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- This article is about the Breen species. For information on the Breen homeworld, see Breen (planet).
History and Politics
Shrouded in mystery, the Breen have been discovered to be one of the most underestimated races inhabiting the Alpha Quadrant. From what is known, their reputation can be summed up in a Romulan saying: "Never turn your back on a Breen". (DS9: "By Inferno's Light")
Historically, the Klingon's were among the first to discover the extent of underestimating the Breen. During the Klingon Second Empire, Chancellor Mow'ga ordered a fleet of Klingon warships to invade and conquer the Breen. The fleet was never heard from again. (DS9: "Til Death Do Us Part")
Even by the 24th Century, much was still unknown about the Breen and their otherwise politically unaligned government, known as the Breen Confederacy. The Federation, however, had limited knowledge of the Breen and were aware of Breen outposts located near the Black Cluster in 2368. (TNG: "Hero Worship") In 2370, the Breen participated in a palio held at Deep Space 3, in which the Ferengi attempted to bribe the Breen pilot into throwing. (TNG: "Interface") In 2373, the Breen settlements on Portas V near the Demilitarized Zone dealt with the Maquis, supplying them with cold storage units. (DS9: "For the Uniform") It was even noted by Ezri Dax in 2376, when captured by the Breen on a planet in the Goralis system, that they were a long way from Breen space. (DS9: "Penumbra")
Breen privateers during would often conduct indiscriminate raids against other Alpha Quadrant species. This includes the Breen attack and capture of the Cardassian transport Ravinok in 2366. Where, after, they used the survivors for slave labor in the dilithium mines on Dozaria. (DS9: "Indiscretion") In 2368, Starfleet feared the Breen might have attack the science vessel SS Vico. (TNG: "Hero Worship") Breen privateers also raided the Bajoran colony of Free Haven in 2372; they were, however, successfully driven away by the USS Defiant. (DS9: "To the Death")
Alliance with the Dominion
In 2375, the Breen moved from a policy of low-level hostilities toward other major powers to one of open warfare when they allied themselves to the Dominion. They were then allowed access to the Dominion military database. According to the terms of the alliance, the Breen Confederacy received several planets in the Cardassian Union as compensation for joining the war. The Breen would also be given control of the Romulan Star Empire in the post-war galaxy. (DS9: "Strange Bedfellows")
Shortly after joining with the Dominion, the Breen attacked Starfleet Headquarters on Earth in the raid on San Francisco. A short time later they assisted the Dominion forces in breaking the lines at Chin'toka. Under orders from the Female Changeling they allow the escape pods to carry the Federation survivors to safety. This major battle, known as the Second Battle of Chin'toka, was won by the Dominion thanks to a unique weapon, a form of energy dampening weapon system which could completely drain all the main power systems of a starship. Both of these defeats dealt a huge blow to the Allie's moral. (DS9: "The Changing Face of Evil") The only ship immune to the Breen weapon was the Klingon Bird-of-Prey, that unintentionally survived thanks to an adjustment the main engineer had made to the ships' tritium intermix in the warp core. (DS9: "When It Rains...")
Although the Klingon fleet was able to make the needed adjustments against the weapon, the Federation and the Romulans were still unable to defend against the Breen. When the Federation finally did create a defense against the energy-dampening weapon, they would force the Dominion fleet to retreat. Breen Thot Gor expressed an extreme distaste of surrender, and would require the reassurance of the female changeling, that they were not surrendering, but instead regrouping and attempting to redouble their shipbuilding and replenishment efforts. (DS9: "The Dogs of War")
With the war turned against the Dominion, the Allies moved on to Cardassia Prime for the final battle. With defeat fast approaching, the Female Changeling promised the Breen that they could have both Romulus and Earth if they could turn the battle around, however, they could not. The Breen continued to fight with the Dominion until the end, demonstrating a willingness to die for the cause that matched that of the Jem'Hadar. With the Klingon's targeting the Breen ships, the Allies won the war. The Breen were allied with the Dominion and as a result not only shared in its defeat, but were forced to actually commit the hated act of surrender, when the Female Changeling signed the official surrender pact on their behalf. (DS9: "What You Leave Behind")
Since the Breen homeworld is thought to have an extremely low average temperature, it is believed that the Breen have evolved with a unique physiology in order to cope with this ultra-cold environment. The Breen are a humanoid species that have no blood or other liquid circulatory system. (DS9: "In Purgatory's Shadow") The Breen brain is structured into four lobes; this protects them from the probing of some empathic species, such as the Betazoids, who are unable to detect the thoughts or emotions of the Breen. (TNG: "The Loss")
Society and Culture
The Breen are known to use slave labor; and at least some of these slaves are captured in raids on other species. (DS9: "Indiscretion") They have been known to feed their prisoners a diet of algae paste. (DS9: "Til Death Do Us Part")
The Breen commonly produce offspring at a very early age. (VOY: "Elogium") The Breen entertain their offspring with nursery rhymes. Breen nursery rhymes can be made up of a heterophonic, five-line verse with an alternating tetrameter and pentameter structure. These are nonsensical phrases strung together because they rhyme (at least to the Breen). Some Breen music, which can accompany these nursery rhymes, is written on a Lyxian scale. (DS9: "For the Uniform")
- It is unknown if this means a young average age for known humanoid species, or if the Breen have children at an age that would be considered young among Breen.
Science and Technology
Given that most known humanoid species live on class M planets with an average temperature far above the supposed temperature of Breen, the Breen are largely thought to have had to develop environmental suits in order to co-exist with others. However, if the Breen homeworld is temperate as suggested by Weyoun, then their reason for wearing environmental suits, if they are environmental suits at all, is much more mysterious. The Breen are known for their knowledge of sophisticated cold-storage units, summed up in Captain Sisko's statement, "If anyone knows how to keep things cold, it's the Breen". The Breen have also developed organic technology to the point where they routinely use biological spacecraft. (VOY: "Scorpion, Part I") Some of these ships are fitted with cloaking devices and the Breen are known to use type 3 disruptors like the Romulans and Klingons, as well as energy dampening weapons. (TNG: "Hero Worship", DS9: "Indiscretion", Star Trek: Generations) The Breen made use of memory probing technology in the form of cortical implants and a tazer like technology for subduing prisoners. (DS9: "Til Death Do Us Part") They also manufactured the Breen CRM-114; a portable hand cannon designed to target moving objects and surface emplacements. Ferengi arms dealer, Gaila, dealt in Breen CRM-114's during the mid-2370s. (DS9: "Business as Usual")
- TNG: "The Loss"
- TNG: "Hero Worship"
- TNG: "Interface"
- Star Trek: Generations
- DS9: "Crossfire"
- DS9: "To the Death"
- VOY: "Elogium"
- VOY: "Scorpion, Part I" | <urn:uuid:b4e0413f-5f34-4774-96e0-843972170aa2> | {
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Is this the end of the scholarly journal?
Scientific advances sometimes come as lightning flashes of inspiration. But when scientists sit down to record and take credit for what they've found, they still use much the same method they have for decades – an article published in a scholarly journal.
But science's hidebound traditions are changing. The Internet has opened up new forms of publishing in which anyone in the world can find and read a scientific paper. And papers themselves are becoming more interactive, leading readers to the underlying data, videos, and discussions that augment their value. With blogs and e-books providing easy means of self-publishing, some observers are speculating that scholarly journals and their controversial system of peer reviews may not be needed at all.
"The traditional journal publishing medium we've grown used to really needs to evolve and change because that's not the way people are accessing information," says Mark Gerstein, a professor of biomedical informatics at Yale University in New Haven, Conn. Dr. Gerstein cowrote an article, "The Death of the Scientific Paper," which appeared last year on The-Scientist.com, an online science magazine.
If the hopes of innovators bear fruit, scientific advances will come ever more quickly as online publishing makes past research easier to access and share widely.
Two new scientific publications, both available only online, may signal what's ahead. The PLoS ONE ( plosone.org), a journal begun by the Public Library of Science (PLoS) last month, aims to put as many new scientific articles as possible on the Internet to be read by anyone, free of charge. The Journal of Visualized Experiments, or JoVE ( myjove.com), is a kind of YouTube for researchers. It operates on the theory that a short video showing how an experiment is done is better than thousands of words that attempt to describe it.
At PLoS ONE, which aspires to be a general science journal along the lines of Science and Nature, the papers themselves are only a starting point. Readers can annotate, comment on, and critique the findings: Their contributions become permanently attached to the original article. At least one commentator has likened this process to a kind of "electronic Talmud," in which the original document receives elaborate commentary and discussion that over time adds greatly to its value.
In coming months, says Chris Surridge, the managing editor of PLoS ONE, readers also will be able to rate papers on their quality, such as how surprising or groundbreaking the results were – much in the way Netflix subscribers rate movies they rent using one- to five-star ratings. In this sense, PLoS ONE is moving toward a Web 2.0 model, which focuses on user-generated content strategies already used by websites such as Digg.com, Slashdot.org, or Amazon.com.
For years, traditional "peer review" has come under fire. A jury of three experts, the peer reviewers, assess each article and recommend only those that they feel represent the most significant new work. At many elite scientific journals, fewer than 10 percent of the articles submitted are accepted. Many of the rejected articles eventually travel down the "food chain" to be published in a plethora of less prestigious (and less noticed) specialty journals.
A year ago, the respected US journal Science was forced to retract two papers it had published about stem cells. The articles had been submitted by a South Korean team led by Hwang Woo-Suk. Peer reviewers, as well as the editors, had failed to detect the fraud.
In general, peer reviewers, themselves researchers pressed for time, don't try to re-create experiments and rarely ask to see the raw data that supports a paper's conclusions. While peer review is expected to separate the wheat from the chaff, it's "slow, expensive, profligate of academic time, highly subjective, prone to bias, easily abused, poor at detecting gross defects, and almost useless for detecting fraud," summed up one critic in BMJ, the British medical journal, in 1997.
"There's a lot of discussion [in the scientific community] about how peer review doesn't work," Mr. Surridge says. "It's not a great way to decide [what to publish]. It's just the only way we have at the moment."
PLoS ONE takes a different tack. While articles receive a basic screening, they don't have to attain the standard of representing groundbreaking work in order to be published. An article only has to be based on solid science. The idea is that the more valid research is published, the better, as it contributes to an online database.
"If it is science, [if] it is well done, [and if] it provides a valuable contribution to scientific literature, we can publish it," Surridge says. He expects about two-thirds of those papers submitted to PLoS ONE to be accepted.
Since its launch Dec. 20, PLoS ONE has published well over 100 papers and expects to publish 15 to 20 more per week. Readers access the articles for free. PLoS ONE pays its way by charging authors $1,250 to publish an article. While that might seem a barrier to publication, Surridge says most research is financed by grants or large institutions, meaning individual scientists rarely have to pay themselves. But just in case, PLoS ONE is waiving the fee for any authors who request it.
Moshe Prisker and Nikita Bernstein are taking another approach, using the Web's ability to deliver video easily with JoVE. While scientific concepts can be very simple, "the actual doing of the [laboratory] experiments is very difficult," says Dr. Prisker, a neural-stem-cell researcher at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.
Traditionally, he says, scientists have resorted to wandering from lab to lab asking, "Do you know how to do this or do that? They're basically asking someone with previous experience to show them."
In its first three months, JoVE has posted 18 videos ranging from five to 15 minutes showing techniques such as "Nuclear transfer in mouse oocytes." They get a modest vetting from scientists in the field to make sure they are sound. The site is free to view and charges nothing to post videos. Prisker says that he and Mr. Bernstein, both volunteers, hope that the journal will someday pay for itself through ads from manufacturers of lab equipment (the "Google model," he says).
Other journals are beginning to employ video in some articles, but JoVE is the first to make video images the primary means of conveying information. Brief articles, voice-overs, or captions accompany the moving images.
"Video gives you this ability for unambiguous representation of experiments," Prisker says. "I'm sure that video publication will become a significant force [in online journals]." Nearly all of the early reaction to the fledgling journal has been positive. Visitors to the JoVE website say, "This should have been done long ago," Prisker says.
Since the early days of the Web, observers have speculated that scientists might simply post new research on their own or in communal websites and let search engines find it, thereby bypassing the peer-reviewed journals altogether. If the research proves valuable, other sites will link to it, and the results would be "published" far faster than waiting for a journal to accept them.
Already, an online database called arXiv ( www.arXiv.org), hosted by Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y., contains more than 400,000 scientific papers posted by their authors without peer review. (The papers often appear later in peer-reviewed journals). Its comprehensiveness makes arXiv (pronounced "archive") a valuable tool, Gerstein, the Yale researcher, says. If someone claims to make a new discovery, anyone can search this database and say, "No, you didn't. It's in the arXiv."
Nonetheless, Gerstein says he thinks scientific journals, and some kind of peer review, will be around for a long time. Publishing in prestigious journals is "deeply intertwined with [scientists'] reputations and their promotions," he says. "You still want to get the stamp of approval of a journal." | <urn:uuid:76f32fcf-34cf-4898-8ead-3cf330c7519e> | {
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Middle-aged men and women suffering from depression may be more susceptible to dementia down the line, a recent study reports in the Archives of General Psychiatry.
Eating a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids — from fish, soy or nuts, for example — may help stave off Alzheimer’s disease, the authors of a new study suggest.
Sitting in front of a computer screen may seem like inactivity, but it could be giving your brain a workout.
In recent years, several studies have found that older people are less likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia if they engage in vigorous exercise, such as jogging, swimming or brisk walking.
In the first study of its kind, researchers link blood levels of healthy fats to brain size and memory loss.
How a smoking cessation treatment may be helping those with dementia
Omega-3s and vitamins may protect your brain’s function and size.
Shrinkage in certain parts of the brain may herald Alzheimer’s disease long before symptoms arise, according to new research.
Eating fish is good for the heart, and now new evidence suggests it may do the brain some good as well.
A drug already approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat high blood pressure may have an equally important effect on brain function, according to new research in monkeys.
Among the many difficult features of Alzheimer’s is that doctors can never really say with certainty which patients who show signs of memory loss will go on to develop the neurodegenerative disorder.
Jack Kevorkian’s fervid fascination with death made him a deeply unattractive human being. Yet he forced us to confront questions that, much as we might want to, we cannot ignore. Do some of us face fates worse than death, such … | <urn:uuid:6934151b-ccc0-4f0c-8ae5-c5226c4c66d8> | {
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Soybeans have been the bright spot in U.S. crop exports, increasing by 76 percent over the last 12 years after remaining variable but with a flat trend over the prior 18 years.
U.S. soybean exports peaked in 1981 at 929 million bushels and did not reach that level again until 1999. The increase in U.S. soybean exports coincides with the point at which China began to become a major factor in world soybean imports.
When looking at bulk agricultural commodity exports the conventional wisdom has held that as the U.S. exchange rate has declined, U.S. exports of these commodities has increased.
Two weeks ago we examined corn and saw that relationship between corn exports and the trade weighted exchange rate for U.S. corn importers was significant between 1970 and 1991 (http://agpolicy.org/weekcol/506.html). During the 1992-2009 period there is no significant relationship between the two.
U.S. wheat showed a similar pattern of a significant relationship between U.S. exports and the trade weighted exchange rate for U.S. wheat importers in the 1970-1989 period (http://agpolicy.org/weekcol/507.html). This pattern did not hold for the 1990-2009 period.
Looking at U.S. soybean exports and the trade weighted exchange rate for U.S. soybean importers, we see the expected mirror image in the 1970-1979 period, and statistical tests show that the relationship is significant.
Unlike what we saw with corn and wheat, the mirror image shows back up in the 2000-2009 period and the relationship is statistically significant. During this period China’s share of U.S. soybean exports rose from 19 percent to 56 percent as China allowed the renminbi (Chinese currency) to strengthen somewhat compared to the U.S. dollar.
Of course, other factors are always at work as well — perhaps more so in present-day China than most other places and other times. Of particular importance are China’s impressive economic growth and the attendant societal movement toward more protein-rich diets. But there were also decisions by the Chinese government to remain self-sufficient in traditional staple crops and newly accelerating meat demands.
Soybeans did not make the self-sufficiency list. While more processed soybeans are needed to supply the protein portions of livestock feed rations, China chose to use international markets to procure their ever increasing soybean needs. U.S. soybean producers have benefited, as have South American soybean producers.
In the next few years, we expect the U.S. government to continue to pressure the Chinese to allow the renminbi to gain additional strength in relationship to the U.S. dollar as a means of correcting some of the trade imbalance between the two countries.
If asked to name one country that could dramatically affect U.S. agricultural exports via future changes in currency exchange rates and public policy, China would likely be the country that most would name. It will be interesting to see what time reveals.
EDITOR’S NOTE — Daryll E. Ray holds the Blasingame Chair of Excellence in Agricultural Policy, Institute of Agriculture, University of Tennessee, and is the Director of UT’s Agricultural Policy Analysis Center (APAC). (865) 974-7407; Fax: (865) 974-7298; [email protected]; http://www.agpolicy.org. Daryll Ray’s column is written with the research and assistance of Harwood D. Schaffer, research associate with APAC. | <urn:uuid:3bcd1eea-fd3b-4976-b63d-ec059d26ccb3> | {
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As a native Marylander, I’ve had many discussions with friends about whether we can call it a Southern state. You could say it’s in “Dixie,” which (according to one historical interpretation from this Civil War fact book) means south of the Mason-Dixon Line. One could also argue that because it fought for the North in the Civil War, Maryland should be considered a Northern state. However, we can’t forget that Maryland was a slave state that was chock full of Southern sympathizers during the war.
For evidence, just look up the official state song that remains on the books. You might be surprised (or perhaps offended) at the lyrics. According to this NPR story, a group of active fourth-graders were certainly offended when Linda Tuck, a school library “media specialist,” led their study and discussion of the song. Here are some of the lines seen as offensive:
“The despot’s heel is on thy shore, Maryland!”
“Huzza! She spurns the Northern scum!”
By the way, that “despot” refers to the revered Abraham Lincoln. James Ryder Randall wrote the poem in 1861, after riots in Baltimore led to the deaths of a few civilians, according to Dissonance by David Detzer.
Tuck took a vote and found that the school children wanted to see the lyrics changed. They then wrote letters to state delegates, and now a bill is in the works. Delegate Pamela Beidle, who introduced the bill, wants to use a different poem written in 1894 for the lyrics of the song.
According to a local news article, the bill does have its critics, who say that the song’s a reminder of a part of Maryland’s history that is too often forgotten. Others would simply rather leave it up to voters. | <urn:uuid:bbfce4ae-ceea-476a-93c0-f07323fcb5e6> | {
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Coral reefs are delicate ecosystems that are threatened the word over. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is the 2nd largest reef in the world. Coastal development, pollution and storms are some of the threats that are putting this ecosystem in danger. In the Quintana Roo state there are several NGOs working towards different goals, from creating policies to control coastal development, monitoring the health of the reef, working with sustainable fisheries. We support a number of these NGOs.
What is the issue, problem, or challenge?
The Yucatan peninsula has a rich biodiversity that is threatened by the development of the tourist industry. In Quintana Roo in only 35 years, the population grew 1220%! There are no management plans for most of the areas and the development is affecting the ecosystems as well as the fresh water supplies. All of this is negatively impacting the health of the reef, as there are more coral diseases, bleaching and erosion and many species are threatened or in imbalance.
How will this project solve this problem?
There are several NGO's working on different projects along the Yucatan peninsula focusing on integrative management strategies and to influence environmental regulation. The different programs go from creating no-fishing zones in the whole state, to develop integrative coral reef stress response, monitoring the reefs and creating policies that will help the marine environment.
Potential Long Term Impact
Through the different programs, these NGOs intend to identify, protect and preserve areas with high biodiversity, as well as those ones that are essential to maintain the ecological processes of the species. As well as to develop management plans for the region, to work on capacity building and environmental education with the locals.
Total Funding Received to Date: £11,210
Remaining Goal to be Funded: £2,392
Total Funding Goal: £13,602 | <urn:uuid:666e858c-2e18-4fe6-8406-29a5e8e7a844> | {
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Page 4 of 4
The alternative now
Had Babbage built the Analytical Engine then it might be that we would all be using IBM PCs - but in this case that would stand for International Babbage Machine and Powered Computers! You would also be reading “I-Analytical Engineer”!
There is no doubt that electronics would have been invented but would anyone have bothered building valve based computers so long after reliable mechanical computers had proved their worth? (Although there is an alternative view as you will see below.) We probably would have waited until the transistor and the integrated circuit had been invented before going on to electronic computers.
It also seems reasonable that we would have phased in electronics as replacements for specific sections of the mechanical machine. After all the trouble with electronics is that it is so difficult to do decimal logic with it! Given that the most powerful computers of the time would have been completely decimal trying to introduce a binary machine would have seemed a big step and perhaps a backward one. What all this means is that the machine on your desk would most likely still be a decimal machine with some mechanical parts.
Of course it is also entirely possible that silicon lithography, the technique use to manufacture chips, would have been invented for a very different purpose.
If you know about transistors and electronic logic then presumably you can see how to use the doping of silicon to build integrated circuits but if what you know about is mechanical logic - presumably you start to think about ways of miniaturising mechanical devices.
Today we are just on the point of implementing practical micro-machines - and to be honest we are not entirely sure what to do with them! One of the ironies is perhaps that researchers are seriously suggesting that the steam engine might make a good source of power for a micromachine. This means that the PC on your desk might not have been much bigger than it is now. It might have made rather more noise and perhaps it would keep you warm on a cold day - but it could have packed almost same power into a desk-sized unit.
With a start in mechanical computers micro-engineering would have been developed and the division between the machine that does work and the machine that thinks would have been less obvious.
Our computers would be automata that did things as well as processing the data. Robotics would have seemed much more natural. Presumably hydraulics and fluid logic would have been introduced and extended to the input/output devices.
The typewriter as we know it was in existence by 1870 but it wasn’t well accepted. It is entirely possible that very different input methods would have been invented. The punched card was very definitely the method that Babbage had in mind, not only for programming his machine but for getting results back as well. It seems likely that the punch card would have more or less had its day as it did in the real version of history. The same sort of mechanical card handling devices would have been invented. But instead of surviving into the 1980s they might have made their exit in the 1880s!
No matter how hard you think it is very difficult to imagine any sort of personal computing that doesn’t make use of a keyboard for an input device - unless of course they went straight for a pointing device or perhaps some sort of touch interface aka "the lever"!
Would we have computer games?
Of course we would have.
Both Babbage and Ada imagined recreational uses for a computer. Ada imagined using it to write music - although in this case I think the sound card might have evolved from the pipe organ.
Babbage thought in terms of games of strategy like chess and noughts and crosses. But I have no doubt what so ever that action arcade style games would have still been invented as early as they could be.
Simply because even in the days of teletypes and clunky keyboards programmers invented space wars and Star Trek and so on.. I can well imagine that now Lunar Lander might be a classic but in the Jules Vern style rather than the LEM!
The real question is would we know Pong or any of the other really interactive games?
I find this difficult because I can’t think of anyway that you can have true interactivity without a TV system and I can’t think of a pure mechanical method of generating a TV picture. It’s also difficult to imagine Virtual Reality (VR) based on a Babbage machine - after all what could be more non-virtual than a mechanical computer!
Note: It has been pointed out by a number of readers, Jim McCracken and Erik Stites in particular, that perhaps the doubts about mechanical TV are too pessimistic. After all the first TV invented by John Logie Baird was mostly mechanical. It is likely that this particular approach had no real future but as pointed out micro-mechanical devices, in the form of tiny mirrors, as used in DPL projectors work very well. So perhaps creating a mechanical TV with microlevers linked back to a mechanical computer isn't so unthinkable.
On the other hand all of the standard applications would have developed. We would have “steam sheets” and “word pressers” and presumably Steam Assisted Publishing (SAP) would have taken off!
The one thing that the Analytical Engine was planned to do from the word go was create its own printing plates - by stamping the numbers in a soft plaster of paris mixture - for the tables it would calculate. This means that “direct to press” would have come true decades ago.
But the big question I hear you all asking is - what about the Internet?
Well Babbage couldn’t have used the telephone because it hadn’t been invented but there was the telegraph. It was invented by his friend Wheatstone (yes the man who invented the “bridge” of the same name). Soon after Morse improved on the idea and the sort of key and tapper system that you can see in most Westerns was invented.
What is so wonderful about this it that it was a digital system. We invented computers after the telephone and for this reason we go through a ridiculous process of converting digital to analog and back again
If the computer had been invented before the telephone then I’m not at all sure Bell would have bothered. Using a simple Morse type system one mechanical computer could have communicated with another without the need for a modem. This would simplify communications so much that my guess is that the Internet would have been invented before 1900 - after all the first international cable was laid between the UK and France in 1851. By my guess your PC would be fully connected but I doubt that there would be a telephone to be seen - in fact I doubt you would know the meaning of the word...
Plans to build Babbage's Analytical Engine
Babbage archive digitized
Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
To be informed about new articles on I Programmer, subscribe to the RSS feed, follow us on Google+, Twitter, Linkedin or Facebook or sign up for our weekly newsletter. | <urn:uuid:f8995f13-800b-404c-84b0-397dbe205023> | {
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Most of what we refer to as ‘modernization’ is associated with ‘westernization’ because it initiated in the west the world in the 19th and 20th centuries was. The industrial revolution in europe and the united states had created a wide gap between them in modernization japan’s e-international. The middle east, westernized despite itself :: modernization -- or as many saw it, westernization -- widened the gap between rich and poor. Ap world history chapter 18 study guide the rise of russia what forces resisted modernization & westernization in what was the relationship between. Relationship between values and social institutions my goal is to use this relationship in order to identify and distinguish three distinct pro- cesses of change that a system of values can. Discuss the relationship between modernization and westernization in japan, 1868-present. Modernization theory was developed and popularized by western academics in the 1950s and 60s, but is not without a wide swath of critics.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between “westernization” and obesity among adolescents in india obesity is a disorder with strong environmental links societal. The difference between modernization theory and dependency theory is that one explains how developed states operate and grow, while the other explains the exact opposite modernization. Essay on evolution of technology in western civilization process of social modernization the relationship between modernization and westernization. Definitions and views of the modern, modernism, and they deplore modernization's betrayal of its own human what is the difference between modernism and.
The relationship between modernization and westernization saying india is under the westernization impact or you are getting modern the term modernization and. The present study examines the relationship between social identity of hong kong adolescents and their conceptualization of modernization a focus group and a. Modernization was a link between the treaty port system and the emergence of japan's own imperialism 3 modernization and imperialism 4 intervention in korea. The relationship between islam and globalization has been open to deemed as a debate between islam and westernization modernization and globalization.
Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies democratization and modernization the relationship between modernization and democracy is one of. The family in israel: between tradition and modernity yoav lavee that prods the family toward greater modernization and age difference between men and women.
Modernization and dependency theory theories which attempt to explain the relationship between countries and the existing modernization or westernization. Is the ‘post-’ in postwar the ‘post-’ in postmodern: rethinking japan’s modernity relationship between modernization westernization and. Daniel w drezner modernization and westernization are not the same thing i’m going to go out on a limb and state unequivocally that i think civil liberties and. Does globalization equal westernization tags: amartya sen, economics, globalization, modernization, westernization about amartya sen full bio.
Comparing modernization in iran and turkey kolsoum parhizkari differences between iran and turkey in modernization and if the relationship between.
This essay modernization in east asia and modernization, and westernization in attempt to of the relationship in the past between the japanese. Modernization or westernization: the muslim the relationship between modernization and westernization the west evolved from modernization to westernization. Why can it be viewed as a reaction to economic modernization of local religious beliefs and westernization the connection made between a people's religious beliefs and their social and. Slide 1 social change in india concepts sanskritization and westernization hold special significance relationship between poverty. Modernization and religion: case study of ataturk and reza shah resistance against westernization/ modernization was different in iran and turkey.
Westernization is sometimes inaccurately equated with modernization, and by extension with modernization theory, a construct very much in vogue in development and foreign aid circles. The first was distinguishing westernization from modernization and highlighting islam’s superiority the second was the holistic perception of islam as a comprehensive system that could. Westernization in russia included the modernization of machinery, the refinement of a more efficient bureaucracy, and the acceptance of western european tastes. Modernization theory and dependency theory table of contents: 1 introduction 2similarities between modernization theory and dependency theory 3. | <urn:uuid:d5991e7b-0864-4b6b-8332-21ea02796aac> | {
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Shaken baby syndrome (SBS) has been thought to be caused by violent shaking of an infant and is characterized by the triad of findings: subdural hematoma (SDH), retinal hemorrhages, and neurologic abnormalities. The triad is not specific for SBS and can be seen in accidental trauma and in certain medical conditions. Recent observations, however, question whether SBS exists. Herein, we review the gender differences in 3 groups of infants with traumatic brain injury: (1) neonates with SDH from birth trauma, (2) infants with SDH from accidental trauma, and (3) infants with SDH from SBS. Gender differences are also presented in a fourth group of infants with macrocephaly related to increased extra-axial fluid spaces (IEAFS). Compared with the expected male frequency of 51.4% in newborns, there was a statistically significant overrepresentation of males in each of the 4 groups–65.3%, 62.2%, 62.6%, and 68.8%, respectively. We believe that the most likely explanation for these findings relates to the larger head size of the male compared with the female which has several relevant consequences. First, the larger head circumference of a male newborn compared with a female newborn may increase the likelihood that a male newborn will incur a small SDH from the minor trauma of the birthing process that can later rebleed and present with a symptomatic SDH that could be misdiagnosed as SBS and child abuse. Second, a short fall would have a greater likelihood of causing a SDH in a male infant than a female infant who could subsequently become symptomatic from hours to weeks later and could thus present as an unexplained SDH. Third, infants with macrocephaly related to IEAFS may be at increased risk for developing a SDH from the larger head size and greater tautness of the bridging vessels in the extra-axial fluid spaces. We believe that many infants who have been diagnosed with SBS have been given incorrect diagnoses of child abuse. Rather, their SDH may occur as a result of a small SDH from the birthing process that enlarges during early infancy, a short fall, or from macrocephaly with IEAFS. | <urn:uuid:de1c9660-28f4-459f-82d4-a43ba0543a8f> | {
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- Special Sections
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Leaf raking is an autumn chore that only children enjoy because they get to undo it in one fell swoop. We rake and pile and they jump.
I propose a new approach that just may make us all happy: Adults can still rake a little, children can still play, and trees will benefit from some mulch and fertilizer.
At the farm raking leaves is passé; we let them stay where they fall (within reason, of course), which is usually beneath their canopy.
This may be a bit of an overstatement because some small yards can quickly fill up with leaves, smothering grass and perennial beds, but there is a happy medium. Rake away some leaves, composting them out back for use in the garden later. Rake small leaves back beneath the canopy of trees, into shrub borders, perennial beds or the vegetable garden, and use the mulching mower to chop the big stuff right back onto the lawn.
If you walk in the forest what do you see? The forest floor is as rich as it gets in terms of soil.
Years of leaf mold has collected, decayed and returned valuable nutrients to the soil, which is then used by the trees of the forest. Traditionally, in our own back yards, we remove this valuable natural resource and set in on the curb to be taken away by big trucks and dumped in a landfill.
There is something not quite right about this, especially if we turn around and buy a high-nitrogen fertilizer to spread on lawns and around trees and shrubs. Use common sense to remove excess leaves but reserve some and use them the way nature intended.
Not only will the leaves feed our plants, but they also will act as mulch, reducing weeds and conserving moisture.
If the excess seems cumbersome, consider starting a compost pile. Compost is generally comprised of leaves, grass clippings, twigs garden waste and kitchen waste (no meat products allowed). As the organic material breaks down, it turns into nutrient-rich food for your garden and landscape material – for free.
In order to maintain a healthy compost pile, the goal is to create an environment that encourages mycorrhizal fungal and bacterial activity. This activity, along with earthworms, is what helps break down the organic material into compost.
Using leaves as mulching material around your plants and trees will also encourage this desired activity – again, for free.
It is important to turn your compost to supply oxygen to the material. This fact sometimes overwhelms people, but, do not worry, one flip a month is usually enough. Oxygen and water encourage the right type of bacterial growth.
You can add water and horse manure to speed up the healthy aerobic activity, which aids in the process of decomposition. Otherwise just be patient, turn the pile from time to time, and you will have some great compost next spring.
If a compost pile seems unlikely, then simply transfer the leaves to the vegetable garden. Leaves left to decay during the winter in the garden plot can be turned under in spring before you are ready to plant.
Doing this every year will increase soil fertility, drainage and tilth, which will feed your vegetables slowly throughout the summer without having to buy additional amendments or fertilizer. Vegetables fed this way show an increase in yield and pest resistance.
Check out gardening columnist Jeneen Wiche’s work at www.SwallowRailFarm.com. You can find her columns also at www.SentinelNews.com/agriculture. She answers questions once a month in SentinelNewsPlus. To submit a question, send an E-mail to [email protected] type “Sentinel-News” in the subject field. | <urn:uuid:daa4b445-0cc2-4f4c-a85a-9437903b4269> | {
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Researchers looking at this summer’s London riots have concluded architecture may have helped cause them. Preposterous idea, you say? Let me explain.
Apparently, many of the riots took place near public housing. Well, of course—poor people were the ones rioting and stealing. But the public housing was so complex a design that it created large spaces no one used except idle and unsupervised young people, who congregated there in large numbers, eventually spilling into the streets and giving us the term “flash mob.”
“The trouble with so much architecture from the post-war period is that the state was the client—architects designed housing projects with little or no concern for the people who would actually live in them,” notes Tom Clougherty on the Adam Smith Institute blog. “The design of housing estates did not reflect the way people lived, worked and played. Rather, it reflected a utopian socialist ideology which central planners wished to impose upon them.”
Steven Masty, the “London and Afghanistan correspondent” for one of my favorite Hillsdale professor blogs, goes into greater detail about this connection. He compares housing built for poor workers by private ventures with that built by social scientists using government money. The government “projects” need no explanation, as we are all familiar with their decrepitude—but the privately built projects took into account community preferences so much better that the ones still standing are much in demand.
Public architects, he says, show great interest in manipulating people into arrangements befitting their grand, social visions. Unfortunately, humans are not so malleable, which means arrangements poorly suited to humans produce unintended and often frightful outcomes.
This is yet one more reason structures matter to society. In choosing economic or social policy, we must first understand what humans are, and how we work, so we can structure institutions that fit. This, of course, ties neatly into why private enterprise is often so much better suited to addressing problems than public enterprise. Something about individual responsibility and initiative works better than centrally imposed programs. | <urn:uuid:97c77b0e-bf07-47e4-862e-30123717adca> | {
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NASA Earth Observatory image by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using ALI data from the EO-1 Team. Caption by Robert Simmon.
Italy’s Mount Etna is currently in a period where short bursts of activity, each lasting a few hours, are interspersed with quiet periods lasting several days or weeks. Thirteen eruptive episodes, or paroxysms, had occurred by mid-September 2011. During a typical paroxysm, lava fountains at the New Southeast Crater send flows down the eastern slope of the volcano, often accompanied by a dense ash plume.
This natural-color satellite view of Mount Etna shows the volcano on September 8, 2011, just as the most recent paroxysm subsided. The image was acquired by the Advanced Land Imager (ALI) aboard the Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite. The center of activity—the New Southeast Crater—is hidden by a gas-rich plume. A lava flow extends about 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) to the southeast. Although the flow is obscured by the gases, heat from the flow glows bright red in a false-color image. A smaller lava flow to the north of the crater is visible as a thin black line. In the wider view, ash from an earlier stage of the eruption is visible over the coastal town of Catania.
- Behnke, Boris. (2011, September 12). etnaboris’ photostream. Accessed September 13, 2011.
- Behnke, Boris. (2011, September 13). Personal Communication
- l’Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Sezione di Catania. (2011, September 8). Etna update, 8 September 2011. Accessed September 13, 2011.
Note: Often times, due to the size, browsers have a difficult time opening and displaying images. If you experiece an error when clicking on an image link, please try directly downloading the image (using a right click, save as method) to view it locally.
This image originally appeared on the Earth Observatory. Click here to view the full, original record. | <urn:uuid:9f401474-87c1-4b1d-9b69-cb686e4bf9c3> | {
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Hawes/Union Burying Ground
When South Boston was incorporated within the City of Boston in 1804, a proviso was made which stated three lots of land should be set aside for public use: a public market place, a school house and a burial ground. In 1816, John Hawes, a large land owner in the area, donated a small lot of land to be used as a public burial ground. The Board of Health sanctioned its use as a burial ground in March 1821, although it was used for burials prior to this time.
Union cemetery was the last cemetery to be laid out in South Boston and is the smallest in the district. It was originally a privately owned burial site. The gravestones date from 1845 to 1886. The City of Boston took over the Union Cemetery in the twentieth century. | <urn:uuid:e73570b6-c09d-41d8-9a73-b0e1a424fb96> | {
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People love to do everything they can to give their beloved houseplants a boost. Sometimes, people do things that arenít necessarily good for their houseplants in a misguided attempt at giving them an extra dose of love. Putting coffee grounds and brewed coffee into the container your plant is growing in may seem like a good idea, but it really isnít.
Coffee grounds are often used in composting and are a great source of nitrogen. Unfortunately, most houseplants are not in an environment that is conducive to the breakdown of the coffee grounds that is necessary for the nitrogen to become available. Houseplants are usually potted up in a soil-less mix that is sterile. This means that there are no bacteria or organisms present to decompose those grounds. What you will most likely get is moldy coffee grounds mixed in with your potting mix.
Ideally, stick with sterile potting mix and donít attempt to mix organic matter in with it. Likewise, you will get the best results using fertilizer made for houseplants. Do not worry too much about using synthetic fertilizers that are higher in phosphorous, which can be a concern when applying to areas outdoors that drain to a watershed or lake. Plants kept in pots indoors are exempt from the eco-conscious worries because they are an ecosystem all their own.
Some people are already aware of the incompatibility of coffee grounds with soil-less potting mix. Some of those same people believe that pouring an old cup of brewed coffee into a planter offers some benefit. That is rarely the case. Brewed coffee is acidic, which is only favorable to a few houseplants, such as azaleas. Plus, a lot of people have creamer in their coffee: not something you want in your houseplantís pot! Avoid pouring coffee into your houseplantís pot for the purpose of lowering the pH; there are better methods.
When growing azaleas and other acid-loving houseplants, purchase a fertilizer made specifically for that purpose. There is little else you may want to do for these plants. Pouring coffee in their pots may smell nice at first, but who knows how you may feel about it later.
Adding coffee grounds or brewed coffee seems like a natural way to provide additional nutrients to your houseplants, but indeed, it isnít. Houseplants are kept in an environment that is created especially for them and neither grounds nor brew have any place in it. Instead, opt for potting mixes, fertilizers and supplements designed specifically for houseplants. The results will be the all the proof you need. | <urn:uuid:45e03e0d-393b-4be2-87b0-88b863cd3a32> | {
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Calendar of Events
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Help for stressed kids
As a pediatrician, I've noticed a growing number of children suffering from stress and anxiety.
This often results in learning problems from difficulty focusing on tasks.
Sometimes behavior issues emerge at home and school out of frustration from the emotional turmoil they feel inside.
As a parent, you may feel helpless...not knowing how to best support your child.
Parenting Your Stressed Child presents a series of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction™ (MBSR) practices designed for parents and children to build healthy stress management skills.
There is a lot of pressure on parents today. You may sometimes wonder if you're doing a good enough job. There are many decisions to make from getting a healthy meal on the table to immunizing to keep your kids safe without doing harm.
The reality is that both parents and kids are more stressed today than in previous generations. The challenge is finding healthy and practical ways to deal with stress for both you and your child. Kids learn what they see. As parents, we are always serving as role models for our kids (whether we are aware of it or not).
So, what can you do as a parent to help your stressed child?
Recognize the signs and symptoms of stress in kids
Understand how your stress affects your child’s levels of stress
Model healthy coping to manage the stress in your life
Teach your child how to manage stress in healthy ways
Identify resources available to support you in helping your child manage stress
Mindfulness reduces stress
In its simplest form, mindfulness is living in the present moment, on purpose, without judging what you notice. Our stress often results from thoughts that keep us stuck in the past or worries that push us into the future. Mindfulness practices help you and your child to spend more time in the present moment where you have space to think and respond to your situation or stress, rather than reacting to it.
Who can benefit from this program?
This program is not just for parents. Teachers and school counselors will find that these skills help kids focus on their schoolwork and stay calm when they feel distressed. Parents can practice modeling these skills and incorporate them into their own lives in order to improve their children’s ability to tolerate stress, both learning and teaching the art of resilience, a character trait that will stay with both parents and children for a lifetime.
Click on the following link to purchase a copy of Parenting Your Stressed Child, http://www.amazon.com/Parenting-Your-Stressed-Child-Mindfulness-Based/dp/157224979X | <urn:uuid:14bf0c13-f9f5-4a9e-8a18-c46aa55c8c38> | {
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A perceptive and intuitive approach is necessary to understand and facilitate the therapeutic process" Susan Garofolo
Play Therapy is the systematic use of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial challenges and achieve optimal growth and development. A working definition might be a form of counseling or psychotherapy that therapeutically engages the power of play to communicate with and help people, especially children, to engender optimal integration and individuation. Play Therapy is often used as tool of diagnosis. A play therapist observes a client playing with toys (play-houses, pets, dolls, etc.) to determine the cause of the disturbed behavior. The objects and patterns of play, as well as the willingness to interact with the therapist, can be used to understand the underlying rationale for behavior both inside and outside the session. According to the psychodynamic view, people (especially children) will engage in play behavior in order to work through their anxieties. In this way, play therapy can be used as a self-help mechanism, as long as children are allowed time for "free play" or "unstructured play." From a developmental point of view, play has been determined to be an essential component of healthy child development. Play has been directly linked to cognitive development. One approach to treatment is for play therapists use a type of systematic desensitization or relearning therapy to change disturbing behavior, either systematically or in less formal social settings. These processes are normally used with children, but are also applied with other pre-verbal, non-verbal, or verbally-impaired persons, such as slow-learners, or brain-injured or drug-affected persons. Mature adults usually need much "group permission" before indulging in the relaxed spontaneity of play therapy, so a very skilled group worker is needed to deal with such guarded individuals. Definition: • Play therapy is generally employed with children aged 3 through 11 and provides a way for them to express their experiences and feelings through a natural, self-
guided, self-healing process. As children’s experiences and knowledge are often communicated through play, it becomes an important vehicle for them to know and accept themselves and others. • "Play Therapy is based upon the fact that play is the child's natural medium of self-expression. It is an opportunity which is given to the child to 'play out' his feelings and problems just as, in certain types of adult therapy, an individual 'talks out' his difficulties." Virginia Axline
History Play has been recognized as important since the time of Plato (429-347 B.C.) who reportedly observed, “you can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation.” In the eighteenth century Rousseau (1762/1930), in his book ‘Emile’ wrote about the importance of observing play as a vehicle to learn about and understand children. Friedrich Fröbel, in his book The Education of Man(1903), emphasized the importance of symbolism in play. The first documented case, describing the therapeutic use of play, was in 1909 when Sigmund Freud published his work with “Little Hans.” Little Hans was a five-year-old child who was suffering from a simple phobia. Freud saw him once briefly and recommended that his father take note of Hans’ play to provide insights that might assist the child. Hermine Hug-Hellmuth (1921) formalized the play therapy process by providing children with play materials to express themselves and emphasize the use of the play to analyze the child. Anna Freud (1946, 1965) utilized play as a means to facilitate positive attachment to the therapist and gain access to the child’s inner life. Jesse Taft (1933) and Frederick Allen (1934) developed an approach they entitled relationship therapy. The primary emphasis is placed on the emotional relationship between the therapist and the child. The focus is placed on the child’s freedom and strength to choose. Carl Rogers (1942) expanded the work of the relationship therapist and developed nondirective therapy, later called client-centered therapy (Rogers, 1951). Virginia Axline (1950) expanded on her mentor's concepts. In her article entitled ‘Entering the child’s world via play experiences’ Axline summarized her concept of play therapy stating, “A play experience is therapeutic because it provides a secure relationship between the child and the adult, so that the child has the freedom and room to state
himself in his own terms, exactly as he is at that moment in his own way and in his own time”. Filial therapy, developed by Bernard and Louise Guerney, was a new innovation in play therapy during the 1960’s. The filial approach emphasizes a structured training program for parents in which they learn how to employ child-centered play sessions in the home. In the 1960’s, with the advent of school counselors, school-based play therapy began a major shift from the private sector. In 1982, the Association for Play Therapy (APT) was established marking not only the desire to promote the advancement of play therapy, but to acknowledge the extensive growth of play therapy. Currently, the APT has almost 5,000 members in twenty-six countries (2006). Play therapy training is provided, according to a survey conducted by the Center for Play Therapy at the University of North Texas (2000), by 102 universities and colleges throughout the United States.
Systematic Model of Success
The therapists office will schedule an appointment with several children. In one session there can be as many as 2-5 children interacting. This organic interaction, allows the psychologist and psychiatrist, to properly evaluate the child’s emotions and feelings. This form of therapy allows the child to unknowingly reveal his emotion, while playing with other children. Along with children interacting with other children, the therapist will have the child play with certain toys in order to determine his concentration and source of any stress. Each toy and each style of enjoying them represents a different emotion and feeling. It is believed that people will interact with others, in order to work through internal anxieties. In this idea, children should be encouraged to play, in order to develop a healthy child. The therapist will engage in desensitization exercises, in order to eliminate stress for children. These exercises include teaching the child how to relearn certain behavior through a formal system of tests.
complete history of the child is attained followed by a clinical assessment and consultation with the care giver. Based on this information an appropriate treatment modality is chosen. For instance, a directive or non-directive approach may be used, depending on what the situation calls for. In all cases, the treatment is play-based and child-centred, focusing on the individual needs of the child. For example:
Children dealing with loss Children caught in the middle of divorce and children who have been abused have all experienced various forms of loss. Through the healing medium of play, they are given the opportunity to express their feelings and understand the events that have taken place. This process offers children new skills to help them deal with their circumstances, move forward and enjoy their childhood. Play Therapy for children with attachment related problems Play therapy is play therapy for children and their parents. It is designed to enhance attachment, raise self-esteem, improve trust in others and create joyful engagement. Play therapy is based on the natural patterns of healthy interaction between parent and child, and is personal, physical and fun! Play therapy sessions create an active and empathic connection between the child and the parents, resulting in a changed view of the self as worthy and lovable and of relationships as positive and rewarding.
The aim of play therapy is to decrease those behavioral and emotional difficulties that interfere significantly with a child's normal functioning. Inherent in this aim is improved communication and understanding between the child and his parents. Less obvious goals include improved verbal expression, ability for self-observation, improved impulse control, more adaptive ways of coping with anxiety and frustration, and improved capacity to trust and to relate to others. In this type of treatment, the therapist uses an understanding of cognitive development and of the different stages of emotional development as well as the conflicts common to these stages when treating the child. Play therapy is used to treat problems that are interfering with the child's normal development. Such difficulties would be extreme in degree and have been occurring for many months without resolution. Reasons for treatment include, but are not limited to, temper tantrums, aggressive behavior, non-medical problems with bowel or bladder control, difficulties with sleeping or having nightmares, and experiencing worries or
fears. This type of treatment is also used with children who have experienced sexual or physical abuse, neglect, the loss of a family At times, children in play therapy will also receive other types of treatment. For instance, youngsters who are unable to control their attention, impulses, tendency to react with violence, or who experience severe anxiety may take medication for these symptoms while participating in play therapy. The play therapy would address the child's psychological symptoms. Other situations of dual treatment include children with learning disorders. These youngsters may receive play therapy to alleviate feelings of low self-esteem, excessive worry, helplessness, and incompetency that are related to their learning problems and academic struggles. In addition, they should receive a special type of tutoring called cognitive remediation, which addresses the specific learning issues.
• • • • • • • •
Reduces anxiety about traumatic events in the child's life Facilitates a child's expression of feelings Promotes self-confidence and a sense of competence Develops a sense of trust in self and others Defines healthy boundaries Creates or enhances healthy bonding in relationships Enhances creativity and playfulness Promotes appropriate behavior
• • • • • • • • • •
Excessive anger, worry, sadness or fear Aggressive behavior (hurting others or self) Separation anxiety Excessive shyness Behavioral regression Low self esteem Learning or other school problems Sleep, eating or elimination problems Preoccupation with sexual behavior Difficulty adjusting to family changes
Physical symptoms such as headaches or stomach aches that have no medical cause
• • • • • • • • •
Parents Physicians Nurses Family Lawyers Marriage and Family Therapists Teachers Social Workers Psychotherapists Child Care Workers
• • • • • • • •
Children who are dealing with parental conflict, separation or divorce Children who have been traumatized (sexual, physical or emotional abuse) Children who have been adopted or are in foster care Children who are dealing with issues of loss, such as illness or death of a loved one Children who have been hospitalized Children who have witnessed domestic violence Children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD/ADHD) Children who have experienced serious accidents or disasters
Precautions Play therapy addresses psychological issues and would not be used to alleviate medical or biological problems. Children who are experiencing physical problems should see a physician for a medical evaluation to clarify the nature of the problem and, if necessary, receive the appropriate medical treatment. Likewise, children who experience academic difficulties need to receive a neuropsychological or in-depth psychological evaluation in order to clarify the presence of a biologically based learning disability. In both of these cases, psychological problems may be present in addition to medical ailments and learning disabilities, but they may not be the primary problem and it would not be
sufficient to treat only the psychological issues. Alternatively, evaluations may show that medical or biological causes are not evident, and this would be important information for the parents and therapist to know.
Description In play therapy, the clinician meets with the child alone for the majority of the sessions and arranges times to meet with parents separately or with the child, depending on the situation. The structure of the sessions is maintained in a consistent manner in order to provide a feeling of safety and stability for the child and parents. Sessions are scheduled for the same day and time each week and occur for the same duration. The frequency of sessions is typically one or two times per week, and meetings with parents occur about two times per month, with some variation. The session length will vary depending on the environment. For example, in private settings, sessions usually last 45 to 50 minutes while in hospitals and mental health clinics the duration is typically 30 minutes. The number of sessions and duration of treatment varies according to treatment objectives of the child. During the initial meeting with parents, the therapist will want to learn as much as possible about the nature of the child's problems. Parents will be asked for information about the child's developmental, medical, social and school history, whether or not previous evaluations and interventions were attempted and the nature of the results. Background information about parents is also important since it provides the therapist with a larger context from which to understand the child. This process of gathering information may take one to three sessions, depending on the style of the therapist. Some clinicians gather the important aspects of the child's history during the first meeting with parents and will continue to ask relevant questions during subsequent meetings. The clinician also learns important information during the initial sessions with the child. Sessions with parents are important opportunities to keep the therapist informed about the child's current functioning at home and at school and for the therapist to offer some insight and guidance to parents. At times, the clinician will provide suggestions about
parenting techniques, about alternative ways to communicate with their child, and will also serve as a resource for information about child development. Details of child sessions are not routinely discussed with parents. If the child's privacy is maintained, it promotes free expression in the therapist's office and engenders a sense of trust in the therapist. Therapists will, instead, communicate to the parents their understanding of the child's psychological needs or conflicts. For the purposes of explanation, treatment can be described as occurring in a series of initial, middle and final stages. The initial phase includes evaluation of the problem and teaching both child and parents about the process of therapy. The middle phase is the period in which the child has become familiar with the treatment process and comfortable with the therapist. The therapist is continuing to evaluate and learn about the child, but has a clearer sense of the youngster's issues and has developed, with the child, a means for the two to communicate. The final phase includes the process of ending treatment and saying goodbye to the therapist. During the early sessions, the therapist talks with the child about the reason the youngster was brought in for treatment and explains that the therapist helps make children's problems go away. Youngsters often deny experiencing any problems. It is not necessary for them to acknowledge having any since they may be unable to do so due to normal cognitive and emotional factors or because they are simply not experiencing any problems. The child is informed about the nature of the sessions. Specifically, the child is informed that he or she can say or play or do anything desired while in the office as long as no one gets hurt, and that what is said and done in the office will be kept private unless the child is in danger of harming himself. Children communicate their thoughts and feelings through play more naturally than they do through verbal communication. As the child plays, the therapist begins to recognize themes and patterns or ways of using the materials that are important to the child. Over time, the clinician helps the child begin to make meaning out of the play. This is important because the play reflects issues which are important to the child and typically relevant to their difficulties.
When the child's symptoms have subsided for a stable period of time and when functioning is adequate with peers and adults at home, in school, and in extracurricular activities, the focus of treatment will shift away from problems and onto the process of saying goodbye. This last stage is known as the termination phase of treatment and it is reflective of the ongoing change and loss that human beings experience throughout their lives. Since this type of therapy relies heavily on the therapist's relationship with the child and also with parents, ending therapy will signify a change and a loss for all involved, but for the child in particular. In keeping with the therapeutic process of communicating thoughts and feelings, this stage is an opportunity for the child to work through how they feel about ending therapy and about leaving the therapist. In addition to allowing for a sense of closure, it also makes it less likely that the youngster will misconstrue the ending of treatment as a rejection by the therapist, which would taint the larger experience of therapy for the child. Parents also need a sense of closure and are usually encouraged to process the treatment experience with the therapist. The therapist also appreciates the opportunity to say goodbye to the parents and child after having become involved in their lives in this important way, and it is often beneficial for parents and children to hear the clinician's thoughts and feelings with regards to ending treatment.
Preparation It is recommended that parents explain to the child that they will be going to see a therapist, that they discuss, if possible, the particular problem that is interfering with the child's growth and that a therapist is going to teach both parents and child how to make things better. As described earlier, the child may deny even obvious problems, but mainly just needs to agree to meet the therapist and to see what therapy is like. Aftercare Children sometimes return to therapy for additional sessions when they experience a setback that cannot be easily resolved. Normal results Normal results include the significant reduction or disappearance of the main problems for which the child was initially seen. The child should also be functioning adequately at
home, in school, with peers and should be able to participate in and enjoy extracurricular activities. Abnormal results Sometimes play therapy does not alleviate the child's symptoms. This situation can occur if the child is extremely resistant and refuses to participate in treatment or if the child's ways of coping are so rigidly held that it is not possible for them to learn more adaptive ones. Sandtray or Sandbox Therapy is a form of experiential workshop which allows greater exploration of deep emotional issues. Sandplay therapy is suitable for children and adults and allows them to reach a deeper insight into and resolution of a range of issues in their lives such as deep anger, depression, abuse or grief. Through a safe and supportive process they are able to explore their world using a sandtray and a collection of miniatures. Accessing hidden or previously unexplored areas is often possible using this expressive and creative way of working which does not rely on “talk” therapy
TRANSITIONAL OBJECTS & IMAGINARY PLAYMATES
A special form of imaginative play essentially reflecting the same tendency towards the development of a metarepresentational symbol system can be found in the development of an imaginary playmate. Wincott (1953) identified an early stage in such a development. From about 1 year of age many children show tendency to carry a soft cloth about with them & often to make it to bed. Often the soft clothes may be a blanket from the crib; it may also be a spare diaper or some other item among the child’s assortment of play materials to which the child has become especially attached. Wincott perception was that these clothes serve the purpose of providing a concrete reminder in the absence of the mother’s warmth & physical presence. Such tendency can also be carried over to toys such as teddy bears. The term transitional object implies that the child is gradually giving up the physical clinging to the parent but sustaining some concrete and palpable feature of that experience.
The function of this soft toy is not only one of the reminiscence but also one of the possessions. That is while the child cannot possess indefinitely the warmth and closeness of the parent, it can possess the soft cloth or soft toy. The child clings to its teddy bear, fights to retain its possession and begins to delineate a sense of self through being able to assert “this is my time”.
ADAPTIVE ROLE OF IMAGINATIVE PLAY
• GENERAL POSITIVE EMOTIONALITY A number of studies, some already cited, consistently point to the fact that the use of make-believe in the nursery school or in a variety of other settings or in the form of imaginary playmate is associated with more positive affective states in children. This consistent finding as well as the tendency for there to be an inverse relationship between imaginative play skills on the part of the child and overt manifestations of anger and aggression suggests the value of the use of play in a variety of therapeutic efforts with disturbed children. • ENHANCED LANGUAGE SKILLS One feature of imaginative play is that the children verbalizing aloud increasingly complex situations. While some of their statements may reflect misunderstanding of adult remarks; such as verbalization provides feedback to the child & may also evoke correcting responses from overhearing adults or peers. Inherent nature of make-believe play involves the development of plot sequences. • PERSISTENCE Imaginative play, because requires, in effect, a story line, tends to provide the child with focus & direction and then sustains concentration for longer periods. Children who have no tendency for imaginative play often are captives of the momentary changes of objects or toys in their environment. They seize at new things & often are embroiled in struggles for possession with other children or flit from group to group.
• DISTINGUISHING REALITY FROM FANTASY There is at least some research evidence to suggest that children who have experience in make-believe games are better able to discriminate real from unreal situations & have learned to identify within their own thoughts that metarepresentational realm described by Leslie(1987). For example in one study with somewhat older children those who had scored higher on indications of imaginativeness were better able to recall details of a story and then could discriminate real instances from those that were purely fantasy.(Tucker,1975). It may well be that, even in those real instances of multiple personality, the affected adults may have grown up without a clear sense of the extent to which fantasized alternative selves are natural occurrences as part of a general dimension of makebelieve or metarepresentation.
EMPATHY One of the consequences of solitary & group make-believe play is that the child often learns to take on different roles. Often in the make-believe play of two or three children, one observes brief struggles over who will be the “good guy” or the “bad guy”, the hero or the victim. In such instances these disputes are often resolved by reversing roles either later in the game or on other days.
COOPERATION Observational studies of children at play demonstrate that children prone to symbolic play are likely to prove cooperation both with adults & with peers. Indeed, the very necessity of negotiating roles and plots with other children in order to sustain make-believe provides useful practice in this important social skill. • TOLERATION OF DELAY Of extreme importance for the developing child is the ability to defer immediate gratification in the interest of a longer-term goal or simply to tolerate naturally occurring delays. Make-believe play, whether it is sustained by the use of just few primitive toys or as it gradually becomes internalized in the form of imagery. • TAKING TURNS The careful observation of Catherine Garvey (1974) demonstrate that one of the important features to pretend play in children is the manner in which it is associated with turn taking & a form of social interaction that has long term socialization potential. Observations of children in various kinds of make-believe indicate that exigencies of the plot in any initially agreed upon make-believe activity impose forms of self-control on child.
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF PLAY Content: Themes such as aggression or nurturing may appear repeatedly, or play may involve a wide range of thematic material. Anxiety: Play may involve a manageable-even pleasurable-level of tension, or the child may be overwhelmed by anxiety and interrupt the play. Imagination: Imagination may range from simple manipulation of objects to richly elaborated fantasy play.
Discrimination between make-believe & reality: Some children get lost in the play; others may assure the nurse “it’s just pretend”. Narrative Lines: Actions may be repeated endlessly, may jump from one to another, or may flow smoothly with a sense of a beginning and an ending. Persistence: One child may be easily frustrated and another may stick to a task such as building a tower until it is completed. Reciprocity: Some children ignore onlooker completely; others invite the nurse to participate actively, seeking a shared experience. Adherence to rules: Blatant cheating is seen young children & sometimes in older children with poor self-esteem; obsessional children may become so preoccupied by the rules that the point of the game is obscured. Play therapy is reserved for the use by trained & qualified therapists who use the technique as an interpretative method with emotionally disturbed children. Therapeutic Play, on the other hand, is a very effective nondirective modality for helping children deal with their own concerns & fears; at same time, it often helps the nurse to gain insight into their needs & feelings. Tension release can be facilitated through almost any activity. With younger ambulatory children, large muscle activity such as the use of tricycles & wagons is especially beneficial. Much aggression can be safely directed into games & activities that involve pounding & throwing. Beanbags are often thrown at target or open receptacle with surprising vigor & hostility. A pounding board is employed with enthusiasm by young children; clay & play dough are beneficial at any age. Creative expression: Although all children derive physical, social, emotional, & cognitive benefits from engaging in art or other creative activities, children’s need for such activities is intensified when they are hospitalized. Drawing and painting are excellent media for expression. Children are at more ease expressing their thoughts & feelings through art, because humans think first in images & later learn to translate these images into words. The child needs only to be supplied with the raw materials such as crayons and paper. Children usually require little direction for self expression; however, older children may be given some direction in what to paint or draw. E.g. they may be asked to draw the hospital room or draw what they like or do not like about the hospital. Groups of children can enjoy this creative activity either working individually or with older children, collaborating on a group project such as mural painted on a long piece of paper.
Although interpretation of children’s drawing requires special training, observing changes in a series of the child’s drawing over time can be helpful in assessing psychosocial adjustment & coping. The nurse can use children drawings, stories, poetry & other products of creative expression s a springboard for discussion of thoughts, fear and understanding of concepts and events. A child’s drawing before surgery or chemotherapy, for example, will often reveal unvoiced concerns about mutilation, body changes, & loss of self control. Nurses can incorporate opportunities for musical expression into routine nursing care. E.g. simple musical instruments such as bracelets with bells can be placed on infants leg for them to shake to accompany mealtime music or dressing changes. Dramatic play: Dramatic play is well recognized technique for emotional release, allowing children to reenact frightening or puzzling hospital experiences. Through use of puppets and replicas or actual hospital equipments, children can act out the situation that is a part of their hospital experience. Dramatic play enables children to learn about procedures and events that are of concern to them or to assume the roles of the adults in the hospital environment. Puppets are universally effective for communicating with children. Most children view them as peers and readily communicate with them. Children will tell the puppet feelings that they hesitate to express to adults. Puppets dresses to represent figures in the child’s environment (e.g. a physician, nurse, child, parent, therapist and member of the child’s own family) are especially useful. Play must consider medical needs, but at times a procedure can be postponed for a short time to allow the child to complete a special activity.
Bibliography: • www.apa.org • en.wikipedia.org • www.playtherapy.org • Webb, Nancy Boyd, ed. Play Therapy with Children in Crisis. 2nd edition. New York: The Guilford Press, 1999. • Lovinger, Sophie L. Child Psychotherapy: From Initial Therapeutic Contact to Termination. New Jersey: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1998 • Carson Benner Verna, Mental Health Nursing- The Nurse patient journey, 2nd edition, saunders publishers, Pp 274 • Lewis Melvin, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2nd edition, Pp 724-726
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PITTSBURGH, September 12, 2007 After learning and using marketing principles to create health education brochures, medical students reported improved comfort interacting with patients of diverse backgrounds and limited understanding of health information, according to a University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine study published in this months Patient Education and Counseling.
The medical schools innovative pilot program adopted commercial marketing principles for positive social purposes, also known as social marketing. The goal was to help train future doctors to interact with patients who have differing cultural perspectives and limited health literacy, or the ability to obtain and understand basic health information. According to the Institute of Medicine, nearly 90 million people in the United States are considered to have limited health literacy.
We have found that social marketing may provide an innovative and compelling framework for teaching medical students to be sensitive to the needs of patients with different degrees of health literacy and diverse backgrounds, said Brian A. Primack, M.D., Ed.M., senior author of the study and assistant professor of medicine and pediatrics at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
All 147 students enrolled in the first-year medical school class at the University of Pittsburgh participated in the study. Dr. Primack and his colleagues engaged the students in a curriculum in which students designed health-related brochures using marketing principles relevant to their clinical experiences.
Several student-produced brochures were selected for professional production and distribution in local hospitals and doctors offices. For example, one brochure, titled Livin la Vida con Vacunas, addressed early childhood vaccinations and was targeted at Hispanic women who are likely to be mothers of young children. Other brochures creatively tackled health issues as varied as motorcycle helmet safety, facing the diagnosis of cancer, tattoo and piercing safety, eating well while traveling and losing weight by walking to the next bus stop.
After a brief and inexpensive intervention, medical students showed measurable improvement in their understanding of social marketing and health literacy, said Dr. Primack. Furthermore, their self-reported comfort interacting with patients of diverse backgrounds after the study was independently associated with their knowledge of health literacy and their experience developing the brochures.
Co-authors of the study include Thuy Bui, M.D., medical director for the program for health care to underserved populations at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and Carl I. Fertman, Ph.D., M.B.A., from the department of health and physical activity at the University of Pittsburgh School of Education.
Dr. Primack was supported by a University of Pittsburgh Innovation in Education award and was funded by the Office of the Provost of the University of Pittsburgh.
The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine is considered among the nations leading medical schools, renowned for its curriculum that emphasizes both the science and humanity of medicine and its remarkable growth in National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant support, which has more than doubled since 1998. For fiscal year 2005, the University ranked seventh out of more than 3,000 entities receiving NIH support with respect to the research grants awarded to its faculty. The majority of these grants were awarded to the faculty of the medical school. As one of the university's six Schools of the Health Sciences, the School of Medicine is the academic partner to the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Their combined mission is to train tomorrows health care specialists and biomedical scientists, engage in groundbreaking research that will advance understanding of the causes and treatments of disease and participate in the delivery of outstanding patient care. | <urn:uuid:82530643-e01e-42e4-93e8-b14b8e69cd07> | {
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|Easton's Bible Dictionary|
Baalah of the well, (Joshua 19:8, probably the same as Baal, mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:33, a city of Simeon.
Int. Standard Bible Encyclopedia
ba'-a-lath-be'-er ba`alath be'er "lady (mistress) of the well"; (Joshua 19:8 (in 1 Chronicles 4:33, Baal)): In Jos this place is designated "Ramah of the South," i.e. of the Negeb, while in 1 Samuel 30:27 it is described as Ramoth of the Negeb. It must have been a prominent hill (ramah = "height") in the far south of the Negeb and near a well be'er. The site is unknown though Conder suggests that the shrine Kubbet el Baul may retain the old name.
Baalath-beer (2 Occurrences)
Joshua 19:8 and all the villages that were round about these cities to Baalath-beer, Ramah of the South. This is the inheritance of the tribe of the children of Simeon according to their families. (ASV BBE DBY JPS WBS YLT NAS)
1 Chronicles 4:33 And all the small places round these towns, as far as Baalath-beer, the high place of the South. These were their living-places, and they have lists of their generations. (BBE) | <urn:uuid:38961357-af4d-4931-975b-8aa63d52a04c> | {
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Wed May 9, 2012
Study: Plastic Garbage In Pacific Ocean Has Increased 100-Fold In 40 Years
Originally published on Wed May 9, 2012 1:31 pm
The amount of plastic debris in the part of the Pacific Ocean known as the "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" has grown 100-fold in the past 40 years.
In a paper published today by the journal Biology Letters, scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography report that most of that plastic has degraded into pieces no bigger than a fingernail. But that wasn't the major finding the scientists are reporting.
The scientists have found that all those pieces of plastic have provided ample opportunity for insects called "sea skaters" to breed.
The AP reports:
"Though plastic debris is giving the insects places to lay eggs, scientists are concerned about the manmade material establishing a role in their habitat.
"'This is something that shouldn't be in the ocean and it's changing this small aspect of the ocean ecology,' said Scripps graduate student Miriam Goldstein."
The BBC reports that usually the problem with this much plastic in the ocean is thought to be toxicity when marine life ingest it. But this finding points to issues that may arise from "broader ecosystem effects."
The BBC wraps that thought up like this:
"'The study raises an important issue, which is the addition of hard surfaces to the open ocean,' says Ms Goldstein.
"'In the North Pacific, for example, there's no floating seaweed like there is in the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic. And we know that the animals, the plants and the microbes that live on hard surfaces are different to the ones that live floating around in the water.
"'So, what plastic has done is add hundreds of millions of hard surfaces to the Pacific Ocean. That's quite a profound change.'"
The data for this study was gathered during a the 2009 Scripps Environmental Accumulation of Plastic Expedition (SEAPLEX) to the North Pacific Ocean Subtropical Gyre. According to the press release on the study, data from that expedition, which was published last year, also found that nine percent of the fish captured had plastic waste in their stomachs.
"That study estimated that fish in the intermediate ocean depths of the North Pacific Ocean ingest plastic at a rate of roughly 12,000 to 24,000 tons per year," Scripps reports. | <urn:uuid:57ff2f9e-dbc7-4631-a7cb-a2f2bed594d8> | {
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For the newest advances in pest management, visit the UC IPM Web site for information on how to manage pests in your home and garden, or on the farm.
New for this year are five valuable publications:
To order UC IPM manuals and the pesticide compendium series, visit anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu, or call 1-800-994-8849.
Results just in from a survey of UC master gardeners indicate that UC IPM tools are widely used throughout California in programs that extend pest management information to the public. The survey queried master gardener coordinators and others who attended UC IPM-sponsored statewide training in June 2005. About 90 percent of California’s master gardener programs were represented.
More than 95 percent log on to the UC IPM Web site to answer the public’s questions. Most use the UC IPM pest notes on a regular basis and hand out the UC IPM Quick Tips at garden shows, county fairs, plant clinics, and other community programs.
Residential use of pesticides, especially insecticides applied for ant control, has been identified as a major contributor to pollution of California’s urban creeks and waterways. Master gardeners’ efforts to educate Californians about how they can manage ants and other pests without using pesticide sprays greatly enhances UC IPM’s ability to deliver least-toxic solutions and will likely contribute substantially to improving water quality.
New interactive training modules on integrated pest management and managing honeydew producing insects were finalized in late 2006. Master gardeners will be trained in the use of these products in 2007. USDA and the UC Slosson Endowment funded these training materials.
Hundreds of new pests have been added to the Pests in Homes, Gardens, Landscapes, and Turf section of the UC IPM Program Web site at www.ipm.ucdavis.edu. For the first time, users can find pest management information specific to a host plant.
Next article >> Web only: Pests in dried plums | <urn:uuid:5d311a77-8a95-4102-8e55-24dce4aa7c0c> | {
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Intuition is the apparent ability to acquire knowledge without inference or the use of reason. Intuition provides us with beliefs that we cannot necessarily justify. Some scientists have contended that intuition is associated with innovation in scientific discovery.What we're talking about is instinctive knowledge. The sub-conscious combination of data from last week's internet video, 2nd grade history class and that college chemistry class suddenly grants you an intuitive answer. Intuition is the Easter egg knowledge that bubbles up from all the various sources we've acquired over time to provide us with an immediate answer.
Considering that we all learn different things, it is reasonable that we all intuit (not the software company!) differently. Meaning, everyone's intuition works differently.
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Doesn't it make sense to track these? Record them in the hopes of identifying trends, new ideas, innovations. All it takes is Firm Wisdom.
Incidentally, everything you need to know about intuition has already been written by Malcolm Gladwell in Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking. If you only read one book on how the human mind works, that is the book you should read.
Full Disclosure: the book link to Blink is an Amazon affiliate link. | <urn:uuid:04b07943-b04a-4685-bec1-6e50830845a6> | {
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Michelangelo Merisi (Michael Angelo Merigi or Amerighi) da Caravaggio, known today simply as “Caravaggio,” (29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610) was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, had a formative influence on Baroque painting.
Caravaggio was born in Milan, and trained there as a painter under Simone Peterzano who had himself trained under Titian. In his twenties, he left Milan for Rome in 1592, in flight after “certain quarrels” and the wounding of a police officer. He arrived in Rome, according to contemporaries, “naked and extremely needy … without fixed address and without provision … short of money.” When he arrived in Rome he was to find there was a large demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for a stylistic alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggio’s innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of chiaroscuro which came to be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value).
A few months after his arrival, he was employed by the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII’s favourite artist, “painting flowers and fruit” in his factory-like workshop. He did his own work as well, including a small Boy Peeling a Fruit (his earliest known painting), A Boy with a Basket of Fruit, and the Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with Cesari. All three demonstrate the physical particularity for which Caravaggio was to become renowned.% | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | <urn:uuid:88d13d74-6bad-4894-99a9-b110890e1b34> | {
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When Harvey becomes insulting, Disko promptly punches him in the nose to teach him manners. It is then the middle of May. The entire section is 1, words.
Washed overboard from a transatlantic steamship and rescued by fishermen off the Grand Banks of NewfoundlandHarvey can neither persuade them to take him quickly to port, nor convince them of his wealth. Gradually, Harvey becomes accustomed to the sea.
Now listen to me, leetle feesh. Harvey learns quickly, partly because he is a bright young lad and partly because Long Jack whips him with the end of a rope when he gives the wrong answers.
He discovers that the crew members come from all over the world. Just before he is cut loose of the ropes to sink below the surface to his death, he delivers a memorable, sentimental, and tearful goodbye to Harvey: Manuel tells stories and sings sea chanties, accompanied by a hurdy-gurdy an old Portuguese instrument.
Say, sometimes a song so big and sweet inside, I We had good times together, eh, leetle feesh? As Manuel says goodbye to Harvey, who is crying and distraught, the captain cuts the rigging around Manuel, who sinks below the water.
Harvey accuses the captain, Disko Troop of taking his money which is later revealed to be on the deck from which Harvey fell. Manuel realizes that he is fatally injured because some of the rigging is entangled around his legs underwater; he tells the captain to cut him free from the boat, knowing this will kill him.
Eventually, the schooner returns to port and Harvey wires his parents, who immediately hasten to BostonMassachusetts, and thence to the fishing town of Gloucester to recover him. He brings the water-drenched boy back to his fishing boat on his skiff.
Manuel gives him fishing advice: The owner and captain of the boat, Disko Troop, is not pleased to have the boy aboard but tells him that he will pay him ten dollars a month and board until the schooner docks in Gloucester the following September. Manuel tells his shipmates: First time I ever catch a fish like you.
Harvey begins to fit into the life aboard the schooner. We assisted hospitable tug-masters to help haul three- and four-stick schooners of Pocahontas coal all round the harbour; we boarded every craft that looked as if she might be useful, and we delighted ourselves to the limit of delight.
Old tales, too, he dug up, and the lists of dead and gone schooners whom he had loved, and I revelled in profligate abundance of detail—not necessarily for publication but for the joy of it.
During a memorial service for Gloucester men who have perished in the sea, a large wreath is placed on the large memorial pedestal reading: I wanted to see if I could catch and hold something of a rather beautiful localised American atmosphere that was already beginning to fade.
Switched to the Boston and Albany Railroadthe Cheynes complete the trip to Boston in their private car, with the entire cross-country run taking 87 hours 35 minutes.
A slow dissolve superimposes the ghostly image of a smiling and laughing Manuel over the car.An Analysis of the Many Interesting Aspects of the Film "Captain's Courageous" PAGES 1.
WORDS View Full Essay. More essays like this: film review, captain courageous, best superhero. Not sure what I'd do without @Kibin - Alfredo Alvarez, student @ Miami University.
Exactly what I needed.
Bypass the box office line at many theaters with guaranteed tickets. If something comes up, you can return or exchange up to two hours before showtime through Fandango. Learn more. Enter your location to see which movie theaters are playing Captains Courageous near you. ENTER CITY, STATE OR ZIP CODE GO.
Learn the major plot points and story structure of Captains Courageous. Captains Courageous Quotes (showing of 7) “It does not matter what people think of a man after his death.” ― Joseph Rudyard Kipling, Captains Courageous. Captains Courageous is an novel, by Rudyard Kipling, that follows the adventures of fifteen-year-old Harvey Cheyne Jr., the spoiled son of a railroad tycoon, Captains Courageous has been adapted for film three times: In as Captains Courageous, Adaptations: Captains Courageous.
Captains Courageous is a wonderful classic by Rudyard Kipling about which too many people have forgotten. The plot is straightforward: a spoiled rich boy falls overboard and is picked up by a fishing boat where he learns some fast and hard life lessons/5.Download | <urn:uuid:fd4ea18e-de1b-4ec5-b539-3668f24672ac> | {
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Housing is one of the most basic needs of living for individuals and families. Due to the fact that individuals and families are different in their social and economic status, their professions, their religions, their personal preferences, etc., their desires and financial capabilities for housing type and price range are not the same. The city’s long-term housing policy should be to ensure that people of different social and economic levels have decent, safe and affordable housing.
Housing market is primarily driven by demand and supply. However, the city’s land use plan and development regulations can have a significant impact on this market in terms of timing, location, density, quality and sometimes style. This plan strives to utilize planning to establish a foundation for a balanced housing market in the planning area.
Diversification of housing is important for diversifying local economic base. Businesses need employees of different educational backgrounds, professional skills and career interests. Availability of housing varieties, especially affordable housing for moderate/low income families, sometimes plays an important part in business decisions for location and operation. The city’s land use plan and development regulations should promote a balance of housing types rather than promoting high quality housing at the expense of affordable housing. Affordable housing does not have to be equivalent to low quality. It requires serious commitment and creative thinking.
This section discusses, in general terms, the approach this plan takes to achieve the city’s long-term goal for a balance in housing provision and its potential impact on the future of the community’s housing market. This plan recognizes the market function on local housing provision and offers a constructive guidance through its conceptual land use plan rather than a direct government intervention.
The Plan’s Approach Towards Housing
This plan follows some basic land use principles in its recommendations on residential development. In the meantime, it attempts to offer maximum flexibility. These features can be summarized as follows:
These are some of the tools provided by this plan for promoting a healthy residential development pattern. They are not intended to regulate the housing market by governmental power but to guide future residential development decisions by offering the needed tools for achieving the community goals. The elected city officials, the development community and city planners all have the responsibility to work together to ensure that the city offers housing choices for individuals and families of all social and economic levels. | <urn:uuid:8545baec-3c30-46f6-94cd-174468e82718> | {
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Distance from Castleknock Hotel & Country Club: 6 kilometres
Built in 1792, it is Ireland's most famous disused prison. It held throughout the years many famous Nationalists and Republicans, members of the Society of United Irishmen (1798), Young Irelanders (c1840s), Fenians and Land Agitators, Parnell and Davitt. The leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising were executed here. The prison was closed in 1924. This building gives a good insight into the history of Irish Republicanism. | <urn:uuid:ab03abcd-11e8-402d-8c7e-c04f503c342e> | {
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Robert Keyes was a conspirator in the 1605 Gunpowder Plot – an attempt to kill James I and as many in Parliament as was possible. Robert Keyes was caught and after a brief trial was sentenced to death.
Robert Keyes was born around 1565. He did not have the background of the likes of the Wrights, Catesby, and Rookwood etc. He was not born a Catholic. Keyes had a Protestant upbringing though his extended family had a Catholic background and he was distantly related to the John and Christopher Wright, two of the other conspirators, and to Thomas Wintour – another conspirator. Jesuits converted Keyes to Catholicism.
Keyes joined the plot probably in October 1604. He was not a wealthy man and did not have the financial background of some of the other conspirators. His primary task was to maintain Robert Catesby’s house in Lambeth and it is thought that Catesby rewarded him well for this. It is generally accepted that the gunpowder was stored at Catesby’s house before being moved on and it was Keye’s task to ensure its safety. One motive put forward for Keye’s involvement in the plot was that he envisaged a Catholic state in which he could become rich. The Jesuit priest John Gerard stated that the primary quality displayed by Keyes was his bravery.
On the night of November 4th, Keyes spent the night at a house with Ambrose Rookwood – his cousin. Guy Fawkes visited both men at around 22.00 to collect a watch so that he could time the fuse in the cellars of Parliament.
With the discovery of Fawkes, Keyes did what had been planned in such an event – he fled London. He was caught on November 9th after he had attempted to meet his wife to bid her farewell. He was sent to the Tower of London where he was questioned on November 30th.
Keyes was given a short trial and no one doubted what the verdict would be. Though he did not say a great deal in his defence, what he did say was recorded. Keyes stated that he had become involved in the plot because he could no longer tolerate the persecution, as he saw it, of Catholics in England. Such a defence did not spare him and he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered.
On January 31st 1606, Robert Keyes was brought to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster to be executed. He was the third man to be executed after Thomas Wintour and Ambrose Rookwood.
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Baptism of Prince Vladimir.
1890. Sketch for a fresco in the Cathedral of St. Vladimir in Kiev. Watercolor, gouache and lead pencil on paper. The Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia. More. [Order a Print][Order a Hand-Painted Reproduction]
, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (960-1015), the Grand Duke of Kiev (980-1015), the youngest son of Grand Duke Svyatoslav, the grandson of Grand Duchess Olga. He came to power after several successful plots against his elder brothers. In 988, he asked for the hand of the Byzantine Princess Anna. Byzantine rulers, wishing to have him as an ally, agreed, but their condition was that Vladimir was to accept Christianity. He was baptized himself and adopted Christianity as the official religion of Russia | <urn:uuid:4b25cfd3-ffcc-4dfa-b0b8-5bd9fe462f74> | {
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“Till so for ways of witchery,
And arts of darkness famed
In all the land, that he at last,
‘The Wizard Earl’ was named.”
—The Wizard Earl-A Legend of Kilkea Castle
Anyone familiar with Maryland’s history will recognize the surnames Calvert and Arundel, after all numerous parks, historic sights, and streets bear the names, especially in Annapolis. However, not many people realize these historic Maryland families are connected to a centuries-old legacy of royalty, witchcraft, and alchemy.
In the 1400s, Henry de Grey, 4th Baron Grey of Codnor, and the fountainhead of the Grey family, was an avid alchemist, going so far as to garner the King’s permission to transmute mercury into precious metals. In 1478, the king appointed Henry de Grey as the Lord Deputy of Ireland. He was also a distant blood relation to Queen Jane Grey.
Elizabeth Woodville, an infamous witch whose first husband was John Grey of Groby, produced a son from that marriage–Thomas Grey, the 1st Marquess of Dorset and two daughters, one of whom was Lady Eleanor Grey who married Sir John Arundell. They are the royal ancestors to Maryland’s Arundel and Calvert families and the fictional ancestors to the enchanting trio, the Queen Js and the mysteriously scarred William Calvert in Bewitching Hannah.
Elizabeth Woodville went on to marry King Edward IV and became the Queen consort of England. The TV series, The White Queen, is based on her life. Their daughter, Elizabeth of York, became the Queen consort of England and the mother of King Henry VIII.
In 1530, Henry de Grey’s descendant, Lady Elizabeth Grey, the granddaughter of the witch Elizabeth Woodville, married the 9th Earl of Kildare, who was rumored to be a warlock. They produced a son, Gerald FitzGerald, the 11th Earl of Kildare, who is referenced in the poem above. He was commonly called the Wizard Earl for his fascination with alchemy, metallurgy, and ancient magic. He was also known to have magical powers, which allowed him to transform himself into a blackbird. The FitzGerald bloodline claims the magic from Áine, the Irish goddess of summer. She is associated with the Fitzgeralds through marriage to the 3rd Earl of Kildare. The troubled heroine in Bewitching Hannah, Hannah Fitzgerald, is fictionally descended from this bloodline and the earl’s magic courses powerfully through her veins.
The magic and royal connections of Maryland’s Calvert and Arundel families have left lasting marks on the state’s history and inspired the creation of characters in Bewitching Hannah, which is set in present-day Annapolis. Attached is the family tree that shows the relationships of these historic figures to the book’s fictional main characters.
More about Bewitching Hannah
Sixteen-year-old Hannah Fitzgerald has always known she is descended from a royal legacy of dark magic. Although a stranger to her coven in Annapolis, she is no stranger to grief and denial. However, when an ancient prophecy reveals the rise of a young, powerful witch and the impending death of another, she realizes she can no longer afford to suppress the magic that has taken away so much. She seeks out the frighteningly scarred, yet mysterious W who is destined to change her life, but even he cannot prepare her for the danger that lies ahead.
Engaged in a deadly game and not knowing whom her true rival is, Hannah isn’t certain she will survive, and if she loses, she may lose everything, including the ones she loves.
If you’d like to purchase a copy, please click here. | <urn:uuid:31c3271e-6b7b-42be-b331-8c4bb1a35211> | {
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Guest Author - Rachel Schaus
The Masada is the name for the great fortress located in the Judean Desert on the edge of the Dead Sea in Israel. It was built by Herod the Great as one of his resources for protection should he ever need it (he had numerous enemies).
According to Israel Then and Now, it was built in the style of the early Roman architecture. There were stone walls plastered with frescos, elaborate frescoes, gigantic stores of food, wine, and hand-hewed cisterns filled with water drawn up by hand. There are several Roman-style baths, complete with heated floors.
Most amazing is the northern palace which was Herod's private quarters. The palace consists of three levels and includes pleasure gardens, frescos, pillars made to look like one stone, and a great view of Ein Gedi, 20 miles (10km) away.
The Zealots Last Stand
While the Masada is not part of the Biblical narrative, the story as told by Josephus of the Masada has become a legend shaping Jewish identity since the 1920's.
When Herod died, a small Roman garrison was stationed at the Masada. Josephus writes in his Jewish Antiquities and Jewish Wars that Menahem, son of Judah from Galilee, overthrew the Romans and his group of Zealots took over the fort.
Meanwhile, the fall of Jerusalem and the Temple took place in 70A.D., but the Romans were annoyed by the remaining group of Jewish Zealots holding out at Masada. Rome sent Flavius Silva with a large contingent of soldiers from the Tenth Legion as well as some Jewish slaves, probably including some family members of the Zealots up in the fort.
Silva had a an elaborate Roman camp and fortifications built. He quickly determined they would not be able to make a frontal attack, and began building one of the largest seige ramps ever built. He used family members of the Zealots, and they labored for months to build the ramp up the side of the mountain. Eventually, the evening came when the Romans had reached the gate, set it on fire, and were prepared the next morning to take the fortress.
The Zealots inside met together and decided that they would deprive the Romans of their prize of victory by committing suicide as free people. They left their weapons, food supplies, and a couple of old woman and young children in hiding. The men killed their wives and most of the children, then ten men drew lots to decide who would be the last one to kill the last nine and then himself.
The ramp, Roman camp, and remnants of Herod's palace are all still visible today and should be part of anyone's visit to Israel. Visitors may either walk up the path or take the tram up. If you walk up, make sure to leave around 4am with plenty of water, since it gets hot fast. There are guest houses at the base of the Masada who will provide a lunch for a small fee.
Masada and the Jewish Mindset
There are many factors affecting the Jewish mindset, so this does not purport to be a comprehensive discussion, especially as a Gentile writing this! However, the epic poem written around 1920 by Yitzhak Lamdan, Masada, became a rallying cry continuing to this day. The last line:
Open your gates, O Masada, and I the refugee shall enterůMasada shall never fall again.
It quickly became tradition for newly commissioned members of the Israeli Defense force to travel to the Masada and proclaim the last line "Masada shall never fall again!" as they swear allegiance to protect Israel.
For the Israelis, they will fight to the death to protect their own.
Dwyer, Thomas and M. Cartier, Israel Then and Now, Multiview Ltd, Tel Aviv. 2004. | <urn:uuid:8dfbf435-7d2e-4ac0-a1d9-6a125fd6f65e> | {
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When I was younger, my images of mushrooms were the simple white button mushrooms found at every supermarket. I have to confess that I didn’t particularly care for them. But as I have expanded my palate, I have found that the varied choices of wild mushrooms enhance the flavors of many dishes. While there are 38,000 varieties worldwide and 3000 in North America, a few dozen are cultivated commercially and are the subject of this article. Some of the more common wild mushrooms include chanterelles, morels, shiitakes, oysters and porcinis.
Mushrooms are not part of the vegetable family but rather belong to the fungus class. Fungi have some characteristics similar to plants and some to animals. Fungi and plants both have cell walls. However, fungi lack chloroplasts (which give plants their green color and enable them to convert sunlight into energy), but instead require organic material for their energy similar to animals. Mushrooms grow best in damp, moist conditions. As many of us have observed, mushrooms seem to sprout after the rains fall. Autumn and winter, here in California, are particularly good times for mushrooms to grow. Mushrooms play a critical role in the decomposition of organic material. They absorb important nutrients that are different from those present in most vegetables and fruits.
Mushrooms have been used as a food for centuries. In China, mushrooms have been used medicinally for thousands of years. In older times, people would forage for mushrooms in the forest. Now, most mushrooms sold are commercially grown on mushroom farms. Growing mushrooms commercially prevents dangerous misidentification of mushrooms and allows control of the growth environment.
So what are the nutritional and health benefits of wild mushrooms? First, mushrooms are extremely low in calories. A ½ cup contains only about 10 calories. The low calories are a result of the high water content of mushrooms—about 90% water! Mushrooms also have little fat so they are heart healthy. They are a great source of non-animal protein. A ½ cup of oyster mushrooms, for example, is about 31% protein. Consuming mushrooms is a great way to add extra protein to your diet for both vegetarian and non-vegetarian alike. Mushrooms also contain all the essential amino acids your body requires for optimal wellness. These important amino acids are broken down and then used to form new cells, hormones, enzymes, etc. For further info on the benefits of protein, click on the link http://www.bettereatingcoach.com/72412-benefits-of-breakfast.html. Mushrooms are rich in some of the B vitamins needed for energy production and in selenium, an important antioxidant. They also contain moderate levels of magnesium, calcium, zinc and potassium. Each wild mushroom will have a different vitamin and mineral composition depending on its growth environment.
Let’s focus on Chanterelles. The Latin name for Chanterelle means cup or drinking vessel due to its shape. Chanterelles are distinguished by having ridges on the underside instead of the gills that most other mushrooms possess. Chanterelles have a golden color indicating the presence of the antioxidant, beta-carotene. For more about beta-carotenes, see my article http://www.bettereatingcoach.com/7912-a-peach-a-day.html. Found growing under trees, Chanterelles have a meaty texture and a nutty and fruity flavor reminding one of apricots or peaches. Due to their nutritional composition, they are supportive of the eyes, the immune system and the lungs. Chanterelles are 37% protein. They are high in vitamin D, B2, B3 and B5 as well as the minerals iron, potassium, copper, manganese and selenium. They, like other mushrooms, contain all the essential amino acids. Chanterelles are very delicate so don’t overcook them as they can become mushy.
All mushrooms are also high in fiber. Fiber is important in allowing our digestive tracts to process and eliminate waste as well as helping to lower cholesterol levels. In addition, fiber helps prevent constipation. A ½ cup of mushrooms provides about 3 grams of dietary fiber. Research at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has shown that cooked mushrooms have enhanced fiber content over raw mushrooms. The cooking process allows the hard cell walls to be broken down allowing the fiber to be released and to perform its health benefits.
Glutamic acid, one of the amino acids in mushrooms, is one of the most abundant neurotransmitters in the body. Neurotransmitters are signaling compounds that have many functions throughout the body but especially in the brain. Glutamic acid is essential for normal cognition. It’s needed for learning, memory and problem solving. Research is being conducted to see whether glutamic acid may help in the treatment of Parkinson’s, schizophrenia and muscular dystrophy. Glutamic acid also helps with energy production in the brain, turning sugars and fat into glucose, which is the body’s main fuel source. Athletes also may benefit from glutamic acid because it assists in the regeneration of damaged muscle cells after hard workouts.
Medicinal mushrooms are very popular in Chinese medicine. Now scientists are looking at the compounds in these mushrooms for their anticancer and immune supporting properties. These compounds may help the immune system protect from and inhibit tumor growth and enhance white blood cell formation. One particular compound being studied is called beta-D-glucan. Beta-D-glucans may also enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy in cancer treatments.
One health warning if you have gout: Avoid or limit eating mushrooms, as they are high in purines that break down into uric acid that can exacerbate gout.
Everything I have written is about commercially cultivated wild mushrooms. Be aware that many wild mushroom varieties in the forest are toxic. Toxic varieties can be difficult to distinguish from safe varieties. Consuming toxic mushrooms can lead to organ failure and death.
For further information about any aspect of nutrition, please contact me at http://www.bettereatingcoach.com.
© Geri Wohl, CNC | <urn:uuid:18c8cf1b-0b3c-45f2-bc04-8818d9a1a129> | {
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WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean, the global energy and hydrological cycle, the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer, and the role of the cryosphere in climate. These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21. Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme, WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change.
Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations. | <urn:uuid:eb277bdb-5063-43c3-ac94-2c455fa43545> | {
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From: Planetary Society
Posted: Tuesday, November 20, 2012
Grants Provide Vital Funding To The International Asteroid-Tracking Community To Track and Characterize Asteroids Posing Threats to Humanity
PASADENA, CA, (November 20, 2012) - The Planetary Society, the largest space interest group in the world, today issued a Call for Proposals to award the 2013 Shoemaker Near Earth Object (NEO) Grants.
The deadline for proposal submission is February 4, 2013. Submission information is located online at http://planetary.org/programs/projects/neo_grants/
While nearly 90 percent of the estimated total number of one-kilometer or larger NEOs that cross Earth's orbit have been discovered, many smaller objects that could cause regional devastation still need to be identified and adequately tracked. The Shoemaker NEO awards, typically in the range of $3,000-$10,000 each, have proven instrumental in providing the necessary seed funding for amateur and professional astronomers to enable their work in tracking the orbits and identifying the characteristics of asteroids that could pose threats to humanity.
"Applicants and winners of the Shoemaker grants provide tens of thousands of follow-up NEO observations each year, contributing critical information we need to determine NEO orbits," said Bruce Betts, Director of Projects for The Planetary Society. "You can know an asteroid is out there from a large professional survey discovery, but you can't determine if it poses a threat to Earth without follow-up tracking to define the orbit of the asteroid as well as its characteristics. The Shoemaker NEO grants not only help provide this critical information, but also importantly expand the community of amateur astronomers and observers making vital contributions."
NEOs have collided violently with Earth throughout the planet's history. Many scientists believe an impact off Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula led to the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, and just last century, in 1908, a 40-meter asteroid over Siberia created devastation equivalent to a large nuclear weapon. Had that impact not been in desolate Siberia, it could have resulted in catastrophic loss of human life and property.
Funding for the Shoemaker NEO awards is provided through generous contributions of The Planetary Society members and supporters and to date more than $225,000 has been provided. Celebrating its 15th year, the Shoemaker NEO awards have funded 38 awards to 33 individuals in 16 countries on five continents. Important discoveries include the co-discovery of Apophis, discovery of the naked eye Comet Lulin, and the asteroid 2012 DA14, a roughly 50 meter asteroid that will pass Earth in February 2013, at about the distance of our geostationary communication satellites. More information on past winners is provided at here.
About The Planetary Society
The Planetary Society has inspired millions of people to explore other worlds and seek other life. Today, its international membership makes the non-governmental Planetary Society the largest space interest group in the world. Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray and Louis Friedman founded The Planetary Society in 1980. Bill Nye, a long time member of the Planetary Society's Board, serves as CEO.
Since its founding, The Planetary Society has actively supported a number of efforts to discover and characterize the population of NEOs that both threaten our planet and hold great promise for future exploration. In 1997, the Society began the Gene Shoemaker NEO grant program named for pioneering planetary geologist Gene Shoemaker, whose lifetime of discoveries have significantly helped scientists to understand the process by which asteroids impact planets, and the nature of the NEO population.
Media Contact: Diane Murphy ([email protected])
The Planetary Society
85 South Grand Ave
Pasadena, CA 91105 USA
Voice: (626) 793-5100
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The Bottom Line: Delicious facts about apples!
The Full Story:
- More than 2,500 varieties of apples are grown in the United States, but only the crabapple is native to North America.
- Apples contain no fat, sodium or cholesterol and are a good source of fiber.
- Apple trees take four to five years to produce their first fruit.
- Apples ripen six to 10 times faster at room temperature than if they are refrigerated.
- Apple varieties range in size from a little larger than a cherry to as large as a grapefruit. The largest apple ever picked weighed 3 pounds.
- Apples harvested from an average tree can fill 20 boxes that weigh 42 pounds each.
- Apples are a member of the rose family.
- The top apple producers around the world are China, United States, Turkey, Poland and Italy. Apples account for 50-percent of international deciduous fruit tree production.
- A peck of apples weighs 10.5 pounds. A bushel of apples weighs about 42 pounds.
- It takes about 36 apples to create one gallon of apple cider. | <urn:uuid:b4a29c40-6d35-47a1-a230-8d9db10c0cbf> | {
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Thomas L. Friedman, a reporter for the New York Times, said in a recent article entitled, Iron Empires, Iron Fists, Iron Domes that, “Israelis have responded to the collapse of Arab iron fists around them — including the rise of militias with missiles in Lebanon and Gaza — with a third model. It is the wall Israel built around itself to seal off the West Bank coupled with its Iron Dome antimissile system.”
The problem that Friedman notes here is that as a result of foreign control, Arabs were forced to make “Iron Fists”, a rebellion to retake power. The problem with this idea is that Israel is a legitimate power in the land that it currently controls. The reason for this is simple: Israel captured the West Bank and Gaza in entirely defensive wars, and thus should be considered a legitimate form of what is being called now occupation. Countries have captured and annexed territories in purely offensive wars and have kept the territory at no cost to the “occupying country.”
Now let us look at the history of modern day Israel and see how a country, which preaches and wants peace, is continually denied peace. First the date November 29th, 1947 is important. This is the day when the United Nations, in its infancy, came up with the original offer of partitioning what was then the Palestine Mandate into two separate countries, one Jewish and one Arab. At this time, the Jews accepted the offer while the Arabs of the Palestine Mandate and the Arab countries of the world refused to even acknowledge the offer as valid, viewing even the creation of one small Jewish State as being an evil idea.
Then, in 1948, five Arab countries attacked the new state of Israel, which only wanted to live in peace with their Arab neighbors. Part of the Arab countries’ strategy was to tell many Palestinian Arabs to move out of their homes and join the war effort. Many Palestinian Arabs did join the Arab armies, however they could not return to their homes, seeing as the Arab armies lost this war. This is the true source of the Palestinian “refugee” problem. The Arab countries of old have basically created a modern day political pawn that they have been trying to use to cause Israel to be wiped off the face of the earth.
The next Israeli war we should note is the 1967 war known as the Six Day War. This war was started preemptively by Israel in order to ward off an Egyptian invasion. When Israel attacked Egypt, Syria responded and attacked Israel. It is of course important to note that at this point Jordan was controlling the old city in Jerusalem and the West Bank, Egypt controlled Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula, and Syria controlled the Golan Heights. Jordan was originally reluctant to attack Israel, and Israel had promised that it would not try to capture any of Jordan’s holdings if Jordan did not enter the war. However, Jordan ended up joining the assault.
Israel won this defense-motivated war, in the end capturing the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights. Then, something that had never occurred in the history of the victorious powers in a war: Israel, being the victor in the Six Day War, had to sue for peace with Egypt, who had been the major aggressor in this war. This is when the U.N. created Resolution 242, in which Israel would pull out of a captured territory and return it to the country of it’s origin if the country of origin cease acts of aggression and recognized Israel’s right to exist.
Then, in 2005, former Prime Minister Ariel Sharon called for a unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. This decision caused many Israelis then living in the Gaza Strip to lose their homes, businesses, and most of their money, and many of them have yet to recover fully. Did the withdrawal cause a cease of violence originating from Gaza? No, we have actually seen an increase of violence since the withdrawal. Hamas has essentially taken almost complete control of Gaza and they have made it abundantly clear that they will not compromise with Israel.
Another irony here is that on November 29th, 1947 the UN offered the original partition plan that the Israelis had accepted but the Palestinians had rejected. Now lets fast forward 65 years. On November 29th, 2012 we see that the UN General assembly votes with a majority to grant the Palestinians non-member status. Why do the Palestinians get to change their mind and finally go the extra mile for independence 65 years later? Why didn’t they just accept the partition plan in 1947 that could of saved thousands of lives? It is my opinion that the only way we will be able to even try to accomplish peace is if the Palestinians admit that because of the conflict they started, innocent lives were lost. | <urn:uuid:d6c5147f-bb63-42d5-99c2-965e560d35a5> | {
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Scientists are reporting new evidence that infection with a common virus may be a contributing factor to the obesity epidemic sweeping through the United States and other countries. In laboratory experiments they showed that infection with human adenovirus-36 (Ad-36), long recognized as a cause of respiratory and eye infections in humans, transforms adult stem cells obtained from fat tissue into fat cells. Stem cells not exposed to the virus, in contrast, were unchanged.
In addition, the study reported identification of a specific gene in the virus that appears to be involved in this obesity-promoting effect. The findings, which could lead to a vaccine or antiviral medication to help fight viral obesity in the future, were presented at the 234th national meeting of the American Chemical Society.
"We’re not saying that a virus is the only cause of obesity, but this study provides stronger evidence that some obesity cases may involve viral infections," says study presenter Magdalena Pasarica, M.D., Ph.D., of the Pennington Biomedical Research Center at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.
"Not all infected people will develop obesity," she notes. "We would ultimately like to identify the underlying factors that predispose some obese people to develop this virus and eventually find a way to treat it."
Pasarica was part of the original research group which demonstrated that the Ad-36 virus was capable of causing animals infected with the virus to accumulate fat. Led by Nikhil Dhurandhar, Ph.D., now an associate professor at Louisiana State University, the group also conducted a noted epidemiologic study — the first to associate a virus with human obesity — showing 30 percent of obese people were infected with the Ad-36 virus in comparison to 11 percent of lean individuals. But evidence that the virus could actually cause fat levels to increase in human cells was lacking until now, Pasarica says.
In the current study, Pasarica and her associates obtained adult stem cells from fatty tissue from a broad cross-section of patients who had undergone liposuction. Half of the stem cells were exposed to Ad-36 and the other half were not exposed to the virus.
After about a week of growth in tissue culture, most of the virus-infected adult stem cells developed into fat cells, whereas the non-infected stem cells did not, the researchers say.
Funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Dr. Dhurandhar’s group recently identified a gene in the Ad-36 virus that appears to be involved in causing fat accumulation observed in infected animals. That gene, called E4Orfl, is now emerging as a promising target for future human therapies, such as vaccines and anti-viral medicines, aimed at preventing or inhibiting the obesity virus, she says.
The exact mechanism by which the virus might cause obesity in people is currently unknown, says Pasarica, who does not rule out the possibility that other human viruses may also contribute to obesity. Researchers also do not know how long the virus remains in the body of obese individuals nor how long its fat-enhancing effect lasts once the virus is gone. However, Pasarica notes a recent study demonstrated that animals that developed the virus remained obese up to six months after their infection was gone. More studies are needed, especially in humans, she adds.
Pasarica and her associates are now in the process of trying to identify the factors that predispose some people with the virus to develop obesity while others do not, but results of this investigation are not yet available, they say.
About 97 million adults in the United States are overweight or obese, according to NIH, and face an increased risk of Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, and other health disorders. Obesity has many established causes that include over-eating, eating high-fat foods, lack of exercise, a genetic predisposition and certain medications.
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By A. H. KOSCHMANN and M. H. BERGENDAHL - USGS 1968
Gold deposits in Owyhee County are grouped in the Silver City district, in the northwestern part of the county. Placers along the Snake River also yielded gold, but the quantity yielded and the locations of the placers are not known.
Total gold production of Owyhee County from 1863 through 1942 was 1,058,694 ounces (Staley, 1946, p. 25) from 1943 through 1959 it was 44,851 ounces a total of 1,103,545 ounces from 1863 through 1959.
SILVER CITY DISTRICT
The Silver City district, which includes the De Lamar, Flint, and Florida Mountain-War Eagle Mountain camps, is in parts of Tps. 3, 4, and 5 S., Rs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 W., in northwestern Owyhee County.
The first mineral discoveries were gold placers found along Jordan Creek in 1863. That same year, prospectors followed the Jordan Creek placers to their source - the lodes on War Eagle Mountain. By 1865 the richest placers were exhausted, but the Chinese continued lower grade placer mining for a number of years. After the discovery of rich oxidized gold-silver ores at the Poorman and Orofino mines in 1865, the district erupted into a period of frantic activity accompanied by so much violence and disorder that federal troops were called in to quell the disturbances. The area prospered, developed, and grew despite extremely high costs engendered by poor transportation facilities. Silver City, with a population of 4,000, was the largest settlement, but the towns of Ruby City, Fairview, Booneville, and Wagontown were also thriving communities (Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 51-52).
By the early 1870's much of the rich oxidized ore was mined out, and in 1876, when the Bank of California failed, financial support was withdrawn and mining in the Silver City area collapsed. Thus the first phase of mining in the Silver City district ended with a production of $12.5 million in gold and silver (Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 53).
In 1889, discoveries at the Black Jack mine at Florida Mountain and the De Lamar mine at Wagontown started a second boom of greater magnitude but with less hysteria than the first. This was a period of consolidation and systematic development. By 1914, after $23 million in precious metals had been mined, the ores were depleted, and the activity again ended (Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 55-56).
Since then, there has been no major revival; operations have been sporadic and on a small scale. Piper (in Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 58) estimated the gold production of Owyhee County (which would in effect be the production of Silver City) as 900,000 ounces. Ross (1941, p. 81) estimated the total gold production of the district at "over 1,000,000 ounces." Recorded gold production from 1941 through 1959 was only about 8,500 ounces and would not greatly change Ross' estimate.
Metasedimentary rocks consisting of graphite and biotite schists are the oldest rocks in the district, though they are present in only a few outcrops. The most abundant rock unit is a granodiorite stock probably related to the Idaho batholith. The granodiorite is cut by aplite, dacite, and diorite porphyry dikes, which may or may not be genetically related to the stock (Ross, 1941, p. 81). During Miocene time, basaltic lavas were poured onto an erosion surface cut on the granodiorite, and rhyolite flows covered the basalt (Piper and Laney, 1926, p.20-36).
The rocks of the Silver City district are cut by faults of several ages. The oldest are a set of high-angle fractures and joints in the stock. After extrusion of the rhyolite flows, the rocks were dislocated by a second system of fractures that strike northwest and are nearly vertical (Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 39-40). The youngest faulting occurred after the ore deposits were formed.
The veins of the district are fracture fillings and may be classified into four types (Piper and Laney, 1926, p. 63) : (1) veins characterized by white or milky quartz as in the Flint district, (2) veins composed of lamellar quartz typical of the De Lamar district, (3) silicified shear zones such as the Poorman, and (4) quartz-cemented breccias of which the Orofino-Golden Chariot vein is an example. All types are remarkably persistent and are traceable for thousands of feet along strike and as much as 2,500 feet below the surface (Ross, 1941, p. 81).
The ore minerals are argentite, electrum, jamesonite, ruby, silver, naumannite, owyheeite, stibnite, and tetrahedrite. Arsenopyrite, galena, pyrite, and marcasite occur in minor amounts (Ross, 1941, p. 81). Included in the gangue are quartz, barite, calcite, chalcedony, and valencianite, a rare variety of orthoclase occurring as gangue in some ore deposits (Lindgren, 1900, p. 166-167).
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Springfield, New Hampshire
|Springfield, New Hampshire|
Town offices and library
Location in Sullivan County, New Hampshire
|• Board of Selectmen||Donald Hill
George McCusker III
|• Total||44.1 sq mi (114.3 km2)|
|• Land||43.2 sq mi (112.0 km2)|
|• Water||0.9 sq mi (2.3 km2) 2.02%|
|Elevation||1,440 ft (438 m)|
|• Density||30/sq mi (11/km2)|
|Time zone||Eastern (UTC-5)|
|• Summer (DST)||Eastern (UTC-4)|
|GNIS feature ID||0873723|
First settled in 1769 as Protectworth, the town adopted the name Springfield when it was incorporated in 1794.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 44.1 square miles (114 km2), of which 43.2 sq mi (112 km2) is land and 0.9 sq mi (2.3 km2) is water, comprising 2.02% of the town. The highest point in Springfield is the summit of Melvin Hill, at 2,303 feet (702 m) above sea level.
As of the census of 2000, there were 945 people, 386 households, and 286 families residing in the town. The population density was 21.8 people per square mile (8.4/km²). There were 534 housing units at an average density of 12.3 per square mile (4.8/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 98.84% White, 0.32% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.21% from other races, and 0.42% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.74% of the population.
There were 386 households out of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.3% were married couples living together, 6.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.9% were non-families. 19.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.80.
In the town the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 28.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.5 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $44,659, and the median income for a family was $58,068. Males had a median income of $33,958 versus $25,223 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,263. About 3.5% of families and 5.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.4% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over.
- Fairfax Downey (1893–1990), author
- William Allen Knowlton (1920–2008), US Army general, father-in-law of David Petraeus
- David H. Petraeus, US Army general, former director of the Central Intelligence Agency
- Jeriah Swetland, Ohio state representative (1867-1869)
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Springfield, New Hampshire.|
- Town of Springfield official website
- New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile
- Sunapee-Ragged-Kearsarge Greenway Coalition | <urn:uuid:760bb80e-3375-40a1-9445-902a12438a0c> | {
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044 of 254: Willacy County Courthouse, Raymondville, Texas. County Population: 22,134
"Willacy County, in the Rio Grande valley of South Texas, is thirty miles north of Mexico. The county was the 253rd county to be formed [in Texas] and was named for state senator John G. Willacy.
"The county area fell within the territory between the Rio Grande and Nueces River, disputed after the Texas Revolution.
"When Philip H. Sheridan reached the area with his cavalry in May 1865, he quipped, 'If I possessed both Texas and Hell, I'd rent out Texas and live in Hell.'
"In 1911 Willacy County was formed from Cameron and Hidalgo counties; the county seat was Sarita.
"As more settlers came in from northern states and transformed ranches to
farms, ranchers (early white settlers) sided against farmers (newcomers); the division led to the reorganization of the county. The original Willacy County extended along the coast from the Nueces River to Cameron County. When reorganization occurred in 1921, the ranching area in the northern regions of the county became Kenedy County, and a small strip of land on the southern border was made the new Willacy County. "Raymondville was chosen as the county seat, amid much protest from Lyford residents."
Alicia A. Garza, "WILLACY COUNTY," Handbook of Texas Online
I visited Willacy County and photographed the courthouse in Raymond-ville on April 27, 2010 and again on July 27, 2014.
Willacy County Courthouse 1922
The Texas Historic Courthouse Preservation Program Round IX Grant Recipients (July 22, 2016): Willacy County--$402,970 emergency grant award to address outdated systems and infrastructure, and repair deteriorated conditions, due primarily to moisture infiltration. Permanent sump pumps and outlets from the basement will remove standing water accumulations and reduce the humidity levels in the building. Selective demolition will remove non-original dropped ceilings and paneled wall surfaces. | <urn:uuid:e59e2591-9b75-4625-a828-19a706dd08ee> | {
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An overview of the Chandra mission and goals, Chandra's namesake, top 10 facts.
Classroom activities, printable materials, interactive games & more.
Overview of X-ray Astronomy and X-ray sources: black holes to galaxy clusters.
All Chandra images released to the public listed by date & by category
Current Chandra press releases, status reports, interviews & biographies.
A collection of multimedia, illustrations & animations, a glossary, FAQ & more.
A collection of illustrations, animations and video.
Chandra discoveries in an audio/video format.
What to Look for in Red Dwarf Real Estate:
November 20, 2007
Should you buy property on a planet around a red dwarf star?
In years past, the answer to the above question would have been "Probably not, if you want to live there."
The thinking was, because of the feeble power output of red dwarf stars - a few percent or less than that of the Sun - that conditions on any planet around such a star would be unearthly and inhospitable to life as we know it.
Red dwarfs compared to the sun:
* Red dwarfs have masses ranging from 8 percent to about 50 percent that of the sun.
* Lower mass means that a lower central pressure and temperature is required to support the star against gravity.
* Lower central pressure and temperature leads to much smaller nuclear fusion rates in the interior of the star.
* Lower nuclear fusion rates yield lower total energy output ranging from 0.2 percent to 6 percent of the luminosity of the sun.
* Lower energy output means a red dwarf can maintain a steady power output for tens of billions of years (high mass red dwarf) to trillions of years (low mass red dwarf) much longer than the lifetime for the sun.
A planet too far away from its red dwarf star would be too cold. In contrast, one close enough to keep warm - about a tenth of the distance of the Earth from the Sun, or about three times closer than Mercury is to the Sun - would get locked into an orbit with one side of the planet always facing the star, and the other forever in the dark.
According to astrobiologists, the "Goldilocks" or habitable zone - the zone where water can remain liquid on a planet around a red dwarf - would be nonexistent or at best unearthly.
Recently, though, astronomers and astrobiologists have been reappraising the habitability of planets around red dwarf stars, which have a mass somewhere between about a tenth and half that of the Sun.
New sophisticated climate modeling suggests that heat transfer from the hot, bright side to the cold, dark side of a red dwarf planet could prevent freeze-out. Meanwhile, back on Earth, the discovery of "extremophiles" that can flourish under extraordinarily harsh conditions, has led some scientists to speculate that red dwarfs may be the most likely place to find extraterrestrial life.
This is good news for those who are searching for extraterrestrial intelligence, or perhaps for future refugees from Earth looking for a new place to settle. Red dwarfs are plentiful. They make up about 75% of all stars in the Galaxy, and there are about 100 red dwarf systems within 25 light years of Earth. Another attractive feature is the lack of an impending energy crisis. The power output of a red dwarf is predicted to remain steady for hundreds of billions or even trillions of years.
So, if life can establish itself around a red dwarf, it will have a long time to evolve intelligence capable of creating telescopes, cell phones, talk radio, and real estate bubbles. Maybe, just maybe, "red dwarfians" have evolved into a wise species that have avoided or solved some of the serious problems we encounter on Earth.
One potential difficulty for life around a red dwarf is that the atmospheres of red dwarf stars are highly turbulent and prone to outbursts of high-energy radiation and particles. A recent Chandra study of red dwarfs in the Orion cluster shows that red dwarfs flare almost continuously. The larger flares can be as energetic as solar flares.
Although we are protected by the Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field, large solar flares can create annoying disruptions of radio communications. They also pose a lethal danger to astronauts floating unprotected in space, and an unhealthy increase in hazardous cosmic ray background radiation at high altitudes.
Since any potentially habitable planet around a red dwarf must be very close to the star - about ten times closer than the Earth is to the Sun - red dwarf flares could cause serious damage. Computations show that such flares can bathe the planetary surface in a deadly rain of biologically damaging high-energy radiation. In extreme cases flares could strip the entire atmosphere from the exoplanet.
Magnetic fields could mitigate the problem, but probably not enough for an Earth-sized planet. However, a larger and more massive terrestrial-type exoplanet could have a stronger magnetic field, which combined with its stronger gravity, would allow it to hold onto its atmosphere.
So, before you buy property on a planet around a red dwarf, even though the price is right and the view is great, be aware that it's not just location, location, location. Size also matters.
Red Dwarf Flares:
The low mass of a red dwarf star leads to a weak central energy source. This causes the interior to undergo a rapid convective motion, similar to boiling water. This motion, when combined with rapid rotation, can produce large, severely twisted magnetic fields. The unwinding of these magnetic fields could heat the upper atmosphere of as star by releasing the pent-up energy either gradually, or explosively in flares.
To examine the frequency and intensity of red dwarf flares, a group composed of astronomers from Palermo University in Italy, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, and Penn State University used data from a 13-day Chandra survey of the Orion Nebula star cluster. Their study of 165 red dwarf stars showed that the X-ray emission is consistent with an overlapping series of weak flares, punctuated by an occasional intense one.
This result is an important step forward in the quest to understand the mechanism for converting magnetic energy to heat and high energy particles in the atmospheres of stars. It also shows that living around a red dwarf star could be a hazardous proposition.
J. Tarter et al. 2007, Astrobiology 7, 30- 65, "A Reappraisal of The Habitability of Planets around M Dwarf Stars"
M. Caramazza et al. 2007 Astron. & Astrophys. 471, 645, "X-ray flares in Orion: low-mass stars"
H. Lammer, et al. 2007 Astrobiology, Volume 7, 185-207.
"Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) Activity of Low Mass M Stars as An Important Factor for The Habitability of Terrestrial Exoplanets. II. CME-Induced Ion Pick Up of Earth-like Exoplanets in Close-In Habitable Zones" | <urn:uuid:51415c34-39c1-40d0-8a20-9f16f5148248> | {
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Male Nudes in Art History: Greek Kouros, The first major culture to celebrate the importance of the male nude statue was that of ancient Greece,
Male nudes are the norm in Greek art, even though historians have stated that ancient Greeks kept their clothes on for the most part. New research suggests that art
Ancient Greek art has survived most A male nude could just as easily be Apollo Gradations in the social importance of the person commissioning the
From rare bronzes found in the sea to goddesses that proved a millennium ahead of their time, ancient Greek art is majestic, vital and full of high drama, writes
Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient Fine metalwork was an important art in Praxiteles made the female nude respectable for the
Female Nudes in Art History: This ideal version of the Greek female nude the importance of the female nude was much diminished.
The importance of the nude in Greek Art Diskobolos (Discus Thower) Aphrodite of knidos kouros Kritios boy Kouros, from Attica, Greece, ca. 600 BCE. Kouros, from | <urn:uuid:2c670ad7-66f4-47d4-b715-9cbd1acaba8a> | {
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Compartmental modelling of dendrites
Compartmental modelling of dendrites deals with multi-compartment modelling of the dendrites, to make the understanding of the electrical behavior of complex dendrites easier. Basically, compartmental modelling of dendrites is a very helpful tool to develop new biological neuron models. Dendrites are very important because they occupy the most membrane area in many of the neurons and give the neuron an ability to connect to thousands of other cells. Originally the dendrites were thought to have constant conductance and current but now it has been understood that they may have active Voltage-gated ion channels, which influences the firing properties of the neuron and also the response of neuron to synaptic inputs. Many mathematical models have been developed to understand the electric behavior of the dendrites. Dendrites tend to be very branchy and complex, so the compartmental approach to understand the electrical behavior of the dendrites makes it very useful.
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Multiple compartments
- 3 Cable Theory
- 4 Some applications
- 4.1 Information processing
- 4.2 Midbrain dopaminergic neuron
- 4.3 Mode locking
- 4.4 Compartmental neural simulations with spatial adaptivity
- 4.5 Action potential (AP) initiation site
- 4.6 A finite-state automaton model
- 4.7 Constraining compartmental models
- 4.8 Multi-compartmental model of a CA1 pyramidal cell
- 4.9 Electrical compartmentalization
- 4.10 Robust coding in motion-sensitive neurons
- 4.11 Conductance-based neuron models
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 External links
- Compartmental modelling is a very natural way of modelling dynamical systems that have certain inherent properties with conservation principles. The compartmental modelling is an elegant way, a state space formulation to elegantly capture the dynamical systems that are governed by the conservation laws. Whether it is the conservation of mass, energy, fluid flow or information flow. Basically, they are models whose state variables tend to be non-negative (such as mass, concentrations, energy). So the equations for mass balance, energy, concentration or fluid flow can be written. It ultimately goes down to networks in which the brain is the largest of them all, just like Avogadro number, very large amount of molecules that are interconnected. The brain has very interesting interconnections. On a microscopic level thermodynamics is virtually impossible to understand but from a macroscopic view we see that these follow some universal laws. In the same way brain has numerous interconnections, which is almost impossible to write a differential equation for. (These words were said in an interview by Dr. Wassim Haddad )
- General observations about how the brain functions can be made by looking at the first and second thermodynamic laws, which are universal laws. Brain is a very large-scale interconnected system; the neurons have to somehow behave like the chemical reaction system, so, it has to somehow obey the chemical thermodynamic laws. This approach may lead to more generalized model of brain. (These words were said in an interview by Dr. Wassim Haddad )
- Complicated dendritic structures can be treated as multiple compartments interconnected. The dendrites are divided into small compartments and they are linked together as shown in the figure.
- It is assumed that the compartment is isopotential and spatially uniform in its properties. Membrane non-uniformity such as diameter changes, and voltage differences are occurred in between the compartments but not inside them.
- An example of a simple two-compartment model:
Consider a two-compartmental model with the compartments viewed as isopotential cylinders with radius and length .
- is the membrane potential of ith compartment.
- is the specific membrane capacitance.
- is the specific membrane resistivity.
- The total electrode current, assuming that the compartment has it, is given by .
- The longitudinal resistance is given by .
- Now according to the balance that should exist for each compartment, we can say
- Where and are the capacitive and ionic currents per unit area of ith compartment membrane. i.e. they can be given by
- and .....eq(2)
- If we assume the resting potential is 0. Then to compute , we need total axial resistance. As the compartments are simply cylinders we can say
- Using ohms law we can express current from ith to jth compartment as
- and .....eq(4)
- The coupling terms and are obtained by inverting eq(3) and dividing by surface area of interest.
- So we get,
- is the surface area of the compartment i.
- If we put all these together we get
- If we use and then eq(5) will become
- Now if we inject current in cell 1 only and each cylinder is identical then
- Without loss in generality we can define
- After some algebra we can show that
- i.e. the input resistance decreases. For increment in the potential, coupled system current should be greater than that is required for uncoupled system. This is because the second compartment drains some current.
- Now, we can get a general compartmental model for a treelike structure and the equations are
Increased computational accuracy in multi-compartmental cable models
- Input at the center
Each dendridic section is subdivided into segments, which are typically seen as uniform circular cylinders or tapered circular cylinders. In the traditional compartmental model, point process location is determined only to an accuracy of half segment length. This will make the model solution particularly sensitive to segment boundaries. The accuracy of the traditional approach for this reason is O(1/n) when a point current and synaptic input is present. Usually the trans-membrane current where the membrane potential is known is represented in the model at points, or nodes and is assumed to be at the center. The new approach partitions the effect of the input by distributing it to the boundaries of the segment. Hence any input is partitioned between the nodes at the proximal and distal boundaries of the segment. Therefore, this procedure makes sure that the solution obtained is not sensitive to small changes in location of these boundaries because it affects how the input is partitioned between the nodes. When these compartments are connected with continuous potentials and conservation of current at segment boundaries then a new compartmental model of a new mathematical form is obtained. This new approach also provides a model identical to the traditional model but an order more accurate. This model increases the accuracy and precision by an order of magnitude than that is achieved by point process input.
Dendrites and axons are considered to be continuous (cable-like), rather than series of compartments.
- A theoretical framework along with a technological platform are provided by computational models to enhance the understanding of nervous system functions. There was a lot of advancement in the molecular and biophysical mechanisms underlying the neuronal activity. The same kind of advances have to be made in understanding the structure-functional relationship and rules followed by the information processing.
- Previously a neuron used to be thought as a transistor. However, it is shown recently that morphology and ionic composition of different neurons provide the cell with enhanced computational capabilities. These abilities are far more advanced than those captured by a point neuron.
- Some findings:
- Different outputs given by the individual apical oblique dendrites of CA1 pyramidal neurons are linearly combined in the cell body. The outputs that come from these dendrites actually behave like individual computational units that use sigmoidal activation function to combine inputs.
- The thin dendritic branches each act as a typical point neuron, which are capable of combining the incoming signals according to the thresholding non-linearity.
- Considering the accuracy in prediction of different input patterns by a two-layer neural network, its assumed that a simple mathematical equation can be used to describe the model. This allows the development of network models in which each neuron, instead of being modelled as a full blown compartmental cell, it is modelled as a simplified two layer neural network.
- The firing pattern of the cell might contain the temporal information about incoming signals. For example, the delay between the two simulated pathways.
- Single CA1 has a capability of encoding and transmitting spatio-temporal information on the incoming signals to the recipient cell.
- Calcium-activated nonspecific cationic (CAN) mechanism is needed for giving constant activity and the synaptic stimulation alone does not induce persistent activity using the increasing conductance of NMDA mechanism. NMDA/ AMPA positively expands the range of persistent activity and negatively regulates the amount of CAN needed for constant activity.
Midbrain dopaminergic neuron
- Movement, motivation, attention, neurological and psychiatric disorders and addictive behavior have a strong influence by Dopaminergic signalling.
- The dopaminergic neurons have a low irregular basal firing frequency in 1–8 Hz range in vivo in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). This frequencies can dramatically increase in response to a cue predicting reward or unpredicted reward. The actions that preceded the reward are reinforced by this burst or phasic signal.
- The low safety factor for action potential generation gives a result of low maximal steady frequencies. The transient initial frequency in response to depolarizing pulse is controlled by rate of Ca2+ accumulation in distal dendrites.
- Results obtained from a mulch-compartmental model realistic with reconstructed morphology were similar. So, the salient contributions of the dendritic architecture have been captures by simpler model.
- There are many important applications in neuroscience for Mode-locking response of excitable systems to periodic forcing. For example, The theta rhythm drives the spatially extended place cells in the hippocampus to generate a code giving information about spatial location. The role of neuronal dentrites in generating the response to periodic current injection can be explored by using a compartmental model (with linear dynamics for each compartment) coupled to an active soma model that generates action potentials.
- Some findings:
- The response of whole neuron model i.e. soma and dendrites, can be written in closed form. The response of the spatially extended model to periodic forcing is described by stroboscopic map. A Arnol'd tongue quasi-active model can be constructed with a linear stability[disambiguation needed] analysis of the map with carefully treating the non-differentiability of soma model.
- The shape of the tongues is influenced by the presence of the quasi-active membrane.
- The windows in parameter space for chaotic behavior can be enlarged with the resonant dendritic membrane.
- The response of the spatially extended neuron model to global forcing is different from that of point forcing.
Compartmental neural simulations with spatial adaptivity
- The computational cost of the meathod scales not with the physical size of the system being simulated but with the amount of activity present in the simulation. Spatial adaptivity for certain problems reduces up to 80%.
Action potential (AP) initiation site
- Establishing a unique site for AP initiation at the axon initial segment is no longer accepted. The APs can be initiated and comdected by different sub-regions of the neuron morphology, which widened the capabilities of individual neurons in computation.
- Findings from a study of the Action Potential Initiation Site Along the Axosomatodendritic Axis of Neurons Using Compartmental Models:
- Dendritic APs are initiated more effectively by synchronous spatially clustered inputs than equivalent disperse inputs.
- The initiation site can also be determined by the average electrical distance from the dendritic input to the axon trigger zone, but it may be strongly modulated by the relative excitability of the two trigger zones and a number of factors.
A finite-state automaton model
- Multi-neuron simulations with finite state automation model is capable of modelling the most important characteristics of neural membranes.
Constraining compartmental models
- Can be done using extracellular action potential recordings
- Can be done using Multiple Voltage Recordings and Genetic Algorithms
Multi-compartmental model of a CA1 pyramidal cell
- To study changes in hippocampal excitability that result from aging-induced alterations in calcium-dependent membrane mechanisms, the multi-compartmental model of CA1 pyramidal cell can be used. We can model the aging-induced alterations in CA1 excitability can be with simple coupling mechanisms that selectively link specific types of calcium channels to specific calcium-dependent potassium channels.
- Spine Neck Plasticity Controls Postsynaptic Calcium Signals through Electrical Compartmentalization. The spine neck plasticity through a process of electrical compartmentalization can dynamically regulate Calcium influx into spines (a key trigger for synaptic plasticity).
Robust coding in motion-sensitive neurons
- Different receptive fields in axons and dendrites underlie robust coding in motion-sensitive neurons.
Conductance-based neuron models
- The capabilities and limitations of conductance-based compartmental neuron models with reduced branched or unbranched morphologies and active dendrites.
- Computational neuroscience
- Dynamical Systems
- Multi-compartment model
- Neural network
- Biological neuron models
- Neural coding
- Brain-computer interface
- Neural engineering
- Mathematical model
- Compartmental models in epidemiology
- Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modelling
- Ermentrout, Bard; Terman H. David (2010). Mathematical Foundations of Neuroscience. Springer. pp. 29–45. ISBN 978-0-387-87707-5.
- Lindsay, A. E., Lindsay, K. A., & Rosenberg, J. R. (2005). Increased computational accuracy in multi-compartmental cable models by a novel approach for precise point process localization. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 19(1), 21–38.
- Poirazi, P. (2009). Information Processing in Single Cells and Small Networks: Insights from Compartmental Models. In G. Maroulis & T. E. Simos (Eds.), Computational Methods in Science and Engineering, Vol 1 (Vol. 1108, pp. 158–167).
- Kuznetsova, A. Y., Huertas, M. A., Kuznetsov, A. S., Paladini, C. A., & Canavier, C. C. (2010). Regulation of firing frequency in a computational model of a midbrain dopaminergic neuron. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 28(3), 389–403.
- Svensson, C. M., & Coombes, S. (2009). MODE LOCKING IN A SPATIALLY EXTENDED NEURON MODEL: ACTIVE SOMA AND COMPARTMENTAL TREE. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, 19(8), 2597–2607.
- Rempe, M. J., Spruston, N., Kath, W. L., & Chopp, D. L. (2008). Compartmental neural simulations with spatial adaptivity. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 25(3), 465–480.
- Ibarz, J. M., & Herreras, O. (2003). A study of the action potential initiation site along the axosomatodendritic axis of neurons using compartmental models. In J. Mira & J. R. Alvarez (Eds.), Computational Methods in Neural Modeling, Pt 1 (Vol. 2686, pp. 9–15).
- Schilstra, M., Rust, A., Adams, R., & Bolouri, H. (2002). A finite state automaton model for multi-neuron simulations. Neurocomputing, 44, 1141–1148.
- Gold, C., Henze, D. A., & Koch, C. (2007). Using extracellular action potential recordings to constrain compartmental models. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 23(1), 39–58.
- Keren, N., Peled, N., & Korngreen, A. (2005). Constraining compartmental models using multiple voltage recordings and genetic algorithms. Journal of Neurophysiology, 94(6), 3730–3742.
- Markaki, M., Orphanoudakis, S., & Poirazi, P. (2005). Modelling reduced excitability in aged CA1 neurons as a calcium-dependent process. Neurocomputing, 65, 305–314.
- Grunditz, A., Holbro, N., Tian, L., Zuo, Y., & Oertner, T. G. (2008). Spine Neck Plasticity Controls Postsynaptic Calcium Signals through Electrical Compartmentalization. Journal of Neuroscience, 28(50), 13457–13466.
- Elyada, Y. M., Haag, J., & Borst, A. (2009). Different receptive fields in axons and dendrites underlie robust coding in motion-sensitive neurons. Nature Neuroscience, 12(3), 327–332.
- Hendrickson, E. B., Edgerton, J. R., & Jaeger, D. (2011). The capabilities and limitations of conductance-based compartmental neuron models with reduced branched or unbranched morphologies and active dendrites. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 30(2), 301–321. | <urn:uuid:eaa95560-b5fc-4608-ae4d-550f17e25eb5> | {
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This post first appeared on Edutopia.
As 2014 comes to a close and we set goals for the New Year, how will we define innovation?
According to Oxford Dictionaries, innovate means “to make changes in something established, especially by introducing new methods, ideas, or products.” This definition fits nicely with what is being asked of educators — to integrate new technologies, practices, and concepts into the classroom. As teachers, however, we also have to ask the question: why?! We need to ensure that these changes are to the direct benefit of our students. For that reason, I prefer Scott Berkun‘s definition: “Innovation is significant positive change.”
As we look towards 2015, I think we can all agree that we want our students to become successful learners who are capable of taming complexity. We wish for them to gain the skills that will allow them to enact significant positive change. So for 2015, our collective goal as educators should be striving to innovate our projects, activities, and curriculum such that we empower our students to develop into creative, insightful, successful learners who are prepared to become leaders in their desired future. What do you think?
Looking to learn more from Beth? She will be a featured speaker at the February 9-11 iPad Summit in San Diego. Early Bird Registration is OPEN! | <urn:uuid:28fc0e64-8b21-46f9-b03e-65a623d75171> | {
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Saccharomyces Boulardii is a beneficial yeast that promotes healthy conditions in the bowel. It both improves the conditions and reduces the number of undesirable yeast that are present. This maintenance of optimal conditions in the bowel is especially important for the functioning of the immune system and brain. S. Boulardii can reduce excessive number of undesirable yeast that overgrow when one takes antibiotics, Prednisone, or acid blocking drugs. The undesirable yeast produces toxins that produce fatigue in adults and disruptive behavior in children. One needs to be aware of the Herxheimer reaction, however. This reaction, also refererred to as die-off reaction, occurs when a large number of a toxin producing microbes, like yeast, are killed. The toxins they produce are released from their cells as they die, and are absorbed into our bloodstream. A person feels worse with the higher level of toxins, but they feel better once these toxins are cleared. This feeling-worse-feeling-better see-saw can occur for weeks. It is important to stay on the S. Boulardii until one is well past any die-off reactions.
One capsule twice a day for one or two months can promote bowel health. If one needs to take an antibiotic, take one capsule of S. Boulardii with each dose of the antibiotic, then one twice a day for a month. This is superior to taking probiotics (beneficial bacteria) while on antibiotics since the antibiotics do not kill yeast but do kill the probiotics. Taking both S. Boulardii and probiotics while on an antibiotic would be even better. | <urn:uuid:dfe8c4fd-ef6f-4c69-9f9a-b16725830787> | {
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In previous posts we’ve discussed the urgent need to create an effective and positive narrative to motivate action on climate change. Achieving such a narrative isn’t about facts – facts don’t matter – because we are a species driven by narrative, by a compelling story. Last summer Climate One convened three experts in human behavior, environment, and narrative storytelling. Recorded at the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco, host Greg Dalton speaks with Dr. Carrie Armel, Jon Else, and Jonah Sachs on why crafting a compelling narrative is much more effective than sheer facts in communicating and motivating people on the reality of climate change.
The following video introduces the hour-long program. Watch the full program here. | <urn:uuid:a7439d33-0098-43b3-b472-98906c401dc3> | {
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Dr. Harville Hendrix, Dr. Helen LaKelly Hunt,
No matter where you stand on the political aisle, we can all agree we are working through one of the most politically divisive times in our history. Many individuals can no longer visit some of the most popular social media platforms without seeing “virtual-fights” breaking out, which is leading to huge rifts between spouses, friends, co-workers and family.
It is not a stretch to say our country is a divided nation but, more importantly, we are now families, spouses and friends divided.
While some people cannot accept difference to the point where it is deemed as combative (and almost dangerous), the hope is your home life doesn’t have to be that way solely because the socio-political climate over the last year has become more conflicted. The reality is, by using a methodology called Safe Conversations, people can have very different points of view that doesn’t have to lead to social unrest.
Safe Conversations allows individuals to talk without criticizing, listen without judging, and connect beyond differences. Based on the most advanced relational and neurological science, Safe Conversations seeks to interrupt the downward cycle of family fragmentation that can reduce violence, strengthen communities and ultimately raise the joy index of a city.
The following tips provides a starting point on how to have a healthy and productive conversation with individuals who have opposing viewpoints:
1. The first step is to make an appointment to honor boundaries. This appointment will allow everyone to gather and acknowledge each other’s viewpoints without starting a potentially difficult conversation off-the-cuff. Respect is crucial in setting up an appointment to honor boundaries.
2. Once you choose a designated time to honor boundaries, identify the topic of opposition. The topic needs to be truly defined and specific for the brain to not jump to the human species’ genetic “paranoid” state of mind. Think about it this way – when a person tells you they would like to talk, what is typically your first thought? Most of us jump to an exaggerated conclusion and begin to think of worst case scenarios. By defining the topic prior to communicating, it removes this apprehension for all individuals.
3. Next, implement “I” language when talking. Meaning – always say “I” rather than “you” when having an oppositional conversation. Not only is this called the Sender Responsibility, it removes any blame away from the one receiving the sender’s opposing beliefs.
4. Individuals should also conduct a tactic called mirroring when someone talks. For example, once an individual is done stating his/her viewpoint, you respond back, “What I am hearing is XYZ.” This tactic allows for everyone to maintain accuracy, while also ensuring that you understand the Sender’s viewpoints.
5. Lastly, acknowledge that the other person makes sense. Even though you might not agree with the individual’s viewpoint, you must acknowledge that their opinion is validated. From this moment, you can then share your point of view after validating their first point of view. A bridge has now been created between said individuals, and two opposing realities are now interfacing without judgment. Ultimately, the goal of having this type of conversation is to have both realities change without judgment.
It’s absolutely possible to fully connect with people despite your differences, but to open that door, you have to believe it’s possible.
A negative attitude is the fastest roadblock to productive conversation, so over the next 30 days, try taking the Zero Negativity Challenge. Teach yourself to notice negativity and then “redo the transaction” by mentally changing gears to become positive again. There is an overwhelming amount of negativity in the world, but you can change that—starting with yourself.
Dr. Harville Hendrix and Dr. Helen LaKelly Hunt are the creators of Safe Conversations | Relationships First™, a nonprofit that envisions a world where everyone feels safe, valued and connected. | <urn:uuid:9ca3287c-f7f4-49f4-924e-2dcd02ca55a2> | {
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This church bell with runes from about the year 1200 originates from the old stave church in Åmotsdal in Telemark, Eastern Norway. (Photo: National Museum of Denmark/ Wikimedia Commons)
The year is 1023 and Christianity is introduced as the official state religion of Norway by Olav the Holy. Now, Odin and Thor will be replaced by the doctrine of a new God, and pagan runes replaced by the Latin alphabet – in theory.
But the runes were used in Norway until the end of the 1400s. For nearly 500 years after the introduction of Christianity, the Latin and runic alphabet (and religions?) lived side by side.
In some remote places in Scandinavia, runes were used until the 1800s, and in Dalarna in Sweden you could meet people who knew the magical characters as late as the start of the 1900s.
Runes Were Carved
Runic inscriptions tell us how the first Norwegians spoke. They also provide knowledge about how our ancestors dealt with higher powers, trade, love and war.
Runes were not written but carved into weapons, tools, jewelry, wood and stone. The most active rune stone period was from the 900s to the 1100s. In Sweden there are found 1,750 stones from this period, in Denmark about 200, and in Norway about 50.
The most intense rune period in Norway was in the Middle Ages, from about 1150 to the mid 1400s, but runes were no longer carved into stones, but wood. Until now, it is found about 900 inscriptions on wooden sticks where the content varies from the deeply religious to the trivial.
In the sagas we find the word “rune” used to signify a song, a spell, a magical symbol, a mystery, and secret knowledge.
The many meanings of the word have led to a number of theories linking the origin of the runic alphabet to cultic use. When the missionary bishop Wulfila in the fourth century translated the Bible from Greek into Visigothic, he translated the word mysterion to runa.
One theory is therefore that the oldest Proto-Norse or Proto-Germanic meanings of the word may have been “religious mystery” or “secret religious formula”.
- See also: The Runic Alphabet – Futhark
Text by: Thor Lanesskog, ThorNews | <urn:uuid:4acc7c51-9b15-41e0-827b-95ba324f1dda> | {
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Today, Downtown Lowell’s Memorial Hall is mostly known for the Pollard Memorial Library it houses, named for the city’s late mayor Samuel S. Pollard. For its first 90 years, until its renaming in 1981, Lowell residents and visitors knew it as the Lowell City Library.
The library’s building, Memorial Hall, was built to remember the sacrifices of Lowell’s Civil War dead. Local surviving members of the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) expected that the Hall would provide them a meeting place, at least for special occasions, if not on a regular basis.
As early as 1887, veterans and citizens of Lowell were considering a memorial to the city’s Civil War dead. At that point, Lowell residents and the memorial committee of the G.A.R. hadn’t yet decided whether the memorial would be a monument or a building. The idea of a memorial hall soon gained traction, as the members of the local Grand Army posts needed a place to meet. The Lowell Sun wrote: “”The veterans are growing old; they are paying heavy rent for halls, and now that a memorial building is erected, they expect to be made in some respects the beneficiaries of the city’s good will.”
Several different proposals emerged. One involved constructing a building with an observatory that would overlook the city from
Fort Hill. (This option was eventually dismissed as Fort Hill was seen as too remote for veterans, and was the location most likely to attract loafers and vacationers, rather than the veterans it was meant to serve.) Another option would have created a municipal building with the upper floors dedicated to G.A.R. meetings. (This option eventually morphed into Lowell’s City Hall building, which was completed a few months after Memorial Hall.) The last, and winning, proposal called for the building of a new city library that included space for G.A.R. meetings. All agreed that the Memorial Hall should be a ‘grand and imposing edifice’, to adequately recall the men and deeds that they hoped to commemorate.
The history of Memorial Hall is firmly intertwined with the City Hall building next to it. (Its tower can be seen in the postcard view, above.) Their cornerstones were laid on the same day: October 11, 1890, and both took nearly three years to complete. The Memorial Building opened to much fanfare on June 3, 1893.
A procession marched through Highland, Elm, Central, Merrimack, Moody, and Colburn streets, ending at the new Memorial Building. Prayers were offered by Rev. Dr. Chambre. An American quartet sang songs, and the keys to the building were presented to Mayor Pickman. Speeches were delivered by the Mayor, members of the local posts of the G.A.R., and former mayor and future governor Frederic T. Greenhalge.
A bust of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler was next presented to the people of Lowell by a group of African-American Bostonians who wished to see it placed in the new hall. In a speech by their spokesman, they said the bust would be “dedicated to the memory of those who gave their lives that the union might be preserved, and all men made free and equal under the law.”
The Hon. F. T. Greenhalge closed the ceremony by saying: “Long may this Memorial Library stand. May the sun shed its brightest and softest radiance upon it. And while one stone remains upon another, may it stand as a witness of valor and patriotic devotion – of liberty and wisdom – of the loyalty of your fathers and the love and gratitude of their children.”
As the exercises concluded, the officials opened the new building for public inspection while the quartet played “”Soldier’s Farewell”. | <urn:uuid:1096cf71-d460-4329-b164-34d6aa3d807f> | {
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Method Math will help your students become successful and effective problem solvers! Using the problem-solving ROSE process, students will learn a step-by-step method of how to approach and solve word problems. With plenty of practice using each step of the process, they will also develop skills in analytical and critical thinking, deductive reasoning, and writing. A 15 1/4'' x 21 1/2'' (40cm x 54.6cm) color poster outlining the ROSE process is included with each book. Reproducibles included. 8 1/2'' x 11'' (21.5cm x 28cm). 80 pp. | <urn:uuid:17e53fb9-8306-44c6-9376-5d63b106bafe> | {
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Volunteer and Exercise
Lesson 7 of 10
Objective: SWBAT find the author's point and the reasons that support the author's point in the text.
Common Core Connection
The standard RI1.8 asks the students to analyze an informational text and find the author's point, and they need to find the reasons that support the author's point. Using text that is informative, but also subject to opinion is helpful for this standard. The skill is quite complex, as students need to slow down, understand the point, look deep in a text for evidence to support the point, and really be familiar with the text to fully understand this skill.
I chose Get Active by Michelle Obama's campaign to help make kids healthier for the guided practice. Then I selected Be A Volunteer from another website. In the lesson students work with a collaborative partner through the entire lesson (Peanut Butter Jelly Partner), and they will transition about every twenty minutes to keep their minds fresh (Transitions).
This is the time I need to excite my class and make learning relevant so I can keep them engaged for the duration of the lesson. So, I do this by projecting the lesson image on the Smart board and ask the students to talk about the point of view that many author's take on exercise and volunteering. We have read many articles on exercise, so I am assessing how much they remember. I expect most students to say, "Exercise is good for your body." They are kids, so love to play and exercise, which also makes our topic today relevant. My class actually has a great local writer that volunteers in our class every week for an hour, so volunteering is relevant as well.
Then I share the lesson plan with my class. Last we chant the lesson goal: I can identify the author's point and reasons the author uses to explain the point. | <urn:uuid:ab601d40-5fb7-479d-90cf-2bedd970aa31> | {
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About 5% to 10% of breast cancers are thought to be hereditary, caused by abnormal genes passed from parent to child.
Genes are particles in cells, contained in chromosomes, and made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA contains the instructions for building proteins. And proteins control the structure and function of all the cells that make up your body.
Most inherited cases of breast cancer are associated with two abnormal genes: BRCA1 (BReast CAncer gene one) and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer gene two).
Everyone has BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The function of the BRCA genes is to repair cell damage and keep breast cells growing normally. But when these genes contain abnormalities or mutations that are passed from generation to generation, the genes don’t function normally and breast cancer risk increases. Abnormal BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes may account for up to 10% of all breast cancers, or 1 out of every 10 cases.
Having an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene doesn’t mean you will be diagnosed with breast cancer. Researchers are learning that other mutations in pieces of chromosomes -- called SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) -- may be linked to higher breast cancer risk in women with an abnormal BRCA1 gene as well as women who didn’t inherit an abnormal breast cancer gene.
Testing for abnormal BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes is usually done on a blood sample taken in your doctor’s office and sent to a commercial lab. During testing, the genes are separated from the rest of the DNA, and then they’re scanned for abnormalities.
Right now in the United States, Myriad Genetics performs all commercial BRCA1 and BRCA2 testing. Results are reported within a month. The cost of the BRCA testing ranges from about $300 to $3,000, depending on whether you get the limited test, in which only a few areas of the gene are evaluated, or the full test, in which hundreds of areas are examined on both genes.
A group of Canadian scientists has developed a new way to test for abnormal BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that seems to be more accurate and less expensive than the current testing methods.
The research was published in the September 12, 2012 issue of the The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics. Read the abstract of “Long-Range PCR and Next-Generation Sequencing of BRCA1 and BRCA2 in Breast Cancer.”
The new BRCA testing method uses two relatively new techniques -- long range PCR and next generation sequencing -- to screen the entire genomic area of both genes. Because this new test can screen millions of DNA molecules at the same time, results are reported much faster -- in about 12 days -- and costs much less -- about $170 -- than the current BRCA1 and BRCA2 test.
The researchers ran their new BRCA testing method on blood samples from 12 people diagnosed with breast cancer who knew they had an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. The researchers then compared the results of the new test to the results from the current test. The new test found all the abnormal areas of the genes that the current test did, as well as several SNPs linked to breast cancer that weren’t identified by the current test.
While this research is very exciting, it will be some time before this new BRCA1 and BRCA2 testing is routinely available everywhere.
If you and/or some of your family members have been diagnosed with breast cancer, you may be interested in having genetic testing done. You’re much more likely to have an abnormal breast cancer gene if:
- You have blood relatives (grandmothers, mother, sisters, aunts) on either your mother’s or father’s side of the family who had breast cancer diagnosed before age 50.
- There is both breast and ovarian cancer in your family, particularly in a single person.
- There are other gland-related cancers in your family, such as pancreatic, colon, and thyroid cancer.
- Women in your family have had cancer in both breasts.
- You are of Ashkenazi Jewish (Eastern European) heritage.
- You are African American and have been diagnosed with breast cancer at age 35 or younger.
- A man in your family has been diagnosed with breast cancer.
If any of the items above are true for either side of your family, you may be a candidate for genetic testing. You may want to meet with a genetic counselor, a medical professional specially trained to understand and provide information about genetics and disease. To find a genetic counselor who specializes in family-related cancer risk, talk to your doctor or check with the hospitals and cancer centers in your area.
For more information on BRCA1 and BRCA2 testing, as well as other testing for other abnormal genes linked to breast cancer, visit the Genetics page in the Breastcancer.org Breast Cancer Risk Factors section. | <urn:uuid:c15a2b54-56d0-4f0e-9877-ec04ad05b3bd> | {
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According to Kew Species Profiles[KSP]
- General Description
Teak is well known for its high quality timber, and has also been used for traditional medicine in southeast Asia.
Tectona grandis (teak) is a tall tree from southeast Asia and is widely cultivated for its durable wood. It is a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae), which is perhaps better known for its aromatic members including culinary herbs such as basil, oregano and rosemary.
- Species Profile
Geography and distribution
Tectona grandis has a natural distribution from India to Vietnam and Thailand. It is also found in cultivation throughout the tropics.
Teak is a tree up to 40 m high.
The bark is scaly and the leaves are opposite one another.
The leaves are 6 – 75 cm long, 8 - 45 cm wide, and hairless on the upper surface when mature, with many star-shaped hairs below.
The calyxes (sepals) form a balloon-like shape enveloping the fruit.
The corolla (petals) is regular, and white to cream-coloured.
The fruit is pale yellow, of 1.2 to 2 cm diameter, and covered with star-shaped hairs.
Threats and conservation
Although the species itself is common, the unique teak forests of India, Burma and Thailand are under threat from over-exploitation.
Tectona grandis is the source of a high quality general purpose hardwood known as teak. The timber is used for ship decking, flooring, furniture and construction. It is particularly recommended for construction in seaside environments (such as bridges and docks) because it is resistant to shipworm, a wood-boring sea mollusc ( Teredospp., Teredinidae). Quinones in the sawdust inhibit the growth of several species of the fungi that cause wood rot.Teak is widely cultivated in the tropics; the main producers are Burma, India, Thailand and Indonesia. Like all forests, plantations of teak can act as carbon stores; in Panama, for example, teak plantations sequester carbon dioxide at a rate of 191.1 mg per hectare during a twenty-year rotation. Soil analyses in Costa Rica indicate that teak plantations may improve the soil quality of lands previously under pasture. In Tanzania, wildlife forage is provided by young teak plantations where grass and herbs grow in the understorey.
Teak has traditionally been used in southeast Asia for medicine, commonly for its astringent and diuretic properties and against swelling. Its traditional use for diabetes has been supported by laboratory tests in which extracts of the bark have been shown to lower insulin resistance in mice. The wood has also been said to relieve skin irritations caused by handling cashew nuts ( Anacardium occidentale, Anacardiaceae) and marking nuts ( Semecarpus anacardium, Anacardiaceae).
Millennium Seed Bank: Seed storage
Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Partnership aims to save plant life world wide, focusing on plants under threat and those of most use in the future. Seeds are dried, packaged and stored at a sub-zero temperature in our seed bank vault.
Collections stored in the Millennium Seed Bank: OneSeed storage behaviour: Orthodox - the seeds of this plant survive being dried without significantly reducing their viability, and are therefore amenable to long-term frozen storage such as at the MSBComposition values:Oil content 34%
Tectona grandis grows best in a warm, tropical climate with a temperature above 22 ºC. Teak prefers well-drained, fertile soils and is a strong light demander.
Trees are 96 to 100% self-incompatible. The species is hermaphroditic and pollinated by insects, especially bees. Propagation by seed involves pre-treatment to break the dormancy, involving wetting and drying the seed every 12 hours, over a period of two weeks. When seeds are sown in a mix of sand and coir, at 22 to 25ºC, germination will take place within two to four weeks. The germination rate is low, and teak seedlings need shading.
Vegetative propagation can be achieved by grafting and budding. Tissue cultures have also been developed for the propagation of teak.
- India, Thailand, Vietnam
- This species naturally occurs in deciduous forests, but is planted commonly along roadsides and in large plantations throughout the tropics.
- IUCN status of Least Concern (LC).
According to Flora of Tropical East Africa[FTEA]
- It is a large tree at maturity, up to 50 m..
- Large elliptic leaves 10–100 cm. long, 5–50 cm. wide, mostly about 30 × 25 cm., stellate-tomentose beneath and often with red coloration on rubbing.
- Inflorescences massive, ± 40 cm. long, 35 cm. wide with stellate-tomentose axes and small white flowers, the corolla-tube ± 1.5–3 mm. long.
- Fruit subglobose, ± 1.5 cm. long and wide, enclosed in the inflated bladdery calyx 2.5 cm. long and wide.
- Information on teak has been summarised by Krishna Murthy (Bibliography on teak, Dehra Dun, 1981) and Moldenke gives much information (Phytologia 1: 154–164 (1935) & 5: 112–120 (1954)).
Assam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
Andaman Is., Angola, Belize, Benin, Cabinda, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Gambia, Gulf of Guinea Is., Honduras, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Is., Malaya, Mexico Southeast, Mexico Southwest, Nicaragua, Nicobar Is., Panamá, Philippines, Southwest Caribbean, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Togo, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuela
Tectona grandis L.f. appears in other Kew resources:
Herbarium Catalogue (55 records)
|Date Identified||Reference||Herbarium Specimen||Type Status|
|Jan 1, 1939||Netherlands Indies Forestry Service [bb25521], Indonesia||K000932050|
|Jan 1, 1939||Netherlands Indies Forestry Service [bb25521], Indonesia||K000932051|
|May 13, 1923||Bünnemeijer, H.A.B. , Indonesia||K000932038|
|Jan 1, 1923||Thomson, G. [46a], India||K000249764|
|Jan 1, 1923||Thomson, G. [46a], India||K000249765|
|Kochummen, K.M. , Malaysia||K000897973|
|Kochummen, K.M. , Malaysia||K000897974|
|Aziz , Malaysia||K000897975|
|Thorel, M. le , Vietnam||K000897976|
|Thorel, M. le , Vietnam||K000897977|
|Thorel, M. le , Vietnam||K000897978|
|Meynant [s.n.], Vietnam||K000897979|
|Pabbé Bon, M. , Vietnam||K000897980|
|Thorel, M. le , Vietnam||K000897981|
|Kerr, A.F.G. , Thailand||K000897982|
|Esser, H.J. , Thailand||K000897983|
|Kostermans, A. , Thailand||K000897984|
|Kostermans, A. , Thailand||K000897985|
|Chantaranothai, P. [90/659], Thailand||K000897986|
|Keith, H.G. [A1530], Malaysia||K000932031|
|Keith, H.G. [A1530], Malaysia||K000932032|
|Marsemi , Indonesia||K000932033|
|Ambri , Indonesia||K000932034|
|Ambri , Indonesia||K000932035|
|Robinson, C.B. , Indonesia||K000932036|
|Robinson, C.B. [298bis], Indonesia||K000932037|
|s.coll. [s.n.], Indonesia||K000932039|
|Koorders, S.H. , Indonesia||K000932040|
|Herb. Blume [s.n.], Indonesia||K000932041|
|Horsfield, T. [s.n.], Indonesia||K000932042|
|Voogd, C.N.A. de [s.n.], Indonesia||K000932043|
|Koorders, S.H. , Indonesia||K000932044|
|Jugah ak. Tagi , Malaysia||K000932045|
|Jugah ak. Tagi , Malaysia||K000932046|
|Abu Bakar, F.R. [A277], Malaysia||K000932047|
|Abu Bakar, F.R. [A277], Malaysia||K000932048|
|Cuadra, A. [A2471], Malaysia||K000932049|
|Cuadra, A. [A272], Malaysia||K000932052|
|Gibot, A. , Malaysia||K000932053|
|Rahman , Malaysia||K000932054|
|Rahman , Malaysia||K000932055|
|Williams, R.S. , Philippines||K000932056|
|Miranda, D.P. , Philippines||K000932057|
|Hutchinson, W.I. , Philippines||K000932058|
|Hutchinson, W.I. , Philippines||K000932059|
|Hutchinson, W.I. , Philippines||K000932060|
|Romero, E.M. , Philippines||K000932061|
|Romero, E.M. , Philippines||K000932062|
|Merrill, E.D. , Philippines||K000932063|
|Pray, F.L. , Philippines||K000932064|
|Barbon , Philippines||K000932065|
|Pray, F.L. , Philippines||K000932066|
|Miras , Philippines||K000932067|
|Hooker f. , Pakistan||K000249763|
|Styles, B.T. , Uganda||25694.023|
First published in Suppl. Pl.: 151 (1782)
- (2016) Englera 29(3): 1-356
- Darbyshire, I., Kordofani, M., Farag, I., Candiga, R. & Pickering, H. (eds.) (2015) The Plants of Sudan and South Sudan . Kew publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Girmansyah, D. & al. (eds.) (2013) Flora of Bali an annotated checklist . Herbarium Bogorensis, Indonesia.
- (2012) Flora Mesoamericana 4(2): 1-533. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F..
- Garcia-Mendoza, A.J. & Meave, J.A. (eds.) (2012) Diversidad florística de Oaxaca: de musgos a angiospermas (colecciones y listas de especies) , ed. 2: 1-351. Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
- (2010) Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 34: 42-68
- Hokche, O., Berry, P.E. & Huber, O. (eds.) (2008) Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela . Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela.
- Nelson Sutherland, C.H. (2008) Catálogo de las plantes vasculares de Honduras. Espermatofitas . SERNA/Guaymuras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
- (2006) Garcia de Orta, Série de Botânica 17(2): 5-68
- Akoègninou, A., van der Burg, W.J. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (eds.) (2006) Flore Analytique du Bénin . Backhuys Publishers.
- (2005) Flora Zambesiaca 8(7): 1-161. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Govaerts, R. (2003) World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Database in ACCESS . The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Jones, M. (1991) A checklist of Gambian plants . Michael Jones, The Gambia College.
- Brunel, J.F., Hiepo, P. & Scholz, H. (eds.) (1984) Flore Analytique du Togo Phanérogames: 1-751. GTZ, Eschborn.
- (2011) Bothalia 41: 41-82
- Boley J.D., Drew A.P., Andrus R.E. (2009). Effects of active pasture, teak (Tectona grandis) and mixed native plantations on soil chemistry in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management. 257: 2254-2261.
- Bonnington C., Weaver D., Fanning E. (2009). The use of teak (Tectona grandis) plantations by large mammals in the Kilombero Valley, southern Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology. 47: 138-145.
- Derwisch S., Schwedenmann L., Olschewski R., Holscher D. (2009). Estimation and economic evaluation of aboveground carbon storage of Tectona grandis in Western Panama. New Forests. 37: 227-240.
- Ghaisas M., Navghare V., Takawale A., Zope V., Tanwar M., Deshpande A. (2009). Effect of Tectona grandis Linn. on dexamethasone-induced insulin resistance in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 122: 304-307.
- (2008) Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 32: 403-500
- Sumthong P., Romero-Gonzalez R.R., Verpoorte R. (2008). Identification of anti-wood rot compounds in teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) sawdust extract. Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology. 28: 247-260.
- Warrier P.K. (1996). Indian Medicinal Plants: a Compendium of 500 Species. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.
- Gonzalez, F., Nelson Diaz, J. & Lowry, P. (1995) Flora Illustrada de San Andrés y Providencia . Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Colombia.
- Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ (1993). Plant Resources of South-East Asia 5(1). Timber trees: Major commercial timbers. Pudoc, Wageningen.
- Nadkarni A.K. (1976). Indian Materia Medica. Volume 1. 3rd edn. Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Flora of Tropical East Africa
International Plant Names Index
The International Plant Names Index (2016). Published on the Internet http://www.ipni.org
[B] © Copyright 2016 International Plant Names Index. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0
Kew Species Profiles
Kew Species Profiles
World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
World Checklist of Selected Plant Families(2016). Published on the Internet http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
[E] See http://kew.org/about-kew/website-information/legal-notices/index.htm You may use data on these Terms and Conditions and on further condition that: The data is not used for commercial purposes; You may copy and retain data solely for scholarly, educational or research purposes; You may not publish our data, except for small extracts provided for illustrative purposes and duly acknowledged; You acknowledge the source of the data by the words "With the permission of the Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew" in a position which is reasonably prominent in view of your use of the data; Any other use of data or any other content from this website may only be made with our prior written agreement. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
[F] © Copyright 2016 International Plant Names Index and World Checkist of Selected Plant Families. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 | <urn:uuid:3e2ab47a-e63d-4c62-87ae-a7e866d0defe> | {
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As suicides became more and more prevalent, Paulus actually had to send a direct order to his men about how "dishonorable" it was. Either way, the Germans didn’t have to wait long for the end--the nail in the coffin for the 6th Army came on 10 January. The Soviets attacked from the west and were held up briefly, but within a week they were at full speed. Hitler promoted Paulus to Field Marshal, because no German Marshal had ever been captured, but it was too late. The entire 6th Army had been enveloped by the Soviets, and the last German airfield at Gumrak was captured on 23 January. Exactly one week later Paulus was captured and the 6th Army surrendered. One group from the 11th Corps resisted in a tractor factory under General Karl Stuker, and would not give up even after running out of weapons, and ended up using bayonets and broken machinery in some of the worst fighting in the entire war. The hand-to-hand combat was fierce, but at 9 in the morning on 2 February they were overrun by the Soviets.
In the end, 91,000 Germans were taken prisoner and sent to POW camps in Siberia, a fate worse than death because of the inhumane treatment by the Soviets. Out of those 91,000, and only 5,000 of those would live to return to Germany. The Germans also had 150,000 killed while the Soviets had 600,000 killed, captured or wounded. Since the start of Barbarossa, over 1 million Germans had met their deaths in the Russian campaign and they never recovered from it. This was considered by many to be the turning point in WWII, since the German war machine had been broken, although certainly not destroyed. Hitler was upset and threatened to court-martial Paulus, but as a POW it was useless. Instead he began to learn from his defeats and realized if he was to win the war, he would have to change his wartime policies. The Germans were defeated at Stalingrad due to several factors, each of which was not enough to defeat them alone, but combined they turned the peaceful Volga city into a nightmare. First of all, the Germans were far too confident in themselves and in spite of their severe losses the previous year in Moscow, thought they could handle the Red Army. One of the reasons they thought this was because Paulus gave Hitler terribly inaccurate statistics on Soviet numbers, so it was thought that they did not have enough reserves for a counterattack. This led to hasty decisions.
Whether out of frustration, underestimation of their enemy, or simply poor leadership, the Germans were tactically deficient throughout the whole campaign. They failed to adapt to the Soviet Stalingrad-style of defense, and used their men as battering rams to snap the Soviet lines like twigs. Instead of using a scalpel, they used a meat cleaver. The Germans had also stretched their resources to the limit, and fighting on such a large front with poor supply lines became a recipe for disaster. This was compounded by the fact that they put weak Romanian divisions to guard their flanks, along with help from the Italians, who were quickly defeated by the Soviets. The Germans were quickly surrounded, further cutting them off from the few supplies that reached them. This was a major problem because both the Germans and Soviets had amassed great numbers of troops near Stalingrad, so it became a test of strength, which led to horrific fighting. Stalingrad became a symbol of dominance for the Germans, resistance for the Soviets, and neither side wanted to look weak by giving in.
The most solvable German problem was the unstable leadership involved, especially with Paulus, who never should have been in command. He was a staff officer and had neither the strategic vision nor the tactical savvy to win a campaign like Stalingrad. Hitler was in complete shock when he heard that Paulus had surrendered, not because of the loss of the 6th Army, but that Paulus himself was captured. He simply could not understand why Paulus chose surrender over suicide. In a meeting with his commanders he growled, "When the nerves break down, there is nothing left but to admit that one can’t handle the situation, and to shoot oneself…I can't have any respect for a soldier who is afraid of that and prefers to go into captivity. It hurts me so much because the heroism of so many soldiers is nullified by one single characterless weakling." After this defeat, Hitler demanded a new victory from Manstein and Guderian, but both felt that a defensive strategy was best, much to Hitler's dismay.
ITALY NEARS COLLAPSE
Mussolini may have been dillusional about a great number of things, but he was wise enough to understand that the war with the Soviets was suicide, and on 16 December he met with Hitler to seek peace on the eastern front. Hitler would hear nothing of it, and in turn treated the Italians no better than any of his other conquered people. In January 1943 Mussolini was aware of the Italians’ hatred for him and purged his government cabinet of dissenters. Chief of staff Marshal Cavellero was replaced with General Vittorio Ambrosio, and on 5 February he fired his son-in-law foreign minister Ciano, among other cabinet members. On 5 March the industrial workers went on strike, but the militia settled it by April. Italy was ready to cleanse itself of Mussolini’s self-polluting government.
THE DESERT FOX IS DEFEATED
In the early 1943 the Axis sought to head west to Algeria and seize American supply depots and airfields. On 13 February they attacked, surrounding the 2500 American soldiers trapped on 2 hills. A rescue battalion of tanks was sent to one hill, but were wiped out by the Germans. The Americans then realized their only hope was to break out and tried to sneak their way past the German forces, but were identified and captured. The other hill had better luck, as 300 escaped, but the other 600 became casualties of war. Again the Americans withdrew, even more demoralized. Rommel then wanted to hit Tebessa’s supply and communication base, and launched an attack on 19 February, which was temporary halted by getting stuck in a ravine. The next day they broke out and began pummeling Allied resistance, but when they saw them reinforcing they took a defensive stance. Rommel’s army was dangerously low on supplies but was so close to victory in Tunisia. Reluctantly he had to move southeast, but was greeted instead by a familiar foe--the British 8th Army. The two met up on 6 March near Medenine, and the British pulverized Rommel with armor-piercing rounds. After losing 52 tanks, Rommel finally quit his 2 year campaign in North Africa.
Three days later Rommel flew back to Germany and begged Hitler to completely pull out of Africa and concentrate on Europe. Hitler refused and banned him from the African campaign, replacing him with General Jürgen von Arnim. Just as Rommel left, the brash and bold US General George Patton arrived, beginning his advance on the remaining Axis forces on 16 March. 4 days later US rangers came upon a group of Italian troops and took most of them prisoner, killing the resisters. On 23 March the Axis Panzer divisions tried to hit Allied positions, but came across a minefield, making them temporarily retreat. When they resumed attacking, they were totally ineffective, demonstrating how essential Rommel’s mind was to victory. The last week in March the Americans hit the Axis from the west while the British attacked from the east, but the Axis refused to give up. They retreated in early April towards the coast, but they continued to fight. Eventually they retreated to the coast of the Mediterranean, signaling their inevitable defeat. On 20 April, the US 1st Army began its final advance on the weary Afrika Korps.
In late February, Stalin increased his push for partisan warfare against the Germans. On 10 March the Germans responded by assaulting Kharkov, inflicting heavy punishments on Soviet forces, but 2 days later the Red Army liberated Vyazma. After suffering so many defeats, Hitler’s confidence was shaken and he began exterminating any anti-Nazi movements. The spring thaw made any of his advances impossible, and on 18 March the Americans bombed a German sub base. The subs still hurt Allied convoys so the British created "Operation Enclose," which began to sink any subs in sight in the Bay of Biscay. Germany tried to bounce back by taking Belgorod on 19 March, but 3 days later they were in critical retreat in the central USSR. Needing to have some kind of military action, they increased the hunting down and killing of Jews in April, as well as the deportation of slave labor to Germany. Millions were imprisoned but only thousands lived to tell about it. By May the German naval operations were in shambles because of heavy U-Boat losses and Admiral Dönitz was forced to withdraw his fleet from the North Atlantic. By this time the Swedes renounced their permission for German troops to move across Sweden, since they were only using them to reinforce Scandinavia. The Germans did not pursue the issue because they had far greater troubles on the eastern front. Sweden had become a haven for hundreds of thousands of European refugees, especially from Scandinavia and the Baltics, and were even given jobs. Over 100,000 Jews were saved here by people like Raoul Wallenberg, who created fake passports for them. Unfortunately, Wallenberg was later imprisoned by the Soviets, who saw him as a threat. In Italy, Mussolini tried again to convince Hitler to make peace with the Soviets, but Hitler refused because he thought he would be victorious in the Kursk campaign and conned Mussolini into staying in the war once more. Mussolini continued to fire his cabinet, and told the country that Italy would be victorious in the desert.
THE WARSAW GHETTO UPRISING
Shortly after the Germans occupied Poland, they herded the entire Jewish population into tiny areas of major cities to isolate them from the rest of the non-Jews. In the capital city of Warsaw alone they numbered 400,000 to 450,000 in a very small neighborhood, in what came to be known as the Warsaw Ghetto. Here they lived a miserable pseudo-existence, scraping together what little food they could obtain while putting up with the maltreatment of German soldiers, Polish citizens and Jewish collaborators. Although starving, poor and cold, they were tolerated until January 1942 when the Germans put forth their plan to eradicate Europe of the Jews. Later that summer in Warsaw, approximately 300,000 Jews were forcibly taken from the ghetto and put into slave labor in Treblinka, one of the major Nazi death camps. In January 1943 Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler ordered that Warsaw be completely free of the remaining 60,000 or so Jews so that the Nazis could advance their dream of a Jewish-free Poland.
Rather than submit to the German death sentence, the Jewish population took up their arms that they had been smuggling in over the last 3 years in a massive resistance movement. This was spearheaded by two main groups, the ZOB (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa), or "Jewish Combat Organization" and the ZKK (Zydowski Komitet Koordynacyjny), or "Jewish Coordinating Committee." The uprising began on 18 January as ZOB resisters opened fire on German soldiers, inflicting many casualties and startling the German forces. As they only had an occupational force and not an organized combative force, the Germans halted their deportation of Jews 3 days after fighting began. After regrouping and planning to take the Warsaw Ghetto in force, 2000 German troops, including the elite SS, moved into the Ghetto under the command of SS General Jürgen Stroop on 19 April 1943. Even with trained soldiers and the support of armored vehicles, the Jewish resisters forced each German advance back over a period of 4 days.
This caused many high-ranking German commanders to worry about the bad publicity of such an uprising spreading elsewhere, not to mention the amount of time and resources it was taking from Germany. Thus heavier weapons were sent in and the Warsaw Ghetto, approximately half a mile by 300 yards in size, was pounded from Stuka dive-bombers and artillery batteries, destroying the Jews’ strongholds and inflicting devastating casualties. As General Stroop wrote later of the account, "despite the danger of being burned alive, the Jews and bandits often preferred to return into the flames rather than risk being caught by us." On 16 May Stroop claimed victory, citing that 56,065 Jews had been captured or killed, although a number of Jews escaped through the sewers or hid in trucks and found their way to freedom. The brave deeds of the Warsaw Jews inspired other uprisings in Vilna, Cracow, Lodz and several other Polish cities and were a testament to the undying spirit of those who would rather die on their feet than be slaves to tyranny.
ALLIED VICTORY IN NORTH AFRICA
During the last week in April, the British weeded out any enemy resistance and the Americans moved across the hills, taking heavy casualties but emerging victorious. Since the Axis troops were starving and out of ammunition, the Allies knew they had to raid their convoys to prevent any reinforcements. In early May they panned for a huge armor blow by bombing enemy positions, then unleashing a maelstrom of artillery shells before moving in armor and troops. General Omar Bradley announced it would take a loss of 50 tanks to break through the last enemy lines of resistance--in the end the US lost 47. When they did break through, it was with such a great force that they flooded into the capital city of Tunis, completely shocking the battered Germans. They tried to resist, but Allied armor was too quick and the Axis literally ran out of ammunition and fuel, leaving them defenseless. On the 12th and 13th of May the Afrika Korps surrendered after 3 exhaustive years of fighting. In Tunisia alone they lost 40,000 men and gave up 275,000 POWs. The British had 35,000 casualties, the French had 16,000 and the Americans had 14,000, but the seemingly impossible task of removing Axis forces from North Africa had been achieved. More importantly, the Allies learned they could work effectively together as a force to vanquish the once indomitable Germans. Germany responded with a military occupation of Italy, called "Operation Alaric."
Kursk is a city in Russia 225 miles south of Moscow. Hitler realized Italy would soon be invaded, and then France not long after, meaning he could not send valuable troops from the east front to 2 other fronts. He knew he had to win a great victory over the Red Army in 1 decisive battle to ease his troubles there. He had admired the German victory at Izyum in spring of 1942 when they encircled the Red Army, and wanted to repeat that at Kursk. The front had bulged out past Kursk into German territory, and the plan was for the 9th Army to push from the north and meet with the 4th Panzer Army and surround Kursk. Field Marshal von Kluge would oversee Colonel Model’s 9th Army with 800 tanks, along with Field Marshal von Manstein and support from the Luftwaffe. General Hoth and his 1200 strong Panzer force would move north, with 7 infantry divisions to do the rest, with equal support from the Luftwaffe. If the Soviets pushed out from the bulge in 2 directions, they could gain significant territory quickly, so the time to act was soon. In what was to be called "Operation Citadel," the Germans took their 50 Wehrmacht and SS divisions, 2000 tanks, 1800 aircraft, and 1000 guns and put them up against the Red Army.
Unfortunately for the Germans, the Soviets were more than aware of the German offensive. The American OSS had spies in Switzerland reporting to Moscow (called "The Lucy Ring"), a double-agent in the German high command, as well as a soldier defector, who even gave the date and time of the attack. With all their information, the Soviets set up 8 anti-tank lines armed with hundreds of thousands of mines, 20,000 guns, 6,000 anti-tank guns and 1000 rocket launchers. The Soviet plan was to let the Germans wear themselves out, then counter-attack with their 75 divisions, 3500 tanks and 3000 new aircraft all under the brilliant Marshal Zhukov. The northern sector was defended by General Rokossovsky, the south was defended by General Nikolai Voronezh, and General Ivan Koniev was in the rear reserve with 1500 tanks. The Soviets were also wise to the old German armor attack in a narrow column, so the Germans created a new tighter formation called panzerkeile, to defend against Soviet attack. This was a wedge grouping with the heavier tanks (Tigers and Ferdinands) in the front, medium tanks (Panthers and PzKw IVs) in the middle and the weaker tanks (PzKw III and support vehicles) at the very rear. The sole purpose of this design was to penetrate enemy lines and hold their positions long enough for sufficient reinforcements to arrive to secure the area.
Even so, before the Germans attacked the Soviets began shelling German positions, bewildering the Wehrmacht, since Hitler expected to explode through the Red Army. This would have been an impossible feat, and 2 days after the attack began on 5 July the Germans had only made it 7 miles into enemy territory. Miraculously, Hoth’s Panzers did break through enemy lines, scaring Stalin enough to call in the reserves, but as it turned out the Soviet T-34 tanks were more than a match for the panzers. Actually, the new German Panther tanks were superior weapons, but they were useless without close infantry support, which was often the case in Kursk. By 9 July the southern German divisions had only reached 20 miles and suffered heavy casualties. 3 days later Zhukov began his own offensive north of Kursk with his overwhelming forces. On 13 July the battle culminated in the greatest armored conflict in history, involving 1500 tanks. The Germans fought for hours without rest in intense heat under apocalyptic conditions, with tanks firing point blank at each other. Soon the ground became a blackened carpet of scorched earth and the acrid stench of burning grass, machinery and flesh filled the air. Germans would later call their ride into battle Todesritt, or Death Ride.
The panzerkeile was an utter catastrophe because the Soviets simply divided the infantry and armor and picked off the weaker tanks. With no infantry or medium tank support, the heavy Tiger and Ferdinand tanks were caught out in the open and eventually wiped out. Both sides lost hundreds of tanks, and Hitler thought it would be best to move his troops from the dead end in Kursk to Italy, but von Manstein promised him victory. Hitler finally canceled Citadel on 25 July because of heavy losses, along with Allied forces landing in the Italian sector. Interestingly, for once Hitler was never 100% behind this offensive as evident by his rapid desire for withdrawal, and much of the blame lies with the High Command for the disaster. One German commander who was bitterly opposed to Citadel was General von Mellenthin, the head of the 56th Panzer Korps. His scathing comments of the operation were felt by all those who particpated: "The German Army threw away all its advantages in mobile war and met the Russians on ground of their own choosing...the German High Command could think of nothing better to do than fling our magnificent panzers against the strongest fortress in the world." In the end, Germany lost 100,000 men, 1000 tanks and 1000 aircraft. The Soviets, on the other hand, were at their best in combat and put Germany on the defensive for the rest of the war. Germany also lost some manpower in July of 1943 when a disenchanted Franco recalled his Spanish Blue Division and wanted to become fully neutral. He dismissed German agents in Spain, but kept good relations with Germany by continuing to make supplies for them. | <urn:uuid:5d164289-b468-45c0-9f6b-a17fdcb96305> | {
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As a law school, we are committed to having an ongoing response to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s Calls to Action. We believe that we have a responsibility to enhance the participation of indigenous law students and lawyers, and to teach all our students about the distinctive place of indigenous peoples and cultures within the Canadian legal system. Virtually all practice areas engage with these issues, and today’s lawyers need to be aware of both the historical context and contemporary challenges in order to be ethical, socially-conscious and effective practitioners.
Dean W Iain Scott
First year: as part of the first-year course, Orientation to Law and the Legal System, Western Law students study the unique position of Canada’s indigenous peoples within the legal system. Topics include: the history of indigenous people under Canadian law; sources of Aboriginal rights; the process and outcome of treaty-making; and the status of indigenous law in Canada. In Constitutional Law, students learn about the rights guaranteed to Canada’s Aboriginal peoples under the Constitution Act, 1982.
Upper year: many upper-year courses address topics involving indigenous communities and peoples, including Environmental Law, Family Law, Administrative Law, Human Rights, and Public Health Law. In addition, a range of elective courses are available for students who wish to focus on indigenous issues in more depth:
Beyond their academic courses, Western Law students can engage with indigenous issues through co-curricular activities like the Extractive and Indigenous Affairs Moot, Indigenous Awareness Week, or as summer interns through the Ministry of the Attorney General’s Debwewin internship program. Read more about Western Law students’ experiences in this internship program.
Western has a long tradition of leading indigenous graduates. Norman Lickers, the only First Nations person to be called to the Ontario bar between 1865 and 1966, graduated from Western. In more recent times, Western Law alumna Roberta Jamieson was the first woman from a First Nation to graduate from law school (1976). Among her numerous achievements, Jamieson served as the first female Ombudsman of Ontario (1989-99) and the first woman elected Chief of the Six Nations of the Grand River Territory (2001-04). She was appointed President and CEO of INDspire in 2004 (formerly the National Aboriginal Achievement Foundation). She is also a Member of the Order of Canada. Today, our indigenous graduates work in a variety of fields, from private practice, to advising Indian bands, to working at high levels in government and as members of the judiciary.
In 2016-17, Western Law will be hosting Brenda Young, Community Justice Director for the Chippewas of the Thames First Nation, as part of the Law Foundation of Ontario’s Community Leadership in Justice Fellowship program. Young will focus her studies on indigenous economic justice, and will lead workshops for faculty and students. Read more
Reflecting our commitment to ensuring equitable access to legal education, Western Law offers a special admissions category for Aboriginal applicants. Learn more
Western Law offers a range of financial assistance to students in financial need. Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC)'s Post-Secondary Student Support Program (PSSSP) provides financial assistance to First Nations and eligible Inuit students who are enrolled in eligible post-secondary programs. Additional federal assistance is also available to indigenous students from several other sources. For more information, visit the Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada's Post-Secondary Student Support Program website.
To ease the transition to legal studies, indigenous students at Western Law can take advantage of a free tutoring program. Under the supervision of a professor, upper-year students assist individuals who request it in their course work. In addition, the Assistant Dean (Student Services) is available for academic counselling.
Cultural Life: In addition to the wide variety of social and cultural activities organized by students at Western Law, the Indigenous Services Office on Western's main campus will keep you abreast of the thriving indigenous life at Western, in London, and in the eight First Nation communities located within 60 miles of London. | <urn:uuid:b5807cc9-b219-4233-9f52-03e665e8ade3> | {
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Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
What is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic condition that impacts the large intestine. The signs and symptoms, which include abdominal pain, bloating, gas, cramping constipation or diarrhea (or both) will need to be managed long-term. In most cases, these symptoms are not severe enough to greatly impact one’s life, and this disorder can be managed with the proper diet, lifestyle choices and stress management. IBS does not increase the risk of colorectal cancer, nor does it cause changes in bowel tissue.
What are the signs and symptoms?
Irritable bowel syndrome is easy to identify, although the signs will vary from person to person. The most common symptoms include:
- Diarrhea or constipation (at times, in alternating bouts)
- Abdominal pain (which is relieved after a bowel movement)
- Excess gas
- Mucus in the stool
These signs and symptoms are not usually consistent. At times, they may be worse than normal but can also improve quickly or disappear. If you keep experiencing a persistent change in bowel habits or the symptoms above, this may indicate colon cancer or another serious medical condition. The more serious symptoms of IBS include weight loss, rectal bleeding, diarrhea at night, unexplained vomiting, persistent pain in the abdomen, iron deficiency and difficulty swallowing. If you experience any of these symptoms for an extended amount of time, schedule an appointment with your doctor immediately.
What are the causes?
The exact cause of irritable bowel syndrome is unknown, but there are multiple factors that contribute to IBS. These factors include:
- Inflammation in the intestines caused by an increased number of immune-system cells in those organs
- Severe infections caused by a virus or surplus bacteria
- Changes in microflora (bacteria that is good for the body) in the gut
- Abnormally strong, weak or long muscle contractions in the intestine
- Abnormalities in the nerves in the digestive system caused by poorly coordinated signals between the brain and the intestines
Hormonal shifts, food and stress are common triggers for IBS. Risk factors include your age (IBS occurs more frequently in people under the age of 50), genetics, your mental health and your gender. IBS is more common among women, since menopause involves dramatic shifts in estrogen.
Schedule an appointment in Fairbanks, Alaska
If you are suffering from irritable bowel syndrome and you live in or around Fairbanks, schedule an appointment with Dr. Nick Sarrimanolis. Dr. Sarrimanolis and staff can help you manage your symptoms and prevent further health complications from occurring.* Please request an appointment online or give us a call at (907) 451-1174.
*Individual results may vary; not a guarantee. | <urn:uuid:e1297bd2-8e32-4e44-a578-bea2e015689c> | {
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Kitchen Utensils Vocabulary– Video
- Measuring Cup
Use a measuring cup to measure how much of each ingredient you need to use in the recipe. Many measuring cups are labeled in cups, ounces and milliliters.
- Can Opener
There is also an automatic type called an electric can opener.
Use a peeler to peel (remove the skin from) fruits and vegetables.
Use a grater to grate or shred food into small pieces.
A colander is often used to drain (remove the extra water) from cooked pasta.
- Sieve / Strainer
A sieve or strainer is often used to separate liquids from solids.
A whisk is used for mixing.
A ladle is used for serving soup.
A pan is often used for frying food (cooking in oil).
A pot is often used for boiling food (cooking in water).
- Baking Pan
A baking pan is used for baking (cooking things in the oven) foods such as cake and cookies. There is also a variation called a roasting pan that is used to cook meat.
You can use tongs to pick up food. | <urn:uuid:9bd561b0-b0d3-4d05-953b-47081571d522> | {
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Worku Mhiret from the University of Gondar, Ethiopia and Pat Heslop-Harrison (University of Leicester, UK) are working on linseed or flax: measuring the diversity of accessions from Ethiopia and comparing this with varieties from Ireland, Canada and elsewhere. We are also making crosses between lines and between cultivars and wild species of Linum; these are now in the F2 generation. The lines and hybrids are being scored for morphological, disease and quality (oil) characters in the field, and their diversity measured with molecular markers, aiming to find also markers for agronomic and quality characters.
Linum usitatissium, as its Latin name suggests, is truely ‘most useful’. The flax used to make linen, paper and rope, is a bast or phloem-based fibre from the stem of the plant, unlike the cellulose of cotton bolls, and has high-value properties for weaving. The seed oil, linseed oil, has unique food, potential pharmaceutical, and industrial properties – it hardens chemically rather than through drying, so hence its traditional use for cricket bats, paint and putty . Linseed has been grown in Ethiopia for millennia, having food, cultural and economic importance.
The complete project has the title “The molecular and morphological characterization of biodiversity in Ethiopian linseed (Linum usitatissimum) accessions and hybrids”. Currently, some 314,489 molecular marker bands have been assessed across more than 575 lines and hybrid-derivatives.
Lines which have been evaluated and are of interest for seed production quality are being grown with smallholder farmers as our main project partner and project-owner in Dabat woredas, North Gondar, Ethiopia. Currently, 14 (12 male and 4 female) farmers are involved in the project, and the project results are very promising to get quality seeds with different use values and lines with promising agronomic characters.
Any interested fund donors and researchers can join our project.
Dabat Wored, North Gondar, Ethiopia
The first paper from this work is discussed at https://molcyt.org/2014/12/22/diversity-in-ethiopian-linseed-linum-usitatissimum-morphology-and-seed-oil/ | <urn:uuid:2fa31bbd-3982-447c-bcbf-eeb80a7dac07> | {
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Bone strength improvement with
dietary supplements, natural remedy for bone loss
November 6 2016 by Ray Sahelian, M.D.
Bone is a type of hard connective tissue found in many vertebrate animals. Bones support body structures, protect internal organs, and (in conjunction with muscles) facilitate movement; are also involved with cell formation, calcium metabolism, and mineral storage. The bones of an animal are, collectively, known as the skeleton. Bone has a different composition than cartilage.
Foods for strong
bones, diet makes a difference
Consider consuming some of the following foods: Milk and dairy products, sardines, green vegetables such as bok choy, Chinese cabbage, kale, collard and turnip greens.
Antioxidants (Basel). 2014. Dietary Polyphenols, Berries, and Age-Related Bone Loss: A Review Based on Human, Animal, and Cell Studies. Natural antioxidant supplementation has been researched to aid in reducing bone loss caused by oxidative stress. Naturally occurring polyphenols, such as anthocyanins rich in berries, are known to have anti-oxidative properties. Several studies have been reviewed to determine the impact polyphenol intake-particularly that of berries-has on bone health. Studies reveal a positive association of high berry intake and higher bone mass, implicating berries as possible inexpensive alternatives in reducing the risk of age related bone loss.
J Clin Densitom. 2013; Does a high dietary acid content cause bone loss, and can bone loss be prevented with an alkaline diet? A popular concept in nutrition and lay literature is that of the role of a diet high in acid or protein in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. A diet rich in fruit and vegetable intake is thought to enhance bone health as the result of its greater potassium and lower "acidic" content than a diet rich in animal protein and sodium. Consequently, there have been a number of studies of diet manipulation to enhance potassium and "alkaline" content of the diet to improve bone density or other parameters of bone health. Although acid loading or an acidic diet featuring a high protein intake may be associated with an increase in calciuria, the evidence supporting a role of these variables in the development of osteoporosis is not consistent. Similarly, intervention studies with a more alkaline diet or use of supplements of potassium citrate or bicarbonate have not consistently shown a bone health benefit. In the elderly, inadequate protein intake is a greater problem for bone health than protein excess.
products promoted for bone strength
Boron has been mentioned but little human research is available
Calcium of course
Magnesium may help
Strontium is used
MBP Osteo with Calcium Advanced Bone Density Support - Formulated using the newest discovery and latest scientific insights in bone health • Combines the breakthrough ingredient MBP (Milk Basic Protein) with key bone nutrients• MBP is shown to support healthy bone density after just six months of use.
Running, jumping and other high impact activities during childhood benefits bone health by increasing the size and strength of the growing skeleton. The benefits in bone size and strength induced by exercise during growth persist lifelong -- even if exercise is ceased. Weight-bearing exercises, including weightlifting and high-impact activities like jumping, build and maintain bone mass.
Bone Density and Androgen Deprivation
Bone mineral density (BMD) decreases during the first 2 years of androgen deprivation therapy in men with prostate cancer. Dr. Morote and colleagues from Vall d'Hebron Hospital, Autonoma University School of Medicine, Barcelona, Spain evaluated the dynamics of BMD in the lumbar spine and four hip sites over a 2-year period in 62 men with locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer. Men receiving androgen deprivation therapy experienced bone mineral density losses ranging from 2% to 5% at all analyzed locations at 12 months. Bone mineral density did not change significantly in men not on androgen suppression. The area that best reflected the ADT-induced bone loss was Ward's triangle,a region between the principal compressive group of the femoral head and the principal tensile group and the secondary compressive group of the femoral neck. A DEXA scan of the wrist may not accurately reflect the greatest extent of bone loss which may lead to a delay in appropriate treatment. Journal of Urology 2006.
In the year following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), bone mineral content declines significantly in men. A decline in bone mineral density increases the risk of bone fracture.
Measuring bone mineral density
are available to measure bone density, but currently the most widely used
technique is DEXA (Dual Energy Xray Absorptiometry). Older methods such as
single photon absorptiometry do not predict hip fractures as well as DEXA. Three
companies manufacture these densitometers: Hologic, Norland, and Lunar.
Repeat bone density testing in middle-aged and older adults can be delayed for intervals of up to 5 to 7 years if they don't have risk factors for bone loss.
The high-impact tumbling of gymnastics increases young girls' muscle mass and bone density. The more time young men spend engaging in high-impact physical exercise, the greater their bone mineral density.
Bone density with high impact exercise
Men who want to keep their bones strong may want to add running to their exercise routine. In a study of 42 athletic men ages 19 to 45, researchers found that running seemed to have even bigger benefits for bone mass than strength training did. Both runners and weight trainers had greater bone density in the spine compared with road cyclists, but much of the benefit in weight trainers seemed to stem from their greater muscle mass. In contrast, running appeared to build bone density regardless of the men's muscle mass. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2009.
Women who get some sun during the last trimester of pregnancy may have children with stronger bones. Bone mass acquired earlier in life is important to fracture risk in later years. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, March 2009.
Bone density loss with weight reduction
When people lose weight, they often lose some bone mass as well. Changes in bone metabolism may persist even after the weight loss stops. Even after dieters stop shedding pounds and enter a "weight maintenance" phase, changes in bone turnover remains. To counteract the bone loss, regular exercise and weight training is essential.
New findings call into question the idea that being overweight or obese might protect people from developing brittle bones. Dr. Jean-Marc Kaufman of Ghent University Hospital in Belgium and his colleagues found that fattier men had smaller, thinner bones, while those with more lean mass had larger, denser skeletons.High body mass index (BMI) has been thought to protect both men and women against the bone-thinning disease osteoporosis, while being thin boosts a person's likelihood of fractures due to this condition. The idea behind the theory is that extra weight stresses the bone, stimulating the formation of new bone tissue.But new evidence suggests that fat mass might affect bones differently than muscle mass does, Kaufman and his team note in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.To investigate the issue further, the researchers looked at bone density and volume, as well as lean and fat mass, in 768 men aged 25 to 45, including 296 pairs of brothers.After the researchers adjusted for weight, they found that men's bone mass and volume fell steadily as their percentage of fat mass increased, while bone size rose in tandem with lean mass. Fat in the trunk area had a stronger influence on bone size than fat on the arms and legs."Lean mass," the researchers conclude, "is the major determinant of bone size, providing further evidence that bone size is adapted to the dynamic load imposed by muscle force rather than passive loading" by fat. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2009.
Astronauts lose bone strength
Astronauts on long-term missions in space have a decline in bone strength once they return to Earth. Researchers found that 13 astronauts who spent 4 to 6 months on the International Space Station showed significant dips in bone strength around the hip. A few had strength reductions comparable to those seen over a lifetime in people who keep their feet on Earth. Bone 2009.
Young women who eat a typical high protein Western diet need not worry that their protein consumption will harm their bone health. A higher intake of protein does not have a deleterious effect on bone density in premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, March 2010.
How often to take a bone test
Repeat bone mineral density testing up to 8 years after the initial bone test does not improve the ability of doctors to predict fractures in older women. Dr. Teresa A. Hillier, from Kaiser Permanente Northwest/Hawaii in Portland, Oregon, and colleagues assessed the predictive ability of repeat bone mineral density testing in 4,124 women with an average age of 72 years. Bone mineral density testing was first performed from 1989 to 1990 and then again 8 years later. During an average follow-up period of over 5 years after the second bone mineral density test, 877 women sustained a nontraumatic nonspine fracture and 340 sustained a spine fracture. Adding a second bone mineral density test did not improve the predictive ability of the first for future fracture. This held true even after adjusting for initial bone mineral density scores, hormonal therapy, or high bone loss. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2007.
Smoking and Bone Healing
Exposure to cigarette smoke delays the early phases of bone and ligament repair in mice. Dr. Linda J. Sandell and colleagues from Washington University School of Medicine at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri investigated the effects of cigarette smoke exposure on early events in bone fracture healing, especially cartilage formation. Mice were randomly assigned to a control group or to a group in which they were exposed to smoke in a chamber for 6 days per week for a month, before experiment leg fracture under anesthesia. Smoking significantly reduced cartilage formation, an important step in bone healing. By day 14 after bone fracture, the cartilage was still developing in the smoke-exposed animals, whereas it had already been replaced by bone in the normal controls. In the second study, the same team of researchers investigated whether smoking cigarettes would interfere with the ability of mice to synthesize support tissue at the site of ligament injury. Ligaments are tough fibrous bands that hold bone to bone, whereas tendons are bands that hold muscle to bone. Synthesis of the support tissue needed for ligament repair was significantly delayed in the animals exposed to smoke. Journal of Orthopedic Research, December 2006.
Bone mass and cycling, biking
Compared with men who run, men whose prim0o-ary physical activity is bicycling are much more likely to have low bone density in the hips or spine. In general, cyclists have lower bone mass throughout the body and a higher incidence of osteopenia in the spine or hip. Osteopenia refers to abnormally low bone mass that could progress to the brittle-bone disease osteoporosis. Running, jumping and other weight-bearing activities put the bones under stress. This forces the bones to respond by becoming stronger; whereas low-impact exercise, like biking or swimming, works the heart and trims the waistline, but puts little strain on the bones. Metabolism, 2007.
Hip bone fracture protection
Padded undergarments meant to protect against hip bone fractures could help elderly adults stay out of the nursing home, and cut healthcare costs along the way. The garments, known as hip protectors, are designed to cushion a fall, which for elderly adults -- particularly those with osteoporosis -- can lead to a disabling hip bone fractures. Widely used in Europe, hip protectors are less popular in North America, though, several studies have suggested they can prevent bone fractures and save medical costs although other studies have disputed these claims.
Osteopontin plays roles in a variety of cellular processes from bone resorption and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling to immune cell activation and inhibition of apoptosis. | <urn:uuid:11c6f118-870a-4bed-ae77-63f139e560bb> | {
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Tom Egan, a professor of surgery at UNC, has spent years researching a solution to the shortage of lungs for transplant. He is now studying lungs from a previously-untapped pool of donors - people who have died suddenly, away from the hospital. Use of these lungs could dramatically increase the number of lungs available for transplant and revolutinize standard transplant practice. The lungs to be studied will come from donors in Wake County, from a new collaboration with Wake County Emergency Medical Services, Carolina Donor Services (organ procurement organization), and UNC. Dr. Egan's research is funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute). | <urn:uuid:fe41a5a7-859a-4b8e-8378-af03649dbab3> | {
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Hockey and Basketball and
Hockey and Basketball and...
The Vancouver Canucks have one. So now do the Calgary Flames.
Dr. Charles Czeisler, head of sleep medicine at Harvard, is a consultant to the NBA. He's on record as recommending players get more than 8 hours of sleep a night in order to perform their best. Some teams are trying not to follow night games with morning practices.
Why are sports teams hiring sleep docs?
Body Clocks and Sports
Team sports is a form of shift work. Games are often played at night—even in high school. Teams often have to travel considerable distances to play—which also cuts into player and staff rest time. Not everyone is like baseball great Hank Aaron, who could cat nap anywhere.
And if you move through different time zones, you also encounter jet lag.
Shift workers experience perpetual jet lag. They have more heart disease, strokes, weight gain, higher lipid levels, and probably higher cancer rates.
From a sports team standpoint, if you handle human regeneration better, you perform better:
A. Multiple studies of college athletes at Stanford show considerably better stats when they try to sleep 10 hours a night during game season (most sleep more than usual, but don't really come close to sleeping ten hours.)
B. On away games in major leagues baseball, morning type players have higher batting averages in early afternoon games, while evening type players, or "owls", bat considerably better at night games. Other studies show that jet lag notably effects who wins or who doesn't in professional football and baseball.
C. Human physical memory is like verbal memory—it does far better with effective sleep, which is when it does much of its repair and regenerative work. Better rest, better moves.
D. Family and school demands must be balanced with the different schedules of sports if players are to reach peak performance—not so easy without professional understanding of rest and body clocks.
E. Young people need far more sleep than adults—approximately 9.5 hours a night for proper academic performance; since we learn and encode physical memories much as we do cognitive ones, adolescents athletes also need far more sleep than the 6.5- 7 hour average many get.
F. People become injured playing sports. Sleep is a critical part of that recovery.
Rest Docs and Sleep Docs
Sleep is of course only one part of rest. In rest the body regenerates, as it does in the passive form of rest known as sleep.
Active rest can direct that process.
Active rest—physical, mental, social, and spiritual—has other advantages for teams:
Physical rest, where you pay attention to individual body functions, can be used to heighten overall attention and improve sensitivity to the movements and capacities of muscles and joints.
Mental rest—particularly techniques like paradoxical relaxation and rapid self hypnosis can:
1. Calm people down
2. Increase alertness
3. Help visualize better performance modes
4. Rapidly relax muscles
5. Improve learning of plays
Social rest can make sports more fun, and improve team and group cohesion and spirit.
Spiritual rest—particularly when engaging different forms of very quick meditation—can be used to prepare before contests, to heighten attention and concentration during games, and maintain focus on longer term goals while helping the body repair.
The differences, especially the higher the skill level, between winning and losing athletes and teams is often miniscule. A small edge becomes the winning edge.
The advantages gained from proper rest are not small. People show better muscle and pulmonary function; remember better; are calmer, more concentrated and relaxed; more aware of their bodies and their teammates; able to learn better; more capable of recognizing injury and eventually treating it.
Competitive sports are hard on the body. Rest and recovery is critical to the body regeneration necessary to remain athletically effective.
Remember, Rest > Sleep, and Regeneration >> Rest. All are elements most athletes can enjoy and improve. All are necessary to good sports performance—especially peak performance.
And the pleasures and victories they provide. | <urn:uuid:6e212af7-7a9b-4328-b22d-c9bc6b52204f> | {
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Learn More About Medicines in Development for Rare Diseases
Medicines in Development for Rare Diseases
Rare diseases, taken together, aren’t "rare" at all. In fact, according to the National Institutes of Health, 25-30 million Americans have one of the nearly 7,000 diseases that are officially deemed “rare” because alone they each affect fewer than 200,000 people. Sometimes, only a few hundred Americans are known to have a particular rare disease.
Moreover, the Orphan Drug Act of 1983 provided incentives, for example a longer period of marketing exclusivity, for drugs that are not expected to recoup their development costs or that are targeted at diseases affecting fewer than 200,000 people. Under the Orphan Drug Act, 2,313 medicines have been designated orphan drugs by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as of January 24, 2011. These medicines are in all stages of development and some will eventually gain approval. Over the last few years, new medicines have been approved for Pompe disease, which causes among other symptoms an engorged heart. Other recently approved treatments are for rare cancers and myelodysplastic syndromes, which are pre-leukemia diseases affecting blood marrow.
Other examples include a medicine in development for epidermolysis bullosa, a group of inherited disorders where skin blisters develop in response to minor trauma, and one for Friedreich’s ataxia, a genetic disease that causes degenerative nerve damage in children.
With continued innovation, we hope that one day, whenever the question is asked, “How can we help them?” there always will be an encouraging answer. | <urn:uuid:6072efa4-4721-4ca0-8f1d-32ec2331e199> | {
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The Financial Crisis, Great Recession, Deposit Rates, Unemployment Rate and the Federal Reserve
CD rates are on both short and long term CDs. This long cycle of low interest rates was started by the financial crisis of 2007 and the Great Recession that followed in 2008.
Housing Bubble Bursting Sends Federal Funds Rate to 0.00%
The cycle of events started with the housing bubble bursting which brought on the crisis with the mortgage-backed securities market. This caused ripples throughout the brokerage industry, Lehman Brothers failed, Bear Stearns was about to fail but the government stepped in and negotiated a deal to have JPMorgan buy Bear Stearns for $1.
Merrill Lynch was also about to collapse and was bought by Bank of America, with a nod from the government. Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley became commercial banks to be able to raise deposits and receive government assistance trough TARP. The Federal Reserve decreased the federal funds rate from 5.25 percent at the start of the housing bust in June of 2006, to 0.00 percent to 0.25 percent by December 2008.
Current Federal Funds Rate Suppress Deposit Rates
The current fed funds rate is still in a range of 0.00 percent to 0.25 percent. As a result of a 0.00 percent fed funds rate, FDIC average savings rates and money market rates are in the single digits. Average 1 year CD rates reported by MonitorBankRates are at 0.67 percent this week.
These rates are significantly lower than rates were just before the financial crisis hit and the Fed had to lower interest rates to record lows. In 2006, you could easily find savings rates and money market rates around 3.00 percent. Most banks were offering 1 year CD rates slightly higher in the 3.5 percent range.
Just before the financial crisis hit, there were some banks that realized their balance sheet was in trouble and needed to raise more deposits. They did this by offering rates that were much higher than prevailing rates. Remember Washington Mutual Bank? Back in August 2008 they were offering a whopping 5 percent 13 month CD rate.
That high CD rate still didn't help Washington Mutual Bank survive. In September 2008, WaMu was seized by the Office of Thrift Supervision and placed into receivership with the FDIC.
Deposit Rates Restricted by the FDIC
The practice of offering deposit rates much higher than most other bank CD rates was put to an end by the FDIC. Part 337.6 of the FDIC Rules and Regulations states that interest rate restrictions will be placed on "less than well capitalized institutions."
Any financial institution that is less than well capitalized can only offer deposit rates that are 75 basis points, 0.75 percent, higher than the average rates posted by the FDIC. Average rates are updated weekly in the FDIC's Weekly National Rates and Rate Caps.
Unemployment Rate, Inflation Rate and the Fed Funds Rate
The Federal Open Market Committee has stated over the past couple of years that the current targeted level for the federal funds rate, 0.00 percent to 0.25 percent, will remain at that level until the U.S. unemployment rate falls below 6.5 percent. In past meeting minutes released by the FOMC, they stated they believe the rate will fall below 6.5 percent sometime in 2015.
In the released July meeting minutes, the Fed didn't mention the timeframe of mid to late 2015 when they believed the unemployment rate would likely fall to 6.5 percent. Could this mean the Fed believes the rate will fall to 6.5 percent before 2015 or did they not want to tie the rate to when they will increase the fed funds rate? With the current unemployment rate at 7.4 percent, hopefully we could see the 6.5 percent unemployment level closer to the first quarter of 2014.
When Will Deposit Rates Go Higher?
If the unemployment rate falls to 6.5 percent during the first three months of 2014 and the Fed increases the fed funds rate, we could see deposit rates move higher soon after. The fed's current interest rate policy, zero percent fed funds rate, is so accommodating just to get a neutral stance that the Fed will have to quickly increase the rate.
A more neutral level would be a fed funds rate of 1.00 percent to 1.50 percent, which would cause bank CD rates and other deposit rates to move higher. 1 year CD rates would move to a range of 2.00 percent to 2.25 percent. Savings rates and money market rates would also move to the 2.00 percent range.
Of course anything can happen to economic growth that would delay interest rates moving higher. However, I believe that the scenario of higher interest rates in the first 6 months of 2014 is quite likely.
Banking & Finance InformationPersonal Finance | <urn:uuid:aba83e7b-5395-4bd9-83c1-14699c7980c0> | {
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Other issues in this category (20)
Humans make mistakes or where typos can take you
An Internet website address is somewhat similar to an address on a street map. A user can find the “building” they’re looking for, but what will happen if they’ve got the wrong address? Just like in real life, a wrong address can lead you to the wrong place or even get you in trouble.
Let's say a friend has asked you to recommend an anti-virus. You remember the name of the application, but you can't commit all website addresses to memory. You open your browser and try to remember the top-level domain in Doctor Web's site address. Is it drweb.info? Yes, it seems so.
It looks like something went wrong. Well, it appears that domain name is for sale for $595. Well, what’s the danger then?
In December 2014, a renowned torrent portal called Pirate Bay disappeared from the Internet. While worried users were exchanging rumours about the Swedish police seizing the site's hardware, criminals sprang into action.
Sites with a similar address but a different top-level domain, such as thepiratebay.cr, appeared every day, and tons of people rushed onto those sites like moths to a flame. However, when downloading the latest series of their favourite TV programme, they often received an executable file or were prompted to enter their bank card information to continue the download.
In October 2015, a similar thing happened to another torrent portal. And even though kat.cr remained operational at that time, it was removed from Google's search results.
Instead, links at the top of the search results directed users to “unofficial” versions of the portal. Some were merely mirror versions, while others were fraudulent sites.
There are many ways to register a domain name to make it look like one belonging to a popular brand, even without resorting to using available top-level domains. Add or remove a character that looks similar to the preceding one or replace a character with one located next to it on the keyboard, and count on users to not notice the difference. e.g., drwep.com, drwev.com. You can also add a relevant word to the address, e.g., drwebav.com, drwebantivirus.com. These are existing domain names that resemble Doctor Web's site address:
Let's assume that a criminal purchases an address that resembles a popular domain name, mimics the site's design, and publishes malicious or fraudulent content on that site. If, while entering an address, a Dr.Web user makes an error and then tries to open the link, they will see a warning.
But if your system lacks an anti-virus that can block access to non-recommended sites, you can run into a serious problem… Browser vulnerabilities, which emerge periodically, enable attackers to covertly download malware onto your machine. #URL #typos #non-recommended_sites #SpIDer_Gate
- If, in order to access information on a site, you are prompted to download a file, never do it. There is no technical reason why a browser wouldn't be enough to view site pages.
- If you downloaded a video file, but instead of the video see a message prompting you to download a specific video codec from a certain address—remove the clip and forget about it. This is just another way criminals try to bypass the anti-virus scanners of file sharing portals and torrent trackers.
- The site looks like another popular site, but something is wrong with the news posts; the last post appears to have been published a year ago? The banner is advertising a promo that has long since ended? When fraudsters copy a site, they don’t update its content every day. Remember that and stay vigilant.
- Keep the HTTP monitor SpIDer Gate running while you are surfing the Web, and make sure that you have enabled the option to block access to sites from the categories “non-recommended site" or “known infection source”.
Meanwhile, since July 13, 2016, the search engine giant Google has been doing something similar to what a small Doctor Web team has been doing for years, which is adding non-recommended sites, including those engaged in phishing and other kinds of fraud, to the SpIDer Gate databases. Google is also expected to block payday loan ads. Furthermore, ads about loans with annual interest rates exceeding 36% will be blocked in the United States.
- And be sure to remember our site's address: | <urn:uuid:dd3e16a3-2256-4fd0-87b9-e7d35d8b05c5> | {
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- About Author
"Oxford Bookworms Factfiles" are non-fiction readers for all ages, featuring a wide range of topics such as famous cities, sport, science, the environment and the media. Full-colour photographs complement the text and exercises at the back of each book check students' understanding. There are also ideas for extended activities and project work. The course should prove useful for cultural and cross-curricular studies. | <urn:uuid:9bb93807-4d9c-4a38-9bad-bd17a5d71463> | {
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Teachers should know how people learn, how the human brain functions, how memory operates and how a brain develops with age and be able to apply this to teaching their subject. However, research indicates that teachers tend to teach the way they have been taught. This article describes the balance needed by future teachers between content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge.
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Engineering is a creative approach which allows thoughts and ideas to manifest themselves as architecture, space and objects in the physical world.
It makes use of mathematics and science, knowledge of materials and allows us to determine the stresses that physical objects should endure. It allows us to apportion sizes and thicknesses based on our knowledge of the material being employed.
In this practice these skills are essential to carry out the work we do. However, we believe that good engineering reaches much further than this and it is this philosophy that differentiates Fluid’s approach from the general engineering practices. We are interested in the process of making, fabricating and sequencing. Our material palette is wide and we are as comfortable designing multi-storey steel frames, structural glass extensions or temporary buildings which are air inflated.
Whilst we make use of highly sophisticated analysis programmes and BIM software we also know the difference between larch and cedar and why glass beading is an under used (but beautiful) aluminium finish.
As a practice, we use a variety of techniques to provide design engineering input. We understand that both the design team and quite often the client need to be able to clearly see our proposals. To facilitate this we employ the following techniques: | <urn:uuid:e38d52b3-9007-415d-93b3-7d12b9e46eb1> | {
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Opportunities Lost, The Battle of Cold Harbor
by Patrick McDonald
This summary of the Battle of Cold Harbor comes from Patrick McDonald's "Opportunities Lost, The Battle of Cold Harbor." This is a summary, nothing more, of a very well written book describing in detail the Battle of Cold Harbor. It gets the army from North Anna to Cold Harbor.
This work has not been attempted as a history, but as a venture in military research. It is an effort to lift Cold Harbor from the class of a one-event military affair to its true rank as an "operation", and to describe from that standpoint the great war game played during the last days of May and the first half of June, 1864, in the theater lying between the Pamunkey and Chickahominy Rivers, in Eastern Virginia.
Charles Calrow July, 1933 : The student of the Civil War will remember the battle fought at Cold Harbor, Virginia, as one that featured an overwhelming Federal defeat. Generals Grant and Meade had led the Army of the Potomac to the banks of the Chickahominy River near Richmond, and there launched a full-scale assault on General Robert E. Lee's well-entrenched army. The Army of the Potomac was soundly defeated while making that assault.
As the Overland Campaign of 1864 developed, it became clear that Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant had no intentions of turning back, no matter what the cost was to his powerful Federal army. General Robert E. Lee had the almost over-bearing task of nullifying the Federal advance. Lee noted early in the campaign that he was worried about being driven into a possible siege. He realized that his army and the government in Richmond would not be able to survive the investment of the Confederate capital. It became apparent that Lee had to do anything to avoid this situation. Extraordinary deeds by extraordinary soldiers had to be the order of the day.
The situation became more desperate as the Federal army began to close on the Confederate capital. Lee, as was the case in most of his battles, was content to rely not only on the abilities of his subordinate officers but also on the lack of ability of his enemy. This philosophy had sustained him early in the war; however, his capable and audacious subordinate officers were gone. General Thomas Jackson had died after being wounded at Chancellorsville, James Longstreet had been seriously wounded in the Wilderness, and J.E.B. Stuart had been mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern.
Though his enemy had shown a lack of ability in the Overland Campaign, Lee was facing a much different adversary in General Ulysses S. Grant. Grant, unlike General George McClellan, was not nearly as precise in his movements. He was not as boastful as Generals Joseph Hooker and John Pope. He was not as slow and deliberate as General Ambrose Burnside. His skills in maneuvering were not great. His ability on the battlefield was not extraordinary. His determination for winning no matter what the cost, however, was the primary element that separated him from his predecessors.
There were many mistakes made by the Federal army as it maneuvered across the Pamunkey River into the land of the Chickahominy. General Lee had to take advantage of these errors. He no longer had the time, the men, the supplies, nor the area to maneuver that it would take to defeat the Federal army if the War continued on its present course.
The Cold Harbor campaign presented Lee with three opportunities to strike paralyzing blows to his determined enemy. Had Lee taken advantage of these opportunities, it is entirely possible that the eventual siege at Petersburg (June of 1864 to April of 1865) may not have been realized.
1. May 28, 1864: Confederates missed an opportunity to entrench along the high ridge that overlooked the Pamunkey River near Hawes' Shop which would have forced either an actual engagement where the terrain was completely favorable to the defenders, or would have forced the invaders to find another route for a crossing attempt.
2. June 1, 1864: The fatigued Federal Sixth Corps was marched all night in order to reach Cold Harbor early in the morning. The Corps was stretched out unprotected along the road from Old Church to Old Cold Harbor. Had the Confederate force in that sector launched an assault as ordered by General Lee, the Federal army would have been split with a strong enemy force on Meade's left flank and rear.
3. June 3, 1864: The long thin Federal line launched an assault at daybreak. This assault was repulsed within thirty minutes with heavy casualties inflicted upon the assailing force. General Meade's line featured no reserve force and four flanks with a mile wide gap between the Eighteenth and Fifth Corps. Had this gap been exploited, in light of the bloody repulse on Turkey Hill, it is safe to say that the results of this battle would have nullified any further advance on the part of the Federal army.
The above facts are substantiated in the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies and are confirmed in the many biographies and regimental histories associated with the campaign.
A guiding light of Opportunities Lost is a little known composition entitled The Operations of the Army of Northern Virginia and the Army of the Potomac from May 26, 1864. This essay was written by one of the first thorough Cold Harbor researchers, a man named Charles Calrow. Calrow had a military background and served on the General Staff with the American Expeditionary Force in Europe during World War I. His insight into military reasoning has helped to unravel various mysteries behind the somewhat ambiguous orders concerning the Cold Harbor campaign.
Mr. Calrow had spent a great deal of his research time talking with Walter H. Taylor III, the son of General Lee's Adjutant-General. Much of Calrow's insight to the Cold Harbor campaign comes from these visits with Mr. Taylor. It comes at no surprise that Mr. Taylor had obtained important knowledge of all of the campaigns that the Army of Northern Virginia had been associated with. Calrow is quick to explain some of the hindsight that followed the Cold Harbor campaign. It would appear, from reading his papers, that Adjutant Taylor and other officers such as Charles Venable of Lee's staff, and Edward Porter Alexander, Chief of Artillery for General Anderson's Corps, had discussed the three events listed above at great length either during the war or in the years that followed.
Research reveals that both armies floundered into the valley of the Chickahominy. The Federal army was suffering from exhaustion brought on by ill-conceived lengthy marches in extreme summer heat over dust-choking roads.
Various corps' headquarters were using different maps of the region. The differences in these maps brought about much confusion. Officers had scant knowledge of roads and terrain. The army as a whole wasted an enormous amount of man-power in the mis- application of reconnaissance techniques. Cavalry and infantry seemed to be at odds in attempting to achieve vague goals. Orders were poorly written and were often ambiguous and erroneous.
The Confederate Army was suffering from exacting attrition to its field officers. Many of its capable leaders had become casualties during the fighting of the previous month. General Lee was suffering from a severe bout with diarrhoea which had left him all but incapacitated. Corps' commanders Ewell and Hill were both suffering from failing health. General Richard Anderson had taken command of Longstreet's Corps less than a month earlier. His inexperience at this level of command would lead to the most glaring of the lost opportunities presented to General Lee's Army.
There is no denying that Cold Harbor was an unparalleled Federal disaster. It was also the last chance for General Lee to stop General Grant's relentless drive on the Confederate capital.
Background on Cold Harbor
Between the Pamunkey and the Chickahominy is the Totopotomoy River, marshy like all the other rivers in this territory, and flowing approximately east where it empties into the Pamunkey between Hanovertown and New Castle. This entire region was near a series of ridges which featured roads, sunken roads, and trails. Each ridge presented Lee with a strategic point from where the Confederates could dispute Grant's movement south.
May 27, 1864 The fighting at Hawes' Shop between the two cavalry forces had been intense. Although the Confederate cavalry had suffered many casualties they had completely screened General Lee's infantry movements. This enabled Lee to place his line of battle undisturbed. General Lee lost a perfect opportunity to strike a severe blow to the invading Federal army at Hawes' Shop.
Charles Venable, Lee's Assistant Adjutant General relates that General Early was in position to move to Hawes' Shop with Anderson right behind him. Had these two corps reached the Hawes' Shop ridge they could have thrown the two Union cavalry divisions along with Barlow's division of the II Corps back across the Pamunkey and entrenched along the ridge in a similar position as was held at North Anna. Venable is quick to point out that the reason that this was not done was that his chief was still physically disabled.
It should be remembered that the Army of Northern Virginia was being steadily pushed south. Every river crossing had to be disputed, and disputed with enough force as to discourage further movement to the south. Federal maneuvering space was becoming limited. The Rebel cause was desperate and could not afford the luxury of excuses.
It is true that General Lee was disabled, but if he was disabled to a point where he could not deliver important decisions, then he needed to be temporarily relieved so as to not handcuff his army. Had the skirmish at Hawes' Shop escalated into a battle, Grant would have been forced into making choices. He could either launch an all out assault on the entrenched troops along the 205 foot high Polly Hundley - Hawes' Shop Ridge or try to find another approach to cross the Pamunkey. Either choice would have meant further delay and more men lost. Lee pondered the day's actions.
With the missed opportunity at Hawes' Shop, Grant now had two corps east of Hawes' Shop and it was certain that his main attack would not be down the Telegraph Road. He had, however, three routes to Richmond from Hawes' Shop. He could march northwestward, avoid the Totopotomoy, and strike for the Central Railroad at Peake's Turnout; he could move directly westward against Atlee's; or he could turn south, across the Totopotomoy, enter the Old Church Road, and make for Mechanicsville.
Lee felt that Grant would try to sever the Army of Northern Virginia's communications with western Virginia by taking control of the Central Railroad. He therefore shifted the left of his line somewhat to the northeast and closer to the Totopotomoy. To cover the entire front he utilized an almost impenetrable area on his right center, between Early's Corps and Breckinridge's command. He left this ground practically unoccupied, though Anderson's corps was within supporting distance. Ewell was on the right along the Shady Grove Road; Anderson was at an angle behind Ewell's left; then came Breckinridge; and on the extreme left was Hill, covering the point where the road from Shady Grove to Hanover Court House crossed the Totopotomoy.
Many rivers had been crossed in the bloody month of May - the Rapidan and the Ny, the North Anna and the Pamunkey. There had been fire in the Wilderness, rain at Spotsylvania, and absolutely no rest. The Army of the Potomac was constantly being pushed to the east, but it was also gaining ground to the south. The Army of Northern Virginia, operating under defensive orders similar to those of the Army of the Potomac, positioned itself between the invading army and its capital in Richmond.
The two armies were now facing each other in a flat, featureless country of little streams and low ridges. Small farms and swamps dotted the forested countryside. Farms and taverns were connected by many narrow winding roads. This was the familiar land of the Peninsula Black Snake, jiggers, lizards and ticks; a land that the veterans of the Northern Army had grown to hate in the Peninsula Campaign of 1862. There was just one more river to cross - the Chickahominy, which ran across the Confederate rear just five miles away. Five miles beyond the Chickahominy was Richmond. The field of maneuver was growing narrow. The Federal army could no longer swing back and forth in wide arcs, going twenty miles to one side in order to get five miles forward.
Any road that was taken now led to Richmond, and all of the roads to Richmond were blocked by Lee's army. The roles of the two armies had changed. By moving toward Lee's flank, Grant had hoped to surprise Lee and force him from his trenches, but by losing contact with the Army of Northern Virginia and because the flank movement was consuming so much time, any chance to surprise Lee had been lost. The Federal generals were operating in an unfamiliar land, with little understanding of the terrain. Their maps were incorrect. Impassable swamps, wooded ridges, and narrow ravines would prove to be Lee's greatest ally against Grant's invading army.
The Confederate general was given ample time to assume new positions to take either an offensive or defensive role. He was in a position to pick the line on which he willed the enemy attack to take place. Meade was forced to proceed against an unknown line using faulty maps. It would be Lee, not Grant, who would dictate the terms of the fighting at Cold Harbor. The situation, however, was critical for Lee's army. Lee had been unable to make up even half the losses he had suffered since the Overland Campaign had begun. Lee's troops were weak both from sickness and from hunger. By the time the Confederates reached the Totopotomoy Valley, some men had gone without rations for two days. It is for these reasons that the lost opportunity at Hawes' Shop plays such an important role in the further developments of this campaign.
Dispositions: General Meade was somewhat satisfied with his line of battle on the evening of May 30. Burnside's Corps had reported that his entire corps was south of the Totopotomoy and had relieved General Griffin of the Fifth Corps. Torbert's Cavalry Division was at Cold Harbor with pickets extended to the Fifth Corps' left. The Eighteenth Corps would be moving into position near Cold Harbor early in the morning. The Federal line extended from the Mechanicsville - Hanover Court House Road on the right along the north side of the Totopotomoy as far as the W. Jones House. Crossing the Totopotomoy at Whitlocks, it extended southeast to the Shady Grove Church Road, thence nearly east to the mill pond at the head of Matadequin Creek. Sheridan was on the left extending the line to Parsley's, and Wilson on the right rear guarding the line of Crump's Creek. The infantry line was six miles in length. The Sixth Corps was on the right, holding one mile with two divisions in line and one in reserve on the right flank.
Next came the Second Corps, holding two miles with all three divisions in line. After the Second Corps came the Ninth Corps, holding one mile with two divisions on the line and one in reserve. Then came the Fifth Corps, holding two miles with three divisions in line and one in reserve on the left. Meade made it clear to his corps commanders that there would be no offensive action scheduled for the 31st. This would change if General Lee tried to force himself into the gap that separated the Fifth Corps from General Smith's contingent from the Army of the James. Meade sent a special assurance to General Warren explaining that if Federal cavalry reported any such movement by General Lee, General Wright would be moved to the left of the Fifth Corps. Together, Wright and Warren would then attack whatever enemy forces they found. It will be these orders that will create the problems associated with the fiasco on June 1.
Meade disregarded or misinterpreted previous communications with Grant which stated that the Sixth Corps should be massed on the Federal right. This would allow for the movement of the Second Corps, which was closer to the Fifth Corps and closer to the left flank of the army. Grant's communication should have been easily understood. Any movement from the Federal right to the left should be made only if and when the cavalry corps felt the situation on the Federal left was out of control. Instructions from Meade to his corps commanders were purely defensive orders. The idea of moving Wright to the left flank seems to have been Meade's and not Grant's.
The orders issued by Grant to Smith cover a plan to move Smith from White House Landing along the south bank of the Pamunkey. Smith would use the same road system which the Army of the Potomac had used in its advance of the 29th. Such a disposition of the march of the Eighteenth Corps would have placed it in position to join the line on the left of the Fifth Corps. It did not admit of a crossing of the Sixth Corps from the Federal right to its left. Grant sent a brigade of cavalry to guide Smith to his destination and to protect the army's left flank. Grant thought that the Confederate force would attempt to interpose between the Eighteenth Corps and the Army of the Potomac. He was hoping that such an attack would be made in order to get Lee out of his entrenchments. Such an attack, with the Federal army massed the way he thought it was at the time of the order, could be easily checked.
No change of any importance took place in the Confederate position on this date. General Early's Corps remained on the right, his front extending from the Shady Grove Church Road over toward Pole Green Church, and the right of Breckinridge, who covered the Atlee - Hawes' Store Road and extended to the left to include the road to Tinsley's house. Anderson's Corps was in the rear of Early and prepared to fill the gap between Early and Breckinridge, or move to support either of them. Hill's Corps held the Shady Grove - Hanover Court House Road, and Mahone's Division was on Breckinridge's right guarding the crossing of the Totopotomoy on that road. Hoke's Division from Beauregard's force was ordered on the night of May 30th, 10:30 p.m., to Richmond and to join Lee as soon as possible. Most of the Confederate cavalry was in the vicinity of Cold Harbor opposing Sheridan's Cavalry.
The Confederate lines on the night of May 30th were about five miles long, as compared with a line of six miles held by the Federal Army. The developments of this day had completely dispelled any lingering doubts that Grant might have had regarding Lee's intentions. He now had nearly all information regarding Lee's position. Lee was not so fortunately placed as was Grant regarding his powers to order up reinforcements. He was not in command of the entire Confederate army, but only of the Army of Northern Virginia, and the defense of Richmond. A brigade of three regiments under General Finnegan had joined him on the 29th, and had been assigned to Hill's Corps. The seeds for the imminent Federal disaster at Cold Harbor had been sown.
Both Wright and Smith, working under separate orders from two different commanders, were heading for the exact same position on the Federal left. No matter how poor the Confederate brain trust was at this stage of the campaign, it would have no problem defeating an army that was bent on defeating itself.
In the region now occupied by Sheridan's Cavalry, on the left of the Federal army, Cold Harbor was the strategic center. It was situated on high ground, and from it roads branched in all directions. The road to Richmond from Cold Harbor was the shortest to that city from the general line now occupied by the two armies.
Cold Harbor was a white-framed tavern in a triangular grove. The name, deriving from the British usage, originally meant "shelter without food." The route to Cold Harbor for the Federal army would be through Old Church. The more direct route from Bethesda Church was blocked by Early's Corps. The Cold Harbor Crossroads was not perceived as an important strategic position by the Federal leaders.
Confederate cavalry, commanded by Butler, were permitted to take and retain possession of the crossroads unmolested. Butler's force was little, not much larger than one cavalry brigade. Sheridan contented himself with covering the roads leading east from Cold Harbor. He made no effort against the crossroads itself until the 31st.
Confederate Disposition: General Early's Corps was in a position to protect Mechanicsville. His troops were one mile west of Bethesda Church, connecting with Anderson's right. This placed him in a position to block any movement from Bethesda Church to Cold Harbor.
The Confederate right flank rested on the Chickahominy Swamp west of Atlees' Station. From Atlees' the line extended seven and a half miles to the north and northwest. The entire Confederate line covered all of the approaches to Richmond from the upper Pamunkey.
Lee's main objective at this stage was to avoid being driven into a siege by the steady maneuvering of the Army of the Potomac. Lee extended his right flank by moving Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry beyond Early's exposed flank to Old Cold Harbor. To support Fitzhugh Lee, the commanding general directed Hoke's Division to move to Cold Harbor. Hoke had been sent to Richmond from the Petersburg defenses.
General Warren received orders to send the Pennsylvania Reserves to White House Landing to be mustered out, as their term of service had expired. This depleted the Fifth Corps by ten regiments, which constituted nearly the entire Third Division.
This was a strange system which would allow such an event at a crucial period of a campaign. It reduced the Fifth Corps to three divisions, as the Third Division was not reorganized until June 6th. At 7:30 a.m. Meade issued orders to his corps commanders to press their skirmishers up against the enemy's works and to report any change in Lee's disposition.
On the right, Griffin found a heavy skirmish line confronting him. His men reported that they had heard the sound of chopping behind the Confederate lines during the night. This indicated the construction of strong breastworks behind these skirmishers.
Cavalry Action at Cold Harbor At 3:15 p.m. Hoke's advance Brigade, (Clingman's) was about two miles from Gaines Mill, and four miles from Cold Harbor where Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry held the Confederate right. The pickets of Torbert's First Cavalry Division held the extreme Federal left. They were within a half mile of Old Cold Harbor. The main body of the Federal cavalry was one mile further to the rear along the Old Church road moving toward Cold Harbor. Fitzhugh Lee reported the position of the Federal cavalry to General Lee. He explained that he intended to dispute the Federal's advance.
Torbert's Division, led by Merritt's Reserve Brigade followed by Custer's Brigade, advanced to Cold Harbor via the Old Church Road. Torbert's Second Brigade (Devin) took a farm road from Cold Harbor to Black Creek Church, and then on northwest to Cold Harbor. This action by the Federal cavalry was immediately disputed by Fitzhugh Lee's troopers.
Torbert, looking forward to a fight, sent his brigades into action. Merritt and Custer led the assault on Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry and drove the Confederates back to a barricade near Cold Harbor. Merritt followed the Confederate cavalry closely and after a severe fight, was able to turn the Rebel left flank and take the crossroads. Quickly reorganizing his brigade, Merritt surveyed the Confederate position. He found that the Rebels had thrown up breastworks consisting of rails, logs, and earth. Believing that the Rebel position was somewhat disorganized he ordered a frontal assault. This assault was immediately dispersed by a hail of Confederate musketry. Merritt now realized that the Rebel works could not be taken from that direction without great loss.
Infantry, consisting of three regiments of Thomas Clingman's Brigade, had been rushed to Cold Harbor to help the Confederate cavalry defend the crossroads. They had been hurried forward and placed in line on Fitzhugh Lee's left. According to General Clingman, he was there on orders from General Hoke, who directed him to take the position on the left of that occupied by the main body of the cavalry.
As soon as Clingman positioned his men, General Hoke moved a portion of Clingman's North Carolinians forward nearly five hundred yards to act as a support to the left flank of the cavalry. This portion of the Confederate line came under a devastating fire which eventually caused the cavalry to withdraw. Clingman's men, unnerved by the sight of the cavalry retreat, maintained their position as Clingman's officers tried desperately to hold the line. Forty-five minutes later the cavalry on the right gave way, alleging that their ammunition had given out. Seeing that the Federal cavalry was about envelope his brigade, Clingman ordered his men to fall back to a fence line a few hundred yards to the rear.
|NOTE: Fitzhugh Lee claimed that his cavalry troopers had tried to fall back on the support of Clingman's brigade. When the two cavalry brigades fell back, the infantrymen were inclined to continue the backward movement.|
After this action, the Federal cavalry took position along the road leading from Old Cold Harbor to Bottom's Bridge and the Bethesda Church Road, and entrenched. The arrival of Clingman's infantry on his front had its effect on General Sheridan. He reported to General Meade that he didn't feel able to hold the road and had ordered General Torbert to resume his morning position. He further noted that, with Lee's line of battle in front of Mechanicsville and the heavy odds against him, he didn't think it prudent to hold on.
Sheridan immediately began withdrawing his force from Cold Harbor. Cold Harbor was an important crossroads to hold because it was on the line of the Federal extension to the left. The roads that joined there came from Bethesda Church, Old Church, and White House Landing. These were important roads for the joint movement of the Army of the Potomac. The roads leaving Cold Harbor to the south and southwest eventually cross the Chickahominy. On the proposed move, the roads leaving Cold Harbor for the Chickahominy would place the Federal Army in a strong position for their movement against Lee's right flank and the Confederate capital. Meade, upon receipt of Sheridan's plan to leave Cold Harbor, immediately sent word to his cavalry chief to hold the crossroads at all hazards.
Grant: Grant's plans had now changed. The possession of Cold Harbor gave him an excellent place from which to make an enveloping attack on Lee's right. This would place the Federal army between the Confederate army and Richmond, covering the road to the Rebel base. Grant expected the Eighteenth Corps to arrive at the crossroads the next morning. Smith would then immediately launch an attack before Lee would have time to securely entrench to meet him on the new ground.
Lee: While the cavalry fight was in progress, General Lee readjusted his line. Lee was almost certain that Smith's Eighteenth Corps was moving from White House Landing to join Grant. He reasoned that Grant's army would be strung out on the march. He now saw an opportunity for striking the blow he had so long wished to deliver. He realized that a strong attack at the head of the Federal column as it was advancing toward Cold Harbor could destroy Grant's advance. This planned assault would also limit Grant's ability to maneuver further to the Federal left. This represented the first planned counteroffensive since the Wilderness.
Rodes' Division, which had been on the right of Early's Corps, was moved to the west side of Beaver Dam Creek. Anderson was taken from his position between Breckinridge and Early and shifted into the area near Beulah Church (approximately one mile northwest of Old Cold Harbor) where it would join with Hoke's Division. Anderson's leading division (Kershaw) would turn northward to get into position for an attack on the left of the Cold Harbor intersection. Hoke would form on Kershaw's right, aim directly at the intersection, and move in conjunction with Kershaw. The united forces of Hoke and Anderson would then sweep behind Grant's lines at Cold Harbor. Hill and Early would press the rest of Federal line to keep Grant from reinforcing his hard-hit left flank.
Breckinridge extended his position to the right. Early adjusted to the left to fill the gap made by Anderson's departure. There were high hopes in the Confederate headquarters as Anderson's Corps with all its artillery marched to Cold Harbor during the night of May 31st. Kershaw was in position north of Cold Harbor early in the night. Pickett and Field were on the road behind Kershaw moving to the right (south). Rodes was now in position near Hundley's Corners. Lee had risked his entire army by pulling Anderson from the line in the face of Grant's shifting army.
At 7:00 p.m. General Anderson reported that he and General Hoke were now in position near the Cold Harbor Crossroads. Hoke reported some skirmishing along his front, but believed that it was only cavalry. Early reported he was satisfied that the Federals had no infantry south of the Matadequin.31 Anderson decided that he would send a strong force at daylight on the road from Beulah Church to Mrs. Allen's on the other side of the Matadequin, and another along the Old Cold Harbor/Old Church Road to find out exactly what was in front of him. He reported that two prisoners taken by General Ramseur's skirmishers told of the Fifth Corps entrenching on both of these roads.
When Hoke and Kershaw formed in position at daylight of June 1st, the nearest Federal infantry was four hours away. Fifteen thousand Confederate infantry were in the Cold Harbor region, enough men to turn Grant's left flank. Heth's Division had been shifted in to close the gap between Breckinridge's command and Hundley's Corner. These shifts placed the right of Anderson's Corps just north of a ravine running almost directly eastward from Gaines Mill Pond. Anderson's left was across the road to Bethesda Church. Kershaw was on the right, Pickett in the center, and Field on the left.
Early's Corps was located on Anderson's left. Rodes was on the right of the corps connecting with Anderson. Gordon was in the center, with Ramseur on the left. Breckinridge and Hill were on the Confederate left flank. The Confederates now had all their troops in position. General Lee issued a circular order to troop commanders to round up all stragglers and see that every man in the hospitals capable of performing the duties of a soldier be sent to the ranks.
Lee took the precaution of placing Hoke under Anderson, and directed that Hoke's rear brigades be hurried to Cold Harbor.28 Lee would have preferred to have gone to Cold Harbor himself to direct the turning movement, but he was still so weak that he was confined to a carriage. The most he felt justified in doing was to advance his headquarters to Shady Grove, where he would be nearer the center of operations.
This movement shows the state of affairs within the Army of Northern Virginia, and the physical problems associated with its commander. It seems incredible that the offensive-minded Lee would defer an all-important assault to a relatively untested corps' commander.
Lee realized the significance of the proposed assault. His extraordinary ability to place his outnumbered army in a position to overwhelm his opponent was uncanny. His present subordinate commanders, however, had no such ability and would not supply the extraordinary deeds that were necessary in implementing Lee's strategy.
Lee's army was desperate for a decisive victory. Lee's proposed assault on the Federal troops marching to Cold Harbor would provide such a victory. It is arguable that an impaired Robert E. Lee riding in a carriage would provide more decisive and offensive leadership than a healthy Richard Anderson. As a division commander, Anderson had few equals in the Army of Northern Virginia. He had shown occasional spurts of audacity and effective leadership. The audacity and boldness that had been Anderson's forte as a division commander was now lost on Anderson, the corps' commander.
Meade: General Meade was undoubtedly impressed by the continued reports of movements of Confederate troops to his left. This strengthened his belief in the necessity for a transfer of his forces from right to left.
At 9:45 p.m. Meade sent Wright the order to immediately withdraw his corps from its present position and move to Cold Harbor, about two and a half miles east of Bethesda Church. Federal cavalry had possession of Cold Harbor, having driven off the Confederate cavalry and infantry. Meade further directed Wright that it was extremely important for him to reach Cold Harbor as soon after daylight as possible. He was to take the Hawes' Shop/Old Church route and notify the cavalry of his withdrawal. Meade's final order was that Wright should notify General Hancock when the last of Wright's troops were moving.
Meade, worried by Sheridan's alarming reports, was trying to find a shorter route for the Sixth Corps. He suggested that Wright might be able to use the Bethesda Church Road. General Warren explained that the road to Cold Harbor from Bethesda Church was not only a poor road, it was also held by a strong Confederate force. In so far as the Bethesda Church Road was concerned, General Warren was correct. A night march past Burnside's rear and through the Fifth Corps would have led to serious, if not disastrous confusion.
It is hard to understand why Meade should have ordered the Sixth Corps directly to Cold Harbor. This corps was on the extreme right of the Federal line. Smith, with the newly arrived Eighteenth Corps, was located at Bassett's. Bassett's is less than two miles beyond Old Church and along the Cold Harbor Road. The Eighteenth Corps was much closer to Cold Harbor than was the Sixth Corps, however, Smith's command had dwindled somewhat during the move from City Point to White House Landing. Only parts of his three small divisions had arrived at White House Landing along with the wagons of only one brigade. He was now located at Bassett's with ten thousand men and his artillery, but was without wagons to carry supplies or ammunition.
Smith reported the arrival of the head of his column at Bassett's and his plan for camping near that point for the night. During the march to Bassett's, Smith received Grant's letter of May 30th, discussed in the preceding chapter. From Bassett's to Cold Harbor is a distance of about nine miles over a well-marked road. Smith was unencumbered with baggage and transport wagons. The Eighteenth Corps was in far better position and condition to make a relief march than were Wright's weary troops. The Sixth Corps had been skirmishing and marching throughout the day. Wright was now located nine to twelve miles west of Old Church and was burdened with his supply trains.
The road leading to Cold Harbor from Old Church was held by two divisions of Sheridan's dismounted cavalry. This force numbered approximately 6,500 men on the firing line supported by horse artillery. Opposed to them would be Kershaw and Hoke who would be able to muster almost twice that number, with almost ten thousand more men coming up with Generals Pickett and Field.
Conclusion: The Federal movement from the North Anna to Cold Harbor had been conducted in the slowest and most costly manner. The entire infantry force was employed in searching for the Confederate line. The cavalry was guarding trains and protecting the left flank. Sheridan was having great difficulty in fulfilling his mission to secure the left flank. Butler's small Confederate brigade was allowed to not only drive in Sheridan's pickets, but to contain both divisions of cavalry that were presently near Cold Harbor. This containment had assisted Early's assault at Bethesda Church on the 30th. For three days Wilson's Division was across the Pamunkey River guarding trains, and not until the 31st was his entire division with the army again.
Grant needed information, and he needed it quickly in order to strike before Lee had time to securely entrench. The cavalry was the proper arm to use for that purpose. Sheridan had started out on such a mission on the 28th, but was blocked by Hampton. After a successful engagement at Hawes' Shop, Sheridan seems to have considered his object accomplished.
In his report of operations, Sheridan said it was difficult to overcome the established custom of wasting cavalry for the protection of trains, and for the establishment of cordons around a sleeping infantry force.
Sheridan was charged with protecting the flanks of the infantry. He was also expected to use his initiative to benefit the invading army. This meant that he was to seek out strategic ground and hold it for Meade. To do this would ensure that Lee would be unable to use the ground for defensive purposes.
Sheridan was primarily interested in "hit and run" tactics rather than seeking strategic ground. The crossroads at Cold Harbor was an important piece of real estate that was completely ignored by the cavalry chief. Sheridan had been issued no orders that would have hand- cuffed the cavalry, until Meade insisted that he hold Cold Harbor. In defense of Sheridan, it will be remembered that on the 29th the Second Corps was pushed toward the north on a wild goose chase, trying to find Breckinridge. This work could have best been performed by cavalry. The result of this movement was a wasted day on the 30th trying to get Hancock's men back into a position.
The actions of this day on the Federal side were, therefore, merely to keep in touch with the Confederate force. Wright had massed his Sixth Corps on the night of the 30th. Russell's Division had skirmished a little on the 31st. The main body of the corps had been held ready to move in support of Hancock or Burnside.
At 9:45 p.m. the Sixth Corps was ordered to move to Cold Harbor. Smith's Eighteenth Corps was to come into line between Warren and Wright. Hancock's Second Corps was ordered to defend the right wing of the army. No special task was assigned to Burnside.
Grant had wanted Wright to remained massed on the right flank in order to watch that flank or support the Second Corps in case it became engaged. Any flanking movement from that portion of the field would be made by the Second Corps. Since the Sixth Corps was massed on the right flank, they could easily shift to fill the possible gap if the Second Corps should be ordered to another position. In an emergency situation, the Second Corps could move faster to the Federal left than the Sixth Corps.
The Ninth Corps held a position near the Confederate force. Burnside's left connected with Warren's right, making it nearly impossible for these two corps to move in either direction without opening a major gap within the line. In his communication with Meade on the 30th, Grant had mentioned that Smith's Corps would soon arrive in position on the Federal left.
Sending the Sixth Corps from the Federal right on a night march over unfamiliar roads was inviting disaster. Possible explanations for the shift in the Sixth Corps are: (1) Meade had misinterpreted the communication delivered by Grant on May 30, or (2) Meade understood the importance of the Cold Harbor Crossroads. He realized that the Second and Ninth Corps had made contact with the enemy forces in their fronts. He believed that the Sixth Corps could move from its point in the line without seriously jeopardizing the army. Moving the Second Corps may have created a gap that might have been exploited by a watchful enemy. In any case, the seeds were sewn for Lee to take control of the campaign. A true student of Napoleonic thought, Lee with his numerically inferior army, would concentrate a larger force from which to defend the all-important crossroads at Cold Harbor. It was his purpose to then go on the offensive against any enemy force that might move down the Old Church Road to Old Cold Harbor.
Wright: The last day of May had been hot, and the roads dusty. The night which followed afforded little relief. All through the night the Sixth Corps moved eastward to Old Church. The assembly of the corps for marching had consumed time which had not been considered in the Army command's march order. At midnight Ricketts' Third Division, the nearest to the Second Corps, began to march from the banks of the Totopotomoy. The Second Brigade, under Colonel Keifer, was in the advance and was able to reach Old Church by 8:00 a.m. Russell's First Division followed closely behind the Third. Neill's Second Division had been covering the right and was some distance to the rear. The First Brigade (Wheaton) of the Second Division began the march at 4:30 a.m.
Lee: The withdrawal of the Sixth Corps from the Federal right left the Confederate Third Corps (Hill) without an opponent. This gave General Lee a relatively generous reserve to move to any threatened point. At 8:30 a.m. General Lee wrote Generals Hill and Breckinridge concerning movements to the right. Although Lee's note of the morning was not found, it may be reasonably inferred that it contemplated the movement of Breckinridge to the right of the army and the closing in of Hill's Corps on the left of Early's Second Corps.
The activity of Wilson's Cavalry at Ashland undoubtedly had its effect in the postponement of shifts to the right. General Lee's hopes to stop the characteristic maneuver of the Federal army in sliding to its left, is shown by his message to General Anderson on May 30:
. . . Anderson - Hoke - Kershaw at Cold Harbor
Sheridan's Cavalry had abandoned the strategic crossroads at Old Cold Harbor. Meade later ordered them to reoccupy this position, which they did before daylight of June 1st.2 Sheridan then quickly dug in behind light works, and was supported by his horse artillery. Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry had by this time completely withdrawn from the Cold Harbor lines. These positions were taken over by Hoke's Division. Hoke's men were deployed across the road that led from the tavern and circled to the southwest. His front was generally flat land, either under cultivation or lightly wooded. There was open ground around the Garthright House on his right. On his left was the road to New Cold Harbor and a wide ravine which sliced past his flank. This wooded ravine runs west to the Gaines' Mill Pond. Clingman's Brigade held the left of Hoke's Division on the right side (south) of the ravine. On the other side of the ravine, Kershaw's Division faced a vine-shrouded stand of woods. His right flank rested on the road near A. Ellyson's House. The positions of Kershaw's and Hoke's commands were not picked for their value to the defense. This selection of ground was chosen as a result of fighting initiated by Colonel Lawrence Keitt's assault, to be described later. The Confederate leadership on this field was far from being effective. Although all of the commanders (Anderson, Hoke, and Kershaw) had shown past greatness, they were now not communicating with each other.
Anderson did not impose his authority on Hoke. Hoke would not risk an assault against an unknown force on his own, and did nothing to establish cooperation with Anderson. Not knowing that the Cold Harbor Crossroads was held only by cavalry, Anderson opened his actions on the 1st with a reconnaissance-in-force on the heavily vined woods in his front. In this movement, Anderson gave Kershaw the responsibility of leading the troops. Kershaw showed a preference for using his old brigade as a spearhead. His South Carolinians had been recently strengthened by the Twentieth South Carolina, a large yet inexperienced regiment. The Twentieth was so large in comparison with the veteran units that Kershaw's old-timers called it the "20th Army Corps."
The Twentieth were parade-ground soldiers, thoroughly drilled by company but wholly unfamiliar with maneuver-by-brigade. The tragedy which was about to happen lay in the coincidence by which dates of rank made the Twentieth's commanding officer the senior colonel in the brigade. Since Kershaw had been promoted to division command, Anderson had procrastinated in recommending a new commander for the brigade. The clear choice and temporary commander had been John Henagan of the Second South Carolina. Now with the Twentieth in the brigade, their commander, Colonel Lawrence Keitt, who had no experience on the battlefield, was the senior colonel in the brigade.(break) Merritt's Cavalry Brigade was entrenched along the crest of a ravine, with timber in front and rear. Their right rested on a swamp and their left was opposite a clearing in the woods. The Confederate assault was preceded by a desultory fire until 8:00 a.m. At that time Colonel Keitt led his compact mass of silent infantry through the timber toward the awaiting cavalry. Keitt, mounted upon his gray charger rode ahead of his brigade. They crossed a field toward the heavy timber of oak and thick underbrush, where General Merritt's dismounted cavalry brigade was entrenched.
The Rebel skirmishers closed on the entrenched cavalry force and the firing gained in magnitude. As Keitt's force emerged from the scrubby underbrush, Keitt screamed his orders to charge. The rebel yell rang through the forest as the company front column leaped forward at the double quick.
A sheet of flame exploded from the cavalry line, and for three or four minutes the din was deafening.6 Flashing his sword in the early morning light, Keitt became a target for thousands of repeating carbines firing from behind their works. Keitt dashed forward and was killed in the first volley. The engagement was over within five minutes. Keitt's green regiment broke and ran. A gunner in a supporting battery described the battle as the, "most abject rout ever committed by men in Confederate uniform. Some were so scared they could not run, but groveled on the ground, trying to burrow into the earth." This break carried the veteran regiments of the brigade helplessly along in the tide.
When Kershaw ordered the Keitt attack, the remainder of the Confederate column halted on the road, expecting the march to be resumed. When the delay was prolonged, and a few random bullets began to reach the line, the Confederate veterans began to dig dirt with their bayonets and pile it with their tin cups to get a little cover. Others followed suit, and gradually the whole column was at work entrenching the line along which they had halted. Orders were given to close up the column and adopt its line as the line of battle. Artillery was distributed along the lines at suitable points.
Kershaw's Second Brigade (Bryan), its flank exposed and its line unanchored, could only retire out of range of the concentrated fire of the Federal carbines in the woods. Keitt's reconnaissance, which discovered nothing, comprised the daylight attack Lee designed as a flanking movement for two divisions.
The attack failed, and with it perhaps the greatest opportunity presented to Lee's army since the Wilderness. Anderson had nearly 13,000 men at his disposal with at least another 10,000 men (Pickett and Field) moving to his support against Sheridan's 6,500 dismounted cavalry. Though Kershaw tried to mount another attack later in the morning, the day had been decided by the succession of events which placed Lawrence Keitt in command of a reconnaissance-in-force.
The major portion of the Confederate column now became a line facing southeasterly. To the south of the Gaines Mill ravine, Clingman's line was readjusted. His left rested on the bank of the ravine. His right united with General Colquitt's left. General Wofford's Brigade took position on a hill to left (north) of the ravine about seventy-five yards to the right of Clingman's left flank. Clingman, studying the situation, became concerned about the gap between the two forces. Clingman asked the commander of Kershaw's nearest regiment to extend his line across the ravine. Not having orders to do so, the regimental commander declined. Clingman then made his concerns known to General Hoke, who assured him that his worries were unnecessary. General Hagood's Brigade would be stationed in front of his left and would cover this interval. At 9:00 a.m. Hagood's Brigade took position about one hundred and fifty yards in front of Clingman's line with his right regiment in front of Clingman's left regiment.
The right of Hoke's Division, Martin's Brigade, advanced the skirmishers of its center regiment, the Forty-Second North Carolina. This regiment drove back the Federal cavalry skirmishers and entrenched the crest of the spur running south of the road between the Cold Harbors.
A Lost Opportunity: The situation could not have been more favorable for the Confederates. Their troops had been on the ground for some time, and were well-rested. Wright's Sixth Corps had marched all night after a day's fighting, and at 6:00 a.m., was still some distance from Old Church. Wright reported that many of his horses and mules died of thirst on the grueling march. Captain Mark Penrose of the Ninety-third regiment of Pennsylvania Volunteers reported that "the march was a hard one, the day was sultry and dust ankle deep, which raised clouds almost suffocating."
At 1:00 p.m. General Anderson wrote to Lee: "...General Hoke reports that a column of about 15,000 men with artillery has been observed passing to our right...I will march at once to attack them." General Anderson, unsure of himself, decided not to attack the Federal column. Here we see a monumental missed opportunity. The results of a vigorous attack on the Federal Sixth Corps as it approached Cold Harbor would have provided enormous consequences to Grant's campaign.
Wright's Sixth Corps had been marching for at least nine continuous hours at this point. They had been marched almost the same distance on the previous day. Wright's men, by their own accounts and substantiated in numerous biographies and unit histories, were utterly exhausted. They were in no physical condition to deliver or receive an attack. James L. Bowen of the Thirty-seventh Massachusetts gives an illuminating account of the grueling march.
"Then the march was taken up and steadily pursued, and seldom had the brave men struggled through a more sever ordeal. The day proved intensely hot, the sun burning down with a lurid, brassy glare that seemed to broil the human flesh on which it fell; the way led through sandy plains, heated to the intensity of a vast furnace, from which the most terrible clouds of dust arose, not only high into the air, disclosing every movement to the watchful enemy, but as well choking the breath and blinding the vision of the gasping men who were marching through them. Everywhere the sun-stroke did its deadly work-men fell blinded and gasping from the ranks, strong, brave men who on a dozen deadly fields had looked death in the face without quailing, conquered now by the long, unceasing strain to which they had been subject and the might power of the elements."
It is possible that had Anderson launched an assault on the weary Sixth Corps while it was strung out in column along the road between Old Cold Harbor and Old Church, the results would have been the probable complete rout of the Sixth Corps. Anderson would have been interposed between Warren and Smith, putting incredible pressure on Sheridan's force and at least temporarily isolating Smith's Corps. Smith, who had brought a limited supply of ammunition, could not have withstood a long, drawn-out fight without being resupplied. Lee would have gone into action up and down the Confederate line to make sure that relief could not be sent to the Federal left.
Sheridan would not have been able to help in the fight against Anderson because he would have had to deal with Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry which was presently on his left. By turning to face a hard-charging Anderson he would have had Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry squarely on his rear.
Once the Sixth Corps rout would have occurred, and after interposing between Warren and Smith, Anderson would have had only to wheel his force to the left to be squarely on Warren's exposed left flank.
It is important to view other aspects of this little known juncture of Cold Harbor history. It has been pointed out that Lee put his army in jeopardy by moving Anderson across the front of the Federal army on the 31st. A Federal assault initiated by Warren would have possibly had similarly disastrous affects to the Confederate army.
Arguments from Grant biographers would be that neither he nor members of his staff mention in their memoirs the fact that the Federal army was in a position to be injured in such a way on the movement to Cold Harbor. There are many separate and distinct aspects of this campaign that neither Grant, Meade, nor any of the corps and division commanders were aware of during their life times. The various events explored in this section of the controversy did not emerge until the Official Records were compiled in 1902. These events are substantiated in the works of E.P. Alexander, Walter Taylor, and C.S. Venable, as well as statements made by Anderson. Also, the Sixth Corps regimentals give clear evidence of the problems being faced during this arduous march.
It is clear that the Confederate command structure had suffered dearly. It would be hard to imagine a Thomas Jackson, James Longstreet, Jeb Stuart, or a healthy A.P. Hill passing up such a tempting target as was presented to Anderson, Hoke, and Kershaw on the morning of June 1st.
Anderson did not follow Lee's orders of the preceding day. He failed to take control of the portion of the field assigned to his command. Hoke was not interested in leaving the safety of his trenches to make a daring move. Kershaw had tried two assaults in the morning and had no intentions of trying another. Anderson did mention this event in his memoirs. He understood that by not attacking, he had missed a great opportunity.
To summarize this portion of the battle we will note that Lee had taken great pains to rest his army at every opportunity in the retreat to the Chickahominy. His personal physical condition had suffered throughout the campaign and as a result, he was not able to direct the offensive against the Federal left flank.
The Federal army was greatly fatigued due to the continuous marches. The Sixth Corps, in particular, had been marched for longer periods than had any other corps or unit in either army.
The Federal cavalry, as directed by General Meade, fulfilled its mission. Two divisions, minus one brigade, succeeded in containing Anderson's Corps, Hoke's Division, and Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry Division. General Alexander wrote about this event, calling it a "rare opportunity." He bemoaned the fact that it was most unfortunate for the southern cause that Lee was not present to see that his plans were carried out. This was the occasion that could have possibly prevented Grant from reaching the Chickahominy. It is hard to say what would have been the results of such an attack. Critics argue that Civil War armies possessed an amazing ability to respond to local disasters, and execution of Lee's orders likely would have fallen short of the desired affects.
It is possible, and highly probable, that had the Sixth Corps been hit by a substantial force of Confederates while enroute to Cold Harbor, they would have been injured severely. Sixth Corps' regimental histories and other diaries confirm the belief that this was the hardest march in the history of the corps, and they were in a most fatigued state. Understanding this, and coupled with the fact that the Eighteenth Corps had not brought enough ammunition to either attack or defend, it is clear that this wing of the Federal army was in danger of being routed. Anderson's force had been in position since early morning, and their march to the Confederate right had not been long or of a fatiguing nature.
Confederate General E.P. Alexander states: "With Hoke's large division on its right flank, Longstreet's (Anderson) corps should have been able to quickly clear the way of three brigades of cavalry. It would have had then the opportunity to meet the 6th corps scattered along the road for many miles and in an exhausted condition...Lee was not upon the ground in the early hours of the day, and Longstreet was absent, wounded. No effort worthy the name was used to carry out Lee's plan of attack..."
. . . Federal Disposition : At 9:00 a.m. General Wright reported his arrival at Cold Harbor, and the position of the head of his column as "not far behind". The arrival of the Sixth Corps at Cold Harbor relieved the cavalry. At 1:00 p.m. Torbert moved his division of cavalry to a position near Parsley's Mill.
The march order to General Smith and letter of instructions sent to him from General Grant directed that the Eighteenth Corps be marched to New Castle Ferry. New Castle Ferry is not on the road to Cold Harbor. It is about a mile and a half north of Bassett's and about two and a half miles northeast of Old Church. Any move from Bassett's to Old Church via New Castle Ferry meant an unnecessary detour of about four miles. From White House Landing, Smith could have gone through Bassett's straight to Old Church. General Smith stated in his memoirs that he received orders from Grant at daylight of June 1 to proceed to New Castle Ferry, and there place his command between the Fifth and Sixth Corps.
Considering, by the nature of the order, that the need was urgent, Smith marched his men without breakfast. Upon reaching New Castle Ferry he found no signs of the Fifth Corps, the Sixth Corps, or a battle. He placed his command along the hills south of the Pamunkey and sent Captain Farquhar, an engineer on his staff, to Grant's headquarters.
Captain Farquhar met General Wright, who was then preceding the advance of his corps near Old Church. From this meeting the following message, dated 8:10 a.m., was sent from Wright's adjutant general to General Smith: Captain Farquhar has just met General Wright, and has shown him the order to you to take position on the right of the Sixth Corps at New Castle. General Wright thinks there may be some misapprehension, as he has been ordered to Cold Harbor, and is now on his way there. The head of his column is at this moment passing Old Church.18 Colonel Babcock, of Grant's staff, soon arrived, and explained that the order should have read "Cold Harbor" instead of "New Castle ferry".(break) At 8:10 a.m. the head of the Sixth Corps was passing Old Church, only two miles from Bassett's, where Smith camped. The Eighteenth Corps would not have occupied over four miles of road space, so it would probably have cleared Old Church by 8:00 a.m. at the latest. A simple mistake in logistics on the part of Grant will escalate the brutal comedy of errors that make the battle to be fought on June 1st so interesting. Had Smith been ordered to Cold Harbor instead of New Castle Ferry, he would have arrived early in the day.
Smith's command, retracing its steps, marched back to Old Church only to find itself behind the trains and rear elements of the Sixth Corps, which it followed to Cold Harbor. The day was hot, the dust stifling, and progress slow. The ranks were thinned by the falling out of exhausted men.
During the morning General Grant issued orders placing the Eighteenth Corps under Meade's command. At noon General Meade ordered Smith to follow the Sixth Corps to Cold Harbor. Smith would then position his corps to the right of the Sixth Corps endeavoring to hold the road from Cold Harbor to Bethesda Church. When this was done Smith was to cooperate with Wright in an assault along the Confederate line. It was important, according to Meade, to engage the Confederates as soon as possible so that they would not be able to entrench.
Meade's order, which General Smith says he received while on the march, named two objectives: the holding of the road from Cold Harbor to Bethesda Church, and cooperation in the attack to be made by the Sixth Corps. To do these things, the Eighteenth Corps had to wait until the road was cleared by the Sixth Corps. It would then move to the rear of the Sixth Corps and to the right past Wright's rear (Bethesda Church Road) into the country not yet occupied by Federal troops.
The order afforded an opportunity for deployment, but not a suitable base for an attack. There was no line over which connections could be made or contacts preserved with the Fifth Corps to the north. The Fifth Corps' left was nearly one half mile southwest of Bethesda Church. The distance between the Fifth Corps' left (Bethesda Church) and the right of the Sixth Corps (Cold Harbor) was three miles. Warren had reported that Confederate troops had entrenched a portion of the road between Bethesda Church and Cold Harbor. Even had there not been Confederates along this road, Smith's ten thousand man force was not large enough to effectively fill that space.
To summarize the many opportunities squandered during the day, we will look carefully at the movements of both armies. The Eighteenth Corps fell afoul of an organizational breakdown at Grant's headquarters. Smith had been ordered to march to New Castle Ferry not Cold Harbor. This moved the Eighteenth Corps in an opposite direction of where they were intended to be. These troops were exhausted by the time they reached the Cold Harbor Crossroads.
General Anderson failed to take advantage of the situation at Cold Harbor. The strategic crossroads was held by a thin force of Federal cavalry. A supported assault should have had the desired affect in removing Sheridan's troopers from the tavern. Anderson followed up this mistake by not making the ordered assault on the Sixth Corps as it advanced on the Old Church Road.
General Meade then sent the Sixth and Eighteenth Corps in an assault against the Rebel lines. The hard thrust was mostly contained, with moderately heavy losses in the attacking force. General Lee, realizing that the situation was in doubt, decided to ride to the Cold Harbor area to establish field headquarters and assume personal command in that quarter, a move that should have been executed on the 31st.
The evening reports made by Generals Wright and Smith speak of fears of holding their ground, and of uncertainty of a successful defense against possible counterattacks. These reports show a lack of knowledge of the situation as it existed on their fronts.
With six divisions, the Sixth and Eighteenth Corps had been confronted and substantially held by two Confederate divisions, Hoke's and Kershaw's. This was due to wrongly applied efforts and improper physical condition to launch an assault.
The Sixth Corps listed 1,200 casualties, while Smith reported his losses at 1,000. The two corps captured 750 prisoners. Both armies had made monumental mistakes in placing inexperienced regiments in the vanguard of their respective assaults. Kershaw's assault in the morning was lead by Keitt's Twentieth South Carolina. Upton's assault in the afternoon was lead by Kellogg's Second Connecticut.
These large bodies of men may have been used as spearheads because they had more enthusiasm than the hardened veterans who had grown weary attacking earthworks at the Wilderness and Spotsylvania. These new regiments lacked expertise in judgement. Their pace was much quicker than their supporting units, and were quickly isolated in the sights of hidden guns. Their enthusiasm coupled with their lack of expertise could only allow for a bloody and unsuccessful end.
Summary of the Fighting on June 1st
Meade had succeeded in obeying one of the rules of the art of war; but had disobeyed many, and three in particular. He had obtained a preponderance of manpower when he had placed six divisions against the enemy's two. He had marched three of these divisions (Sixth Corps) all night and through the morning. With no sleep and scant opportunity for eating, he had brought them to the battle line physically unfit for the supreme test. The other three divisions (Eighteenth Corps) had slept the night before, but because of the blunder at Grant's headquarters, had been sent on a march in the wrong direction (New Castle Ferry). Later they marched through the blazing heat and in the dust of the Sixth Corps directly to the battlefield. Meade had, indeed, obtained preponderance of numbers, but he had disobeyed the rule which requires that the men shall be in such condition that a superiority in numbers means a superiority of force.
The second rule disobeyed was that which requires a general to avoid doing what his enemy expects him to do. Federal Army headquarters had received a number of reports indicating that Lee was preparing to block any move around his right flank. Anderson relieved the cavalry on the Cold Harbor front. The infantry then began building breastworks which further indicated Lee's intention, yet the order was issued for that action which the enemy had anticipated.
The third rule disobeyed was the ordering of an attack without sufficient knowledge of the terrain. There does not appear to have been any real reconnaissance made of the area over which the attack was made. This lack of information paralyzed the two flank divisions of the two Federal corps involved. These two divisions (Martindale's and Neill's) were placed to ward off dangers which did not exist.
...Seeds for Disaster: The Federal disaster at Cold Harbor was a result of poor or no communication. The following correspondence, taken from the Official Records, provide the dialogue that will eventually spell defeat for Generals Grant and Meade at Cold Harbor:
At 3:30 p.m. General Meade sent General Hancock (Second Corps) the following order: You will make your arrangements to withdraw your corps tonight and move via Haw's Shop to the rear of Bethesda Church. Your corps will be massed somewhere in the vicinity of these headquarters at Via's house. You will begin to withdraw as soon as it is dark. Notify Burnside when the last of your troops move, and when you withdraw your pickets. This order deserves attention because of its contradictions. When it is compared with the information sent later, it shows a change in plans, apparently brought about by the developments on the Sixth Corps' front. A corps massed at Via's House would not be in the rear of Bethesda Church, within the meaning of the term "rear", as it is generally used in a military sense.
Wright's report of a strong enemy concentration on his front and the plea for reinforcements contained in his report of 7:30 p.m., convinced Meade to send Hancock straight through to the left. At 9:00 p.m. Meade sent the following order to Hancock:
Your best route is by Haw's Shop, Via's (headquarters) and Gibson's to Cold Harbor, Captain Paine will meet your column about Haw's Shop, and guide you. You must make every exertion to move promptly, and reach Cold Harbor as soon as possible. At that point you will take position to re-enforce Wright on his left, which is desired to extend to the Chickahominy...
The routing given in this order further shows that army headquarters was unfamiliar with the country in which they were operating. Neither the Campbell map nor the map of Michler and Michie, made from surveys in 1867 show any accessible road from Gibson's to Cold Harbor, except the one passing through the Eighteenth Corps' lines.
At 8:30 p.m. General Hancock notified army headquarters that he was withdrawing from the Totopotomoy front, and by 11:00 p.m. two of his divisions were on the march, with the third just commencing to move. This was the beginning of what is described by one of the participants as one of the most severe marches of the campaign.
General Meade sent Captain Paine, an engineering officer, to guide Hancock to Cold Harbor. Paine, realizing the urgency of moving the corps, had found a narrow shortcut through the woods. After moving for nearly six miles, the road was found to be too narrow. The Second Corps' guns became stuck between trees.
In the darkness, as a result of both fatigue and confusion, the troops became mixed to a point that it took some time to get them straightened out and marched back to the correct road.79 The proposed nine mile march from the Federal right to Cold Harbor now turned into a fifteen mile march. The night had been intensely hot and breathless. The march through roads deep with dust had been exceedingly trying.80 There would be no way that Hancock would be able to reach Cold Harbor at daybreak of the 2nd of June.
This shift of the Second Corps from the right to the left of the Federal army shows the lack of design on the part of Meade's headquarters concerning the offensive operations against Lee's army. The offensive on the left (Sixth and Eighteenth Corps) had failed, and had then become a defensive operation. Troops were then drawn from an active line (Second Corps) to a reserve, then ordered to the defensive left as a support. There was a hint of the possibility of transforming the defensive operation to an offensive. The tactical movements ordered precluded the use of the elements of surprise, mass, and strength, and thus, surrendered those rules which are vital to a successful offensive.
The crossing of the Chickahominy, which General Meade on the night of June 1st says he was desirous of securing, should have been secured a day sooner. The digging in by the Confederate army was to be prevented on June 2nd by the combined assaults of the Sixth, Eighteenth, and Second Corps. This digging in should have been made impossible by Sheridan's Cavalry on the evening of May 31st. Meade's orders for a defensive operation were timely, but those for an offensive were too late.
During the day correspondence passed between Meade, Wright and Sheridan, to show that Sheridan had been ordered to attack to the left of the Sixth Corps. For various reasons, the cavalry remained in the camps to which they had retired. They had met with only slight skirmishing with Fitzhugh Lee's Cavalry.
Wright's message to Meade of 9:30 p.m. had still further impressed General Grant, as well as army headquarters, with the apparent necessity of reinforcing Wright. General Grant explained:
General Hancock had better be advised to get one division of his corps through to Wright before daylight, and the whole corps as soon as possible.
Meade was still uncertain as to the best point at which to employ the Second Corps, and at 10:10 p.m. he wrote Wright, asking the Sixth Corps' commander where to place the Second Corps. He understood that the main problem with the offensive to date had been the fact that the Army of the Potomac was occupying lines that were too long, and not massing enough. Meade explained to Wright that he intended to make an all-out assault early in the morning using the entire line, with the lone exception of Burnside's Corps. Burnside would protect the right flank. Meade believed that a vigorous assault would push Lee's army across the Chickahominy.
At 10:20 p.m. Wright replied by explaining that he felt the Second Corps should be placed on his left flank. He felt sure that Hancock should have no trouble in getting to this position before daylight. If Hancock could arrive in time, Wright felt they would then have enough weight to carry the Confederate works.
Upon receipt of this plea and advice, Meade issued orders to Wright and Hancock at 10:45 p.m. He advised Wright to renew the attack when the Second Corps arrived at Cold Harbor. He explained to Hancock that the Second Corps would take an offensive position on the left of the the Sixth Corps. Hancock's objective was to turn Lee's right flank and to interpose between the Confederate army and the Chickahominy. Hancock was informed that he could expect help from Sheridan's Cavalry, which was then operating in the area.
Meade was concerned that the Second Corps would not be able reach Cold Harbor before daylight. He explained to General Hancock that if he could not get into position to launch the flanking attack by daylight, then he would be expected to support General Wright's frontal assault at Cold Harbor.
The correspondence between Generals Grant and Meade just preceding the final orders for beginning the next day's work, is of interest. At 10:15 p.m. Meade wrote Grant:
What are your views about tomorrow? I think the attack should be renewed as soon as Hancock is within supporting distance, and should be made by Wright, Smith, and Hancock...Hancock has been urged to push forward with dispatch, and guides sent him. I think his advance will be at Cold Harbor early in the morning, say by 6:00 a.m. Warren does not seem to have effected anything, on his front, except repulsing attacks on him. He should, however, be ordered to attack in conjunction with the others. Burnside I would hold ready to re-enforce Warren if necessary.
To this Colonel Comstock, Grant's aide, replied:
Lieutenant-General Grant desires me to say that he thinks the attack should be renewed tomorrow morning by all means, but not till Hancock is within supporting distance of Smith. Warren should attack in connection with Smith and Wright, and Burnside held in readiness to support Warren.
It will easily be recognized that General Grant's picture of the formation for the operation on the next day is not that actually covered by General Meade's orders. Meade obviously had not understood the fatigue factor that had been created by the long and cumbersome marches. He was not viewing the situation in the same way that Grant was.
Grant's perception of the proposed line of battle for June 2nd was a line that included Warren's Fifth Corps on the right, Smith's Eighteenth Corps in the center, and Wright's Sixth Corps on the left. The Ninth Corps was placed on the right to act as a support for the right flank. Grant understood that Hancock's Corps would not be in condition to be a part of the proposed assault, but mentioned that Hancock should be in the vicinity in order to act as a support for the center. Sheridan would support the left flank. This perception of the line gave a short line and a mass formation in depth.
General Meade's perception is different. He proposed that the Federal line be shortened on the right by moving the Second Corps to the left. This would extend the left and leave no support for the center. The supporting action on the wings was indefinitely stated. The Ninth Corps was directed to support Warren. Sheridan had been directed to cooperate with Hancock.
General Meade's unofficial view of the situation is told in a letter to his wife, written at 6:00 p.m. on June 1st:
We are pegging away here, and gradually getting nearer and nearer to Richmond, although its capture is yet far off. Our advance is within two miles of Mechanicsville, which, if you remember, is the place where the fighting commenced in Seven Days. The rebs keep taking up strong positions and entrenching themselves. This compels us to move around their flank, after trying to find some weak points to attack. This operation has now occurred four times, namely, crossing the Rapidan, at Old Wilderness, at Spottsylvania Court House, and recently at North Anna. We shall have to do it once more before we get them into their defenses at Richmond, and then will begin the tedious process of a quasi-siege, like that at Sebastopol; which will last as long, unless we can get hold of their railroads and cut off their supplies, when they must come out and fight.
Whilst I am writing the cannon and musketry are rattling all along our lines, over five miles in extent, but we have become so accustomed to these sounds that we hardly notice them.
The papers are giving Grant all the credit of what they call successes; I hope they will remember this if anything goes wrong.
This page last updated 02/16/02
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Ten-year-old orphan Jane Eyre lives unhappily with her wealthy relatives, the Reed family, at Gateshead. Resentful of the late Mr. Reed’s preference for her, Jane’s aunt and cousins take every opportunity to neglect and abuse her as a reminder of her inferior station. Jane’s only salvation from her daily humiliations is Bessie, the kindly servant who tells her stories and sings her songs. One day, Jane confronts her bullying cousin, John, and Mrs. Reed punishes her by imprisoning her in the “red-room,” the room in which her uncle died. Convinced that she sees her uncle’s ghost, Jane faints. When she awakes, Jane is being cared for the apothecary, Mr. Lloyd, who suggests that she be sent off to school. Mrs. Reed is happy to be rid of her troublesome charge and immediately sends Jane to the Lowood School, an institution fifty miles from Gateshead.
Jane soon discovers that life at the Lowood School is bleak, particularly because of the influence of the hypocritical headmaster, Mr. Brocklehurst, whose cruelty and evangelical self-righteousness results in poor conditions, inedible meals, and frequent punishments for the students. During an inspection of the school, Mr. Brocklehurst humiliates Jane by forcing to stand on a stool in the middle of the class and accusing her of being a liar. The beautiful superintendent, Miss Temple, believes in Jane’s innocence and writes to Mr. Lloyd for clarification of Jane’s nature. Although Jane continues to suffer privations in the austere environment, Miss Temple’s benevolence encourages her to devote herself to her studies.
While at Lowood, Jane also befriends Helen Burns, who upholds a doctrine of Christian forgiveness and tolerance. Helen is constantly mistreated by Miss Scratcherd, one of the more unpleasant teachers at the school, but maintains her passivity and “turns the other cheek.” Although Jane is unable to accept Helen’s doctrine completely – her passionate nature cannot allow her to endure mistreatment silently– Jane attempts to mirror Helen’s patience and calmness in her own character. During the spring, an outbreak of typhus fever ravages the school, and Helen dies of consumption in Jane’s arms. The deaths by typhus alert the benefactors to the school’s terrible conditions, and it is revealed that Mr. Brocklehurst has been embezzling school funds in order to provide for his own luxurious lifestyle. After Mr. Brocklehurst’s removal, Jane’s time at Lowood is spent more happily and she excels as a student for six years and as a teacher for two.
Despite her security at Lowood, Jane is dissatisfied and yearns for new adventures. She accepts a position as governess at Thornfield Manor and is responsible for teaching a vivacious French girl named Adèle. In addition to Adèle, Jane spends much of her time at Thornfield with Mrs. Fairfax, the elderly housekeeper who runs the estate during the master’s absence. Jane also begins to notice some mysterious happenings around Thornfield, including the master’s constant absence from home and the demonic laugh that Jane hears emanating from the third-story attic.
After much waiting, Jane finally meets her employer, Edward Rochester, a brooding, detached man who seems to have a dark past. Although Mr. Rochester is not handsome in the traditional sense, Jane feels an immediate attraction to him based on their intellectual communion. One night, Jane saves Mr. Rochester from a fire in his bedroom, which he blames on Grace Poole, a seamstress with a propensity for gin. Because Grace continues to work at Thornfield, Jane decides that Mr. Rochester has withheld some important information about the incident.
As the months go by, Jane finds herself falling more and more in love with Mr. Rochester, even after he tells her of his lustful liaison with Adèle’s mother. However, Jane becomes convinced that Mr. Rochester would never return her affection when he brings the beautiful Blanche Ingram to visit at Thornfield. Though Rochester flirts with the idea of marrying Miss Ingram, he is aware of her financial ambitions for marriage. During Miss Ingram’s visit, an old acquaintance of Rochester's, Richard Mason, also visits Thornfield and is severely injured from an attack - apparently by Grace - in the middle of the night in the attic. Jane, baffled by the circumstances, tends to him, and Rochester confesses to her that he made an error in the past that he hopes to overturn by marrying Miss Ingram. He says that he has another governess position for Jane lined up elsewhere.
Jane returns to Gateshead for a few weeks to see the dying Mrs. Reed. Mrs. Reed still resents Jane and refuses to apologize for mistreating her as a child; she also admits that she lied to Jane’s uncle, John Eyre, and told him that she had died during the typhus outbreak at Lowood. When Jane returns to Thornfield, Rochester tells her that he knows Miss Ingram’s true motivations for marriage, and he asks Jane to marry him. Jane accepts, but a month later, Mason and a solicitor, Mr. Briggs, interrupt the wedding ceremony by revealing that Rochester already has a wife: Mason's sister, Bertha, who is kept in the attic in Thornfield under the care of Grace Poole. Rochester confesses his past misdeeds to Jane. In his youth he needed to marry the wealthy Bertha for money, but was unaware of her family's history of madness. Despite his best efforts to help her, Bertha eventually descended into a state of complete madness that only her imprisonment could control. Jane still loves Mr. Rochester, but she cannot allow herself to become his mistress: she leaves Thornfield.
Penniless and devastated by Mr. Rochester’s revelations, Jane is reduced to begging for food and sleeping outdoors. Fortunately, the Rivers siblings, St. John (pronounced “Sinjin”), Diana, and Mary, take her into their home at Moor House and help her to regain her strength. Jane becomes close friends with the family, and quickly develops a great affection for the ladies. Although the stoically religious St. John is difficult to approach, he finds Jane a position working as a teacher at a school in Morton. One day, Jane learns that she has inherited a vast fortune of 20,000 pounds from her uncle, John Eyre. Even more surprising, Jane discovers that the Rivers siblings are actually her cousins. Jane immediately decides to share her newfound wealth with her relatives.
St. John is going to go on missionary work in India and repeatedly asks Jane to accompany him as his wife. She refuses, since it would mean compromising her capacity for passion in a loveless marriage. Instead, she is drawn to thoughts of Mr. Rochester and, one day, after experiencing a mystical connection with him, seeks him out at Thornfield. She discovers that the estate has been burned down by Bertha, who died in the fire, and that Mr. Rochester, who lost his eyesight and one of his hands in the fire, lives at the nearby estate of Ferndean. He is overjoyed when she locates him, and relates his side of the mystical connection that Jane had. He and Jane soon marry. At the end of the novel, Jane informs the readers that she and Mr. Rochester have been married for ten years, and Mr. Rochester regained sight in one of his eyes in time to see the birth of his first son. | <urn:uuid:434202b4-ce21-457a-93cd-c033a3a25d0f> | {
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Diagnosing Breast Cancer Earlier with
The Women’s Imaging Center at Virginia Hospital Center is recognized as a Breast Imaging Center of Excellence by the American College of Radiology (ACR). It meets the ACR’s rigorous standards for accreditation in mammography, stereotactic breast biopsy, breast ultrasound and ultrasound-guided biopsy.Awards & Recognition >
The Women’s Imaging Center is now offering
3D mammography, also known as breast tomosynthesis, a new, cutting-edge screening tool for breast cancer. Sarah Mezban, MD, a radiologist who is fellowship-trained in breast imaging, explains how 3D mammography works and why it’s an important advance in early breast cancer detection.
What is 3D mammography?
3D mammography allows doctors to examine breast tissue one layer at a time. It uses high-powered computing to convert digital breast images into a stack of very thin layers, or slices, building what is essentially a threedimensional mammogram.
What is the difference between 3D mammography and conventional digital mammography?
Conventional digital mammography is still one of the most advanced technologies available for diagnosing breast cancer; however, it shows all the breast tissue at a glance where one feature can hide in the shadow of another.
3D imaging eliminates or reduces the superimposing shadow and a radiologist can see and search through your breast in 1 mm layers, almost like turning pages in a book. This makes it easier for doctors to determine if there’s any cause for concern, and decreases the chance for a tumor to hide behind overlapping tissue.
3D mammography locates tumors that are harder to find or may have been missed by conventional mammography. It also means there is less chance that your doctor will call you back for a second look because now all of the breast tissue can be seen more clearly.
Who should have a 3D mammogram exam?
It is approved for all women who would undergo their annual screening or diagnostic mammogram. It is helpful to all women, regardless of their breast density.
What happens during the exam?
Currently, 3D mammography complements, but does not replace, the standard two-dimensional digital mammogram and it only takes a few more seconds for each view. Both mammograms are done at the same time, using the same compression and mammography system. The X-ray mammography machine sweeps over the breast from one side to the other in a slight arch motion and a series of digital images are obtained and processed to generate the 3D images.
Are there any risks?
Just as with conventional mammography, 3D mammography uses very low doses of X-rays. The total radiation dose is similar to a conventional digital mammogram and is safely below the guidelines approved by the American College of Radiology.
Will my insurance pay for a 3D mammogram?
Because this technology is so new, 3D mammography is not covered by insurance at this time. There is an additional $50 charge for the 3D mammogram and it is done only at the patient’s request. The charge for the conventional mammogram is billed to the patient’s insurance.
Do I need a physician referral for a 3D mammogram?
You will need a referral from your physician to schedule your digital screening or diagnostic mammogram, but your doctor does not have to specifically order the 3D mammogram. If you are interested in having a 3D mammogram, please notify the scheduler when you call to make an appointment. | <urn:uuid:b8988f2e-a20d-4f85-9da4-0d0e88be6327> | {
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Monday, March 24, 2008
Archaeologists want to use light to recreate the brilliant colors once seen on Trajan's Column in Rome.
The chaste white of Roman temples and monuments is a product of centuries of wear that has removed the original paint. The archaeology department in Rome is discussing the technical details of creating a light beam that would temporarily repaint the column, with the power company Acea and researchers at Rome University, the Italian news agency Ansa reported.
Under the plan, the column would be illuminated on weekends for a few minutes every hour.
''Nothing acts like light to deepen our understanding, activating our emotional brain,'' said Maurizio Anastasi, head of the technical office in the city archaeology department.
Roman Archaeology Timeline
Roman Archaeology on Dipity. | <urn:uuid:26a25a29-3f6d-4b1b-bfcb-f03062ed09d8> | {
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In recent weeks, millions of small, jellyfish-like sea creatures, also scientifically known as “velella velella,” are getting blown onto beaches, from California to Washington. This jellyfish epidemic started about four to six weeks ago, way back in March, when jellyfish were found washing up on Oregon and Washington beaches. The latest sighting was actually just about a week or so ago at Ocean Shores, Washington, where swarms of the purple-colored, oval-shaped sea creatures washed along the shore, dying in astonishingly horrific numbers. This has been the biggest incursion we have ever seen here on the west coast. Some even say billions have washed along the shores of the west coast.
Rus Higley, an environmental studies professor at the UWT, says that he “went to the beach a month ago and saw hundreds down at the shore.” He says this is a common occurrence that happens every year. These jellyfish drift along regularly on the surface of the ocean, riding along the wind and water currents in search of food. They get pushed along the water whenever the direction of the wind changes, Higley adds, due to their triangular “sail.” If the wind is strong enough, the jellyfish get pushed towards the shore to their certain death. Ever since March, surface wind blowing from west to east over the northeast Pacific toward coastal Washington and northwest Oregon has been stronger than average. Not only that, but the ocean’s surface temperature has risen drastically in recent years too. But can this really be a result of strong winds and above-average sea surface temperatures? Several biologists believe these changes could be a result of climate change, but Higley says that “there’s not enough evidence that this is related to climate change; we can only speculate.”
It’s predicted that this will continue along the West Coast beaches throughout the summer months, which won’t be fun for beach-lovers who want a good swim. According to Higley, this is a natural cycle for these jellyfish. There is no point in trying to rescue them because by the time you see them on the beach they are already dead. But if you do happen to see any jellyfish the next time you go to the beach, you can always go check them out. Although, by the time you do you will only see their triangular shells, they are beautiful creatures worth seeing. | <urn:uuid:69ed548d-1b14-422d-a010-5c3d7abdfda1> | {
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Using Chinese star power to fight ivory poaching in Africa
The biggest demand for ivory is in China, so conservationists are trying to give Chinese consumers a greater understanding of poaching – with the help of Chinese celebrities like Yao Ming.
William Davies/Special to The Christian Science Monitor
It's a little after sunrise on a chilly Friday morning, and one of the world's tallest living men, former Houston Rockets center Yao Ming, stands towering over a 10-day-old baby elephant called Kinango.
With a red-and-black checked blanket over his back to ward off the cold, Kinango playfully head-butts the 7 ft. 6 in. former NBA player's legs, barely reaching his knees.
"It's hard to think something so small will grow up to be so big," Mr. Yao says, fully aware of the self-effacing humor in his words.
Sadly, it is once again far from certain that Kinango, whose mother was killed by poachers and who is now cared for at Nairobi's elephant orphanage, will grow to full size and live an elephant's full life of many decades.
Rising demand among China's newly wealthy middle class has seen the price of ivory triple in five years.
Seizures of smuggled African tusks have doubled in less than a year, to more than 23 tons in 2011, signaling the death of perhaps 4,500 elephants. There are only an estimated 400,000 left in Africa.
The crisis, the like of which has not been seen since the 1980s, has conservationists thinking again about how to stop the slaughter.
And they have come up with some clever new approaches, based on the simple mathematics of economics: Remove the demand for ivory, and you cut the supply.
The supply still comes from Africa – from Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The biggest demand, now, by far, is in China.
That is why Yao, China's best-known sportsman, who carried his country's flag into the Bird's Nest stadium at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, is in Kenya, filming a documentary about poaching.
Harnessing star power
He is one of a dozen of China's most famous actors, athletes, talk-show hosts, and musicians lending their names to recent conservation campaigns inside their homeland.
Many are directed by WildAid, a charity based in San Francisco, which uses slick television advertisements featuring these superstars and the simple slogan, "When the buying stops, the killing will too."
Such ads are now common on Chinese television. Anti-poaching posters with similar slogans fill billboards in Chinese cities, including one hoisted above a subway station serving Guangzhou city's famous Ivory Street.
"To win this battle against poaching, we need multiple approaches," Yao told the Monitor during his visit to the David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, which runs the elephant orphanage.
"What I am trying to do is to raise people's awareness, to show them the reality of the ivory business. When the killing of elephants happens 10,000 miles away from you, it's easy to hide yourself from that truth. If we show people, they will stop buying ivory. Then elephants will stop dying."
Time is short, but with the involvement of global figures like Yao, it may not be too late, says Elodie Sampere, head of conservation marketing at Ol Pejeta, a wildlife conservancy in central Kenya.
"I don't think any other celebrity has the kind of pull that he has, both East and West, and the awareness he'll raise I think cannot be beaten," she says.
"Now is the time for this kind of thing. It's increasingly difficult to find the poachers on the ground. They used to go out with bows and arrows and machetes. Now they have automatic weapons and night-vision goggles."
Traditionally, the fight against poachers has been carried out by rangers patrolling Africa's savannas and forests, and by sniffer dogs and customs officials scouring its air- and seaports.
Both have had success, but both are expensive and do little to address the dictates of economics that rule that, like narcotics, if there's a demand, there will be a supplier.
"As a movement we're putting a minuscule amount of money into reducing the demand compared to preventing the poaching," says Peter Knights, WildAid's executive director.
"My feeling is that we need to shift some of that money onto the demand side, to educate people who might buy ivory about the deadly business of ivory poaching."
Changing perspectives in China
There are hugely damaging misconceptions about ivory in Asian markets, according to a 2007 study for the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW).
Almost 70 percent of Chinese people surveyed said that they did not know an elephant had to be killed for its tusks to be taken. In the follow-up question, 80 percent of respondents then said that now they knew, they'd not buy ivory.
"It'll take 10 years, probably less, and then that education is locked in forever and we don't need to come back to it," Mr. Knights says.
And the approach works. In a similar campaign, also featuring Yao, the focus was shark fin soup, once a highly prized dish served on special occasions throughout China.
Like owning ivory, ordering shark fin soup was becoming a way for members of China's new middle class to show their wealth and their increasing access to the trappings of elite society.
Not anymore. In July, facing increasing public pressure, China's government said it would no longer serve the delicacy at any state banquet.
"Now it's something almost shameful for young middle-class people to eat," Yao says. "And I think that shark fin is harder to ban than ivory because there is a huge business chain involved whose living relied on shark fin, from fishing to shipping to sales, and many people could buy it. That's not the same with ivory."
Changing public perceptions about shark fin, using the television advertisements and billboards, was a crucial step to allow the government to announce its decision, Knights says.
"The ground had been prepared so that when they banned it, it already had overwhelming public support, and that makes it much easier."
That, essentially, is what is being tried with elephant ivory.
"This new surge in poaching is right across Africa, and scientists recognize it's caused by a rise in the demand for ivory, which is at an all-time high," said Iain Douglas-Hamilton, founder of Save the Elephants, which worked with Yao during his Kenya visit.
"The price has also never been so high. It is now time for individuals, NGOs [nongovernmental organizations], and governments to reduce that demand, and Chinese leadership is a vital factor."
Getting the message out in Africa ...
Many other organizations are working in innovative new ways to achieve the same end with ivory poaching.
Among the new tactics are arrangements with Kenya's embassy in Beijing to issue every Chinese citizen who is given a Kenya visa a special passport cover that carries messages about the illegality of smuggling ivory.
When China Mobile cellphone subscribers roam on Kenya's Safaricom and Airtel networks, the first text message they receive welcomes them to Kenya – and warns that poaching is against the law.
In hotels popular with Chinese workers and tourists in Nairobi, conservationists have won permission from the management to put brochures in rooms carrying messages about penalties for smuggling ivory.
"There is a very big push to make sure that these messages are reaching Chinese visitors both before they get here, and then when they arrive too," says James Isiche, director in Kenya of IFAW.
... And in China
In China, IFAW has won millions of dollars of pro bono advertising space on billboards and online to push its message. WildAid has found the same willingness for Chinese television firms to offer free ad spots.
Baidu, the world's largest Chinese-language search and photo upload site, now activates anti-poaching pop-ups every time any photograph is added or downloaded, something that happens 10 million times a day.
Earlier this year it banned 13 chat forums where users were discussing buying and selling endangered animal products, including ivory, rhino horn, and tiger bone. At the same time, 34,000 archived forum posts were deleted.
Another Chinese Amazon-like site, Taobao, scrapped sales of ivory products and has since worked with conservation volunteers to monitor for new words users were coming up with to describe ivory, and filter them out, too.
"There are 524 million Chinese people online," says Grace Gabriel, Asia regional director for IFAW. "Removing these platforms is very important."
'Shifting the demand curve'
Increasingly smugglers were seen using traditional national postal systems and international courier companies to move ivory, especially within Asia.
As soon as that trend was spotted, IFAW began educational seminars with workers to explain how to look out for ivory products and how to report them – and to make clear that there were penalties for collusion with the smugglers.
But those penalties are still neither strong enough nor properly enforced, Ms. Gabriel argues. "The penalties need to be increased everywhere."
"The current slap on the wrist, a fine or confiscating ivory, is not enough," she says. "The deterrent has to be stronger; the laws have to be tightened.
"We need truly to make this illegal and bloody business high risk, and the return on capital too low to be profitable."
It's the language of economics again.
Back at Nairobi's elephant orphanage, Knights, the WildAid director, echoes Gabriel.
"All that we need to do is to shift the demand curve so that nobody wants to buy ivory. We decrease the profitability by increasing the costs at the supply end, and reduce the demand at the market end," he says.
"If the buying stops, the killing will, too," he says, simply. "It's necessary, now, and most important, it's doable." | <urn:uuid:712bad4e-2bed-4b68-aff1-0c7a87204f9a> | {
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Women in Pre-Code Hollywood
During the days of silent film women were often portrayed as simple stereotypes, the ingenue, the saint, the fallen woman or the vamp, to name a few.
However during the what is now known as the Pre-Code era, the portrayal of women in film, grew from the stereotypes like the ingenue and the vamp into something more.
No longer stereotypes, these screen women had become complicated. This combination of sensuality, independence and playfulness, made them fascinating to watch and completely modern - Complicated Women (1993)
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Former Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee, 94, breathed his last on Thursday. He was a towering figure in Indian politics and came real close to settling the Kashmir issue with Pakistan for good. Besides numerous others feats during his illustrious political career that spanned several decades, Vajpayee also helped the Indian education system improve considerably.
Vajpayee and his government were behind India’s successful ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’ initiative, an educational project that saw millions of Indian children step into schools for the very first time. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) ensured that every Indian child between 6-14 years of age received free and compulsory education. As a result, enrolment in both primary and secondary schools improved, with a 2013 statement from the Indian government saying that the SSA had helped the school dropout number fall from 8 million in 2009 to just 3 million in 2012.
India’s net enrolment ratio at the primary level has also gone up to 99.8 percent due to the SSA initiative. At present, there are close to 191 million children enrolled in 1.45 million elementary schools in India, while there are 6.62 million teachers working at the elementary level, SSA claims.
Vajpayee’s government initiated the SSA on a pattern similar to District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) planned during 1993-94 that was aimed at improving the Indian education system. SSA now covers 18 states and 272 districts, and 85% of the total expenditure is provided by the central government. | <urn:uuid:7024d9af-ba79-460f-ab96-ae761d851f9c> | {
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There are many things that could cause a car to stall. Fortunately, this usually does not signal a major repair to your vehicle, and it can generally be fixed through some relatively minor adjustments or repairs.
1Consider the complexity of your car before beginning and take your car to a trusted repair shop. Modern cars (mid-nineties or later) have an ignition and fuel system that are in large part computer controlled, and it will be difficult for you to make any adjustments. You will want to take it into the shop to address this problem.
2Check for check engine lights or maintenance required lights on the dash board instrument cluster. Any fuel or ignition problem in modern CPU controlled engine systems will likely cause a code to be displayed, a check engine light, or maintenance required light to come on. If you are not able to use a scan tool, or don't have access to one, many auto parts retailer offer the use of one free of charge.
3The stall is likely caused by either a problem in the electrical system or in the fuel system. Your engine stops running because it is not igniting fuel in the cylinders. This occurs either because there is not any gas to ignite, or because it lacks the electrical charge to ignite it.
- Note that older, carburetor type fuel systems may have too much fuel entering the cylinders, a condition known as flooding.
4Drive the car up and down steep hills. Does this change the performance of the engine, or cause it to stall? This might indicate a clogged fuel filter. Replacing the fuel filter can often be relatively cheap and easy once you find out where it is located.
- Note that some vehicles have fuel filters located in the gas tank, and can be very difficult to access.
- Diesel fuel filters and multi-fuel filters can cost over $100.00, U.S.
5Does the car idle roughly and stall when at idle? If your car has a distributor, you may need to adjust the timing. With the right tools and know how, this is an easy and free task. If your vehicle has fuel injection, you can check the injector by using a screwdriver or mechanics scope. The injectors will make a clicking/snapping sound if working. No sound may indicate a bad injector. It could also indicate an electrical failure with the circuit that drives the fuel injector. Also, check the Ignition Control Module, which controls the timing of the voltage going to spark plugs, and supplies the spark to ignite the fuel/air mixture.
6If your car has a distributor, you might consider changing the cap, rotor, wires and plugs. This is effectively a tune-up. This can usually be done even by a relative novice to car repair, and take a couple of hours with the right tools. It seems counterintuitive, but even the wires and distributor decay over time, and transmit less electricity. This tune-up may solve your stalling problem — even if it does not, your car should run better and get better mileage afterwards.
7If your car diesels when you turn off the ignition, it means that your car most likely has a carburetor and the idle speed adjustment is too high. Dieseling describes the situation where you turn off the key, yet the car continues to run for a few seconds or longer, eventually sputtering to a stop. This does not occur on fuel-injected vehicles because when the ignition is turned off so is the fuel supply to the engine as well as the spark plugs.
8In rare cases, your car may stall due to what is commonly called a "vapor lock," a situation that occurs when the fuel lines supplying gas to the engine become hot enough to boil the gas in the line turning it into vapor. Fuel pumps are designed to pump liquid not “vapor” and thus fail to provide enough fuel pressure. However, a clogged fuel tank vent system can cause a vacuum in the fuel line that causes fuel to eventually stop reaching the engine. This also is a problem unique to carbureted engines. Fuel injected engines commonly have "closed loop" fuel delivery systems that make this condition unlikely to occur. Try opening your gas cap. If you hear a "whooshing" sound, like when you open a can of coffee, it means the gas tank is not venting properly. Now try starting the car. It should work after a couple tries. This is usually found only in older cars. If you have it, this will probably happen again, so your tank vent system should be checked for blockage. More often than not, the problem can be traced to a cheap replacement locking gas cap. A cheap fix is to drill a small hole in your gas cap to allow air in and prevent the vacuum from forming, but the gas cap should not be left this way.
- If you can find a friend who knows how to work on cars, ask them to teach you how to do these things.
- Certain modern cars may stall on hot days due to the fuel pump. The fuel pump is located at the back of the gas tank, and is cooled by the gasoline itself. On hot days where the car has been running for a while, the fuel pump may overheat and stop working, stalling the car. To prevent this issue, always keep the gas tank at least 3/8 full, or else you might find yourself calling a friend to bring you a gas can!
- Tune-up: most people do not know that a tune-up has changed entirely since the days of points and condensers. Now, besides spark plugs and fuel filters, Oxygen sensors should be replaced at 100k miles. This alone will improve fuel economy more than anything besides tire inflation. They will cause stalling as well if they are not functioning correctly. Another very important thing to check is to see if the Mass Air Flow sensor is dirty. This will cause poor performance and possible stalling. They can be cleaned with mass air flow sensor cleaner which is essentially quick dry electronic cleaner.
- Many newer vehicles with fuel injection have an idle air control valve. These can/will become dirty and sticky over time and cause idling and stalling issues. Most can be removed and cleaned with a throttle body cleaner. A carbon fouled throttle body can cause poor idling and stalling as well.
- Working on your car can be dangerous. Don't attempt any of these fixes while the car is running.
Categories: Car Maintenance and Repair
In other languages:
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 887,770 times. | <urn:uuid:aeb304cc-ed96-4a26-8d7d-50cdfb36ad44> | {
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State Unveils New South Bay Quake Danger Maps
SAN JOSE (CBS SF) – The California Department of Conservation has released a map for local government officials to see what areas in San Jose and Santa Clara County are vulnerable to earthquakes and where to take precautions when planning construction projects, a spokesman said.
The mapped area encompasses about a 30-square-mile swath of the city and the county where ground might slide and cause soil to become loose or “liquefy” during temblors, said Ed Wilson, department spokesman in Sacramento.
San Jose-area government officials can use the map to make decisions on where to restrict building projects to lessen the likelihood of human injury and property damage from earthquakes, Wilson said.
“It gives local planners an idea of areas that might be prone to landslides and liquefaction,” Wilson said. “How they choose to use it, they go on from there.”
John Parrish, state geologist and head of the California Geological Survey that prepared the map, said the chart is the survey’s first seismic hazard map that shows all of the hazardous areas of Santa Clara County in one place.
The map displays areas where quakes are most likely to produce landslides and liquefaction and the location of Alquist-Priolo Earthquake fault zones, where surface ruptures may occur, Parrish said.
The San Jose and Santa Clara County map is the latest in a series of seismic guides being released by the survey to show earthquake-prone regions throughout the state, Wilson said.
The Seismic Hazards Mapping Act, passed into law by California Legislature in 1990, mandates the creation of maps of quake-prone areas in the state, following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that triggered landslides and soil liquification across the Bay Area.
The state has already released more than 100 such maps, according to Chuck Real, supervising geologist for the survey, who added that the maps have had no effect on real estate prices in California.
The chart of hazards in San Jose and in Santa Clara County is known as the Lick Observatory Quadrangle Seismic Hazard Zone map.
(Copyright 2012 by CBS San Francisco and Bay City News Service. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.) | <urn:uuid:51217529-ee71-4fa6-9011-c5941a61fd26> | {
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Rudolf I or Rudolf of Hapsburg (rōˈdŏlf) [key], 1218–91, German king (1273–91), first king of the Hapsburg dynasty. Rudolf's election as king ended the interregnum (1250–73), during which time there was no accepted German king or Holy Roman emperor. The election was prompted by Pope Gregory X, who needed the support of a strong German ruler to counter the power of Charles I of Anjou in Italy. Rudolf's election was contested by the powerful King Ottocar II of Bohemia. Rudolf finally defeated Ottocar at Marchfeld (1278) and invested (1282) his own sons Albert (later King Albert I) and Rudolf with Austria, Styria, and Carniola, which he had won from Ottocar; these lands became the core of the Hapsburg possessions. Rudolf thus laid the foundations for a strong kingship based on large dynastic holdings. In Germany, Rudolf attempted to recover the rights lost to the crown during the interregnum. He issued local land peaces to overcome internal anarchy and imposed taxes on the imperial towns in order to strengthen the central government, but these measures had little success. In his Italian policy Rudolf attempted to conciliate the new pope, Nicholas III (reigned 1277–80), in the hope of securing the pope's approval for his coronation as Holy Roman emperor; Rudolf renounced his sovereignty over the Papal States and sought to bring about the withdrawal of the house of Anjou from central Italy. With Nicholas's death, however, and the election of an anti-German pope, Rudolf's plans for imperial coronation fell through. He also failed to have his son Albert elected king, which would have insured Albert's succession as emperor. Instead, Adolf of Nassau succeeded Rudolf.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on Rudolf I from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: German History: Biographies | <urn:uuid:bd6e53c0-61e6-4b8d-861e-5df63367f5d4> | {
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Small Variations in Genetic Code, Previously Thought to be Inconsequential, Can Team Up to Have a Big Impact
May 1, 2014
USC scientists find that complex interactions among genetic variants have major ramifications – and may help explain the “missing heritability” problem
Contact: Robert Perkins at (213) 740-9226 or [email protected]
Scientists at USC have definitively demonstrated that large sets of variations in the genetic code that do not individually appear to have much effect can collectively produce significant changes in an organism’s physical characteristics.
Studying the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, USC’s Matthew B. Taylor and Ian M. Ehrenreich found that the effects of these genetic variants can depend on four or more other variants in an individual’s genome.
Most genetic analyses of heritable physical characteristics, including genome-wide association studies in human populations, focus on so-called “additive” variants that have effects that occur regardless of the organism’s genetic background. Taylor and Ehrenreich, however, found that higher-order interactions of five or more places along the genome can have major impacts, and may help explain the so-called “missing heritability” problem, in which additive genetic variants do not entirely explain many inherited diseases and traits.
“Studies focused only on additive effects often explain just a fraction of the genetic basis of many traits. The question is, what are we missing?” said Ehrenreich, assistant professor of molecular biology at the USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, and corresponding author of a paper on the study that was published by PLOS Genetics on May 1.
An alternative view of Taylor and Ehrenreich’s findings is that genetic variants that have the potential to cause major changes in an organism’s phenotype can be completely canceled out if they occur in the “wrong” genomic background.
“It’s exciting to provide a characterized example of how genetic background can influence the effects of mutations. We hope that this will open the door for future studies to tease apart how these complex interactions happen,” said Taylor, a PhD student in the Molecular and Computational Biology Section at USC.
Their work could impact genetic mapping studies, suggesting that researchers will need to take an approach to understanding the genotype-phenotype relationship that encompasses complex non-additive effects.
Taylor and Ehrenreich plan to take a closer look at the molecular mechanisms that underlie these interactions, in the hopes of providing basic insights into how they occur in biological systems.
This research was funded by grant R21AI108939 from the National Institutes of Health and grant MCB1330874 from the National Science Foundation. | <urn:uuid:e01ce7c3-96e4-4348-9f7d-89c92d3a0a35> | {
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Much research data about people – even sensitive data – can be shared ethically and legally if researchers employ strategies of informed consent, anonymisation and controlling access to data. However, researchers obtaining data from people are expected to maintain high ethical standards and comply with relevant legislation and duties.
This guidance is generally provided by professional bodies, host institutions and funding organaisations. The laws that govern the use of data, in addition to the duties of confidentiality, include the following Acts:
- Data Protection Act (1998);
- Freedom of Information Act (2000);
- Human Rights Act (Article 8) (1998);
- Mental Capacity Act (2005); and
- Statistics and Registration Services Act (2007). | <urn:uuid:f317b2da-a0e6-48f6-8e0b-70a5a0dd2636> | {
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Of all the buzzwords of the retrofuture, nothing tickled the imagination of midcentury Americans quite like "automatic." Sure, the word pops up here and there in 1930s advertisements for things like the house of the future. And the word was incredibly popular during the rise of the push button at the turn of the 20th century. But it wasn't until after World War II that the word really kicked into hyperdrive. Cooking was going to be automatic. Highways were going to be automatic. Even building those highways was going to be automatic. But strangely, no one ever bothered to define the term.
Like any good buzzword being repeated incessantly, "automatic" came to lose any semblance of meaning for a lot of people. It was simply the word you used when you wanted to invoke a sense of The Future™ and no other word would do.
By the mid-1950s the United States had become an economic powerhouse, finally recovering from the recession that would follow World War II. And advertisements for consumer goods of the era included automatic everything. The January 1955 issue of Scientific American (found over at the lovely Modern Mechanix blog) included this ad for New Departure ball bearings. The ad promised that thanks to New Departure ball bearings, the drudgery of doing laundry would become a thing of the past. Automatically.
The contraption we see in this midcentury illustration surpasses any machine that we have even here in the 21st century. Not only does it wash and dry in a single machine, this automatic laundry even irons and folds, dropping your fresh clothes directly into a mobile carrier presumably for delivery to your bedroom closet.
From Scientific American:
Maybe it's hard to image a home laundry that washes, dries, irons, folds. But it's even harder to imagine this wonder — or any other — working without ball bearings... New Departures.
In fact, New Departure ball bearings play an important role in just about every product with moving parts. For more than 50 years, manufacturers everywhere have counted on New Departure for bearings.
Why this confidence? It's a matter of living up to a name. It means being first with new departures — like the Sealed-for-Life ball bearing. And New Departure will be ready tomorrow with the finest bearings... first!
As we've looked at before, there's considerable debate among historians about just how much time and effort was truly saved by the domestic labor-saving machines of the 20th century. Sure, women (and it was largely women doing the housework) would be able to save an incredible amount of time scrubbing floors and doing laundry. But the time saved was offset in many cases by an evolving standard of cleanliness, which meant more time cleaning. All the "automatic" (again, not a very clearly defined word by anyone) machines that were helping to keep the home of the 20th century clean were being used more and more often to keep pace. It was no longer acceptable to see the tiniest amount of dirt on your floor or to only wash your clothes biweekly.
The future as projected by American advertisers of the 20th century was of course bright and sparkling. But what gadgets and appliances made that possible? And were they "automatic" as advertised? What the hell do we mean when we say that word? Just as the definition of what constitutes clean has evolved in the last century, no one seems to be able to define what "automatic" means. At least not yet. Maybe that should be our goal for those making promises of our techno-utopian 21st century future. Siri, define automatic. [Modern Mechanix] | <urn:uuid:6e6d253a-a250-437e-9096-9ec360e0cfa4> | {
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As this is burrowing into the soil I think it is evidence of Mole activity.
Thank you Graham for Bank Vole ID.
No interactions present.
How big was the hole? It looks very small for a mole, more the size you'd expect from a small rodent
Record your ladybird sightings!
in new money 5cm. Do voles and shrews burrow into soil ?
Howardian Local Nature Reserve
Moles would produce more waste soil and rarely have exposed holes. This is a classic bank vole hole; if you put a thin stick down you'll find it goes straight down, they do this then do a 'U' turn.
Visit the iSpot Yorkshire forum for information on events, issues and news relating to 'God's own country'
Lat/Lng: 51.5, -3.2
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All children are different. Human beings go about things in their individual way and this makes them unique. Therefore the learning styles differ per person as well. The road children take to acquire knowledge is intrinsic to their personality.
Every person has a core, what Montessori called ‘The secret of childhood’. We are who we are. And we also want to stay whom we are. To feel true to our heart, we cannot become different to our origin. To become happy, we need acknowledgement for whom we are. This basic concept translates into predominant characteristics through which we are recognisable by others. It also translates into preferred learning styles.
This is where education comes into the picture. If we all agree that everyone is different, then this needs to be acted upon on a daily level. The traditional segmentation of large groups of children and students by birth date is unnatural. As if they would all be the same when divided by ‘batches’ of the same age. Yet, due to the adults having gone through the same system, and therefore accepting it as ‘normal’ it is still the way that most students are taught. But how can a teacher accommodate the needs of a large group of three year olds? How can a secondary teacher cater for the different learning styles of a class of 25 teenagers? The TED Speaker Series most-watched video clip is by Sir Ken Robinson named ‘Do schools kill creativity?’ He explains the educational paradigm shift that must take place in order for future generations to succeed and grow with our changing times.
You might also like to see the RSA Animate – Changing Education Paradigms.
Borrowing ‘Learning Style’ definitions from the book, ‘Math for Humans’, author Mark Wahl described four distinct temperaments, or ways of taking in and approaching the world. Let’s see if you can recognise your child’s (and your own) learning style with these short introductions:
Beavers like routine, logic and consistency. They love to go about their work in a methodical way. They like lists, adhere to the timeframe, do as you ask and feel comfortable within a framework. Within a team they are reliable and solid workers. They are challenged when they are required to come up with innovative ideas, creative concepts and open-ended questions. It annoys them when others frolic around and do not seem to be responsible for a solid outcome.
Dolphins are very much in tune with the emotional life of others, they like to assist, help where they can and often have a very positive influence on a group. Their work is colourful, unique, creative and well cared for. Due to their eye for detail, adhering to a time frame can be a challenge. They love brainteasers but dislike memorisation and tedious study that needs drilling. Those ‘boring questions’ do not deserve their energy.
Knowledge and reflection! These children are deeply interested in the functioning of the earth, mechanics, and the sciences in general. Knowing why and how phenomena take place absorbs their thinking. A deep, individual concentration assists their hunger for facts. Needing to be a team member or even a leader can be a source of great stress. They like to be left alone and are often not aware of the needs of others. Social interaction seems a ‘waste of time’, keeping him/her away from the more important things in life.
They are multi-task people, who know what others are going to say. They are keen and witty and understand concepts very fast. Give the fox a problem and solutions are found very fast. A fox never takes the same road to the chicken coop twice! Give the fox a book or series of calculations to work through and you will have a minimal response. They need to be able to wander on new roads, tease their mind and be innovative. Otherwise they will switch off and classify the surrounding as uninteresting.
In the Montessori classroom
In the Montessori classroom we help children grow up harmoniously. What does that mean? The teachers acknowledge the individual learning styles of each child while at the same time helping the child to develop the other sides of their personality. Why would one want to do that?
Self-esteem is boosted when the child feels respect for who they are and how they function. Their success in life is optimised by developing the techniques necessary to be able to work and communicate with those who are different. Being able to adapt to various situations instead of feeling threatened, allows the personality to unfold and function according to their potential!
Mark Wahl’s use of these four animal characteristics were based on the influential findings of Howard Gardner who introduced the idea of multiple intelligences.
For more information please leaf though our special publications on Learning styles. Here you will find the personality traits described per age range as they surface differently as the child grows older. Each document also describes how our school caters for the different learning styles and how we help develop the strengths and the skills of the other personality traits. Ideas for the home environment are included: | <urn:uuid:f39fc25c-a39c-4499-930d-a1bc73526db1> | {
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The Civil WarMichigan Answers the Call to Arms
The surrender of Fort Sumter on April 15, 1861, was startling news throughout the country, and Michigan soon received the President's call for volunteers. The state was asked to furnish one regiment of infantry fully armed, clothed, and equipped to aid the federal government in suppressing the rebellion. Although the state treasury was not in a condition to meet this request, subscription made the necessary amount available; ten companies were at once mobilized.
The President's call for Michigan troops was promptly met by the mustering in of the First Regiment and its early movement to the seat of war in Virginia. In the meantime, the War Department authorized Michigan to raise three other regiments, but at the same time stated that it was "important to reduce rather than increase that number." This authority only covered the Second, Third, and Fourth Infantry Regiment, already in process of recruitment. Many companies throughout the state, not included in the regiments named above, recruited without authority in the hope of obtaining places in those or other regiments. They were disappointed however, and 13 companies found service in the units of other states. By December 1861, Michigan had sent 13 infantry regiments, three cavalry regiments, and five batteries of light artillery, totaling 16,475 officers and enlisted men to the front.
As The War Continues
On July 2, 1862, the War Department assigned Michigan a quota of 11,686, as part of the proclamation for 500,000 men. The regiments recruited were as follows: 21st, Ionia; 22nd, Pontiac; 23rd, East Saginaw; and 24th, from Detroit and Wayne county. More companies were raised than could be placed in the district regiments, so the 25th (Kalamazoo) and the 26th (Jackson) infantry regiments were formed and sent into the field. The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Cavalry regiments were also organized.
Following the expiration of their three-year enlistment periods at the beginning of 1864, five thousand five hundred forty-five veterans reenlisted, entitling the units in which they were serving to the designation of "Veteran." These organizations were the First, Second, and Third Cavalry; Second, Fifth, Eighth, Ninth, l0th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th Regiments of Infantry; the Sixth Heavy Artillery (formerly the Sixth Infantry) and Batteries B, C, and E, First Light Artillery.
Because Michigan was on the Canadian border, it was continually threatened with invasion by rebels who had found refuge in Canada and were encouraged by the Confederate government to raid the northern states. During the time of these threatened raids, Michigan relied on the following forces to defend its borders against any hostile demonstration: six companies of the Second Regiment Veteran Reserve Corps, three companies of the State Troops, the Scott Guard, Detroit Light Guard, and Lyon Guard, with a section of light artillery.
At the close of the Civil War, Michigan's Colonel Benjamin Pritchard and the 4th Michigan Cavalry captured Jefferson Davis, the defeated Confederate President.
From April 1861 to April 1865, Michigan furnished 90,747 men, not counting 1,982 men commuting and 4,000 Michigan men who served in the units of other states. The first Michigan troops discharged from federal service, the 20th Regiment of Infantry, arrived in the state from the battle field on June 4, 1865 and the last, the Third and Fourth Infantry, arrived on June 10, 1866.
According to official regimental commander's reports, Michigan men engaged the enemy on more than 800 occasions. Of officers serving, 177 were killed, 85 died of wounds, and 96 died of disease. Among the enlisted men, 2,643 were killed, 1,302 died of wounds, and 10,040 died of disease.
During the war, Michigan furnished more than 30 regiments of infantry (including the First Colored, 102nd United States, Infantry), a regiment of engineers and mechanics, light artillery of 12 six-gun batteries, two batteries of medium artillery, a regiment of sharpshooters, 11 regiments of cavalry.
Photographs on this page are from the Michigan Historical Center | <urn:uuid:e3023ae2-018e-4b85-9d60-182e7b605b38> | {
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The ravages of alcohol take a toll on the body. When one drinks in excess for prolonged periods of time, tolerance of the effects of alcohol and physical enslavement compel one to consume alcohol.
Physiological dependence then sets in also. When the body can no longer tolerate the loss of alcohol, withdrawal begins. The signs of withdrawal can be characterized by shaking, excitability and headaches to name only a few of the symptoms.
The severity in the range of withdrawal symptoms depends largely on the amount of alcohol, length of time one has been an alcoholic and the patient’s age and physical condition. Mild cases may only suffer sleep disruption and temperate anxiety.
Severe cases of alcohol withdrawal can escalate to harsh and even life endangering distress. Convulsions, hallucinations, stomach upset with diarrhea, tremors and heart failure are among the extensive list of deterioration.
First of all, an assessment of the severity of the disease must be ascertained. A comprehensive evaluation of the patient’s physical, mental and psychiatric condition is determined before medical care can begin.
Important in this appraisal is to conclude possible complications such as gastrointestinal issues, heart impairment or diseases. Blood alcohol level and urine screening are performed since recent alcohol or drug use can create a higher risk for impediment to treatment.
The most severe alcohol dependence can begin showing symptoms of withdrawal within less than two hours after discontinuing use of alcohol. The unpredictability of the severity when withdrawing from alcohol often requires hospitalization for the requisite detox.
At the very least, a doctor, medical housing or a detox center where the individual can receive proper support and treatment is necessary. Family and friends can be of enormous reinforcement in the effort to rehabilitate the alcoholic.
Drugs to control seizures are common in alcohol detox. Protracted withdrawal symptoms sometimes occur, prolonging the intensity of the retreat of alcohol.
It may take up to a year to complete detox and initial rehabilitation for an alcoholic, and even then the yearning for the taste and euphoria of alcohol may persist. As well, the withdrawal symptoms may continue.
Vomiting, headache and insomnia are among the negative consequences when retreating from alcohol. Persistent symptoms can be treated with drugs; however, going in this direction may cause a backlash for the individual.
Brain chemistry changes with alcoholism. Abstinence from alcohol causes a different kind of conversion, eventually leading back to normal neurochemistry. Repeated alcohol detoxification then resuming drinking causes more severe withdrawal symptoms.
Relentless tremors and seizures create what is known as kindling. Kindling causes permanent damage to brain receptors and significant complicated medical ailments. Memory loss, cognitive defects and cortical damage are also connected to withdrawal.
Damage to nerves is yet another problem in the effort to withdraw from alcohol. Diverse pharmaceutical medications, such as barbiturates, either diazepam or lorazepam, are often used for severe alcohol detox situations.
Barbiturates suppress nerve activity and lower blood pressure. These types of drugs can also interfere with brain activity, creating slurred speech as well as balance issues. Erratic behavior can emerge; intense emotions and physical balance may be disturbed.
Another negative effect of barbiturates is inflammation to airways, leading to pneumonia at times, and the possibility of respiratory failure. Another repercussion when treating alcoholism with barbiturates is damage to the heart and liver.
If the recommended prescription drugs are combined with alcohol or other drugs, it can be fatal. At the very least, the use of barbiturates cause light headedness or dizziness, most often in the morning after rising. Depression, irritability, impotence and a host of other repercussions are possible.
Lorazepam is a very potent drug used much like diazepam. It produces relaxation of muscles with a sedative effect. It also includes an anti-seizure, anti-convulsion treatment. The potential for misuse is high and the medication should not be continued for long periods of time. Long term use can lead to dependence, anxiety and insomnia. Overdose of Lorazepam may lead to death.
There are cost effective programs for inpatient or outpatient alcohol detox plans. Mild cases of alcoholism may be treated best by outpatient status. Good nutrition, stabilizing blood pressure and heart rate, and possibly the requirement of intravenous fluids for dehydration are the start of detoxification.
Once the severity of withdrawal has been estimated, a plan of action may be developed. The patient is responsible to attend and complete the program for the alcohol withdrawal course to reach achievement.
Gradual tapering of alcohol use with the application of drugs for a few days is often the first step in the detox plan. It depends upon the patient’s alcohol dependence as to how the method would continue. The potential for complications of detox is a risk, but the potential for success is exceedingly more important. | <urn:uuid:aefa5668-2926-46c0-99e8-65f5afa28896> | {
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Pop-up book of Ancient Egypt, £14.99
Explore / Online Tours
Word into art
Word into Art
This tour brings together the work of contemporary artists from the Middle East and North Africa. The use of writing - quotations, words and even single letters - has emerged as a common theme in this vibrant and original art. Each object presented here is inscribed in or draws its inspiration from Arabic, the main script of the region used to write a variety of languages including Persian.
A Sacred Script looks at artworks which are based around the holy texts of the Qu'ran and the Bible. Literature and Art shows how poetry and the rich literary traditions of the Middle East have inspired artists in different ways. The works in Deconstructing the Word have been created using single words or letters. History, Politics and Identity examines how art has responded to crises and wars that have affected the Middle East. In the entry for each work, the artist's country of origin is cited first after their name, and their current place of residence second.
The tour includes highlights from Word into Art: Artists of the Modern Middle East, a free exhibition at the British Museum (Room 35) from 18 May to 3 September 2006. The exhibition draws mainly on works collected by the British Museum, with some loaned objects. It includes pieces by about eighty different artists, some of whom are represented here. This tour shows how writing, so important as both a method of communication and an art form in the ancient and Islamic cultures, continues as a powerful thread running through the art of the region today.
The exhibition was part of Middle East Now, a season of special events which includes lectures, films, poetry readings and music. The exhibition and the season were produced in partnership with Dubai Holding. | <urn:uuid:a6b46965-51d3-4c0f-909c-c9d8f29f8393> | {
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Contributing to the reduction of environmental risks from pharmaceuticals is an important part of the environmental work of Stockholm County Council. According to the Environmental Challenge 2016, the Council´s 2012-2016 Environmental Programme, the Council is mandated to i.a.do preventive environmental health work. This involves fostering healthy inhabitants in an environment with clean air and water. To reduce the most environmentally hazardous remains of medicinal products in the natural surroundings is therefore an important part of the environmental work of the County Council. One aspect of this work is the assessment and classification of pharmaceuticals according to their impact on the environment.
The pharmaceuticals are classified both in terms of their inherent capacity to affect the environment(environmental hazard), and as regarding the environmental risk posed by the pharmaceutical substances when used to their current extent. The environmental hazard assessment was initiated in 2003 by Environmental Department of the Stockholm County Council. During 2005, the classification was extended to also cover an environmental risk assessment carried out by The Swedish Association of the Pharmaceutical Industry (Lif).
The classification system is used in considering the environmental impact of the pharmaceuticals on the so called Wise List, a list of recommended pharmaceuticals for common diseases in Stockholm County Council, issued by the Drug and Therapeutics Committee.
M Sc Pharm
Department of Support for Evidence-Based Medicine,
Stockholm County Council
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Proliferation of Newspapers
By Cheryl Bolen
taxation, high cost, and government censorship that included
prosecution for libel, newspapers proliferated during the
In 1816, there were 31
national newspapers, including 14 in London. Daily papers
included The Times, The Morning Chronicle, Morning Post,
and The Morning Herald.
The leading newspapers
of those were John Walters' Times, which catered to
the Tories; James Perry's Morning Chronicle, a
vehicle for the Whigs; and The Morning Post, which
was heavily supported by the Prince Regent. Each of these
was a morning newspaper.
included The Sun, The Courier, The Globe, The Star, The
Traveller, and The Statesman. Other daily papers
were The British Press, The Public Ledger, and The
Monday-Wednesday-Friday included The London Chronicle,
The London Packet, and The Evening Mail.
Tuesday-Thursday-Saturday, the Commercial Journal,
the St. James Chronicle, General Evening Post, and
The English Chronicle appeared.
published only on Mondays included the Farmers Journal,
Country Chronicle The News, the Hunt Brothers' infamous
Examiner, the National Register, and Bell's
publications included Cobbett's influential Political
Register and Mirror of the Times while
Baldwin's Journal appeared only on Friday, as did the
Cost of newspapers was
a hefty 7 pence. It was estimated that because of the high
cost, each newspaper passed through twenty pair of hands.
They were also available at coffee houses and circulating
—This article was first published in The Regency Reader
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Nutrient packed foods can empower you during cancer treatment
Here’s what nutritionist Conner Middelmann wants you to know about what you eat: There is no magic superfood that can cure cancer, or keep cancer from coming back. But what you eat – and don’t eat – can make you stronger, help you feel better during cancer treatment, and may lower your risk for recurrence.
The closest thing to an anti-cancer superfood she can point to is lots and lots of vegetables and fruits. And when she says “lots,” she doesn’t just mean quantity. She means variety — everything from apples to zucchini.
“The more variety you eat, the better for you,” says Middelmann-Whitney, a nutritionist who offers community education talks to cancer patients in Boulder. As evidence, she points to a 2009 study that seems to link great diversity in vegetable and fruit consumption to a lowered breast cancer risk in women with the BRCA 1 and BRCA2 genetic mutations that are normally associated with greater cancer risk.
Not only are they packed with vitamins, minerals and fiber, they also lower inflammation. Vegetables and fruits form the backbone of the Mediterranean diet.
“The Mediterranean diet does not mean pizza and pasta,” she says. “It means olive oil, more veggies than fruits, legumes, nuts, herbs and spices, moderate amounts of meat — ideally grass-fed or pastured — and fish.” And regular intakes of fermented dairy, such as yogurt and kefir.
Just as she has no favorite anti-cancer food, there is no one food she considers a deadly weapon on a plate. Not even sugar, which is now considered neck-and-neck with fat as the greatest culinary threat to health.
“Cancer patients can get panicked by what they read online. Sugar isn’t going to give you cancer, though it is a source of empty calories. You can’t afford to waste calories on foods with no nutritional value,” Middelmann-Whitney says. Sugar also can cause blood sugar imbalance and weight gain, as well as disrupting the balance of micro-organisms that live in the digestive tract — all of which may contribute to an increased cancer risk.
Also on Middelmann-Whitney’s “least-favorite” list are processed foods. “Processing not only removes nutrients from whole foods, it also adds unnecessary and often unhealthy compounds, like flavoring, colors, sweeteners, preservatives, emulsifiers and empty fillers that our bodies don’t recognize as food.” And when you fill up on empty calories, you’re less likely to eat much more nutritious fresh, whole foods.
What exactly counts as a processed food? Most of the packaged items in the central aisles of the supermarket, that keep for months on a shelf, with labels that include numerous hard-to-pronounce ingredients, and which you couldn’t make at home, things like protein bars, breakfast cereals, sodas, cookies, candy and cake mixes. Those items are fine as an occasional snack, they shouldn’t constitute a large part of our diet, Middelmann-Whitney says. She cites food writer Michael Pollan’s admonitions: “Don’t eat anything with more than five ingredients, and don’t eat anything your great-grandmother wouldn’t recognize as food.”
In addition, Middelmann-Whitney has other general tips:
- Nourish your gut with healthy bacteria from foods like plain yogurt, kefir and sauerkraut. If you don’t like fermented foods, a probiotic supplement may help, but check first with your doctor to make sure it is safe for you.
- If you’re obese, lose weight — after your treatment is completed — because obesity is a risk factor.
- Enjoy your food.
Eating healthy food can have powerful psychological benefits, says Middelmann-Whitney, “Cancer patients and their caregivers often feel powerless and out of control,” she says. “Choosing, preparing and enjoying healthy food can feel very empowering.”
And, she says, don’t stress about every bite. “With your diet, every beneficial thing you do, and every harmful thing you avoid, is a step in the right direction.” | <urn:uuid:ba707196-b83d-4358-8e74-207a3a31970d> | {
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While faces in general appear to be better remembered that other homogenous pictorial material, some experimenters have noted that faces differ in their memorability. Cross, Cross, and Daly (1971) suggest that one characteristic distinguishing more memorable faces from less memorable ones is ‘beauty.’ They reported that when subjects were asked to identify faces as attractive they were more likely to recognize them in comparison to those who had not previously viewed the faces. Cross et al. required their subjects to scan an array of photographs to select the attractive faces without setting a specific time limit, which in part could have influenced their results. Cross et al. offer the hypothesis that attractive faces are more actively attended to, but studies in verbal learning indicate that evaluative judgments of words are associated with their ease of recall. For example, Amster (1964) found that the words evaluated as ‘good’ were recalled better than words rated ‘bad’, which in turn were more readily recalled than neural words. These results were attributed both to associative effects of evaluative words and to the possibility of facilitation due to affective arousal. The associative effects of the evaluated words refer to those interpretations of the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ words by the participants. The affective arousal effects are the emotional feelings the subjects experience when they paired the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ words with the ‘attractive’ and ‘unattractive’ faces. Thus, if ‘beautiful’ faces elicit positive evaluations, which presumably they do, the superior recall in beautiful faces in Cross et al.’s experiment might be attributable to facilitative effects comparable with those in verbal learning.
In the case of verbal materials, it is possible that both associative and arousal effects would operate; but with faces, the arousal effects are likely to be greater than the associative effects. Investigations of the effects of arousal become more marked with increasing time after initial learning (McLean, 1969; Kleinsmith and Kaplan, 1963). If attractive and unattractive faces do result in greater arousal than neutral faces, there should be less retention of neutral (versus attractive and unattractive) faces with increasing time between presentation and recognition. Shepherd and Ellis (1973) looked at this topic and found that the memorability of women’s faces is effected by their attractiveness, although this effect was significant only after an interval of five weeks. This suggests that retention of attractive individuals in more significant after an extended amount of time has passed between tests. Fleishman, Buckley, Klosinsky, Smith and Tuck (1976) ran a study similar to the previous one, but instead they offered another suggestion, which asks you to remember the faces by specific cues or features.
Facial and vocal characteristics have the power to influence subjects, especially if they are asked to determine whether or not the person being studied seems ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Yarmey (1993) used this concept and applied it to his research by looking at faces and memory and the law. He found significant a correlation between the facial traits of men and their vocal characteristics that differentiated ‘good guys’ from ‘bad guys’.
Research has also shown that attractive people are seen as more socially skillful, kind, outgoing and sensitive as opposed to unattractive people (Dion, Berscheid & Walster, 1972). Larrance and Zuckerman (1981) agreed that the attractiveness stereotype might foster social skills. Also that they are better at expressing pleasant affects but not at sending and expressing unpleasant effects. They found this to be true because a smile that is deemed attractive may have advantages over an unattractive frown, although an attractive frown and an unattractive frown were both seen undesirable. Adams (1977, a cited by Larrance & Zuckerman, 1981) claimed that confirmation of stereotypes takes place in four stages; attractive people 1) receive favorable expectations from others 2) enjoy better social lives 3) develop better self-concepts 4) manifest confident interpersonal relationships. Attractive people are better at communicating an effective message because they are seen as more skilled in sending nonverbal messages (Larrance & Zuckerman, 1981).
Not only are attractive people believed to be more skillful in persuasion and exhibiting characteristics that parallel persuasion, but they are also form superior self-concepts compared to unattractive people. One’s self-concept in developed and influence the most during adolescence where one discovers their physical appearance which exerts a lasting influence on their personality development (Jackson, Sullivan & Ames, 1987). Galper and Hochberg (1971) looked at this notion of retention and faces and noted that the characteristics of smiling and non-smiling expressions may play a role in recognition. This leads one to believe that expressional variation offers a topic for investigating the properties by which faces are discriminated and remembered.
Expressional variation within faces may include faces that do not resemble your own, maybe that of a different race. For many years, it has been suspected that face’s of one’s own race are recognized more accurately than faces of other races (Feingold, 1914). And this notion continues to hold true though research conducted by Zebrowitz, Montepare & Lee (1993) which revealed that people of one race showed equally high agreement regarding the traits of own and other-race faces. Brigham & Malpass (1985) claim that there is an own-race bias in recognition accuracy when it comes to race and face perception in connection with our long-term memories. The own-race bias appears powerful and is not easily changed by experimental instructions or manipulations. For example, the effect is not influenced by an experimental design that encourages different levels of cognitive processes (Devine & Malpass, 1985).
Some earlier studies (e.g. Malpass & Kravitz, 1969) had suggested that the own-race bias may be stronger among whites than among blacks. Barkowitz and Brigham (1982) also found a significant degree of own-race bias in recognition accuracy only among the white participants. Overall, they found a significant gender difference in retention. The male and female participants did poorer when they were asked to recall the photos of the males opposed to the females. Their explanation for differential recognition is derived from the intergroup contact theory, which argues that differential recognition stems from limited experience with members of other groups. Chiroro and Valentine (1995) found that their participants recognized own-race faces more accurately and more confidently than they recognized other-race faces. The own-race bias, an idea where individuals favor individuals of their own-race by remembering familiar faces. They also found the own–race bias was determined by the participant’s contact with members of another race. The own-race bias came into effect with those who had low contact with another race. Within the current study, the own-race bias will be tested with Caucasian participants to avoid any previous predictions about its effect on a cross-cultural population. The participants will view Caucasian and other race (African American and Asian) photos to separate whom they remember and whom they do not. This research deserves further research to answer questions of testing procedures and discrimination.
Purpose of Current Investigation
The literature shows that typical faces are poorly discriminated on tests of recognition than are atypical faces, an effect that is suggested to evoke similar findings for attractive or likable faces. Vokey and Read (1992) tested the effect of typicality on recognition as a function of familiarity and memorability and they found that familiarity decreased discrimination, and the memorability component enhanced it, supporting the hypothesis. Faw (1990) suggests that the reported studies, which look at the memory of faces compared with names, may have several flaws within the tests that distract the subjects. He shows that by putting the subject in a distractor-free environment, along with a conventional recognition test, the results are significant. This suggests that the method in which a subject is tested will prove to be more beneficial when the researcher administers a test, which is limited to pictorial and literal information on paper; opposed to slides, videos and audio equipment.
The data that Glenberg and Grimes (1995) collected shows that not only do subjects need a distraction-free environment but they also need pictures to generate rough personality schemas, which are then used to help organize the memory for the position statements. The participants were asked to view political candidates, and when the pictures were presented the subjects generated a greater number of characteristics for those candidates than those candidates whose positions were unaccompanied by pictures. Although, Dallett, Wilcox, and D’Andrea (1968) claimed that pictorial materials appear to be remembered directly through mechanisms which are unaffected by manipulations. With this understanding, the researcher of this study will opt to administer photographs with a brief description of the individuals shown.
It is predicted that people are remembered by means of their race as well as their level of attractiveness. One might also predict a significant main effect for the level of attractiveness and for the interaction between the sex of the stimulus. An interaction may not be found between the sex and race of the stimulus and the interval length between the tests. It is hypothesized that a significant difference will be found when the participants view and recall the photos on the levels of attractiveness, race and time between the stimulus photographs and tests. Significance is expected to be found in the retention of the attractive and unattractive photographs when they are compared cross-culturally. Within this study, it will be proven to show, that attractive people are remembered more so than unattractive people are and, that you are more likely to remember members of your own race.
The subjects were 20 Caucasian, undergraduate students from St. Anselm College, who were enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses. They received partial credit towards their final grade by serving as participants in this study. Ten males and ten females were tested on their retention on two separate accounts. At the end of the study the subjects were debriefed on the nature of the study.
The stimulus photographs were taken from a 1997 Central High School (Manchester, NH) yearbook. The photographs were pre-rated on levels on attractiveness. There were 20 male photos and 20 female photos that were pre-rated and narrowed down to six photos for each gender. The independent raters judged the photos on levels of attractiveness by means of Likert scale from 1-7, one being very unattractive and seven being very attractive (see Appendix E). Their scores were analyzed using a median split. The three photographs that received the highest rating for their respective category (gender, race and attractiveness) were selected as the stimulus photographs, yielding a total of 12 stimulus photographs. The photographs that scored the highest and lowest extremes as well as the median score represent each of the three levels of attractiveness: attractive, moderately attractive, and unattractive. Within each category there were two photographs: one Caucasian and the other-race photo was either African American or Asian. Once the photos were cropped, the researcher placed the six male photos (three Caucasian and three other) with descriptive paragraphs. Then the researcher then continued to do the same with the six female photos (three Caucasian and three other)(see Appendix F). The paragraph consisted of several factors such as their name, number of siblings, extra-curricular activities, and plans for college. The paragraph’s information did not vary too much between the levels of attractiveness or in the different races. There were two paragraph formats for which the photos were placed with. The researcher was interested to find a difference in retention within the participants on attractive and unattractive Caucasians and the attractive Caucasians and attractive others. The photos will be cropped to fit above each paragraph. In the first session the photos were studied with the paragraphs, and then just the photos are used when the test taking occurs (see Appendix G). The researcher’s reasoning for this in to test the immediate retention for the photos. When the participants returned three days later, once again, they received the photos without the paragraphs and the characteristic questionnaire. The difference in the participant’s memory within the testing scenarios will be analyzed prove significance with attractiveness and race over time, separately and in conjunction with each other.
The first test consisted of a set of personal characteristics that were adopted from the Age Stereotyping study by William Levin (1988). The stimulus photographs were once again copied onto paper, but this time they were paired with the sixteen seven-point semantic items (one will stand for the most negative and seven, the most positive evaluations)(see Appendix C).
A questionnaire will also be administered to the subjects but at two different time intervals immediately after and then again, three days later (see Appendix D). This questionnaire was accompanied by the stimulus photographs, which were used as a cues to help the participants answer a series of yes or no and fill-in-the-blank questions regarding the information that was in the biographical paragraphs. The researcher will use this test to measure the retention on the photos by comparing the immediate testing day to the one three days later. The scores of this test will be based on what they remember instead of what they do not remember.
The testing took place in two sessions, to control for gender. The males and females participated in this study at different times and neither group was informed of another group being tested. The first session consisted of an introduction and brief description of what was going to occur. Informed consent was also given at this time (see Appendix A). Once the testing occurred the researcher administered the six photographs and the six paragraph the accompanied each one. To have a greater control on gender the participant viewed, rated and answered questions that pertained to the photos of the opposite sex. After ten minutes of viewing time the photos with the accompanying paragraphs were collected. Then those same photos were passed back to the participants but now without the paragraphs (see Appendix G). The participants also received William Levin’s characteristic rating scale for each photo as well as the questionnaire that asked questions about the individual paragraphs. Upon completion of the tests the participants were dismissed and reminded to return in three days to complete the study, to be debriefed and to receive credit for their participation.
When the participants returned three days later in two separate sessions (males and females) they were handed the sheet of photos without the paragraphs along with the second questionnaire, which was tailored to asking question about the paragraphs. Once they had all finished, the researcher debriefed them upon the nature of the study (see Appendix B) and they were dismissed.
Insert Table 1 and Figure 1 About Here
Overall, in agreement with the reviewed literature
and the predicted results, there was a significant main effect when race
was studied over time. As hypothesized, Caucasians faces were remembered
significantly better than that of other-race faces. F (1, 18)= .000,
p < .01. A significant main effect was also found for the interaction
between gender of the participant and the race of the stimulus. F
(1, 18)= .024, p < .05. Analysis shows that the male participants
did not remember other-face individuals as well as the females did.
Which goes on to prove that an own-race bias is shown for the male participants.
Insert Figure 2 and 3 About Here
It is proven to show that as time increases our memory decreases. This time effect is a crucial component to the nature of this study as a foundation for which the theories of race and attraction are based. A significant difference in memory for faces was found. F = (1,18), p < .01. There was not a significant difference in time and attraction, although there was a significant main effect for time and race. It is shown that as time increased, the retention of the Caucasian faces remained somewhat constant when the immediate testing time was compared to testing three days later. As predicted, and supported, the other-race faces were forgotten over time, as the race bias comes into effect. F = (1, 18), p < .005.
Insert Figure 4 and 5 About Here
Adams, G.R. & Read, D. (1983). Personality and Social Influence of Attractive and Unattractive College Women. Journal of Psychology, 114 (2), 151-157.
Amster, H. (1964). Evaluative Judgement and Recall in Incidental Learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 3, 466-473.
Barkowitz, P. & Brigham, J.C. (1982). Recognition of Faces: Own Race Bias, Incentive and Time Delay. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 12, 225-268.
Brigham, J.C. & Malpass, R.S. (1985). The Role of Experience and Contact in the Recognition of Faces of Own- and Other-Race Persons. Journal of Social Issues, 41 (3), 139-155.
Chance, J.E. & Goldstein, A.G. (1987). Retention interval and face recognition: Response Latency Measures. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 25 (6), 415-418.
Chance, J.E., Goldstein, A.G., & McBride, L. (1975). Differential Experience and Recognition Memory for Faces. Journal of Social Psychology, 97, 243-253.
Chiroro, P. (1995). An Investigation of the Contact Hypothesis of the Own-Race Bias in Face Recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A (4), 879-894.
Cross, J.F., Cross, J., & Daly, J. (1971). Sex, Age and Race and Beauty as Factors in Recognition of Faces. Perception and Psychophysics, 10, 393-396.
Dallett, K., Wilcox, S.G., & D’Andrea, L. (1968). Picture Memory Experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76 (2), 312-320.
Devine, P.G., & Malpass, R.S. (1985). Orienting Strategies in Differential Face Recognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 33-40.
Dion, K., Berscheid, E. & Walster, E. (1972). What is Beautiful is Good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24 (3), 285-290.
Ellis, H.D. (1975). Recognizing Faces. British Journal of Psychology, 66 (4). 409-426.
Faw, H.W. (1990). Memory for Faces and Names: A Fair Comparison. American Journal of Psychology, 103 (3), 317-326.
Fleishman, J.J., Buckley, M.C., Klosinsky, M.J., Smith, N., Tuck, B. (1976). Judged Attractiveness in Recognition in Women’s Faces. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 43, 709-710.
Galper, R.E., & Hochberg, J. (1971) Recognition Memory for Photographs of Faces. American Journal of Psychology, 84 (3), 351-354.
Glenberg, A.M., & Grimes, T. (1995). Memory and Faces; Pictures Help You Remember Who Said What. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 (3), 67-71.
Goldstein, A.G., & Chance, J.E. (1971). Visual Cognition for Complex Configurations. Perception and Psychophysics, 9, 237-241.
Jackson, L.A., Sullivan, L.A., & Ames, J.S. (1987). Gender, Gender Role and Physical Appearance. Journal of Psychology, 121 (1), 51-56.
Klatzky, R.L., Martin, G.L., & Kane, R.A. (1982). Influence of Social – Category Activation on Processing of Visual Information. Social Cognition, 1, 95-109.
Kleinsmith, L.J., & Kaplan, S. (1963). Paired Associate Learning As a Function of Arousal and Interpolated Interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 190-193.
Langlois, J.H. & Roggman, L.A. (1990). Attractive Faces are Only Average. Psychological Science, 1 (2), 115-121.
Larrance, D.T. & Zukkerman, N. (1981). Facial Attractiveness and Vocal Likeability as Determinants of Nonverbal Sending Skills. Journal of Personality, 49 (4), 349-362.
Levin, W.C. (1988). Age Stereotyping. Research of Aging, 10 (1), 134-147.
Malpass, R.S., & Kravitz, J. (1969). Recognition for Faces of Own- and Other-Race. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 330-334.
McLean, P.D. (1969). Inducted Arousal and Time of Recall as Determinants of Paired Associate Recall. British Journal of Psychology, 60, 57-62.
Scapinello, K.F., & Yarmey, A. D. (1970). The Role of Familiarity and Orientation in Immediate and Delayed Recognition of Pictorial Stimuli. Psychonomic Science, 21, 329-331.
Shephard, J.W., & Ellis, H.D. (1973). The Affect of Attractiveness on Recognition Memory for Faces. American Journal of Psychology, 86 (3).
Solso, R.L. & McCarthy, J.E. (1981). Prototype Formation: Central Tendency Model vs. Attribute-frequency Model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 17 (1), 10-11.
Solso, R.L. & McCarthy, J.E. (1981). Prototype Formation: A Case of Pseudo-Memory. British Journal of Psychology, 72, 499-503.
Vokey, J.R., & Read, J.D. (1992). Familiarity, Memorability, and the Effect of Typicality on the Recognition of Faces. Memory and Cognition, 20 (3), 291-302.
Yarmey, A.D. (1993). Stereotypes and Recognition Memory for Faces and Voices of Good Guys and Bad Guys. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7, 419-431.
Yin, R.K. (1969). Looking at Upside Down Faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 141-145.
Zebrowitz, L.A., Montepare, J.M., Lee, K.H. (1993). They Don’t All Look Alike: Individuated Impressions of Other Racial Groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (1), 85-101. | <urn:uuid:0d737084-b485-41e0-9813-b62c324becb6> | {
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The first PBL undertaking I planned a few years in the past was the creation of a butterfly habitat within the college backyard by my third graders. Studies have proven that video games assist to promote hand eye coordination, and also advanced decision making. Moving from point A to point B on a recreation board is actually a skill that almost all preschoolers should study. Game types embody board , card , and video games An educational recreation is a game designed to show humans a few particular topic and to show them a ability. I even have heard parents say on a couple of event that they’ve problem getting their child to do anything however play video games of their spare time. Knowledge journey’s video games for youths are the proper mixture of fun and studying!
In 2013, the Dept of Education, IES supplied an SBIR Grant for game-based studying to assist the refinement of the educational model of Science4Us. Like many membership academic sites, Jumpstart offers us progress reviews that present what our youngsters are learning or making an attempt to be taught. The end result of the coed’s comprehension and progress will decide the effectiveness of the academic advantage. Luckily, I’ve always been like a child in a grown up physique so it wasn’t laborious to narrate to what was satisfying for kids.
The college students can study the fundamentals of counting and spelling by way of computer games which could be enjoyable. These games forced me to learn as a way to transfer on in the plot they usually did so in an interactive fashion. Educational video games are ideal for youngsters who love to find things, are curious and have inquisitive minds. With each of these touchscreen, iPad-like tablet toys, your child can obtain more video games, ebooks, and apps online.
I’m an amazing believer in household sport nights, and when the video games can also train valuable abilities, it’s a bonus! BUT, as far as I’ve been able to find out, only the LeapPad at the moment has studying apps the place children can really be taught letters by tracing over them (Petpal and Mr. Pencil video games are examples). Having a membership penguin social gathering can be enjoyable with all the games and favors that you’ve got featured right here. Similarly, Pokémon video games are sometimes performed by young children so the textual content is usually written in hiragana (for those who don’t thoughts studying new pokémon names and getting an inventory of the strikes in Japanese).
This flood of games into the market has produced some real great video games like Club Penguin but additionally many poor recreation experiences and even some incredible ones that have closed down (equivalent to ToonTown Online and Star86) which will also be irritating after having invested a lot time in a recreation that you love. Broadcastingcable b&c at the moment enews artistic planet group websites dv digitalcontentproducer prime 10 sites for instructional video games. | <urn:uuid:5440710d-fedc-4ce3-b922-10642b536086> | {
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- n. One that provides relief.
- n. Baseball A relief pitcher.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- n. A relief pitcher.
- n. Someone who fills in for another.
from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English
- n. One who, or that which, relieves.
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- n. One who or that which relieves or gives relief.
- n. In gunnery, an iron ring fixed to a handle by means of a socket, which serves to disengage the searcher of a gun when one of its points is retained in a hole.
- n. A garment kept for being lent out.
- n. In mech.: A release; a device for releasing some part of a mechanism at a certain time or position.
- n. A device, such as a spring or elastic substance, for preventing shocks on a machine or part.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. a pitcher who does not start the game
- n. someone who takes the place of another (as when things get dangerous or difficult)
- n. a person who reduces the intensity (e.g., of fears) and calms and pacifies
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Phlox flowers come from a perennial and annual genus of roughly 67 species in the polemoniaceae family, which are mostly native to areas of North America. Phloxes are considered very easy to grow, as they are a hardy breed that only require a decent amount of moisture, rich soil and either full or partial sunlight to thrive. Phlox flowers generally blossom from large clumps which consist of thick, strong stems, lance-shaped leaves, and multiple five-petaled flower heads that burst forth from small tubes. Their color range is quite large – from the common white, pink, blue, yellow, red and purple, to the more muted shades of lavender, rose and magenta; they may also be bicolored.
Phlox flowers were considered one of the most widely used blossoms from the late 1880s all the way to the 1940s. Although these may have been their early glory days, they are still a well loved plant in many perennial gardens all over North America and Europe. Although their popularity truly began in the 1800s, they received their first piece of recognition in 1732, when the German botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius was commissioned to write a description of Dr. James Sherard’s famed Eltham garden, which harbored a number of phlox paniculata. The phlox drummondii – which can now be seen growing mostly wild in southeastern regions of the United States – has an interesting history of its own. During the early 1830s, Thomas Drummond – a curator of the Belfast Botanic Garden – began an independent exploration of America, searching for new flowers to take home to Britain. Weathering foul winter conditions, near starvation, animal attacks and illness, Thomas Drummond sent home – amongst other plants – phlox flowers, where the species was aptly named after him. Although many phloxes may be seen blooming uncontrollably as wild flowers, or as simple border flowers in gardens, they have still become the center of several public events. For instance, Fuji Shibazakura, which contains many of the same amusements as a regular festival, but includes the viewing of a large field carpeted with pink phloxes. In the United States, the Perennial Pleasures Nursery in Vermont offers a similar festival; however, they show a larger variety of phlox blossoms, which may be viewed during the first few weeks of August.
Giving phlox as a gift may come about as either a spontaneous gesture, or one that has been thought long and hard about. Phlox flowers are sometimes given the expression of, “sweet dreams,” and can be plucked from a garden and given at the end of a particularly good date. On the other hand, they represent compatibility, the uniting of souls, and the implied proposal of marriage. In this instance, they are generally given as a shy way of asking for the recipient’s hand in marriage.
Phlox Flower Pictures
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The National Weather Service is an agency within the Department of Commerce, under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Department of Commerce's mission is to promote the nation's economic growth.
As part of the Department of Commerce, the National Weather Service maintains a constant 24 hour vigil on the weather. In doing this, the NWS issues forecasts and warnings for hazardous weather situations, such as tornadoes, floods, and winter storms. This information is used by the public and private sectors to help safeguard life and property.
The mission of the National Weather Service nationwide is to reduce the loss of life and damage of property by various weather phenomena. The National Weather Service issues weather forecasts to many different areas, including the public, aviation, and marine communities. | <urn:uuid:a957a969-b9b7-4cad-95df-32d8e25dc3be> | {
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UNICEF, in support of the Congolese government, is giving young people in the DRC a platform to defend children’s rights and become active in the decision-making processes that concern them.
- CHILDREN'S RIGHTS
Despite the fact that the promotion of children’s rights has been a central element of the national agenda in recent years, the participation of children has often been merely symbolic. Given these observations, UNICEF and the DRC’s Ministry of Gender, Family Affairs and Children decided to give children a platform and the tools they need to defend their opinions and rights.
- CHILDREN FROM 12 TO 17 YEARS OLD FROM ALL SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS
Aged from 12 to 17, the “Young Reporters” are girls and boys from all social backgrounds who come from organizations working for the protection, education, health and participation of children in the DRC.
The “Young Reporters” are trained to be more aware of their rights and better prepared to give their views on the problems that they encounter. They are introduced to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and practical workshops and games are organized to help them to understand all the issues related to children’s rights.
The children are trained to understand and master basic journalistic techniques. They are taught to master advocacy tools – videos, photos, public games and writing articles. Courses are delivered by a network of journalists and members of the UNICEF DRC team.
- DEFEND YOUR RIGHTS AND EXPRESS YOUR OPINION
The “Young Reporters” program offers participants the opportunity to defend their rights by creating an environment that allows them to express their concerns, ideas, and recommendations to policy makers and managers at all levels. The importance given to their opinion in turn enhances dignity, justice, fairness and equality by placing the interests of children at the heart of the citizenship agenda.
- 500 YOUTH REPORTERS TRAINED IN DRC's 11 PROVINCES
UNICEF has worked in partnership with the DRC’s Ministry of Gender, Family Affairs and Children so that the program can be implemented in 11 provinces.
Since 2007, nearly 500 children have participated in the program and received basic training in audiovisual production and advocacy techniques to defend the rights of the child.
Some discover a vocation for journalism, humanitarian work or law. The new skills and open-mindedness that this program offers children provide them with greater insight into their country, it’s problems and the solutions that can be found.
When asked, most children recognise that now they know their rights, it is their responsibility to respect those of their own children and the children they meet throughout their lives.
The whole point of this program is to enable children to find the solutions to their own problems. They are often excluded from decisions that concern them when it seems obvious that they must be involved in building a more just society that is more respectful of its children.
- A TV SHOW, VIDEOS AND ARTICLES FOR CONCRETE RESULTS
Following a plea by young reporters in Kinshasa, the national television network RTNC has agreed to create a TV show called “The Voice of the Child”.
In 2008, the Goma “Young Reporters” produced a series of videos called “Inside Witnesses” on the lives of displaced people in North Kivu. The videos were released internationally by the French newspaper Le Monde and prompted international and national debates.
In 2009, Young Reporters from Matadi found that in special schools for deaf and dumb children, parents had to pay teachers’ salaries. Based on the right of children to receive free and quality education, Young Reporters managed with their plea to the Governor to have the teachers’ salaries included in the 2010 budget.
In October 2012, the Francophone Summit was held in Kinshasa. On this occasion, Young Reporters were able to speak with several members of the DRC Parliament whom they alerted about the non-observance of children’s rights in their country. They also organised games about advocacy to inform other children about their rights.
One young reporter, Eunice, was invited to the African Union Summit in Addis Ababa where she represented children in Central Africa before African leaders. On this occasion she wrote a remarkable speech called “We, African Children” in which she recalled the right of the child to survival, freedom of expression, education and health, and called for a strategy to prevent armed conflict affecting children. | <urn:uuid:37d1db66-653f-45f3-8c75-a07d7966e123> | {
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Mohenjo-daro, a ruined city in what is now Pakistan that contains the last traces of a 4,000-year-old civilisation that flourished on the banks of the river Indus, today entered the modern history books after government meteorologists recorded a temperature of 53.7C (129F). Only Al 'Aziziyah, in Libya (57.8C in 1922), Death valley in California (56.7 in 1913) and Tirat Zvi in Israel (53.9 in 1942) are thought to have been hotter.
Temperatures in the nearest town, Larkana, have been only slightly lower in the last week, with 53C recorded last Wednesday. As the temperatures peaked, four people died, including a prisoner serving a life sentence for murder and an elderly woman. Dozens are said to have fainted.
The extreme heat was exacerbated by chronic power cuts which have prevented people from using air-conditioning. The electricity has cut out for eight hours each day as part of a severe load-shedding regime that has caused riots in other parts of Pakistan where cities are experiencing a severe heatwave with temperatures of between 43C and 47C.
"It's very tough," said M B Kalhoro, a local correspondent for Dawn.com, an online newspaper. "When the power is out, people just stay indoors all the time."
The blistering heat now engulfing Pakistan stretches to India where more than 1,000 people have reportedly died of heatstroke or heart attacks in the last two months. Although Europe and China have experienced cooler than average winters, record or well-above average temperatures have been recorded in Tibet and Burma this year.
Southern Europe was yesterday rapidly warming after a particularly cool winter. Thirteen provinces in southern Spain, including Andalucia, Murcia and the Canary islands, were put on "yellow alert" after meteorologists forecast temperatures rising to 38C (99F) in Cadiz, Córdoba, Jaén, Malaga and Seville.
According to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), the national climate monitoring service that measures global temperatures by satellite, 2010 is shaping up to be one of the hottest years on record. The first four months were the hottest ever measured, with record spring temperatures in northern Africa, south Asia and Canada.
The global temperature for March was a record 13.5C (56.3F) and average ocean temperatures were also the hottest for any March since record-keeping began in 1880.
As a result of high sea surface temperatures, the Atlantic hurricane season, which officially started today is now expected to be one of the most intense in years. Last week NOAA predicted 14 to 23 named storms, including eight to 14 hurricanes, three to seven of which were likely to be "major" storms, with winds of at least 111mph. This is compared to an average six-month season of 11 named storms, six of which become hurricanes, two of them major.
On Sunday, scientists reported that Africa's Lake Tanganyika, the second deepest freshwater lake in the world, is now at its warmest in 1,500 years, threatening the fishing industry on which several million lives depend. The lake's surface waters, at 26C (78.8F), have reached temperatures that are "unprecedented since AD500," they reported in the journal Nature Geoscience.
Some scientists have suggested that the warming experienced around the world this year is strongly linked to warmer than usual currents in the Pacific Ocean, a regular phenomenon known as El Niño. Others say that it is consistent with long-term climate change. | <urn:uuid:67967d34-41a1-4ae0-9a79-4eb297a5b800> | {
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Membrane attack complex/perforin/cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) proteins constitute a major superfamily of pore-forming proteins that act as bacterial virulence factors and effectors in immune defence. Upon binding to the membrane, they convert from the soluble monomeric form to oligomeric, membrane-inserted pores. Using real-time atomic force microscopy (AFM), electron microscopy (EM), and atomic structure fitting, we have mapped the structure and assembly pathways of a bacterial CDC in unprecedented detail and accuracy, focussing on suilysin from Streptococcus suis. We show that suilysin assembly is a noncooperative process that is terminated before the protein inserts into the membrane. The resulting ring-shaped pores and kinetically trapped arc-shaped assemblies are all seen to perforate the membrane, as also visible by the ejection of its lipids. Membrane insertion requires a concerted conformational change of the monomeric subunits, with a marked expansion in pore diameter due to large changes in subunit structure and packing.https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04247.001
Many disease-causing bacteria secrete toxic proteins that drill holes into our cells to kill them. Cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDCs) are a family of such toxins, and are produced by bacteria that cause pneumonia, meningitis, and septicaemia.
The bacteria release CDC toxins as single protein molecules, which can bind to the membrane that surrounds the host cell. After binding to the membrane, the toxin molecules assemble in rings to form large pores in the host membrane. There are several stages to this process, but our understanding of what happens at the molecular level is incomplete.
Leung et al. studied suilysin, a CDC toxin produced by a bacterium that has a big impact on the pig farming industry because it causes meningitis in piglets. The bacterium can also cause serious diseases in humans through exposure to contaminated pigs or pig meat.
Leung et al. used a technique called electron microscopy to obtain atomic-scale snapshots of the toxin structures before and after the toxins were inserted into the membrane. In addition, real-time movies of the process were gathered using another technique called atomic force microscopy.
The experiments show that suilysin forms assemblies on the membrane that grow by one molecule at a time, rather than by the merging of larger assemblies of molecules. This results in a mixture of ring-shaped and arc-shaped toxin assemblies on the membrane. The arcs of suilysin are incomplete ring assemblies, but they are still able to make holes in the cell membrane. In order to insert into the membrane, the toxin molecules in the arcs and rings undergo a dramatic change in shape.
Understanding how CDCs assemble in membranes will guide further work into the development of new vaccines that can target these proteins to reduce the damage caused by bacterial infections.https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04247.002
The bacterial CDCs and ubiquitous MACPF proteins are expressed as soluble monomers but assemble on membranes to form large, oligomeric pores. They form two branches of the largest superfamily of pore-forming proteins. Proteins of this MACPF/CDC superfamily share a common core topology of a highly bent and twisted β-sheet flanked by two α-helical regions, though lacking any detectable sequence homology between the two branches (Rosado et al., 2008). Crystal structures of CDCs in their soluble, monomeric form (perfringolysin, Rossjohn et al., 1997; anthrolysin, Bourdeau et al., 2009; suilysin, Xu et al., 2010; listeriolysin, Köster et al., 2014) revealed extended, key-shaped molecules. Pore-forming domains 1 and 3 (see also below) are linked by a long thin β-sheet (domain 2) to an immunoglobulin fold domain (4) which can bind to the membrane via a tryptophan-rich loop. CDCs form heterogeneous rings and arcs (Dang et al., 2005; Tilley et al., 2005; Sonnen et al., 2014) on cholesterol-rich liposomes and lipid monolayers (for example, the CDC perfringolysin O hardly binds to membranes with <30% molar concentration of cholesterol, Johnson et al., 2012). Extensive biophysical and molecular analysis of CDCs established that, on CDC binding to the membrane (Ramachandran et al., 2004; Hotze et al., 2012), α-helical regions in domain 3 unfurl to form transmembrane β-hairpins, denoted as TMH1 and TMH2 (Shepard et al., 1998; Shatursky et al., 1999). If the TMH regions are trapped by introducing a disulphide bond (Hotze et al., 2001), prepore oligomers are formed on the membrane surface. Cryo-EM and single particle analysis of liposome-bound CDCs led to low-resolution 3D structures of prepore and pore forms of pneumolysin, a major virulence factor of Streptococcus pneumoniae (Tilley et al., 2005). These structures, as well as an AFM study of perfringolysin (Czajkowsky et al., 2004), established that the 11 nm high molecule must collapse to a height of 7 nm above the membrane in order to insert the TMH regions. Simple pseudo-atomic models were obtained by fitting domains (broken at plausible hinge points) into the EM density maps. It was proposed that the long, thin β-sheet domain 2 collapses after the molecule opens up to release the TMH regions. However, because of the heterogeneity of the oligomeric assemblies and aggregation of the liposomes upon pore formation, resolution has been limited by the difficulty of obtaining sufficiently large data sets.
After comparing several CDCs (pneumolysin, suilysin, anthrolysin, and listeriolysin), we found that suilysin was less susceptible to these problems and we chose it to pursue new structural and dynamic studies. A disulphide-locked double cysteine mutant of suilysin, designed to prevent TMH1 insertion, enabled us to trap an active prepore state as well as to visualize the pore formation process by AFM in solution. Cryo-EM reconstruction and fitting revealed new details of the β-sheet unbending and changes in subunit packing upon conversion of prepores to pores. AFM images reveal that the prepore state is highly mobile. Following the addition of DTT to trigger insertion of the disulphide-locked prepore, time-lapse AFM yielded real-time movies of its conversion to ring and crescent-shaped pores. The observed distributions of rings and arcs can be explained by a theoretical model for kinetically trapped, noncooperative assembly, fully determined by the relative kinetics of monomer binding to the membrane and monomer assembly on the membrane surface. Together these studies provide substantial new understanding of the structure and dynamics of CDC pore formation.
Negative stain EM and rotational symmetry analysis of complete rings of disulphide locked (Gly52Cys/Ser187Cys) suilysin prepores and wild-type pores formed on lipid monolayers revealed that most rings contain 37 subunits (Figure 1—figure supplement 1). Unexpectedly, the diameter of the 37-fold suilysin prepore was smaller than the diameter of the 37-fold pore (see below for quantification), indicating that conformational changes during pore formation are accompanied by changes in subunit packing.
3D reconstruction of suilysin prepores and pores in liposomes was performed using a pseudo single-particle approach (Tilley et al., 2005), yielding a 15 Å cryo-EM map of the prepore using the disulphide-locked construct (Figure 1A,D), and a 15 Å cryo-EM map of a wild-type suilysin pore (Figure 1B,F, see also Figure 1—figure supplement 2). The 3D maps, both of 37-mers, confirmed a significant expansion in ring diameter upon pore formation. In order to interpret the maps, we performed flexible fitting of suilysin domains from the crystal structure (Figure 1C; Xu et al., 2010; PDB:3hvn). Domain deformations and hinge movements were identified by normal mode analysis (Lindahl et al., 2006). Additional evidence for the correctness of the fits followed from electrostatic potential maps and analysis of interacting residues at the interfaces of domain 1 (Figure 1—figure supplement 3). The results show that both models have extended regions of complementary charge on the predicted interacting surfaces. Although the extent of complementary charge is less in the pore model, in this case the oligomer is stabilized by the β-barrel of the pore. Measured from the fitted position of the base of domain 4, the prepore and pore diameters are 296 Å and 319 Å, respectively (Figure 1E), an expansion of 8%. In addition to the 4 nm reduction in height, each pore subunit approximately doubles in width.
The prepore is distorted from the crystal structure, with some collapse of domain 2 and opening of the β-sheet (Figure 1—figure supplement 4), despite the presence of the disulphide bridge (Figure 1D). However, the map features are not sufficiently defined to guide fitting, most likely owing to the greater flexibility of the prepore state, as described below.
The pore structure is similar to that observed with pneumolysin, but with improved resolution, and showing significant differences in the hinge bending and domain movements. The β-strands are tilted by 20°, in agreement with previous results (Reboul et al., 2012; Sato et al., 2013). The distortion to domain 2 differs from that proposed in the earlier model (Tilley et al., 2005). Seen from outside the ring, domain 2 collapses sideways, to the right, such that domain 1 is aligned above the adjacent domain 4, with a sideways tilt that expands the ring. The expansion is clearly seen in the wider spacing between subunits at domain 4 (Figure 1G,H,I). Domain 2 must bend at a central hinge point to fit into the EM density (Figure 1H,I; Reboul et al., 2014). As expected, there is a major opening of the bent β-sheet. In addition, a helical subdomain flanking the bend of the central β-sheet (residues 335–347, dashed oval in domain 3, Figure 1C) moves as a separate rigid body, as also shown by a spectroscopic study (Ramachandran et al., 2004). Notably, the equivalent region has been implicated in the triggering mechanism for unbending in a recent EM study of a remotely related MACPF protein (Lukoyanova et al., in press).
When imaged by negative-stain EM, both the prepore and pore states appeared in heterogeneous ring- and arc-shaped assemblies (Figure 2A,B; Sonnen et al., 2014; Köster et al., 2014). The expansion in ring diameter upon membrane insertion was confirmed by a statistical analysis of the radius of curvature of the arc assemblies (Figure 2—figure supplement 1), which also revealed significantly larger variations in arc curvature, that is, larger flexibility, for the prepore than for the pore state.
To facilitate AFM imaging of the disulphide-locked suilysin prepores, the protein was confined to well-defined domains on phase-separated lipid membranes (Connell et al., 2013), showing densely packed suilysin rings and arcs that extended 10–11 nm above the membrane surface (Figure 2C,D), consistent with the structural data for the prepore state (Figure 1A,D).
At lower packing density on the membrane, suilysin prepores were only resolved when the temperature was lowered to 15°C. Cooling appeared to reduce the prepore mobility such that individual prepore assemblies could be observed while diffusing over the membrane (Video 1). When imaged at room temperature, suilysin prepores appeared as streaks in the AFM images—as can be expected for highly mobile proteins—with slightly improved contrast at the lipid phase boundaries (Figure 3A). As demonstrated by real-time AFM images of the same area on the membrane, the disulphide-locked suilysin reproducibly converted from the prepore to the pore state upon exposure to DTT (Figure 3A–E, Figure 3—figure supplement 1): in less than a minute, exposure to DTT triggered the appearance of diffuse rings and arcs that became progressively clearer and more prominent (bottom half of Figure 3A), adopting the reduced height typical of the pore state (Figure 3B–C). This process was accompanied by a gradual disappearance of the diffuse streaks (i.e., suilysin prepores), while additional high (white) features appeared on the surface. We identify these features as lipid micelles or fragments being ejected from the membrane. This interpretation is supported by the subsequent appearance of larger plateaus that were consistent in height with the collapse of newly formed lipid layers on top of the membrane (Figure 3D). After about 20 min, the membrane was cleared of these features, leaving a heterogeneous population of suilysin pore assemblies perforating the membrane (Figure 3E). The transition from prepore to pore, as well as the emergence and clearance of lipid aggregates, could also be observed via height profiles taken along various topographic features in these images (Figure 3F,G).
The heterogeneity of ring- and arc-shaped assemblies was confirmed for wild-type suilysin by negative-stain EM on egg PC:cholesterol monolayers and by AFM in solution on supported bilayers (Figure 4A,B). EM and AFM yielded quantitatively similar arc-length distributions for identical lipid composition, protein concentration, and incubation temperature (Figure 4—figure supplement 1). Qualitatively similar behaviour could be observed by negative-stain EM on lipid vesicles (Figure 4A, inset). Unlike the disulphide locked construct, wild-type suilysin was converted from its soluble, monomeric state (Figure 4—figure supplement 2) to the pore state without the appearance of prepore intermediates, within the time resolution of our AFM experiments. Rings and arcs had a height of 7–8 nm in AFM (Figure 4B, inset), in agreement with the cryo-EM data on the pore state (Figure 1B,F).
To verify if suilysin rings and arcs perforate the membrane, we used high-aspect ratio AFM tips to probe the membrane in the pore lumen (Figure 3G). Both rings (Figure 4C) and arcs (Figure 4D) enclosed local depressions in the membrane, the depth of which was tip-dependent, but in many cases exceeded the 2.2 nm length of an extended lipid molecule, indicating that the lipid bilayer was locally removed. These depressions were reproducible between the trace and retrace versions of the AFM line scans and were observed for various lengths and orientations of the arcs (Figure 4E). We therefore conclude that suilysin can perforate the membrane irrespective of the completion of the ring assembly, locally removing the lipids to create partial β-barrel pores with an unsealed edge of the lipid bilayer. This is in agreement with recent cryo electron tomography data on pneumolysin assemblies (Sonnen et al., 2014).
Besides isolated rings and arcs, we observed interlocked arcs (Figure 4A,B, arrows), in which one or both ends of the arc contacted another arc or ring. As was the case for the isolated arcs, we found these interlocked arcs capable of perforating the membrane and form membrane lesions that can be smaller, but also larger than those in closed rings (Figure 4F). Once assembled in the pore conformation, the arcs were stable and did not evolve further; even interlocked arcs did not merge into complete rings (Figure 4G).
Interestingly, the prepore-to-pore transition and membrane perforation by the wild-type suilysin was largely prevented, in a dose-dependent manner, by adding the disulphide-locked mutant in the incubation process (Figure 4—figure supplement 3). Subsequent exposure to DTT restored normal pore formation.
To analyze the oligomerization process, we measured the arc-length distributions of wild-type suilysin in the pore state and of the disulphide-locked mutant in prepore (−DTT) and reduced, pore (+DTT) configurations, based on negative stain EM analysis under the same conditions (Figure 5A–C). The distributions show a broad peak centred between lengths of 10–30 monomers and a smaller, narrow peak corresponding to completed rings of about 37 monomers. The arc-length distributions for disulphide-locked prepores and pores after reduction by DTT are practically identical. Combined with the observation that suilysin does not oligomerize before binding to the cholesterol-containing membrane (Figure 4—figure supplement 2), this demonstrates that assembly is completely determined and terminated in the prepore state, i.e., is not affected by the prepore-to-pore transition. This conclusion is further confirmed by the lack of growth of individual arcs in the pore state upon subsequent, further addition of wild-type suilysin (Figure 5—figure supplement 1), and greatly simplifies the interpretation of the arc-length distributions.
To explain these distributions, we calculated the oligomeric populations for a model in which monomers from the solution irreversibly bind to the membrane with a rate constant kb, and in which irreversible oligomerization on the membrane occurs only by monomer addition, with a rate constant ka (Figure 5D). In such a simple model, the oligomerization reaction is arrested by depletion of monomers, yielding kinetically trapped assembly intermediates. Since the resulting populations only depend on the ratio ka/kb and on the (experimentally known) total number of monomers per unit area of membrane (C), this model can be used to fit the experimental data with a single free parameter (ka/kb). The broad peak for intermediate arc-lengths (Figure 5A–C and Figure 4—figure supplement 1) can thus be explained by a ratio ka/kb that is sufficiently large to ensure a steady supply of monomers to sustain the oligomerization reaction, but not large enough to yield only completed assemblies (i.e., rings).
CDCs are protein toxins that are potent virulence factors in bacteria. They are part of the major MACPF/CDC superfamily of pore-forming proteins. Our data map the structure (Figure 1) and assembly pathways of membrane pore formation by the CDCs in unprecedented detail and accuracy, as summarized in Figure 6. Using the disulphide-locked suilysin variant, we have resolved the initial membrane binding of suilysin monomers (Figure 4—figure supplement 2), oligomerization (Figure 5), and membrane insertion stages (Figures 2–4) in pore formation.
Suilysin oligomers exhibit a broad distribution of arc- and ring-shaped assemblies (Figures 4 and 5). Under given conditions such as incubation temperature, lipid composition, protein sequence and concentration, these distributions are reproducible between EM and AFM experiments (Figure 4—figure supplement 1). The similarity between prepore and pore distributions (Figure 5B,C) implies that oligomerization is arrested before pore insertion. Therefore, our work rigorously establishes that the whole CDC assembly takes place in the prepore state, as was previously suggested for perfringolysin (Hotze et al., 2001; Hotze and Tweten, 2012).
As can be deduced from the prevalence of larger but incomplete assemblies of the disulphide-locked suilysin, the association of such larger oligomers ( subunits) is not a determining factor in membrane pore formation by CDCs. On the contrary, the oligomerization appears to be dominated by monomer addition (Figure 5), although the addition of smaller oligomers ( subunits) cannot be fully excluded. As demonstrated by our oligomerization model, the measured arc-length distributions are consistent with the kinetically trapped product of a two-stage irreversible and noncooperative reaction. The outcome is largely determined by the ratio of the corresponding rate constants and the density of monomers per unit area of membrane (in addition to the effects of steric hindrance at higher surface densities). The first stage can be the binding of monomers to the membrane, as assumed here, or a rate-limiting nucleation step that triggers the oligomerization reaction, as assumed elsewhere (Hotze et al., 2001). The second stage of this reaction is oligomerization by addition of monomers or very small oligomers. As the rate constants can be expected to vary from one protein to another, this model implies that the various CDCs can yield differing oligomeric populations.
Suilysin prepore intermediates appear both more mobile (Figure 3A–E) and more flexible than pore assemblies (Figure 2—figure supplement 1). This is consistent with the observation that the β-sandwich membrane-binding domain 4 does not significantly penetrate the membrane (Nakamura et al., 1995; Ramachandran et al., 2002). In contrast to the earlier observations on pneumolysin (Tilley et al., 2005), prepore assembly in suilysin is accompanied by some opening of the central β-sheet. A possible explanation for this difference is that the wild-type pneumolysin preparation in that study formed many stable prepores, apparently in an inactive, dead-end state, whereas wild-type suilysin is extremely active and is not observed in a prepore state.
The activity of wild-type suilysin was greatly impaired, however, by incubating it in the presence of an equal concentration of disulphide-locked suilysin (Figure 4—figure supplement 3) and recovered on unlocking the mutant. These results imply that wild-type and mutant co-assemble as expected, and that the prepore-to-pore transition requires a concerted conformational change of all subunits in the suilysin assemblies, suggesting a cooperative insertion of subunits into the membrane.
The mobility of prepore assemblies on the membrane surface makes it possible for the subunits to slide apart upon pore formation, as seen in the 8% diameter expansion. This size difference was seen in the earlier work, but the symmetry measurement was less clear, and it was explained by assigning a lower symmetry to the prepore (31 vs 38 for the pore) (Tilley et al., 2005). In view of the present observations, it seems likely that pneumolysin rings also expand and that the previous assignment of different symmetries to pneumolysin pores and prepores was most likely incorrect.
We observed arc-shaped assemblies as small as 5 subunits, with heights corresponding to the suilysin pore state. This gives an estimate of the minimum oligomer size required for membrane insertion. The size of the AFM tip was too large to probe the membrane perforation in arc-shaped complexes smaller than about 15 monomers (see e.g., Figure 4E). We have observed membrane perforation for arcs at any size between 15 and 37 monomers, which unambiguously demonstrates that a fully enclosed β-barrel is not essential for the insertion of the transmembrane β-hairpins and membrane perforation, as was previously presumed (Hotze and Tweten, 2012). Unsealed lipid edges and incomplete β-barrels are a surprising by-product of this membrane perforation by incomplete CDC oligomers (Figure 4D,E), as was recently suggested based on electron tomography of various pneumolysin assemblies (Sonnen et al., 2014).
The size of the membrane lesions can thus vary between less than half the lumen in a completed SLY pore to the larger pores formed by interlocked arcs (Figure 4F,G), as suggested by conductance measurements on black lipid membranes (Marchioretto et al., 2013).
Regardless of the extent of oligomerization, both arc and ring prepores can convert directly to the pore configuration as the β-hairpins unfurl and insert into the lipid bilayer. This is followed by the ejection of lipids from the membrane as the pore is formed (Figure 3C,D and Figure 3—figure supplement 1C,D). The results imply that the hydrophilic inner surface of the partially or fully completed β-barrel is sufficient to destabilize the lipid membrane in the pore lumen, leading to ejection of lipid micelles from the pore.
The approach of identifying hinge regions for domain fitting to the suilysin pore map has yielded a pseudo-atomic model that goes beyond the earlier rigid body fitting to pneumolysin (Tilley et al., 2005). The mechanism of collapse through buckling of domain 2 involves a sideways movement around the ring, and the bending is in the opposite direction to that proposed in the earlier model. The resulting tilt of domain 1 results in the 8% radial expansion of the ring, clearly seen by the displacement of domain 4 (Figure 1E). A helical subdomain thought to be involved in triggering of sheet opening in a MACPF protein (dashed oval in domain 3, Figure 1C; Lukoyanova et al., in press) is also likely to move in suilysin, strengthening the notion that the mechanism of unfolding and pore formation is conserved between the remotely related MACPF and CDC subfamilies.
In summary, we have visualized the various stages of membrane pore formation by a CDC at greatly improved spatial and temporal resolution, to provide new insights in domain movements and pathways of assembly for a major superfamily of pore-forming proteins.
Genomic DNA was extracted from S. suis (kindly provided by Dr Vanessa Terra, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; UK), using the PureLink genomic DNA mini kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). The suilysin gene was amplified using the primers: SLY_F, 5′- CGG CGC CAT GGC TTC CAA ACA AGA TAT TAA TCA GTA TTT TCA AAG -3′ and SLY_R, 5′-GAT AGG ATC CTC ACT CTA TCA CCT CAT CCG CAT ACT GTG-3′. These primers introduced restriction sites for NcoI and BamHI for subsequent cloning into pEHISTEV (Liu and Naismith, 2009), in-frame with and downstream of nucleotides encoding a 6-histidine tag and a TEV protease cleavage site. The recombinant plasmid expressing suilysin was then transformed into Escherichia coli XL-10 Gold competent cells (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA), according to the manufacturer's instructions. Positive clones were identified by blue-white colony screening and were confirmed by sequencing. Plasmid carrying the suilysin gene was subsequently transformed into E. coli Rosetta-2 (DE3) (Novagen, Millipore, Watford, United Kingdom).
This mutant was made using a QuikChange Multi Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Agilent). The primers G52C_F, 5′-CAC AAG AGA TTC TTA CAA ATG AGT GCG AAT ACA TTG ATA ATC CGC CAG C-3′ and G52C_R, 5′-GCT GGC GGA TTA TCA ATG TAT TCG CAC TCA TTT GTA AGA ATC TCT TGT G-3′ were used to replace the codon for Gly52 (GGA) in the wild-type with a Cys codon (TGC). The primers S187C_F, 5′-TGA AAC AAT GGC ATA CAG TAT GTG CCA ATT GAA AAC GAA GTT CGG AAC-3′ and S187C_R, 5′-GTT CCG AAC TTC GTT TTC AAT TGG CAC ATA CTG TAT GCC ATT GTT TCA-3′ were used to substitute the Ser187 codon (TCA) by a Cys codon (TGC) in the same construct. Following the digestion of the methylated/hemimethylated parental DNA with DpnI, the construct containing the double mutation was transformed into E. coli XL-10 Gold (Agilent). Positive clones were identified by blue–white colony screening and mutations confirmed by sequencing. Purified plasmid from selected clones was subsequently transformed into E. coli Rosetta-2 (DE3) (Novagen).
Recombinant wild-type suilysin and the cys-locked version were expressed in Overnight ExpressTM Instant TB medium (Novagen) containing kanamycin (50 µg/ml; Sigma–Aldrich, Dorset, United Kingdom). Cells were harvested by centrifugation and lysed with 1x BugBuster protein extraction reagent (Novagen) supplemented with 10 µg/ml DNase I (Sigma–Aldrich), 5 mM MgCl2, and EDTA-free protease inhibitor (Roche Applied Science, Welwyn Garden City, United Kingdom). Soluble cellular extracts were clarified and loaded onto a HisTrap High Performance column (GE Healthcare, Little Chalfont, United Kingdom) in loading buffer (20 mM Tris–HCl, 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM Imidazole, pH 7.5). The column was washed thoroughly with 20 mM Tris–HCl, 150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Imidazole, pH 7.5, and the 6-histidine-tagged wild-type and cys-locked suilysins were eluted using a stepwise gradient of elution buffer (20 mM Tris–HCl, 150 mM NaCl, containing 0 to 500 mM Imidazole, pH 7.5). The purity of the eluted fractions was assessed by SDS-PAGE (Laemmli, 1970). The haemolytic activity of the suilysins was determined as described previously (Owen et al., 1994), except that 5 mM DTT was included in some assays as appropriate. Wild-type suilysin had a specific activity of 39,000 HU (haemolysis units)/mg protein. No haemolytic activity was seen with the cys-locked construct, in the absence of DTT, but in 5 mM DTT, its specific activity was 20,000 HU/mg protein.
All lipid materials (cholesterol, egg PC, DOPC, sphingomyelin, DDAB) were purchased from Avanti Polar Lipids (Alabaster, AL). Small unilamellar lipid vesicles were prepared by the extrusion method (Hope et al., 1985). Briefly, lipids in powdered form were weighed and dissolved in chloroform to produce a homogeneous mixture with a lipid concentration of ∼1 mg/ml. The solvent was then slowly evaporated for at least 5 hr by passing a steady stream of argon in a fume hood, yielding a dry lipid film. The lipid film was resuspended, by vigorous vortexing for 5 min, in 1 ml of 20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.8, to form large, multilamellar vesicles. This solution was transferred to a Fisherbrand FB11201 bath sonicator (Fisher Scientific, Loughborough, UK), maintained above the gel–liquid transition temperature of the constituent lipids. The large multilamellar vesicles were disrupted by 15-min sonication treatments at frequencies between 40 and 80 kHz, interspersed by two freeze/thaw cycles. The solution containing the lipid dispersion was loaded into an Avanti mini-extruder kit (Avanti Polar Lipids) and kept above the transition temperature of the lipids. The lipid solution was forced through a Whatman Nucleopore polycarbonate filter (GE Healthcare Lifesciences, Buckinghamshire, UK) with an 80 nm nominal pore diameter. The extrusion process was repeated at least 30 times to yield small unilamellar vesicles with a diameter near the pore size of the filter used, as verified by negative stain EM.
For EM experiments, liposomes were prepared from 5 mM lipids containing ∼45 mol% of egg PC and ∼55 mol% cholesterol resuspended in 100 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5 by extrusion through an 80-nm filter as previously described (Tilley et al., 2005).
10 μg/ml monomeric wild-type suilysin was negatively stained with 2% wt/vol uranyl acetate. To form prepore and pore complexes on lipid monolayers, a solution of monomeric wild-type or disulphide-locked suilysin (10 μg/ml), or disulphide-locked suilysin reduced by pre-incubation with 10 mM DTT for 10 min, was overlaid with 1 μl of chloroform solution of the lipid mixture described above, at 1 mg/ml, for 25 min at 37°C and the monolayers were transferred to EM grids, as described before (Dang et al., 2005). To image pores on liposomes, 1 μl of a 0.3–0.5 mg/ml solution of wild-type suilysin was incubated with 1 μl of liposomes for 10 min at 37°C. Samples were negatively stained with 2% wt/vol uranyl acetate and imaged on a Tecnai F20 FEG microscope (FEI, Hillsboro, OR) at 200 kV under low dose conditions. Images were taken with a defocus of 0.5 μm on a Gatan 4k × 4k CCD camera giving a final pixel size of 1.85 Å.
For 3D reconstructions of the prepore and the pore, 1 μl of 0.3–0.5 mg/ml solution of either wild-type or disulphide-locked suilysin was incubated with 1 μl of liposomes for 10 min at 37°C. Liposomes were then applied to lacey carbon-coated copper grids (Agar Scientific, Stansted, United Kingdom) and frozen using Vitrobot Mk3 (FEI) at 22°C and 100% humidity. Images were collected on a Tecnai G2 Polara microscope (FEI) at 300 kV, on a Gatan 4k × 4k CCD camera giving a final pixel size of 2 Å, at an electron dose of 20–25 e/Å2.
Ring images were centered and analysed by multivariate statistical analysis (MSA; van Heel, 1984) for classification into subsets of homogeneous diameter and subunit number. Suilysin arc length distributions were determined from negative-stain EM images at 1.85 Å pixel size and AFM images acquired at 26.8 Å pixel size. Using DNA Trace software (Mikhaylov et al., 2013), individual suilysin arcs were manually traced with a step size of 25 Å for both EM and AFM images. The number of monomers within each arc was then calculated by dividing the manually traced arc length by the average size of a monomer in the prepore and pore states, 23.6 Å and 25.7 Å, respectively, as estimated from rotationally averaged negative-stain EM images. This approach yielded an error within ±2 monomers as estimated from averages of rings from the EM monolayer data.
The defocus of the cryo-EM images was determined by CTFFIND3 (Mindell and Grigorieff, 2003) and phases were corrected using SPIDER (Frank et al., 1996). Side-view images of prepores (1374) and pores (2700) were extracted using Boxer (EMAN 1.9; Ludtke et al., 1999). Images were aligned in SPIDER to reprojections of pneumolysin prepore and pore maps (Tilley et al., 2005) and the aligned images were sorted by diameter with MSA. Initial reconstructions were calculated by back-projection of either of class sums or aligned raw images, up to 35° from the side view plane, and symmetry estimated by maximising density variance within the maps. These estimates were consistent with the outcomes of statistical analysis for negatively stained prepores and pores formed on lipid monolayers. Most of the pores (∼60%) and prepores exhibited 37-fold symmetry. These 37-fold maps were further refined by projection matching with up to 20° out-of-plane tilt. MSA was used to detect and correct for misalignments. Reconstructions were calculated by back-projection in SPIDER. 450 prepore and 600 pore views were selected for the final reconstructions. The final resolution was estimated by 0.5 FSC (Figure 1—figure supplement 2).
First, nine different β-barrel models (corresponding to domain 3, residue range 176–225 and 272–346) with architecture S = n/2 were generated as described in Reboul et al., 2012. These nine different β-barrel models were generated with slightly varying a (3.48 ± 0.1 Å) and b (4.83 ± 0.1 Å) bond lengths, where the value of a is the distance between Cα of adjacent residues in the same β-strand and b is the distance between Cα of adjacent residues in adjacent β-strands. This resulted in β-barrel models with modest variations of radius and height, in which the β-strands are tilted by 20° from the pore axis (Murzin et al., 1994). All the β-barrels were fitted using the Fit-in-Map tool in Chimera (Pettersen et al., 2004; Goddard et al., 2007). Among the top three best-fitting β-barrels (CCC [cross-correlation coefficient] scores 0.43–0.44, as compared to 0.28–0.40 for the rest), the barrel with the height best matching the membrane was chosen by visual inspection. Next, the missing residues in the N-terminus of the native suilysin structure (PDB:3HVN) were modelled using MODELLER (Sali and Blundell, 1993). Normal Mode Analysis (NMA) was used to generate rough decoys for domains 1 and 2 using the NOMAD-Ref web server (Lindahl et al., 2006). 50 different decoys were obtained by randomly combining amplitudes of the first 20 modes. The value of the average coordinate root mean square deviation between the native domains and the decoys was set to 5 Å.
The decoy models and the crystal structures of the individual domains were manually fitted as rigid bodies into the pore map. The best fitting model for each domain was selected by a combination of local fit quality and geometric constraints using Chimera. For domains 1 (residue 32–48, 85–175, 226–271 and 347–370) and 2 (residues 49–84 and 371–387), the best fitting models were selected based on CCC from the decoy set. For domain 4 (residues 388–497), the crystal structure was used as the best fitting model (this domain shows very little flexibility based on NMA analysis). The geometric constraints were such that domain 2 is connected to domains 1 and 4, domain 1 is connected to the β-barrel, and domain 4 sits at the membrane surface.
For each domain, 50 models were generated with MODELLER using the above corresponding best fit as a template structure to refine the stereochemistry. Then the models were evaluated using the DOPE statistical potential score (Shen and Sali, 2006). The top models from the individual domains were connected with MODELLER into one partial model (containing domains 1, 2, and 4—but not 3), which was then C37 symmetrized in Chimera. Next, the map was segmented around three asymmetric units of the resulting pore model. Loop refinement was performed on the loops connecting domain 1 and the corresponding strands from the barrel (only on the central asymmetric unit). The resolution was insufficient to include β5 from domain 3 in the model. The refined asymmetric unit was C37 symmetrized to give the final pore model.
Only domains 1 and 4 were fitted into the prepore map. The starting structure was the crystal structure of suilysin monomer. We first rigidly fitted the whole crystal structure and then deleted domain 2 and 3, as their corresponding density was not sufficiently resolved. The fit of domain 4 was further refined to improve the CCC, taking into account the position relative to the membrane. The final fits of domain 1 and 4 were C37 symmetrized to give a final (partial) prepore model without clashes between the monomers.
We calculated the electrostatic potential of domain 1 in both prepore and pore models using the APBS method (Baker et al., 2001; available in Chimera) and mapped it onto their molecular surface (Figure 1—figure supplement 3A,B). For the pore model, optimization of the side chain rotamers was done using SCWRL (Krivov et al., 2009) prior to the calculation of the electrostatic potential. We further analysed the contacts in adjacent monomers of domain 1 in the prepore and pore fit (Figure 1—figure supplement 3C,D). We considered two residues as interacting (interface residue) if their corresponding Cβ atoms are within a distance of 7 Å (Malhotra et al., 2014).
Small unilamellar vesicles were injected onto a freshly cleaved mica surface at a concentration between 5 and 25 nM in the presence of 60 µl of 20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM MgCl2, pH 7.8. Incubation of the vesicles on the mica for 30 min at room temperature allowed them to rupture and adsorb onto the surface, yielding an extended lipid bilayer film. Any remaining vesicles were removed by gently rinsing with 80 µl of the adsorption buffer. The rinsing process was repeated 3–7 times to ensure a clean and uniform surface conducive for AFM imaging. Wild-type and disulphide-locked suilysin were injected into a 150 µl fluid cell containing the supported lipid bilayers and allowed to equilibrate for ∼10 min prior to imaging. The concentration of suilysin in the various AFM experiments was 12–180 nM.
For the doping assays (Figure 4—figure supplement 1), wild-type and locked suilysin were mixed in the desired molar ratios and 60 nM of the protein mixture was incubated on the lipid bilayers for 10 min.
Real-time topographic images of suilysin on the supported lipid bilayers were collected on a Multimode 8 system (Bruker, Santa Barbara, CA) by performing rapid force-distance (PeakForce Tapping) curves. The PeakForce method continuously records force-distance curves with a user-defined force set-point (here about 50 pN) that is referenced to a continuously adjusted baseline. Typically, these force-distance curves were recorded at a frequency of 2 kHz with a maximum tip-sample separation between 5 and 20 nm. The topographic features were verified for consistency between trace and retrace images, as well as for their reproducibility in subsequent scan frames. For imaging, the vertical scan limit was reduced to ∼1.5 μm. Typically, images were recorded at 0.2–1 frames/min. Suilysin prepores and pores were also imaged at rates of up to 10 frames/min using a home-built AFM system and miniaturized cantilevers (Leung et al., 2012), but this did not yield information additional to the data presented here. Suilysin prepores were only resolved at high concentration on the membrane (Figure 2C), or when the temperature was lowered to 15°C (Video 1). The real-time, low-temperature measurements were carried out on a Dimension FastScan AFM system in tapping mode with images acquired at 4 frames/min using FastScan Dx probes (Bruker).The AFM probes used for suilysin imaging had nominal spring constants ranging from 0.1 to 0.7 N/m and resonance frequencies between 10 and 130 kHz in liquid. We used silicon nitride AFM probes with batch-processed silicon tips including MSNL E and F (Bruker), ScanAsyst Fluid+ (Bruker), and cantilevers with individually grown carbon tips, for example, Biotool (Nanotools, Munich, Germany). Batches of AFM probes were screened for tip sharpness and appropriate tilt angles prior to data collection.
All AFM imaging was performed in the presence of 20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM MgCl2, pH 7.8 with either an E or a J scanner with an integrated temperature control. Images were analysed by either the Nanoscope Analysis software package (Bruker) or using the open-source SPM analysis software, Gwyddion (www.sourceforge.net). The raw AFM images were plane-levelled and subsequently line-by-line flattened using the lipid membrane as reference. A Gaussian filter with a full-width-half-maximum of 2-pixels was applied to smooth out high frequency noise where necessary.
The assembly of suilysin (SLY) in the prepore state was described by the irreversible reactions for oligomerization via monomer-association with a rate constant ka. Here n denotes the number of monomeric subunits in an oligomer, ranging from 1 to the maximum number of monomers in a complete ring, N = 37. The prepore monomers originated from the binding of soluble suilysin monomers to the membrane, , here assumed to occur with a rate constant kb.
σn(t) was defined as the number of suilysin prepore n-mers per unit area on the membrane, and C as the number of monomers in solution above a unit membrane area, immediately after injection of suilysin at time t = 0. With these definitions, the oligomerization reactions can be modelled by the rate equations
These reactions lead to kinetically trapped prepore assemblies on depletion of free monomers on the membrane, that is, when σ1(t)→0 as time evolves. With the substitutions t = τ/kb and σn(t) = sn(τ)kb/ka, the rate equations can be rewritten in terms of a dimensionless surface density sn(τ) and a dimensionless time τ, to demonstrate that the shape of the solution for sn(τ→∞) versus n, and thus of the resulting arc length distribution (σn(t→∞) versus n), is a function of the parameter Cka/kb only.
The coupled and nonlinear differential equations for sn(τ) were integrated numerically for different Cka/kb using the Runge-Kutta method, until a stationary solution was reached. For fitting experimental data, C was determined from the accumulated length of all measured oligomers, normalized to the measured membrane area. The best ka/kb then followed from the numerical solution that yielded the lowest sum of squared residues.
Electrostatics of nanosystems: application to microtubules and the ribosomeProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA 18:10037–10041.https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.181342398
Cellular functions and X-ray structure of anthrolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin secreted by Bacillus anthracisThe Journal of Biological Chemistry 284:14645–14656.https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M807631200
Critical point fluctuations in supported lipid membranesFaraday Discussions 161:91–111.https://doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20119d
Prepore to pore transition of a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin visualized by electron microscopyJournal of Structural Biology 150:100–108.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsb.2005.02.003
SPIDER and WEB: processing and visualization of images in 3D electron microscopy and related fieldsJournal of Structural Biology 116:190–199.https://doi.org/10.1006/jsbi.1996.0030
Membrane assembly of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pore complexBiochimica et Biophysica Acta 1818:1028–1038.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.07.036
Monomer-monomer interactions Propagate structural transitions necessary for pore formation by the cholesterol-dependent cytolysinsThe Journal of Biological Chemistry 287:24534–24543.https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112.380139
A simple and efficient expression and purification system using two newly constructed vectorsProtein Expression and Purification 63:102–111.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pep.2008.09.008
EMAN: Semiautomated software for high-resolution single-particle reconstructionsJournal of Structural Biology 128:82–97.https://doi.org/10.1006/jsbi.1999.4174
Conformational changes during pore formation by the perforin-related protein pleurotolysinPLOS Biology, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002049.
DNA trace: a comprehensive software for polymer image processingJournal of Advanced Microscopy Research 8:241–245.https://doi.org/10.1166/jamr.2013.1164
Accurate determination of local defocus and specimen tilt in electron microscopyJournal of Structural Biology 142:334–347.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-8477(03)00069-8
Principles determining the structure of beta-sheet barrels in proteins. I. A theoretical analysisJournal of Molecular Biology 236:1369–1381.https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2836(94)90064-7
UCSF Chimera–a visualization system for exploratory research and analysisJournal of Computational Chemistry 25:1605–1612.https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20084
Structural insights into the membrane-anchoring mechanism of a cholesterol-dependent cytolysinNature Structural Biology 9:823–827.
Membrane-dependent conformational changes initiate cholesterol-dependent cytolysin oligomerization and intersubunit beta-strand alignmentNature Structural & Molecular Biology 11:697–705.https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb793
Predicting giant transmembrane beta-barrel architectureBioinformatics 28:1299–1302.https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/bts152
A new model for pore formation by cholesterol-dependent cytolysinsPLOS Computational Biology 10:e1003791.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003791
Comparative protein modeling by satisfaction of spatial restraintsJournal of Molecular Biology 234:779–815.https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.1993.1626
Disulfide-bond scanning reveals assembly state and β-strand tilt angle of the PFO β-barrelNature Chemical Biology 9:383–389.https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.1228
Statistical potential for assessment and prediction of protein structuresProtein Science 15:2507–2524.https://doi.org/10.1110/ps.062416606
Volker DötschReviewing Editor; Goethe University, Germany
eLife posts the editorial decision letter and author response on a selection of the published articles (subject to the approval of the authors). An edited version of the letter sent to the authors after peer review is shown, indicating the substantive concerns or comments; minor concerns are not usually shown. Reviewers have the opportunity to discuss the decision before the letter is sent (see review process). Similarly, the author response typically shows only responses to the major concerns raised by the reviewers.
Thank you for sending your work entitled “Stepwise visualization of membrane pore formation by suilysin, a bacterial cholesterol-dependent cytolysin” for consideration at eLife. Your article has been favorably evaluated by John Kuriyan (Senior editor) and 3 reviewers, one of whom is a member of our Board of Reviewing Editors.
The following individuals responsible for the peer review of your submission have agreed to reveal their identity: Volker Dötsch as Reviewing editor and Andreas Engel as one of the other two reviewers.
The Reviewing editor and the other reviewers discussed their comments before we reached this decision, and the Reviewing editor has assembled the following comments to help you prepare a revised submission.
Carl Leung and colleagues present a structural investigation of the pore forming protein suilysin. They used AFM and cryo-EM to investigate both, the structure and dynamics of pore formation. Interpretation of these data was done by fitting and modeling. The crystal structure of suilysin reveals key-shaped molecule in its soluble form, which undergoes a conformational change when binding to the target membrane. Cryo- and negative stain EM of cys-locked suilysin-prepores and wt-pores revealed rings of different diameters but identical number (37) of subunits, supporting the conformational change. A 3D map was reconstructed from cryo-EM projections of vitrified rings.
While these results were seen as interesting by all reviewers, some discussion about the impact of these findings arose. In particular two questions were discussed:
1) The first one focused on the observation that lipids are released upon insertion. This issue has been discussed in the field for quite a while but has not been convincingly shown. The interpretation that this release occurs is based on the observation of density in the time resolved AFM images that appear and then disappear again. Showing conclusively that this density is indeed lipids would be a significant step ahead. Is there additional experimental evidence that this interpretation is correct? Could the authors for example provide a statistical evaluation of the size of these densities and explore if this is consistent with the expected size of the released lipids?
In addition, the process of when and how lipid ejection occurs should be discussed.
2) The provided structural model is of higher resolution than all other models that have been published before. Is there experimental evidence from mutational analysis that the structural model is correct? Again any evidence that the proposed interfaces indeed play a role during this process would significantly strengthen the impact of these results.
Further issues that should be addressed are:
3) “Negative stain EM and rotational symmetry analysis of complete rings of disulphide locked (Gly52Cys/Ser187Cys) suilysin prepores and wild-type pores formed on lipid monolayers revealed that most rings contain 37 subunits.” This is not documented properly: it should be, at least in the supplemental data. Cryo-EM reaches a resolution of 15 Å where the subunits are just visible. Negative stain is not likely to produce the same resolution; usually 25 Å is good. So how sure then is the 37-fold symmetry?
4) “The pore structure is similar to that observed with pneumolysin, but with improved resolution, resolving the β-barrel and defining hinge bending and domain movements.” There is no evidence that the β-barrel and defining hinge bending are resolved in the 15 Å map. It is that a convincing model has been developed to demonstrate this. Convincing is the height change seen by AFM - the 2 observation together make this work exciting. Please reformulate.
5) In the title and in some parts of the manuscript suilysin is named as a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin. Does cholesterol play a role in the assembly and insertion process? What is the role of cholesterol?
6) The attachment to the membrane is assumed to be irreversible. What is the basis for this assumption? Is there a conformational change that occurs upon membrane binding? And a second upon oligomerization followed by the final conformational change when the pore is formed?
7) The assembly itself is assumed not to be cooperative. What about the conformational change from the pre-pore to the pore? Is this a cooperative process?https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04247.020
- Helen R Saibil
- Bart W Hoogenboom
- Helen R Saibil
- Maya Topf
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.
This work has been funded by the BBSRC (BB/G011729/1, BB/J005932/1, BB/J006254 and BB/K01692X/1), the ERC (advanced grant 294408), and the Leverhulme Trust (RPG-2012-519). We thank Richard Thorogate for technical support, Dan Clare, Elena Orlova, and Luchun Wang for help with EM and image processing, Dave Houldershaw and Alan Lowe for computing support, Chanmin Su and Khaled Kaja (Bruker) for AFM probes and access to equipment, and James Whisstock for comments on the manuscript.
Accession codes for EM maps: prepore EMD-12698, pore EMD-12711.
- Volker Dötsch, Reviewing Editor, Goethe University, Germany
© 2014, Leung et al.
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited. | <urn:uuid:c1ca2196-44a5-43a1-8ef3-ce5e0d1402f8> | {
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1. The problem statement, all variables and given/known data Two containers contain molecules at different temperatures as shown. They are allowed to exchange heat between them, but not with outside. Which of the following statements is most accurate? a) Container #1 looses Internal energy, container #2 gains internal energy b) Container #2 looses Internal energy, container #1 gains internal energy c) Heat flows form container #1 to container #2 d) Heat flows from container #2 to container #1 e) Both a and b are true f) Both b and c are true g) Both b and d are true 2. Relevant equations 3. The attempt at a solution G? Due to diffusion because the molecules are moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. | <urn:uuid:c260e2c1-d440-4cb3-aab7-dc44cba20bfc> | {
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This is one in a series of stories about the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation’s landmark achievements, which continue to inspire us as we address future challenges.
One of Robert Wood Johnson’s colleagues once remarked that “if you didn’t watch him, he’d give away the factory.”
Johnson’s generosity within the Northern New Jersey community was well known. Some things seem too good to be true, but Johnson’s commitment to helping the needy was deeply heartfelt.
In his earliest days as a philanthropist—although he refused to describe himself as such—Johnson worked hard to assist Johnson & Johnson employees, and other members of the local community to ride out the storm of the Great Depression. Early in the Depression, Johnson gave employees a 5 percent hardship bonus. He often reached into his own pocket to help workers who had fallen on hard times.
In late 1936, he created the Johnson New Brunswick Foundation with 12,000 shares of company stock—worth about $5.4 million today. His aim was simple: to help people who were down on their luck. Many applied; few were denied.
This is our proud legacy. | <urn:uuid:f46ec2ca-2a8e-4062-abcd-a7976ecad378> | {
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WARNING: Graphic image…
In an “urgent appeal”, the ECLJ has called the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture to investigate on children born alive after late abortion, and on methods of late abortion, especially in the United-Kingdom and Canada: in Canada, between 2000 and 2011, 622 babies born alive after an abortion were left to die, and 66 in the United Kingdom in 2005.
Some cruel methods of late abortion constitute torture, especially the one called dilatation and evacuation: the foetus, still alive, is dismembered to be pulled out of the womb in pieces.
The ECLJ has communicated to the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture cases of torture due to late abortion. Appointed by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur on Torture can examine questions relevant to torture in all countries. He transmits urgent appeals to States, undertakes fact-finding country visits and submits annual reports to the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly.
Scientific evidence proves that foetuses and premature babies can feel pain at least as much as adults. Foetuses are responsive to touch at 8 weeks and have the physical structure to experience pain at 20 weeks.
As early as 16 weeks, an infant can survive for a while out of the womb, and it is considered viable at 22 weeks. However, in Canada, there is no legal limit for abortion, even if medical rules recommend limiting abortion on demand to 22 weeks. In the UK, abortion is legal until 24 weeks, and until the end of pregnancy in case of foetal anomaly.
British Department of Health figures show that 2860 abortions at 20 weeks or more were carried out in England and Wales in 2012. In 2012, 160 abortions were done after 24 weeks, including 38 between 28 and 31 weeks, and 28 after 32 weeks. 66 babies were thus aborted after 28 weeks, which was the viability limit defined by the WHO until 1975: an infant born at that gestational age can survive without medical help.
In Canada in 2011, there were 823 abortions between 17 and 20 weeks, 549 after 21 weeks. These figures are severely underestimated since they do not include Quebec (more than 26,000 abortions a year, including over 1500 after 14 weeks) nor clinics, though more than half abortions are done in clinics.
Late abortion being difficult to perform, it happens that babies are born alive after an abortion. In 2007, a study published in the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology concluded that about 1 in 30 abortions after 16 weeks’ gestation result in a born-alive infant. At 23 weeks’ gestation, the number reached 9.7%. In that case, they are left to die without any care, or killed. The Guidance from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists recommends killing these babies by lethal injection. When they are not killed, they are not fed, not even covered, no care is given them even if they were wounded by the attempted abortion. They are left to suffer and die alone. According to official statistics, between 2000 and 2011 in Canada, 622 babies were born alive and left to die after an abortion. They were 66 in 2005 in the United Kingdom, where no statistics were published on this issue the following years.
Concerning Syria, the Special Rapporteur recently stressed that deprival of food, water, shelter and medical care constitutes a crime against humanity. Depriving newborn babies of elementary care, whatever the conditions of their birth, constitutes torture and should also be considered a crime against humanity.
Some methods of abortion, especially dilatation and evacuation, should be banned because of the inhumane suffering they cause for the foetus. According to the statistics of the Canadian Institute for Health Information, 1226 abortions in 2010 and 1341 in 2011 used the method of dilatation and evacuation in Canadian hospitals (except Quebec and not including clinics), while among the 160 late abortions in England and Wales in 2012, 43% were by dilatation and evacuation.
In the case of dilatation and evacuation, the cervix is dilated, then the “content of the uterus” is pulled out with a clamp. In the end, the pieces are examined to make sure everything has been removed. This means that the body is gathered like a puzzle, because in many cases it has been dismembered during the operation. If there was no feticide injection first, or if the injection did not cause death, the foetus was alive while its members were being torn off one after the other. This frightfully cruel method is inhumane and constitutes torture.
LifeNews.com Note: Grégor Puppinck is the director of the European Centre for Law and Justice, an international, Non-Governmental Organization dedicated to the promotion and protection of human rights in Europe and worldwide.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-512129/66-babies-year-left-die-NHS-abortions-wrong.html and http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/66-british-babies-survived-abortion-all-were-left-to-die-without-medical-ai
According to a study, the injection effectively induced fetal death in 87% of women. This means that 13 % survived. Nucatola D, Roth N, Gatter M. A randomized pilot study on the effectiveness and side-effect profiles of two doses of digoxin as fetocide when administered intraamniotically or intrafetally prior to second-trimester surgical abortion. Contraception. 2010 Jan;81(1):67-74. doi: 10.1016/j.contraception.2009.08.014. Epub . Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20004276 | <urn:uuid:b90c90cd-2cd7-4e1d-a4ff-687aad1270a4> | {
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We purpose giving in this chapter some of the more prominent features of Indian domestic and social life, which furnish the best index to their true character. The Indian, viewed as a distinct branch of the human family, has some peculiar traits and institutions which may be advantageously studied. They furnish the key to those startling impulses which have so long made him an object of wonder to civilized communities, and reveal him as the legitimate product of the conditions attending his birth, his forest education, and the wants, temptations and dangers which surround him. They show him also to be as patient and politic as he is ferocious.
“America, when it became known to Europeans, was, as it had long been, a scene of wide-spread revolution. North and South, tribe was giving place to tribe, language to language; for the Indian, hopelessly unchanging in respect to individual and social development, was as regarded tribal relations and social haunts, mutable as the wind. In Canada and the northern section of the United States, the elements of change were especially active. The Indian population which, in 1535, Cartier found at Montreal and Quebec, had disappeared at the opening of the next century, and another race had succeeded, in language and customs widely different; while in the region now forming the State of New York, a power was rising to a ferocious vitality, which, but for the presence of Europeans, would probably have subjected, absorbed or exterminated every other Indian community east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio.”1
Hence we shall see that their habitations were not characterized by that durability and permanency which is manifest in stable communities. This mutability was governed primarily by success or non-success in war, or the fear of ambitious neighbors, for not unfrequently whole nations, or fragments of nations, submitted to expatriation to save themselves from extermination; and secondarily by the mode of Indian life. They subsisted generally by hunting and fishing. Their agriculture was usually of the most primitive character; and when, in the course of years, the fertility of their small clearings became exhausted, not conversant with the art of refertilization, they removed to and cultivated new fields. The scarcity of game and fuel also necessitated their removal to localities where it was more abundant.
Usually, however, they had large central villages, which exhibited in a more marked measure the elements of permanency. Thus the Iroquois, though living at different times in various localities in this State, retained their central habitations in or near the localities where the whites first found them. Of the Iroquois, who subsisted mainly by the chase, the Senecas, who occupied the most fertile portion of the State, brought agriculture to the highest degree of perfection, and had the best houses. When General Sullivan passed through their country with his army in the fall of 1779, thousands of acres had been cleared, old orchards of apples, pears, peaches and other fruits existed, and evidences of long cultivation abounded.2
Their dwellings differed in shape and size, and, though rude, were generally built with considerable labor and care.3 They are generally about thirty feet square and of the same height.4 The sides were formed of hickory saplings set in two parallel rows and bent inward, thus forming an arch. Transverse poles were bound to the uprights and over the arch. The whole was covered with bark, overlapping like shingles, and held in place by smaller poles fastened to the frame with cords of linden bark. An open space about a foot wide extended the whole length of the ridge and served the double purpose of window and chimney. At each end was an enclosed space, for the storage of supplies of Indian corn, dried flesh, fish, etc., which were kept in bark vessels. Along each side were wide scaffolds, some four feet from the floor, which, when covered with skins, formed the summer sleeping places, while beneath was stored their firewood gathered and kept dry for use. In some cases these platforms were in sections of twelve to fourteen feet, with spaces for storage between them. Five or six feet above was another platform, often occupied by children. Overhead poles were suspended for various uses, to make and dry their fish and flesh, and hold their weapons, skins, clothing, corn, etc. In cold weather the inmates slept on the floor, huddled about the fires, which ranged through the center of the house. In their larger structures the sides usually consisted of rows of upright posts, and the roof, still arched, formed of separate poles. The door consisted of a sheet of bark hung on wooden hinges, or suspended by cords from above. Generally they were lined with a thick coating of soot, by the large fires maintained for warmth and for cooking. So pungent was the smoke, that it produced inflammation of the eyes, attended in old age with frequent blindness. Their wolfish dogs were as regular occupants as the unbridled and unruly children. The Iroquois preserved this mode of building in all essential particulars till a recent period, and it was common and peculiar to all tribes of their lineage.
Says Parkman, to whom and to the Colonial Documents we are indebted for the foregoing description:–
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“He who entered on a winter night beheld a strange spectacle: The vista of fires lighting the smoky concave; the bronzed groups encircling each, cooking, eating, gambling, or amusing themselves with idle badinage; shrivelled squaws, hideous with three-score years of hardship; grisly old warriors, scarred with Iroquois war-clubs; young aspirants, whose honors were yet to be won; damsels gay with ochre and wampum; restless children, pell-mell with restless dogs. Now a tongue of resinous flame painted each wild feature in vivid light; now the fitful gleam expired, and the group vanished from sight, as their nation has vanished from history.”5
Parkman’s Jesuits. ↩
General Sullivan reported that in 1779 “the Indian town of Genesee contained one hundred and twenty-eight houses, mostly large and elegant. It was beautifully situated, encircled by a clear flat extending a number of miles, over which fields of corn were waving, together with every kind of vegetable that could be conceived of.” Similar towns were also found at other points on his march. The whole valley presented the appearance of having been cultivated with care for generations. ↩
Col. Wm. L. Stone, in his Life of Joseph Brant, says, “they had several towns and many large villages laid out with considerable regularity. They had framed houses, some of them well finished, having chimneys and painted; they had broad and productive fields.” ↩
Schoolcraft thus describes the lodge, which, he says, was in general use by the tribes north of latitude 42 deg., the south line of New York State:– “It is made of thin poles, such as a child can lift, set in the ground in a circle, bent over and tied at the top, and sheathed with long sheets of white birch bark. A rim of cedar wood at the bottom, assimilates these white birch sheets to the roller of a map, to which in stormy weather a stone is attached to hold it firm. This stick has also the precise use of a map roller, for when the lodge is to be removed, the bark is rolled on it, and in this shape carried to the canoe, to be set up elsewhere. The circle of sticks, or frame, is always left standing, as it would be useless to encumber the canoe with what can easily be had in any position in a forest country. * * * It is, in its figure, a half globe, and by its lightness and wicker-like structure, may be said to resemble an inverted bird’s nest. The whole amount of the transportable materials of it is often comprehended in some half a dozen good rolls of bark, and as many of rush mats, which the merest girl can easily lift. The mats, which are the substitute for floor cloths, and also the under stratum of the sleeping couch, are made out of common lacustris or bulrush, or the flag, cut at the proper season, and woven in a warp of fine hemp net thread, such as is furnished by traders in the present state of the Indian trade. A portion of this soft vegetable woof is dyed, and woven in various colors.”–The Indian in his Wigwam, or Characteristics of the Red Race of America, 1848. ↩
Many were much larger, and a few were of prodigious length. In some of the villages there were dwellings 240 feet long, though in breadth and height they did not much exceed the others.–Brebeauf, Relation des Hurons, 163??, 31. Champlain says he saw them, in 1615, more than thirty fathoms long; while Van der Donck reports the length, from actual measurement, of an Iroquois house, at 180 yards. These were occupied by numerous families, with little or no regard for privacy.–Parkman’s Jesuits. ↩ | <urn:uuid:9bac64e3-ed34-4c87-a662-391217577ca0> | {
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Paper version: In stock and available from the USGS Store
Ground water is the sole source of public water supply for Clifton Park, a growing suburban community north of Albany, New York. Increasing water demand, coupled with concerns over ground-water quantity and quality, led the Clifton Park Water Authority in 1995 to initiate a cooperative study with the U.S. Geological Survey to update and refine the understanding of ground-water resources in the area. Ground-water resources are largely associated with three aquifers in the eastern half of the area. These aquifers overlie or encompass the Colonie Channel, a north-south-oriented bedrock channel that is filled primarily with lacustrine glacial deposits. The three aquifers are: (1) an unconfined lacustrine sand aquifer, (2) the Colonie Channel aquifer, which is confined within the deepest parts of the channel and variably confined and unconfined within the shallower, peripheral channel areas, and (3) an unconfined alluvial aquifer beneath the Mohawk River flood plain, which represents the southern limit of the study area. The lacustrine sand aquifer has little potential for large-scale withdrawals because it is predominantly fine grained and is susceptible to contamination from human activities at land surface. Water from this aquifer can, however, recharge the underlying peripheral parts of the Colonie Channel aquifer where hydraulic connections are present. The Colonie Channel aquifer consists of thin sand and gravel and (or) shallow, fractured bedrock over much of the channel area; discontinuous deposits of thicker (more than 20 feet) sand and gravel are common in the peripheral channel areas. The deepest, or central, channel area of this aquifer is isolated from the overlying lacustrine sand aquifer by a continuous lacustrine silt and clay unit, which is the primary channel-fill deposit. The most productive areas of the Colonie Channel aquifer are typically the shallow peripheral areas, where conditions range from unconfined to confined. The most productive aquifer within the area is the alluvial aquifer, which is sustained to an unknown extent by induced infiltration of Mohawk River water. The chemical composition of ground water within the Clifton Park area varies widely in response to hydrogeologic setting, pumpage, and contamination from human activities. These chemical differences can be used to deduce ground-water flow paths within and between the unconfined and confined areas of the aquifer system. Six water types are defined; three are naturally occurring and three are the result of human activities. Precipitation that infiltrates the land surface is the sole source of recharge to the lacustrine sand aquifer; precipitation also recharges the alluvial aquifer and unconfined parts of the Colonie Channel aquifer. Ground-water withdrawals from confined or unconfined peripheral areas of the Colonie Channel aquifer induce flow from recharge areas, from the underlying bedrock, or from other confined aquifer areas. The rate of recharge to the confined central area of the Colonie Channel aquifer appears to be low. Potentiometric levels as much as 100 feet below water-table levels in the overlying lacustrine sand aquifer indicate two large depressions in the potentiometric surface; these depressions indicate that withdrawals from this aquifer have cumulatively exceeded the recharge rates. Localized recharge of the central channel area apparently occurs from two peripheral channel areas that are characterized by zones of elevated water levels and (or) by water chemistry that differs from those within the central channel area. Recharge from, or hydraulic connection with, adjoining segments of the Colonie Channel aquifer to the north and south is likely, but the potential for significant recharge is low because the aquifer is thin and poorly permeable.
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
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"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-06/segments/1422115865430.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20150124161105-00104-ip-10-180-212-252.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"int_score": 3,
"language": "en",
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"score": 3.078125,
"token_count": 809,
"url": "http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/wri014104"
} |
Subsets and Splits