widened and developed. At first, the able-bodied men were enlisted as soldiers or hired as laborers, the women and children were herded into central camps under guard, and "superintendents of contrabands" multiplied here and there. Centres of massed freedmen arose at Fortress Monroe, Va., Washington, D. C., Beaufort and Port Royal, S. C., New Orleans, La., Vicksburg and Corinth, Miss., Columbus, Ky., Cairo, Ill., and elsewhere, and the army chaplains found here new and fruitful fields.
Then came the Freedmen's Aid Societies, born of the touching appeals for relief and help from these centres of distress. There was the American Missionary Association, sprung from the Amistad, and now full grown for work, the various church organizations, the National Freedmen's Relief Association, the American Freedmen's Union, the Western Freedmen's Aid Commission,—in all fifty or more active organizations, which sent clothes, money, school- books, and teachers southward. All they did was needed, for the destitution of the freedmen was often reported as "too appalling for belief," and the situation was growing daily worse rather than better.
And daily, too, it seemed more plain that this was no ordinary matter of temporary relief, but a national crisis; for here loomed a labor problem of vast dimensions. Masses of Negroes stood idle, or, if they worked spasmodically, were never sure of pay; and if perchance they received pay, squandered the new thing thoughtlessly. In these and in other ways were camp life and the new liberty demoralizing the freedmen. The broader economic organization thus clearly demanded sprang up here and there as accident and local conditions determined. Here again Pierce's Port Royal plan of leased plantations and guided workmen pointed out the rough way. In Washington, the military governor, at the urgent appeal of the superintendent, opened confiscated estates to the cultivation of the fugitives, and there in the shadow of the dome gathered black farm villages. General Dix gave over estates to the freedmen of Fortress Monroe, and so on through the South. The government and the benevolent societies furnished the means of cultivation, and the Negro turned again slowly to work. The systems of control, thus started, rapidly grew, here and there, into strange little governments, like that of General Banks in Louisiana, with its 90,000 black subjects, its 50,000 guided laborers, and its annual budget of $100,000 and more. It made out 4000 pay rolls, registered all freedmen, inquired into grievances and redressed them, laid and collected taxes, and established a system of public schools. So too Colonel Eaton, the superintendent of Tennessee and Arkansas, ruled over 100,000, leased and cultivated 7000 acres of cotton land, and furnished food for 10,000 paupers. In South Carolina was General Saxton, with his deep interest in black folk. He succeeded Pierce and the Treasury officials, and sold forfeited estates, leased abandoned plantations, encouraged schools, and received from Sherman, after the terribly picturesque march to the sea, thousands of the wretched camp followers.
Three characteristic things one might have seen in Sherman's raid through Georgia, which threw the new situation in deep and shadowy relief: the Conqueror, the Conquered, and the Negro. Some see all significance in the grim front of the destroyer, and some in the bitter sufferers of the lost cause. But to me neither soldier nor fugitive speaks with so deep a meaning as that dark and human cloud that clung like remorse on the rear of those swift columns, swelling at times to half their size, almost engulfing and choking them. In vain were they ordered back, in vain were bridges hewn from beneath their feet; on they trudged and writhed and surged, until they rolled into Savannah, a starved and naked horde of tens of thousands. There too came the characteristic military remedy: "The islands from Charleston south, the abandoned ricefields along the rivers for thirty miles back from the sea, and the country bordering the St. John's River, Florida, are reserved and set apart for the settlement of Negroes now made free by act of war." So read the celebrated field order.
All these experiments, orders, and systems were bound to attract and perplex the government and the nation. Directly after the Emancipation Proclamation, Representative Eliot had introduced a bill creating a Bureau of Emancipation, but it was never reported. The following June, a committee of inquiry, appointed by the Secretary of War, reported in favor of a temporary bureau for the "improvement, protection, and employment of refugee freedmen," on much the same lines as were afterward followed. Petitions came in to President Lincoln from distinguished citizens and organizations, strongly urging a comprehensive and unified plan of dealing with the freedmen, under a bureau which should be "charged with the study of plans and execution of measures for easily guiding, and in every way judiciously and humanely aiding, the passage of our emancipated and yet to be emancipated blacks from the old condition of forced labor to their new state of voluntary industry."
Some half-hearted steps were early taken by the government to put both freedmen and abandoned estates under the supervision of the Treasury officials. Laws of 1863 and 1864 directed them to take charge of and lease abandoned lands for periods not exceeding twelve months, and to "provide in such leases or otherwise for the employment and general welfare" of the freedmen. Most of the army officers looked upon this as a welcome relief from perplexing "Negro affairs;" but the Treasury hesitated and blundered, and although it leased large quantities of land and employed many Negroes, especially along the Mississippi, yet it left the virtual control of the laborers and their relations to their neighbors in the hands of the army.
In March, 1864, Congress at last turned its attention to the subject, and the House passed a bill, by a majority of two, establishing a Bureau for Freedmen in the War Department. Senator Sumner, who had charge of the bill in the Senate, argued that freedmen and abandoned lands ought to be under the same department, and reported a substitute for the House bill, attaching the Bureau to the Treasury Department. This bill passed, but too late for action in the House. The debate wandered over the whole policy of the administration and the general question of slavery, without touching very closely the specific merits of the measure in hand.
Meantime the election took place, and the administration, returning from the country with a vote of renewed confidence, addressed itself to the matter more seriously. A conference between the houses agreed upon a carefully drawn measure which contained the chief provisions of Charles Sumner's bill, but made the proposed organization a department independent of both the War and Treasury officials. The bill was conservative, giving the new department "general superintendence of all freedmen." It was to "establish regulations" for them, protect them, lease them lands, adjust their wages, and appear in civil and military courts as their "next friend." There were many limitations attached to the powers thus granted, and the organization was made permanent. Nevertheless, the Senate defeated the bill, and a new conference committee was appointed. This committee reported a new bill, February 28, which was whirled through just as the session closed, and which became the act of 1865 establishing in the War Department a "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands."
This last compromise was a hasty bit of legislation, vague and uncertain in outline. A Bureau was created, "to continue during the present War of Rebellion, and for one year thereafter," to which was given "the supervision and management of all abandoned lands, and the control of all subjects relating to refugees and freedmen," under "such rules and regulations as may be presented by the head of the Bureau and approved by the President." A commissioner, appointed by the President and Senate, was to control the Bureau, with an office force not exceeding ten clerks. The President might also appoint commissioners in the seceded states, and to all these offices military officials might be detailed at regular pay. The Secretary of War could issue rations, clothing, and fuel to the destitute, and all abandoned property was placed in the hands of the Bureau for eventual lease and sale to ex-slaves in forty-acre parcels.
Thus did the United States government definitely assume charge of the emancipated Negro as the ward of the nation. It was a tremendous undertaking. Here, at a stroke of the pen, was erected a government of millions of men,—and not ordinary men, either, but black men emasculated by a peculiarly complete system of slavery, centuries old; and now, suddenly, violently, they come into a new birthright, at a time of war and passion, in the midst of the stricken, embittered population of their former masters. Any man might well have hesitated to assume charge of such a work, with vast responsibilities, indefinite powers, and limited resources. Probably no one but a soldier would have answered such a call promptly; and indeed no one but a soldier could be called, for Congress had appropriated no money for salaries and expenses.
Less than a month after the weary emancipator passed to his rest, his successor assigned Major General Oliver O. Howard to duty as commissioner of the new Bureau. He was a Maine man, then only thirty-five years of age. He had marched with Sherman to the sea, had fought well at Gettysburg, and had but a year before been assigned to the command of the Department of Tennessee. An honest and sincere men, with rather too much faith in human nature, little aptitude for systematic business and intricate detail, he was nevertheless conservative, hard-working, and, above all, acquainted at first-hand with much of the work before him. And of that work it has been truly said, "No approximately correct history of civilization can ever be written which does not throw out in bold relief, as one of the great landmarks of political and social progress, the organization and administration of the Freedmen's Bureau."
On May 12, 1865, Howard was appointed, and he assumed the duties of his office promptly on the 15th, and began examining the field of work. A curious mess he looked upon: little despotisms, communistic experiments, slavery, peonage, business speculations, organized charity, unorganized almsgiving,—all reeling on under the guise of helping the freedman, and all enshrined in the smoke and blood of war and the cursing and silence of angry men. On May 19 the new government—for a government it really was—issued its constitution; commissioners were to be appointed in each of the seceded states, who were to take charge of "all subjects relating to refugees and freedmen," and all relief and rations were to be given by their consent alone. The Bureau invited continued cooperation with benevolent societies, and declared, "It will be the object of all commissioners to introduce practicable systems of compensated labor," and to establish schools. Forthwith nine assistant commissioners were appointed. They were to hasten to their fields of work; seek gradually to close relief establishments, and make the destitute self-supporting; act as courts of law where there were no courts, or where Negroes were not recognized in them as free; establish the institution of marriage among ex-slaves, and keep records; see that freedmen were free to choose their employers, and help in making fair contracts for them; and finally, the circular said, "Simple good faith, for which we hope on all hands for those concerned in the passing away of slavery, will especially relieve the assistant commissioners in the discharge of their duties toward the freedmen, as well as promote the general welfare."
No sooner was the work thus started, and the general system and local organization in some measure begun, than two grave difficulties appeared which changed largely the theory and outcome of Bureau work. First, there were the abandoned lands of the South. It had long been the more or less definitely expressed theory of the North that all the chief problems of emancipation might be settled by establishing the slaves on the forfeited lands of their masters,—a sort of poetic justice, said some. But this poetry done into solemn prose meant either wholesale confiscation of private property in the South, or vast appropriations. Now Congress had not appropriated a cent, and no sooner did the proclamations of general amnesty appear than the 800,000 acres of abandoned lands in the hands of the Freedmen's Bureau melted quickly away. The second difficulty lay in perfecting the local organization of the Bureau throughout the wide field of work. Making a new machine and sending out officials of duly ascertained fitness for a great work of social reform is no child's task; but this task was even harder, for a new central organization had to be fitted on a heterogeneous and confused but already existing system of relief and control of ex-slaves; and the agents available for this work must be sought for in an army still busy with war operations,—men in the very nature of the case ill fitted for delicate social work,—or among the questionable camp followers of an invading host. Thus, after a year's work, vigorously as it was pushed, the problem looked even more difficult to grasp and solve than at the beginning. Nevertheless, three things that year's work did, well worth the doing: it relieved a vast amount of physical suffering; it transported 7000 fugitives from congested centres back to the farm; and, best of all, it inaugurated the crusade of the New England schoolma'am.
The annals of this Ninth Crusade are yet to be written, the tale of a mission that seemed to our age far more quixotic than the quest of St. Louis seemed to his. Behind the mists of ruin and rapine waved the calico dresses of women who dared, and after the hoarse mouthings of the field guns rang the rhythm of the alphabet. Rich and poor they were, serious and curious. Bereaved now of a father, now of a brother, now of more than these, they came seeking a life work in planting New England schoolhouses among the white and black of the South. They did their work well. In that first year they taught 100,000 souls, and more.
Evidently, Congress must soon legislate again on the hastily organized Bureau, which had so quickly grown into wide significance and vast possibilities. An institution such as that was well-nigh as difficult to end as to begin. Early in 1866 Congress took up the matter, when Senator Trumbull, of Illinois, introduced a bill to extend the Bureau and enlarge its powers. This measure received, at the hands of Congress, far more thorough discussion and attention than its predecessor. The war cloud had thinned enough to allow a clearer conception of the work of emancipation. The champions of the bill argued that the strengthening of the Freedmen's Bureau was still a military necessity; that it was needed for the proper carrying out of the Thirteenth Amendment, and was a work of sheer justice to the ex- slave, at a trifling cost to the government. The opponents of the measure declared that the war was over, and the necessity for war measures past; that the Bureau, by reason of its extraordinary powers, was clearly unconstitutional in time of peace, and was destined to irritate the South and pauperize the freedmen, at a final cost of possibly hundreds of millions. Two of these arguments were unanswered, and indeed unanswerable: the one that the extraordinary powers of the Bureau threatened the civil rights of all citizens; and the other that the government must have power to do what manifestly must be done, and that present abandonment of the freedmen meant their practical enslavement. The bill which finally passed enlarged and made permanent the Freedmen's Bureau. It was promptly vetoed by President Johnson, as "unconstitutional," "unnecessary," and "extrajudicial," and failed of passage over the veto. Meantime, however, the breach between Congress and the President began to broaden, and a modified form of the lost bill was finally passed over the President's second veto, July 16.
The act of 1866 gave the Freedmen's Bureau its final form,—the form by which it will be known to posterity and judged of men. It extended the existence of the Bureau to July, 1868; it authorized additional assistant commissioners, the retention of army officers mustered out of regular service, the sale of certain forfeited lands to freedmen on nominal terms, the sale of Confederate public property for Negro schools, and a wider field of judicial interpretation and cognizance. The government of the un- reconstructed South was thus put very largely in the hands of the Freedmen's Bureau, especially as in many cases the departmental military commander was now made also assistant commissioner. It was thus that the Freedmen's Bureau became a full-fledged government of men. It made laws, executed them and interpreted them; it laid and collected taxes, defined and punished crime, maintained and used military force, and dictated such measures as it thought necessary and proper for the accomplishment of its varied ends. Naturally, all these powers were not exercised continuously nor to their fullest extent; and yet, as General Howard has said, "scarcely any subject that has to be legislated upon in civil society failed, at one time or another, to demand the action of this singular Bureau."
To understand and criticise intelligently so vast a work, one must not forget an instant the drift of things in the later sixties: Lee had surrendered, Lincoln was dead, and Johnson and Congress were at loggerheads; the Thirteenth Amendment was adopted, the Fourteenth pending, and the Fifteenth declared in force in 1870. Guerrilla raiding, the ever present flickering after-flame of war, was spending its force against the Negroes, and all the Southern land was awakening as from some wild dream to poverty and social revolution. In a time of perfect calm, amid willing neighbors and streaming wealth, the social uplifting of 4,000,000 slaves to an assured and self-sustaining place in the body politic and economic would have been an herculean task; but when to the inherent difficulties of so delicate and nice a social operation were added the spite and hate of conflict, the Hell of War; when suspicion and cruelty were rife, and gaunt Hunger wept beside Bereavement,— in such a case, the work of any instrument of social regeneration was in large part foredoomed to failure. The very name of the Bureau stood for a thing in the South which for two centuries and better men had refused even to argue,—that life amid free Negroes was simply unthinkable, the maddest of experiments. The agents which the Bureau could command varied all the way from unselfish philanthropists to narrow-minded busybodies and thieves; and even though it be true that the average was far better than the worst, it was the one fly that helped to spoil the ointment. Then, amid all this crouched the freed slave, bewildered between friend and foe. He had emerged from slavery: not the worst slavery in the world, not a slavery that made all life unbearable,—rather, a slavery that had here and there much of kindliness, fidelity, and happiness,—but withal slavery, which, so far as human aspiration and desert were concerned, classed the black man and the ox together. And the Negro knew full well that, whatever their deeper convictions may have been, Southern men had fought with desperate energy to perpetuate this slavery, under which the black masses, with half-articulate thought, had writhed and shivered. They welcomed freedom with a cry. They fled to the friends that had freed them. They shrank from the master who still strove for their chains. So the cleft between the white and black South grew. Idle to say it never should have been; it was as inevitable as its results were pitiable. Curiously incongruous elements were left arrayed against each other: the North, the government, the carpetbagger, and the slave, here; and there, all the South that was white, whether gentleman or vagabond, honest man or rascal, lawless murderer or martyr to duty.
Thus it is doubly difficult to write of this period calmly, so intense was the feeling, so mighty the human passions, that swayed and blinded men. Amid it all two figures ever stand to typify that day to coming men: the one a gray-haired gentleman, whose fathers had quit themselves like men, whose sons lay in nameless graves, who bowed to the evil of slavery because its abolition boded untold ill to all; who stood at last, in the evening of life, a blighted, ruined form, with hate in his eyes. And the other, a form hovering dark and mother-like, her awful face black with the mists of centuries, had aforetime bent in love over her white master's cradle, rocked his sons and daughters to sleep, and closed in death the sunken eyes of his wife to the world; ay, too, had laid herself low to his lust and borne a tawny man child to the world, only to see her dark boy's limbs scattered to the winds by midnight marauders riding after Damned Niggers. These were the saddest sights of that woeful day; and no man clasped the hands of these two passing figures of the present-past; but hating they went to their long home, and hating their children's children live to-day.
Here, then, was the field of work for the Freedmen's Bureau; and since, with some hesitation, it was continued by the act of 1868 till 1869, let us look upon four years of its work as a whole. There were, in 1868, 900 Bureau officials scattered from Washington to Texas, ruling, directly and indirectly, many millions of men. And the deeds of these rulers fall mainly under seven heads,—the relief of physical suffering, the overseeing of the beginnings of free labor, the buying and selling of land, the establishment of schools, the paying of bounties, the administration of justice, and the financiering of all these activities. Up to June, 1869, over half a million patients had been treated by Bureau physicians and surgeons, and sixty hospitals and asylums had been in operation. In fifty months of work 21,000,000 free rations were distributed at a cost of over $4,000,000,—beginning at the rate of 30,000 rations a day in 1865, and discontinuing in 1869. Next came the difficult question of labor. First, 30,000 black men were transported from the refuges and relief stations back to the farms, back to the critical trial of a new way of working. Plain, simple instructions went out from Washington,—the freedom of laborers to choose employers, no fixed rates of wages, no peonage or forced labor. So far so good; but where local agents differed toto coelo in capacity and character, where the personnel was continually changing, the outcome was varied. The largest element of success lay in the fact that the majority of the freedmen were willing, often eager, to work. So contracts were written,—50,000 in a single state,—laborers advised, wages guaranteed, and employers supplied. In truth, the organization became a vast labor bureau; not perfect, indeed,—notably defective here and there,—but on the whole, considering the situation, successful beyond the dreams of thoughtful men. The two great obstacles which confronted the officers at every turn were the tyrant and the idler: the slaveholder, who believed slavery was right, and was determined to perpetuate it under another name; and the freedman, who regarded freedom as perpetual rest. These were the Devil and the Deep Sea.
In the work of establishing the Negroes as peasant proprietors the Bureau was severely handicapped, as I have shown. Nevertheless, something was done. Abandoned lands were leased so long as they remained in the hands of the Bureau, and a total revenue of $400,000 derived from black tenants. Some other lands to which the nation had gained title were sold, and public lands were opened for the settlement of the few blacks who had tools and capital. The vision of landowning, however, the righteous and reasonable ambition for forty acres and a mule which filled the freedmen's dreams, was doomed in most cases to disappointment. And those men of marvelous hind-sight, who to-day are seeking to preach the Negro back to the soil, know well, or ought to know, that it was here, in 1865, that the finest opportunity of binding the black peasant to the soil was lost. Yet, with help and striving, the Negro gained some land, and by 1874, in the one state of Georgia, owned near 350,000 acres.
The greatest success of the Freedmen's Bureau lay in the planting of the free school among Negroes, and the idea of free elementary education among all classes in the South. It not only called the schoolmistress through the benevolent agencies, and built them schoolhouses, but it helped discover and support such apostles of human development as Edmund Ware, Erastus Cravath, and Samuel Armstrong. State superintendents of education were appointed, and by 1870 150,000 children were in school. The opposition to Negro education was bitter in the South, for the South believed an educated Negro to be a dangerous Negro. And the South was not wholly wrong; for education among all kinds of men always has had, and always will have, an element of danger and revolution, of dissatisfaction and discontent. Nevertheless, men strive to know. It was some inkling of this paradox, even in the unquiet days of the Bureau, that allayed an opposition to human training, which still to-day lies smouldering, but not flaming. Fisk, Atlanta, Howard, and Hampton were founded in these days, and nearly $6,000,000 was expended in five years for educational work, $750,000 of which came from the freedmen themselves.
Such contributions, together with the buying of land and various other enterprises, showed that the ex-slave was handling some free capital already. The chief initial source of this was labor in the army, and his pay and bounty as a soldier. Payments to Negro soldiers were at first complicated by the ignorance of the recipients, and the fact that the quotas of colored regiments from Northern states were largely filled by recruits from the South, unknown to their fellow soldiers. Consequently, payments were accompanied by such frauds that Congress, by joint resolution in 1867, put the whole matter in the hands of the Freedmen's Bureau. In two years $6,000,000 was thus distributed to 5000 claimants, and in the end the sum exceeded $8,000,000. Even in this system, fraud was frequent; but still the work put needed capital in the hands of practical paupers, and some, at least, was well spent.
The most perplexing and least successful part of the Bureau's work lay in the exercise of its judicial functions. In a distracted land where slavery had hardly fallen, to keep the strong from wanton abuse of the weak, and the weak from gloating insolently over the half-shorn strength of the strong, was a thankless, hopeless task. The former masters of the land were peremptorily ordered about, seized and imprisoned, and punished over and again, with scant courtesy from army officers. The former slaves were intimidated, beaten, raped, and butchered by angry and revengeful men. Bureau courts tended to become centres simply for punishing whites, while the regular civil courts tended to become solely institutions for perpetuating the slavery of blacks. Almost every law and method ingenuity could devise was employed by the legislatures to reduce the Negroes to serfdom,—to make them the slaves of the state, if not of individual owners; while the Bureau officials too often were found striving to put the "bottom rail on top," and give the freedmen a power and independence which they could not yet use. It is all well enough for us of another generation to wax wise with advice to those who bore the burden in the heat of the day. It is full easy now to see that the man who lost home, fortune, and family at a stroke, and saw his land ruled by "mules and niggers," was really benefited by the passing of slavery. It is not difficult now to say to the young freedman, cheated and cuffed about, who has seen his father's head beaten to a jelly and his own mother namelessly assaulted, that the meek shall inherit the earth. Above all, nothing is more convenient than to heap on the Freedmen's Bureau all the evils of that evil day, and damn it utterly for every mistake and blunder that was made.
All this is easy, but it is neither sensible nor just. Some one had blundered, but that was long before Oliver Howard was born; there was criminal aggression and heedless neglect, but without some system of control there would have been far more than there was. Had that control been from within, the Negro would have been reenslaved, to all intents and purposes. Coming as the control did from without, perfect men and methods would have bettered all things; and even with imperfect agents and questionable methods, the work accomplished was not undeserving of much commendation. The regular Bureau court consisted of one representative of the employer, one of the Negro, and one of the Bureau. If the Bureau could have maintained a perfectly judicial attitude, this arrangement would have been ideal, and must in time have gained confidence; but the nature of its other activities and the character of its personnel prejudiced the Bureau in favor of the black litigants, and led without doubt to much injustice and annoyance. On the other hand, to leave the Negro in the hands of Southern courts was impossible.
What the Freedmen's Bureau cost the nation is difficult to determine accurately. Its methods of bookkeeping were not good, and the whole system of its work and records partook of the hurry and turmoil of the time. General Howard himself disbursed some $15,000,000 during his incumbency; but this includes the bounties paid colored soldiers, which perhaps should not be counted as an expense of the Bureau. In bounties, prize money, and all other expenses, the Bureau disbursed over $20,000,000 before all of its departments were finally closed. To this ought to be added the large expenses of the various departments of Negro affairs before 1865; but these are hardly extricable from war expenditures, nor can we estimate with any accuracy the contributions of benevolent societies during all these years.
Such was the work of the Freedmen's Bureau. To sum it up in brief, we may say: it set going a system of free labor; it established the black peasant proprietor; it secured the recognition of black freemen before courts of law; it founded the free public school in the South. On the other hand, it failed to establish good will between ex-masters and freedmen; to guard its work wholly from paternalistic methods that discouraged self- reliance; to make Negroes landholders in any considerable numbers. Its successes were the result of hard work, supplemented by the aid of philanthropists and the eager striving of black men. Its failures were the result of bad local agents, inherent difficulties of the work, and national neglect. The Freedmen's Bureau expired by limitation in 1869, save its educational and bounty departments. The educational work came to an end in 1872, and General Howard's connection with the Bureau ceased at that time. The work of paying bounties was transferred to the adjutant general's office, where it was continued three or four years longer.
Such an institution, from its wide powers, great responsibilities, large control of moneys, and generally conspicuous position, was naturally open to repeated and bitter attacks. It sustained a searching congressional investigation at the instance of Fernando Wood in 1870. It was, with blunt discourtesy, transferred from Howard's control, in his absence, to the supervision of Secretary of War Belknap in 1872, on the Secretary's recommendation. Finally, in consequence of grave intimations of wrongdoing made by the Secretary and his subordinates, General Howard was court- martialed in 1874. In each of these trials, and in other attacks, the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau was exonerated from any willful misdoing, and his work heartily commended. Nevertheless, many unpleasant things were brought to light: the methods of transacting the business of the Bureau were faulty; several cases of defalcation among officials in the field were proven, and further frauds hinted at; there were some business transactions which savored of dangerous speculation, if not dishonesty; and, above all, the smirch of the Freedmen's Bank, which, while legally distinct from, was morally and practically a part of the Bureau, will ever blacken the record of this great institution. Not even ten additional years of slavery could have done as much to throttle the thrift of the freedmen as the mismanagement and bankruptcy of the savings bank chartered by the nation for their especial aid. Yet it is but fair to say that the perfect honesty of purpose and unselfish devotion of General Howard have passed untarnished through the fire of criticism. Not so with all his subordinates, although in the case of the great majority of these there were shown bravery and devotion to duty, even though sometimes linked to narrowness and incompetency.
The most bitter attacks on the Freedmen's Bureau were aimed not so much at its conduct or policy under the law as at the necessity for any such organization at all. Such attacks came naturally from the border states and the South, and they were summed up by Senator Davis, of Kentucky, when he moved to entitle the act of 1866 a bill "to promote strife and conflict between the white and black races … by a grant of unconstitutional power." The argument was of tremendous strength, but its very strength was its weakness. For, argued the plain common sense of the nation, if it is unconstitutional, unpracticable, and futile for the nation to stand guardian over its helpless wards, then there is left but one alternative: to make those wards their own guardians by arming them with the ballot. The alternative offered the nation then was not between full and restricted Negro suffrage; else every sensible man, black and white, would easily have chosen the latter. It was rather a choice between suffrage and slavery, after endless blood and gold had flowed to sweep human bondage away. Not a single Southern legislature stood ready to admit a Negro, under any conditions, to the polls; not a single Southern legislature believed free Negro labor was possible without a system of restrictions that took all its freedom away; there was scarcely a white man in the South who did not honestly regard emancipation as a crime, and its practical nullification as a duty. In such a situation, the granting of the ballot to the black man was a necessity, the very least a guilty nation could grant a wronged race. Had the opposition to government guardianship of Negroes been less bitter, and the attachment to the slave system less strong, the social seer can well imagine a far better policy: a permanent Freedmen's Bureau, with a national system of Negro schools; a carefully supervised employment and labor office; a system of impartial protection before the regular courts; and such institutions for social betterment as savings banks, land and building associations, and social settlements. All this vast expenditure of money and brains might have formed a great school of prospective citizenship, and solved in a way we have not yet solved the most perplexing and persistent of the Negro problems.
That such an institution was unthinkable in 1870 was due in part to certain acts of the Freedmen's Bureau itself. It came to regard its work as merely temporary, and Negro suffrage as a final answer to all present perplexities. The political ambition of many of its agents and proteges led it far afield into questionable activities, until the South, nursing its own deep prejudices, came easily to ignore all the good deeds of the Bureau, and hate its very name with perfect hatred. So the Freedmen's Bureau died, and its child was the Fifteenth Amendment.
The passing of a great human institution before its work is done, like the untimely passing of a single soul, but leaves a legacy of striving for other men. The legacy of the Freedmen's Bureau is the heavy heritage of this generation. Today, when new and vaster problems are destined to strain every fibre of the national mind and soul, would it not be well to count this legacy honestly and carefully? For this much all men know: despite compromise, struggle, war, and struggle, the Negro is not free. In the backwoods of the Gulf states, for miles and miles, he may not leave the plantation of his birth; in well-nigh the whole rural South the black farmers are peons, bound by law and custom to an economic slavery, from which the only escape is death or the penitentiary. In the most cultured sections and cities of the South the Negroes are a segregated servile caste, with restricted rights and privileges. Before the courts, both in law and custom, they stand on a different and peculiar basis. Taxation without representation is the rule of their political life. And the result of all this is, and in nature must have been, lawlessness and crime. That is the large legacy of the Freedmen's Bureau, the work it did not do because it could not.
I have seen a land right merry with the sun; where children sing, and rolling hills lie like passioned women, wanton with harvest. And there in the King's Highway sat and sits a figure, veiled and bowed, by which the traveler's footsteps hasten as they go. On the tainted air broods fear. Three centuries' thought has been the raising and unveiling of that bowed human heart, and now, behold, my fellows, a century new for the duty and the deed. The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line. | <urn:uuid:b809a2df-93ab-45e9-a580-fd164691231c> | {
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Featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not!
History of Waverly Hills
The Waverly Hills Sanatorium is the kind of place nightmares are made of, or so people say…
Located in Louisville, Kentucky, the abandoned hospital opened its doors on July 26 in 1910. It was intended to treat patients suffering from tuberculosis. However, the epidemic spread like wildfire, and the facility had no other choice but to increase the two story building to five. It was reported that each floor was just inundated with infected patients.
Remember, this plague would eat away at your lungs and was utterly contagious. With that said, Waverly decided to quarantine their patients. Death was so common that they even had a body chute. Yes, you can guess what it was used for. About 63,000 patients died because of their disturbing treatment methods. Believe it or not, doctors would insert balloons into the patients’ lungs and inflate them with air to help them breathe. They would even remove ribs and muscle tissue to allow the lungs to expand and let in more oxygen.
Around 1943, the number of tuberculosis cases gradually lowered which meant the sanatorium eventually closed in 1962. The few patients that were left were sent to Hazelwood. In 1962, the building reopened and became a nursing home that treated most patients who were handicapped and suffered from dementia; however, in 1982 Woodhaven Geriatric Center closed because of patient neglect. Following in 1983, J. Clifford Todd bought the property to convert into a prison, but the town was not having it. The abandoned building was bought yet again with the intention of morphing into a chapel and creating the tallest statue of Jesus, yes, inspired by Christ the Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro. The total price to create such a place? $12,000,000. Robert Alberhasky, who bought Waverly Hills, was only able to raise $3,000. The project was killed in 1997. Have no fear though; it was sold yet again to Tina and Charlie Mattingly in 2001.
The Mattingly’s have been hosting tours of the property since they purchased it. All proceeds, including the haunted house attraction they have each Halloween, is used for the restoration of the building.
The Waverly Hills Sanatorium continues to garner so much attention due to the paranormal manifestations people have claimed to have witnessed and felt. One of the most haunted places? The body chute. People say they see apparitions, shadows that seem to guard and haunt the tunnels, and, specifically, doctors opening and draining their patients.
One of the most famous rooms in the building is 502. It has been said that you can see the ghost of a nurse in uniform telling people to get out of the hospital. Rumor has it that the nurse committed suicide in that room because she was pregnant and not married. Not only do people claim to see a nurse, but apparently there’s a little girl with no eyes who roams the third floor and a boy who plays with a bouncing ball. We know, it kind of sounds like the horror video game, “Silent Hill“, from trying to find the key to room 502 in the Alchemilla Hospital in Silent Hill: Origins, to the little girl Laura in Silent Hill 2.
Did you know?
- Waverly Hills sits on a rise eight miles from downtown Louisville.
- The building is 180,000 square-feet.
- It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.
- It’s considered to be the most haunted place in the U.S.A. | <urn:uuid:d9c9048e-9fab-4a36-9ced-9fc036d63333> | {
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Christmas week of 1921 brought new limitations on the amount of beer that B.C. residents could purchase on a daily basis. According to an article in the Prince George Leader on December 23, 1921:
Mr. George Sutherland, local liquor vendor, received word yesterday that under the new amendment to the Liquor Control Act, no person shall be allowed to purchase under any permit more than two dozen pints of beer per day.
Eight months earlier, in April 1921, B.C. had become the first Canadian province to establish government control over the liquor trade. The provincial legislature had repealed prohibition (in place since 1917), passed the Liquor Control Act, and installed the B.C. Liquor Control Board as the body responsible for overseeing the distribution and sale of alcohol across the province.
Mr. George Sutherland, the “local liquor vendor” mentioned in the Leader article, was likely a government-authorized liquor vendor for Prince George. He would have kept his stock of beer, wine and spirits hidden behind his store counter, selling or delivering bottles in sealed packages to customers who had obtained the appropriate liquor permit(s) and completed the multi-step order process.
The Liquor Control Act was amended several times in its first years of operation. Despite provincial government attempts to effectively control the liquor trade, however, bootlegging and illegal sales continued — just as they had under prohibition. | <urn:uuid:99b52ff1-5e3c-4a58-9cb1-aa79e50bb799> | {
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Catholic Activity: Pentecost Wheel
Construct this Pentecost wheel to remind children of the working of the Holy Spirit in their lives. After constructing the wheel, begin using this seven days before Pentecost, discussing a gift of the Holy Spirit each night.
To help us rediscover Pentecost in our families, to lift it from the "forgotten feast" category, a husband and wife in Illinois have designed a Pentecost Wheel along the lines of the Advent Wreath. The wife, Mrs. Lois Marrone, explains what it signifies and how to make it:
From plywood, my husband cut a twelve-inch circle, drilled seven candle holes around the outside, and painted it white. To stand in the center of the circle, he made a tall, handsome Chi-Rho (symbol for Christ) out of brass. Radiating from the Chi-Rho to the seven candle holes, like spokes in a wheel, we lettered in red enamel the three theological virtues and the four cardinal virtues, pairing each one up with a corresponding (more or less) gift of the Holy Ghost. Around the outside edge of the circle we added twelve of the fruits of the Holy Ghost (freely chosen and translated) for good measure. The candles, of course, were red.
Practical hints on making the wheel: The accompanying diagram shows the lettering, which can also be done with a red Magic Marker pen. The central Chi-Rho obviously need not be brass; I imagine that wood, cardboard or the kind of heavy tinfoil used to hold TV dinners would do as well. For that matter, the symbol wouldn't have to stand up, but could be lettered in as on the diagram. Husbands: you really needn't fuss over getting the candle holes mathematically spaced around the circle; remember that one of the graces apparently given to mothers by the sacrament of Matrimony is the ability to cut a pie into seven equal-appearing slices without thinking twice about it, and let your wife eye them in. Wives with unhandy husbands: you could make the wreath with a circle of heavy cardboard set on top of dimestore candleholders.
The finished "wheel" made an eye-catching Pentecost decoration but, more than that, it turned out to be a Capsule Theology Course for all of us. As one way of using it, we suggest setting it up a week before Pentecost. The symbolism of the Chi-Rho in the center should first of all be explained to the children: that Christ is the Source and Center of the new life in which we share through Baptism. The seven virtues, given to us at Baptism, can be thought of as powers or energies, which enable us to live God's life and grow supernaturally. The seven gifts, made manifest in us through the power of the Holy Spirit Who confirms (makes firm) our life in Christ, are freely given both to strengthen our exercise of the virtues and to make them fruitful in our lives.
On each of the seven days preceding Pentecost, one candle is lighted, and the meaning and relationship of the virtue and gift it symbolizes discussed by the family. On Pentecost all seven candles are lighted and, hopefully, each member of the family will have grown in understanding of the role of the Holy Spirit in our lives.
Activity Source: Family Liturgical Customs No. 4: Easter by Ethel Marbach, Abbey Press Publishing Division, St. Meinrad, Indiana, 1964 | <urn:uuid:1597bd6b-0726-4722-a7bc-7b6366aeb601> | {
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Definition of bicommunal
: involving or including two distinct communities of people : of, relating to, or being a society composed of two distinct or separate communities often with conflicting interests In the Canadian federation, there is a strong bicommunal element, given the fundamental English-speaking and French-speaking division. — Ronald L. Watts, Autonomy and Ethnicity: Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-ethnic States, 2000 In any case, neither the EU nor any supranational structure would possess any innate advantage in attempts to resolve bicommunal disputes such as that in Northern Ireland. — Derek W. Urwin, Regions and Regionalism in Europe, 2004 Perhaps most importantly, Rwanda can be described as a bicommunal society. This term refers to a society where over 80 percent of the population belongs to one of two well-defined identity groups. Also, the two groups in Rwanda are not in balance. Bicommunal societies are marked by social differentiation and segregation, which often results in political separation or conflict. — John James Quinn et al., Ethnic Conflict and International Politics, 2004
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Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up bicommunal? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:fed0611a-fb68-4dd4-b282-a98a6b2cfb40> | {
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Whom does Moses tell to "let my people go?" If the song is related to the slaves, whom might this figure represent?
1 Answer | Add Yours
In the context of the song, Moses is telling Pharaoh to "let my people go." Moses is speaking to evil Pharaoh. Moses is articulating the need for the Israelites who are suffering under Egyptian enslavement to be free. Moses is quite direct in his addressing Pharaoh. He is addressing him face to face and explicit about how evil Pharaoh must stop his ways of enslavement and "let my people go."
In the context of slavery, Moses can be seen as addressing the American slaveowner. Like Pharaoh, the American slaveowner represents the abuse of power in this life as he gains and profits from the suffering of those he enslaves. Similar to Pharaoh's overwhelming and all- encompassing Earthly powers, the American slaveowner controls everything: "Owners, overseers, traders, auctioneers—all function under his protection." It is for this reason that Moses speaks to the American slave owner, hoping to convince him of the need to stop his cruelty and "let my people go," in terms of freeing the slaves.
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Join a community of thousands of dedicated teachers and students.Join eNotes | <urn:uuid:2aa5fa07-d63e-4ab7-a169-8f56e017be4f> | {
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Surprising dovetails between creation and the flood
Many end-time signs are encoded in the days of Noah, just as Christ reminded His followers: “As it was in the days of Noah, so it will be also in the days of the Son of Man” (Luke 17:26). Often overlooked, however, are the parallels between the original creation account and the new creation established after the flood. Take note of these similarities and see that the flood was actually a re-creation of God’s original plan.
During the first act of creation, “the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters” (Gen. 1:2, KJV). At the re-creation after the flood, “The ark went upon the face of the waters” (Gen. 7:18).
In Eden, God blessed the first couple and commanded them to be fruitful, multiply and replenish the earth (Gen. 1:28). After the flood, “God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them: ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth’” (Gen. 9:1, NKJV).
In the original creation act, “God made the beast of the earth according to its kind, cattle according to its kind, and everything that creeps on the earth according to its kind” (Gen. 1:25). In the Noah account, we read God instructing him, “Bring out with you every living thing of all flesh that is with you: birds and cattle and every creeping thing” (Gen. 8:17).
God’s plan for mankind was for him to “have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, over all the earth, and over every creeping thing” (Gen 1:26).
God gave a similar promise to Noah after the flood: “The fear of you and the dread of you shall be on every beast of earth, on every bird of the air, on all that move on the earth, and on all the fish of the sea” (Gen. 9:2). | <urn:uuid:31955ed5-9a13-479c-a10b-2febcfae7456> | {
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Please join us in the Council Chambers of the Cranberry Township Municipal Center at 2pm on March 5, 2017 for the CTHS Annual Meeting of 2017. The Municipal Center is located at 2525 Rochester Road, Cranberry Township, PA 16066.
This speaker program is about transportation, it’s financing and the problems that go with it. But to start, it goes back to the first major State transportation project – canals, then its replacement - railroads. In the 1820’s both the citizens of Pennsylvania and the government wanted to expand settlement and commerce west of the Susquehanna River and Allegheny mountains. At that time, there were only turnpike roads or the National Highway to take westward. In those days, it took a horse drawn freight wagon twenty-three days to cross the State. Thus the Pennsylvania Assembly of 1824 proposed Right of ways mainly for the building of canals of the Main Line of Public Works to be built across the southern part of Pennsylvania. The period was before commercial railroads existed, while the focus of the act was to create through building a canal system, the capability to ship heavy or bulk goods (and soon after passengers) and connect Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. More importantly the new canal system would amplify the new and growing markets in the developing territories reached by the Ohio River now called the mid-west. This new canal transportation would reduce the same cross-state trip to just four and one half (4½) days depending on the weather. However, such an undertaking, which cost $25,000,000, had to be financed entirely by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, as did the current concrete highways (shared with State and Federal money). Constructed between 1826 and 1834, the hybrid canal system was 395 miles long and the state took on a lot of debt.
During the 1820’s Pennsylvania was also in a transportation technology race with the neighboring State of New York. On October 26, 1825, New York opened its canal, the Erie canal, that stretch across upper New York State from Albany, on the Hudson River, to Buffalo, at Lake Erie. To the Pennsylvania legislature, it was time now to build their own canal, and worry about paying later before all of the freight moving west was through New York.
Once built though after all that work and all that debt, it was not long before steam trains and railroads were developed and trains could carry bulk and heavy commodities. The railroads with their efficiency could carry more freight than mules that pulled a single barge on a canal. Within two decades, the railroad sank the Canal business, which never made a profit.
Pennsylvanians before the Civil War shared two traits with their modern counterparts: they were in a hurry to get where they were going, and they didn’t like to pay taxes. This combination led to problems then as it does today, as citizens looked to their government to build the aforementioned canals and railroads, but were reluctant to pay higher taxes when these projects cost far more than expected. This talk focuses on two episodes. First, in the 1840s, the state's reluctance to pay the debts piled up in digging its canals led to Pennsylvania defaulting on its debt for two and one-half (2½) years, giving it a decidedly negative reputation overseas. The state learned its lesson and did not offer aid to the next wave of innovation, railroads, but counties and cities across Pennsylvania rushed in to fill the gap. In the 1850s, Pittsburgh and Allegheny County repudiated $4-1/2 million in bonds used to buy stock in local railroads. When ordered by the state Supreme Court to raise taxes to pay the bondholders, the Allegheny County Commissioners refused and served more than a year in jail for contempt of court. When compromise bonds were finally issued in the middle of the Civil War, they extended the indebtedness of the county and city for fifty years.
Our speaker, Perry K. Blatz, returns to our group for this talk on Sunday March 5th at 2: 00 pm in the Township Municipal Center’s Council Chambers. Dr. Blatz taught United States history and public history for more than twenty-five years before his recent retirement from Duquesne University. He received his Ph.D. from Princeton University and has specialized in the economic and labor history of the 19th century. Please join us to learn about these transportation troubles and governments’ ways to finance them and the later handling of the debt.
As usual, light refreshments will be served. See you there and remember there is no barge service on Brush Creek and no train or trolley service that day so please drive your car or make other arrangements. | <urn:uuid:2965b084-bd1a-4c57-823f-8f3910c0434e> | {
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Veterans Day - November 11th
Veterans Day originally was held every November 11th, and though it typically falls on this day, officially the holiday is now observed on the weekday that falls closest to November 11th every year. It was first incorporated as by President Wilson as Armistice Day in 1919. Other countries today also still recognize November 11th as Armistice Day or Remembrance Day in honor of the Armistice treaty which ended WWI.
It was in 1938 that Armistice Day was enacted as an official American holiday. But eventually after WWII, citizens felt that the veterans of all wars should be recognized, not just those of WWI. So in 1954 Congress changed the name from Armistice Day to Veterans Day. In America, the holiday now celebrates the approximate 2.9 million U.S. veterans with parades and ceremonies among other events. | <urn:uuid:e5946fc2-d3ab-4145-8dfa-538950a0ce91> | {
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- A City Divided: Life & Death in the Shadow of the Wall, January 14, 2014
- Conference on the Berlin Crisis of 1961, was held on October 27, 2011, Washington, DC
Foreign Affairs and International Topics
Foreign affairs is a key issue in United States history. The Department of State is designated to lead in the overall direction, coordination, and supervision of American foreign policy and foreign relations, but records relating to your topic might be found among the files of other agencies, too. Since World War II, a community of agencies has evolved to deal specifically with foreign policy issues. In addition, many other agencies have taken on important roles in American national security affairs. The subject and focus of your research will determine the most appropriate records for you to use.
Much policy development takes place in the White House and is documented in the files of the Presidents and their extended staffs. The records and files of all Presidents since Herbert Hoover are located in the Presidential Libraries operated by the National Archives and Records Administration. In addition to White House files, the Libraries hold the files of the National Security Council and its staff and other high-level organizations.
Congress also has a role in American foreign policy. The Senate provides advice and consent to all treaties, and many committees have oversight on issues relating to foreign affairs. Of most importance are the records of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. The work of other committees also may touch on foreign relations matters and Congress has established numerous temporary committees and sub-committees to study special issues and matters relating to U.S. foreign affairs.
How to Approach Doing Research in Foreign Affairs Records
Here are some very basic hints on how to approach undertaking research in the records of the foreign affairs agencies. This guidance should be most helpful to novice researchers but can help those with more experience undertaking new avenues of research or working with different records for the first time.
Begin with FRUS
For most topics relating to U.S. foreign policy since 1861, research should begin with a review of the pertinent volumes of the publication Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS). In addition to providing the text of the most important documents on U.S. foreign policy, FRUS also includes source citations and in this way serves as a finding aid to the records on U.S. foreign policy.
Be sure to record the sources cited in FRUS, note them in your correspondence with the National Archives, and bring them with you when you visit the National Archives. Please remember that given the mandate of the series, it does not include documents on every topic in the records and thus it is likely that there are records on more topics than in the publication.
The Central Files
While the subject of your research will dictate the records of most use in your research, for most topics involving U.S. policies and actions, the most important files of the Department of State are those that constitute the central files. The central files are the most inclusive and authoritative repository of reporting by American diplomatic and consular posts overseas and include much additional documentation on policy-making and implementation. There is at least some documentation in the Departmentís central files on almost all topics relating to U.S. foreign policy and relations with other countries. The arrangement of the central files has changed over time. It is important to understand those changes in order to use the records effectively.
The documents in the central files (and the markings on them) will indicate the bureaus and offices in the Department that dealt with the pertinent issues and which Foreign Service posts and other agencies in the Government were involved, thus suggesting other avenues of research.
Beyond the Central Files
After exhausting the sources found in the central files, you can expand your research to decentralized files of the Department indicated by the central files documentation, the records of Foreign Service Posts involved with the issue, and to other specialized files from the Department.
For many topics, the records of the various specialized foreign affairs agencies established during World War I, World War II, and the Cold War will include more documentation and details about policymaking and activities at the operational level for the specialized programs those agencies handled. In some cases, those operational records will be the focus of in-depth research. Most of those agencies did not have centralized recordkeeping, so you will have to familiarize yourself with the organization of the agency in question and the functions and responsibilities of each office in order to determine where to focus your research.
Our Foreign Affairs Web Pages
To assist with preparing for a research visit, the National Archives has prepared this set of web pages. Here, you will find an explanation of the records of the Department of State and related foreign affairs agencies, including those of a temporary nature established during World War I and World War II and the more permanent agencies created during the Cold War. These pages include information on the following:
- Central Files
- Decentralized Files
- Foreign Service Posts
- Specialized Files
- International Conferences, Commissions, and Expositions
- Boundary and Claims Commissions and Arbitrations
- Interdepartmental and Intradepartmental Committees
- Committee on Public Information
- War Trade Board
- American Commission to Negotiate Peace
- Foreign Economic Administration
- Office of War Information
- Office of Inter-American Affairs
- American Commission for the Protection and Salvage of Historic Monuments in War Areas
- Philippine War Damage Commission
- Displaced Persons Commission
- Agency for International Development
- U.S. Information Agency
- U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
- Overseas Private Investment Corporation
- U.S. High Commissioner for Germany
- U.S. Foreign Assistance Agencies, 1947-1961
- Trade and Development Agency
- Peace Corps | <urn:uuid:0be9c07a-9bd5-4aa2-9cd0-a8f8b17e13e2> | {
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The word ‘apocalyptic’ is nowadays used to describe a scenario that heralds the end of the world, or at least the end of life, or civilization, as we know it. This meaning lies some distance from the original meaning. The Greek word apokalypsis means ‘revelation’, and is the title (because it is the first word) of the New Testament book of Revelation. That book contains many descriptions of future events, particularly a time of great distress and persecution, followed by one of judgement and of bliss for the faithful. A number of books of this kind, describing the end of history, were written during the Graeco-Roman period, not only by Jews and Christians, but also by Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and Persians. These writings have also come to be known as ‘apocalypses’.
A focus on the ‘end-time’ is a common feature of apocalypses, but in fact this ancient literary genre needs to be defined a little more widely. It conveys (as its name implies) what are claimed to be direct revelations from heaven, given usually in a vision or by angelic dictation, or by a journey to heaven. Apocalypses were often ascribed to a venerated figure of antiquity, who would foretell what would happen in that person's future, which was, in fact, the past from the perspective of the real author and the reader. A real prediction of the future, which was usually the main point, then formed the final section of this ‘pseudo-prediction’. But the ‘end-time’ was not the only possible content of such ‘revelations’. The origins of the world, or the movements of the heavenly bodies, or the meaning of history, or the geography of heaven, the names of angels, or even the appearance of God himself, all counted among the secrets that could be learned only by revelations of this kind.
The characteristics of this literary genre of apocalypse have acquired a broader sense in biblical scholarship, one that is not altogether helpful, but which cannot be overlooked. ‘Apocalyptic’ or ‘apocalypticism’ is sometimes used to describe a way of thinking, even a kind of religion, which is other-worldly and focused on some imminent moment that will bring the existing world order to an end. On other occasions, ‘apocalyptic’ may even be loosely used to mean ‘eschatology’, or ‘eschatological’, i.e. concerned with the end or goal of history or the cosmos. Finally, ‘apocalyptic’ is occasionally used of communities that are created or sustained by hope or belief that the order will soon change; and hence literary apocalypses have tended to be understood in some quarters as being the product of millenarian sects. Most citizens of the ancient Near Eastern and classical world believed in a realm of the gods from which mortals might access knowledge about this world. Apocalypses are really a refined expression of an attitude that believes in the overwhelming reality of the transcendental world and its effects on everyday life. It is not surprising that this genre was especially popular in times of uncertainty or fear of the future, though some apocalypses seem to be generated from a kind of proto-scientific attempt to get ‘behind the scenes’ of reality and show what makes things happen, and how.
In the Old Testament, apocalyptic literature (or simply ‘apocalyptic’, as the genre is often called) might not seem to occupy a prominent place. Only the book of Daniel falls into this category. Despite its poor representation in the Bible, apocalyptic literature is not a fringe activity; nor are its contents peripheral to an understanding of Judaism (or Christianity, for that matter). It was certainly a very common kind of writing from the third century BCE onwards. It would be impossible even to begin to cover the range of apocalyptic writings now known to us that date from 300 BCE to 100 CE; for this the reader can consult the two-volume Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Charlesworth 1983). The last part of this chapter will focus attention on the book of Daniel, the main Old Testament exemplar, and the book of 1 Enoch, which contains the earliest and in many respects most important Palestinian Jewish apocalypses (Enoch himself is referred to in the New Testament, in Jude 14–15). The material in this collection known as 1 Enoch dates from the third century BCE onwards and is often simply referred to as the Book of Enoch (though there are other ‘books of Enoch’ as well). | <urn:uuid:ddba6821-ea9c-4f0c-b09f-8e17f4190ea3> | {
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Part I discusses their location, what they do, and how they do it. Part II focuses on troubleshooting.">Part I discusses their location, what they do, and how they do it. Part II focuses on troubleshooting.">
May 15, 2003
Editor's Note: This article is the second part of a two-part series about fin passes. Part I discusses their location, what they do, and how they do it. Part II focuses on troubleshooting.
First, some ground rules (assumptions) for the arrangement before we discuss some possible reasons for poor-quality seam welding and their solutions:
1. You are working with a new set of rolls and spacers. We assume that the rolls are manufactured correctly. This eliminates from the equation the possibility that worn tooling is at fault. The roll tooling and spacers are installed according to the roll drawings, and all the flange gaps are correct.
2. The strip width and gauge are within the limits set by the roll drawing design.
3. Weld quality is inconsistent. Destructive testing shows fractures on the weld centerline. The weld seam shows unequal extrusion of weld bead to inside and outside or uneven edge heights.
Two main culprits are misaligned roll shaft shoulders and changes in the physical properties of the material.
Weld faults also can result from improper adjustment of weld heat, but for this discussion we will ignore this and concentrate on weld faults resulting from improper presentation of the formed section to welding.
Proper roll shaft shoulder alignment is critical to the tooling setup. A tube mill is a toolholder. The alignment of the tool set from one forming pass to the next is ensured by the proper roll shaft shoulder alignment (the registration surface of the roll shaft).
You might have perfect tools and a perfect tool installation per the roll drawings, including the roll flange gaps, and be dead in the water on weld quality because the roll shaft shoulders are not aligned. Shoulder alignment must be true both vertically (top shaft to bottom shaft) and from pass to pass along the entire mill.
The minimum alignment criterion for material less than 0.030 in. thick is less than 0.003 in.; that's the total amount of shoulder misalignment allowed, or tolerance. As material thickness increases, the total error also may increase, but generally never should exceed 0.005 in. for quality tube production.
While you can't see misaligned roll shaft shoulders, it is possible to surmise that their alignment is incorrect without using sophisticated tools. Roll shafts that exhibit looseness or droop when the outboard stands are removed most likely are misaligned. If you can shake hands with any of the roll shafts (in other words, if you can move the roll shaft up and down or around with the outboard stand removed), the shaft probably is out of alignment.
The simple act of replacing worn-out bearings, reshimming to reset preload, or replacing worn roll shafts without performing an alignment is almost guaranteed to cause shaft shoulder misalignment.
Last, tool life records and scrap production records can indicate a need to perform an alignment. If roll wear accelerates, if changeover time requirements from prime to prime (assuming the same work force) increase, or if the scrap production rate increases, it is time to align the mill.
Check alignment of welded tube mills that have frequent changeovers and multishift operations at least quarterly. If you perform any repairs, align the mill shaft shoulders as part of the repair.
In our ground rules, we assumed that the strip slit width and gauge are within limits, but we did not say the material came from the same steel supplier, or that the material is of the same grade. Why are these important?
Remember, we said that we must present the proper strip width to the fin tooling so the section compression exceeds the material's elastic limit. What is the proper strip width? Calculating proper strip width depends on the tube diameter, strip thickness, and material yield strength.
The simple rules for determining strip width are:
1. The thinner the wall, the wider the strip width (for tubes with the same OD). Conversely, the thicker the wall, the narrower the required strip width (for tubes with the same OD). We assume the roll designer followed his normal practice in recommending a strip width, so we are not looking here for the problem.
2. A slightly different rule applies for increased yield strength and hardness. The calculated strip width will need to be increased in direct proportion to increases in yield and hardness. In other words, to make the same OD and wall tube but with a higher yield strength, more strip width is required.
An aberration as shown in example 2 is the far more likely culprit of poor weld quality.
You may find a clue that this is your problem simply by referring to the design specification for the tube rolls. A yield strength and hardness reading should be included in this information.
What this suggestion boils down to is to look for hardness changes in the slit coil. Are they different than the last time you ran the tube? Are there significant differences in hardness for the lead, middle, and tail of the coil?
Material with increased hardness, increased yield strength, or both will require more strip width than normal. Your setup (roll tool arrangement on the mill) may be on the ragged edge, meaning that is has sufficient compression for the part of the coil exhibiting the lower hardness but not enough for the coil ends.
One way to check this assumption is to reduce the flange gap in the fin pass rolls. In all probability, you also will have to close up the gaps in the weld forge and sizing steps to confirm the results of a more stable weld. This will result in a tube too small in diameter and, in all probability, out of round to some degree, so it is not a running solution. This is just a way to confirm the need to increase strip width.
In real-world terms, the compression force reached in the fin pass must exceed all of the variations encountered in the feedstock. This means that you must apply a safety factor of approximately 2 to 2.5 times the maximum anticipated compression level when calculating the strip width. This ensures consistent strip edge forming and sound welding.
|Click herefor a larger image.|
Figure 1 illustrates the factor yield strength plays in determining recommended strip width.
Remember that the welded tube process actually is a sinking process akin to drawing. The effect of compression (as occurs in fin and sizing passes) or sinking is twofold; both elongation (growth in length) and wall thickening do occur. Therefore, another way to verify that sufficient cold work has been accomplished in the fin forming passes is to measure wall thickness buildup carefully. An increase in wall thickness is a clue that enough cold work has occurred. A discernible thickening at the 3 o'clock and 6 o'clock positions of the tube wall, which can be difficult to measure, is an indicator of sufficient cold work.
These two solutions are not exhaustive, but they are part of the total mill setup and troubleshooting process. The measurement of increased wall thickness indicated in the last test method is controversial, because the production goal always is to make a welded tube at its minimal wall thickness. However, this requires some give and take. Making a tube with minimal wall is easier when the beginning wall is thinner.
The intent is to experiment with the strip width and the resulting reduction in the fin and sizing sections to increase the wall thickness so that it just exceeds the minimum. The trade-off is a reduction in residual elongation in the finished product. We get into trouble, however, when we step over the line in either direction, and we encounter one of two problems: Selling tube that does not meet the customer's minimum wall specification or selling tube that has less than the minimum residual elongation. These are equally bad problems.
Poor weld quality is the result of shaving the strip width to reduce wall thickness growth and, in the end, creates a far worse problem. Successful tube production is a matter of finding the balance, which is facilitated by maintaining process mechanics (shoulder alignment and proper roll tooling installation and adjustment) and working closely with material suppliers.
TPJ - The Tube & Pipe Journal® became the first magazine dedicated to serving the metal tube and pipe industry in 1990. Today, it remains the only North American publication devoted to this industry and it has become the most trusted source of information for tube and pipe professionals. Subscriptions are free to qualified tube and pipe professionals in North America. | <urn:uuid:b51bf96d-5d60-4d94-819d-18d87489af9d> | {
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For homebuilders, constructing a house that can withstand hurricane winds can be tricky, because the only way to run a test is to wait for a major storm to develop. Florida International University just changed all that with its Wall of Wind, a hurricane research facility with 12 massive fans that can brew up wind speeds of up to 157 m.p.h – the equivalent of a category 5 hurricane. Five years in the making, the $8-million facility is now up and running, and researchers hope that the lessons learned at the Wall of Wind can help prevent serious property loss the next time a major hurricane hits the southern US.
It’s no coincidence that the Wall of Wind was completed on the 20th anniversary of Hurricane Andrew; the category 5 hurricane destroyed more than 125,000 homes in southern Florida, making it one of the worst hurricanes in the state’s history. But it wasn’t the only hurricane to cause major property damage — over the past 12 years, hurricanes have caused $36 billion per year in losses for U.S. coastal communities. And that’s exactly the sort of destruction that the folks behind the Wall of Wind are hoping to prevent.
FIU wind engineering team first created a prototype in 2005 that consisted of a two-fan unit that could generate winds of up to 120 mpg. Later, they constructed a larger six-fan Wall of Wind — the precursor to the current model. And in the latest incarnation, they’ve doubled the number of 6-foot-tall, 700-horsepower fans to a dozen, which can create a deafening burst of wind.
With the Wall of Wind, researchers will be able to test different building construction materials to see if they are able to withstand the abuse of category-5 hurricane winds and water. “The bottom line is the research we are doing here will not only save lives but also reduce property losses and therefore premiums,” Shahid Hamid, director of the research center’s laboratory for insurance, economic and financial research, told the Daily Mail. | <urn:uuid:8019f5e4-fa1f-4e75-b160-caf17b35461b> | {
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Pabna District (পাবনা জেলা Pabna Jela) is a district in Northern Bangladesh. It is a part of the Rajshahi Division.
The district of Pabna
, which forms the south east corner of the Rajshahi Division
, is situated between 23°48′ and 24°47′ north latitude, and between 89°02′ and 89°50′ east longitude. The Bogra District
bound it on the north, while the Padma River
in the south separates it from the districts of Faridpur District
and Kushtia District
. The mighty Jamuna River
runs along its eastern border separating it from the districts of Mymensingh
; and on the west it has a common boundary with the district of Rajshahi. Kazirhat is a place for pabna there two river is in a one place one is jamuna and podma river.
The upazilas under Pabna district are:
- Atgharia Upazila
- Bangura Upazila
- Bera Upazila
- Bhangura Upazila
- Chatmohar Upazila
- Faridpur (Formerly Bonwareenogor) Upazila
- Ishwardi Upazila
- Pabna Sadar Upazila
- Santhia Upazila
- Sujanagar Upazila
Map of Pabna District
The origin name “ Pabna” is not found in any history. Various endeavours were made from time to time but no unanimous conclusion has been reached so far historians holding different opinions. Couningham, a renowned archaeologist, conjectured that the name Pabna might have been derived from the old kingdom Pundra or Pundrabardan, the country of pods, whose capital was at Mahasthangarh
in the adjoining district of Bogra, but it has not received general acceptance of the scholars. Many folk assertions have locally taken roots and branches in search of the origin of the name of Pabna. One of these is that the area was named Pabna after a notorious dacoit of that time. But Radha Raman Saha in his History of Pabna strongly contradicts such views because he found on search nobody by this name was on the list of robbers of this district. Another popular belief is that the region of Pabna got its name from Pabnee one of the confluent streams of the river Ganges flowing by the south of this land. Perhaps this may be acceptable, because the district is intersected by rivers of varying magnitude. During the rainy season, consequent upon the rise of the rivers, and spreading of the spill water over the countryside, the villages standout as small islands in a wide sea and present the spectacle of a certain quiet beauty. The Ganges and the Jamuna has special character of the countryside of the district of Pabna. A foreigner, Lovant Fraser, in his book has written very enthusiastically about the charms of the rivers of this part of the country. And the impression of Sir Joseph Hooker when he traveled along the Ganges and passing by Pabna made his way up the Jamuna: ‘ the water is clay coloured and turbid and yearly changes of its course’.
Thus the river Padma was made the southern boundary of the district. In 1875 Raigang was transferred back to Pabna from Bogra and in 1879 a separate judgeship for the districts of Pabna and Bogra was created. The district is divided into two sub division is again divided into several police stations.
Population 2153921; male 51.17%, female 48.83%; Muslim 95.12%, Hindu 4.50%, Christian 0.22% and others 0.16%.
Agriculture 34%, agricultural labourer 22.77%, wage labourer 4.46%, transport 2.18%, weaving 2.85%, commerce 13.27%, service 7.26% and others 13.21%.
Among the peasants 29% are landless, 49% small, 18% intermediate and 4% rich.
Value of land
The market value of the land of the first grade is Tk 7500 per 0.01 hectare.
Paddy, jute, wheat, sugarcane, oil seeds, onion, garlic, betel leaf, pulses.
Extinct or nearly extinct crops
Indigo, sesame, linseed, kaun, china and arahar.
Mango, jackfruit, banana, litchi, coconut, guava and papaya.
Fisheries, dairies & poultries
Dairy 1069, fishery 88, poultry 714, hatchery 37.
Paper mill, sugar mill, cotton mill, jute press, oil mill, pharmaceutical co, biscuit factory, rice and flour mill, ice factory, welding, saw mill, cold storage, etc.
Handloom, bamboo and cane work, blacksmith, goldsmith, potteries, wood work, tailoring etc.
Hats, bazars and fairs
Total number of hats and bazars are 182, fairs 17.
Paddy, jute, betel leaf, hosiery goods, cotton, cotton fabrics, etc.
NGO activities Operationally important NGOs are brac, CARE, asa, grameen bank, caritas, proshika, Samata, ITCL, thengamara mahila sabuj sangha and Palli Pragati.
Literacy and educational institutions Average literacy 26.8%; male 31.8% and female 21.5%. Educational institutions: college 34, cadet college 2, law college 1, government polytechnic college 1, government vocational training institute 1, textile institute 1, government commerce college 1, primary teacher's training institute 1, nursing training institute 1, homeopathic college 1, high school 202, junior high school 29, madrasa 261, government primary school 667, non-government primary school 445, community school 8, kindergarten 29, satellite school 32, NGO operated school 299, music college 1. Noted educational institutions: Pabna Edward College (1898), Pabna Zila School (1853), GCI Institution (1894), RM Academy (1899), Polytechnic Institute (1891) and Aliya Madrasa (1925), MC Jubilee High School (1936), Debattar (Atgharia) Government Primary School (1880), Bharenga (Bera) Academy (1835), Bera B B High School (1899), Bera High School (1906), Dhobakhola Coronation High School (1906), Banwari Nagar (Faridpur) CB Pilot High School (1912), Sanra (Ishwardi) Marwari School (1917), Khalilpur (Sujanagar) High School (1901).
Roads: pucca 681 km, semi pucca 100 km and mud road 3198 km; waterways 184 nautical mile; railways 67 km; air port 1.
Palanquin, horse carriage and bullock cart. These means of transport are either extinct or nearly extinct.For last few years another kind of transport has been intoduced in the street of Pabna is 'Nochimon'.It is made by local technology by installing shallow irrigation engine on a four-wheel device.Alongside all kinds of modern transport are in use.
Places of interest
Paksey is a place in Pabna, where the environment and the natural site is very nice. Spacially the railway colony is a nice place. In this colony there are many trees, which are over 100 years old. Beside the colony the river Padma and the Hardinge Bridge. There is an EPZ here, which is already started.Newly built road bridge,Lalan Shah bridge, over the river of Padma added attraction of this area.
Another nice area to vist is Bank of Padma,well known as 'Padmar Par' around 5km away fom district's old Technical Institute.Nature is very nice here,opprtunity to have cruise in river by hiring boat.
The marshy area Chalan Beel is located in Pabna District.
Health Care Facilities
General hospital 4, mental hospital 1, zila sadar hospital 1, upazila health complex 9, health & family planning centre 25, TB hospital 1, diabetic hospital 1, eye hospital 1, community hospital 1, maternity and child welfare centre 1, police hospital 1, railway hospital 1, private clinic 15.
Media and Culture
Locally published newspapers and periodicals Dainik Ichamati, Dainik Nirvar, Dainik Uttar Janata (Ishwardi); Weeklies: Gayana Bikashini, Pabna Barta, Bibreti, Arshi; fortnightly Jamuna, Charmohar Barta, Faridpur Barta, Junction, Janadabi (Ishwardi); monthly Gayana Prava, Palli Darpan, Manasi, Amar Desh and Pabna, Tawhid (Bhangura), Chetana, Sachetan.
Cultural organisations Club 455, library 66, cinema hall 27, literary and cultural organisation 46, theatre stage 3, theatre group 19, community centre 1, shilpakala academy 1, voluntary organisation 303, women's organisation 123, opera party 3, cooperative society 1124.
Religious institutions Mosque 2353, temple 420, church 11, tomb 5, sacred place 2.
Marks of the War of Liberation Mass grave 4, mass killing site 6, memorial 8. | <urn:uuid:5cdc90ca-fe84-447a-bd18-fe7e4ad47e63> | {
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From Stanford University, Helen Vendler (one of our greatest living literary critics) speaks about Wallace Stevens, one of our greatest poets.
Wallace Stevens as an American Poet
January 17, 2012 - Helen Vendler, one of the leading American poetry critics, as well as a distinguished professor in Harvard University's Department of English, discusses Wallace Stevens, the poet. She dives into some of his work in order to show why he is one of the finest American poets to set ink to paper. Wallace Stevens was born in 1879 and died in 1955 and was awarded a Pulitzer prize that same year. | <urn:uuid:31a54ee3-274d-41c1-bd24-62a721411ec4> | {
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ATKINSON, GEORGE, HBC chief factor; d. 2 Oct. 1792 at Eastmain Factory (at the mouth of Rivière Eastmain, Que.).
Nothing is known of the life of George Atkinson before his engagement with the Hudson’s Bay Company, other than that he was probably born in Stockton-on-Tees, England. His first years of service with the company evidently occurred during 1751–54, when crew lists for the company ship Sea Horse, engaged in the supply of posts on Hudson Bay, regularly included his name. An unexplained 14-year gap followed, but in 1768 he was once more engaged by the company, this time to serve as a sailor at Fort Albany (Ont.) for three years at £15 per annum.
In 1769 Atkinson was appointed mate of the Eastmain sloop at £25 annually after George Isbister was removed for bad behaviour. Thomas Moore, master at Eastmain, found Atkinson “a Very Worthy Man” and had him hunt, fish, and carry letters to Moose Factory (Ont.) and Albany, as well as care for the sloop. When Moore went to England in late 1772, Atkinson took charge of Eastmain as well as of its sloop. His 1772–73 journal suggests that he was on cordial terms with the Indians.
In the fall of 1773 Moore resumed the Eastmain command, and until 1777 Atkinson continued his service on company vessels. His assiduity and “knowledge of the Natives” led to his being proposed as leader of inland expeditions in the fall of 1773 and again in late 1776. On both occasions circumstances prevented his going. In late 1777, however, Atkinson did go inland. Eusebius Bacchus Kitchin, chief at Moose, had hoped Atkinson’s party would travel up the Abitibi River (Ont.), but “the Ship arriving [at Moose] so late & the water being so shoal” defeated that plan. Instead, Atkinson wintered at Mesakamy Lake (Kesagami Lake, Ont.), only “half way to . . . [Lake] Abbitiby,” after a “Longe fatiguen Journey.” His letters to Kitchin document his problems there and the onset of the ill health he was to suffer thereafter. Disputing Kitchin’s charge of misuse of provisions, he wrote “what could I dou the Indians That you was pleased to Send with us had nothing to mentain thar Selve with.”
Kitchin ordered Atkinson to take the command of the Moose sloop in June 1778. In September Atkinson, being “very much beloved by the Natives there,” was appointed master of Eastmain, a command he would hold almost continuously until his death. The post grew in size and importance under Atkinson’s direction, and he was credited by Edward Jarvis, chief at Moose, with opening “new Channels of Trade, from the Northward to Richmond [on Lac Guillaume-Delisle] and Mistasin Lake [Lac Mistassini, Que.].” By September 1786 Eastmain had become independent of Moose and a “Factory distinct by itself.” It was as well a base for resistance to Canadian competition. In 1790 Atkinson sent John Clarke* to Lac Mistassini to gather intelligence about rival Canadian traders, who were encroaching upon Eastmain’s territory, and to recruit “any independent Men who wish to enter into this Service.” Atkinson’s salary suggests that his efforts were valued by the company: by 1791 he was receiving £130 per annum. His last years were beset by illness, however, and he returned to England in 1785–86 and in 1791–92. He was to survive his return to Eastmain in 1792 by only a few weeks, dying there in October.
Atkinson, like numerous other company officers of his time, had acquired a native family; to him and the Indian woman Necushin were born two sons and a daughter. The London committee, in an attempt to keep its posts free of traders’ families, had forbidden passage of European women to the bay and had long ordered its servants not to consort with Indian women. But by the 1770s the latter rule had been defied by company men such as Joseph Isbister, Humphrey Marten, Moses Norton, and Robert Pilgrim*. Long isolated from England, traders might accept Indian offers of female companionship for personal as well as commercial motives. By the time of Atkinson’s death the company was coming to accept the presence of native-born women and children at its posts. The Indians commonly considered these women to be married, and by the 1830s they were earning legal and company recognition as wives “according to the custom of the country.” The sons of these unions, if given paternal and company encouragement, could offer useful service to the HBC. Atkinson sent his son Sneppy to England in 1790, where he acquired his baptismal name George, in the hope that he would “shake of a little of the Indian & in so doing make him exert himself like a Man” on his return to Eastmain. Both of Atkinson’s sons served the company, as did other Hudson Bay youths like Charles Thomas Isham* and William Richards*. George Jr had a fur-trade career of some note and left a large family to carry on the Atkinson name in the James Bay area.
Durham County Record Office (Durham, Eng.), EP/Sto 2 (Holy Trinity Church, Stockton-on-Tees, register of baptisms, marriages, and burials, 1707–80). HBC Arch. A.1/39, pp.14, 127, 240, 388; A.1/43, ff.58, 105; A.1/46, f.74; A.5/2, ff.145–47; A.6/13, ff.124, 153; A.11/57, ff.122–22d; A.30/1, ff.2, 17, 30; A.30/3, f.33; A.30/4, f.11; A.32/3, f.12; A.36/1B, ff.14–16; B.59/a/40, ff.15, 29, 40, 44, 45; B.59/a/44, ff.6–8, 19, 21, 24; B.59/b/l; B.59/b/6, ff.6, 14–15; B.59/b/9, ff.14–15, 16; B.59/b/10, f.22; B.59/b/12; B.135/b/5, ff.3, 5–6, 10; B.135/b/6, ff.6, 8–9, 16–17, 40. PRO, Prob. 11/1238, will of George Atkinson, proved 28 Nov. 1793. Moose fort journals, 1783–85, ed. E. E. Rich and A. M. Johnson, intro. G. P. de T. Glazebrook (London, 1954). Northern Quebec and Labrador journals and correspondence, 1819–35, ed. K. G. Davies and A. M. Johnson (London, 1963). | <urn:uuid:19e82b01-90bf-4673-becb-34ca7d535f23> | {
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Follow a great white shark's life cycle, from birth to finding a mate and old age.
Learn about the different aspects of the biology of sharks: how they sense the world, find their food, reproduce and communicate with each other.
Sections of the text are written in first-person narrative, giving a clear understanding of the way sharks behave and how they grow, learn, move, fight, rest and play.
- Format: Paperback
- Pages: 32 pages, 30-50 colour photographs
- Publisher: Hachette Children's Group
- Publication Date: 24/01/2013
- Category: Wildlife (Children's/YA)
- ISBN: 9780750271417 | <urn:uuid:6fc252f7-0607-4376-b60d-f4cdb7b69e71> | {
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For women who do not have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation, having a close relative with one of these mutations does not increase breast cancer risk. These results were published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology.
Inherited mutations in two genes—BRCA1 and BRCA2—have been found to greatly increase the lifetime risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer. Mutations in these genes can be passed down through either the mother’s or the father’s side of the family.
Women who test negative for a BRCA gene mutation—but who have family members with a mutation—are generally thought to have a risk of breast cancer that’s similar to that of women in the general population. A study published in 2007, however, raised concerns that relatives of BRCA mutation carriers may have a substantially increased risk of breast cancer even if they test negative for their family’s mutation.
To further explore cancer risk among close relatives of people with BRCA mutations, researchers conducted a study among more than 3,000 families with at least one case of breast cancer; 160 families had a BRCA1 mutation and 132 families had a BRCA2 mutation.
For women without a BRCA mutation, breast cancer risk was similar whether or not the woman’s family had a BRCA mutation. These results suggest that coming from a family with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation does not increase cancer risk for those who test negative for the mutation.
Although this is reassuring news, women who test negative for their family’s gene mutation should continue to follow cancer screening guidelines. These women do not have the very elevated cancer risk that their affected relatives have, but they can still get cancer.
Smith A, Moran A, Boyd MC et al. Phenocopies in BRCA1 and BRCA2 families: evidence for modifier genes and implications for screening. Journal of Medical Genetics. 2007;44:10-15.
Kurian AW, Gong GD, John EM et al. Breast cancer risk for noncarriers of family-specific BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations: findings from the Breast Cancer Family Study. Journal of Clinical Oncology. Early online publication October 31, 2011. | <urn:uuid:09f4b546-2c88-4a0e-b67c-618cd9ddac23> | {
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Holy Angels. We teach that angels are created beings and are therefore not to be worshiped. Although they are a higher order of creation than man, they are created to serve God and to worship Him (Luke 2:9-14; Hebrews 1:6-7, 14; 2:6-7; Revelation 5:11-14; 19:10; 22:9).
Fallen Angels. We teach that Satan is a created angel and the author of sin. He incurred the judgment of God by rebelling against his Creator (Isaiah 14:12-17; Ezekiel 28:11-19), by taking numerous angels with him in his fall (Matthew 25:41; Revelation 12:1-14), and by introducing sin into the human race by his temptation of Eve (Genesis 3:1-15).
We teach that Satan is the open and declared enemy of God and man (Isaiah 14:13-14; Matthew 4:1-11; Revelation 12:9-10); that he is the prince of this world, who has been defeated through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Romans 16:20); and that he shall be eternally punished in the lake of fire (Isaiah 14:12-17; Ezekiel 28:11-19; Matthew 25:41; Revelation 20:10). | <urn:uuid:fd57642a-23cf-4f08-8a8e-e47a76e96e1c> | {
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Text Formatting: This text is styled with some of the text formatting properties. The heading uses the text-align, text-transform, and color properties. The paragraph is indented, aligned, and the space between characters is specified. Text Color The color property is used to set the color of the text. With CSS, a color is most oftenmore.. | <urn:uuid:d60d8d09-c0be-4cd9-8673-3a0853b64899> | {
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There are two types of Internet Protocol (IP) traffic. They are TCP or Transmission Control Protocol and UDP or User Datagram Protocol. TCP is connection oriented – once a connection is established, data can be sent bidirectional. UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol. Multiple messages are sent as packets in chunks using UDP.
|Acronym for||Transmission Control Protocol||User Datagram Protocol or Universal Datagram Protocol|
|Connection||TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.||UDP is a connectionless protocol.|
|Function||As a message makes its way across the internet from one computer to another. This is connection based.||UDP is also a protocol used in message transport or transfer. This is not connection based which means that one program can send a load of packets to another and that would be the end of the relationship.|
|Usage||TCP is suited for applications that require high reliability, and transmission time is relatively less critical.||UDP is suitable for applications that need fast, efficient transmission, such as games. UDP's stateless nature is also useful for servers that answer small queries from huge numbers of clients.|
|Use by other protocols||HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP, Telnet||DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, VOIP.|
|Ordering of data packets||TCP rearranges data packets in the order specified.||UDP has no inherent order as all packets are independent of each other. If ordering is required, it has to be managed by the application layer.|
|Speed of transfer||The speed for TCP is slower than UDP.||UDP is faster because error recovery is not attempted. It is a "best effort" protocol.|
|Reliability||There is absolute guarantee that the data transferred remains intact and arrives in the same order in which it was sent.||There is no guarantee that the messages or packets sent would reach at all.|
|Header Size||TCP header size is 20 bytes||UDP Header size is 8 bytes.|
|Common Header Fields||Source port, Destination port, Check Sum||Source port, Destination port, Check Sum|
|Streaming of data||Data is read as a byte stream, no distinguishing indications are transmitted to signal message (segment) boundaries.||Packets are sent individually and are checked for integrity only if they arrive. Packets have definite boundaries which are honored upon receipt, meaning a read operation at the receiver socket will yield an entire message as it was originally sent.|
|Weight||TCP is heavy-weight. TCP requires three packets to set up a socket connection, before any user data can be sent. TCP handles reliability and congestion control.||UDP is lightweight. There is no ordering of messages, no tracking connections, etc. It is a small transport layer designed on top of IP.|
|Data Flow Control||TCP does Flow Control. TCP requires three packets to set up a socket connection, before any user data can be sent. TCP handles reliability and congestion control.||UDP does not have an option for flow control|
|Error Checking||TCP does error checking and error recovery. Erroneous packets are retransmitted from the source to the destination.||UDP does error checking but simply discards erroneous packets. Error recovery is not attempted.|
|Fields||1. Sequence Number, 2. AcK number, 3. Data offset, 4. Reserved, 5. Control bit, 6. Window, 7. Urgent Pointer 8. Options, 9. Padding, 10. Check Sum, 11. Source port, 12. Destination port||1. Length, 2. Source port, 3. Destination port, 4. Check Sum|
|Acknowledgement||Acknowledgement segments||No Acknowledgment|
|Handshake||SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK||No handshake (connectionless protocol)|
Differences in Data Transfer Features
TCP ensures a reliable and ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from user to server or vice versa. UDP is not dedicated to end to end connections and communication does not check readiness of receiver.
TCP is more reliable since it manages message acknowledgment and retransmissions in case of lost parts. Thus there is absolutely no missing data. UDP does not ensure that communication has reached receiver since concepts of acknowledgment, time out and retransmission are not present.
TCP transmissions are sent in a sequence and they are received in the same sequence. In the event of data segments arriving in wrong order, TCP reorders and delivers application. In the case of UDP, sent message sequence may not be maintained when it reaches receiving application. There is absolutely no way of predicting the order in which message will be received.
TCP is a heavy weight connection requiring three packets for a socket connection and handles congestion control and reliability. UDP is a lightweight transport layer designed atop an IP. There are no tracking connections or ordering of messages.
Method of transfer
TCP reads data as a byte stream and message is transmitted to segment boundaries. UDP messages are packets which are sent individually and on arrival are checked for their integrity. Packets have defined boundaries while data stream has none.
UDP works on a "best-effort" basis. The protocol supports error detection via checksum but when an error is detected, the packet is discarded. Retransmission of the packet for recovery from that error is not attempted. This is because UDP is usually for time-sensitive applications like gaming or voice transmission. Recovery from the error would be pointless because by the time the retransmitted packet is received, it won't be of any use.
TCP uses both error detection and error recovery. Errors are detected via checksum and if a packet is erroneous, it is not acknowledged by the receiver, which triggers a retransmission by the sender. This operating mechanism is called Positive Acknowledgement with Retransmission (PAR).
How TCP and UDP work
A TCP connection is established via a three way handshake, which is a process of initiating and acknowledging a connection. Once the connection is established data transfer can begin. After transmission, the connection is terminated by closing of all established virtual circuits.
UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-shaking dialogues for guaranteeing reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagrams may arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network interface level. Unlike TCP, UDP is compatible with packet broadcasts (sending to all on local network) and multicasting (send to all subscribers).
Different Applications of TCP and UDP
Web browsing, email and file transfer are common applications that make use of TCP. TCP is used to control segment size, rate of data exchange, flow control and network congestion. TCP is preferred where error correction facilities are required at network interface level. UDP is largely used by time sensitive applications as well as by servers that answer small queries from huge number of clients. UDP is compatible with packet broadcast - sending to all on a network and multicasting – sending to all subscribers. UDP is commonly used in Domain Name System, Voice over IP, Trivial File Transfer Protocol and online games.
TCP vs. UDP for Game Servers
For massively multiplayer online (MMO) games, developers often have to make an architectural choice between using UDP or TCP persistent connections. The advantages of TCP are persistent connections, reliability, and being able to use packets of arbitrary sizes. The biggest problem with TCP in this scenario is its congestion control algorithm, which treats packet loss as a sign of bandwidth limitations and automatically throttles the sending of packets. On 3G or Wi-Fi networks, this can cause a significant latency.
Experienced developer Christoffer Lernö weighed the pros and cons and recommends the following criteria to choose whether to use TCP or UDP for your game:
- Use HTTP over TCP for making occasional, client-initiated stateless queries when it's OK to have an occasional delay.
- Use persistent plain TCP sockets if both client and server independently send packets but an occasional delay is OK (e.g. Online Poker, many MMOs).
- Use UDP if both client and server may independently send packets and occasional lag is not OK (e.g. Most multiplayer action games, some MMOs). | <urn:uuid:7b7d942b-85d5-432c-9bb6-460c3ea7465a> | {
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"Jak se mas, Joe?" (How are you, Joe?)
"Dobre, Barta, jak ti?" (Fine, Barta, how are you?)
"Vie gehts, Emil?" (How goes it, Emil?)
"Gahnst gut!" (It goes good!)
Now and then you can still hear Czech spoken on the streets of Ravenna, however, from its beginning through the 1930s, Czech and German were commonly heard, and businessmen greeted customers in their native tongue. Businesses were generally owned by Czechs and English-speaking Americans from eastern states. Farmers were German, Czech, English, Irish, Scotch, Scandinavian, or of other European backgrounds.
An outpost of Fort Kearny was built in 1864 on the south fork of the Loup River. Named "Post South Fork", a full day's ride north from Fort Kearny, the soldiers called it "Fort Banishment." Earlier, wagon trains had crossed the area, wearing deep ruts in the prairie that, along with the crumbling sod walls of the fort, were still evident when settlers arrived a decade or two later.
In 1869 the government granted the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad nearly 2,500,000 acres of land to finance the building of a railroad through central Nebraska to the mineral fields in Wyoming. In the 1870-80s, pamphlets were distributed in the eastern states and in Europe extolling the virtues of the region. Many settlers were influenced to come to this area because of the glowing accounts of this new territory.
Erastus Smith, Ravenna's founding father, sold his Iowa farm in 1874 and bought land in northern Buffalo County on Beaver Creek (known today as Mud Creek) near its junction with the South Loup River. His background in railroad engineering caused him to believe that a railroad built in this area would need a division point at this site. In 1878 Smith had mail delivered to "Beaver Creek" at his impressively furnished sod house.
The railroad was completed to Grand Island in 1884. Plans were announced for its next division point. With the town of Nantasket, three miles east being bypassed, Smith's land receiving the prize. In January 1886, Smith sold a 30-lot tract to the Lincoln Land Company. He chose not to use the Beaver Creek name or have the town named for him. So, R.O.Phillips, secretary of the Lincoln Land Company, named it "Ravenna" for a city in Italy, and the streets were named for other Italian cities.
During the spring of 1886, Ravenna was "a town about to happen." Lots were sold, supplies, and building material were ordered and held in Grand Island. Only a few hardy pioneers attempted to bring the material for their businesses by team and wagon over rough trails, fording rivers and streams, the 35 miles to Ravenna. Barta Case and Joe Bohac, two young musicians from Omaha, were two who did. They opened a leather shop, and provided the nucleus for a band, bringing Czech music to Ravenna.
After the first train arrived in June -- like a dam break -- materials, people, and supplies poured in. The town sprang up almost overnight, with homes, businesses, churches, schools, and a newspaper. Smith replaced his soddy with a three-story dwelling. Ravenna Post Office opened in July on Appian Way.
Ravenna was incorporated on October 12, 1886. As with most railroad towns, Ravenna reached its peak population (about 1,600) in the 1920s. The 1980 census lists the town at 1,300 residents.
"Annevar" (Ravenna spelled backwards), has been celebrated annually since 1923. Held in early June, it is a good time to visit our town.
Ravenna's centennial was held and a book was published in 1986. It was a year-long celebration with events held each week-end honoring a different group: farmers, teachers, veterans, etc. Well over 700 Ravenna High School alumni returned for the Annevar celebration that year.
The title "All American City" was won by Ravenna in 1978. The award was made for the ability of the community to face and deal with local issues and problems, and seek solutions to them.
Ravenna's wealth is in its people. The people who volunteer many hours to the benefit of others in the town are our greatest treasure; the volunteer firemen, emergency medical unit, community organizations, and churches which serve the needs of the city. Individuals help the elderly, and young people help with city-wide clean-up. In Ravenna, one seldom needs to ask for help. Someone will see a need and volunteer.
Ravenna. It's a great place to live.
By Winona Snell, Box 87, Ravenna, NE 68869, with the assistance of John Snell, Bev Larsen, Lois Johnsten, Edith Abraham, Harold Polenz, and Bethyne Hanna. Pictures by: Dorothy Majer, Harold Polenz, Barb O'Neill, Jim Frye, Virginia Nolda, and the City of Ravenna.
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL: Ravenna Centennial 1886-1986, by Ravenna Genealogical Society; Ravenna, A Place Called Banishment, by Charles Jenkins; "Notes of Yesterday," weekly columns in "The Ravenna News"; Buffalo Tales, Buffalo County Historical Society; and NCIP scrapbooks by Bethyne Hanna and Lois Johnsten. | <urn:uuid:d66b9f30-6a02-4bba-8949-8dceefb75280> | {
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Dockrell, Julie E. and Messer, David A.
|Google Scholar:||Look up in Google Scholar|
About the book: This volume brings together work by scholars with backgrounds in linguistics, psycholinguistics, developmental psychology, education, and language pathology. As such, the book adds psycholinguistic and crosslinguistic perspectives to the clinical and classroom approaches that have dominated the study of “later language development”. Incorporating insights from prior language acquisition research, it goes beyond preschool age to consider both isolated utterances and extended discourse, conversational interactions and monologic text construction, and both written and spoken language use from early school-age across adolescence. Data from French, Hebrew, Spanish, and Swedish as well as English cover varied domains: morphology and lexicon, syntax and verb–argument structure, as well as peer interaction, spelling, processing of on-line writing, and reading poetry. The epilogue suggests explanations for the findings documented. Across the book, the authors show how cognitive and social maturation combines with increased literacy in the path taken by schoolchildren and adolescents towards the flexible deployment of a growing repertoire of lexical elements in varied morpho-syntactic constructions and different discourse contexts that constitutes the hallmark of maturely proficient language use.
|Item Type:||Book Chapter|
|Keywords:||children; lexical acquisition|
|Academic Unit/Department:||Faculty of Wellbeing, Education and Language Studies (WELS)|
|Interdisciplinary Research Centre:||Centre for Research in Education and Educational Technology (CREET)|
|Depositing User:||David Messer|
|Date Deposited:||29 May 2007|
|Last Modified:||17 Nov 2016 10:24|
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MAY 2, 2011
Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust (Delood)
Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust
The Museum of the Holocaust in Los Angeles (LAMOTH) opened to the public in the fall of 2010. The structure, designed by Belzberg Architects of Santa Monica, is built partially underground and covers an area of 32.000sqf. Situated in Pan Pacific Park, it is adjacent to the existing Holocaust Museum built in 1961, and opposite the Holocaust Monument.
Entrance to the museum is via a ramp which descends steeply and takes us into the underground area where sobriety is mirrored in both the design of the building and the content of the exhibits. The interior of the museum consists of raw concrete walls and low ceilings again suggesting a feeling of discomfort. Faint streams of natural light enter the building at intervals through apertures, aiding energy efficiency considerations to the design.
A priority during the design of the structure was that it would be assimilated into the existing landscape unobtrusively. The result is an emotionally powerful structure as befits the subject of the museum. The undulating shape of the green roof and concrete paths are in perfect synchrony with the topography of the park. | <urn:uuid:3b6be1d3-054f-456e-aef6-4209a24559d3> | {
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"This book is a record of a pleasure trip. If it were a record of a solemn scientific expedition, it would have about it that gravity, that profundity, and that impressive incomprehensibility which are so proper to works of that kind, and withal so attractive."
From the Preface to The Innocents Abroad, by Mark Twain
The purpose of this book is to teach you what you need to know to write Activities for Sugar, the operating environment developed for the One Laptop Per Child project. This book does not assume that you know how to program a computer, although those who do will find useful information in it. My primary goal in writing it is to encourage non programmers, including children and their teachers, to create their own Sugar Activities. Because of this goal I will include some details that other books would leave out and leave out things that others would include. Impressive incomprehensibility will be kept to a minimum.
If you just want to learn how to write computer programs Sugar provides many Activities to help you do that: Etoys, Turtle Art, Scratch, and Pippy. None of these are really suitable for creating Activities so I won't cover them in this book, but they're a great way to learn about programming. If you decide after playing with these that you'd like to try writing an Activity after all you'll have a good foundation of knowledge to build on.
When you have done some programming then you'll know how satisfying it can be to use a program that you made yourself, one that does exactly what you want it to do. Creating a Sugar Activity takes that enjoyment to the next level. A useful Sugar Activity can be translated by volunteers into every language, be downloaded hundreds of times a week and used every day by students all over the world.
A book that teaches everything you need to know to write Activities would be really, really long and would duplicate material that is already available elsewhere. Because of this, I am going to write this as sort of a guided tour of Activity development. That means, for example, that I'll teach you what Python is and why it's important to learn it but I won't teach you the Python language itself. There are excellent tutorials on the Internet that will do that, and I'll refer you to those tutorials.
There is much sample code in this book, but there is no need for you to type it in to try it out. All of the code is in a Git repository that you can download to your own computer. If you've never used Git there is a chapter that explains what it is and how to use it.
I started writing Activities shortly after I received my XO laptop. When I started I didn't know any of the material that will be in this book. I had a hard time knowing where to begin. What I did have going for me though was a little less than 30 years as a professional programmer. As a result of that I think like a programmer. A good programmer can take a complex task and divide it up into manageable pieces. He can figure out how things must work, and from that figure out how they do work. He knows how to ask for help and where. If there is no obvious place to begin he can begin somewhere and eventually get where he needs to go.
Because I went through this process I think I can be a pretty good guide to writing Sugar Activities. Along the way I hope to also teach you how to think like a programmer does.
From time to time I may add chapters to this book. Sugar is a great application platform and this book can only begin to tell you what is possible.
In the first edition of this book I expressed the wish that future versions of the book would have guest chapters on more advanced topics written by other experienced Activity developers. That wish has been realized. Not only does the book have guest chapters, but some of the new content has been created by young developers from the Google Code-in of 2012, for which I was one of the mentors. Their bios are in the About The Authors chapter. Read them and prepare to be impressed!
This book eliminates some content that was part of the first edition. The current version of Sugar uses GTK 3, and most of the examples in this addition use GTK 3 as well. In the first edition all the examples used GTK 2. The first edition also explained how to support multiple versions of Sugar with one Activity. That is no longer relevant to most Activity developers, so it has been removed.
In addition to examples using GTK3 this edition introduces the use of HMTL 5 and WebKit to create Activities. The advantage of HTML 5 is that it can run on Android and other tablet devices. There has been a fair amount of interest in using these devices for education, and if you develop using HTML 5 you can make versions of your Activity for both Sugar and Android.
This book is part of the FLOSS Manuals project and is available for online viewing at their website:
At this time this is the only place the second edition is available, but it will in time be made available everywhere the first edition is.
You will can purchase a printed and bound version of the first edition of book at Amazon.com:
The Internet Archive has the first edition of this book available as a full color PDF, as well as EPUB, MOBI, and DjVu versions, all of which you can download for free:
The Amazon Kindle Store has exactly the same MOBI version as the Internet Archive does.
If you choose to read this book on a Kindle or a Nook be aware that these devices have narrow screens not well suited for displaying program listings. I suggest you refer to the FLOSS Manuals website to see what the code looks like properly formatted.
There is a Spanish version of the first edition of this book, Cómo Hacer Una Actividad Sugar, which is available in all the same places as this version.
There has been error in communication with Booktype server. Not sure right now where is the problem.
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When our blood vessels contract or become smaller in diameter, it is called “vasospasm”. Vasospasm can happen with exposure to cold or emotional stress, but in some people, it can be quite severe and cause pain. During breastfeeding, the blood vessels in the nipple can contract or spasm. This is called “nipple vasospasm”.
Nipple vasospasm can cause mild to severe nipple or breast pain during or between feeds. The pain could be light itching, a burning sensation, a deep numbness or throbbing pain or a sharp, stabbing pain. The pain can last from a few seconds to hours. Your pain may get worse when your nipples are exposed to cold, when you step out of a hot shower or bath or if you go outside in cold weather, for example.Your nipples change colour
Your nipples can change to white (also known as “blanching”) after a feed. They may also change to blue, purple or dark red. These colour changes are a sign of nipple vasospasm and indicate that your blood vessels are contracting.Compression of the nipple
If your nipple is compressed, it may be a different shape after feeding your baby. Your nipple may look creased, folded or more pointed in general or on one side of the nipple. Blood flowing back to the nipple can cause a burning sensation, throbbing or shooting pain. Nipple compression, caused by a shallow latch or the baby pressing into the nipple to slow a fast milk flow, is a common cause of nipple vasospasm.What causes nipple vasospasm?
It is important to note that nipple vasospasm may sometimes feel like a thrush infection of the nipple or breast. If you are prescribed Fluconazole/Diflucan for thrush, but your real problem is nipple vasospasm, this treatment may make your vasospasm worse.What can I do to avoid and treat nipple vasospasm?
If your nipple vasospasms continue, despite taking these practical steps, it is important to seek help from your health care professional as soon as possible. This is so that they can investigate and rule out or treat any potential underlying condition, such as Raynaud’s disease or thrush (yeast). If either of these is causing your nipple vasospasm, specialized treatment will be required and your physician will be able to help and advise you accordingly. | <urn:uuid:6dc7de94-daab-463b-8e05-3f6b0dfaa5b0> | {
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Voting 283 for and 142 against, the House last week passed the Food Safety Enhancement Act of 2009, a bill that would greatly expand the Food and Drug Administration's authority over companies that handle or sell raw and processed foods, including farms. The bill (H.R. 2749) would require hundreds of thousands of domestic and foreign facilities operating within the U.S. or importing food to the U.S. to register annually with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, to pay annual registration fees to the FDA, and would subject them to more frequent, periodic inspections and require increased measures to prevent contamination. The bill gives the FDA greater power to recall contaminated foods and to quarantine the facilities that produced them. (While the bill would be partly financed by registration and inspection fees, it calls for additional congressional appropriations projected at $2 billion over five years. )
Early in the week, the bill fell 7 votes short, but a second vote came up with additional support. The bill has divided the food industry. The Grocery Manufacturers Association, a food industry group, has come out in support of the legislation, saying it echoes the group’s own ideas about food safety. Many farmers, however, have questioned the new rules. The legislation also seeks to enhance the FDA's ability to trace the origin of tainted food -- a huge issue in recent food recalls -- in the event of an outbreak of food-borne illness. FDA Commissioner Dr. Margaret A. Hamburg has come out in support of the bill.
Other key provisions of the bill:
- FDA inspections of food facilities would increase from as infrequent as once every 10 years to annually for high-risk facilities and at least once every 3 years for facilities deemed a lower risk. Recalls The FDA could mandate the recall of tainted foods, instead of relying on food makers to pull items voluntarily.
- FDA would get authority to set standards for safe production of food on farms, as well as require food manufacturers to meet new specific safety standards.
- HHS would identify new technology to be used by food growers, manufacturers and distributors to determine the origin of food and its movement through the supply chain. | <urn:uuid:19f46883-484f-45f6-81b9-e9e08ba5741d> | {
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Excerpted from "Behavior Changes After Stroke," appearing in the Stroke Connection Magazine January/February 2005. (Last science update March 2013)
Cognitive deficits are changes in thinking, like difficulty solving problems. This category also includes dementia and memory problems, as well as many kinds of communication challenges.
“We tend to see more short-term memory problems in people with left-brain stroke,” says Dr. Spradlin. “Long-term memory is usually preserved, but they may also have difficulty learning new information. They will likely need to have things repeated and be reminded over and over.
“People with right-brain strokes have memory problems of another kind — they tend to get things out of sequence or misinterpret or confuse information.” These survivors may mix up the details surrounding an event. Usually, they can recall events but get confused about when they happened or who was involved. For example, they may think a family member visited this morning rather than last night.
Communication in all its forms is often altered after a stroke, but the location of the stroke makes a difference as to what will be affected. In addition to communication problems like aphasia, a condition affecting the ability either to understand or process language, communication deficits may include decreased attention, distractibility and the inability to inhibit inappropriate behavior. “Some survivors are unable to ‘read’ people, for instance, not understanding the emotional context of a message or not understanding body language,” said Dr. Spradlin. “Some experience a deficit we call perseveration, in which the person is unable to refrain from certain behaviors. They can’t seem to ‘put the brakes on.’ They might not be able to get off a specific topic during conversation. As you might guess, family members can get very frustrated.”
Problem-solving ability is sometimes affected, usually more in survivors of right-brain strokes. “This is due in part to these survivors being impulsive and having decreased awareness of their deficits (See Improving Awareness to Speed Recovery). They think they can do things safely that they actually can’t do. For example, get up and walk or drive or even return to work. They tend to be impulsive and fail to think before they act. This reflects an inability to think through a situation rationally.”
Cognitive rehabilitation is usually provided on an outpatient or home basis by speech language pathologists. Neuropsychologists and occupational therapists can also help with cognitive rehab. There are computer software programs available to help survivors regain skills, too. “There are compensatory strategies like use of a ‘memory notebook’ to record important information as well as what they have done, etc. For higher-level patients, we use PDAs (personal digital assistants). We also encourage computer games and activities to exercise the mind, things like word puzzles, watching Wheel of Fortune, and playing cards or dominoes — thinking games.”
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posted by sweety .
the figure shows a uniform beam of weight 420 N and length 2.0 m suspended horizontally. On the left it is hinged to a wall, on the right it is supported by a cable bolted to the wall at distance D above the beam. The least tension that will snap the cable is 1100 N. What value of D corresponds to that tension? the figure cant be posted bt its like a right angle triangle on vertical side its wall, base side has the beam and hypotenuse is the string.
I assume that the cable (string) is bolted to the same wall, on the left. The angle of the string from horizontal is
A = arctan (D/2). Weight acts at the middle of the beam. Set the moment about the hinge equal to zero to get the cable tension, T.
420*1.0 m = T * sin A * 2.0 m
T = (1/2)* 420/sin A = 1100 (at the breaking point)
sin A = 210/1100 = 0.1909
A = 11.0 degrees
tan A = 0.1945 = D/2
D = 0.389 m | <urn:uuid:098771df-71e5-43ba-9ed3-0d039359ab21> | {
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19th July is a very important day in the lives of children all over the world. For, 19th July is celebrated as Father’s Day in most of the countries. On 19th July 1910, First Fathers’ Day was celebrated when the governor of US state of Washington proclaimed nation’s first father’s day.
Father’s day is a celebration meant to recognize the efforts put in by our fathers in raising us, giving us good education and sacrificing many material comforts for our well being. In fact, father’s day is the day when we should celebrate not only our father but all the fathers of the world who do so much for their children without making any fuss about it.
The origin of this special day lies in the efforts made by an American woman named Sonora Smart Dodd. Sonara heard a sermon about Mother’s day in a church. After hearing the sermon, Sonara decided that there should be a day to show our love and respect towards fathers since her father had raised her and her five siblings after her mother passed away. Celebrating father’s day seemed a right way to honor her father.
Initially people mocked the idea and it met with resistance from the influential people of the society but Sonara persisted. Later on, on 19 July 1910 first father’s day was proclaimed but it was only in 1972, the day became an official holiday in USA.
This year, celebrate father’s day as a mark of respect for your father and honor him by fulfilling his wishes. Don’t hesitate to utter a few words of thanks to him and show your love and respect for him. | <urn:uuid:94119efa-f2ef-428c-b593-09d297c71461> | {
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Assignment task 1
Tenure is classed as ‘The legal relationship between the resident and the home they inhabit’. There are two different forms of tenure, the first being Owner Occupation and the second being Renting. Owner Occupation
The largest type of tenure within the UK is Owner Occupation, this is where the tenant actually owns the home they live in, either in full or part-owned. 66% of tenants within the UK are home owners making the owner occupier market the biggest in the housing world. There are two specific types of home ownership, Full owner occupier and Shared ownership.
A full owner occupier is someone who owns 100% of their homes, be that the land it is built on, the building and all surrounding land and the contents of the home. They will usually have a mortgage from a bank or building society to pay for the purchase of a home over a set number of years, however some may own their homes outright after the cost of purchasing the home has been paid off.
A shared ownership occupier is someone who owns a specific percentage of their home and this is usually a joint ownership with the person who built the property. This tends to be arranged with the local council or a social landlord, who may of paid to build the property and is now selling off a ‘stake’ in the property. Like a full owner occupier the costs of a shared ownership property will usually be met by either mortgage for the percentage ownership of the property over a set number of years or by paying the cost of purchasing said percentage of the house in full.
The second type of tenure within the housing market in the UK is renting, with approximately 34% of people currently renting a property. Like Owner Occupiers there are two types of rental properties. Private renting and Social renting.
A private renting tenant is someone who pays a set amount of money to rent a property from a private landlord, the private landlord is usually the Owner of the property however they choose not to occupy the premises but ‘let’ it out to a tenant.
A social renting tenant is someone who pays their rent to a council, housing association or another not for profit company, their landlord owns the property outright and usually has a portfolio of properties that they rent out to tenants.
I am now going to look at the main advantages and disadvantages of the three major forms of tenure, and then look at how each type of tenure can be ended Tenure| Main advantages of this type of tenure| Main disadvantages of this type of tenure| How is each type of tenure brought to an end?| Owner Occupier| * The cost of a mortgage may be cheaper than renting a similar property * The home is an asset which can be passed on to relatives, children etc. * Money can be raised on the value of your home (Equity release or re-mortgaging) * The property may increase in value * When mortgage has been paid off the tenant has very limited housing costs | * Owner Occupier must meet the full cost of maintenance themselves * Owners MUST have Buildings & Contents insurance in order to secure a mortgage * First time buyers will need to find a large deposit to secure a mortgage * Tenant is responsible for any legal fees * Property could depreciate in value leaving the tenant with negative equity| To end a tenure on an owner occupiers tenancy a court order must be granted to the company who finances the mortgage for the property, the courts must be satisfied that the finance company have done everything possible to avoid the tenant being re-possessed| .
How are people on low incomes assisted in paying for an Owner Occupier property?
Owner occupiers receive no financial aid towards paying the cost of their mortgage, if the tenant finds themselves out of work for over twelve months they can apply for aid to... | <urn:uuid:e6eb2431-71e0-4cfb-8d30-249be4a145bb> | {
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” I will never get married,
I will never acquire any property,
I will never visit my home,
I will devote and dedicate the rest
of my life to achieve the goals
of Phule -Ambedkar movement”
These pledges remind the work of Manywar Kanshiram Sahib who is remembered in the history of India as a True leader of Bahujan Samaj. The journey of Kanshi Ram and his movement of socio-cultural revolution and economic emancipation of Bahujan Samaj started way back in 1964. Kanshi Ram, the eldest son of Mr. Hari Singh, resident of Khawaspur village of Punjab’s Roper district, was born on 15th March, 1934, in a Sikh family belonging to the Ramdasia Community. After qualifying the examination conducted by the Defense Science and Research Development Organization, he moved to Pune in Maharashtra and joined the Explosive Research and Development Laboratory at Kirkee, where he was exposed to the bad breath of Hindu social order i.e. atrocious caste system. In the ordinance factory, where Kanshi Ram was working, the management cancelled the holidays of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Jayanti and Buddha Jayanti and instead granted Tilak Jayanti holiday and an additional holiday during Diwali festival. As a reaction to this, not the Ambedkarites from Maharashtra but a Scheduled Caste Mr. Dina Bhana, from Rajasthan, protested against the cancellation of these two holidays. Dina Bhana’s protest resulted in his suspension. By this atrocious act, agitated Kanshi Ram fought the legal battle for Dina Bhana.
As a result, not only was Dina Bhana reinstated but the holidays were also restored. The unjust and casteist act on the part of management resulted in a new awakening in Kanshi Ram, as he did not properly realize the casteist divisions in his youth in Punjab. Thereafter Kanshi Ram studied the literature of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, the biggest destroyer of Brahmanism after Buddha, Jotiba Phule and Periyar. Dr. Ambedkar’s Monumental work, “Annihilation of Castes” influenced Kanshi Ram tremendously. In one night he read the book three times which created not only an impact on Kanshi Ram, but shaped his thinking and future course of actions. Beside Dr. Ambedkar’s writings, Mr. Kanshi Ram found the path of further movement in Dr. Ambedkar’s plan for political action. On 24th September 1944, at Madras, with an absolute clarity Dr. Babasaheb declared the political goal of his struggle. Addressing the large followers he said, “Understand our ultimate goal. Our ultimate goal is to become the rulers of this country. Write this goal on the walls of your houses so that you will not forget. Our struggle is not for the few jobs and concessions but we have a larger goal to achieve. That goal is to become the rulers of the land.” Accordingly the agenda of political power was pursued constantly by Dr. Babasaheb in his further programmes. On 4thOctober, 1945, in the Working Committee meeting of All India Scheduled Castes Federation again he elaborately stressed on the political power and said, “Politics should be the life-blood of the Scheduled Castes.” Since politics of Congress party, the mouthpiece of the dominant castes was detrimental to the very existence and interests of backward class people, Babasaheb tried to form a broad – base movement of all the victims of Brahmanism. | <urn:uuid:9bf37602-50f4-4b78-bff7-ebd5a4c6cee8> | {
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At the Child School/Legacy High School we believe that PE consists of four main areas:
- Specific skill building
- Sportsmanship /Teamwork
- Adaptive physical education
Our physical education department follows New York State requirements.
Specific Skill Building
Working on specific gross motor skills plays a huge part in a child's attitude regarding staying active. Acquisition of a skill can lead to success in many different PE activities. Being successful in physical activities leads to the greater chance that a youngster will continue to be active throughout their life. Hence, working on specific skills during physical education has much value for the future health and success of each of our students.
Physical education offers a great opportunity for socialization. During this period, children are called upon to interact with peers and teachers in a manner far different from the structure of the classroom. Physical education class elicits a wide range of emotions. Our physical education staff is constantly called upon to teach children how to express and control their emotions and to negotiate and work together all of which enhance a child's emotional intelligence and better prepares him for life.
It is a key component of a school to have a good physical education program. It encompasses a wide range of acceptable behaviors. A student must understand that the final outcome is not always as important as the difficult journey to get to that final outcome. That winning is not always as important as the great accomplishments made along the way. A student must learn how to accept losing and be a good winner. In order for a student to develop good sportsmanship it must be emphasized at all grade levels. The same sportsmanship values necessary for a good physical education/athletic program are the same values that are necessary for success in the “real world." Although it seems like sportsmanship in sports have seem to have taken a back seat to competition, sportsmanship is still a very important factor here at T.C.S./Legacy.
Adaptive Physical Education
Whenever possible we run our PE programs as close to a mainstream PE program as we can. We always take into consideration students' individual needs such as sensory motor, fine motor, special awareness, etc. We have added programs to fulfill those needs and always work closely with occupational therapists and counselors to ensure that all students get the most from the PE program.
At the Child School/ Legacy High School we believe that physical fitness, healthy living and sportsmanship are essential parts of the education process that leads to success in the adult world.
Teams and Schedules
After-school participation is encouraged through our Co-Curricular Sports Program, providing team sports in soccer, basketball, softball and track. Our teams travel and compete inter scholastically throughout the Greater New York Metropolitan area.
With five spacious parks, six historic landmarks dating from 1796 and incredible views of Manhattan's skyscrapers, Roosevelt Island is an ideal place for outdoor sports. Soccer season runs from September to the first week in November. Students in Elementary, Middle & High School comprise the co-ed Soccer Teams. Games are played in one of the many parks found in and around scenic Roosevelt Island.
From Thanksgiving to the end of February, basketball keeps our students warm indoors. The Elementary team plays competitively against other area schools in co-ed teams. The Middle School team competes in a competitive interscholastic league. Ninth and tenth grade Legacy High School boys can compete on our Junior Varsity Team, while eleventh and twelfth graders compete on our Varsity Team. For the Girls in our Middle and High Schools, we have our Lady Tigers.
When the weather turns warm around late March or early April, The Child School and Legacy High School students are given the opportunity to compete in Softball. Legacy High School, Middle School and Child School students compete with other area schools on our co-ed Softball Team.
Co-ed Track is offered to students from fifth to the twelfth grades. We practice by running around the many paths around Roosevelt Island. We compete in a variety of level specific meets which include running events, long jump and shot put.
The White Tiger is the perfect mascot for The Child School / Legacy High School. It is known for being unique and majestic. In addition, the white tiger originates in India, the country of origin of our school principal and founder. | <urn:uuid:9d5d833d-c642-4ef1-a2da-882503f6b679> | {
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The Other Holocaust: Many Circles of Hell
A Private War: Surviving in Poland on False Papers, 1941–1945
Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944
Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945
It is by now reasonably well known that six million Jews died as a result of the policies of Adolf Hitler, but far less so that the total number of nonmilitary victims of Nazi genocidal policies was probably between fourteen and sixteen million. The discrepancy between the two figures has led some students of the Second World War to question current usage of the term “Holocaust” which is usually taken to mean the destruction of the European Jews, and the Nobel laureate Czeslaw Milosz has expressed concern lest this exclusivist usage tend to make people forget that millions of Poles, Russians, and prisoners of other nationalities suffered the same brutal end.
One can acknowledge that too little attention has been paid to the fate of these other victims without ceasing to believe that there are sound reasons for treating the Final Solution as a special case. More Jews were killed than members of any other national group. The destruction of the Jews was longer premeditated, more systematic and continuous, and accomplished by a more fiendishly ingenious combination of technological and scientific means than was true in the case of other victims. And, above all, no other group (except perhaps the Gypsies, whose extermination the Nazis did not in the end pursue with the assiduity and obsessive thoroughness that characterized their Jewish policy) was condemned to death by definition. In their desire to destroy Poland as a nation, the Nazis set out to kill the elites that might preserve it, but not all Poles were marked for death. The Jews were condemned without regard for their status, occupation, or politics; they were killed because they were Jews.
The policy that was intended to accomplish this ghastly result was of long gestation, and its first germs were probably planted in Hitler’s mind during his days in Vienna before the First World War. From the virulence with which he writes about the Jews in Mein Kampf, it is clear that anti-Semitism was never a mere matter of tactics to him, as it was to his first political model Karl Lueger, but was passionately felt. Long before Hitler came to power, the elimination of the Jews from German society had become a basic objective of his movement, although the means of accomplishing it had not been defined. The boycott of Jewish shops after 1933, the Gleichschaltung process that deprived Jews of positions in the civil service and the professions, the Nuremberg laws that destroyed their civil rights, the various plans for forced deportation were stages in the process of definition, all of which were soon felt to be inadequate as Hitler’s successes in foreign policy encouraged visions of a Greater German Reich, extending far into Eastern Europe and purged of all non-German elements. The excesses of Reichskristallnacht in November 1938 hinted at the efficiency and psychological satisfaction of violence as a means of solving the Jewish question, and the coming of the war a year later removed the last inhibitions upon its use.…
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Purchase a trial Online Edition subscription and receive unlimited access for one week to all the content on nybooks.com. | <urn:uuid:d1bd5e11-46e6-4804-a45c-fb2c0f621479> | {
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It's the end of the flight, and the seat backs and tray tables have been returned to their full upright position. The main landing gear of the Boeing 777, its struts as tall as two-story buildings, unfolds from the wheel wells and swings down until the downlocks engage, which will prevent the sturdy titanium legs from collapsing during the landing, now only moments away.
The runway, stained with streaks of black rubber from the countless tires that have arrived here before these 12 Goodyears, rushes upward, and 500,000 pounds of aluminum, plastic, steel, fuel, passengers, and baggage slam onto the concrete. The main wheels, each 32 inches in diameter with 50-inch radial tires, accelerate from zero to 140 mph in less than a tenth of a second. The tires bulge and shriek, parts of their tread surfaces heated to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. The telescoping struts are compressed several feet under the airplane's enormous weight, and the guy sleeping in seat 36F stirs but doesn't awaken, oblivious to the drama that has just played out below the cabin floor. Of all the punishment an airplane experiences over its lifetime, landings are in a class by themselves: They are sheer torture on the tires and gear, and airplanes must endure them on every single flight. Engineers face some daunting challenges getting airplanes back down on the ground in one piece, and considering all that a landing gear is subjected to, it holds up admirably--largely because of careful design and testing.
One of the centers for such work is the NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. Here, a team of engineers tests the performance of gear struts, tires, and brake systems on military, commercial and research aircraft, including the space shuttle. ALDF engineers do much of their primary research with a 110,000-pound steel-tube carriage that carries landing gear down two steel rails to a "landing" on a short patch of runway. Propelled by a high-pressure water jet, the carriage, which looks like the kind of modern art sculpture you see in front of government buildings, is capable of reaching a speed of 265 mph and an acceleration of 20 Gs on its short trip down the track. Engineers can even douse the test surface with water to simulate a rain-slick runway. The carriage can capture 28 channels of data, such as cornering and friction loads from the tire or strut being tested, and the carriage itself is arrayed with hundreds of strain gauges that tell its operators if their apparatus is about to turn itself into a pile of water-propelled scrap metal. The researchers are primarily interested in the interrelated effects of different runway surfaces, landing conditions, and tire types.
Sometimes the focus isn't on the tire at all but on testing runway and taxiway surfaces themselves. In recent years, tests have been conducted on surfaces made from paver blocks, which can be used to make a taxiway that fits together like a tile floor and can be easily repaired. Another innovation, the grooved runway surface, which channels water away, was developed and tested at ALDF and is now in use worldwide.
Using the carriage, ALDF engineers have been able to predict tire wear under given steering stresses and crosswind loads. This work started 20 years ago with tests to make sure the space shuttle could land safely. "With the shuttle, the speeds involved and the weight per tire are much higher than any other airplane," says Bob Daugherty, an ALDF engineer. "And there are tremendous wear problems to the extent that there was once a big concern about shuttle tires surviving even one landing." ALDF tests showed that the shuttle could operate on tires that are very similar to commercial aircraft tires, which are a blend of natural and synthetic rubber. As a result, shuttle tire life was increased significantly.
Another airplane that created headaches--but also taught important lessons--was the SR-71 Blackbird. "I'm being partly facetious, but my guess is that Kelly Johnson and his team at the Skunkworks put so much effort into getting the SR-71 from takeoff up to Mach 3 and then back again it was kind of like "How do we get it to the hangar and from the hangar out to the end of the runway?' " says former Blackbird pilot Tom Alison, now a curator at the National Air and Space Museum. The SR-71's landing gear, which is small for a 100,000-pound airplane, was added "as if it was an afterthought," Alison says.
Because the SR-71's gear was perhaps its weakest system, Alison says that the mighty Blackbird had to be treated delicately on the ground. "You could lock the brakes up and skid the tires even at taxi speed if you stepped on the brakes real hard," he says. "You treated it like a large airplane on the ground, even though it had the performance of a fighter-type airplane."
These problems arise because designers of landing gear have always had to manage a host of sometimes conflicting requirements based on the mission and performance of the aircraft their gear will support. The U.S. Air Force, for example, wants the third largest airplane in the world, the C-5 Galaxy, to be able to operate from unpaved fields. The shuttle weighs as much as 240,000 pounds on landing, yet its gear must be capable of touching down either on a dry lakebed or on the Kennedy Space Center runway, which is criss-crossed with tire-shredding half-inch-high channels that allow maximum runoff during a typical Florida rainstorm. And the Navy and Marines like to slam high-performance fighters onto the decks of ships--punishment that would make non-seaworthy gear struts crumple like soup cans.
"You've got a landing gear community out there that is a bit at the mercy of everybody else involved in aircraft design," says Dave Morris, a senior project engineer at the Air Force's Wright Laboratories at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. The labs are a key site for gear and tire testing for all branches of the U.S. military, as well as for manufacturers of commercial aircraft, tires, and gear.
"They have to work with some constraints that are quite severe and that are not expected in other components in terms of weight," Morris says. He points out that as aircraft evolve, they tend to get heavier, and problems often develop as their gear systems start to strain under the load. "The F-16 started out as a lightweight fighter around 25,000 pounds gross weight. Now they're up to 48,000 pounds and the old tires couldn't cut it anymore," Morris says. After trying steadily higher tire pressures, the Air Force finally had to switch to a larger tire, which necessitated design changes in the lower fuselage in later production models.
Increased weight often drives advances in tire and gear design, and not only because of the need to support the airplane without failing under the load. Runway and taxiway surfaces have their limits too, and will crumble under improperly designed gear. "Flotation" is the term describing the ability to spread the weight of an aircraft over a big enough area of ground to support it, and flotation is a direct function of gear and tire placement. Perhaps no aircraft offers a better example of this principle than the monstrous Convair B-36 Peacemaker, a bomber designed during World War II to attack targets halfway around the world from bases in the continental United States (see Max W. Schelper, a former Convair engineer who worked on the B-36. Only three airfields in the United States had the specially built, 24-inch-thick, steel-reinforced concrete runways the XB-36 would have required. "The crying need was to go to a bogey-type [multiple-wheel] gear to spread the footprint out and to allow it to land on any of the heavy-duty runways then in existence," Schelper says.
At one point, the engineers tried to do away with tires altogether and outfit the XB-36 with a tracked system, which made the huge bomber look like it was being carried by two Sherman tanks. Not surprisingly, the large tracks weighed 5,600 pounds more than the improved multiple-wheel gear. "I won't call it a disaster, because the XB-36 [with the experimental tracks fitted] was the only aircraft that could operate out of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in snowstorms," Schelper says.
Other aircraft also got the track treatment. Experiments were conducted with such aircraft as a Fairchild C-82 Packet and a Douglas A-20, which was even able to traverse mud and sand. In all these installations, extra weight was almost always the downfall, along with the difficulty of keeping a very complex system of rubber-covered tracks operating at the high speeds encountered during landing and takeoff. In the case of the track-equipped XB-36, "every time you hit the runway, rubber would fly off," Schelper says.
Lesson learned: For better flotation, add more tires of reasonable size. The Air Force got its wish on the gigantic C-5 Galaxy, which was at one time the largest airplane in the world. The airplane can (in theory but very rarely in practice) operate on bare soil, thanks to its 28 tires, arranged on four six-wheel struts and a four-wheel nose strut. The problem with all those struts and tires, though, is that they add so much weight. It's tough to provide adequate flotation without incurring a whopping penalty.
The answer for the Boeing 747, still the largest commercial passenger jet today, was to use four main gear struts to support its bulk, which can exceed 700,000 pounds. Other wide-body airliners have used a similar approach, such as the DC-10-30 and the Airbus 340, which have vestigial-looking two-wheel gear struts mounted between their twin four-wheel mains.
When Boeing landing gear designers turned their attention to the new 777, they faced a familiar problem: A big, heavy airplane needs a lot of flotation, but additional landing gear struts add a lot of weight and space is limited. The solution was two six-wheel struts, the largest ever attached to a commercial aircraft. Each 50-inch-diameter tire measures 20 inches across. The six-wheel arrangement prevented the need to add additional struts, and by using titanium extensively, Boeing kept the weight down even further.
The 777's designers also faced the perennial problem of where to put the gear when it retracts into the wheel wells. "You're always strapped for space, because they want to put freight, electrical bays, air conditioning packs, and goodness knows what else down there," says John Davies, a Boeing landing gear designer. "I can remember times when [airframe designers] have configured an aircraft, figured out where they want a gear, but not where to stow it.
Sometimes you start working on that process later than you might want. But I think that's turning around with the advent of computer-aided design systems. More people realize the importance--the airplane spends a lot of time on its gear." Today, gear designers are more involved from the beginning of the design process, Davies says.
The actual manufacture of landing gear is sub-contracted to a handful of companies that specialize in building struts, such as Menasco and BFGoodrich Aerospace. Sometimes, gear engineers from contractors are actually detailed to a particular aircraft manufacturer so they can design the gear in-house. Once the design is finalized, the contractor takes over manufacture of the components, says Louis Hrusch, chief engineer for BFGoodrich's landing gear division. Gear legs are made by forging, which offers good strength-to-weight ratios and involves taking a rough cast of the part and essentially compressing the material, usually steel alloy or titanium, into shape. "Forging gives you better properties all the way around, in terms of fatigue and wear. You start with a cast ingot and heat it to a semi-solid and you pound it in that state," Hrusch says. In terms of materials, steel is still the best material for building landing gear since it is stronger than titanium, although titanium wears better and is much less prone to corrosion, he says. After the strut is forged, wheels and brakes are then attached after being designed and built by subcontractors to exacting specifications provided by the aircraft manufacturer. Designing and building brakes and wheels demands "pretty unique expertise," says Davies. That's because in any gear system, the wheels, tires, and brakes take the brunt of the effects of high speeds and the violence associated with even routine taxiing, takeoffs, and landings.
The appearance of a telltale puff of blue smoke that marks the contact of the tire on the runway is not necessarily when most of the wear on aircraft tires occurs, despite the streaks of rubber deposited on those blackened touchdown zones. Tire wear is a complex problem that depends far more heavily on whether the tire is aligned with the direction of the airplane's motion. "If there is a crosswind, you're never really rolling straight down the runway even if your body is going straight," Daugherty says. "You're actually cocked into the wind, and that really tears up tires." An airplane's tire under a crosswind literally gets bent out of shape. The part of the tire that isn't in contact with the runway or taxiway is constantly being pulled sideways as the tire distorts under the load. The combination of crosswinds on rollout and the steering forces exerted during taxiing causes tremendous wear, accounting for 90 to 95 percent of the total.
Designers of the Boeing 747 gear discovered early that making the inboard main gear wheels steerable helps relieve the strain imposed on the gear system. That steerable system was not installed on the first 747, but was added soon after the inboard main tires experienced high wear from scrubbing laterally across taxiways and runways as the aircraft turned. The newer 777's gear has a similar feature: The aft two wheels of each main gear are steerable. On airliners with two or four wheels on two mains, only the nose wheels are steerable since side forces are less of a problem. Wheels and tires also get pretty hot, primarily as a result of braking. Most modern aircraft brakes are enclosed within the wheels of the main landing gear and comprise an alternating stack of smooth metal rotors and stators, which are bonded to friction-producing pads made from metal or carbon compounds. When the pilot pushes on the tops of the rudder pedals to activate the brakes, the whole stack of plates is squeezed together by hydraulic cylinders arranged around the wheel. All that friction, especially at high landing speeds, produces tremendous heat that radiates directly into the tires, which are inflated with nitrogen or air to a pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch. The combination of pressure and heat is sometimes explosive: The air inside the tire gets hot enough to blow apart either the tire or, sometimes, the entire wheel assembly. Even though it dissipates pretty quickly, a quick burst of heat is also produced by the violent contact of tire and runway. "If they have a shuttle landing at night, they'll use an infrared camera," Daugherty says. "When you look at the tires in infrared, they just turn on like lights."
In aircraft that spend a lot of time at extreme speeds and altitudes, aerodynamic friction on the skin creates another type of problem involving heat. SR-71 Blackbird tires have always sported a flashy silver coating to reflect the heat radiated by the hot skin just inches away. "Almost everything on that airplane was designed with heat in mind," Tom Alison says. "People ask me how fast would it go, or what the limiting airspeed was. There wasn't a limiting airspeed, but there was a limiting temperature, and your speed was determined by how hot it got."
Alison says that each of the Blackbird's tires were pressurized with 400 pounds of nitrogen, and at touchdown speeds of around 180 mph, it wasn't uncommon for a pilot to blow a tire when braking because of the tremendous buildup of heat. "You could hear the pop clear up in the cockpit," he says. Pilots and ground crews were cautious around the tires until they had cooled off a bit. Immediately after every shutdown, SR-71 crew chiefs set up large fans to blow cool air over the hot tires and brakes. "You could see the wheels smoking, and that was when you had been doing everything right," Alison says.
The individual components are important, but a landing gear design can succeed only if the wheels, tires, struts, and brakes work in harmony. The wrong combination can spell disaster, which is exactly what happened during tests of experimental electrical brakes on the Republic A-10 Thunderbolt. When the new brakes were installed on a strut, the action of the brakes induced a "gear walk," a rapid fore-and-aft movement that snapped the strut completely off the test airplane. Today, A-10s employ conventional hydraulic brakes.
The need to eliminate adverse movement and vibration in a landing gear system becomes increasingly important as aircraft age. "After 10 or 20 years, the various joints and pieces get a few thousandths of [an inch of] wear here and there, and pretty soon you've got a system where things are shimmying," Daugherty says. "And in fact, there are gear snapping off out there in the commercial world too."
In response, ALDF engineers are developing devices that can monitor the health of a landing gear system and detect minute vibrations and movements that could cause significant problems later on. The data can be stored and downloaded later at certain intervals in an airplane's service life to help predict patterns of potential failure.
Sometimes gear problems appear before the airplane is even built, as is the case with the High Speed Civil Transport, a supersonic aircraft envisioned to cut transoceanic travel times dramatically in the 21st century. The airplane's unique size and shape make it a prime candidate for problems, even when taxiing. The HSCT features a long, slender forward fuselage, with a nose gear located farther back than it is on current airliners. That arrangement can create a situation whereby the up-and-down motion of the nosewheel, as it rolls over even the smallest irregularities in the pavement, can translate into exaggerated pendulum-like movements by the time they reach the forward fuselage and cockpit.
This nasty phenomenon was first experienced by the XB-70, a Mach 3 bomber test flown in the late 1960s. "The XB-70's cabin was 65 feet out in front [of the gear], so it was a big, limber nose sticking out there," says former North American test pilot Al White. The taxiways at Edwards Air Force Base in California, with seams about 20 feet apart, played the airframe as if it were a guitar string. The frequency of the potential vibration present in the forward fuselage corresponded exactly to the spacing of the seams at certain taxi speeds. "It was about two cycles per second and it worked out that at about 20 miles per hour, every time you hit one of them it was amplified. If you sped up or slowed down a little bit, it stopped right away."
The answer for the HSCT may lie in building a smarter gear. Researchers at NASA's Langley Research Center are working on an active control system that could dampen the motion by quickly adjusting the amount of hydraulic fluid in a strut in response to vibrations caused by taxiways and runways. The system will employ sensors placed in the nose of an aircraft that can detect irregularities in the pavement ahead and then send that information to a control system that will direct the strut to respond accordingly to dampen the shock. Tests of the system are being conducted using an old A-6 Intruder strut attached to a hydraulic shaker table, and results have been promising. The new technology could also be applied to other aircraft, such as tactical airlifters, which sometimes operate from unconventional surfaces.
In the small world of landing gear design, engineers are working on new materials, active control struts, and computer monitoring systems. No matter what future aircraft look like, those unsung legs with all the wheels hanging off them will be there, tucked into wings or fuselages, doing their job with heat, smoke, and noise but little fanfare. | <urn:uuid:5ca1df1f-7341-471c-bd87-204cc9dee88d> | {
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Summary of Resources and Communication: Handy hints and where to find useful information (Phase 1)
This guide summarises useful information developed by the Soil Wealth and Integrated Crop Protection (ICP) Phase 1 projects from 2014-2017, and where to find it. These resources are relevant to all major vegetable growing regions in Australia. The resources developed includes fact sheets (51), case studies (12), videos and apps (36), e-newsletters (32 editions), as well as demonstration site information. The main topics covered by these resources include crop management, pest and disease management, and soil, nutrition and compost.
All the resources in this guide can be found on this project website. | <urn:uuid:cfcea941-e99f-43ea-9be9-b42e2099a5aa> | {
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World Obesity Day 2017: WHO's Guidelines For Better Management Of Obesity In Kids
Give the scenario, this World Obesity Day, the World Health Organization has released a new set of guidelines where trained professionals can help youngster in a better way. After China, India ranks second in highest number of obese children in the world.
World Obesity Day 2017: Guidelines for better management of obesity in kids
- Obesity is a global epidemic which affects poorer nations of the world
- India ranks second in highest number of obese children in the world
- Obesity is children is due to the unhealthy diet conditions
Obesity seems to affect the world now and childhood obesity, apparently, is a "global epidemic" which affects even the poorer nations of the world. Give the scenario, this World Obesity Day, the World Health Organization has released a new set of guidelines where trained professionals can help youngster in a better way. After China, India ranks second in highest number of obese children in the world. This has been stated in The New England Journal of Medicine this year. Doctors say that this is due to the fact that often parents term obese children as chubby and healthy.
The WHO guidelines titled "Assessing and managing children at primary healthcare facilities to prevent overweight and obesity in the context of the double burden of malnutrition" gives updates for Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI). These include counseling, dieting, assessment of regular eating habits and a usual weight and height measurement.
Also read: World Obesity Day 2017: Top 5 Nutrition Myths Busted!
Former national president of the Indian Academy of Paediatrics, HP Sachdev, also a part of the WHO's guideline development group informed The Hindu, "In 2016, one half of all children overweight or obese lived in Asia and one quarter lived in Africa. Paradoxically, overweight and obesity is found in populations where under-nutrition remains common - the term 'double-burden of malnutrition' is sometimes used to describe these settings."
While making a reference to the guideline, Dr Sachdev added that regularly offering kids supplementary food and in primary health care facilities is not recommended at all.
"Early prevention is the need of the hour to avoid an entire generation from falling prey to heart ailments, hypertension and diabetic complications," he said.
The Indian Medical Association is currently disseminating the WHO guidelines to all members. IMA National President K.K. Aggarwal said that obesity is children is due to the unhealthy conditions diet conditions and physical inactivity in people.
According to a study published in the Paediatric Obesity says that by 2025, India will have over 17 million overweight children. Dr Aggarwal said while quoting a WHO document that urbanization, increase in income, availability of fast and unhealthy foods has lead to consumption of foods high in fat, sugar and salt, further lowering physical activity.
"While there have been major public health interventions to promote improved diet and patterns of physical activity in adults, the contribution of antenatal and young-child interventions to reducing the risk of obesity in later life have not been significantly reviewed. We are writing to all our doctors explaining the guidelines," he said.
A paediatric endocrinologist in Apollo Hospitals, Anjana Hulse said that the identification of obese children is a big challenge.
"Parents feel the necessity to see a doctor only when their children develop complications. Most obese children develop early puberty, joint pain and find it difficult to exercise. This in turn results in metabolic syndrome and they end up with Type 2 diabetes," she said.
With agency inputs
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New Fashionable Know-how (NMT) is without doubt one of the main IT companies providers in North Asia, with headquarters in Hong Kong overlaying strong consumer based in China, Hong Kong and Japan. What used to work before, might not be working now, it will need to have received outdated or received replaced by modern know-how Let’s take a look at a simple instance in Transportation know-how, this technology has evolved with years, we used to use steam powered trains now these have been changed by electronic trains which move quicker than steam trains.
A modern instance is the rise of communication know-how, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and in consequence has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has at its basis the development of the Internet and the pc 15 Not all technology enhances tradition in a creative means; know-how can also help facilitate political oppression and warfare by way of tools similar to guns.
Trendy know-how is solely an advancement of previous expertise, the affect of know-how in trendy life is unmeasurable, we use expertise in numerous ways and generally the way in which we implement numerous technologies finally ends up harming our lives or the society we go away in. What we name modern expertise is technically not so new in most cases.
In physics , the discovery of nuclear fission has led to each nuclear weapons and nuclear power Computer systems have been also invented and later miniaturized using transistors and integrated circuits Info expertise subsequently led to the creation of the Internet , which ushered in the current Information Age Humans have additionally been capable of explore area with satellites (later used for telecommunication ) and in manned missions going all the way in which to the moon.
Making use of laptop science technologies, comparable to web site mapping, and geographic data systems software, or GIS, the researchers have been in a position to summarize and visually display geographic and locational data, such because the distribution of sites on the panorama or the distribution of cultural features within a person site. | <urn:uuid:c1763858-f285-4b47-8d32-fc4c4109f383> | {
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Goji berries - also known as wolf berries - are tiny dried shriveled looking red berries with a long history of inclusion in therapeutic Chinese Cooking. As with many other therapeutic herbs they are often used in popular Chinese dishes such as congee - a soupy mix of rice, beans, herbs and vegetables with chicken or pork - and in other tonic soups and teas which are consumed regularly.
Goji beries - when consumed daily - have been proven to provide extra antioxidants which may protect against oxidative stress, a known cause of male infertility. Goji berries can be enjoyed in a mug of hot tea every day, when they have softened you can enjoy their delicious fruity taste - they are especially nice in ginger tea. You should always ask your physician before making radical diet changes or trying new herbs.
In Chinese medicine goji berries are used to tonify the 'liver yin' and 'kidney yin' which are often deficient in people with infertility, Goji is a light and nourishing tonic that is regarded as being safe for long-term use without causing 'stagnation' which is associated with many heavier tonic herbs.
One study on male infertility (4) gave forty two men with low sperm counts and poor motility a daily dose of goji berries (15g fresh berries a day) for one month and noted that just over 50% of the men (23) had normal sperm counts after just one month. Ten of the remaining men had similar good results after two months of treatment and and nine men showed no change. In a follow-up after two years all of the men who had responded to the goji treatment (33 men) had all successfully fathered children.
Studies (1) have shown that when goji berries are consumed daily changes take place in gene expression that can protect cells from damage especially when cells are damaged or stressed. Other studies (2) have shown that when goji berries are consumed daily skin damage from UV radiation can be significantly reduced as the berries powerfully reduce inflammation and promote healing. Given the onslaught of chemicals our bodies encounter daily goji may help to protect our cells from chemical-induced damage.
Other studies (3) have shown that goji extracts can protect against the oxidative damage which tends to increase with age. Such damage is associated with both male and female infertility. After just thirty days of goji consumption significant changes in antioxidant capacity are noted:
"...increased endogenous lipid peroxidation, and decreased antioxidant activities, as assessed by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and total antioxidant capacity (TAOC), and immune function were observed in aged mice and restored to normal levels in the polysaccharides-treated (goji) groups."
"...Lycium barbarum (goji) polysaccharides can be used in compensating the decline in TAOC (total antioxidant capacity), immune function and the activities of antioxidant enzymes and thereby reduces the risks of lipid peroxidation accelerated by age-induced free radical."
This study also showed that the antioxidant capacity of goji is increased when consumed with vitamin C. One caution you should be aware of is that goji may interact with warfarin - a commonly used anti-coagulant medication - used to thin the blood. If your sperm count and motility are in need of some help a daily dose of goji berries may be the ticket.
This article is for purely informational purposes and is not intended to substitute for medical or nutritional advice for which you should consult a physician or dietitian.
1. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Sep 28;59(18):10088-96. Epub 2011 Aug 25. Effect of Goji (Lycium barbarum) on expression of genes related to cell survival. Lin NC, Lin JC, Chen SH, Ho CT, Yeh AI.
2. Phytochem Photobiol Sci. 2010 Apr;9(4):601-7. Mice drinking goji berry juice (Lycium barbarum) are protected from UV radiation-induced skin damage via antioxidant pathways. Reeve VE, Allanson M, Arun SJ, Domanski D, Painter N.
3. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007 May 22;111(3):504-11. Epub 2006 Dec 28. Effect of the Lycium barbarum polysaccharides on age-related oxidative stress in aged mice.
Li XM, Ma YL, Liu XJ.
4. Xin Zhong Yi, New Chinese Medicine, 1988;2:20 | <urn:uuid:e0b22c87-a99a-4246-9bef-ee720f53d07e> | {
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to the January issue of Discover The Power of Healing Foods! newsletter.
In order too discuss blueberries' health benefits I've recently published a new page entitled Health Benefits of Blueberries - Are They Exaggerated? but in researching the subject I've found so much information that I decided to put some in this newsletter to wet your appetite, so to speak.
Here I'm going to discuss just two main area where blueberries have shown to possess exceptional healing properties:
Protection for your brain
Protection for your eyes
To read my new page click here or wait until the end of this newsletter, it's up to you ;-)
Many of blueberries' health benefits are attributed to anthocyanins, a type of antioxidants that abound in blueberries and I've already discussed them at length (so follow the link to read about them).
This is one of the reasons blueberries are often considered a superfood, and with good reasons. When researchers at Tufts University analysed sixty fruits and vegetables for their antioxidant activity - you may not be surprised to hear - blueberries rated the highest.
One of the practical applications of this antioxidant activity may be in the protection against Alzheimer's disease, researchers have discovered.
For example, when older rats were given the equivalent of one cup of blueberries a day, they demonstrated significant improvements in both learning capacity and motor skills, making them mentally equivalent to much younger rats! And their brain cells were found to communicate more effectively than those of the other older rats that were not given blueberries.
From a medical point of view, all that is still in the experimental stages, so I suppose you could wait for them to come up with medications that mimic the effect of blueberries, or you could jump the gun and enjoy the benefits of blueberries right now.
For some suggestions on how you could do that, have a look at my new page on the Health Benefits of Blueberries - Are They Exaggerated?
Blueberries' health benefits are already widely recognised in one very important area: improving vision and protecting against age-related macular degeneration.
This interest was stimulated by the fact that during World War II, British Air Force pilots consumed bilberry (a variety of European blueberry) preserve before their night missions, as they believed that the bilberry would improve their ability to see at night.
After the war, numerous studies demonstrated that that wasn't just folk medicine, but blueberries extracts do improve night-time visual acuity and lead to quicker adjustment to darkness and faster restoration of visual acuity after exposure to glare. In other words, you can see better at night and don't get blinded by bright lights so much.
And pretty much all eye-related problems - cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, sensitivity to bright light - seem to improve once people start to take blueberry extracts.
The two benefits we've mentioned in this newsletter, i. e. protection for the brain and the eyes, may be enough to persuade you to include lots of blueberries in your diet, but if you want to know how they can benefit ... your urinary tract health, your cholesterol levels and your digestive health ... well, by now you know what to do, read more on my new page, The Health Benefits of Blueberries.
Thank you for reading this newsletter, I hope you enjoyed it. Next month I'll talk about the health benefits of some of the vegetables available in February. Do you know what they might be? Stay tuned!
Until Next Time,
If you liked this newsletter, please do a friend and me a big favour and "pay it forward". If a friend did forward this to you and you like what you read, please subscribe by visiting Discover the Power of Healing Foods!
Comments? Ideas? Feedback? I'd love to hear from you. Just use the Contact Me form and let me know what you think.
The most complete antioxidant formulation that you could find.
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Phytoshield is a very potent and powerful phyto-antioxidant nutrient formula, containing high levels of flavonoids and carotenoids | <urn:uuid:d45571cd-aae3-4688-9505-30b8b2d8732b> | {
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What is the Mark of the Beast?
FREE Download ebook .pdf format.CITIZEN
There are two types of citizenship, state and federal:
In Appendix C, I show that 14th Amendment citizenship in your Federal government is not the same as state citizenship. According to the Supreme Court, federal citizens cannot have protections from the first eight amendments. And I repeat: no one from Washington DC can have political rights or even run for President. Are you from Washington DC? You are if you checked a "US citizen" box on any form, or if you are a resident with a federal zip code address.
At the end of the Civil War a lawful method had to be created in order to care for the four million freed slaves who needed a way to survive. Since your Constitution has never allowed the government to give entitlements to people, Federal ownership was just one of the alternatives being considered for the "freed" slaves. Another alternative was a treaty whereby freed slaves would live in America as citizens of Liberia. Five hundred black families moved to Africa and established the country of Liberia, with the assurance of making a treaty with the US so that everyone could live free. Their constitution is almost identical to yours, except that only blacks can become citizens. They even named their Capital after an American president. In this ultimate battle between good and evil, the treaty never happened and Federal ownership is what we ended up with, where eventually no one could live free. Did your government school teach you this?
In Appendix D, I quote court cases to show that a person is a non-sovereign. King George in the Treaty of Paris granted sovereignty to all Americans (while retaining title as Arch Treasurer). Those who submit to the laws of congress give up their sovereignty in exchange for a personage.
Sovereigns are those who are above the laws legislated by their servants. Persons are those who submit to legislated law. Later, I will show that the judicial branch of state government protects state citizens from legislated law.
Throughout history, those who ignore God are taken into captivity. You were tricked into becoming a person when you applied for a Social Security number.
In the olden days, enfranchised persons received rights and protections from a ruler to whom they owe allegiance. This hasn't changed. Enfranchised citizens are slaves on the federal plantation to whom they owe allegiance.
Black's Law Dictionary defines the legal maxim that Protection Draws Subjection:
"The protection of an individual by government is on condition of his submission to the laws, and such submission on the other hand entitles the individual to the protection of the government."
That's right! If you cannot agree to their perverted, licentious laws then don't take their protection. You qualify for benefits by agreeing that they are your protector/master/lord/benefactor. If you take their benefits, you must submit whether you like it or not. No matter how evil they become. No matter how much they demand. If you take their benefits, they make your rules. They determine what is right and what is wrong. Your moral values are now dictated from your benefactor. This maxim has always existed. Slaves submit to their lords. Slaves must be provided for. Children must submit to parents. Wives submit to husbands. The law of coverture is a part of this legal doctrine. believers submit to Messiah. What chain of command are you in?
Further proof of this legal maxim is in the Black's Law Dictionarydefinition of "Allegiance:"
"Obligation of fidelity and obedience to government in consideration for protection that government gives. U.S. v. Kuhn, D.C.N.Y., 49 F. Supp. 407, 414"
Conclusion: Applying for benefits subjects you to "obligation of fidelity and obedience" to a worldly master.
Now that you know what allegiance means, and now that you know the red beast of Revelation is socialism, and now that you know that a Russian general will always be in command of the UN military, perhaps you can now understand that George Bush correctly stated "It is those sacred principles enshrined in the UN Charter to which we must henceforth pledge our allegiance." Biblical principles remain true. Americans have sold their birthright. According to Yahusha: Benefactors exercise authority.
Benefactors exercise authority. This is evident in the legal definitions that your government uses. The legal definition of 'enfranchisement" makes it seem that God given rights come from benefactors. Notice how the following legal definitions focus on benefits without mentioning the obligations attached to accepting the benefits. Notice how some of the government granted benefits are counterfeits of the rights that free people would have. According to Black's Law Dictionary today's lawyer definitions of `enfranchisement' include:
Again: Notice how these are government granted privileges that allow the person to exercise some of the rights of free people. But, like any privilege granted by government, they can be revoked.
I will also show you later that civil rights must be regulated, and that natural rights cannot be regulated. Real rights do not come from government. Government cannot grant rights, although they often refer to their privileges as rights.
You can read between the lines. These lawyer definitions use freedom and voting as examples of government granted "rights." At the risk of seeming too cynical: Livestock has owner granted rights also. Just because your current owner can be nice to you, doesn't mean you are free, nor does it mean you won't be sold. Just because you can vote for President, doesn't mean you are free. In fact, it is proof that you are a slave. Even the US Supreme Court says "the Constitution of the United States has not conferred the right of suffrage upon any one." (Minor v. Happersett and in US v. Cruikshank).
The courts have ruled that the Buck Act defines "an individual entity" as franchised persons of government. Springfield v. Kenny 104 NE2d 65 and Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Fox 298 US 193. Social Security and welfare are available only to federal citizens. Federal citizens cannot have rights. Social Security benefits are not available to state citizens. A state Citizen cannot obtain a Social Security Number without first obtaining a dual citizenship acknowledged by your federal government. By getting a number, you change your citizenship. (See Appendix C). By registering for the benefits available only to enfranchised persons, you become an enfranchised person. Only those persons receiving government benefits are required to have a social security number. No one else has ever been required to get a SSN.
WARD - "Guarding, caring, protecting." - "A person ... placed by a court under the care and supervision of a guardian or conservator."
Again, protection draws subjection. You are under the care of the legislature, from whom you get your `rights' and protections in exchange for your submission.
I can prove that an attorney is your court appointed guardian, and is considered competent to manage your affairs, whereas you are considered incompetent to manage your own affairs.
Go to the Law Library and find the legal encyclopedia entitled "Corpus Juris Secundum." Look up "Attorney & Client" Section 4 in Volume 7 and read: "His first duty is to the courts and the public, not to the client."
That's right: he represents the public, therefore he cannot represent you. (And don't be deceived by the word `public.' It means `government." Examples: public office, public housing, public roads, public library, public school, public law, and public records. And furthermore, as I digress further, the word "republic" comes from a Latin idiom `Libera res publica' which means "free from government things." This is from the Collin's Latin Dictionary. Even Webster's 1828 Dictionary says a Republic has only titular governmental powers. This is because they can only legislate to those who volunteer into their jurisdiction. Later, I will quote the Supreme Court's Meyer case to show that liberty is freedom from arbitrary regulations. Then I'll prove that lawyers cannot represent you according to the Supreme Court's Schware case).
Then look up `client':
"A client is one who applies to a lawyer or counselor for advice and direction in a question of law, or commits his cause to his management ... one who communicates facts to an attorney expecting professional advice. Clients are also called "wards of the court" in regard to their relationship with their attorneys."
To find out what it means to be a "Ward of the Court," go to Black's Law Dictionary. There is only one definition, so you can't possibly get it wrong. "Wards of the Court" are "Infants and persons of unsound mind ... under the care of a guardian."
That's right! You must be crazy to talk to an attorney. You are not competent to manage your own affairs. Even asking "... for advice and direction in a question of law ..." or "expecting professional advice" proves that you cannot manage your own affairs. You do not have the law in your right hand and forehead.
You volunteered into an evil system that has absolute contempt for any timid soul who is too faint-hearted to resist his oppressors. This is the evil world we live in. Yet in Matthew 5:39 Messiah requires you to tolerate attacks from evil people and turn the other cheek. These bullies will have absolute contempt for this behavior. They don't understand that you are obeying a higher authority.
Messiah was correct that benefactors gain authority over you (Luke 22:25, but compare to Matt 20:25, Mark 10:42). "Rights" come only from responsibilities. If you cannot be responsible for providing for yourself, then don't expect any rights.
Did you pledge allegiance to your new lord? Here is what pledge means according to Strong's Concordance from the four words that are translated into the KJV word `pledge':
If you want their benefit, you must pay whatever price they ask. They have asked you to give yourself as collateral. You and all your future labor are held as collateral until the national debt is paid. Later, I will show that there is a strong link between the US Treasury and foreign authorities, including the Holy Roman Empire. Also be aware that there are foreign owners of your Federal Reserve Bank.
The Act to Strengthen Public Credit, signed into law by Ulysses Grant on March 18, 1869, pledged every American citizen as collateral for the repayment of all government obligations, including the national debt. Your federal government did not own anything, the states and the people owned all the wealth. In order to get the central banks to print money, the banks wanted collateral. You are that collateral. A classic book on this topic is The Coming Battle by Martin W. Walbert, published in 1899.
Supreme Court Justice Samuel Miller said:
"The power of taxation is the power to destroy. No man who is endowed with a modest sum of intelligence would advocate a transfer of this immense power to a private corporation for its gain. It would amount to the self-destruction of the nation. No sane man would advocate the delegation of this high attribute of sovereignty to a corporation for its individual gain and such transfer of power would inevitably result in frightful oppression."
Here are some more details for those who are doing homework: "Hypothecation" is a banking term. "Hypothecation" is defined in Section 14(a) of the Federal Reserve Act as an offer of assets owned by a party other than the borrower as collateral for a loan, without transferring title. The United States is the borrower. You are the party other than the borrower. On your behalf, and with your consent, your representatives borrow most of your national debt from the Federal Reserve Bank. Section 16 of the Federal Reserve Act (12 USC 411) says that Federal Reserve Notes are obligations of the United States. This is true even if the Federal Reserve is not a government agency, because the government has promised to repay the loans to this privately owned corporation. Federal Reserve Notes are backed by the full faith and credit of hypothecated assets (such as your future labor). According to the Legislative History of Public Law 94-564 "The U.S. commitment to redeem international dollars for gold became a physical impossibility". That's right! Your bankrupt government cannot repay Foreign lenders their gold. They will soon claim their collateral. You are the collateral.
The following quote should answer any doubt that you have regarding the legitimacy of the chains attached to receiving benefits. US Supreme Court in Murdock v. Pennsylvania 319 US 105 at page 140: "The ultimate question in determining the constitutionality of a tax measure is -- has the state given something for which it can ask a return?"
Let's review the legal maxims. Protection draws subjection. The very definition of allegiance means you are obligated to obedience if you accept protection. The state has given something for which it can ask a return. A pledge of allegiance binds (Strong's H2254.) you as collateral. You grant the power of attorney if you allow them to manage your affairs because it is presumed that you cannot manage yourself. Yahusha said that benefactors exercise authority. You agree to obey your benefactors, no matter how evil they become. While you are in their house, you obey their rules. If you cannot govern yourself, others will govern you. No matter how much they demand. Whether you like it or not.
State citizens ratified your Constitution to create your federal government. They are responsible for managing their creation. These citizens are sovereigns, and the legislature cannot and does not write laws for their masters (Matt 10:24, and John 15:20). Never could, still can't. You won't understand this yet, but State Citizens are not subject to the laws written by congress (see Appendix D). According to your Supreme Court in the Mulligan case, state courts must protect you from federal laws.
If you can be tricked into applying for benefits, you then become subject to their statutes. Whether you like it or not. No matter how evil they become.
The difference in citizenship is distinguished by whichever law of the land applies to you. State constitutions are founded on Christian principles. But, according to a Treaty signed by President Adams "... the government of the United States is not in any sense founded on the Christian Religion ...." More about this later.
An employee is someone (as is an indentured servant) who gives up legal rights to his labor in exchange for care and protection. The same people who own the IRS own his labor rights.
More about this later. But you won't like it.
Colossians 2:8 (NIV): "See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than on Messiah." | <urn:uuid:005c860a-fa87-44c7-88a0-805f62a0ca82> | {
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Our Game Design unit is coming to an end and the 3rd graders were asked to imagine and start planning their final projects. Their goal is to create a video game based on their Geology knowledge from their recent Science unit.
When we started our Game Design study earlier in the year, I asked the students to reflect on what makes a game a game. Among their many great responses were:
- Games have a challenge and goal
- Games have rules
- Games have controls
- Games make sense, and/or have a story
To help guide their planning, I asked the students to fill out their own Game Design Documents just like real video game programmers do. These GDDs were more age appropriate of course, but still help scaffold their thought process, and will hopefully keep them on track as they complete their games in the next few weeks. Obviously they also help me understand what they are thinking and help me draw out any misunderstandings – and highlight if a student forgot to make any connections to their Geology knowledge at all!
Some sample student design documents with teacher notes: | <urn:uuid:e2375781-9f87-4318-86bd-6ae389bf9595> | {
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Nearly a month after a deadly explosion at the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, the damaged well on the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico continued to spill oil. In the weeks since the accident occurred, the oil slick has periodicallydrifted northeast toward the Mississippi Delta and reached the the Chandeleur Islands.
On May 17, 2010, when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite acquired this natural-color image, a large patch of oil was visible near the site of the accident, and a long ribbon of oil stretched far to the southeast.
Oil slicks are not always visible in natural-color satellite images. A thin sheen of oil on an already dark background may be impossible to detect. On this day, however, the slick was located in the sunglint part of the image, which makes the slick stand out.
Sunglint is the mirror-like reflection of the Sun off the water. If the ocean surface were as smooth and calm as a mirror, a series of perfect reflections of the Sun would appear in a line along the path of the satellite’s northeast-to-southwest orbit. Instead, waves blur the reflection, creating a wide, washed-out strip through the ocean.
A coating of oil smoothes the sea surface relative to the oil-free water, causing it to reflect light differently. Depending on where in the sunglint area it occurs, the slick may look brighter or darker than adjacent clean water. In this image, the slick appears as an uneven shape of varying shades of bright gray-beige. | <urn:uuid:e8044326-3ec6-4667-8179-b19e697e68f2> | {
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TSSH Part 602
Historical Overview of Technical Soil Services
The soil survey program in the United States celebrated its centennial in 1999. This celebration highlighted and recognized the skills and abilities of soil scientists to effectively provide soil survey information, including information about the geographic complexity of soils, to a diverse group of land operators and users.
This quality assistance in the use of soils information has been a major factor in the success of the long-lived continuous local, State, and Federal soil survey program. The first official U.S. soil surveys, dating back to 1899, were in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, in the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, in the Connecticut Valley of Connecticut and Massachusetts, and in Cecil County, Maryland. The major thrust of these pioneer surveys was directed toward the investigations of soils used for farming, ranching, and forestry. Soil scientists using this early soils information were able to assist land users by suggesting the most productive crops and management techniques for a given type of soil.
Historically, the emphasis of the technical soil services concept and application has been dynamic. During the first 50 years of the soil survey, soil scientists of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering made predictions about the productivity and use of land in soil survey reports published by the Department of Agriculture. Work was directed largely toward the production of soil surveys, and only a minimal amount of individual assistance was provided to users for the purpose of promoting the use of soil survey interpretations and information. The interpretations centered on farming and included qualitative estimates of the suitability and limitations of land used for commonly grown crops, for hay, or for grazing.
As experience was acquired in the use of soil surveys, predictions were made about other uses, such as highways, airfields, and residential and industrial developments. As the making and use of soil surveys expanded, the understanding of soils—their nature, occurrence, and behavior under defined uses and management—also increased. “The Value of the Soil Survey,” published by the American Association of Soil Survey Workers in 1921, describes several uses of the soil survey. Soils information affected farm loans, road construction, agricultural extension, placement of applied immigrants, public health, experiment stations, and land selection. The Highway Department of Michigan applied soil survey knowledge in planning highway construction in the late 1920s. At the same time, soil surveys in North Dakota were used in tax assessment. The role of the resource soil scientist is not new. Many functions of the resource soil scientist have been with us throughout the past 100 years.
The Soil Erosion Service (later the Soil Conservation Service), established in 1935, required soil maps and interpretations for working with individual landowners to design erosion-control measures. Soil scientists working during this era commonly served a dual role, similar to the role of many of our current soil scientists. They made the requested soil maps as the first part of their job and then commonly worked with soil conservationists in educating, training, and helping land operators with the selection of conservation practices.
Consolidated Soil Survey Program (602.01)
The merging of the Soil Survey Program of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering with the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) in 1954 resulted in major shifts in work duties and priorities for soil scientists. In the new consolidated soil survey program, high priority was given to the field soil survey mapping and the publication of soil surveys. Soil scientists often were redirected from providing technical soils assistance and training to local Soil Conservation District cooperators and SCS District Conservationist staffs to making soil surveys with assigned mapping acreage goals. Where soil scientists were providing assistance in the use of soil surveys, this assistance generally was a collateral duty. The top priorities were soil survey field mapping and the production of the soil survey publication.
The demand for soils information to assist in solving urban and shifting land uses by planners was evident in the late 1950s. In the 1950s, Fairfax County, Virginia, made extensive use of soil survey information in urban land development. During the late 1950s, soil survey information was applied to subdivision design in suburban areas of Chicago, Illinois. Soil surveys provided important resource information in regional land use planning in southeastern Wisconsin. During this period, soil surveys gained a wider audience than just the agricultural community.
The reorganization of the soil survey program within the Soil Conservation Service in 1985 gave new life to the interaction of soil staffs with agency and other personnel in the use of soil survey information and data. Soil interpretations staffs were established in each of the four SCS Regional Technical Service Centers at Ft. Worth, Texas; Portland, Oregon; Lincoln, Nebraska; and Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. The mandated requirements of the Food Security Act of 1985 and the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 firmly established the demand for soil scientists to work with people in making effective use of the vast accumulated knowledge about soils. Experience has shown that implementation of Federal, State, or local programs is much more successful in states where soil scientists are actively involved in implementing the program than in states where the input of soil scientists is minimal. There is a critical need for a cadre of soil scientists experienced in the use of soil survey information in programs to assist and counsel in writing policy and procedures for implementing new programs. Soil scientists in Technical Soil Services are crucial in the rule-making process and in drafting internal policy and procedures for implementing these rules.
During the early 1990s, staffing of Technical Soil Services was quite visible at the national and regional levels. The 1995 reorganization of the Natural Resources Conservation Service eliminated the Regional Technical Service Center offices. This reorganization increased the visibility of Technical Soil Services at the state level. Seventeen Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) offices were established to conduct the business of production soil survey. The State Soil Scientists in these offices had a dual role of providing technical soil services for their state and production of soil surveys for the assigned MLRAs. All other State Soil Scientists were given a major responsibility role in developing and maintaining a Technical Soil Services program for their states.
Soil scientists were given an increased opportunity and responsibility to provide technical soil services during the late 1990s. An inventory made in the fall of 1999 showed that about one-third of the 700 NRCS soil scientists at the state and field level were working in technical soil services. A significant number of soil scientists were spending 100 percent of their time working in the field of technical soil services. A number of field soil scientists were working in production soil survey but were spending 10 percent or more of their time providing technical soil services. | <urn:uuid:eb791b59-a98f-46e1-bb28-564ef462422f> | {
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This chapter is where I'll put some of the problem types that I don't know what to do with because they're difficult and less-common.
Derivatives with Variables In Both Exponent & Base
This video covers an unusual type of derivative (possibly called "logarithmic differentiation") where X is raised to the power of itself, so the power rule doesn't apply: xx and (sinX)x. If your teacher covers this, you'll need to memorize the steps I present here, because you'll never figure out the trick on these otherwise!
If you do not have an account, you should get one, because it is awesome! You can save a playlist for each test or each chapter, and save your "greatest hits" into a "watch right before the final" list (not that we recommend cramming, but when in Rome...) | <urn:uuid:046a67fd-b573-40df-b6a9-fa4870f5f564> | {
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In the previous post, we have learned that is irrational. In this post, we will use that theorem to show that is also irrational. This proof was explained by Ivan Niven in his book Numbers: Rational and Irrational.
A common argument that might arise is that since is irrational and is irrational, then their sum is irrational. Like multiplication, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition. The sum of two irrational numbers is not necessarily irrational. For instance, is irrational, is irrational, but is rational.
Just like the previous post, we use proof by contradiction to prove the theorem above.
Suppose is rational, say so that
Squaring both sides, we have which means that .
Since the set of rational numbers is closed under multiplication and addition, is therefore rational. However, as we have proved in the previous post, is irrational. A contradiction!
Therefore, is irrational. | <urn:uuid:e7f9102b-f768-40d5-a5b4-84b1dd0482a3> | {
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ROCHESTER, N.Y.–A Civil War-era schooner loaded with corn collided with another commercial vessel during a blinding snowstorm in 1862 and sank in minutes into the dark depths of Lake Ontario.
Two shipwreck explorers chanced upon the 119-foot-long C. Reeve while conducting underwater surveys this summer a few miles off the lake's southern shore west of Rochester.
The twin-masted ship lies mostly intact, its main mast still erect, at a depth of nearly 400 feet.
Built in Buffalo in 1853, the C. Reeve was carrying 13,500 bushels of corn from Chicago to Oswego, a port near Syracuse, on Nov. 22, 1862. It collided that evening with the Exchange, a Lake Erie-bound schooner loaded with salt, and its small crew was rescued before it quickly went under. | <urn:uuid:aeedb5bf-be29-4fcd-af1b-a5cee8168d9c> | {
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From Real Estate Closing Deskbook, third edition, Chapter One
- Learn what happens after a marital agreement is signed by the parties
Real Estate Legal Descriptions
The term “legal description” refers to the written description of property and certain other data that identifies the subject piece of property. A closing lawyer must know how to read and understand surveys and how to draft proper legal descriptions. The intent of the parties to the transaction cannot be honored with certainty unless the legal description precisely locates the land that is the subject of the agreement. Every legal description should provide the name of the county or parish in which the property is located and, if so divided, the judicial district within that county or parish. The most common methods of describing land follow:
- Fractional designation
- Metes and bounds
- Courses and distances
- Name designation
- Part of a tract
- Subdivision lot
The nature of this book precludes anything more than a brief look at each of these methods.
Fractional designation is the most common form of legal description used in the United States. The rectangular system of surveying adopted by the United States in 1785 established a system of baselines and meridians to have permanent reference points (monuments) across the country. The surveyors actually placed monuments at all section corners as the work progressed. Thirty states, including Alaska, use the rectangular survey system. The baseline is a line running east and west from a given point on the principal meridian, approximately at right angles, and from which a survey of considerable area is made, and from which the townships either north or south are numbered.
The principal meridian is a true north-and-south line running from a given point on the baseline through a certain tract of country to be surveyed. The entire survey of such a tract is made with reference to the baseline and the principal meridian. The ranges are numbered either east or west of the principal meridian, and the townships are numbered either north or south of the designated baseline. Thus, by the establishment of township corners along the principal meridian and baseline, the lands are divided by lines intersecting true north and south at right angles to form townships, which are six miles square. The townships are marked with progressive numbers north and south from the baseline and east and west from the principal meridian. The townships are divided into 36 sections, each one mile square and containing 640 acres, as nearly as possible. Such sections are numbered, respectively, beginning with number one in the northeasterly corner and proceeding west and east alternately through the township with progressive numbers to, and including, number 36.
A section within the township is further subdivided by running a north-south line and an east-west line through the center of the section or by connecting the quarter-corner points, resulting in four quarter-sections containing approximately 160 acres each. The quarter-sections are described as the NE 1/4, NW 1/4, SW 1/4, and SE 1/4. The quarter-sections can likewise be subdivided into 40-acre tracts and are described as the NE 1/4 of SE 1/4, SE 1/4 of SE 1/4, SW 1/4 of SE 1/4, NW 1/4 of SE 1/4, and so on.
Due to the curvature of the earth, all townships are not exactly six miles square, and consequently all sections are not exactly 640 acres. In most states, the county is the basic unit of orientation and therefore reference to a certain baseline or principal meridian is not essential for a complete description.
Metes and Bounds
Metes-and-bounds descriptions identify land by reference to (1) natural or artificial boundaries such as streets, roads, or creeks, or (2) the land of adjoining owners, such as Smith on the south, Williams on the west. The description must establish all sides of the property by either specifically identifying what constitutes the respective boundary or providing enough information to calculate the size and shape of the land from the boundaries given. Therefore, a description that includes the size of the tract and three of the four sides will suffice.1
Many lawyers and surveyors refer to a courses-and-distances description as a metes-and-bounds description.
Courses and Distances
Courses and distances is one of the oldest methods of describing land. A definite point of beginning is of utmost importance in this type of description. From that point of beginning, a line running a certain distance is drawn to another point, and then from that point, the line is drawn a certain distance to another point, and so on until the line returns to the point of beginning.
Points of Beginning
Every legal description (often referred to as a “legal”) must begin somewhere, and that “somewhere” is called the point of beginning. No guesswork is allowed for the point of beginning. If it cannot be ascertained, then it is impossible to definitely ascertain the rest of the legal correctly. Thus, a point of beginning must be either (1) at a known point (such as a monument) or (2) at a certain course and distance from such a known point. The reason for such exactness is simply that there is no other way for the true boundary lines to be described in writing. Of course, in a short legal, the point of beginning is not described in the instrument using the short legal; but if the point of beginning is not described in the referenced instrument, then the short legal is defective. All beginning points are true points of beginning, but when the phrase is used in an instrument, it distinguishes the actual point of beginning from a known point used to ascertain that point of beginning.
A plat or survey is, of course, a drawing of the boundary lines of a tract of real estate. If the survey does not indicate a point of beginning, then the exact locations of the boundary lines are not ascertainable, just as with a written legal description that does not have a point of beginning.
Deeds Using Different Points of Beginning
Sometimes two different deeds will use two different points of beginning in describing the same tract of land. For example, one deed will show so many feet from a street corner, and another deed will show so many feet from a different street corner. As long as both points of beginning are correct, there is nothing wrong with this; however, sometimes an examiner cannot verify both points of beginning from the record. Thus, it might be necessary to call for a survey showing both points of beginning.
Calls in a legal description are by course, meaning direction, and distance, meaning length. Each call describes the course (direction) and distance (length) of a property line. There are several methods of describing a course on paper.
Calls of “north,” “south,” “east,” and “west” are generally treated as true and exact directions. A call of “running thence north 100 feet to a point . . .” is a valid call. Such courses really should be used only when there is a true north (or other) direction, and only for property lines that are straight lines.
A call of “running thence northerly 100 feet to a point . . .” without additional data is not a valid call. “Northerly,” “southerly,” “easterly,” and “westerly” are inexact courses, and additional information is needed for the call to ascertain the true direction of the course. This can be accomplished by several methods:
- By running the line to a known point: “running thence northerly 100 feet to [the point of beginning].”
- By running the line along another line that has a known or definitely ascertainable direction: “running thence southwesterly along the west line of section 3 a distance of 100 feet to a point . . .”
- By reference in the deed or instrument to a plat or survey by which the exact direction of the line can be ascertained. (For instance, if a deed refers to a subdivision plat, the recorded plat will show the exact direction of the line or it will be ascertainable and a course such as “northeasterly” is therefore made sufficient. This is merely an application of the “referenced instrument” principle.)
- By the use of angles: “running thence southerly at an interior angle of 60 degrees from the last described course 100 feet to a point . . .” (The use of the angle makes the call valid because it gives exactness to the direction.)
Bearings (compass points based on true north and south) and angles (which are based on degrees, minutes, and seconds constituting a circle) are also often used by surveyors to show direction.
Bearings indicate course or direction. For the purposes of legal descriptions, consider bearings as compass points based on true north or true south; think of four quadrants: northwest, northeast, southeast, and southwest.
Each quadrant is divided into degrees, minutes (60 minutes to 1 degree), and seconds (60 seconds to 1 minute); each quadrant has 90 degrees. For illustration purposes, consider that the northeast quadrant runs from north 0 degrees east to north 90 degrees east, the northwest quadrant runs from north 0 degrees west to north 90 degrees west, the southeast quadrant runs from south 0 degrees east to south 90 degrees east, and the southwest quadrant runs from south 0 degrees west to south 90 degrees west. These designations (such as north 0 degrees east, south 90 degrees west) are rarely, if ever, used by surveyors or in deeds, and the designations “north,” “east,” “south,” and “west” should be used. They are noted only to illustrate the concept of the quadrants and bearings.
In between 0 degrees and 90 degrees is another matter. In this area you depart from true north (or other direction), and the appropriate degrees (and minutes and seconds, if known) are indicated to give the exact direction of the line. Note that bearings run from true north or true south. The east or west designations indicate how far east or west of true north or true south the line runs. “South 1 degree west” indicates a line running 1 degree west of true south. “North 89 degrees east” indicates a line running 89 degrees east of true north. Bearings are always shown as northeast, northwest, southeast, or southwest. “North 36 degrees east” will never be shown as “east 54 degrees north.”
However, a northeast call is the exact opposite direction as a southwest call, and a northwest call is the exact opposite direction as a southeast call. For example, the exact opposite direction of “north 36 degrees 40 minutes 10 seconds east” is “south 36 degrees 40 minutes 10 seconds west.” This is important because drafters sometimes reverse directions when drafting documents. Also, surveyors do not always survey a tract from the point of beginning, then continuously around the tract; sometimes they will survey the front, then the rear line, then another line, and so on, and not always from the same direction; and sometimes they do not transpose bearings on the survey.
This does not make the survey improper, but a legal description drawn from the survey would be improper if the drafter is not careful.
Surveyors often use angles to show the direction of a property line instead of—or sometimes in addition to—bearings.
A circle has 360 degrees, with each degree having 60 minutes and each minute having 60 seconds, and this is the basis for angles used in legal descriptions. The only thing an angle has in common with a bearing is the use of the terms “degrees,” “minutes,” and “seconds.” A line running “northeasterly at an interior angle of 60 degrees 14 minutes 30 seconds” is not the same thing as a line running “north 60 degrees 14 minutes 30 seconds east,” and the two methods should not be confused; nor should a lawyer attempt to convert bearings into angles—if this can be done, leave it to a surveyor to do.
An angle runs from the last described course and is either interior (inside the property boundaries) or exterior (outside the property boundaries). Think of a property corner as the intersection of two straight lines. At the point of intersection draw a circle, using that point as the center of the circle. The arc of the circle within the property boundaries is the interior angle, and the arc of the circle outside the property boundaries is the exterior angle.
When angles are used, the interior or exterior angles are always the same, even when describing the property lines from different directions. Also, a circle always has 360 degrees. A surveyor will often indicate only one angle at a corner, either interior or exterior, and the other can be computed merely by subtracting the indicated angle from 360 degrees. An “interior angle of 85 degrees” is the same as an “exterior angle of 275 degrees.” However, in drafting a legal description, it is rare that the drafter needs to know both the interior and exterior angles for a certain corner, and the drafter should just use interior or exterior as indicated by the surveyor.
An angle of 180 degrees is sometimes shown on a survey, but this is not really an angle; it is a straight line. However, an angle of 179 degrees 59 minutes 59 seconds is an angle, and there is a property corner there. For legal-description purposes, there is no such thing as an angle of 360 degrees; it would create a line running back upon the last described course.
In addition to course, the description of a property line must show distance (length of line). Most instruments show distance as measured in feet. Older instruments may show rods (16.5 feet), links (.66 feet), or chains (100 links, or 66 feet). Yards are rarely used. When preparing a new instrument, a lawyer should always use feet. If a lawyer drafts a new instrument using an older instrument as a guide, and the older instrument shows something other than feet, the lawyer should not attempt to convert measurements into feet, but should instead recommend a survey.
As a general rule, the legal description must show the distance of each line or otherwise provide a key for determining the distance. If it does not do so, the description is ambiguous. However, distance is really not that important to the validity of a written legal description if the description provides keys whereby the lines and corners can be ascertained. The sole purpose of distance in connection with the validity of a legal description is as a means of locating the corners. A deed can be perfectly valid without even mentioning distance if the legal description provides keys for otherwise definitely ascertaining the location of the lines and corners. By properly describing the corners, the legal description provides a key for determining distance. It is not, however, good practice to draft legal descriptions in such a manner. If a survey (or other source of the description) shows distances, those distances should be used.
It must be remembered that when a corner is not otherwise ascertainable, then distance is critical to the validity of the legal description. For example, “Running thence north 30 degrees east to a point . . .” is not a valid call; it is vague and could invalidate an entire legal description. “Running thence north 30 degrees east 100 feet to a point . . .” is a valid call because of the addition of the distance.
“More or Less” Calls
A distance of “100 feet, more or less,” without more, is inherently vague. Is it more than 100 feet or less than 100 feet? Because a legal description must be definite and certain, the indiscriminate use of “more or less” can invalidate, even if used in only one call, the entire legal. Monuments or other known points prevail over distances. Thus, the use of “more or less” when running the line to a monument or known point is acceptable.
When used with points of beginning, “more or less” totally invalidates the entire legal unless the point of beginning can otherwise be established.
Omitted Courses and Distances
If a call omits a course, the legal is generally defective. However, if the line runs to a monument or known point, the error is cured if the remainder of the legal description is correct. Likewise, if a call omits a distance, the legal description is generally defective unless the error is cured in the same manner, by the line running to a monument or known point.
Another requirement of a legal description is closure. You must be able to begin at the point of beginning, follow each successive course and distance, and end at the point of beginning. Technically, you should be able to trace the boundaries without lifting your pen from the paper from the point of beginning and back; otherwise, the legal description does not close.
Closure problems can be created by erroneous points of beginning, erroneous courses, and erroneous distances. A lawyer must be careful if he or she cannot draw to scale or draw exact bearings, angles, and distances. Normally, erroneous beginning points and courses make closure problems obvious, but erroneous distances (if not known to be erroneous) are not so easy. When three sides of a square tract are 100 feet each and a fourth side is 200 feet, the problem is evident; but if the tract is of an irregular shape, or if the distances do not vary so greatly, it may be impossible to detect a closure problem. A lawyer must also be careful if a deed is drawn exactly like a survey; as discussed in the earlier section titled “Bearings,” the legal may not close, and the deed will be incorrect, even though the survey is correct.
Monuments are permanent landmarks that indicate boundaries. They may be natural (trees, streams, and lakes) or artificial (fences, walls, stakes, posts, pins, roads, streets, and railroads). As is evident, the “permanency” of some of these landmarks is subject to question, with the courses of streams being subject to change, and trees and all artificial landmarks being subject to relocation or removal. Section corners are marked with concrete monuments. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss in any detail the ramifications and effects of monuments on legal descriptions. Suffice it to say that all monuments, when referred to in a legal description, are deemed superior to courses and distances. This means that errors in the course or distance of a call are subject to waiver if the call runs to a monument.
For example, consider a call that states, “running thence north 30 degrees east, 100 feet to the northeast corner of section 3.” Assuming the remainder of the legal description is correct, if the actual course is “north 25 degrees east” and if the actual distance is “95 feet,” then a lawyer could ignore the incorrect course and distance, relying on the superiority of the monument. The location of the monument is fixed and permanent. This establishes the certainty of the course and distance, thus establishing the certainty of the location of the property line, even though the course and distance are incorrectly described in the instrument.
It should be noted that the superiority of monuments over courses and distances is limited to monuments that are mentioned in the deed. Regardless of how many monuments are actually on the ground, if they are not mentioned in the deed, the lawyer cannot use the rule of superiority. In drafting legal descriptions, a lawyer should refer to all monuments shown in a survey.
Calls in legal descriptions often run along the side of a street, the side of a section line, the side of adjoining property, and so on. It is important that the intended side is accurately described. “Running thence along the side of Jones Road” is improper. “Running thence along the north side of Jones Road” is correct. When describing a “side,” the terms “north,” “northern,” “northerly,” and so on mean basically the same thing, as do the terms “southeast,” “southeastern,” “southeasterly,” and so on.
Roads have four basic configurations: north side or south side on a road running east and west; west side or east side on a road running north and south; northwest side or southeast side on a road running southwest to northeast; and northeast side or southwest side on a road running northwest to southeast. Lots have two basic configurations: one where the lot faces north, south, east, or west; and the other where the lot faces northeast, southeast, southwest, or northwest.
As for adjoining property owners, there are any number of configurations, depending upon the shape of the properties involved.
County, Judicial District, Section, Township, and Range
A legal description should show the state, county or parish, judicial district if the county or parish is so divided, and the section, township, and range. Technically, the failure to show any of these items is a defect, but if the legal description is otherwise proper and the record shows that the property is definitely in a certain state, county or parish, judicial district, and section, township, and range, an examiner may waive the error. A lawyer should always include these items when drafting a legal description.
Arcs and Chords, Traverse Lines, and Curves
Arcs and chords are used most often along roads. The arc distance would be in the curve. The chord distance would be a straight line.
A traverse line is often used along creek beds. A traverse line is not a property boundary line. It is an aid to the establishment of the boundary line.
The phrases “following the curvature thereof” and “following the meanderings thereof” are used to help describe irregular property lines, most often along roads (curvature) and creeks (meanderings). The phrases are not often shown on surveys but are used in legal descriptions when a survey indicates that a property line is not a straight line.
Sometimes a survey will show a street corner as being curved. If the street corner is a reference point used to determine the point of beginning of the property, the legal begins something like this:
Beginning at a point on the south side of Jones Street 100 feet east, as measured along the south side of Jones Street and extension thereof, from the corner formed by the intersection of the south side of Jones Street with the east side of Smith Street, if said street sides were extended to form an angle instead of a curve. . . .
If the property begins at the corner itself, the following language can be used:
Beginning at the corner formed by the intersection of the south side of Jones Street with the east side of Smith Street, if said street sides were extended to form an angle instead of a curve; running thence . . . to the point of beginning. LESS AND EXCEPT that portion of the above-described property lying within the rights-of-way of Jones Street and Smith Street.
Quantity of Land
If a legal description shows a quantity of land, it shows it in acres. Legal descriptions rarely use square footage, even though a survey or subdivision plat might show square footage, which can be important for building and development purposes because of zoning and other governmental regulations.
In drafting a legal description (in the usual situation), showing acreage is merely additional identification, usually adding nothing to the validity or adequacy of the legal description. When acreage has not been confirmed by survey, acreage should not be used; when it has been so confirmed, acreage should be used exactly as shown on the survey.
It is common practice for title insurance companies to refuse to insure the amount of acreage in a tract of land, even though the policy will ensure questions of survey and the amount of acreage were determined by a current survey. Lawyers should also make exceptions of the amount of acreage in their title certificates.
A description by reference is one that refers to some other instrument or document that contains a definite and complete description of the property. An example would be “a tract of land containing 20 acres, more or less, and being fully described in that certain deed from John Jones, in favor of David Smith, dated February 16, 1971, and recorded in Deed Book 16 at page 20 of the Deed Records in the office of the Chancery Clerk of Madison County, at Canton, Mississippi.”
A blanket description is one calling for all the lands owned by the grantor in a certain subdivision, county, or state. An example would be “all my property in section 12, township 2 north, range 1 east.” This type of description is often used in conjunction with specific descriptions to account for any deficiencies in the specific description.2
When a certain piece of property has acquired a name by which it is generally known or by which it may be identified with certainty, it is sufficient to describe the land by such name. An example would be “a certain tract or parcel located on U.S. Highway 90 known as the Jefferson Davis Place containing 11 acres, more or less.” This type of description is usually combined with a metes-and-bounds description.
Part of a Tract
When only a part of a tract is conveyed, the description often undertakes to describe that particular portion to be conveyed. An example of this would be “the northernmost 10 acres of the east half of the northeast quarter of section 5.” Often the intent is to convey the 10 acres north of a certain road, so care must be used in drafting the description to define and locate the tract properly, exactly as the parties intend.
A subdivision-lot description (lot and block) is a legal description that does not describe each boundary line, but that refers to a plat, survey, deed, or other instrument that does show the full, particular legal description. When a large tract of land is being developed (that is, with the installation of utilities, curbs, gutters, and streets, and the subdivision of the property into lots), a plat is recorded from which, after that time, the conveyance of any lot within that subdivision can be made by a description as follows:
Lot 13, Block A, Sunnydale Subdivision, part III, a subdivision according to a map or plat thereof, which is on file and of record in the office of the Chancery Clerk of Rankin County at Brandon, Mississippi, in Plat Cabinet 9, slot 42, reference to which is hereby made in aid of, and as a part of, this description.
The most important thing is that the referenced instrument be one from which a full courses-and-distances legal description can be obtained. The referenced instrument should be recorded. Any defects in the referenced instrument will make the lot-and-block description defective also. The lot-and-block description is no better than the legal description in the referenced instrument.
Other Descriptive Components
“Less and Except” Clauses
A legal description followed by a “less and except” clause means that a certain portion of the property described is not actually being affected by the instrument containing the legal description. For example, a description might show a property line as being the centerline of a public road, but there is no intention to convey the road or any part thereof: “less and except all of that portion of the above-described property lying and being within the right-of-way of Jones Road.”
Another reason for such a clause would be when a portion of a tract has already been conveyed: “less and except that portion of the above-described property that was previously conveyed to Paul Doe by James Smith by warranty deed dated December 16, 1974, recorded in Deed Book 34, page 696, Madison County Records.”
Whatever the reason, such clauses are often used to describe property that is not being conveyed or otherwise affected by the instrument containing the clause. The clause does not necessarily have to use a referenced instrument such as a prior deed; it could just set forth a full legal description of the excepted property.
A lawyer drafting a “less and except” clause must remember that the legal description containing the clause is subject to the same requirements for validity as any other legal description. Also, the lawyer must remember the purpose of such clauses—to except property from the force and effect of the instrument being drafted.
A street address is not required for a valid legal description. An incorrect address may be waived by an examiner if the remainder of the legal description is otherwise proper.
Fences and Walls
Occasionally, a deed will show a property line running “along a fence” or some such language indicating that the line is evidenced by a fence or even a wall. It must be noted that fences and walls have purposes other than evidencing a boundary line, and more often than not, a fence or wall is not located exactly on the line; but without a survey, it is impossible to tell. Generally, as long as the record does not indicate anything to the contrary, the “fence” or “wall” line as shown in the deed is accepted as the line without problem.
If a survey shows a fence or wall that does run true along the boundary line without encroachment on one side or the other, the lawyer can draft a legal description using such language as “along a fence.” Otherwise, such language should not be used in drafting a legal description. Also, before such language is used, the drafter must know whether the fence or wall is owned by the owner of the subject property or the adjoining property. If the fence or wall is owned by the adjoining property owner, even if no encroachment is shown, the surveyor or lawyer should not refer to the fence or wall in the legal description.
Encroachments (whether onto adjoining property or onto the subject property) are another matter. All parties should be made aware of any encroachments. Unless an encroachment is removed, any title certificate or title insurance binder and policy should make appropriate exception to the encroachment. In fact, many such encroachments (at least those encroaching onto the subject property) are so insignificant that the parties choose to disregard them.
As a practical matter, these small encroachments would at worst create insignificant legal consequences.
1. Herod v. Robinson, 115 So. 40 (Miss. 1927).
2. Moffett v. International Paper Co., 139 So. 2d 655 (Miss. 1962). | <urn:uuid:a2d4d572-7733-4399-bff9-e28eef4c64b6> | {
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Scrabble word: PRODUCING
In which Scrabble dictionary does PRODUCING exist?
Definitions of PRODUCING in dictionaries:
- verb - bring forth or yield
- verb - create or manufacture a man-made product
- verb - cause to happen, occur or exist
- verb - bring out for display
- verb - cultivate by growing, often involving improvements by means of agricultural techniques
- verb - bring onto the market or release
- verb - come to have or undergo a change of (physical features and attributes)
- verb - to bring into existence
There are 9 letters in PRODUCING: C D G I N O P R U
All anagrams that could be made from letters of word PRODUCING plus a wildcard: PRODUCING?
Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word PRODUCING
9 letter words
7 letter words
6 letter words
5 letter words
4 letter words
3 letter words
2 letter words
Images for PRODUCING
SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players. | <urn:uuid:2ebf5fff-eb74-43ca-8e58-b6ada612ebf0> | {
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Special districts are a form of local government created by a local community to meet a specific need. Inadequate tax bases and competing demands for existing taxes make it hard for cities and counties to provide all the services their citizens desire. When residents or landowners want new services or higher levels of existing services, they can form a district to pay for and administer them.
Accountable to the Voters
Special districts are primarily accountable to the voters who elect their boards of directors and the customers who use their services. However, although they are not functions of the state, the state also provides critical oversight to special district operations. Special districts must submit annual financial reports to the State Controller and must also follow state laws pertaining to public meetings, bonded debt, record keeping and elections. | <urn:uuid:fe1bc523-941e-42d2-81f0-12d0b1d86fc4> | {
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As part of our series of posts exploring a “question-centered” teaching approach, we asked Andrew Robinson, author of Sudden Genius? The Gradual Path to Sudden Breakthroughs, to give us his thoughts on the above question, featured in the new course Q Skills for Success.
As an author and biographer, academic, journalist, and magazine literary editor, my personal contact with artistic and scientific ‘geniuses’ has made me curious about creative breakthroughs.
A highly admired scientist, Linus Pauling, winner of two Nobel prizes, for chemistry and for peace, was once asked by a student: “Dr Pauling, how do you have so many good ideas?”
Pauling thought for a moment and replied: “Well, I have a lot of ideas and throw away the bad ones.”
But where do ideas come from? Why do some people have many more of them than others? How do you distinguish the good ideas from the bad?
Most intriguing of all, perhaps, why do the best ideas often strike the mind with suddenness, apparently in a flash?
There are no simple answers, only clues. Some of the world’s great creative breakthroughs are said to have begun with a ‘eureka experience’ of sudden insight, as with Newton’s discovery of gravity whilst watching an apple fall.
And yet research shows that before each breakthrough the discoverer has been immersed in the problem — usually for ten years or more.
Alexander Fleming worked in the bacteriology department of a London hospital for about two decades before he stumbled upon the first antibiotic drug penicillin.
His discovery was a classic example of Louis Pasteur’s famous dictum: “Where observation is concerned, chance favours only the prepared mind.”
Find out how you can use questions like “Where do new ideas come from?” in class.
Andrew Robinson is a Visiting Fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge, UK. As an author and journalist he has written extensively on the subject of genius. His latest book Sudden Genius? The Gradual Path to Sudden Breakthroughs (OUP) is available in September 2010. | <urn:uuid:6705088f-675b-4560-ada2-562428f57045> | {
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WHY TWO WORLD WARS WERE FOUGHT
By John J. Ray (M.A.; P.h.D.) -- 29 May, 2008
Pat Buchanan knows his history, whatever else you might think of him, and he has just written a good summary of the revisionist arguments about the two world wars. I myself alluded briefly to such arguments on 23rd.
I am one of the many history buffs who agree that WWI was the big mistake so I agree with Buchanan there and I certainly agree with him that the peace-obsessed politics of the interwar period were the breeding ground for WWII.
Buchanan is however being wise in hindsight, something easy to do. What he seems largely unaware of is the psychology behind those two disastrous wars. WWI was NOT fought over the assassination of an Austrian archduke in Serbia. Politicians can be pretty foolish but we do our ancestors discredit to think that they were as foolish as that.
Strangely, WWI was the fruit of the long peace engineered by the "Iron Chancellor" of Prussia, Prince Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck gained great authority from the way he used both war and politics to extend the Prussian domain to the point that almost the whole of the German-speaking lands came under the sway of the Prussian crown in the form of a united Germany -- with the Prussian defeat of Napoleon III at Sedan being the clincher.
So how did Bismarck use that great authority and the pre-eminent German military machine that he controlled? If he had been a Leftist like Napoleon, he would have attempted to conquer the world. But he was a conservative so he did no such thing. Once he had attained his aim of a united Heimatland (homeland) -- i.e. a united Germany --- he used his great talents and resources to ensure that there were no more wars in Europe.
And the long peace from 1872 onwards allowed Europeans to concentrate on constructive pursuits for change -- leading to vast economic growth in most of Europe (including Russia). But the huge leap forward in science, technology and prosperity in the late 19th century led to hubris among the populations concened. They were so impressed by their own achievements that they thought they could conquer the world -- literally. And they actually did to some extent -- bringing large slices of what we would now call the Third World under their rule.
Sadly, however, communications then fell a long way short of the global village that we inhabit today and most people in the national populations concerned concluded that their great achievements were the fruit of a national genius peculiar to them. That other nations were doing about equally as well was lost sight of. It was, in short, a time of overweening national pride and they all thought that they could conquer anyone. So they were all spoiling for a fight. They thought that if they could have a war, they could conquer the other nations around them in six weeks. So after Bismarck was no longer there to restrain them, a pretext for a fight was found and the nations of Europe all marched into WWI in full confidence of a rapid national triumph. It was however reality that triumphed.
And after the colossal horror of WWI, who can blame the politicians of the interwar years for doing everything they could to run away from another war? That running away does more harm than good is however the lesson we must learn from that.
The wisdom of allied involvement in WWII is is a very old debate and one in which I have long taken an interest. And the continued issuance of books that raise the question anew does seem to legitimate continued discussion. So I will approach WWII via further review of Buchanan's claims and from a review of a Leftist contribution.
The Leftist book concerned (by novelist Nicholson Baker) is reviewed here and the conservative book (by Pat Buchanan) is reviewed here. I will confine myself to mentioning what I think are the important points that the reviews pass over.
The Baker book seems to center strongly on the flaws in Churchill's actions -- in keeping with the usual Leftist ad hominem style of argument. There is of course no doubt that Churchill was a flawed human being and there are acts by Churchill that I deplore too (the fire bombings, the "repatriation" of the Cossacks etc). Baker however in essence claims that it was only the character faults of Churchill and FDR that caused them to make war on Hitler. He seems to think we would all have been fine if the British and American bombers had stayed home.
That is all deeply unserious, however. You have to look at the political and strategic realities behind the declarations of war if you are to evaluate them intelligently. Blaming everything on the conspiracies of bad men is very Leftist but it betrays no real effort at understanding at all. All it tells us is that the speaker/writer is steamed up about something and is too stupid or lazy to investigate how it really came about. Baker seems to think that a pacifist response to Hitler would have worked in some way. The generally passive response of the German Jews to their persecution should have told Baker how well that worked with Hitler.
So on to the Buchanan book. Sadly, the reviewer there also seems inclined to play the man and not the ball. He is very abusive about Buchanan and is less than fair in evaluating Buchanan's arguments. I think that Buchanan is wrong in his conclusions but he is not so far wrong as to be completely dismissed.
The critic completely dismisses Buchanan's argument that Hitler had no designs on Britain and in fact regarded them as racial comrades -- so Britain had nothing to fear and no reason to go to war. There is no doubt that Hitler himself argued exactly that way. I have myself heard a recording of one of his speeches to that effect. So dismissing the argument out of hand is pretty slapdash history.
I myself think that the jury will always be out on that one. It seems strange that I have to stress it but Hitler WAS a racist and there is no doubt that the Britrish and the Germans are essentially the same race. So the idea that Hitler might have given very favourable consideration to the racial identity of the British is hardly far-fetched. The remarkably benign German occupation of Denmark is even a test-case of sorts.
But, as a good conservative, Churchill was cautious and there was no doubt in his mind that Hitler was an example of that most-disapproved type of person in a British value-system of the time: A man who "goes too far". Churchill saw that Hitler recognized no constraints on his actions and that Hitler's rhetoric was full of anger and hate. And Churchill could not entrust the world to such a man. So Churchill swung British foreign policy into its traditional "balance of power" role and ensured that NOBODY would ever come to dominate the whole of Europe. With what we now know about Hitler, I think we can be glad that Britain found a man who at the last moment activated that traditional British policy.
Note that it was actually Chamberlain who declared war on Germany. But it is Churchill who made it stick.
See also the review of Buchanan by Pryce-Jones here
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Note: If the link to one of my articles is not working, the article concerned can generally be viewed by prefixing to the filename the following: | <urn:uuid:10a72f7f-5286-42c8-a801-3bf9b86dc7ba> | {
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Test the random number generator.
This function checks that the
RNG is working properly and has not been changed. If the RNG does not return
values as in previous versions of R then the function executes
stop(). Since changes to the RNG will cause comparisons of
simulation results to fail, this is a useful check before investigating more
complicated problems that may be a result of other "improvements" in your
simulation or estimation programs.
stop() if the tests fail. | <urn:uuid:10850ea4-e166-46e4-8cbd-a1be4304cc7d> | {
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189 pages, b/w photos, b/w maps
Rugose corals are an extinct group of Paleozoic fossils, which show great diversity in their period of evolution from the Middle Ordovician to the end of the Permian. They are developed worldwide, primarily in carbonate facies, and in paleoenvironments ranging from relatively deep water, basinal strata, to, more commonly, shallow carbonate shelves and ramps. Like most fossil groups, their morphology, diversity and abundance are strongly controlled by their paleoenvironmental setting. However, in strata reflecting comparable paleoenvironments they can have considerable biostratigraphic utility.
This book deals with an important group of Frasnian (Upper Devonian) rugose corals from western Canada, the colonial disphyllids. The genera Disphyllum, Pantophyllum, Argutastraea, Hexagonaria, Whittakeria (new genus), and Kuangxiastraea are considered, with 16 species (4 of which are new) studied in detail. The biostratigraphy of the western Canadian colonial disphyllids is reviewed, and placed in context of a zonal scheme of both rugose corals and conodonts. Regional correlations of Frasnian strata in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, which are important reservoirs for hydrocarbons, are also depicted.
There are currently no reviews for this product. Be the first to review this product! | <urn:uuid:4646316d-459f-4a3c-adbf-5473a730758b> | {
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Silence is no way to stop a superbug
Full disclosure and good data are essential if the state's hospitals are to control antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
It's a familiar lament: a friend or relative went to hospital to get better, only to get sicker after picking up a hospital infection. An unlucky few are infected by one of the "superbugs", bacteria that defy antibiotic treatment. Staphylococcus aureus, or golden staph, is a bacterium found on the skin or in the nose of one in three people. Usually harmless, it can cause potentially fatal infections if it enters the bloodstream. It first showed resistance to penicillin in the late 1950s and, through liberal exposure to modern antibiotics, has evolved into a superbug known as MRSA. The Age obtained figures, under freedom of information, that point to the threat it poses in Victoria. From July 2004 to May 2005, 1589 people were infected at more than 30 hospitals. While 123 of them died, that does not mean MRSA caused their deaths. Yet the Department of Human Services, in making that point, highlighted the lack of detailed and reliable data that is a core weakness in the state's response. Until one knows the exact extent and impact of a disease, one cannot control it effectively.
A state database the VICNESS Hospital-Acquired Surveillance System was set up in 2002, but many hospitals took part only on condition that figures were aggregated. Without the motivating power of hospital-specific data, such monitoring has not had the desired effect. Fear of adverse publicity appears to have created a resistance to disclosure that is almost as troublesome as antibiotic resistance. A study by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare found that at least 6000 people die of septicaemia (bloodstream infection) each year. A third of the deaths involve golden staph MRSA accounts for 28 per cent of these. (The figure in Denmark, which has a "seek and destroy" approach to MRSA, is 1 per cent.) Infection needn't be fatal, though, to have a huge impact. The Australian Infection Control Association expert working group has estimated there may be as many as 150,000 hospital-acquired infections a year, at a cost of $600 million as patients are kept in hospital for longer, with more complications. VICNESS says hospitals should aim to cut infection rates by a third. Some have already done much better than that.
The Government recently implemented a state plan that emphasises simple and effective measures such as alcohol hand rubs. This $2.3 million program, which covers hygiene education, equipment and procedural costs, still seems modest compared with the costs of the hospital system's failings. Comprehensive improvements are essential everything from swab-testing patients and conducting hygiene checks to ensuring health workers do not have acrylic nails (on which superbugs can live for weeks) and tracking every hospital's performance. Hospitals must break the vicious circle in which a high incidence of bacteria increases rates of infection, which leads to greater use of antibiotics, which breeds more-resistant strains. Some superbugs are now at large in the community. Their proliferation, and a dearth of new antibiotics, has prompted warnings that we must prepare for a post-antibiotic age. The simple, proven principles of rigorous and transparent infection control have never been more important. | <urn:uuid:136a416b-556b-4fde-a3d6-fac5ae932430> | {
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Each and every day, more and more people are getting on board with taking care of our beautiful planet. The main aim; to reduce our single use plastic consumption. This is a global issue we are facing and it is one which we need to act on, NOW!
In day-to-day life, we need to be prepared in order to reduce our plastic use. It requires a lot of thought, prior planning and even some sacrifice. Whilst on the road, this can be even harder! We have definitely learnt some lessons along the way and aim to improve these as we go. Here are just some of the steps we have taken to reduce our on the go plastic consumption.
Bring a reusable water bottle
It’s amazing to see how many people still buy bottled water when they’re out. Not only do they pollute our beautiful oceans, but they cost MONEY! Ever heard the saying “water water all around, so let’s all have a drink”? Well it will never fail to amaze me when people choose to buy something that flows directly from the tap, FOR FREE.
Yes of course, there are areas of the world where the water is not as potable as in the western world. For this, we have Lifestraw filter water-bottles! These babies literally never leave our side. Especially when travelling in hot weather it is vital to keep hydrated, therefore it comes everywhere with us.
When it comes to filling it up however, it can be difficult in some countries. We have found so far that many places won’t want to serve you tap water and aren’t willing to fill up your water bottle, just so they can SELL you a bottle of water.
This is where it becomes handy to have a filter water-bottle as you can fill it up in a bathroom (if you can find one that you don’t need to pay to use). Of course, some cities have water fountains in the street, allowing free access to all. However, these are rarely well sign-posted and are lucky to stumble across them.
Bring a reusable cup
If you’re a morning coffee drinker (like Campbell), or even if you’re not (me), it is handy to carry a reusable cup. This means if I order a smoothie or another fresh juice I can take it away in my KeepCup instead of using a plastic one. In the UK, most large coffee chains even offer a discount on your cup of joe if you bring your own cup! That’s another money-saver, just for loving the environment!
Choose an Ice Cream Cone over a Tub
It’s a hot day, you’re exploring the city and drinking in the culture. It’s time for some gelato! When you find the best aka cheapest) ice cream stall, make sure you opt for a scoop in a cone, rather than a plastic tub. Can you eat a plastic tub? NO! So why are you wasting your money on it? Even if you don’t like the cone, give it to someone else and make a new friend for the day.
Bring a Reusable Mesh Bag
Something that takes up next to no weight or space in your bag. If you’re buying rolls or any loose veg from the supermarket, the only option is to put it in a plastic bag. We make sure we always carry one mesh bag out with us to avoid any need for single use bags. The rest of them we use to store opened packets of food, as we are fed up with getting pasta all over our rucksacks! Sometimes we’ve needed more than that one and we’ve had a to use a paper one, but this is just something to learn from.
Reusable Carrier Bag
If you’re doing any shopping at all whilst you’re away, its handy to carry one of these with you. Even if you have a rucksack with you, this is another thing that takes up little-to-no space in your bag.
Bring a Reusable Straw
Something that we have been finding quite frustrating since we’ve started our European adventure, is just how much they love to give out straws. We got into a habit of asking for no straw when ordering a drink, just to avoid getting one. However, despite this fore thinking, many places will still give you one regardless.
One time, I asked for no straw with my drink, so the simply server smiled and proceeded to give me one anyway. Even when I went to take it out the glass he gestured me to take it with me. I’ve learnt to take my reusable straw to the bar and put it in the glass, before they get any chance to stick a plastic one in it.
Toiletries are a main downfall for many wannabe light-packers. They make your bag heavy, take up a lot of room, require expensive hold-luggage for liquids and are normally wrapped in plastic!
We have been travelling with Lush plastic-free toiletries. The lack of liquid in these have managed to make our trip a lot more bearable. A bar of soap, shampoo bar, conditioner bar and deodorant bar all live in our toilet bags, and we can recommend them all! We also use toothpaste and mouthwash tablets, both of which are delicious, and come in recyclable plastic tubs which last a lot longer than a tube of toothpaste..
Bring Your Own Cutlery
If you are planning to buy any food from a market, or even some restaurants, its handy to bring your own cutlery as, chances are, they will give you complimentary plastic ones. The feeling of frustration of going an entire day without touching any single-use plastic, only to have it brought to you with your dinner is unbearable. Be prepared and don’t let it ruin your hard work!
Dispose of Your Rubbish Correctly
Sometimes there will come a time when we need to buy plastic. We’re not perfect and there are times when being on a budget means we are torn between saving the money and saving the planet. We try our best to do a bit of both, as we selfishly love travelling and want our journey to continue, however we want to try and do this leaving nothing but footprints.
Times when we do make a plastic purchase, we try our very best to find a recycling bin, even if this means holding onto rubbish for a while longer. Unfortunately, during some of our recent trip around Europe we have really struggled to recycle. This may just have been down to being in the wrong area, who knows. Again, we can only do our best.
If recycling is not an option, then another is to stuff all your single-use plastic into a plastic bottle. The bottle can no longer be recycled, however by compacting the single use plastic we are reducing its volume and making it less likely to be lost to the sea.
The swaps we have made to our lifestyle has not been overly expensive, or difficult. In fact, if anything, some of our swaps have saved us money! Let us know in the comments below what swaps you have made, or if you have been inspired to make some changes. There’s no time like the present to make a change and the little changes all add up to a big difference! Let’s work together to protect our beautiful planet.
This article may contain affiliate links that provide us with a small income. For more information read our Affiliate page.
Pin it for later! | <urn:uuid:5fee3c8a-ead8-43a1-81e0-417519b53a82> | {
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I am advised:
The NSW Rural Fire Service (NSW RFS) now undertakes smoke plume modelling
for the majority of hazard reduction burns and shares the results routinely
with the Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH), Environment Protection
Authority (EPA) and NSW Health. The NSW RFS is also a member of an
intergovernmental committee stemming from the Government's Clean Air
Strategy, which is working to develop and implement a national fire behaviour
and smoke prediction modelling system.
A new interagency smoke communications protocol has been developed by
working groups under the Clean Air Strategy setting out clear responsibilities
and agreed messaging in relation to likely smoke impacts on the community.
Further enhancements to the Fires Near Me App will also allow more targeted
messages to people in affected areas.
The NSW RFS continually assesses and contributes to research regarding the
efficacy of hazard reduction burns on bush fire intensity and frequency.
Evidence to date demonstrates that by reducing the fuel load, it is possible to
reduce the impact of bush and grass fires on assets and improve chances of
suppressing a fire. The NSW RFS is also active on the Australasian Fire and
Emergency Services Authorities Council (AFAC) Climate Change group.
In response to recent research and inquiries into the impact of hazard
reduction burn escapes, the NSW RFS is developing a new risk assessment process
for undertaking hazard reduction burns in New South Wales that
considers the likelihood and consequence of burn escape and smoke impacts.
Ninety per cent of fires in New South Wales are caused by human actions and
this is particularly high in urban areas with a substantial amount of retained
vegetation. Local Bush Fire Management Committees across New South Wales
identify assets at risk in specific areas and set out plans for mitigation
Most hazard reduction activities traditionally take place in autumn and
recent conditions have suited the continuance of this work. These activities
focus on the areas of greatest risk. To assist this work and as part of the
Government's response to the Wambelong fire inquiries, the NSW RFS has
increased the number of State Mitigation Crews, greatly increasing the amount
of mid-week burning that can be done. Recent research shows hazard reduction by
burning has a substantially better cost benefit return compared to other forms
of hazard reduction.
The highest priority is given to the protection of people and property and
the Government continually examines new methods of fuel reduction and community | <urn:uuid:75edae86-f7ba-4723-8778-680ca59d2db5> | {
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Bob Whisonant is a Civil War buff with a peculiar way of looking at the Civil War. If you ask him to talk about, say, the Battle of Antietam, he might begin, “Well, it all started 500 million years ago.”
From This Story
Whisonant is a geologist, trained to study how layers of sediment form. He worked first at an oil company, then as a professor at Radford University in Virginia for more than 30 years. It wasn’t long before his geologic training began to inform his longstanding fascination with the Civil War. When Whisonant learned that there were others like him, he began to attend conferences on what is known as military geology.
About a decade ago, he met Judy Ehlen, an Army Corps of Engineers geologist with similar interests, and the two hatched a plan: what might they learn by studying the geology underlying the Civil War’s 25 bloodiest battles? When they plotted those battles on a map, they found that nearly a quarter of them had been fought atop limestone—more than on any other kind of substrate. What’s more, those limestone battles were among the most gruesome of the list. “Killer limestone,” they called it.
But limestone is not inherently toxic. Why had it proved so hazardous? The key to the puzzle, they found, is that limestone erodes relatively easily. Over millions of years, limestone bedrock weathers into flat, open terrain. And as any soldier who has charged into enemy fire knows, open terrain “is a bad place to be,” as Whisonant puts it. He and Ehlen presented their work at the 2008 meeting of the Geological Society of America; an article is forthcoming in a book titled Military Geography and Geology: History and Technology.
Whisonant and Ehlen are quick to acknowledge that soldiers have known for thousands of years that terrain affects battles. But military geology takes things “a step deeper,” Whisonant says (with “no pun intended”). Where a military historian might note the importance of the high ground or available cover in a battle, geologists look at a longer chain of causation. By making the strata of battlefields their subject of study, they give greater context, and a new perspective, to old battlefields.
Take the battle of Antietam, which occurred on September 17, 1862. It remains the bloodiest day in American history—23,000 men died or were wounded on that battlefield—as well as one of the most strategically significant of the Civil War. The Union victory marked a turning point and emboldened President Abraham Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation a few days later.
The battlefield also offers one of the best illustrations of Civil War geology. Antietam was fought atop different types of bedrock: in one area was limestone; in another, dolomite. Over millions of years, these different bedrocks eroded into distinct terrains. The limestone area became flat and open. But because dolomite is harder than limestone, the dolomite areas eroded into less even terrain, filled with hills and ridges that provided some cover.
One result: the fighting atop the limestone produced casualties at almost five times the rate of the fighting atop the dolomite. Limestone underlies the section of the battleground called the Cornfield—“the single bloodiest piece of ground in Civil War history,” Whisonant says. There, the bullets flew so relentlessly that by the battle’s end, “it looked like a scythe had come through and mowed down the cornstalks.” There were 12,600 casualties after three hours of fighting at the Cornfield, or 4,200 casualties an hour; at Burnside Bridge, which sat atop dolomite, there were 3,500 casualties after four hours, or 875 an hour.
Beyond its role in shaping battlefield topography, geology affected Civil War battles in less intuitive ways. At Gettysburg, Union soldiers arrayed themselves along a high, rocky spine called Cemetery Ridge. It was a commanding position, but it had a disadvantage: when the Confederates began bursting shells above them, the Union soldiers found that they couldn’t dig foxholes into the rock.
Between battles, troop movements were fundamentally “constrained by geology,” says Frank Galgano of Villanova University, who previously taught military geology at West Point. There is an oft-repeated myth that the Battle of Gettysburg occurred where it did because a Union general brought his weary, ill-shod troops there in search of a shoe factory. The fact, Galgano says, is that eight roads converged at Gettysburg, so a confrontation was bound to occur there. Those roads, in turn, had been built along axes determined by the topography, which was formed by tectonic events. “This seminal event in American history occurred here because of something that happened eons ago,” Galgano says. | <urn:uuid:dac6db6b-95c6-4a5e-89f8-2e668239359d> | {
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