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I have taught this introductory survey course to large groups ranging from 75 to 120 students. In the classroom, I use structured class discussions to promote student engagement, assign in-class writing on weekly readings, utilize small groups to involve even the most reserved students in class activities, and bring research and media familiar to students' lives as a way of illustrating key sociological concepts. I often incorporate my own research on collegiate cultures to demonstrate both how to do research and ways that sociology intersects with their own worlds. .
In this introductory course, we will explore what it means to do sociology. One of the most exciting things about sociology is that you can study anything from a sociological perspective. Therefore, this class will cover a variety of diverse issues including but not limited to race, class, gender, deviance, religion, and politics. Throughout the semester we will look at how these topics relate to current social issues. Most importantly, students will learn to apply a sociological lens to the topics that most interest them.
This upper-level course is designed for between 50-75 students. The class provides the students with empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks necessary to understand the K-12 and postsecondary educational systems in the United States. The class is discussion based, and focused on honing students’ critical thinking skills. Students must complete two mini-paper assignments designed to build their writing skills.
In this class we explore how external forces (like politics, financial support, and demographics of the population) shape how schools work, how internal institutional arrangements sort and channel students in different directions, what factors shape student achievement and behavior, and how schooling influences where individuals end up in society. We start with a case study of how gender, race, and class shape students’ experiences in urban schools. We then move to examination of key theories in the sociology of education, and analyze their utility for understanding today’s educational issues. The class also includes a second case study that helps us to look across and within schools as institutions. Finally, we end with a closer look at how social class, race, gender, and sexuality both organize and are organized by educational environments.
This upper-level course is designed for a small group of students, up to 35. In the class, I seek to build studentsí knowledge of sociological perspectives on the family while strengthening their written and oral communication skills. The class is discussion based, and driven by student participation. I encourage critical thinking about how data on the family are collected, analyzed, and presented as "fact." Students also employ critical thinking skills in a final term paper project that is developed over the course of the semester, on a topic of their choice.
We are all experts of sorts on the family: We have lived in families, observed family dynamics, and compared our own family experiences with those of others. Families have been at the center of our personal and emotional lives. This course will provide an opportunity to look at something familiar (the family) in a new way. We will focus on the family as a social institution — set of structured social arrangements for meeting certain human needs — and we will examine the larger social forces that shape those structures. We will use a comparative approach to families, emphasizing their diversity both across time and space and within present-day U.S. society — paying particular attention to how social inequality shapes family experiences. By the end of the semester, you should be able to place your own personal experience of families in a larger social, cultural, and historical context. | <urn:uuid:e1858282-717a-4140-9d44-0f7468438732> | {
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Citing rising Jewish intermarriage rates, the leading organization devoted to combating Tay-Sachs is urging doctors to encourage the use of more comprehensive testing methodology to identify carriers of the deadly genetic disease.
The National Tay-Sachs & Allied Diseases Association issued its position statement on Tay-Sachs carrier screening in September 2009. The statement stressed the importance of using enzyme testing to discover whether individuals are Tay-Sachs carriers, rather than relying solely on DNA testing, which it warned is becoming “less sensitive” as “the Ashkenazi Jewish population becomes less homogeneous.”
In the 1970s, when the first Tay-Sachs screening programs were set up, the only carrier-detection method was enzyme testing, which uses a blood sample to look for the low levels of Hexosaminidase A enzyme that suggest someone is a Tay-Sachs carrier. In recent years, however, DNA testing has enabled screening for a battery of Jewish genetic diseases all at once via a saliva or buccal sample.
DNA testing geared toward Ashkenazi Jews searches for specific genetic mutations that cause Tay-Sachs and are prevalent among this population. But it does not turn up other Tay-Sachs mutations that are more prevalent among non-Jews. Rising levels of intermarriage mean that the traditional Ashkenazi mutations increasingly are not the only ones that Jews have to worry about.
“As Jews have become a more mixed group, there is less and less chance that those mutations are the only ones that can be found in Jews,” said Dr. Jodi Hoffman of the Tufts Medical Center, who led the NTSAD advisory panel that recommended updating the guidelines. “Anyone who has ever had someone marry into the family who’s not Ashkenazi can have a different mutation.”
When two parents are both carriers of mutations that cause Tay-Sachs, each of their children will have a 25% chance of being born with the disease.
Despite common misconceptions, Tay-Sachs does not affect only Jews. One in 30 Ashkenazi Jews is a carrier, but carriers are equally common in non-Jewish French-Canadian and Cajun popultions, and Irish people also have a relatively high carrier rate. The carrier rate in the general population is about 1 in 300.
According to the NTSAD statement, DNA testing first became available in the 1990s and screening for three mutations has yielded a 92% to 98% success rate in identifying carriers among people of entirely Ashkenazi descent.
Intermarriage, however, is making the Jewish community more heterogeneous. “The genetic mix in our society is not as segregated as it once was, so the simple DNA test may not be effective anymore,” said NTSAD’s executive director, Susan Kahn.
DNA testing for three mutations among non-Ashkenazi individuals is reported to have yielded a detection rate of only about 20%. Even when the DNA test looked for five different mutations, the success rate climbed to just 60%.
Enzyme testing, which studies have shown to be 98% reliable in detecting Tay-Sachs carriers, works by measuring the Hex-A activity in serum or white-blood cells. In babies born with Tay-Sachs, the absence of Hex-A enzyme causes lipid buildup in nervous system cells, especially in the brain, which almost always leads to death by age 5. Carriers, though asymptomatic, have lower levels of Hex-A that can be detected in a blood sample.
Because enzyme testing measures actual rates of Hex-A rather than looking for specific genetic mutations — which can be different in different populations — intermarriage does not compromise its reliability. The decreased level of Hex-A is analogous to a fever: It is easy and straightforward to measure, even though its underlying cause — in this case, a mutation — may be difficult to pinpoint.
The NTSAD statement expressed concern about people who have had a DNA test opting out of enzyme testing. While it stated that “DNA testing is the appropriate screening modality for many other genetic disorders,” it urged medical professionals to emphasize the importance of enzyme analysis, which it recommended “as the primary testing modality for identifying carriers for Tay-Sachs disease.”
The statement suggested that “DNA testing can and should be used to confirm Tay-Sachs enzyme results, to clarify indeterminate enzyme results, to identify cases of pseudodeficiency, as well as to provide molecular information for reproductive procedures and genetic counseling.”
“DNA testing is nice because it can be confirmatory,” Hoffman said. “It provides added information, but enzyme testing is the gold standard.” | <urn:uuid:5315ad5b-f82d-4541-9fef-2c43ca65d761> | {
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The mountains and valleys of New Hampshire are rich with mineral formations. From the southwest corner of the state near Keene to the northern Canadian border near Littleton there are fascinating deposits of a variety of minerals.
One of these deposits is known as the Littleton Formation which was formed during the Devonian era approximately 300,000,000 years ago. The mining of these mineral deposits has been an important part of New Hampshire history from prehistoric eras to the present.
The Ruggles Mine, in Grafton N.H., is part of the Littleton Formation and has a rich mining and geological history. It is the oldest and largest mine of its kind in the United States. Minerals such as Mica, Feldspar, Beryl, and Uranium were mined at Ruggles for 175 years. | <urn:uuid:331006c5-b1df-41e2-b5b8-e9fd5f32c31a> | {
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HSBC Launches $100 Million Climate Change Effort
HSBC Launches $100 Million Climate Change Initiative
Financial services giant HSBC has announced a five-year, $100 million partnership with four environmental organizations to respond to the threat of global climate change.
Comprised of HSBC, the Climate Group, the Earthwatch Institute, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and the World Wildlife Fund, the HSBC Climate Partnership will build on HSBC's previous five-year, $50 million "eco-partnership," Investing in Nature, which concluded in 2006. The latest commitment by the company represents both the largest charitable donation ever made by a British company and the largest contribution ever received by each of the nonprofit partners. "By working with four of the world's most respected environmental organizations and creating a 'green taskforce' of thousands of HSBC employees worldwide, we believe we can tackle the causes and impacts of climate change," said Paul Lawrence, president and CEO of HSBC Bank USA.
The partnership will work to help five of the world's major cities — Hong Kong, London, New York, Shanghai, and Mumbai — respond to the challenges of climate change; create "climate champions" worldwide to undertake field research and bring back valuable information and experience to their communities; conduct the largest-ever field experiment on the world's forests to measure carbon and the effects of climate change; and help protect some of the world's major rivers, including the Amazon, Ganges, Thames, and Yangtze, from the effects of climate change, benefiting the 450 million people who rely on them.
According to Christopher Walker, U.S. director of the Climate Group, climate change increasingly is an urban issue. "High summer temperatures, storms, and rising sea levels will have more extreme impacts on city life.... [And] many of the solutions lie in cities — concentrations of capital, decision makers, opinion formers, and population," he added. "Through the HSBC Climate Partnership, we will accelerate our program in five world cities, engaging the most influential businesses and city governments to lead a 'coalition of the willing' against global warming."
HSBC Announces US$100 Million Program to Combat Climate Change World-Wide.
HSBC Press Release
Primary Subject: Environment
Location(s): China, Hong Kong, India, International, London, Mumbai, National, New York, New York City, Shanghai, United Kingdom | <urn:uuid:745ec9a0-e53c-408e-a0cf-47e4b78c3947> | {
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France, officially the French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, just behind that of the United States. Over the past 500 years France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands. France has its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The French Republic is defined as indivisible, secular, democratic and social by its constitution. France is one of the world's most developed countries, it possesses the world's fifth largest economy measured by GDP, the ninth-largest economy measured by purchasing power parity and is Europe's second largest economy by nominal GDP. France is the wealthiest nation in Europe – and the fourth wealthiest in the world – in aggregate household wealth. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's longest life expectancies. France has been listed as the world's "best overall health care" provider by the World Health Organization. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually. France has the world's fourth largest nominal military budget, the third largest military in NATO and EU's largest army. France also possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world – with around 300 active warheads as of 25 May 2010 – and the world's second largest diplomatic corps. France is a founding member of the United Nations, one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is also a founding and leading member state of the European Union and the largest EU state by area. In 2011, France was listed 20th on the Human Development Index and 24th on the Corruption Perceptions Index.
Mont Saint-Michel is a rocky tidal island and a commune in Normandy, France. It is located approximately one kilometre off the country's north-western coast, at the mouth of the Couesnon River near Avranches. The population of the island is 41, as of 2006. The island has been a strategic point holding fortifications since ancient times, and since the 8th century AD it became the seat of the Saint-Michel monastery, from which it draws the name. The Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay are part of the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. More than 3,000,000 people visit it each year.
Mont-Saint-Michel was used in the 6th and 7th centuries as an Armorican stronghold of Romano-Breton culture and power, until it was ransacked by the Franks, thus ending the trans-channel culture that had stood since the departure of the Romans in AD 460. Before the construction of the first monastic establishment in the 8th century, the island was called "monte tombe". According to legend, the Archangel Michael appeared to St. Aubert, bishop of Avranches, in 708 and instructed him to build a church on the rocky islet. Aubert repeatedly ignored the angel's instruction, until Michael burned a hole in the bishop's skull with his finger. The mount gained strategic significance in 933 when William "Long Sword", William I, Duke of Normandy, annexed the Cotentin Peninsula, definitively placing the mount in Normandy. It is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry which commemorates the 1066 Norman conquest of England. Harold, Earl of Wessex is pictured on the tapestry rescuing two Norman knights from the quicksand in the tidal flats during a battle with Conan II, Duke of Brittany. Norman Ducal patronage financed the spectacular Norman architecture of the abbey in subsequent centuries. In 1067, the monastery of Mont-Saint-Michel gave its support to duke William of Normandy in his claim to the throne of England. It was rewarded with properties and grounds on the English side of the Channel, including a small island off the southwestern coast of Cornwall which was modeled after the Mount and became a Norman priory named St Michael's Mount of Penzance. During the Hundred Years' War, the English made repeated assaults on the island, but were unable to seize it due to the abbey's improved fortifications. Les Michelettes – two wrought-iron bombards left by the English in their failed 1423–24 siege of Mont-Saint-Michel – are still displayed near the outer defense wall. When Louis XI of France founded the Order of Saint Michael in 1469, he intended that the abbey church of Mont Saint-Michel be the chapel for the Order, but because of its great distance from Paris, his intention could never be realized. The wealth and influence of the abbey extended to many daughter foundations, including St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. However, its popularity and prestige as a centre of pilgrimage waned with the Reformation, and by the time of the French Revolution there were scarcely any monks in residence. The abbey was closed and converted into a prison, initially to hold clerical opponents of the republican régime. High-profile political prisoners followed, but by 1836, influential figures – including Victor Hugo – had launched a campaign to restore what was seen as a national architectural treasure. The prison was finally closed in 1863, and the mount was declared a historic monument in 1874. The Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1979, and it was listed with criteria such as cultural, historical, and architectural significance, as well as human-created and natural beauty.
photo by lucky
edited by mobydick74
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National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometer Facility, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Data Center Description
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility (NOSAMS) was established in 1989 to process and analyze a large number of small volume seawater samples (>13,700) collected as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). An ongoing commitment to automation and high-precision 14C AMS measurements has allowed NOSAMS to successfully meet the goals of the WOCE program while providing over 17,000 AMS radiocarbon results (carbon dating ) to non-WOCE investigators from a wide variety of carbon-bearing materials.
All of the formal WOCE program samples have been analyzed as of the spring of 2002, and all Pacific and Indian Ocean data have been released to the WOCE Hydrographic Office. The Atlantic Ocean dataset is expected to be released by the summer of 2002. AMS analyses are reported with a routine precision of below 4 per mil (thousand) on samples with a 14C content of more than 70 % of that of a modern sample.
NOSAMS accepts samples from all qualified research laboratories and charges fees that vary according to the difficulty of analysis and the nature of the project. Samples from federally supported research programs receive the lowest rates. Overall, the objective of this facility is to support research in all studies of global change. | <urn:uuid:1563d880-0dbc-4430-a22b-750bd3cf773a> | {
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1. A flexible bag designed to be inflated with hot air or with a
gas, such as helium, that is lighter than the surrounding air,
causing it to rise and float in the atmosphere.
Such a bag with ... sufficient capacity to lift and transport a
suspended gondola or other load.
Such a bag shaped like a figure or object when inflated; an inflatable.
[Source: The American Heritage? Dictionary of the English
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Step 2 is difficult. Chapter 5 of "The Book of GENESIS" ("the BoG"), which was assigned as reading for this lecture, gives some useful information for answering the two questions. This chapter (Segev, 2005) is also very mathematical, and it is easy to get lost in the equations and forget what they are used for. I wanted you to read it in order to get an overview of the theory of passive propagation in dendrites. Now, I'll list what I think is important for you to remember. There are three things that can be measured experimentally and are related to the parameters that we need for a model:
- The attentuation of voltage with distance, and the "space constant" or
- The membrane time constant.
- The input resistance of the cell, measured at the soma.
This slide gives a summary of the electrical properties of a uniform section of passive dendrite having length l and diameter d.
The conducting cytoplasm inside the neuron, the insulating neural membrane, and the liquid (similar to salt water) surrounding the neuron form a cable with a capacitance Cm. The inner conductor, the cytoplasm, is a poorer conductor than the copper wire used in an undersea cable, and it has an resistance along the length of the cable Ra, the "axial resistance". The membrane in not a perfect insulator due to the ion-conducting channels that pass through it. It is convenient to make a distinction between the "passive channels" that do not vary in conductance, and the "active channels" that have conductances varying with voltage, calcium concentration, or synaptic input. The passive channels account for the membrane resistance Rm and the associated leakage current Ileak. The active channels are represented by the various variable conductances that are labeled as Gk in the neural compartment diagram and the differential equation for Vm that we described in the previous section on compartments. | <urn:uuid:c4dcbca5-ce92-4349-8ae3-a98b4e7976f8> | {
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|http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
The official name of this gene is “ethylmalonic encephalopathy 1.”
ETHE1 is the gene's official symbol. The ETHE1 gene is also known by other names, listed below.
The ETHE1 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme that is involved in energy production. This enzyme is active throughout the body in mitochondria (the energy-producing centers in cells), where it may form part of a larger protein complex. Little is known about the enzyme's function in mitochondria.
More than 20 different mutations in the ETHE1 gene have been identified in people with ethylmalonic encephalopathy. Most of these mutations lead to the production of an abnormally short, nonfunctional version of the ETHE1 enzyme or prevent cells from making any of this enzyme. These genetic changes impair the body's ability to produce energy in mitochondria. Additionally, a lack of the ETHE1 enzyme allows potentially toxic compounds, including ethylmalonic acid and lactic acid, to build up in the body. Excess amounts of these compounds can be detected in urine.
It is unclear how a loss of the ETHE1 enzyme leads to the progressive features of ethylmalonic encephalopathy. Researchers suggest that a buildup of toxic compounds in the brain could be responsible for the neurologic signs and symptoms. Changes in the blood vessels or in blood flow could also contribute to nervous system damage, leading to the characteristic features of the disorder.
Cytogenetic Location: 19q13.31
Molecular Location on chromosome 19: base pairs 44,010,870 to 44,031,395
The ETHE1 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 19 at position 13.31.
More precisely, the ETHE1 gene is located from base pair 44,010,870 to base pair 44,031,395 on chromosome 19.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/genelocation) in the Handbook.
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about ETHE1 helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/naming) in the Handbook.
clone ; encephalopathy ; enzyme ; gene ; hepatoma ; hydrolase ; lactic acid ; mitochondria ; nervous system ; neurologic ; protein ; toxic
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary).
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook. | <urn:uuid:9f795862-b339-4d7f-885e-494e3d90e410> | {
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GIS at NCI
Introduction to GIS at NCI
Geospatial tools are used at NCI for a variety of applications, including:
- The identification and display of the geographic patterns of cancer incidence and mortality rates in the US and their change over time,
- The creation of complex databases for the study of cancer screening, diagnosis and survival at the community level,
- Environmental exposure assessment through satellite imagery,
- Spatial statistical models to estimate cancer incidence, prevalence and survival for every US state,
- Communication of local cancer information to the public and public health professionals through interactive web-based tools,
- The identification of health disparities at the local level through the comparison of cancer outcomes across demographic subgroups, and
- Development of new methods of displaying geospatial data for clear communication to the public and for examination of complex multivariate data by researchers.
- The Epidemiology and Genomics Research Program (EGRP) and the Surveillance Research Program (SRP) support grant research to use GIS in cancer research and the development of methodologies to accomplish this research. EGRP also funded the development and maintenance of a geographic information system for breast cancer studies on Long Island (LI GIS). The LI GIS is available to researchers and can be used to study other types of cancer and conditions as well.
- Statistical Methodology and Applications Branch (SMAB)
The Statistical Methodology and Applications Branch (SMAB) contributes to GIS research by developing statistical methods for the analysis, display, and web-based communication of georeferenced cancer data.
- Surveillance Systems Branch (SSB)
The Surveillance Systems Branch (SSB) oversees the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, an integrated, comprehensive, multiple population-based reporting system of cancer registries covering 26% of the U.S. population. Cancer incidence information is provided at the state, county and census tract level. Investigators in SEER's Rapid Response Surveillance Studies (RRSS) are exploring and applying GIS technology in several areas.
- The Epidemiology and Biostatistics Program (EBP)
EBP has a long history of publishing the NCI cancer atlases.
- The Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch (OEEB)
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How to use GIS?
1. Mapping Where Things Are
Mapping where things are lets you find places that have the features you are looking
for and to see where to take action. 1. Find a feature—People use maps to see where
or what an individual feature is. 2. Finding patterns—By looking at the distribution
of features on the map instead of just an individual feature, you can see patterns
2. Mapping Quantities
People map quantities, such as where the most and least are, to find places that
meet their criteria and take action, or to see the relationships between places.
This gives an additional level of information beyond simply mapping the locations
3. Mapping Densities
While you can see concentrations by simply mapping the locations of features, in
areas with many features it may be difficult to see which areas have a higher concentration
than others. A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform
areal unit, such as acres or square miles, so you can clearly see the distribution.
4. Finding What's Inside
Use GIS to monitor what is happening and to take specific action by mapping what
is inside a specific area. For example, you would monitor infection disease spreading
in a certain district to find out the pattern of the cases distribution —if so,
the proper action should be taken.
5. Finding What's Nearby
Find out what is occurring within a set distance of a feature by mapping what is
nearby. For example, you may need to notify all residents within 500 feet of a proposed
6. Mapping Change
Map the change in an area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a course of
action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy. By mapping where and how
things move over a period of time, you can gain insight into how they behave. For
example, public health professionals may need to track the spreading of a certain
disease over a period of time. | <urn:uuid:f978e562-cd0a-4864-9017-919a6fb29c6d> | {
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You can get the [x y z] vector of each as follows:
r = 6371000 + alt
x = r*cos(lat)*cos(lon)
y = r*cos(lat)*sin(lon)
z = r*sin(lat)
Then subtract the vectors from each other. Make sure your lat and lon are expressed in radians.
Note that I have assumed a spherical model of the earth, which will yield very good answers in proportional terms — less than 0.3% worst case, based on a scratch-of-the-head "calculation", and much, much less for points that are within a few degrees of each other. If you need an answer that's good down to the meter regardless of the distance, you will need to use an ellipsoidal model, such as WGS 84 (thanks to @whuber for pointing this out). In that case, you can replace 6371000 with the equatorial radius, 6378137, and multiply z by (1 – 1/298.257223563). | <urn:uuid:5a32907b-5190-40f0-8447-3562f90f7ad6> | {
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Most people still think of Web sites such as Google as places to go. Wrong. That's the old media model. In reality, every click is a command for some computer somewhere in the world. (...) Indeed, CEO Eric Schmidt says that Google essentially is a huge, distributed supercomputer "doing all sorts of things over a fiber-optic network that eventually are services available to end-users." Before long, Googling will mean not just searching for something, but getting ALMOST anything done online.
The New York Times estimated last year that the Googleplex and its server farms contain 450,000 servers. "The rate at which the Google computing system has grown is as remarkable as its size. In March 2001, when the company was serving about 70 million Web pages daily, it had 8,000 computers, according to a Microsoft researcher granted anonymity to talk about a detailed tour he was given at one of Google's Silicon Valley computing centers. By 2003 the number had grown to 100,000." | <urn:uuid:6d0fc7ed-1e2e-42ce-97d8-cae14228fa3a> | {
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Social Issues in Sport
Title: Social Issues in Sport
Author: Woods, Ronald B.
Publisher: Human Kinetics
Call No.: GV706.5 .W655 2007
From the Publisher: Sport is all around us. Yet few of us look critically at how it affects our lives—and even fewer look at how we as a society affect sport. Social Issues in Sport is an outstanding introduction to the multifaceted roles of sport and physical activity in society and the perfect tool for examining sport from a critical perspective. The text’s engaging writing style, full-color format, and sound learning tools make it accessible and effective at getting students involved in and excited about the material. A full array of instructor resources make this book a highly functional and enjoyable way for instructors to introduce this subject to their students.
While the book is solidly grounded in research, it does not dwell on theory. Social Issues in Sport is written to whet the appetite of students in sport management and sport studies for a deeper look at the issues, contradictions, and confusion that characterize our love–hate affair with sport. In Social Issues in Sport, students will find heavy emphasis on areas that other texts often overlook—including the role of coaches, importance of lifetime sport and fitness, sport in education, and sport for special populations such as the physically and mentally challenged and the elderly. As a result, students gain a complete view of what constitutes sport and physical activity and a firm grasp of the sociocultural considerations vital to their understanding of sport. Students are encouraged to see the sport world not only with their eyes wide open to the problems but also with an optimistic, encouraging view of its future.
Author Ronald Woods draws on a lifetime in sport as a participant, observer, fan, teacher, coach, administrator, and critic. His wide-lens view of sport helps students make sense of the world of sport and physical activity and, more important, apply it to their own personal and professional lives. Woods’ easy-to-comprehend distinction between sport for recreational participation, high performance, and spectating illuminates for students the profound differences in how sport can be viewed and challenges their thinking about their own roles as participants and spectators. Woods’ diverse background in sports gives him a unique perspective and allows him to write with a style and clarity that students will appreciate.
This full-color book is organized into four parts that reflect the presence of sports around us. Part I sets the stage for studying sport in society. Part II examines the scope and effect of sport on society. Part III explores sport as an institution and how it functions within other institutions such as schools, colleges, and the Olympic movement. Part IVfocuses on the interaction between our society’s culture and sports.
In 19 chapters, the book enthusiastically invites students to explore many issues, such as how a participant, spectator, coach, and administrator may have differing views of sports; how to distinguish between different levels of play, games, and sport when assessing the role of sport; and what trends to expect in the future and how to be part of a positive development of sporting structures.
Social Issues in Sports contains the following features that encourage learning:
-An engaging writing style, rich with examples and pedagogical aids, gets students excited about and invested in the sporting world around them.
-Interesting sidebars include up-close profiles of significant people and organizations (In the Arena With), examples of how sport is viewed in the public (Pop Culture), and insights from those who study the subject extensively (Expert’s View).
-Activity Time-Outs, nicely integrated with the text, invite readers to recognize and assess the sociocultural issues that sport raises and apply the book’s concepts to their own lives.
-An instructor guide, test package, and presentation package provide instructors with tools and assignment ideas to ensure that students remain engaged.
Social Issues in Sport is an engaging, in-depth, and inspiring resource that will help students understand the value of sport and its limitations and equip them to make choices about the role sports will play in their lives.
About the Author: Ron Woods,Ph.D is a performance coach at the Human Performance Institute in Orlando,Florida and an adjunct professor at the University of Tampa and the University of South Florida. Ron formerly worked for the United States Tennis Association for twenty years as director of player development and community tennis. Formerly, a professor at West Chester University of Pennsylvania in exercise science and coach of men’s tennis. He has been honored by the International Tennis Hall of Fame, national coach of the year for United States Professional Tennis Association and was inducted into the athletic Hall of Fame at both East Stroudsburg University and West Chester University. | <urn:uuid:122a7595-b9f5-483a-805a-22ff70fedd52> | {
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Bisphenol A, or BPA, is a chemical compound used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA has been in use for over 50 years, and is often used to make plastics hard and shatter-resistant. It's also used to coat metal items like the inside of food cans, bottle caps and canned drinks.
You can find BPA in plastic baby bottles, sports equipment, compact discs, water bottles, medical equipment, dental sealants, eyeglass lenses, electronic devices, paints, and countless other consumer products. Even cash register receipts can be coated with BPA.
Health Effects of Bisphenol A
BPA has come under increased scrutiny in recent years for its possible connection to birth defects and reproductive problems. Studies have shown that BPA mimics the hormone estrogen, and it might be linked to problems like lower sperm counts, hormonal changes, enlarged prostate glands, brain and behavioral abnormalities, early onset of puberty, obesity and a host of other health problems. (It shares many of these problems with another plastic additive, phthalates.) It's unclear at what levels BPA will health problems, or if BPA studies in animals can be applied to humans.
People can be exposed to BPA through many sources, though food and drink account for most exposures. The recycling symbol "7" indicates a polycarbonate plastic containing BPA. Metal cans, however, will usually not indicate whether they contain a BPA lining or not.
If you're concerned about exposure to BPA, follow these simple suggestions from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences:
- Don’t microwave polycarbonate plastic food containers. (Look for the recycling symbol #7 on the bottom.)
- Reduce your use of canned foods.
- When possible, opt for glass, porcelain or stainless steel containers, particularly for hot food or liquids.
- Use baby bottles and toys that are BPA-free. | <urn:uuid:9a38a5f2-9f32-4bf9-9f75-2f4d8fd5d988> | {
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Born Giovanni Antonio Canale in Venice in October 1697, Canaletto, the son of theatrical scenery painter Bernardo Canale, was one of the world's most influential and prolific artists(having some 900 paintings attributed to him), and remains one of the most popular.
Canaletto, with his brother Christoforo, initially followed his father into theatrical painting, including work in Rome in 1719, where he was introduced to Gian Paolo Pannini's paintings of Roman city scenes. These proved to be a great influence on him. By 1723, Canaletto's output was dominated by accurate, almost photographic views (known as Vedute Esatte) of Venice featuring a startlingly convincing use of perspective. While the Paninni influence is clear, Canaletto took things to another level, as in the magical use of light in The Stonemason's Yard.
Many of Canaletto's early works were painted 'on-site'. This differed from the usual practice of drawing sketches and then later completing them in the studio1, though later in his career, a large workload compelled him to utilise the latter method. Success at a Venetian public exhibition brought his work to the attention of patrons such as the merchant Stefano Conti and the Imperial Ambassador to Venice, whose commissions were invaluable to Canaletto at the start of his career - partly because of the money but, more importantly, because they introduced his work to the English.
Thanks to painting during the peak of the Grand Tour2, Canaletto was in the right place at the right time. When young English gentlemen travelled the world (ostensibly to broaden their minds) they wanted some souvenirs to take home. As this was a long time before the instant camera, the only way to get a picture was to commission someone to paint one, and Canaletto's predominantly literal style meant that he was perfect for this type of work. It is thought that he received his first commission of this type from Owen McSwiney3, who also steered him in a direction more tailored to the Grand Tourists' requirements.
Through McSwiney, and later Joseph Smith4, much of Canaletto's work found its way into English collections5, leading to huge demand and the acquisition of an enviable reputation. He eventually had to employ assistants (including his nephew and probably his father) to help him keep up with the workload. One criticism of Canaletto is that much of his work is not his own but his assistants' completion6 of his sketches, many of which he is thought to have created with the aid of a camera obscura. Canaletto was certainly not alone in employing studio assistants; the quantity of work commissioned from the popular artists of the time would have been impossible for them to complete single-handed.
The tourist industry throughout Europe was hit hard by the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession, causing Canaletto's primary source of commissions to dry up. So he went off on a little tour of his own, eventually ending up in London in 1746. While there, Smith introduced him to, among others, the Duke of Richmond, who commissioned some of Canaletto's best works from this time. Many of his English works were vanity pieces, including several paintings of the aristocracy's country homes. Some of his London paintings, such as the stunning Ranelagh, Interior of the Rotunda, can be seen in London's National Gallery. But, even though these were impressive, his style had become formulaic and the glory years were gone. Canaletto returned to Venice in 1755 where he stagnated, although he finally gained recognition from the Venetian Academy of Fine Arts (The Accademia Veneziana di Pittura e Scultura), who elected him a member in 1763.
Canaletto died in poverty on 10 April, 1768, leaving a huge body of work and a fascinating pictorial record of 18th-Century Venice.
Some more of examples Canaletto's work include Venice: The Grand Canal with S Simeone Piccolo and The Doge's Palace, both from The National Gallery in London, and many other paintings. | <urn:uuid:d8f61237-151e-4ad7-b6d8-0aae82b65287> | {
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|Version 5 (modified by simonmar, 3 years ago)|
The Garbage Collector
GC algorithms supported:
- Copying GC
- Parallel GC?
- Marking? (for compaction or sweeping)
- Sweeping? (for mark-region GC)
The GC is designed to be flexible, supporting lots of ways to tune its behaviour. Here's an overview of the techniques we use:
- Generational GC, with a runtime-selectable number of generations (+RTS -G<n> -RTS, where n >= 1). Currently it is a traditional generational collector where each collection collects a particular generation and all younger generations. Generalizing this such that any subset of generations can be collected is a possible future extension.
- The heap grows on demand. This is straightforwardly implemented by basing the whole storage manager on a block allocator.
- Aging: objects can be aged within a generation, to avoid premature promotion. See Commentary/Rts/Storage/GC/Aging.
- The heap collection policy is runtime-tunable. You select how large a generation gets before it is collected using the +RTS -F<n> -RTS option, where <n> is a factor of the generation's size the last time it was collected. The default value is 2, that is a generation is allowed to double in size before being collected.
GC data structures
The main data structure is generation, which contains:
- a pointer to a list of blocks
- a pointer to a list of blocks containing large objects
- a list of threads in this generation
- the "remembered set", a list of blocks containing pointers to objects in this generation that point to objects in younger generations
and various other administrative fields (see includes/rts/storage/GC.h for the details).
Generations are kept in the array generations, indexed by the generation number.
A nursery is a list of blocks into which the mutator allocates new (small) objects. For resaons of locality, we want to re-use the list of blocks for the nursery after each GC, so we keep the nursery blocks rather than freeing and re-allocating a new nursery after GC.
The struct nursery contains only two fields
- the list of blocks in this nursery
- the number of blocks in the above list
In the threaded RTS, there is one nursery per Capability, as each Capability allocates independently into its own allocation area. Nurseries are therefore stored in an array nurseries, indexed by Capability number.
The blocks of the nursery notionally logically to generation 0, although they are not kept on the list generations.blocks. The reason is that we want to keep the actual nursery blocks separate from any blocks containing live data in generation 0. Generation 0 may contain live data for two reasons:
- objects live in the nursery are not promoted to generation 1 immediately, instead they are aged, first being copied to generation 0, and then being promoted to generation 1 in the next GC cycle if they are still alive.
- If there is only one generation (generation 0), then live objects in generation 0 are retained in generation 0 after a GC. | <urn:uuid:33a5f7fa-0ccf-4ab3-bb64-d5642ce42372> | {
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The History of Kool-Aid
Remember that TV ad?
Well, Kool-Aid got its start right here in Hastings, Nebraska. This internationally known soft drink mix, now owned by Kraft Foods, actually started out as a liquid concentrate called Fruit Smack, invented by Edwin Perkins.
Edwin Perkins was always fascinated by chemistry and enjoyed inventing things. When his family moved to southwest Nebraska around 1900, a young Perkins experimented with home made concoctions in his mother’s kitchen. His father opened a General Store in Hendley, Nebraska, and it was in that store where Edwin became entranced with a new dessert mix introduced by a childhood friend (and future wife) Kitty Shoemaker. The popular powdered dessert came in six delicious flavors and was called Jell-O.
Edwin convinced his father to carry the dessert line in his store. It was at this same time Edwin sent away for a kit called “How to Become a Manufacturer.” During the following years, Perkins graduated from high school, published a weekly newspaper, did job printing, served as postmaster and set up a mail order business called “Perkins Products Co.” to market the numerous products he had invented.
In 1918, Perkins married his childhood sweetheart, Kitty, and developed a remedy to kick the tobacco habit called Nix-O-Tine. By 1920, the demand for this and other products was so great, Perkins and his wife moved to Hastings, which had better rail service for shipping purposes.
Another product that was proving to be popular was a concentrated drink mix called Fruit Smack. Fruit Smack, like Jell-O, came in six delicious flavors. The four-ounce bottle made enough for a family to enjoy at an affordable price. However, shipping the bottles proved to be costly and breakage was also a problem. In 1927, Perkins developed a method of removing the liquid from Fruit Smack so the remaining powder could be re-packaged in envelopes (which Perkins designed and printed) under a new name to be called Kool-Ade. (He later changed the spelling to Kool-Aid.)
The product, which sold for 10¢ a packet, was first sold to wholesale grocery, candy and other suitable markets by mail order in six flavors; strawberry, cherry, lemon-lime, grape, orange and raspberry. In 1929, Kool-Aid was distributed nation-wide to grocery stores by food brokers. It was a family project to package and ship the popular soft drink mix around the country.
By 1931, the demand for Kool-Aid was so strong, other items were dropped so Perkins could concentrate solely on Kool-Aid. He moved the entire production to Chicago for more efficient distribution, to be closer to supplies and to be able to expand even further if necessary.
During the Great Depression, Perkins cut the price in half to just 5¢ a packet, a “luxury” most families could afford. Young entrepreneurs sprung up across the country setting up Kool-Aid stands. While most of the profits were consumed by the youngsters, it was something most children enjoyed.
Perkins introduced off-shoots of Kool-Aid, including pie fillings and ice cream mixes. These products never really took off with the public. During World War II, fruit acid and dextrose rationing prevented any expansion. After the war, the demand for Kool-Aid was so great that Perkins had to expand the factory and by 1950, some 300 production workers produced nearly 1 million packets of Kool-Aid each day!
In 1953, Perkins announced to his staff that he was selling Kool-Aid to General Foods. Within a year, the popular Smiling Face Pitcher was introduced in print advertisements. Root Beer and Lemonade flavors were added to the original six flavors in 1955 and pre-sweetened Kool-Aid was developed in 1964 and redeveloped in 1970.
Kraft Foods eventually acquired General Foods and became the new owners of Kool-Aid. They refined the Kool-Aid pitcher into Kool-Aid Man and introduced new Kool-Pumps and Kool Bursts to the market. Kool-Aid continues to be a popular product with roots in Hastings. It is the official soft drink of Nebraska!
Edwin and Kitty Perkins never forgot their Nebraska ties and returned home often.
The Perkins Foundation has been instrumental in many projects in and around Hastings, including gifts to Hastings College, Mary Lanning Memorial Hospital, Good Samaritan Retirement Village and the Hastings Museum. Edwin passed away in 1961 and Kitty followed 16 years later. Both are buried in Hastings.
The Hastings Museum houses an impressive Kool-Aid collection as part of the Kool-Aid: Discover the Dream exhibit, including the original Kool-Aid Man costume worn in the television commercials. | <urn:uuid:3bcac151-d6a4-49a6-bf3c-7792353ca433> | {
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New way of collecting samples is easier on growers, too
Hay growers can get a better idea of how fertile their alfalfa fields are if they have plants tested rather than soil. That's especially important considering the skyrocketing costs of fertilizer and the high value of hay, says Steve Orloff, Siskiyou County, CA, farm advisor.
“If you soil sample, you can measure how much of that nutrient is in the soil,” he says. “But by testing the plant itself, you're measuring what the plant actually took up.”
Before planting a field of alfalfa, soil test to learn what nutrients may be deficient. “After that I would switch to plant-tissue testing,” Orloff recommends. “Growers should tissue test once a year until they have their fertility programs established; then test every other year.”
It's also good for diagnosing problem areas in a field to determine if the cause is nutrient-related by sampling good and poor growth areas and comparing the results, he says.
The plant-nutrient-measuring method is just catching on in the forage industry — in Orloff's northern California region, at least. Growers of higher-value crops have used the method for years, and Orloff and his University of California-Davis colleagues have been pushing hay growers to use it in recent years.
While soil tests determine the amount of phosphorus and potassium in soil, they do a poor job measuring sulfur levels, he says. Tissue tests, however, can tell how much of all three nutrients — as well as boron and molybdenum — were used by plants.
“The main drawback with plant-tissue testing is that you obviously don't want to test weedy fields because their nutrient concentrations would be different. You also don't want the field to be stressed; if it's stressed from water or insect damage, it could skew the results,” he says.
Other detriments: the time and effort needed to cut and prepare representative plant tissue samples.
“The California method has been to go through the field and collect 40-60 stems. Then you have to divide those stems into thirds and different components are analyzed for different values. It involves walking through a field before it's cut. One of the last things a grower wants to do is run out ahead of a swather and take a sample.”
But Orloff and colleagues believe they have an easier way of gathering tissue samples. “Growers now are taking core samples from bales for forage-quality analysis. A lot of the dairy industry will demand that before they buy a grower's hay, and people are putting a lot of care into collecting good samples for forage-quality analysis. So the thought was, why not use that same sample for nutrient analysis?”
He tested the core-sampling method the past two years on 39 grower fields.
“It looks like it will work,” he says. “I think it's far more convenient — you can just sample a stack and get a more representative sample from the field. If you're collecting 40-60 stems walking a field and bending over each time, your tendency is to cut a plant and get a whole bunch of stems off it because you're tired of bending over.”
Bales should be cored for tissue-test samples at first cutting in cooler-season areas where first cuttings yield well. In longer-season areas, bale cores should be taken from second or third cutting for tissue testing.
The 20 cores currently recommended as an accurate sample for forage analysis are adequate for tissue testing as well, says Orloff.
Accuracy-wise, it's hard to determine whether a bale-core sample is better than a plant sample. “That's what we're keying in on now, but so far the relationship looks pretty good.
“It's been amazing to see the variability in different grower fields; it goes from very deficient all the way up to very high for each nutrient. With one grower who took tissue samples, the lab actually called him because his values were so high. He was able to go several years without applying sulfur.”
Orloff worries that many growers have a fertilizer routine and figure it will continue to work because it has in the past. “But some nutrients could be accumulating or, on the flip side, you may not be putting on enough nutrients,” he says.
In his trials, the farm advisor compared soil samples, whole-plant samples and core samples and sampled at different growth stages.
“One of the concerns is, with ordinary plant-tissue testing in most states, it's recommended to take a sample at one-tenth bloom. A lot of growers now, especially if they're selling to the dairy market, are cutting earlier — usually in bud stage. The nutrient concentration at bud stage is different than it would be at one-tenth bloom, so we've done trials sampling at different time periods to see how values need to be adjusted if alfalfa is cut earlier.”
It costs more to tissue test — possibly double the cost of a soil sample. But with high fertilizer and hay prices expected, and the improved accuracy, tissue testing is worth it, Orloff says.
Growers who want to tissue-test fields should talk with their labs to see if they offer what's needed. Results will then need to be evaluated with the help of the local extension educator or lab personnel, who can help growers find values to compare.
“We plan to have values for cored samples later this year that will be based on our results and values established for whole tops,” he says. | <urn:uuid:80ea33b5-2674-4837-850f-c74f594a4b8c> | {
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Before the days of integration, African-American students in Hazard attended one of two schools, the Liberty School or a local boarding school. These institutions were often underfunded and utilized hand-me-down books and supplies, yet out of this many of the students have gone on to achieve success in life, and think fondly of their time at Liberty.
Dozens of former students from Liberty School came out to remember their school, their experiences, and their classmates during a reunion on Saturday. Every two years the former students get together at the Liberty School monument on Liberty Street. The monument itself was designed by one of the former students, James “JC” Collins, who said that it means a lot to him to return and reunite with with other former students.
The Liberty Street school was built as part of the Work Progress Administration in 1936. The administration was created by President Franklin Roosevelt to put Americans back to work after the Great Depression, and would be responsible for building much of the American infrastructure, including highways, bridges and even schools.
The school was open until 1963, but the integration of the schools started a year earlier. Collins said that along with consolidating schools in the name of integration, it also gave the students of Liberty School a chance at better facilities and opportunities.
“Really, we didn’t have the facilities that we should have had,” said Collins. “We had some great sport teams — basketball, football, baseball — we had it in spite of not having the facilities.”
Students at Liberty School also had only a few teachers working from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Paulette Roberts said that she remembers getting used books from Hazard High School, and was so fed up that they weren’t receiving new books that she and her sister threw the old books out of a window in the building.
From these humble beginnings, many of these students learned valuable lesions of relying on each other, working hard and consequences of their actions. Many of these students left the school and went on to become doctors, judges, lawyers and business owners.
The school was made up of a lower level for elementary kids and a upper floor for high school. While many of the communities around Perry County had African-American elementaries, there was only one public high school.
“We drew kids from as far away as Red Fox,” noted Kenneth Combs, the president of the Liberty School Alumni Association.
These students were given a bus voucher of up to $15 a week to get back and forth to school on public buses.
The school was strict and administrators believed in corporal punishment. Many of the students reminisced about being paddled by their teachers, but also how it made them stronger. Some even said that teachers would show up at their homes to make sure parents were aware of their mistakes.
While these rough days in education are now gone, the lasting memory of the influence of the Liberty School can be felt. Many of the students left the area, making their homes across the United States.
Hazard Independent Schools board member Dennis Smith attended Saturday’s reunion as a representative to show the board’s support for the school’s alumni.
“It is important to share the great memories that you have had here,” said Smith.
As a way of honoring the memory of the school and its students, people in attendance released balloons for those that have passed away since the last reunion.
The former Liberty Dragons that were in attendance ended the ceremony, honoring the school by singing the school song. The last line sums up how many of these students feel about their school: “Dear old Liberty High School, I’m in love with you.” | <urn:uuid:918916a4-d760-4bd5-878f-abc672cfc711> | {
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Keeping an Eye on Your Bones
Many of us start to think about osteoporosis as we approach our senior years. After all, that's when bone loss occurs, right?
Wrong. Doctors tend to treat patients with osteoporosis in their 60s, 70s, and older -- but bone loss begins much earlier. Our bone mass peaks around age 20. Bone loss can begin once peak bone mass is reached. Those at high risk are more likely to lose bone mass early.
When bone loss goes unchecked for years, the result is fractures -- often of the hip, spine, wrist, or leg bones. Menopause speeds the process. That's why 80 percent of the more than 10 million Americans with osteoporosis are women past menopause. In the first few years after menopause, bone loss accelerates; after that, it continues, but at a slower rate. Osteoporosis can strike men, too, but usually at a later age because they start with more bone. One in four men over 50 will end up with a fracture related to osteoporosis.
To learn who needs help, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force urges routine osteoporosis screening for all healthy women 65 and older. High-risk women should seek screening at age 60 or as advised by your doctor.
The best screening method is a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan. Medicare covers this non-invasive test for women 65 and older once every two years if they have certain risk factors for osteoporosis or are taking medicine to treat osteoporosis.
Several medications have been approved to treat osteoporosis, including calcitonin, bisphosphonates such as alendronate and risedronate, parathyroid hormone, and selective estrogen-receptor modulators such as raloxifene. According to the Task Force, each of these treatments has potential benefits and harms.
Prevention includes getting enough calcium and vitamin D. Weight-bearing exercise helps, too.
Who's at high risk?
Women older than 65
White or Asian women
Women with small bones
Women who are sedentary
People with a family history of osteoporosis
Adults who are very thin
People who break bones after age 45 because of "low trauma," such as a fall while standing
Long-term corticosteroid users
People who drink alcohol to excess
People with overactive thyroids
People with an inadequate intake of calcium and protein
People taking certain medications, such as phenytoin, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, antacids containing aluminum, cancer treatments, and thyroid hormone
Your calcium needs
The National Academy of Sciences and the National Osteoporosis Foundation recommend:
Age: Birth to 6 months
Daily calcium need: 210 mg
Age: 6 months to 1 year
Daily calcium need: 270
Age: 1 to 3
Daily calcium need: 500 mg
Age: 4 to 8
Daily calcium need: 800 mg
Age: 9 to 18
Daily calcium need: 1,300 mg
Age: 19 to 49
Daily calcium need: 1,000 mg
Age: 50 and older
Daily calcium need: 1,200 mg | <urn:uuid:304a8bdd-bc50-4b89-aed2-1c36575faf9f> | {
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Vulvovaginitis, vulvitis, and vaginitis are general terms that refer to the inflammation of the vagina and/or vulva (the external genital organs of a woman).These conditions can be caused by bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections. Also, vulvovaginitis can be caused by low estrogen levels (called "atrophic vaginitis") or any type of allergic or irritation response from things such as spermicidal products, condoms, soaps, and bubble bath.
In general, vulvovaginitis causes vaginal discharge, irritation, and itching. One of the most common reasons why women visit their doctor is because of a change in vaginal discharge. It is completely normal for a woman to have a vaginal discharge, the amount and consistency of which varies during the course of the menstrual cycle. Each of the three most common types of vulvovaginitis will be described separately.
Bacterial vaginosis is the most common cause of vaginitis during the childbearing years. Forty percent to 50% of vaginitis cases are caused by bacterial vaginosis. The occurrence of bacterial vaginosis is difficult to determine but studies have proposed that 10% to 41% of
Bacterial vaginosis is not caused by a particular organism but is a change in the balance of normal vaginal bacteria. Ninety percent of the bacteria found in a healthy vagina belong to the Lactobacillus family. For unknown reasons, there is a shift in the bacterial population that results in overgrowth of other bacteria. Patients suffering from bacterial vaginosis have very high numbers of bacteria such as Gardnerella vaginalis, Mycoplasmahominis, Bacteroides species, and Mobiluncus species. These bacteria can be found at numbers 100 to 1000 times greater than found in the healthy vagina. In contrast, Lactobacillus bacteria are in very low numbers or completely absent from the vagina of women with bacterial vaginosis.
Author Info: Belinda Rowland PhD, The Gale Group Inc., Gale, Detroit, Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 2002This feature is for informational purposes only and should not be used to replace the care and information received from your healthcare provider. Please consult a healthcare professional with any health concerns you may have.
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Caregiving can be a lonely journey, but AARP offers resources that can help. | <urn:uuid:2cef807c-5322-4add-87ab-91b0cb1221ab> | {
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A Splendrous Lotus with Four Superb Petals
For over 200 years, Western scholars have struggled to understand Hinduism, a faith whose followers seemed (to outsiders) to arbitrarily worship any one of a dozen Gods as the Supreme, a religion vastly diverse in its beliefs, practices and ways of worship. Some Indologists labeled the Hinduism they encountered polytheistic; others even coined new terms, like henotheism, to describe this baffling array of spiritual traditions. Few, however, have realized, and fewer still have written, that India's Sanatana Dharma, or "eternal faith, " known today as Hinduism and comprising nearly a billion followers, is a family of religions with four principal denominations Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. This single perception is essential for understanding Hinduisim and explaining it accurately to others. Contrary to prevailing misconceptions, Hindus all worship a one Supreme Being, though by different names. For Vaishnavites, Lord Vishnu is God. For Saivites, God is Siva. For Shaktas, Goddess Shakti is supreme. For Smartas, liberal Hindus, the choice of Deity is left to the devotee. Each has a multitude of guru lineages, religious leaders, priesthoods, sacred literature, monastic communities, schools, pilgrimage centers and tens of thousands of temples. They possess a wealth of art and architecture, philosophy and scholarship. These four sects hold such divergent beliefs that each is a complete and independent religion. Yet, they share a vast heritage of culture and belief karma, dharma, reincarnation, all-pervasive Divinity, temple worship, sacraments, manifold Deities, the guru-shishya tradition and the Vedas as scriptural authority. In this eight-page Insight, drawn from Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami's Dancing with Siva, we offer a synopsis of these four denominations, followed by a point-by-point comparison.
Each of Hinduism's philosophies, schools and lineages shares a common purpose: to further the soul's unfoldment to its divine destiny. Nowhere is this process better represented than in the growth of the renowned lotus, which, seeking the sun, arises from the mud to become a magnificent flower. Its blossom is a promise of purity and perfection.
Saivite Hindus worship the Supreme God as Siva, the Compassionate One. Saivites esteem self discipline and philosophy and follow a satguru. They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Siva within.
Shaktas worship the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi. She has many forms. Some are gentle, some are fierce. Shaktas use chants, real magic, holy diagrams, yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces and awaken the great kundalini power within the spine.
Vaishnavites worship the Supreme as Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama. Vaishnavites are mainly dualistic. They are deeply devotional. Their religion is rich in saints, temples and scriptures.
Smartas worship the Supreme in one of six forms: Ganesha, Siva, Sakti, Vishnu, Surya and Skanda. Because they accept all the major Hindu Gods, they are known as liberal or nonsectarian. They follow a philosophical, meditative path, emphasizing man's oneness with God through understanding.
What Is the Deeply Mystical Saiva Sect?
Saivism is the world's oldest religion. Worshiping God Siva, the compassionate One, it stresses potent disciplines, high philosophy, the guru's centrality and bhakti-raja-siddha yoga leading to oneness with Siva within. Aum.
Seated on Nandi, his bull mount, the perfect devotee, Lord Siva holds japa beads and the trident, symbol of love-wisdom-action, and offers blessings of protection and fearlessness. Mount Kailas, His sacred Himalayan abode, represents the pinnacle of consciousness.
Saivism is ancient, truly ageless, for it has no beginning. It is the precursor of the many-faceted religion now termed Hinduism. Scholars trace the roots of Siva worship back more than 8,000 years to the advanced Indus Valley civilization. But sacred writings tell us there never was a time when Saivism did not exist. Modern history records six main schools: Saiva Siddhanta, Pashupatism, Kashmir Saivism, Vira Saivism, Siddha Siddhanta and Siva Advaita. Saivism's grandeur and beauty are found in a practical culture, an enlightened view of man's place in the universe and a profound system of temple mysticism and siddha yoga. It provides knowledge of man's evolution from God and back to God, of the soul's unfoldment and awakening guided by enlightened sages. Like all the sects, its majority are devout families, headed by hundreds of orders of swamis and sadhus who follow the fiery, world-renouncing path to moksha. The Vedas state, "By knowing Siva, the Auspicious One who is hidden in all things, exceedingly fine, like film arising from clarified butter, the One embracer of the universe by realizing God, one is released from all fetters." Aum Namah Sivaya.
What Is the Magic and Power Of Shaktism?
Shaktism reveres the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi, in Her many forms, both gentle and fierce. Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the kundalini power. Aum.
Shakti, depicted in Her green form, radiates beauty, energy, compassion and protection for followers. Wearing the tilaka of the Shakta sect on Her forehead, She blesses devotees, who shower rosewater, hold an umbrella and prostrate at Her feet.
While worship of the divine mother extends beyond the pale of history, Shakta Hinduism arose as an organized sect in India around the fifth century. Today it has four expressions devotional, folk-shamanic, yogic and universalist all invoking the fierce power of Kali or Durga, or the benign grace of Parvati or Ambika. Shakta devotionalists use puja rites, especially to the Shri Chakra yantra, to establish intimacy with the Goddess. Shamanic Shaktism employs magic, trance mediumship, firewalking and animal sacrifice for healing, fertility, prophecy and power. Shakta yogis seek to awaken the sleeping Goddess Kundalini and unite her with Siva in the sahasrara chakra. Shakta universalists follow the reformed Vedantic tradition exemplified by Sri Ramakrishna. "Left-hand " tantric rites transcend traditional ethical codes. Shaktism is chiefly advaitic, defining the soul's destiny as complete identity with the Unmanifest, Siva. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Shakta Agamas and Puranas. The Devi Gita extols, "We bow down to the universal soul of all. Above and below and in all four directions, Mother of the universe, we bow." Aum Chandikayai Namah.
What Is the Devotional Vaishnava Sect?
Vaishnavism is an ancient Hindu sect centering on the worship of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama. Largely dualistic, profoundly devotional, it is rich in saints, temples and scriptures. Aum.
Vishnu is the infinite ocean from which the world emerges. He stands on waves, surrounded by the many-headed Seshanaga, who represents agelessness and is regarded as an extension of divine energy and an incarnation of Balarama, Lord Krishna's brother.
The worship of Vishnu, meaning "pervader, " dates back to Vedic times. The Pancharatra and Bhagavata sects were popular prior to 300 bce. Today's five Vaishnava schools emerged in the middle ages, founded by Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Chaitanya. Vaishnavism stresses prapatti, single-pointed surrender to Vishnu, or His ten or more incarnations, called avataras. Japa is a key devotional sadhana, as is ecstatic chanting and dancing, called kirtana. Temple worship and festivals are elaborately observed. Philosophically, Vaishnavism ranges from Madhva's pure dualism to Ramanuja's qualified nondualism to Vallabha's nearly monistic vision. God and soul are everlastingly distinct. The soul's destiny, through God's grace, is to eternally worship and enjoy Him. While generally nonascetic, advocating bhakti as the highest path, Vaishnavism has a strong monastic community. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Vaishnava Agamas, Itihasas and Puranas. The Bhagavad Gita states, "On those who meditate on Me and worship with undivided heart, I confer attainment of what they have not, and preserve what they have." Aum Namo Narayanaya.
What Is the Universalistic Smarta Sect?
Smartism is an ancient brahminical tradition reformed by Shankara in the ninth century. Worshiping six forms of God, this liberal Hindu path is monistic, nonsectarian, meditative and philosophical. Aum.
Adi Sankara lived from 788 to 820 ce, a mere 32 years, yet he gave Hinduism a new liberal denomination Smartism. Here, wearing sacred marks, he holds his writings and is flanked by the six Deities of the Smarta altar: Surya the Sun, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Kumaran and Ganesha.
Smarta means a follower of classical smriti, particularly the Dharma Shastras, Puranas and Itihasas. Smartas revere the Vedas and honor the Agamas. Today this faith is synonymous with the teachings of Adi Shankara, the monk-philosopher known as shanmata sthapanacharya, "founder of the six-sect system." He campaigned India-wide to consolidate the Hindu faiths of his time under the banner of Advaita Vedanta. To unify the worship, he popularized the ancient Smarta five-Deity altar Ganapati, Surya, Vishnu, Siva and Shakti and added Kumara. From these, devotees may choose their "preferred Deity, " or Ishta Devata. Each God is but a reflection of the one Saguna Brahman. Shankara organized hundreds of monasteries into a ten-order, dashanami system, which now has five pontifical centers. He wrote profuse commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Sankara proclaimed, "It is the one Reality which appears to our ignorance as a manifold universe of names and forms and changes. Like the gold of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself unchanged. Such is Brahman, and That art Thou." Aum Namah Sivaya.
Comparing the Four Major Denominations
As just seen, the spectrum of Hindu religiousness is found within four major sects or denominations: Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. Among these four streams, there are certainly more similarities than differences. All four believe in karma and reincarnation and in a Supreme Being who is both form and pervades form, who creates, sustains and destroys the universe only to create it again in unending cycles. They strongly declare the validity and importance of temple worship, in the three worlds of existence and the myriad Gods and devas residing in them. They concur that there is no intrinsic evil, that the cosmos is created out of God and is permeated by Him. They each believe in maya (though their definitions differ somewhat), and in the liberation of the soul from rebirth, called moksha, as the goal of human existence. They believe in dharma and in ahimsa, noninjury, and in the need for a satguru to lead the soul toward Self Realization. They wear the sacred marks, tilaka, on their foreheads as sacred symbols, though each wears a distinct mark. Finally, they prefer cremation of the body upon death, believing that the soul will inhabit another body in the next life. While Hinduism has many sacred scriptures, all sects ascribe the highest authority to the Vedas and Agamas, though their Agamas differ somewhat. Here, now, is a brief comparison of these four denominations.
On the Personal God/Goddess
Saivism: Personal God and temple Deity is Siva, neither male nor female. Lords Ganesha and Karttikeya are also worshiped.
Shaktism: Personal Goddess and temple Deity is Shri Devi or Shakti, female, worshiped as Rajarajeshvari, Parvati, Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Kali, Amman, etc. the Divine Mother.
Vaishnavism: Personal God and temple Deity is Vishnu, male. His incarnations as Rama and Krishna are also worshiped, as well as His divine consort, Radharani.
Smartism: Personal God and temple Deity is Ishvara, male or female, worshiped as Vishnu, Siva, Shakti, Ganesha and Surya or any Deity of devotee's choice, e.g., Kumara or Krishna.
On the Nature of Shakti
Saivism: Shakti is God Siva's inseparable power and manifest will, energy or mind.
Shaktism: Shakti is an active, immanent Being, separate from a quiescent and remote Siva.
Vaishnavism: No special importance is given to Shakti. However, there are parallels wherein the divine consorts are conceived as the inseparable powers of Vishnu and His incarnations: e.g., Krishna's Radharani and Rama's Sita.
Smartism: Shakti is a divine form of Ishvara. It is God's manifesting power.
On the Nature of Personal God
Saivism: God Siva is pure love and compassion, immanent and transcendent, pleased by our purity and sadhana.
Shaktism: The Goddess Shakti is both compassionate and terrifying, pleasing and wrathful, assuaged by sacrifice and submission.
Vaishnavism: God Vishnu is loving and beautiful, the object of man's devotion, pleased by our service and surrender.
Smartism: Ishvara appears as a human-like Deity according to devotees' loving worship, which is sometimes considered a rudimentary self-purifying practice.
On the Doctrine of Avatara
Saivism: There are no divine earthly incarnations of the Supreme Being.
Shaktism: The Divine Mother does incarnate in this world.
Vaishnavism: Vishnu has ten or more incarnations.
Smartism: All Deities may assume earthly incarnations.
On the Soul and God
Saivism: God Siva is one with the soul. The soul must realize this advaitic (monistic) Truth by God Siva's grace.
Shaktism: The Divine Mother, Shakti, is mediatrix, bestowing advaitic moksha on those who worship Her.
Vaishnavism: God and soul are eternally distinct. Through Lord Vishnu's grace, the soul's destiny is to worship and enjoy God.
Smartism: Ishvara and man are in reality Absolute Brahman. Within maya, the soul and Ishvara appear as two. Jnana (wisdom) dispels the illusion.
Saivism: With bhakti as a base, emphasis is placed on sadhana, tapas (austerity) and yoga. Ascetic.
Shaktism: Emphasis is on bhakti and tantra, sometimes occult, practices. Ascetic-occult.
Vaishnavism: Emphasis is on supreme bhakti or surrender, called prapatti. Generally devotional and nonascetic.
Smartism: Preparatory sadhanas are bhakti, karma, raja yoga. The highest path is through knowledge, leading to jnana.
Saivism: Vedas, Saiva Agamas and Saiva Puranas.
Shaktism: Vedas, Shakta Agamas (Tantras) and Puranas.
Vaishnavism: Vedas, Vaishnava Agamas, Puranas and the Itihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata, especially the Bhagavad Gita).
Smartism: Vedas, Agamas and classical smriti Puranas, Itihasas, especially the Bhagavad Gita, etc.
Regions of Influence
Saivism: Geographically widespread, strongest in South and North India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
Shaktism: Geographically widespread, most prominent in Northeast India, especially Bengal and Assam.
Vaishnavism: Geographically widespread, especially strong throughout India, North and South.
Smartism: Geographically widespread, most prominent in North and South India.
Paths of Attainment
Saivism: The path for Saivites is divided into four progressive stages of belief and practice called charya, kriya, yoga and jnana. The soul evolves through karma and reincarnation from the instinctive-intellectual sphere into virtuous and moral living, then into temple worship and devotion, followed by internalized worship, or yoga, and its meditative disciplines. Union with God Siva comes through the grace of the satguru and culminates in the soul's maturity in the state of jnana, or wisdom. Saivism values both bhakti and yoga, devotional and contemplative sadhanas, or disciplines.
Shaktism: The spiritual practices in Shaktism are similar to those in Saivism, though there is more emphasis in Saktism on God's Power as opposed to Being, on mantras and yantras, and on embracing apparent opposites: male-female, absolute-relative, pleasure-pain, cause-effect, mind-body. Certain sects within Shaktism undertake "left-hand " tantric rites, consciously using the world of form to transmute and eventually transcend that world. The "left-hand " approach is somewhat occult in nature; it is considered a path for the few, not the many. The "right-hand " path is more conservative in nature.
Vaishnavism: Most Vaishnavites believe that religion is the performance of bhakti sadhanas, devotional disciplines, and that man can communicate with and receive the grace of the Gods and Goddesses through the darshan (sight) of their icons. The paths of karma yoga and jnana yoga lead to bhakti yoga. Among the foremost practices of Vaishnavites is chanting the holy names of the Avataras, Vishnu's incarnations, especially Rama and Krishna. Through total self-surrender, prapatti, to Vishnu, to Krishna or to His beloved consort Radharani, liberation from samsara (the cycle of reincarnation) is attained.
Smartism: Smartas, the most eclectic of Hindus, believe that moksha is achieved through jnana yoga alone defined as an intellectual and meditative but non-kundalini-yoga path. Jnana yoga's progressive stages are scriptural study (shravana), reflection (manana) and sustained meditation (dhyana). Guided by a realized guru and avowed to the unreality of the world, the initiate meditates on himself as Brahman, Absolute Reality, to break through the illusion of maya. Devotees may also choose from three other non-successive paths to cultivate devotion, accrue good karma and purify the mind. These are bhakti yoga, karma yoga and raja yoga, which certain Smartas teach can also bring enlightenment.
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Note to Students, Parents and Teachers:
This Educational Insight is Hinduism Today magazine's response to the controversy in California over the way Hinduism is taught in public-school history books. It is a 16-page lesson on Hindu history, beliefs and practices for sixth graders written from the Hindu point of view. It is historically sound and acceptable in content and tone to the various denominations of the Hindu community.
The problem with every existing textbook for this grade level is that Hinduism is presented negatively, incompletely and inaccurately. This lesson is patterned after a typical chapter on the other faiths in these same books. It deliberately does not follow the specific California standards for presenting the Hindu religion because we believe them to be deeply flawed and contrary to the State's own general rule that teaching material must: 1) be historically accurate, 2) "instill in each child a sense of pride in his or her heritage" and 3) avoid "adverse reflection" on a religion. It is our intent that this lesson will serve as a model for US textbooks, providing an authentic depiction of the eminent history and traditions of the faith while giving 10-year-old Hindu students justifiable pride in their religion.
In most states teachers are allowed to supplement the textbooks with additional material. This lesson may be offered as a more accurate basis for the classroom study of the origins and development of Hinduism in ancient India.
Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards: At the beginning of each of these chapters sections, we present our outline for Hinduism in 6th grade history books. It is intended to replace existing lists of required topics, such as those found in the California Standards.
1. Explain the similarities between Indus-Sarasvati civilization and later Hindu culture.
2. Discuss why the Aryan Invasion theory has been disputed by many scholars.
3. Discuss the social and political system and advancement of science and culture.
4. Explain the development of religion in India between 1000 bce and 500 ce.
What You Will Learn...
1. Many Hindu religious practices are seen in the archeological remains of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization.
2. The sacred texts of Hinduism are in the Sanskrit language and were originally memorized but unwritten.
3. Ancient Indian art and science were highly developed.
The Big Idea: Hinduism developed over thousands of years in India.
Key Terms: Indus and Sarasvati rivers; Vedas; Sanskrit
If YOU lived then...
Your house is built on a wide, waterless riverbed. Your father tells you it was once the giant Sarasvati River, five kilometers across. There is not enough rain to provide for the family's crops and cattle. Travelers tell of another great river, the Ganga, hundreds of miles away. Your father and other villagers decide they must move.
How would you feel about the long journey?
Building Background India's known history begins with the Indus-Sarasvati civilization, 5,500 years ago. We know from archeology that this culture shows many features of later Hindu practice.
Understanding Ancient Indian History
The early cities of India developed along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers starting around 3500 bce. They are called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization or, sometimes, the Harappan culture. It was the largest and most advanced civilization in the ancient world. But the mighty Sarasvati River dried up, and what was once a fertile area became a desert. The people of the region moved to other parts of India and beyond. By 2000 bce the civilization had entered a period of decline.
The Religion of the Indus-Sarasvati People
A great many artifacts have been discovered from the Indus-Sarasvati cities. These include pottery, seals, statues, beads, jewelry, tools, games, such as dice, and children's toys, such as miniature carts.
The flat, stone seals have pictures and writing on them. Scholars have not yet agreed on what the mysterious script on the seals means.They show deities, ceremonies, symbols, people, plants and animals. We learn from them that people at that time followed practices identical to those followed by Hindus today. One seal shows a meditating figure that scholars link to Lord Siva, while others show the lotus posture used by today's meditators. The swastika, a sacred symbol of good luck used throughout Hindu history, is common.
There are statues, including a small clay figure with its hands pressed together in the traditional Hindu greeting of "namaste."
A figurine of a married woman shows a red powder called sindur in the part of her hair. Hindu women today follow this same custom as a sign of their married status. The pipal tree and banyan tree are depicted often. These remain sacred to Hindus to this day.
The central holy books of Hinduism are the four Vedas. Hindus regard them as spoken by God. They are in Sanskrit. The Vedas were not written down but memorized. Students might spend twelve years learning these scriptures. Some would memorize one Veda, others all four. Even today there are priests who can chant an entire Veda--as many as 10,500 verses--from memory.
The relationship between the people of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization and those who composed the Vedas is not clearly understood. We know that the Rig Veda describes the Sarasvati as the "most mighty of rivers" flowing from the Himalayan mountains to the ocean. Therefore, the holy texts had to be composed well before 2000 bce--by which time the river had dried up. The Vedas describe a powerful and spiritual people, their clans, kings and emperors. Their society was complex. The economy included agriculture, industry, trade, commerce and cattle raising. The Vedas contain thousands of hymns in praise of God and the Gods. They describe a form of fire worship, yajna, around a specially-built brick fire altar. In several Indus-Sarasvati cities archeologists have unearthed what look like fire altars.
The Aryan Invasion Theory
Many school books present an "Aryan Invasion" of India. It is the theory that Aryan invaders came from central Asia in 1500 bce and conquered the indigenous Indus-Sarasvati civilization. It was these foreigners, the theory states, who wrote the Rig Veda in Sanskrit. The theory was proposed in the 19th century by scholars in Europe, based on language studies. In part, it tried to explain why Sanskrit is so closely related to European languages, including English. Many scholars now dispute this theory because all the evidence for it is questionable. Additionally, modern scientists have found no biological evidence, such as DNA, that people came from outside India in significant numbers since at least 6,000 bce.
Many common explanations about Indian history and culture are based on the Aryan Invasion theory. Those who defend it claim that Sanskrit, the caste system and Hindu ways of worship came from outside India. If you are studying India in school, you may read about this outdated theory.
As the Indus-Sarasvati culture declined, many of its people migrated to other places. They settled mostly in north and central India, especially along the Ganga River system. They interacted with tribes who had lived in those areas from ancient times. Around 1000 bce, the Tamil-speaking Dravidian people in the South had separately developed a sophisticated language and culture. Because of inadequate archeological research, we do not know a lot about this period. However, by 600 bce, India had developed a common culture from north to south and east to west. By this time the social, religious and philosophical ideas and practices central to Hinduism are fully evident. These are in continuity with the religion of the Indus-Sarasvati culture, the teachings of the Vedas, Dravidian culture and elements of the tribal religions.
Hindu public worship, described in the Vedas, took place in temporary shelters built for that purpose. The earliest mention of permanent temples for the worship of God is in the Grihya Sutras, around 600 bce.
A distinctive feature of India at this time was the varna or class system. Society was classified into groups with specific occupations. These groups tended to become hereditary. There were four broad classes--priests, warriors, merchants and workers (including craftsmen). The system provided order and stability to society. Later on, the varnas divided into hundreds of sub-sections called jatis (castes). Individual jatis developed a strong identity and pride in their occupation. From time to time people would move from one caste to another, or establish new ones. The evolving caste system became unfair to the people at the very bottom of the social order. Though caste is still an important factor in arranging marriages, caste discrimination is illegal in modern India.
Women have always been held in high regard in India. Some of India's foremost religious and political leaders are women. Hinduism is the only major religion in which God is worshiped in female form.
Life in ancient times was hard work for both men and women. The women were responsible for running the household; the men for their craft or farm, as well as security. In general, women had fewer property rights than men, but received lighter punishments for crimes and paid fewer taxes. They participated equally with their husband in religious ceremonies and festival celebrations. Some women were highly educated, and a few even composed several of the holy Vedic hymns.
The period from 1000 bce through the Gupta period up to the mid-6th century ce was a time of great advancement. Hindus discovered the zero and established the counting method, including the decimal system, we use today. Their astronomers knew that the Earth orbits the Sun and calculated the length of a year with great precision. Medicine was so advanced that doctors were performing complex surgery not equaled in Europe until the 18th century. In ancient times India was one of the most advanced and wealthy nations on Earth. Since ancient times, a quarter of the world's people have lived in India.
Impact Today: The disputed Aryan Invasion theory is still taught as fact in most books on India
continuity: unbroken connection or line of development
hereditary: passed from parents to children
Timeline: Early Indian History
5000 BCE: Beginning of Indus-Sarasvati cities
2600-2000 BCE: Height of Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The city of Lothal includes large buildings and an enclosed harbor.
2000 BCE: Sarasvati River dries up. People move to North and Central India.
600 BCE: India is a unified culture at this time. Large cities flourish in the Gangetic Plains. Indian physician Sushruta develops complex methods of surgery. Tamil language flourishes in the South. First mention of temple worship appears in the Grihya Sutras.
500 BCE: Magadha Empire in the North and Pandyan Kingdom in the South flourish. Buddhism and Jainism, offshoots of Hinduism, become prominent religions.
321 BCE: Foundation of the pan-Indian Maurya Empire. Time of great advancement in science, statecraft, economy, architecture, music and art.
200 BCE: Tiruvalluvar composes Tirukural, one of India's greatest scriptures on ethics
200 CE: Hindu influence starts to spread into what is now Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. In 1200 ce, the Hindu temple called Angkor Wat is built in Cambodia. It is the world's largest religious structure.
320 CE: Gupta Empire reigns over most of India, with Tamil kingdoms in far south. This is the Golden Age of India and Hinduism, with respect and tolerance for all religions.
Section 1 Assessment
Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People
1. a. Explain: What happened to the Sarasvati River?
b. Analyze: What customs from modern Hinduism are depicted in artifacts of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization?
2. Elaborate: What are the advantages of a hereditary occupation? What are the disadvantages?
3. a. Summarize: How are women regarded in Hindu society?
b. Recall: What are some of the great scientific achievements in ancient India?
4. a. Explain: How were the Vedas preserved?
b. List: What kind of information is in the Vedas?
c. Explain: Why is it important that the Rig Veda mentions the Sarasvati River as a "mighty river?"
5. Analyze: What does your school history book say about the Aryan Invasion? How does this lesson differ?
Section Two: Hindu Beliefs and Scriptures
Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards:
5. Explain the basic Hindu beliefs regarding God, the Gods and Goddesses, dharma, karma and reincarnation. Describe basic Hindu practices.
6. Discuss the Hindu principles of nonviolence and religious tolerance.
7. Describe the Vedas and their Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita) and other important Hindu scriptures.
What You Will Learn...
1. Hindus believe in a one Supreme God and also many Gods and Goddesses.
2. Dharma, karma and reincarnation are central Hindu beliefs. There is a special emphasis on nonviolence.
3. Vedas are the primary Hindu scriptures. There are other important scriptures as well.
The Big Idea: Hindus believe every soul will ultimately achieve God Realization.
Key Terms: Sanatana Dharma, Brahman, deva, puja, karma, reincarnation,
If YOU lived then...
The king has passed a new law increasing the taxes on farmers. The farmers in your village have not had a good year. The harvest is smaller than usual. The new tax may mean people will go hungry. Some in the village want to attack the tax collectors. Others want to lie about the amount of harvest. Still others say a peaceful protest will cause the king to change his mind on the tax increase.
How would you respond to the tax increase? Why?
Building Background: From its beginnings, Hinduism has been an open-minded religion. It is a basic Hindu belief that there are many ways to approach God. Hinduism does not dictate one way as the only way. Hindus believe "Truth is one, paths are many" and that every person eventually finds spiritual salvation.
Religion Permeates the Hindu's Daily Life
Hindus base their way of life upon their religion. The Hindu culture comes from Hindu beliefs. The key beliefs are in a one Supreme God, subordinate Gods and Goddesses, heaven worlds, the divinity of the soul, dharma, karma, reincarnation, God Realization and liberation from rebirth. God Realization means the direct and personal experience of the Divine within oneself. The original Sanskrit name for Hinduism is Sanatana Dharma, meaning "eternal religion."
Belief in God and the Gods and Goddesses
Hindus believe in and worship a one Supreme God. In the scriptures, the Supreme God is called Brahman or Bhagavan, worshiped as both male and female. Brahman is all-powerful, all-knowing, all-loving and present in all things. God created everything in the universe out of Himself. This creation is not separate from Him. He guides the evolution of everything over vast spans of time. Ultimately, He absorbs the universe back into Himself. This cycle of creation, preservation and absorption repeats without end.
The Supreme God is both transcendent and immanent. These are two key philosophical concepts. As transcendent, God exists beyond the physical universe. As immanent, His divine form pervades all nature and humanity.
In Hinduism, the soul is called atman. God exists within each soul. The Chandogya Upanishad explains it like this: "What you see when you look into another person's eyes, that is atman, immortal, beyond fear; that is God."
Hinduism has different branches with varying beliefs and practices. The four major branches are Saiva, Shakta, Vaishnava and Smarta. Saivas and Shaktas call the Supreme God Siva, though Shaktas worship the female aspect of God. Vaishnavas call Him Vishnu. Smartas may choose one of six Deities to worship as the Supreme. By whichever name or form, He is the same, one Supreme God. The Rig Veda says, "The seers call in many ways that which is One."
Hindus may also worship Gods and Goddesses, called devas, such as Ganesha and Sarasvati. In Sanskrit, deva means "shining one." In some ways, these divine beings who live in the heaven worlds are like the angels and archangels in Western religions. Some Hindus consider the Gods and Goddesses as alternative forms of the Supreme God, and not as individual divine beings.
Each God and Goddess has particular powers and areas of responsibility. For example, Ganesha is the Lord of Obstacles. Before beginning a new project, a Hindu may pray to Ganesha to remove any obstacles blocking his way.
In the Vaishnava tradition, Lord Vishnu appears on Earth as a divine personality, or avatar, from time to time to restore morally right living. Of Vishnu's ten avatars, Lord Rama and Lord Krishna are the most important. Rama and Krishna are not separate Gods. They are two forms of the one Supreme God.
In temples and shrines, the Supreme God and the Gods and Goddesses are worshiped in a ritual called puja. Puja is a ceremony in which the ringing of bells, passing of flames, chanting and presenting of flowers, incense and other offerings invoke the Divine beings, who then come to bless and help the devotees. During the puja, through holy chants, gestures and sacred ritual, highly trained priests guide the worship. The priests treat the Deity with utmost care, attending to Him as the King of kings. The purpose of the puja is to create a high religious vibration and communicate with God or a deva through the murti, or consecrated statue, that is the focus of worship. Deity is the proper English word for murti. The word idol is often used, but it is incorrect.
Hindus also practice internal worship of God. Sitting quietly, they may repeat the name of God while counting on beads. Others may chant, sing or meditate upon God. In Hinduism, there are many ways to worship the Divine.
Dharma, Karma and Reincarnation
Dharma means righteousness, divine law, ethics, religion, duty, justice and truth. Dharma means the proper way one should live one's life. To follow dharma, one should be religious, truthful, kind, honest and generous. Dharma includes the practice of nonviolence, called ahimsa in Sanskrit. It is the ideal of not injuring others in thought, word or action.
Karma, a central Hindu belief, is the law of cause and effect. It means that anything you do will eventually return to you in this or future lives. If we do something selfish or hateful, we will in time experience the same pain and suffering we caused to others. If our acts are good and kind, we will receive goodness and kindness.
Reincarnation means literally to "re-enter the flesh." It is the belief that the soul, atman, is reborn in a new body, experiencing many lifetimes. The purpose of rebirth is to progressively achieve spiritual maturity and God Realization. Eventually each soul learns to live by religious principles and avoid creating negative karma. The process of reincarnation continues through many lives until the soul achieves liberation.
Hinduism's Sacred Scriptures
The four Vedas are the holiest scriptures for all Hindus. The Upanishads, an important part of the Vedas, explain the Hindu philosophy. The next most important scriptures, also in Sanskrit, are the Agamas. There are specific Agamas for each major tradition in Hinduism--Saiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. The Agamas explain philosophy, personal conduct, worship and temple construction. There are hundreds of other scriptural texts dealing with religious and secular law, government, social order, economics, ecology, health, architecture, science, music, astronomy and many other subjects. The Puranas are encyclopedic accounts of the forms and avatars of God, the many subordinate Gods and divine beings, creation, spiritual teachings, historical traditions, geography and culture. The Tirukural is a Tamil masterpiece on ethics and moral living. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali explore yoga and meditation.
The Ramayana and Mahabharata are two sacred epic histories of India. The Ramayana is the story of Lord Rama, who is the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and his divine wife Sita. This 24,000-verse poem describes Prince Rama's birth, His banishment to a forest for 14 years, the abduction of Sita by the demon Ravana and Rama's victory over Ravana. The Ramayana remains immensely popular to this day in India and Southeast Asia.
The Mahabharata, "Great India," is a 78,000-verse story of a massive war that took place in ancient times between the Pandavas and their cousins, the Kauravas, for the throne of a great kingdom. It also describes the nature of self and the world, karma, important family lineages of India, human loyalties, saints and sages, devotion to God and the ideals of dharma. Lord Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Lord Vishnu, is a key figure in the epic. A central episode called the Bhagavad Gita narrates Krishna's dialogue with the Pandava archer, Arjuna, on the day of the battle. It is one of the most popular and revered among Vaishnava and Smarta scriptures. Hindu sacred music, dance, drama and the arts draw heavily on the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the many Puranas.
The Hindu principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence, is important today. Mahatma Gandhi, a devout Hindu, said, "Nonviolence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man." By nonviolent means Gandhi largely won India's independence, using peaceful protests, boycotts, strikes and speeches. In the 1950s, Martin Luther King, Jr. studied Gandhi's methods and went to India to meet his followers. He learned how India's nonviolent movement worked and applied the same methods to fight for and win civil rights for America's black minority. Aung San Suu Kyi, a devout Buddhist, has campaigned without violence for years to win democracy for the people of her native Myanmar (Burma). In 1991 she won the Nobel Peace Prize for her peaceful struggle against the country's military dictatorship. Another example is Cesar Chavez, who won rights for California farm workers using nonviolent methods.
Analysis Skill: What are the advantages of nonviolence over violence in bringing about social change?
subordinate:lower in rank, less important
pervade: to be present throughout
encompass: to surround and hold within
consecrated: made sacred through ceremony
invoke: summon a Deity; appeal to
secular: activities or things not related to religion
Section 2 Assessment
Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People
1. a. Define: What is Sanatana Dharma?
b. Explain: What is a deva?
c. Elaborate: What are the two key terms used by Hindus to describe the Supreme God?
2. Categorize: What are the four main branches of Hinduism?
3. a. Recall: Why do Hindus pray first to Lord Ganesha?
b. Identify: What are the two most popular incarnations of Lord Vishnu?
c. Explain: What is the purpose of the Hindu puja?
4. a. Explain: What is karma?
b. Illustrate: What are some examples of following dharma?
c. Explain: What is the purpose of reincarnation?
5. Summarize: Make a list of Hindu scriptures, starting with the Vedas.
6. Evaluate: Why do Hindus believe that there are many ways to approach the Supreme God?
7. Understanding nonviolence:
Write a paragraph explaining your way to deal with the tax increase example given on page six. Do you think a nonviolent approach would succeed?
Sacred Texts: An Excerpt from the Upanishads
Translated by Swami Prabhavananda
and Frederick Manchester
The Upanishads are the part of the Vedas that teach philosophy. The word upanishad means "sitting by devotedly," as a student sits near his guru to learn. This excerpt is taken from the Kena Upanishad. It explains the nature of the Supreme God, called Brahman in Sanskrit.
Try to sum up the meaning of each sentence in your own words.
Once the Gods won a victory over the demons, and though they had done so only through the power of Brahman, they were exceedingly vain. They thought to themselves, "It was we who beat our enemies, and the glory is ours."
Brahman saw their vanity and appeared before them as a nature spirit. But they did not recognize Him.
Then the other Gods said to the God of fire, "Fire, find out for us who this mysterious nature spirit is."
"Yes," said the God of fire, and approached the spirit. The spirit said to him: "Who are you?"
"I am the God of fire. As a matter of fact, I am very widely known."
"And what power do you wield?"
"I can burn anything on Earth."
"Burn this," said the spirit, placing a straw before him. The God of fire fell upon it with all his might, but could not consume it. So he ran back to the other Gods and said, "I cannot discover who this mysterious spirit is."
Then said the other Gods to the God of wind: "Wind, can you find out for us who he is?"
"Yes," said the God of wind, and approached the spirit. The spirit said to him: "Who are you?"
"I am the God of wind. As a matter of fact, I am very widely known. I fly swiftly through the heavens."
"And what power do you wield?"
"I can blow away anything on Earth."
"Blow this away," said the spirit, placing a straw before him. The God of wind fell upon it with all his might, but was unable to move it. So he ran back to the other Gods and said, "I cannot discover who this mysterious spirit is."
Then said the other Gods to Indra, greatest of them all, "O respected one, find out for us, we pray you, who he is."
"Yes," said Indra and humbly approached the spirit. But the spirit vanished, and in his place stood Goddess Uma, well adorned and of exceeding beauty. Beholding her, Indra asked:
"Who was the spirit that appeared to us?"
"That," answered Uma, "was Brahman. Through Him it was, not of yourselves, that you attained your victory and your glory."
Thus did Indra, and the God of fire, and the God of wind, come to recognize Brahman, the Supreme God.
philosophy: a theory or attitude that guides behavior
vain: excessively proud
consume: to destroy completely, as by fire
adorned: beautifully dressed
beholding: looking at something remarkable
attained: won; achieved
Understanding Sacred Texts
1. Analyzing: Hindus believe that the Supreme God is immanent. That means He exists everywhere in the universe, in everyone and everything. How does this belief appear in the story?
2. Comparing: What is the difference between Brahman, the Supreme God, and the other Gods introduced here--Indra, the God of fire and the God of wind?
3. One verse says that the Gods were vain. What test did the Supreme God put them through?
4. Indra took a different approach to finding out who the spirit was. Why did he succeed when the others failed?
Section Three: Hinduism in Practice
Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards
8. Describe the spread of Hinduism outside of India in ancient and modern times.
9. Describe the daily observances of Hindus, home and temple worship, religious teachers and the major festivals.
10. Explain how Hinduism has survived over the last 5,000 years.
What You Will Learn...
1. Hinduism has spread outside of India several times.
2. Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world.
3. Hindus practice religion at home and in temples and through the many festivals.
The Big Idea: Hinduism is the oldest world
religion flourishing today.
Key Terms: samskara, bindi, puja, swami, Kumbha Mela
If YOU lived then...
You are born in Fiji in 1910. Your parents were brought from India by the British to work in the sugarcane fields as indentured laborers. Now they are free of debt and own farmland. The public school is OK, but your parents want you to go to the best private school. The principal there says you must leave Hinduism and convert to his religion before you can enroll.
What do you think your parents would do?
Building Background: Hinduism is the only major religion from the distant past that is still vibrant today. It survived because of its tradition of home-centered worship, because of its rich teachings and many religious leaders, and because it is not merely tolerant of other religions but respects the validity of all spiritual paths.
Traditions and Holy Days
Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world. There are today nearly a billion Hindus worldwide, 95 percent of whom live on the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism continues to thrive for many reasons. Its followers find answers to their deepest questions about the mysteries of life. With personal religious practices, pilgrimage to sacred shrines, temple- and home-centered worship, Hindus strive for God Realization. And through celebration of the yearly cycle of vibrant and colorful festivals, they experience great blessings and joy.
There are five basic practices, pancha nitya karmas, often observed by Hindus. They are to: 1) worship daily, 2) follow dharma, 3) observe the samskaras (rites of passage), 4) celebrate the holy days and 5) go on pilgrimage to sacred places. Other practices include meditation, chanting of mantras, study of scripture, hatha yoga and other yoga techniques, and simple austerities, such as fasting. There are many samskaras, including a child's name-giving ceremony, the first feeding of solid food, the beginning of formal education and marriage. It is a common practice for Hindu women to wear a bindi, a red dot on the forehead. A similar mark, called tilaka, is worn by men at the temple or on ceremonial occasions. This forehead mark symbolizes many things, especially spiritual vision.
Worship in the Home
Every Hindu home has a place of worship. It may be as simple as a shelf with pictures of God or an entire room dedicated to worship. Many families have a spiritual guide or guru whose picture is displayed in the shrine. There, the family may light a lamp, ring a bell and pray daily. The most devout hold a formal morning worship ritual. They offer flowers, incense, lights and food to God while chanting sacred verses. Individual members will often go to the shrine for blessings before leaving for school or work. At other times one may sit alone in the shrine, pray and chant the names of God, read from scripture, meditate silently or sing devotional songs.
Hindus prefer to live within a day's journey of a temple. The temple is a special building, revered as the home of God. The main Deity is enshrined in the temple's central sanctum. In India, there are hundreds of thousands of temples, most quite ancient. Temples in India can be enormous, covering many acres, having vast pillared hallways that can accommodate 500,000 devotees during a festival. Often one or more families of priests oversee the temple and conduct the worship over many generations. When Hindus migrate outside India, they build a temple as soon as possible. At first, community leaders themselves conduct the daily rituals. Later, professional priests are hired. There are now hundreds of Hindu temples in America. The largest are in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Texas and California.
The temple worship ceremony, or puja, is usually performed by a priest from India. During the ceremony, he worships God by chanting Sanskrit verses from the scriptures and performing arati. Arati is the waving of an oil lamp in front of the Deity while bells are rung. The priest also offers flowers, sweets and fruit. These offerings are then distributed to the devotees as a blessing from God. Hindus may visit the temple throughout the day to worship and meditate.
Hinduism's Saints, Teachers and Swamis
Hinduism has a rich history of saints and sages, both men and women. Their lives are educational and inspiring. They come from all castes. Some saints, such as Adi Shankara, have written detailed explanations of the Vedas and other scriptures. Other saints, such as Mirabai, Tukaram and Sambandar, taught through devotional songs. Recent saints include Sri Ramakrishna and Anandamayi Ma. Their deeply religious lives have uplifted millions of Hindus and others worldwide.
There are hundreds of thousands of religious scholars and teachers, both men and women, known as pundits. Some give spellbinding discourses on sacred scriptures, including Ramayana and Mahabharata. Tens of thousands may attend such gatherings, which include storytelling, preaching, devotional singing and drama. These events often go on for days or even a month.
Hinduism has millions of swamis and other holy persons. Swamis are unmarried men (and some women) who have taken up spiritual life full time. Swami means "he who knows himself." Some live in monasteries; others wander as homeless mendicants. Swamis are the religious ministers of Hinduism. Many swamis teach, others run large institutions that perform social service for their communities, and still others live alone and meditate long hours each day in their pursuit of divine enlightenment. Special among these are the holy gurus. Gu means darkness and ru means remover. So guru literally means "the one who removes darkness." These men and women are great religious teachers, some with millions of followers. Several gurus have popularized the Hindu practice of yoga by establishing training centers all over the world. No one person or institution is in charge of Hinduism. Instead, there are thousands of independent spiritual traditions, monastic orders and religious institutions.
The Yearly Festival Cycle
There are many religious festivals celebrated by Hindus each year. They are observed at home, in temples and public places. Most Hindu festivals are observed according to an ancient solar-lunar calendar. Several festivals honor the avatars of Lord Vishnu. For example, Ram Navami celebrates the birth of Lord Rama in March/April. Krishna Janmashtami, in July/August, celebrates the birth of Lord Krishna.
Mahasivaratri takes place in February/March, when devotees fast and worship the transcendent Lord Siva all night in the temple. Diwali, or Dipavali, is the biggest festival of the year. It is dedicated to Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth, and takes place in October/November. Navaratri is the second largest festival. It lasts nine days and takes place in September/October. It is dedicated to the worship of the Goddess, Shakti. in her three forms: Durga, the Goddess of Protection; Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth, and Sarasvati, the Goddess of Knowledge.
Holi, in March/April, is a highly spirited festival where everyone sprinkles each other with colored water and powders. It signifies the triumph of good over evil and marks the beginning of the winter crop harvest. Vaikasi Visakham (May/June) is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs. Guru Purnima is a special festival to honor one's spiritual teacher, or guru. It takes place on the full moon day in July. There are also many social festivals in India, such as Pongal. It is held in January and celebrates the incoming harvest.
One special festival, the Kumbha Mela, takes place in a twelve-year cycle. Hindu saints and millions of devotees travel to certain sacred rivers at an auspicious time for worship. The 2001 Kumbha Mela was held at Prayag (modern Allahabad) in North India. It was attended by 70 million people, including 30 million on January 24 alone. This was the largest religious gathering ever held on the Earth.
Hinduism is the oldest world religion. It accepts that there are many ways to worship God. It has endured for so long because the religion and culture have instilled in each Hindu a unique and strong sense of identity and community. The Rig Veda concludes, "Let there be everlasting unity and peace among all human beings."
Hindu Migration Through the Centuries: Hinduism has spread outside of India in several waves. First it was adopted by cultures throughout Southeast Asia through the 12th century ce. Second, in the 19th century many Hindus moved to the various European colonies, such as South Africa, the Caribbean and Fiji. And most recently, Hindus migrated to more than 150 countries in the 20th century.
The biggest Hindu festival of the year is Diwali, or Dipavali, the Festival of Lights, celebrating the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. It takes place for five days around the new moon in October/November. It also honors the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya after 14 years in exile. Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth is invoked for prosperity, and Her presence is felt in every home. Hindus thoroughly clean the house, take a special bath and put on new clothes. Thousands of small lamps, including traditional clay oil lamps (pictured at right), are placed everywhere and fireworks signal hope for mankind. It is a national holiday in India and in many countries with large Hindu populations. Some Hindu festivals take place mostly at home, such as Raksha Bandhan, which is on the full moon in July/August. Sisters tie a rakhi, or colored thread, around the wrist of their brothers. In return, the brother gives his sister a present and promises to protect her. The rakhi can also be given to anyone chosen as an "adopted brother."
Analysis Skill: How do festivals help remind people to be more kind and generous to one another?
The Impact Today: There are Hindu temples in nearly every country of the world
indentured: under contract to work for a certain number of years
austerity: a difficult practice of self-denial and discipline
meditate: think deeply about, go within yourself or seek God within
mendicant: a holy person who lives by begging
auspicious: a favorable time--for the Mela, as determined by the Hindu calendar
Section 3 Assessment
Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People
1. a. List: What are the five basic practices of Hinduism?
b. Define: What does the bindi, red dot, signify?
c. Explain: How do Hindus use their home shrine room?
2. List: What are the various kinds of priests and holy men and women in Hinduism?
3. a. Explain: What is the year's biggest Hindu festival?
b. Define: What is the meaning of the rakhi bracelet?
c. Recall: What is special about the Kumbha Mela?
d. Elaborate: Why has Hinduism lasted so long?
4. List: Make a list of three columns. In the first column write the name of a major Hindu festival. In the second, put the time of year it occurs. In the third list what it celebrates.
5. Understanding Hindu practices: Why do you think Hindus want to live near a temple?
Chapter One Standards Assessment
Directions: Read each question and circle the letter of the best response
1. Evidence for what form of worship in the Vedas was
found by archaeologists in the ruins of the Indus-
2. The Indus-Sarasvati civilization ended because:
3. The Aryan Invasion theory was based upon:
4. Which discovery was not made in ancient India?
5. Evidence of Hindu temple worship can be as early as:
6. Which of these descriptions does not apply to women in ancient India?
7. Which of these words does not describe the Hindu concept of the Supreme God?
8. Hindus believe that the devas, such as Lord Ganesha or Goddess Lakshmi, are like:
9. Which of the following is not used in nonviolent protests?
10. The Hindu scriptures include:
11. Hindus believe that every other religion:
12. How many countries do Hindus live in today?
13. The saints of Hinduism are:
14. The biggest religious event in the world is:
Internet Resources: Go to http://www.hinduismtoday.com/education/ for a PDF version of this lesson with clickable links to resources. Also at the same url are additional teaching resources and letters of endorsement from academics and community leaders. To order additional copies of this educational insight, go to http://www.minimela.com/booklets/. | <urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1> | {
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James E. West was an attorney active with juvenile cases in Washington DC. He was recruited in 1911 as Executive Secretary, in part because Boyce wanted the BSA based in natioanal capital to demonstrate the organization's national character. West changed his title to Chief Scout Executive. He more than any other person created a well-organized national structure that was a key to the BSA's growth and reputation. He intended to make Scouting only a temporary diversion from his legal career, but that changed with the tremendous growth of the movement. West remained Chief Scout Executive from 1911 until he retired in 1943. Scouting founder Willam D. Boyce did not get along with West. Boyce saw Scouting has his own organization. As a result of the quarel and differences of opinion, West had Boyce's name virtually deleted from BSA records. West also had problems with Ernest Thompson Seaton another founder of the Scouting movement. Both Seaton and West were strong-willed individuals. They had conflicting ideas on how Scouting should develop. Seton was deeply committed to the ethos of Scouting saw West as a city lawyer and simple administrator/ He challenged West's authority to control the young program's development. West controlled the BSA organization and power base, and forced Seton out in 1916. Seaton's writing was removed from the Boy Scout Handbook. Drspite Seaton's departure, like Boyce, these men left an indelible impression on American Scouting. West for many years resisted the creation of a Cubbing program for younger boys.
James was born in Washington, D.C. (1876). His father died at about the time James was born. His mother had to be hospitalized with tuberculosis when Jimmie was still very young (1882). James was placed in the Washington City Orphan Home. After which his mother died, leaving him an orphan.
James called Jummie had a rough childhood. When his mother contracted tuberculosis he was placed in the Washington City Orphan Home (1882). There was no extended family to take him in. He apparently contracted the disease from her. He may have contracted polilo as well. He was reported as a cripped boy. One leg did not develop properly and was shorter than the other. At the orphanage, because of his disability, James was given work assignments with girls--sewing and caning chairs. He turned to reading. He virtually took over the orphanage library.
He decided he wanted to enter the local public school. The orphanage staff was concerned it would interfere with his chores (stoking the coal furnace and feeding chickens). He began in the 5th grade.
James graduated with honors from Business High School (1895). At the highschool he edited the school newspaper, served as the football team's business manager, and occassionally taught match when the teacher was absent. Despite the lack of family support, West mamaged to go to college and graduate from law school, a major accomplishment at the time. After leaving the orphanage, he worked as a tutor and a bicycle mechanic (1896). He attended National Law School while supporting himself as the assistant to the general secretary of the YMCA. Here he developed an interest in youth work.
He earned his Bachelor of Laws (1900) and Master of Laws (1901). He was admitted to the Washington, D.C. bar.
The Spanish American War interupted his studies. West volunteered during the Spanish-American War and worked as a clerk. After the War he worked as a clerk in the War Office.
President Theodore Roosevelt appointed him to the Board of Pension Appeals in the Department of the Interior (1902). He played an important role in creating the juvenile court system, helping to convince Congress to pass a law. Another impressive accomplishment for such a young man. West became a successful attorney in Washington DC. Perhaps because of his background, he became active with juvenile cases.
West became a a Mason and joined the Knights of Pythias. He became the Sunday School superintendent for the Mount Pleasant Congregational Church. He got involved with youth work. West was willing to do the mundane organizational and administrative work that did not appeal to others. He became interesting in the Boys' Brigade. This was a predecessor to the Boy Scouts more closely tied to Christian churches. It proved to be stronger in Britain, but was organized in many British colonies and the Unitd States.
He worked as finance chairman for the Boys Brigade and the secretary of the Washington Playground Association which eventually develope into the Playground Association of America. He lsubsequently served as secretary of the National Child Rescue League whoch worked to find homes for orphaned children. West was appointed as secretary of the White House Conference on Dependent Children. Here he worked for reforms in the operation of orphanages. Thus at the time the Boy Scouts were organized, West had a very impressive record of youth work.
The Boy Scouts of America were fouded by William D. Boyce and others in 1911. The BSA used many of the precepts of Baden-Powell's British Scouting movement and was heavily influenced by William Seaton and Daniel Beard. Several other groups had been founded earlier and about the same time with similar approaches and goals. What was lacking in many of these efforts was an effective organizational and administrative effort needed to build a national organization. Boyce himself was a businessman and had no interest in devoting his life to actually running the Boy Scouts.
James West wanted to open a private law office in Washington (1910). The early Scout operations were in the hands of John M. Alexander was serving as Managing Secretary (May to October 1910). Alexander worked under the general direction of Edgar M. Robinson, who had financed the BSA's original office. It was a one-room national office locted in New York. Neither Robinson nor Alexander wanted turn the BSA into a career. Colin H. Livingstone was the president of the BSA and began a search for a permannt Executive Secretary. Ernest Bicknell of the American Red Cross wrote to Luther Gulick, president of the Playground Association of America and recommended West for the position. West at the time was focused on his legal career, but was finally persuaded to accepted the position temporarily for 6 months until a permanent person could be found for the position (1911). West moved to New York City. Robinson returned to the the YMCA. West not only had an amazing resume, but he lived in Washington, DC.
Boyce wanted the BSA based in natioanal capital to demonstrate the organization's national character. West changed his title to Chief Scout Executive. Showing the same determination that got him through law school with limited finances. He was forced to make a range of decessions, not all of them to his liking. One of the most difficult issues was race. West provided the organizational skill needed to build Scouting into the largest and most effective youth organization in the country. West remained Chief Scout Executive from 1911 until he retired in 1943--a rather long 6 months. When he retired in 1943, Dr. West was recognized throughout the country as the true architect of the Boy Scouts of America. He more than any other person created a well-organized national structure that was a key to the BSA's growth and reputation. He intended to make Scouting only a temporary diversion from his legal career, but that changed with the tremendous growth of the movement.
Scouting founder Willam D. Boyce did not get along with West. Boyce saw Scouting as his own organization. He did not want to involve himself in day to day operations, but he wanted to control the organization. As a result, of the quarel and differences of opinion, West had Boyce's name virtually deleted from BSA records.
West also had problems with Ernest Thompson Seaton another founder of the Scouting movement. Both Seaton and West were strong-willed individuals. They had conflicting ideas on how Scouting should develop. Seton was deeply committed to the ethos of Scouting saw West as a city lawyer and simple administrator. He challenged West's authority to control the young program's development. West controlled the BSA organization and power base, and forced Seton out in 1916. Seaton's writing was removed from the Boy Scout Handbook. Drspite Seaton's departure, like Boyce, these men left an indelible impression on American Scouting.
West married Marion Speaks (June 19, 1907). The Wests had five children. James "Jimmie" Ellis West was born (December 25, 1909). Arthur was born (1912). Marion ws born (1914). Jimmie died of pneumonia while Marion was pregnant with Helen (1916) Bob was born (1917).
West published occassional articles for Boys' Life as well as a mumber of books. Lone Scout of the Air (1927) was a biography of Charles Lindbergh. The Boy Scout's Book of True Adventure (G. P. Putnam's Sons: New York, 1931) was an account of 14 honorary scouts. There was a foreword By Theodore Roosevelt and biographical notes by West.
The Boy Scout's Book of Honor (1931) was edited by West.
He-who-sees-in-the-dark (1932) was the boys' story of Frederick Burnham, the American scout. It was written by West and Peter O. Lamb and illustrated by Baden-Powell. West's last book was Making the Most of Yourself (1941).
Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Chronology Pages:
[Return to the Main chronologies page]
[The 1840s] [The 1850s] [The 1860s] [The 1870s] [The 1880s] [The 1890s]
[The 1900s] [The 1910s] [The 1920s] [The 1930s] [The 1940s] [The 1950s]
Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Web Site:
[Return to the Main biography page]
[Activities] [Biographies] [Chronologies] [Countries] [Essays] [Garments] [Organizations] [Religion] [Other]
[Introduction] [Bibliographies] [Contributions] [FAQs] [Questions] [Unknown images]
[Boys' Uniform Home]
Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Web organization pages:
[Boys' Brigade] [Camp Fire] [Hitler Youth] [National] [Pioneers] [Royal Rangers] [Scout] | <urn:uuid:73f6e62e-1bee-4e19-a0b9-3eb4adfd56de> | {
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Joseph Bradley Varnum, Collection of U.S. House of Representatives
About this object
After serving nine terms in the House , two of them as Speaker, Joseph Varnum of Massachusetts resigned his House seat to serve as a Senator.
On this date, the House passed H.R. 7, “An Act fixing the Military peace establishment of the United States,” creating a military academy for U.S. soldiers in West Point, New York. In the 5th Congress
(1797–1799), Robert Harper
of South Carolina proposed “a military school, and a corps constantly existing, in which officers may always be found fit to command troops.” Harper reasoned that if “an army or revenue were wanted, they could at any time be raised; but good officers and military science could not be created without much previous application, by practice, and a course of study.” Ultimately, the South Carolinian believed that such a school would help to ensure “the safety of [the] country when it is known that such a class of men exists to any considerable degree.” President Thomas Jefferson
, who had long promoted the idea of creating a national university to benefit society as a whole, found the military academy proposal appealing. Jefferson encouraged his Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, to form such a school in 1801. Introduced by Joseph Varnum
of Massachusetts, a veteran of the American Revolution who assisted in suppressing Shays’ Rebellion in 1786, the West Point bill passed on a 71 to 12 vote. The Senate added amendments to the bill and passed it on March 5, 1802. The House concurred with the amendments 10 days later, and sent it to President Jefferson, who signed the bill into law on March 16, 1802. | <urn:uuid:159ceb93-7bb3-43c6-b2cb-ce9717baaa0b> | {
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Good Answer by Fishtoaster.
The science is ancient, discovered by Archimedes.
1: Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
In other words, if you put a ball, with volume 1 litre completely under water, there is an upwards force on the ball (buoyancy or flotation) equal to the weight of 1 litre of water. (i.e. 1 kilogram-force or 9.81 Newtons)
2: (Corollary) Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid.
If we place a floating object of mass 1 kilo, it will displace exactly 1 kilo of water, or 1 litre of water. If the volume of our object is less than 1 litre, it will float.
So, with a Hydrometer, it is weighted such that the submerged volume at the 1.000 reading is exactly equal to the weight of the hydrometer. If we dissolve solids into the water (sugar) that volume of water is heavier, and less of it needs to be displaced in order for the hydrometer's weight to be matched, and the Hydrometer floats higher. | <urn:uuid:710105c9-fdc7-4e38-9ce1-cfb2eb9ec746> | {
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Steel is one of the world’s most important engineering and construction materials, and increasingly a material of choice in commercial and residential applications.
Although no one is certain when it was first used, a British inventor named Henry Bessemer is credited with creating the first technique by which steel
could be mass-produced. Today, the metal is produced by adding a small amount of carbon to iron ore, and removing impurities, such as sulfur and phosphorous. Small amounts of alloying metals, such as nickel, manganese, chromium and vanadium may also be added.
Facts About Steel
- There are currently more than 3,500 different grades, most of which have been developed within the last few decades. The Eiffel Tower, if it were built using modern varieties of steel, would require only one-third as much steel as was used in 1889 when it was constructed.
- The recent economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in it’s demand.
- China is the world’s top producer, followed by Japan, Russia, and the United States, respectively.
The physical properties of steel offer significant advantages over concrete, wood, and other building materials. Here are some of these advantages:
- It is highly recyclable. In the United States, more steel is recycled than plastic, glass and aluminum combined, making it the most recycled material nationally. The reason for this is threefold: first, by virtue of its magnetic properties, steel can be easily separated from the waste stream. Second, recycling saves the steel industry an enormous amount of energy — enough to power 18 million homes for one year, according to the Steel Recycling Institute. Third, recycled steel loses none of its properties, making the recycling process simple and efficient.
- It’s use saves trees. A typical 2,000-square-foot house, which requires 26,700 board feet to build, would require the use of 102 trees, according to the the Idaho Forest Products Commission.
- More windows can be integrated in structures of steel construction, due to elevated mechanical properties of the metal. Windows reduce energy consumption and increase the comfort of building occupants.
- Steel has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any comparable construction material, making it among the most durable.
- Steel conforms to any aesthetic. The availability of finishes, facades and other wall claddings allows builders to craft steel structures in any fashion.
- There is an unlimited production capacity. Steel’s main ingredient – iron – is one of the most common metals in the earth’s crust. The United States’ structural steel industry has the capacity to produce 6 million tons of structural steel per year, which is comfortably more than what will be needed in the foreseeable future.
- Steel is economical due to its enhanced quality and reduced costs owing to off-site fabrication and rapid construction.
- Steel is non-combustible, which allows for lower insurance costs.
Steel in Residential Construction
Steel has long been a staple in commercial construction, but the material has seen recent use in residences, as well. Increasing lumber prices and a need to conserve timber products, as well as design elements such as resistance to termites, are fueling the transition to steel in the residential construction market. In addition, steel offers excellent earthquake, fire- and wind-resistance. Steel ceiling joists can span greater distances than wooden ones, allowing for a broader range of design possibilities for builders and architects. A disadvantage, however, is that steel readily conducts heat and cold, which may degrade a home’s energy efficiency. Contractors can mitigate this potential by wrapping steel framing in insulation board, as well as by placing insulation batts between the studs. Also, noise due to thermal expansion and contraction, as well as that produced by heavy rain, may cause irritation for occupants. Steel is often used in houses in the following applications:
- rebar within concrete foundations;
- floor joists, floor bearers and columns used to raise houses off the ground;
- wall framing; and
- battens, trusses and roof sheeting.
FYI, steel is an excellent building material for residences as well as commercial buildings.
If you are really interested in building with steel, framing with steel has obvious advantages over wood. Yet building with steel requires skills that can present challenges to the wood-frame builder or framer.
The following book explains the secrets of steel framing techniques for building homes — whether pre-engineered or built by stick framing. It shows, in step-by-step instructions how to build with steel. It shows you the techniques, tools and materials — even how to estimate steel-framing costs.
You’ll find instructions for designing for steel, tools and fasteners you’ll need, foundations and anchoring, installing floor joists, standing walls, rafters and rood trusses, specialty framing, stick framing and panelization, thermal considerations, nonbearing walls, attaching exterior finished, working with subcontractors, what to expect during inspections and more.
Includes access to a FREE download with manhours, material, and labor prices, and an estimating program for estimating steel framing costs, along with steel framing details. | <urn:uuid:016aeff8-bc9f-4ac9-a5ff-67fb6ba82b25> | {
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Human blood--it drives mosquitoes wild.
Today Marlene Cimmons of the National Science Foundation (NSF) spotlights chemical ecologist Walter Leal, professor of entomology, University of California, Davis, on the LiveScience Web site.
This interesting feature takes a behind-the-scenes look at Leal, a Brazilian-born scientist trained in three countries: Brazil, Japan and the United States.
His research, partly funded by a NSF grant, has received international acclaim. Last year he was elected a Fellow of the 6000-member Entomological Society of America, a prestigious honor reserved for only 10 or fewer scientists a year.
Leal, who focuses his research on how insects detect smells, is not shy about being a human subject.
Or human pincushion.
Cimmons wrote about how Leal "rolled up his sleeves" when he and his colleagues were looking for the substance that would lure mosquitoes into a blood meal. "And they found it--nonanal, a substance made by humans and birds that creates a powerful scent that Culex mosquitoes find irresistible."
Leal also recalls the time when he was searching for beetles in Mexico and mosquitoes went after him with a vengeance.
"They'll go through anything, even jeans, as long as they know there is a blood vessel on the other side," Leal told Cimmons. "They can sense the heat."
Indeed, some folks just seem to attract more than their share of mosquitoes.
Only the female mosquitoes bite--they need a blood meal to develop their eggs.Related links:
UC Davis Researchers Identify Dominant Chemical That Attracts Mosquitoes to Humans
Groundbreaking Research on DEET | <urn:uuid:d37648cf-0b19-4956-9c5c-9aa345179e60> | {
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Robots game activity
Bring the stack of CRC index cards you developed in lab yesterday to
lecture, one for each class you hope to design in your
robots program. This activity will involve elaboration
of these cards, giving greater specificity to responsibilities and
describing each class's attributes.
Your task in class is to embellish these cards as follows:
- Each card should list of member functions and
instance variables of the class. (Instance variables
are the private variables.) Insofar as possible, you should give the
type/class of all parameters and return values of the member
functions, and the types of the instance variables.
- One additional card lists non-member functions
(if any) along with the purpose of each. Again, give the type/class
of all parameters and return values.
- Number all member functions and procedures in the order you
intend to code and test them. You'll put the number
(1) in front of all methods and procedures you can
test on their own without writing any others. Put a
(2) in front of procedures you can't write until
you've written procedures from (1), and so forth.
- Identify with a (*) all methods which appear
challenging to write. These are ones which you hope you can break up
later into smaller procedures once you've thought about the
robots program more. | <urn:uuid:4fe2fa59-6eeb-4077-99a2-3e6678c046da> | {
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In a previous column about the stress of working in an “open” office, I suggested that the popular practice of listening to music with earbuds or headphones not only cuts down on background noise but may also give employees a sense of control over their aural environment. But does having a constant soundtrack to your day also distract you from the task at hand? That depends on the task. Research shows that under some conditions, music actually improves our performance, while in other situations music makes it worse — sometimes dangerously so.
Absorbing and remembering new information is best done with the music off, suggests a 2010 study published in Applied Cognitive Psychology. Adults aged 18 to 30 were asked to recall a series of sounds presented in a particular order. Participants’ performance suffered when music was played while they carried out the task as compared to when they completed the task in a quiet environment. Nick Perham, the British researcher who conducted the study, notes that playing music you like can lift your mood and increase your arousal — if you listen to it before getting down to work. But it serves as a distraction from cognitively demanding tasks.
That finding is key to understanding another condition under which music can improve performance: when a well-practiced expert needs to achieve the relaxed focus necessary to execute a job he’s done many times before. A number of studies have found, for example, that surgeons often listen to music in the operating room and that they work more effectively when they do. A study in the Journal of the American Medical Association reported that surgeons carrying out a task in the laboratory worked more accurately when music that they liked was playing. (Music that they didn’t like was second best, and no music was least helpful of all.)
(MORE: Remember More Without Trying)
The doctors listening to their preferred music were also the most relaxed, as revealed by measurements of their nervous system activity. Still, surgeons might want to ask others in the operating room for their opinions on playing music: one survey of anaesthetists found that about a quarter felt that music “reduced their vigilance and impaired their communication with other staff,” and about half felt that music was distracting when they were dealing with a problem with the anesthesia. (And who would want to be the patient in that situation?)
Research suggests that singing along might even heighten the distraction. A study presented earlier this month at the International Conference on Traffic and Transport Psychology, reported that singing along with music in a car may slow drivers’ responses to potential hazards. Christina Rudin-Brown, a Canadian researcher who studies the role of “human factors” in traffic snafus, asked the participants in her experiment to learn the lyrics to “I’m a Believer,” as performed by the band Smash Mouth, and “Imagine,” as performed by John Lennon. Singing these songs while operating a simulated car increased drivers’ mental workload, leading them to scan their visual field less often and to focus instead on the road right in front of them.
Other iPod rules drawn from the research: Classical or instrumental music enhances mental performance more than music with lyrics. Music can make rote or routine tasks (think folding laundry or filing papers) less boring and more enjoyable. Runners who listen to music go faster. But when you need to give learning and remembering your full attention, silence is golden. | <urn:uuid:7e4333bb-ba7a-4df8-a8cc-acf6827555ed> | {
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The Economic Security
of Unmarried Women
Today nearly half of women are unmarried--a transformational societal change from 1960 when only one-third of women were unmarried. And today virtually every woman will spend at least part of her adult life as the sole supporter of herself or her family. With so many women living on their own, it is crucial that lawmakers take seriously unmarried women's economic security needs.
Unfortunately, the economic circumstances of unmarried women are troubling. They face greater economic insecurity compared to the general population or their married counterparts by almost any measure. They must confront disproportionate unemployment, poverty, and lack of health insurance, as well as other hardships. Despite being just under half of the female population, they represent 63 percent of unemployed women, 60 percent of women without health insurance, and three-quarters of women in poverty.
There are many roots of these inequities. First, like all women, unmarried women face gender-based wage discrimination and segregation into lower-paying occupations, and they earn less on average than married women. Second, many unmarried women hold low-wage jobs that do not support an adequate standard of living, especially for a family or a woman living on one income. And these low-wage jobs often do not provide benefits like health insurance, sick time, or other basic necessities. Factors like race or sexual orientation too often result in additional discrimination and unequal job opportunities.
Third, many unmarried women have family responsibilities-to their partners, children, parents, or extended family-but too many workplaces are not family friendly. For many unmarried women, finding quality child or elder care is difficult and may be very expensive-more even than their own income.
Finally, the definition of "family" in policy is outdated, stuck in the 1950s notion of a nuclear family that excludes too many of today's nontraditional families. Many policies, particularly sharing of health insurance and retirement plans, are based on one's marital status regardless of the fact that nearly half of the population today is unmarried. The combination of these factors puts too many unmarried women in a unique but unfortunately precarious economic position.
Despite the economic disparities unmarried women face, they make major contributions to the economy and their communities. Most unmarried women work outside the home, and they are more than a fifth of the nation's workers. They are a sizeable and growing consumer group, too, who are already demonstrating their economic prowess and independence by purchasing homes, representing a fifth of homebuyers in 2008. They are also heads of households and caregivers who are taking care of our elders and raising the next generation, and they are serving as the economic decision makers for enormous numbers of people-affecting all major sectors of our economy. But their potential contribution is unrealized.
Fortunately, many current and proposed policies will benefit unmarried women. This report outlines an economic security agenda for unmarried women that focuses on the key areas of legislation in the 111th Congress that would benefit them, including good jobs; policies for single mothers and their children; quality, affordable health care; adequate, affordable housing; financial protection; and a secure, dignified retirement.
The report is intended to serve as a resource for policymakers and advocates concerned about the economic security of unmarried women. It examines legislation under discussion, rather than ideal recommendations, and there is ample room for improvement, which will be examined in future work at the Center for American Progress and by Women's Voices. Women Vote. Still, each of the new laws and proposed policy changes described in this report has its place in an agenda to improve unmarried women's economic conditions. Together, this legislation would make significant progress.
Congress doesn't need to wait to get started on this agenda, either. The top four policy proposals described in this report that are likely to move through Congress quickly and would have a significant impact on the economic security of unmarried women are:
- The health care system overhaul currently pending in Congress, which would fill a major gap in public policy by greatly expanding the availability and affordability of health insurance.
- A proposed reauthorization and expansion of the Child Care and Development Block Grant, which provides subsidies for child care to low-income families.
- The expected reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act, which Congress can use to focus on the workforce development needs of single women. Bills such as the Pathways Advancing Career Training Act and the Women WIN Jobs Act would target opportunities for job training and good jobs to women.
- The Paycheck Fairness Act, which the Senate is expected to consider this year and the House passed in January 2009. Women continue to face gender-based pay discrimination, and this bill would strengthen legal protections against wage discrimination.
Unmarried women--and our country--will be helped when public policy recognizes new ways of living, encourages and supports self- and family-sustaining employment, and ensures that all people and all families, regardless of their marital status, can achieve and maintain a good standard of living and a well-balanced life.
Download the executive summary (PDF)
Download the full report (PDF) | <urn:uuid:5ace80de-9887-4390-8df6-3f30edf44673> | {
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Sixty-seven years ago today a United States Army Airforce B-29 called the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb its makers’ quaintly named “Little Boy” on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Between 90,000 and 140,000 mostly civilians died as a result of this devastating attack.
In 1962 the American Trappist monk Thomas Merton wrote a letter to the Hon. Shinzo Hamai who was the Mayor of Hiroshima. In his letter, Merton wrote,
It is my conviction that the people of Hiroshima stand today as a symbol of the hopes of humanity. It is good that such a symbol should exist. The events of August 6, 1945, give you the most solemn right to be heard and respected by the whole world. But the world only pretends to respect your witness. In reality it cannot face the truth which you represent. But I wish to say on my own behalf and on behalf of my fellow monks and those who are like-minded, that I never cease to face the truth which is symbolized in the names Hiroshima, Nagasaki. (The Hidden Ground of Love, 380,381)
Merton did not disclose in his letter what he believed to be the truth that the world “cannot face” that is represented by Hiroshima.
Four days after the bombing of Hiroshima a second atomic bomb rained death upon Nagasaki killing an estimated 70,000 and leaving several hundred thousand others diseased and dying.
The truth we do not want to see that confronts us in Hiroshima and Nagasaki is that we human beings are capable of committing cold-blooded acts of violence against predominantly civilian populations in an attempt to protect what we perceive to be our own interests.
Merton went on in his letter to the Mayor of Hiroshima to write,
I wish to say on my own behalf and on behalf of my fellow monks and those who are like-minded, that I never cease to face the truth which is symbolized in the names Hiroshima, Nagasaki. Each day I pray humbly and with love for the victims of the atomic bombardments which took place there. All the holy spirits of those who lost their lives then, I regard as my dear and real friends. I express my fraternal and humble love for all the citizens of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (The Hidden Ground of Love, 381)
Merton understood the deep truth to which the writer of the Letter to the Ephesians pointed when he wrote
For this reason I bow my knees before the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on earth takes its name. (Ephesians 3:14,15)
If “every family in heaven and on earth takes its name” from the same “Father”, then we are all connected. Every human being who has ever taken up space on this earth, is my brother or my sister. There is, according to the writer of Ephesians, only one human family. We are not separated by ethnicity, cultural barriers, or artificial national boundaries. We are all linked by our common parentage.
The Japanese people who were slaughtered and maimed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not separate from their killers. The atomic bombs killed the brothers and sisters of those who dropped the bombs. “Little Boy” destroyed the family members of those who ordered the bombing. We who appear to have benefited from the carnage of Hiroshima bear the terrible legacy of the annihilation of hundreds of thousands of our brothers and sisters.
Until we find the courage to acknowledge the monstrous fratricide for which we are guilty, we will never truly confront the violence that lies coiled in our hearts. No weapons will preserve us from the unacknowledged darkness beneath the surface of our civilized exterior. We who deny our complicity in the dark realities of the past are doomed to repeat its errors. We do well on this day to remember the horror of Hiroshima. | <urn:uuid:48b46d9d-2449-4119-bdcf-2e8544a9d378> | {
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Selection of diamonds
These diamonds are from a collection held at the Natural History Museum, London, UK.
“An oblique photograph of Mount Etna looking to the southeast taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station on October 30,2002. The dark plume rising from the top of the volcano is an ash cloud. The broad white cloud streaming from areas of lower elevation is smoke produced by forest fires ignited as a hot lava flow moved through a pine forest. The ash and smoke caused air traffic to be diverted and forced the closing of roads, schools and businesses.”
“Many species of insects are found in the Green River Formation including dragonflies. The wetland margins of Fossil Lake provided ideal breeding and foraging opportunities. National Park Service photo.”
Mars Exploration Rover on the surface of Mars, artwork.
“The first of two identical NASA rovers, Spirit, landed on Mars on 4 January 2004. The second, Opportunity, landed on the other side of the planet on 24 January 2004. The rovers are powered by solar panels (flat, across centre) and are mobile. Cameras mounted on the mast give scientists panoramic views of the Martian surface. This enables them to instruct the rovers which rocks to analyse and where to look for water. Tools on board the golf buggy-sized rovers include spectrometers for analysing rock samples, a microscope and an abrasion tool. Each rover has a 90-day mission on the surface of Mars.”
Geological time: Late Jurassic, 150,8 - 148,5 Ma
Found in Germany
Sand, light micrograph
“Sand is a loose collection of fragments of rock, shell and coral. This sand was collected from a beach in Villefranche on France’s Mediterranean coast. Magnification: x15 when printed at 10 centimetres wide.”
Geological time: Late Cretaceous, 75-71 Ma
Found in Mongolia
Locality: Ohio, USA
Atlantis, South Africa
Geological time: Early Cretaceous, 130 - 125 Ma
Cyanotrichite, Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)12 . 2H2O
Migmatite gneiss, SW Montana.
Geological time: Late Cretaceous, 89 Ma
Found in Argentina | <urn:uuid:1bec6181-a459-4205-afc4-bfd89648a3f6> | {
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West Valley College R. Lopez
Natural Provinces of California
The first step in learning about the geology of California is learning its geography.
1) On a sketch a map of California, be able to outline the natural provinces, and name them.
2) Name at least two famous valleys in the Basin and Range province of California.
3) Why is the Basin and Range so arid?
4) What is the general geologic structure of the Sierra Nevada?
5) What was the tectonic setting of Mesozoic California and the Sierra Nevada Batholith?
6) What is the approximate thickness of sedimentary rocks beneath the central Great Valley, and what was the source of the sediments.
7) When was the largest historical earthquake in California, where did it occur, and what was its geological significance?
8) What two major factors may have played a role in the 1980 Mammoth Lakes earthquake swarm?
9) What are horst and grabens? What are normal faults? What type of stress is associated with normal faults?
10) What are range front faults? What is the significance of the Owens Valley Quake of 1872?
11) What are Pleistocene lakes? What two lines of evidence support high water stands in the basins of the Basin and Range?
12) The rocks of the Klamath province are most like those of what other province?
13) What age and type of rocks occur in the Klamath province? What are accreted terranes? What is an ophiolite?
14) What is the general age and rock type found in the Cascade Range and the Modoc Plateau, and why are the landforms in these provinces so different?
15) What is the plate tectonic setting of the Cascade Range?
16) What tectonic plate is subducting off of northern California to form the California Cascades?
17) Why is the Modoc Plateau a plateau? What are fissure eruptions?
18) What major geologic structures define the NW and SW boundaries of the Mojave Desert?
19) The Colorado Desert province is the on-land extension of what major geologic structure (see p. 392)?
20) Is the Salton Trough below sea level? What is the geologic structure of the Salton Trough?
21) What evidence do the Salton Buttes have that supports the structure implied for the question above?
22) How did the Salton Sea form? (see page 243)
23) What faults border the NE and SW boundaries of the Salton Trough?
24) Rocks of the Peninsular Range are most like what other province? This implies that the Peninsular Ranges also had a _______ tectonic setting.
25) What is the obvious, most unusual feature of the Transverse Ranges province?
26) What is a restraining bend. Is the Big Bend a restraining or releasing bend? Be able to name some of the ranges in the Transverse Ranges.
27) What major geologic structure dominates the Coast Ranges?
28) Be able to trace the general trace of the San Andreas Fault through California.
29) Where is the Carrizo Plain, and what geologic feature is it famous for (p.317)?
30) Where does the San Andreas Fault cross Highway 17? | <urn:uuid:6f98de81-27ef-4c93-ad2f-89a482178e56> | {
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Isle Royale Travelog
The History of Isle Royale
The island of Isle Royale has had a long and varied history. The island itself came into being around 1.2 billion years ago in the Precambrian era. Continuous pounding by wind, rain, and glaciers have molded the island into its current configuration, a wilderness measuring 45 miles long by 8.5 miles wide, and covering an area of more than 850 square miles. The island lies some 40 miles north of Michigan's Upper Peninsula and 18 miles south of Ontario, Canada in the heart of Lake Superior.
It is estimated that man may have arrived on the island as early as 7000b.c. White explorers, namely French, began to explore the region in the late 17th century in search of copper. They also bestowed upon the island its formal name, Isle Royale. The possible importance of the island as a source for natural resources was not overlooked in 1783 when Benjamin Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris, insisting that the island be included in United States territory. Although the island lies closer to the state of Minnesota, Michigan gained control of the island in 1873.
Industry on the island has come in two forms, fishing and mining, both of which have had difficulty in sustaining a livelihood for settlers. While exploration had begun in the late 17th century, real attempts at taking advantage of the island's resources did not begin in earnest until the 1800's as fisherman moved into the area in search of trout and white fish. Even so, the life of commercial enterprises on the island were often short-lived due to the remote and rugged characteristics of the island. The American Fur Company began a fishing camp on Belle Isle in 1837. Within 2 years they had opened 7 camps and employed 33 people, only to close down the operation in 1841. Attempts at mining began in 1843 and continued on and off until the end of the 19th century. Minong Mine became the largest mine in the 1870's and the town was home to approximately 150 workers and their families. In 1875, Isle Royale County was established with the town of Island Mine being the county seat and the Minong settlement being a separate township. Lack of prosperity led to the decline of both the mining and fishing industries, although a small fishing enclave still remains today.
Wildlife is a large part of Isle Royale and one of the main attractions for visitors and researchers. The fluctuating moose and wolf populations have been a source of research and study for years. Other species inhabiting the island include bats, fox, beaver, red squirrels, hares, American toads, several types of frogs, and the western painted turtle. Birds visible and audible on the island include the common loon, various types of geese, ducks and gulls, hawks, eagles, osprey, owls, woodpeckers, chickadees, warblers, wrens, swallows, sparrows, thrushes, and kingfishers.
Additional points of interest for visitors include the trees and plants of the island. Prominent tree species include birch, aspen, spruce and fir. Wood lily, wild prickly rose, Canada dogwood, eastern columbine, wild iris, and thimbleberry are among the many flowering plants visible among the forests of the island.
The island was designated a National Park on April 3, 1940 and designated an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980. Tourism remains the largest industry on the island, which serves as a destination for avid hikers, campers, and kayakers. The island includes more than 165 miles of hiking trails, two visitor centers (Rock Harbor and Windigo) and several campgrounds.
DuFresne, Jim. Isle Royale National Park: Foot Trails & Water Routes. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers, 1991.
Larson, Karen. "Wild Archipelago". Cruising World. August 1994: 46.
Isle Royale National Park. National Park Service. 15 October 2001 <http://www.nps.gov/isro>.
Isle Royale Travelog
Copyright ©2001 Alexandra Van Doren & Carol Whittaker. All rights reserved. Reproduction by any means, in part or in full, without the express permission of the authors, is strictly prohibited. | <urn:uuid:f5bb9dcb-194a-4c31-90b6-ac15c97fb0f3> | {
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One of the most difficult genealogical tasks you may face in researching your Italian roots is in tracing the ancestry of an Italian foundling.
Known in Italy as Trovatelli or Proietti, a foundling is a child abandoned at birth, for one reason or another. The most common is that the child was born out of wedlock, but others, such as; the family being to poor to care for another child, are not unheard of.
These infants were usually left at a foundling home. The foundling homes were a place where Italian women could legally abandon their children, with complete anonymity (although, often times, especially in small towns, the identity of at least the mother was generally known). Sometimes children were left with tokens to indicate their parentage, in the event the mother or father should ever want to reclaim them, although, this was rare.
After the child was abandoned, their birth would be registered in the Stato di Civile, under a name the mayor or other town official would give the child. These names were made up by the town official, some of the names were unique (such as one I have in my ancestry, Clemanni), others were generic names given to many foundlings, such as; Esposito (literally meaning "exposed").
After the infant's birth was registered, they were placed in the care of a woman who recently had given birth to a child (usually one that had recently lost a child). These women were called, wet nurses. The roles these women had in the child's life varied greatly. Some took the child in, simply to collect money given to them by the town to care for the child, others treated them as their own, sometimes even giving the child their own surname.
Often times, family lore and myths existed about the child's parents. A common one is that the foundling was the child of a nobleman. These stories, while not always untrue, can stem from a variety of sources. One being that the mother made the claims while pregnant (to dignify to some extent something that was a social taboo at the time). Secondly being that when the child was born, he/she was given a name by the town official, that sounded "noble" (Della Luna, for instance). Whatever the case, while these stories are fun to think about, always take them with a grain of salt.
Birth records for foundlings can be found in the Registri dello Stato Civile, Atti di Nascita (birth acts) of the child's town of origin, usually in Parte II. These records rarely give the parents names (as previously stated, their identity was to be kept secret if they chose it to be).
If his or her parents recognized the child, these records can usually be found in the Atti Diversi (Misc. acts) for the year of the child's birth.
Other records that can help you in tracing your foundling ancestor's genealogy are marriage records and baptism records. Marriage records would be found in the Registri dello Stato Civile, Atti di Matrimonio (marriage acts), whereas baptism records (battesimo) are maintained by the church where he/she was baptized, and can be hard to obtain.
Again, tracing the ancestry of a foundling can be incredibly difficult, and sometimes, impossible, so to familiarize oneself with the common procedures that took place is very important. Foundling history in Italy is complex, and I couldn't begin to go through all the variables in one post. This is just an attempt to help you understand the general process. A valuable resource for further research is the book ‘Sacrificed for Honor: Italian infant abandonment and the politics of reproductive control’ by David I. Kertzer. | <urn:uuid:db39e56b-dfed-4f82-a198-cc51790e1896> | {
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Affecting both men and women, “heart disease” refers to conditions that affect the function of the heart, such as coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias. Coronary artery disease is a type of heart disease that begins when plaque builds up along the walls of arteries. This buildup narrows the arteries, restricting proper blood flow. If left unchecked, heart disease increases the risk of heart attack and stroke.
Whether or not you have a family history of heart disease, it’s important to understand the risk factors for the condition, which include:
- Hypertension (high blood pressure)
- Sedentary lifestyle
- Obesity, especially excess fat in the central abdominal region
- Elevated cholesterol
- Diabetes mellitus (metabolic disorder resulting in elevated blood glucose)
Practicing a healthy lifestyle, which includes good nutrition and exercise, is a good way to help prevent heart disease. Most people should engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise most days of the week. This helps control blood pressure and weight. Talk with your primary care doctor before beginning any exercise program. As for diet and nutrition, choosing the right foods, such as fruits, vegetables and lean proteins, and avoiding excessive amounts of caffeine, sugar and salt also are good ways to prevent heart disease. Additionally, adults should have periodic preventive health exams and testing so that fasting cholesterol and glucose levels, as well as blood pressure, can be checked and treated, if necessary.
While there is no one symptom that signals the onset of heart disease, there are a number of warning signs. Some of the most common include:
- Chest pain or pressure
- Unexplained pain in the back, chest, neck or arm
- Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
- Palpitations or “fluttering” in the chest
- Indigestion, heartburn – and sometimes even nausea or loss of appetite
Although these symptoms can indicate heart disease, they also may be related to many other conditions. Generally, I recommend contacting your doctor if you have new or unusual symptoms to ensure you are properly evaluated. If your doctor suspects heart disease, he or she will likely refer you for further testing. | <urn:uuid:b693cf17-b20d-4f28-9cfa-11cbdc30ec1b> | {
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|Digital Evidence - Science Insider
Reported January 2009
WHAT IS CYBER FORENSICS? The subset of forensic science concerned with interpreting evidence contained in computers and digital media is called cyber forensics. The field is concerned with issues such as recovering lost data and revealing and decrypting data hidden on a suspect's computer. In addition to computers, cyber forensics specialists can also recover information from cellular phones, mp3 players, CDs, DVDs and more. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of legal cases today involve some sort of digital evidence.
WHAT'S A FLASHER BOX? A flasher box is a device that transfers data from a cell phone to a computer, where people unfamiliar with the device in question can examine files for evidence. With one of these devices, non-experts are able to check for clues that may help them solve cases, even if they have never before seen a similar device.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., contributed to the information contained in the TV portion of this report.
If you would like more information, please contact:
Richard P. Mislan
Purdue University, Cyber Forensics Lab
West Lafayette, IN 47907-2021
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. IEEE-USA
Washington, DC 20036-5104
ON THE WEB...
Cyber Forensics Lab - Purdue University | <urn:uuid:38542d52-968d-4f81-a188-e9dee7866153> | {
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Recently I came to the conclusion middle school students need instruction on how to effectively reflect on their writing. I just got done handing back my 7th graders book reviews. My classroom is essentially paperless and they had to complete the assignment using Google Docs. As I grade papers, whether it is 7th or 8th grade, I make notes on the areas my students struggle with throughout the particular writing assignment. Throughout this assignment, students struggled with basic spelling, sentence structure, and capitalization. In addition, students struggled with one major concept with the review, which was the compare/contrast section of the review.
Upon returning the student’s papers I asked the students to have me help them. I was frustrated with them not following directions. After all, I am well into the second semester and I needed them to realize their mistakes were nothing more then following simple directions. When I asked them what I can do to make them more successful…silence. Why couldn’t my students reflect on their own writing, or even their own work so I could help them grow?
After discussing with a colleague who had taught English before, we both came to the conclusion middle school students don’t know how to reflect on their work. My students have writing portfolios, both physical and digital. in addition, I have given them reflection prompts for their past assignments, but in all honesty I feel confident my students are more or less going through the motions rather then thinking critically about their own writing and how they can make it better. The Common Core State Standards say very little about reflection, but it is essential for creating a more rigorous classroom and for students to evaluate their own learning.
So, what can we do as middle school English teachers to help students reflect on their writing? To be honest, I don’t have any solid answers. One strategy I have adopted for my students is for them to look at a specific comment I have placed on their document. Then, they need to rewrite the comment and complete some tasks on a pre-made template I hand out to students. Below are the tasks.
1. What was your initial response to the comment by Mr. Hyler?
2. In your own words rewrite what it is that Mr.Hyler commented on.
3. Give an example of how you are going to make your writing better based on the comment by Mr. Hyler.
4. How are you going to apply what you learned from reflecting on your writing to future assignments? Be specific.
I am sure there are other ways for students to reflect on their writing. I am going to continue to research this important task that is vital for developing strong writers and strong students in general. | <urn:uuid:33d61dde-5364-4deb-90b3-92ef4eccaaa5> | {
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Guest Speaker and Candlelight Memorial Planned for Holocaust Remembrance Day
- Release Date:
- November 1, 2012
- Matt Heidt, [email protected]
HAMBURG, N.Y. – On November 8 Hilbert College will pay tribute to those who lost their lives and survived the Holocaust with a Holocaust Remembrance Day event. The Holocaust Remembrance Day has been planned by students as part of a service learning project in their Representations of the Holocaust class with professor Dr. Amy Smith.
The day’s events begin at 9:30 a.m. in the West Herr Atrium with a poster display of significant people and events associated with the Holocaust including Elie Wiesel, the Kindertransport, young adult literature about the Holocaust, and others.
At 9:45 a.m. in the West Herr Atrium, Dr. Herman Stone will discuss his experiences during Kristallnacht, a wave of violent anti-Jewish attacks against individuals, businesses, and religious institutions that occurred on November 9 and 10, 1938. Dr. Stone was born in Munich, Germany and is currently a member of the Speakers Bureau of the Holocaust Resource Center of Buffalo. The presentation date of November 8 was chosen because of the closeness to the anniversary of Kristallnacht. Refreshments will be provided.
An exhibit featuring works of art and literature created during and in memory of the Holocaust will open at 12:30 p.m. in the lower level of the McGrath Library. The exhibit, put together by Sarah Karn, will show how the Holocaust has been represented in a variety of moving and powerful ways.
The events of the day will conclude with the showing of the film, “The Boy in the Striped Pajamas,” at 3:15 p.m. in Bogel Hall, room 160. The movie portrays WWII as seen through the eyes of Bruno, an eight year-old boy and the son of a commandant at a concentration camp, who befriends a Jewish boy in the camp. A discussion about the issues and consequences that occur from the boys’ friendship will take place afterwards.
Immediately following the film and discussion, a candlelight memorial honoring the millions of lives lost during the Holocaust will take place in the Quad area (rain location will be in the back foyer of Bogel Hall).
Holocaust Remembrance Day events are free and open to the public. Additional information is available by contacting Jerrell Mason, student coordinator/event supervisor, at [email protected], or Dr. Amy Smith at 716-649-7900, ext. 354, or email [email protected].
Hilbert College, located in suburban Hamburg, N.Y., south of Buffalo, is a private four-year college founded in 1957 in the Catholic Franciscan tradition. With nearly 1,100 students, Hilbert is a dynamic Western New York college that offers career-focused majors, including one of the top criminal justice programs in the region, and more than 50 minors and concentrations. The college’s engaging, student-centered campus community offers numerous leadership, internship and service learning opportunities from which students launch successful careers while making positive changes in their communities. Hilbert has expanded its academic offerings with the college’s first graduate programs, one a master’s in criminal justice administration and the other a master’s in public administration, and new Accelerated Degree Programs geared to adult learners. | <urn:uuid:b0c400de-986d-4f22-8376-55aa7aa3cffc> | {
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In 1932, after Cadillac suffered from record low sales and charges of discrimination against black customers, Alfred Sloan created a committee to consider the discontinuation of the Cadillac line.
At a fateful board meeting, Cadillac president Nicholas Dreystadt heard that legendary boxer Joe Louis could not go into a dealership to buy a car, because he was black, and resorted to having a white friend make the purchase for him.
Dreystadt gave the GM Board of Directors a 10 minute speech in which he advocated advertising to black consumers so as to increase sales. The Board agreed to give Dreystadt 18 months to produce results.
By 1934, Cadillac had regained profitability. It is significant to note that after this decision, Cadillac was the only American automobile manufacturer to remain profitable during the Great Depression.
By 1940, Cadillac sales had risen 1000% compared to 1934, thus saving Cadillac from extinction. | <urn:uuid:16fb62cd-6258-4f16-b42e-baae88dffecc> | {
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Reading Level Test
Use the five finger test to check the reading level of a book you are choosing
to read by yourself:
- Open the book to the middle. Choose a page that is all words with no pictures.
- Read the page aloud.
- Put one finger up for every word you cannot say or do not know. (Names of people
and places do not count).
- If you get five (5) fingers up on one page, the book is too difficult to read
- If you are reading very slowly and decoding (trying to figure out) almost every
word, the book is too difficult for you even if you do not have five fingers raised.
There are many wonderful books in our library for your enjoyment. Please use this
test or ask the librarian for help when choosing a book to read by yourself. | <urn:uuid:ac1e3ddf-00e7-490a-909f-dff6639d8650> | {
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From MozillaZine Knowledge Base
about:config is a feature of Mozilla applications which lists application settings (known as preferences) that are read from the profile files prefs.js and user.js, and from application defaults. Many of these preferences are not present in the Options or Preferences dialog. Using about:config is one of several methods of modifying preferences and adding other "hidden" ones.
This article is a companion article for about:config entries where the most important about:config variables are described.
Warning: Modifying preferences can, in rare circumstances, break Firefox, Thunderbird or the Mozilla Suite, or can cause strange behavior. Only do so if you know what you are doing or are following trustworthy advice.
Adding modifying and resetting preferences
To add a new preference, context-click (right-click) anywhere in the list of preferences. In the context menu, select New then select the type of preference you are adding.
To modify an existing preference, context-click (right-click) on the preference, select Modify and type in the new value. In some cases, Toggle will be the selection offered for boolean (true-false) preferences.
To reset a preference to its default value or to remove an added preference, context-click (right-click) on the preference and select Reset. If you added the entry via about:config, the preference will no longer be listed after restarting the program. (For more information about resetting preferences, see this article).
You can use the "Search" bar at the top of the about:config page ("Filter" bar in older versions) to filter the preferences that you want to inspect. The search bar is case-insensitive, unlike the actual configuration variables.
Some examples to filter results:
Some examples of regular expressions (RegExp) to filter results | <urn:uuid:947754b2-c386-42a2-a65c-46a39174d340> | {
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The Mekong, a precious jewel of Southeast Asia, has become a critical battleground between hydropower dam projects and the survival of the world’s greatest freshwater fisheries.
The future of this 4,880 km (3032 miles) long river may well be decided by what happens to the Xayaburi mega-dam project in Laos, the first of a cascade of 11 dam projects on the lower Mekong.
Ame Trandem from the NGO International Rivers explained that, “The Mekong River is the lifeblood of Southeast Asia, feeding and employing millions of people. To move forward with the Xayaburi Dam would be reckless and irresponsible, as the dam would fatally impact the river’s ecosystem and fisheries.”
In spite of repeated reports that the Xayaburi dam project had been suspended pending further scientific studies, a recent visit to the dam-site has suggested that the Lao government has not bowed to international pressure. As a World Wildlife Fund analysis recently warned, “Construction work is marching ahead at the Xayaburi dam site in northern Laos and risks making a mockery of the decision last December by Mekong countries to delay building the dam on the Mekong mainstream.”
In December 2011 the four-member nations of the Mekong River Commission – Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam –agreed that no dams should be built until further scientific studies of the negative impacts on all the riparian countries had been completed.
Scientists have warned that if the 11 dams are built it could bring on an ecological disaster that harms many of the 877 Mekong fish species. Furthermore, it is the uninhibited flow of the Mekong through the heart of Southeast Asia and the river’s bountiful natural resources that guarantees 65 million people’s food security.
Although Cambodia and Vietnam are determined to stop the dam, everything indicates that the Thai developer Ch. Karnchang and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR) are equally determined to build it. In this context, a failure to resolve the dam issue could also trigger a major diplomatic row among the Mekong nations, undermining the credibility of the MRC and disrupting international cooperation along the region’s most important waterway.
“The Xayaburi Dam will trigger an ecological crisis of tremendous proportions. We urge the Prime Ministers of Laos and Thailand to show leadership by cancelling this project,” Shalmali Guttal of Focus on the Global South, a member of the 263 coalition of NGOs from 51 nations said in a statement condemning the damn.
In response to this opposition, Lao Foreign Minister, Thongloun Sisoulithmade announced during last month’s ASEAN FM summit that his country was suspending work on the Xayaburi dam until further studies on its impact could be done. Although opponents of the dam welcomed Vientiane’s announcement, they soon were disappointed.
Soon after the Lao government’s announcements, a number of diplomats, MRC officials, experts, and donors visited Laos to see the site. After the visit some MRC observers then asserted that, “the project is in an advanced preparation stage with exploratory excavation in and around the river completed.”
Similarly, International Rivers concluded in their own unofficial investigation of the dam-site in June, that, “the dredging and widening of river has already taken place.”
Meanwhile back in Bangkok, Ch.Karnchang, the Thai developer of the US$3.8 billion project, said the dam was going ahead with no delays in the original timetable.
Initial construction has evidently started, however. Has the Laotian government then reneged on its international commitments?
Deputy Minister for Energy and Mines Viraphonh Viravonghas denied any violation of the MRC agreements. Instead he contended that all the construction done so far falls under the rubric of “preparatory work,” noting that the construction “does not involve permanent structures” and instead is mostly about building makeshift housing for construction workers.
But fisheries experts say that long before the river is fully blocked, existing construction will disturb the riverbed enough to significantly affect fish populations and the flow of sediments downstream.
Dr. Jian-hua Meng, a sustainable hydropower specialist working at the WWF, argues that, “This will be the first direct intervention in the riverbed, and will mark a milestone in the ongoing dam construction.”
According to a WWF report, which was strongly critical of the Dam project, Viraphonh Viravong, Laos’s Deputy Minister of Energy and Mines, contradicted the foreign minister when he allegedly told the MRC-led delegation that the project would proceed without further reviews.
Since September 2010 ongoing consultations based on the MRC regulatory framework has resulted in the Lao government trying to answer the strong objections from Cambodia and Vietnam. Unsatisfied, Vietnam has called for a 10-year moratorium on dam construction.
To answer these objections Laos appointed two foreign consultants: the Swiss –based Poyry Energy and French company CNR (Compagnie Nationale du Rhone).
Still, Cambodia and Vietnam remain convinced that any dam will block fish migration and reduce the flow of sediment.
Both foreign consultants argue that fish ladders or fish passes can enable 85% of all fish to get past the turbines and successfully swim up or down river but this claim has not been fully tested.
Indeed, many dismissed Poyry’s previous report- a compliance review of the Xayaburi Dam in 2011 regarding the consultation process with its neighbors- as lacking the necessarily scientific data.
It’s also worth noting that the Finnish-based Poyry has been blacklisted by the World Bank for unrelated corruption charges that have led the CEO to resign. This calls into question its credibility.
Very different advice to the Lao government came from the visiting U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who said last month that, “I’ll be very honest with you; We made a lot of mistakes…. We’ve learned some hard lessons about what happens when you make certain infrastructure decisions, and I think that we all can contribute to helping the nations of the Mekong region avoid the mistakes that we and others made.”
Washington is also concerned that if the Xayaburi dam goes ahead, China is lined up to build at least three more dams further down the Mekong thus penetrating ever deeper into the Mekong sub-region.
NGOs representing people from the eight provinces in northeast Thailand are about to file legal action in the courts to force the Thai government to review the contract with the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), the state’s electricity body. Thailand has agreed to buy 95% of all the power generated from the Xayaburi dam.
The Thai government has quietly endorsed the MRC consensus that further scientific study is needed. Now NGOs are demanding that the Thai government do more and use its power to freeze the Xayaburi/EGAT contract, which in turn would pressure the Thai dam-builder Karnchang to halt the project.
According to scientists the stakes are high in this ongoing battle over sustainable development. WWF’s Dr. Jian-hua Meng has warned, for instance, that “Resting the future of the Mekong on flawed analysis and gaps in critical data could have dire consequences for the livelihoods of millions of people living in the Mekong river basin.
Tom Fawthrop is a Thailand-based journalist and producer. His work has appeared in The Guardian, Al-Jazeera and the New Statesman, among other publications. | <urn:uuid:8e2ed85d-6143-4060-96af-23eae632d370> | {
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You just heard you have a math test on Friday — the same day as your big history test and weekly quiz on Spanish verbs. Are they crazy? How will you get all your studying done?
Don't panic. There are some secrets to good studying. These 5 study tips can help you take tests with confidence.
1. Start Studying in School
Studying for tests and quizzes actually starts way before you even know you'll have a test. Good study techniques begin in the classroom as you take notes. Note-taking is a way of remembering what you were taught or what you've read about.
Some keys to note-taking are to write down facts that a teacher mentions or writes on the board during class. If you miss something, ask your teacher to go over the facts with you after class.
Keep your notes organized by subject and making sure they're easy to read and review. This may mean that you need to recopy some notes at home or during a free period while the class is still fresh in your mind.
Unfortunately, most schools don't have classes that teach you how to take notes. When it comes to taking good notes, it can take some experimenting to figure out what works, so don't give up.
When you sit down to study, think about how much time you want to devote to each topic. This will keep you from getting overwhelmed.
If it's Monday, and you've got three tests on Friday, figure out how much time you need for studying between now and then. Then figure out how long each subject will take. For example, a weekly Spanish verb test probably won't be as intense as a big history test. So you won't need to set aside as much study time for the Spanish test — and if you break it up into a short amount every night, that's even better.
Another study technique is called "chunking" — breaking large topics down into chunks. Let's say you have a history test on World War II. Instead of thinking about studying all of World War II (which could overwhelm even an expert), try breaking your study sessions into 2-year chunks or studying the material by specific battles.
Most people can concentrate well for about 45 minutes. After that you'll probably want to take a short break. If you find yourself getting distracted and thinking about other things as you study, pull your attention back. Remind yourself that when your 45 minutes of studying are up, you can take a 15-minute break.
Many teachers tell students ahead of time what the format of an exam will be. This can help you tailor how you study. For example, if you know you're going to have multiple-choice questions on World War II, you'll know to focus on studying facts and details. But if the exam will contain essay questions, you'll want to think about which topics are most likely to be covered. Then come up with several possible essay topics and use your notes, books, and other reference sources to figure out how you might answer questions on those topics.
As you study, review your notes and any special information from your textbook. Read things over several times if you need to, and write down any phrases or thoughts that will help you remember main ideas or concepts.
When trying to memorize dates, names, or other factual information, keep in mind that it usually takes a number of tries to remember something correctly. That's one reason why it's a good idea to start studying well in advance of a test. Use special memory triggers that the teacher may have suggested or ones that you invent yourself.
In the case of math or science problems or equations, do some practice problems. Pay special attention to anything the teacher seemed to stress in class. (This is where good note-taking comes in handy!)
Some people find it helps to teach what they're studying aloud to an imaginary student. Or work with a study partner and take turns teaching aloud. Another study technique is making flashcards that summarize some of the important facts or concepts. You can then use these to review for a test.
It's tempting to put off studying until the last minute (also known as procrastination). Unfortunately, by the time students get to high school there's so much going on that there's usually no room for procrastination.
If you're a procrastinator (and who isn't sometimes?), one of the best ways to overcome it is by staying organized. After you've written test dates and project due dates on a calendar, it's hard to ignore them. And sitting down to organize and plan your work really highlights how much time things take. Organization makes it harder to procrastinate.
Sometimes people put off studying because they feel overwhelmed by the fact that they're behind on things or they just feel really disorganized. Don't let this happen to you. Keep your notes organized, stay on top of required readings, and follow the other study tips mentioned earlier to stay focused and in control. Your teachers will give you plenty of notice on important tests so you have enough time to study for the type of exam you'll be taking.
But what if you're feeling overwhelmed by all the stuff you have to do? Are classes or extracurricular activities limiting your time to study properly? Ask your teachers for help prioritizing. You may need to involve the people in charge of your activities — such as your coach or music or drama teacher — in working out a solution.
Don't wait until the last minute to talk to your teachers, though, or you'll just look like a procrastinator! And don't be afraid to ask for help. Teachers respect students who are thoughtful and interested in learning and doing well.
Sometimes it can be useful to go over things with people who are studying for the same test: You can make sure that your notes are correct and that you understand the subject. Study groups are also helpful because you can work together to come up with ways to remember concepts and then test one another.
For some people who are easily distracted, though, study groups spell disaster because they get off the topic. When you're with a bunch of friends or classmates, you may spend more time hanging out than actually studying. One way to ensure quiet and focus when studying with a group is to study in the library. You'll be forced to keep things more low-key than if you're at someone's kitchen table.
In the end, it comes down to what works best for you. If you like to study alone and feel most confident doing it that way, that's great. If you think you'd like to work in a group, try it out — just be aware of the drawbacks.
When you've finished studying, you should feel like you can approach the test or quiz with confidence — not necessarily that you will get 100% of the answers correct, but that you have a good understanding of the information.
Most of all, don't panic if you can't remember some facts the night before the test. Even if you've spent all evening studying, the brain needs time to digest all that information. You'll be surprised by what comes back to you after sleeping. | <urn:uuid:66dd4e82-3724-4561-9465-ca33e9723a6d> | {
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A stye is a small bump on your top or bottom eyelid, right where your eyelashes are. It can get red, swollen, and painful.
Styes form because a gland in your eye is clogged. They're too small to see, but you have lots of little glands in your eyelid. They make a special oil that mixes with your tears to keep your eyes wet even when you're not crying.
Sometimes old oil, skin cells, and dead germs get into a gland and clog it up so the oil can't get out. That makes the gland get bigger and bigger. Ouch! That's when you'll feel a stye and see it, too.
What You Should Do About a Stye
If you think you have a stye, tell a parent or the adult who's caring for you. A stye is usually a minor problem that can be treated. A parent can call your doctor to see if you should come in for a visit. Or the doctor might just give your parent some advice over the phone.
Often, a doctor will recommend a nice warm washcloth. Warmth will help unclog the gland and get the gunk to drain out. Ask a grownup to get it to the right temperature if you're not sure (you don't want to use hot water). And wring it out so it's not too drippy.
Find a comfy place to relax and put the warm washcloth over your eye. Do this a few times a day. If the washcloth gets cool, you can warm it back up with warm water.
Sometimes, your doctor might recommend watered-down baby soap as a gentle cleanser for your eye. You don't want to put any old soap in your eyes because it will burn!
You'll need to see a doctor if your stye doesn't get better or if it gets worse. Your doctor might give you a medicated cream or other medicine to take.
How to Prevent Styes?
To prevent styes, don't touch your eyes. That's how germs get in there. Washing your hands regularly is a good idea, too.
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My 13-year-old daughter's doctor said she should learn to give herself breast exams. Is breast cancer really a threat for a teenager? - Dixie
Although breast cancer in teens is extremely rare, it's a good idea for girls to learn how to perform a breast self-examination (BSE) so they can get used to how their bodies feel normally. After learning what is normal for them, teens can then recognize changes in their breasts.
Doctors recommend doing a monthly BSE at the same time each month (like a few days after a girl's period ends, when breasts are less tender). Some kinds of lumps that teenage girls may feel are normal, but a doctor should check out any lump to be sure.
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Andy's a good tennis player. Correction: Andy is a great tennis player. He loves the competition and intensity of the game and is known for his dominating serve.
Recently Andy developed a sharp pain in his elbow. At first he thought nothing of it and continued his training, but the pain became unbearable. The pain was so bad he went to see his doctor, who informed him he had elbow bursitis.
What Is Bursitis?
From your head down to your big toes, your body has lots of differently shaped and sized joints. Many have something in common near the area of the joint — a customized fluid sac that provides cushioning for movement and pressure. These small cushions are known as bursae (a single one is called a bursa). Bursitis is the term used to describe inflammation or irritation of a bursa. Bursitis can result from a direct hit or from repetitive joint movements (like a tennis serve).
If a bursa becomes irritated, either by a direct hit or from a nearby joint repeating the same movement (like a tennis serve), then bursitis can occur. People can also get bursitis when the body has to change its balance or movement to adapt to differences; for example, if a person has one leg that's longer than the other.
Bursitis, especially in teens, is often likely to happen because of sports-related injuries, usually from repeated use of a particular joint or trauma from a direct hit in a contact sport. It's not only sporty types who get bursitis, though. It can sometimes be caused by other problems, such as arthritis or a bacterial infection of the bursa.
Here are some of the areas in which teens most commonly get bursitis:
Elbow. Because the elbow is an essential part of many activities, like throwing a ball or swinging a tennis racket, elbow bursitis is one of the most common types of bursitis in teens.
Knee. Bursitis in the knee can be the result of falling directly on the knee or any activity that requires long periods of kneeling.
Hip. Bursitis of the hip is often associated with running injuries.
Shoulder. Bursitis of the shoulder can be the result of something as simple as an awkward fall or as complicated as a rotator cuff injury (the rotator cuff keeps the shoulder secure).
Ankle. Someone who goes overboard jumping, running, or walking can get ankle bursitis. Just wearing the wrong type of shoes for a particular activity can lead to ankle bursitis.
How to Detect Bursitis
Bursitis can cause a number of different symptoms:
Pain and sensitivity in or around a joint. This is the most common and obvious sign that a person may have bursitis.
Difficulty moving the affected joint. This happens because the bursa has swollen and made it tough to move the joint properly.
Reddening of the skin. The inflamed bursa may cause the skin around the joint to change color.
Burning. The irritated bursa can cause the skin to sting and feel warmer than usual.
In most cases, you will probably be able to treat bursitis at home.
The key part of at-home treatment, as with many injuries, is rest. Besides resting the affected joint or region, to help get rid of bursitis try:
Ice ice, baby. Ice should be used on the bursitis while the inflamed area is still warm to the touch. Ice can be applied several times a day for up to 20 minutes. Icing the area will also help to lessen the swelling that can occur with bursitis.
The heat is on. Putting heat on the joint when it is no longer warm to the touch can reduce the pain. As with ice, don't apply heat for more than 20 minutes at a time.
Elevation. Raising a joint that is swollen for any reason can help to reduce swelling. That goes for bursitis, too. If possible, elevate the affected joint so it is above the level of the heart.
Under pressure. Avoid placing pressure on the joint. This will aggravate bursitis rather than help it to heal.
Just like a pill. Anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen may help.
Bursitis is often the result of a hard impact on a joint or overworking a joint, and sometimes these injuries are unavoidable. But there are some steps you can take to avoid getting bursitis:
Stay in shape. Working out regularly strengthens muscles and joints, which helps protect against bursitis.
Don’t overdo it. Too much of anything can be bad, and the same goes for overworking joints.
Start and stop workouts properly. One of the best ways to prevent bursitis is by working out properly. Warming up and cooling down are essential parts of working out and should never be skipped. Gradually starting and stopping your workout is less stressful for your joints and body.
Stretch it out. Stretching not only helps improve flexibility but it is also useful in preventing bursitis.
Mix it up. Whether you're rotating exercises while lifting weights or just taking a breather from a strenuous activity, your joints will thank you.
Better padded than sorry. Use cushions on wooden or metal chairs and kneepads when kneeling on hardwood or concrete floors to help reduce the risk of developing bursitis. Also avoid putting extreme amounts of pressure or weight directly on joints.
Keep it moving. Don't stay planted on your butt, knees, or other joints for long periods of time. Even if it's for a few minutes, get up and move around.
If you realize that a particular activity causes you to get bursitis, stop doing it and talk to your doctor or coach about safer methods.
Be on the lookout for bursitis if you participate in a sport. The best way to avoid it is by using the proper techniques and equipment. If your bursitis was caused by something like ill-fitting shoes or other equipment, replace that equipment with something that fits you better. | <urn:uuid:0cb4a7a5-044c-4f87-82bd-c55097a9ffbe> | {
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To write a cool attention grabbing narrative essay needs the right spices, just like cooking a curry masala. The first thing about writing narrative essay is creative imagination. You need to be creative and different. Think out of the box and let loose your imagination. See it through like a movie plot before you write down on your paper.
Read The Question Carefully
In SPM public examination, the question for narrative type of essay either starts with " Write a story beginning with: " or " Write a story ending with: ". In the year 2010 it was "Beginning", so there is a big chance this year 2011 it would be "Ending".
For example, if the question says "Write a story beginning with: It had been raining all day", then you start your essay with the given phrase.The same goes for question which has "Ending with", you write the phrase at the ending of your essay. I prefer the "Beginning" type because it gives you more freedom to create your plot.
Draft Your Plot
For narrative essay use the [PLOT] technique instead of using the [Intro-Body-Conclusion] technique. Draft your plot carefully. Put in some twists and turns in your story. Have an element of surprise. Keep your readers glued to their seat. Build your story scene by scene like in a movie. Give a big impact in your climax scene and let the audience make the conclusion....that would surely cause them to have some sleepless nights itching to know the end......(surprise--surprise)
Use Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Idioms, Contrast, Flashback, Imagery etc to tell your story. This technique will help readers to have a vivid picture in their mind. Every character or scene you tell can come alive to the readers and help them flow along with the story.
Grammar And Punctuation
Take care of your grammar, make sure to use the correct English Grammar when writing your essay. A strong grammar will help you to relate your story to your readers. Readers need to know what you are telling them. This is only impossible if you are able to use proper grammar and punctuation. Use your tenses properly when dealing with story telling. A story can start in the PRESENT TENSE flashback into the PAST TENSE and zoom into the FUTURE TENSE. There are also the PRESENT PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT tenses which you might need to use.
Creativity And Imagination
Be creative and arrange your story line carefully. Imagine that you are a director directing a movie. As a director you have a responsibilty to make sure your movie is a Box Office Hit. The same goes with your story, make sure it is one of a kind story, totally different from the rest of your friends essays. Sorry to say this but most of the essays are stale and does not have the extra edge which screams for attention.
HOW TO WRITE IT....?
You can use the 7P Essay Structure Tehnique to write a story.
- First Paragraph - Exposition (Beginning of your story) - 40-50 words
- Second,Third and Forth Paragraph - Events - 40-50 words
- Fifth Paragraph - Climax - 40-50 words
- Sixth Paragraph - Anti-Climax - 40-50 words
- Seventh Paragraph - Ending - 40-50 words
* Focus on one event / incident for every paragraph
* Don't write two or three events / incidences in one paragraph
* Try not to use the phrase "In conclusion" when you end your story.
* Make sure your Essay is more than 350 words, roughly 350-400 words
* Marks will be deducted if your essay is less than 350 words.
*Narrative - Beginning
*Narrative - Ending
*Narrative - Tips (1) | <urn:uuid:73ad2ba6-4359-4e4d-b8fd-3f9ee4f5c3f8> | {
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John Thurtell—“The Elstree Murder”
John Thurtell’s case was considered sensational at the time. It also made history in two significant ways and therefore forms a valuable part of the chronology of capital punishment in Britain.
Thurtell was born on December 21st 1794, son of the then Mayor of Norwich. He seems to have been a fairly wealthy young man and was a gambler. He had a grudge against a fellow gambler, solicitor William Weare, whom he accused of having cheated him of £300 in a game of cards and to whom he now owed, by the standards of the day, this vast sum. A waxwork was made of Thurtell after execution and is shown here.
Thurtell invited Weare to spend a weekend gambling with him and some friends at a cottage owned by fellow gambler William Probert at Radlett in Hertfordshire and they travelled up from London together in Thurtell’s gig on October 24th 1823. As they neared the cottage Thurtell confronted Weare over his behaviour, outside the Wagon and Horses Inn, in Watling Street, Radlett. He drew a pistol and fired its single shot at Weare’s face, the bullet glancing off his cheekbone as the gun had misfired. As shooting had not worked Thurtell set about the now dazed Weare with a penknife and cut his throat. He also rammed the muzzle of the gun into Weare’s scull with maximum force, leaving blood, hair and tissue in the barrel. William Probert and another friend, Joseph Hunt, an actor, helped Thurtell dispose of Weare’s body. Initially they put it into a pond in the garden of Probert’s cottage but later, under cover of darkness moved it to and threw it into another pond in Elstree, hence why the newspapers dubbed this the “The Elstree Murder”.
A labourer found the bloody knife and pistol by the cottage and took them to the authorities and a murder investigation began. As the owner of the cottage, Probert was the first to be questioned and realising his predicament turned King’s Evidence against Weare. He also implicated Hunt who was soon arrested and led the police to the body.
Thurtell and Hunt were taken into custody and came up for trial at the January sitting of the Hertford Assizes before Mr. Justice Park. Thurtell was charged with the murder of Weare and Hunt with being an accessory to it. It was virtually impossible for them to get a fair trial for two reasons. Firstly their guilt was seen as self evident by both the press and the public, to the extent that the judge remarked that if “these statements of evidence before trial which corrupt the purity of the administration of justice in its source are not checked, I tremble for the fate of our country.” The newspapers had shown great interest in Thurtell’s case and every detail was lapped up by an eager public. Secondly this was to be the last trial in England conducted under the old 16th century principals in which the accused has to defend himself against the prosecution, being allowed only to make a speech after the evidence against them had been heard and not being allowed to cross examine the prosecution witnesses. This was hardly conducive to a fair trial and neither man was represented by counsel. Thurtell made a lengthy and somewhat rambling address to the court in which he tried to shift the blame for the killing to Probert. He referred to his Christian upbringing and also made references, apparently, to Voltaire and Saint Paul, all of which failed to impress either the judge or the jury. A witness for Thurtell said, “I always thought him (Thurtell) a respectable man.” Being asked by the judge what he meant by this he replied, “He kept a gig.” Not surprisingly this was not in itself enough to save him and it took the jury just twenty minutes to find both accused guilty. Mr. Justice Park then sentenced them to death and ordered that Thurtell’s body be anatomised after execution, as was the norm at that time for murderers. Hunt’s sentence was commuted to transportation for life and he was duly shipped to Australia’s Botany Bay where he was to live on for very many years. Thurtell was returned to Hertford prison to await execution. It is noteworthy that even being an accessory to murder carried the death penalty in the 1820’s.
The new gallows.
Hangings at Hertford were not a frequent event even then. The previous one having occurred in August 1822 when Charles Lee was executed there for burglary. It was thus decided that a new gallows incorporating a proper drop should be built for Thurtell. This design did away with the need for ladders and carts to get the prisoner suspended and was copied for several other prisons round the country, becoming effectively the standard pattern of its day. A very similar one was used at York Castle from the mid 1820’s. Construction began before the trial, so certain was everybody of the outcome! Mr. Nicholson, the Under Sheriff of Hertfordshire supervised the work and the gallows consisted of a “temporary platform with a falling leaf (single trap door) supported by bolts which could be withdrawn in an instant” so launching the criminal into eternity, as was the contemporary expression. The substantial cross beam was supported by two equally substantial uprights, about 8 feet high. The enclosure beneath the beam consisted of boards 7 feet high and dovetailed into each other so that there were no gaps (through which the body could be viewed). It was 30 feet long and 15 feet deep with a short flight of steps up to the platform at the back leading directly from the prison door. The whole gallows was painted black and presented “a very gloomy appearance”. The walls of the platform rose approximately 2 feet above the platform so the bulk of the prisoner’s body was hidden from view after the drop. The outer enclosure was for the javelin men who stood guard at hangings to prevent escape or rescue attempts.
James Foxen, the hangman, arrived from London on the Thursday and made the usual preparations. Thurtell dressed for the occasion and was described as being “elegantly attired in a brown great coat with a black velvet collar, light breeches and gaiters, and a fashionable waistcoat with gilt buttons”. A little before 12 noon on Friday the 9th of January 1824 Foxen pinioned Thurtell’s hands in front of him with handcuffs (unusual) and he was then led from his cell to the accompaniment of the tolling prison bell and the prison chaplain reading the burial service. A few moments earlier he had confessed his guilt to the chaplain. He mounted the five steps slowly but steadily and positioned himself on the trap. Here Foxen removed his cravat and loosened his collar. When Thurtell had finished praying Foxen drew the white cotton cap over his head and placed the noose around his neck. the Governor of Hertford Gaol and the Chief Warder both shook hands with him, before Foxen adjusted the noose. Wilson said “Good bye Mr. Thurtell, may God Almighty bless you” to which Thurtell replied “God bless you, Mr. Wilson, God bless you.” At two minutes past midday, on the signal from Mr. Nicholson, the Under Sheriff, Foxen drew the bolts and Thurtell dropped into box like the trap with a crash. It was reported that his neck broke “with a sound like a pistol shot” but this is most unlikely as he would certainly not have been given sufficient length of drop for this to occur. It is probable that the reporter who made the statement got confused by the sound of the falling trap doors. However by the standards of the day Thurtell died easily and was not seen to struggle. After hanging the customary hour his body was taken down and sent to London for dissection in Surgeon’s Hall in accordance with his sentence. A wax work of him was made and exhibited in Madame Tussauards. The new gallows had been designed to be quickly dismantled and was taken back into the prison after the execution. It was judged to be a success and considerably speeded up the process. It was to be used for a further 14 hangings up to 1838, including two double executions for burglary later in 1824 and a treble hanging in 1838, when three men were executed for murder. After that there were no more public hangings in Hertfordshire and it was to be 1876 before the next execution occurred—out of the public gaze and utilising Marwood’s “long drop” method. The concept of carrying out hangings at midday was quite common at this time as it allowed more time for the public to assemble to watch the proceedings.
William Probert, although escaping prosecution over Weare’s murder, was to be convicted horse stealing the following year and he was hanged by Foxen on the 20th of June 1825 outside Newgate with three other men.
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The Red Hills, also known as the Gyp or Gypsum Hills, are located mostly in Clark, Comanche, and Barber counties in southern and central Kansas. These hills gather their name from the red tint they have. The red color comes from oxidated iron within the soil. The area is also known for its large gypsum deposits. Rainfall amounts are low in this region, so there are few trees and the air is dry.
The flat top hills in the area are more reminiscent of the mesas and buttes in Arizona and New Mexico. The elevation here disputes Kansas' reputation as “flat.” Mount Nebo is 2,441 feet (744 meters), Mount Jesus is 2,340 feet (710 meters), and Mount Lookout is 2,320 feet (710 meters).
Entry: Red Hills
Author: Kristina Gaylord
Date Created: July 2011
Date Modified: May 2012
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Fri February 1, 2013
Dung Beetles Use Cosmic GPS to Find Their Way
Originally published on Fri February 1, 2013 12:03 pm
IRA FLATOW, HOST:
Now for a surprising find from the insect world. The dung beetle, that insect known for sculpting little balls of animal feces that they roll around and later feast on. Well, it turns out that these beetles have a built-in cosmic GPS that helps them navigate around. Dung beetles use light - listen to this - use light from the Milky Way to orient themselves at night. It's all in a paper published earlier this month in the journal Current Biology.
My next guest is here to tell us more about how dung beetles see the starry - how do they see the starry night, a starry sky? Eric Warrant is a co-author of the dung beetle study in Current Biology, professor of functional zoology at Lund University in Lund, Sweden. Welcome to the program.
ERIC WARRANT: Thank you very much. It's nice to be here.
FLATOW: So dung beetles use the starry night, they use the Milky Way to navigate around?
WARRANT: They do indeed. Yes. It's a surprising finding, but they do indeed. Yeah. We discovered it almost by chance, really, because we were studying their mechanisms of navigating with regards to the moon, which is slightly more visible and obvious stimulus during the night sky. But we discovered on most parts of the month when the moon came up extremely late after midnight, particularly that until midnight, we suddenly discovered that the beetles were still able to navigate even without the moon. So we were quite puzzled by this, a bit alarmed actually at first because we were worried that our previous work was wrong. But then after further contemplation, we sort of realized that, well, maybe they were using the stars. And it turned out to be the case.
FLATOW: They can actually see the Milky Way at night time?
WARRANT: They can, yes. They probably don't see that many individual stars because their eyes really aren't sensitive enough to discern many more than probably the 10 or so brightest stars. But they can actually see the very dim stripe of light, which is - which makes up the Milky Way, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. It's very, very obvious actually compared to the Northern Hemisphere. And it's this broad and rather dim stripe of light which they're able to detect and to orient with respect to.
FLATOW: How do you craft an experiment to discover this?
WARRANT: Yes. Well, the first clue we got was that we covered their heads with little tiny cardboard hats, which we cut out of black card and then taped onto the back of their bodies so that they - the view of the night sky was removed. And when we did that, they were no longer able to orient. And the way they normally orient is that they roll balls of dung in straight lines directly away from the dung pad.
They have to do this because if they don't do this, they end up rolling back into the dung pad. And there's a lot of beetles there, all competing for this very valuable resource, and it's very likely that they get their dung ball stolen after quite a fight often. So they must get away from the dung pad in a straight line. That's the quickest and the most efficient way of leaving the dung pad, and so it's critically important for them that they do this. And so the stripe of light in the sky helps them to do this. They can actually orient with respect to it and orient in straight line away.
FLATOW: So what happens when it's a cloudy night and they can't see the sky? They just don't go out that night?
WARRANT: No, they do but they roll in circles. So it's actually a very dangerous night indeed for dung beetles.
WARRANT: But thankfully, in South Africa where we were working, cloudy nights are not all that common.
FLATOW: Wow. And so they must have developed this over the millennia, this ability to do this?
WARRANT: Well, we're not absolutely sure when and how and for how long it's evolved. But certainly, I daresay, it been around for a while because, as I say, it's a very important behavior that they have. Everything that they live for really has to do with dung. So - and the dung ball is incredibly important to them because they have to find a mate and lay their eggs in this ball. So it's a very valuable thing, this ball. So rolling away from the dung pile in a straight line with the help of the moon and - if it's present - and with the Milky Way if the moon isn't present seems to be something that probably has evolved some time ago. And they're probably not the only animals that are able to see it either.
FLATOW: Yeah. That was my next question. They must think - there must be other animals that do this too.
WARRANT: It's very likely. We - this is the first animal that we know of that's able to orient with respect to the Milky Way. But it's very likely that there are others. There are many night-flying moths and grasshoppers and locusts, for instance, that migrate considerable distances at night. And it might be the case that they, too, can use the Milky Way under a dark night.
FLATOW: Wow. Starry, starry night has a whole new meaning now.
WARRANT: Indeed it does.
FLATOW: All right. Eric Warrant, thank you very much for taking time to be with us.
WARRANT: A pleasure.
FLATOW: Good luck.
WARRANT: Thank you very much for having me. Thank you. Bye bye.
FLATOW: You're welcome. Eric Warrant is professor of zoology in the Department of Biology at Lund University in Lund, Sweden. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. | <urn:uuid:c7c62123-02a8-4629-86ae-7b86eac58b17> | {
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A Spring Reminder – What Do Weather Warnings Mean and What Should You Do?
Spring will be here before you know it, and along with it the best chance for severe weather this year.The period of March, April, and May is the time of year where we see the most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes around our part of the country. The peak is from early April thru mid May.
As we get into late May we begin to settle into a summertime pattern, which rapidly decreases the chances for tornadoes, but still leaves the chances for severe thunderstorms.
There are several kinds of watches and warnings which are issued by the National Weather Service.
Severe Thunderstorm Watch: This means conditions are favorable for Severe Thunderstorms to develop. A storm becomes severe if its winds are at least 50 miles per hour. These storms often contain hail of various sizes, with frequent deadly lighting. You should watch the skies and listen to your radio for any possible warnings.
Severe Thunderstorm Warning: This is broadcast when the National Weather Service detects a thunderstorm on radar that fits the description of a severe thunderstorm. If a severe thunderstorm warning has been issued for your area, then weather conditions can be expected to deteriorate rapidly.
You should take cover in a sturdy structure and ride out the storm. This will hopefully keep you out of situations where hail pummels your vehicle and blinding rains may make driving difficult.
Tornado Watch: A Tornado Watch simply means that conditions are favorable for Severe Thunderstorms to develop which could very likely spawn tornadoes. A watch is usually issued hours before bad weather may develop.
You should monitor radio stations are other venues to keep up with the weather in case Severe Storms and tornadoes develop and watch the skies for darkening clouds.
Tornado Warning: A Tornado Warning means that a possible tornado has been detected on radar or has been seen by the public. The National Weather Service will then issue a Tornado Warning for the county or counties that will be imminently affected by this storm and possible tornado.
If a Tornado Warning is issued for your area, you should immediately seek shelter in a sturdy structure. Be prepared to get to a reinforced part of the building away from outer walls and windows. Do not try and outrun a tornado in your vehicle and do not stay in a mobile home. If caught in the path of one of these storms, get out of the vehicle or mobile home and lie flat in a ditch if possible.
Flash Flood Watch: This means conditions are favorable for heavy rains that may cause flash flooding. Simply monitor radio or other sources in the event that heavy rains begin that could lead to floods.
Flash Flood Warning: A flash flood warning is issued when heavy rains and thunderstorms are detected on radar that have the potential to drop heavy enough rain to cause flooding of streams, underpasses, and the like.
If a flash flood warning is issued by the weather service, you should get to higher ground if possible if you are in a flood-prone zone. Delay travel until the storm subsides and the waters recede.
Do not try and drive through a flooded roadway or underpass. It is likely that you will misjudge the depth of the water. It only takes a few inches of water sometimes to sweep your vehicle off the roadway.
The best idea during the Spring Severe Weather Months is to keep up with the day to day forecasts and take the watches and warnings seriously. Keep your radio on and listen for updates and take the proper actions when warnings are issued.
It is probably a good idea to invest in a N.O.A.A. weather radio to keep handy at night that can alert you while you are sleeping to an immediate threat. It is never a bad idea to stock up on batteries for radios in case the worst happens and you lose power, then you will still be in touch with what is going on in the area.
Bottled water, flashlights,food supplies and toiletries could be essentials if we ever experience a bad tornado. | <urn:uuid:840c3ffa-4184-41bb-908e-a989d9c9d65f> | {
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De minimis is a Latin expression that means “The law does not concern itself with trifles”. The law will not resolve petty or unimportant disputes. Courts have held that trifling may include minor legal violations and would fall under the category of non-actionable items and thereby it would serve as a good ground for defence. There have been many instances when the courts have dismissed the copyright infringement cases based on the principle of De minimis that the alleged infringer’s use of the copyrighted work is too insignificant. The violation of the law may not be considered as a sufficient cause of action if the effect is too small to be of much consequence.
It is important to remember that a patent application should consist of only one invention. However, a person may file a group of inventions which are claimed in one patent application, but the inventions so linked should form a single inventive concept. The application for patent shall be filed at the patent office along with the respective forms. The forms include form1, form2, form 3, form 5 and form 26.
According to the Indian Patent Act, a patent application may be filed by any of following persons including true and first inventor, assignee of the true and first inventor or the legal representative of the true and first inventor.
1. True and first inventor of the invention may apply for the patent. The person who invents a new product or a process has the right to file a patent application. True and first inventor means the person who is the first to invent and also the first in filing the patent application. Thus, a person who first invents a product or a process and also, first files the patent application is the true and first inventor.
According to the Indian Patent Act, the following are the inventions that are not patentable.
a. Frivolous inventions or inventions that are against the laws of nature are not patentable. For example an invention comprising machines that have 120% efficiency is against the natural laws and hence, non-patentable.
b. Any use of an invention that is against the public order or public morality or which endangers human or plant or animal life or health is non-patentable. For example an invention of a gambling machine is not patentable. Another example would include an invention of a weapon that may cause mass destruction.
In simple terms invention means an act of inventing either a product or a process for producing the product. Technically, invention is defined as a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application. For an invention to be patentable, the invention has to be novel, inventive and should involve an industrial application. | <urn:uuid:e4618ae1-71d4-4c84-9569-d371383b8d07> | {
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Posted by Denis Borris on November 11, 2002 at 15:37:10:
In Reply to: insect word problem posted by Sheila on November 10, 2002 at 17:46:30:
: Help, please. I have a word problem concerning insect larvae survival. Soon after they hatch, they must search for food. The survival rate depends on many things and environmental temperature is one of them. For a certain speces of insect, a model of the number of larvae N(T) that survive the searching period is given by N(T) = -0.6T^2 + 32.1T - 350 where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. I have to answer the following questions:
: a. At what temperature will the maximum number of larvae survive and round my answer to the nearest degree.
: b. What is the maximum number of surviving larvae and round my answer to the nearest whole number.
: c. Find the x-intercepts to the nearest whole number, for the graph of this function.
: d. Write a sentence that describes the meaning of the x-intercept in the context of this problem.
: I am totally clueless as to how to work this in order to answer these questions. Any help would be appreciated.
Post a Followup | <urn:uuid:706430b5-fe9f-449f-91a2-2c5a624f2f75> | {
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Climate & Weather Resources
- General Resources, Auroras, Climatic Changes & Global Warming, Cyclones, Droughts, El
Niño, Floods, Frost, Ice, Snow, Hurricanes, Meteorology, Natural Disasters, Rainbow, Space
Weather, Storms, Temperature, Tides, Tornadoes, Typhoons, Wind Chill
(UCF access only)
- Provides files for Monthly Climatic Data for the World, Storm Data,
Local Climatological Data, Climatological Data, Hourly Precipitation
Data, and Heating & Cooling Degree Day Data. Select the
Free access by certain agencies and individuals link to
obtain the full reports.
- To retrieve Local Climatological Data, you need to know the correct
The Florida stations are:
|DAB - Daytona Beach Regional Airport
||KYW - Key West International Airport
||TLH - Tallahassee Municipal Airport
|FMY - Fort Myers
||MIA - Miami International Airport
||TPA - Tampa International Airport
|GNV - Gainesville Municipal Airport
||MCO - Orlando International Airport
||VRB - Vero Beach Municipal Airport
|JAX - Jacksonville International Airport
||PNS - Pensacola Regional Airport
||PBI - West Palm Beach International Airport
- The UCF Library has paper or microfiche copies of some earlier issues of these publications
in the US Documents Collection, including:
- Climatological Data - Florida [US DOCS C55.214/8:]
- Local Climatological Data - Orlando [US DOCS C55.217:]
Climatic Data and Weather Observations
Historic Data for Florida Stations
Fires and Storms in Florida
Water Resources of Florida
- Orlando Subdistrict (USGS)
- Weather America [REF QC983.W385 1996] provides key climatological data, with
rankings, for over 4,000 places in the United States based on observations from 1965-1994.
- Weather of U.S. Cities [REF QC983.W393 1996] provides a guide to the recent
weather histories of 268 key cities and weather observation stations in the United States
and its island territories.
- Engineering Weather Data [REF TH7015.K54 2001] is intended to be a comprehensive,
single weather data resource including all data commonly used for building systems design
and energy analysis for 375 United States, Canadian and worldwide cities.
Includes BIN data, degree days, ventilation energy consumption, humidification water
consumption, heat recovery savings, economizer savings, and ASHRAE design conditions.
"The time period of coverage ranges from the 1830s through the 1970s with most data
from the period prior to 1960. Each series typically includes observations for a number
of meteorological and other geophysical parameters."
"covers research related to analysis and prediction of observed and modeled circulations
of the atmosphere, including technique development, data assimilation, model validation,
and relevant case studies. This includes papers on numerical techniques and data assimilation
techniques that apply to the atmosphere and/or ocean environment."
Looking for something else? Ask for assistance
at the UCF Library's Reference Desk.
Prepared by: Rich Gause, Government
URL of this page: http://library.ucf.edu/govdocs/climate/
Last updated October 13, 2011 9:27:08 AM | <urn:uuid:98df9dd3-ecf4-4f7c-8a4f-a38732cb640c> | {
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Today we have a guest article from Ann Joy Perez. Thank you for your submission, Ann Joy. Mindanao Bob
With at least two thousand years of history, the Banaue Rice Terraces have been dug on the mountain slopes by Filipino ancestors. The natural wonder had been gradually destroyed by man’s carelessness and greed and the strong typhoons which visited the country last year. Now the government is bound to restore the majestic stair of rice paddies kissing the sky. In this article, we will discuss reasons why this move is just necessary.
1. It is one of the Unesco World Heritage’s sites listed in 1995.
Neglecting it would be a waste for its great beauty can conquer and conserve a harmonious relationship between the environment and mankind. As a primitive agriculture engineering feat that made it to the list of the UNESCO World Heritage, reviving it is a must. Else, it would be a shame to the world, lying lifeless.
2. It is used as a means of livelihood.
The Banaue Rice Terraces is not named with “rice” for nothing. Besides being a natural wonder, it is used by several Benguet local residents for planting crops (usually rice). The terraces are gifted withrich soil to plant rice. The Ifugaos are experts in agricultural and irrigation systems. They divert water from the rivers and streams to channel through bamboo pipes and dikes and avoid soil erosion by ensuring that the right amount and no excess of water will be flown to the terraces. As such, the vast land helps our farmers of the Cordillera region as well as our economy by exporting of rice in other countries.
3. It can be used to promote tourism in the Philippines.
The Banaue Rice Terraces are considered as one of the most prominent tourist attractions in the country, as they are thought to be completed with only minimal materials and bare hands.In addition, the indigenous people of Ifugao carved these mountains and formed them into giant stairways that are believed to connect the globe end to end. Many are intrigued by this, tempting local and foreign tourists alike to visit the spot and enjoy sight-seeing with the beautiful scenery that the terraces offer.If it remains unrecovered through the years, its magnificence might just fade away and forgotten.
4. It reflects our native culture.
The Banaue rice terraces exhibit the Ifugao farmers’ diligence, creativity and determination as they were built and contoured scrupulously by our native ancestors. To date, the farmers in the region are still planting rice without the use of farming machineries (e.g. mechanical thresher, rice mill and other facilities) to mechanize their operations; that’s why the price of their harvested crops are more expensive than the regular ones sold in the market. Here, their bold efforts in everyday agricultural work and maintenance mirror our culture of hard work.
5. It has been bequeath to us by our ancestors.
We should only preserve and give further important to what our ancestors had worked hard for. Restoring the rice terraces is showing respect both to them, to their region, to the country and above all, to Mother Nature.
An ancient natural monument, it would be an understatement to say that the Rice Terraces are a wonderful masterpiece to behold. They are more than mere sights but truly a land that can help boost our tourism and our economy by increasing the production of our upland rice exportations. Therefore, we should give importance and take care of the gift from our ancestors because as they were crafted by passion and beauty, and their structure is so amazing that we can boast it to other countries.
Ann Joy Perez is an alumna from Arellano University Philippines, a former Marketing Assistant and a 25 year old, single. She is into almost all types of Music especially love songs. She also love playing basketball, video games,watching entertainment and films.watching news tv and reading news paper is one of her favorite hobby and also she loves to eat.
Bob Martin is the Publisher & Editor in Chief of the Live in the Philippines Web Magazine. Bob is an Internet Entrepreneur who is based in Davao. Bob is an American who has lived permanently in Mindanao since May 2000. Here in Mindanao, Bob has resided in General Santos City, and now in Davao City. Bob is the owner of this website and many others. | <urn:uuid:1c593812-9577-4755-b329-d0de45800055> | {
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A murder case with all the elements of melodrama—including seduction and betrayal, political intrigue, honor, and greed—the Kentucky Tragedy of 1825 riveted the attention of the nation. For decades afterward, its themes resonated in American writing. With unprecedented objectivity, Dickson Bruce recounts the events of the case and offers an innovative analysis of the poems, novels, dramas, and commentary it inspired. He uncovers an intricate connection between public fascination with the Kentucky Tragedy and changing ideas about gender roles, social identity, human motivation, and freedom in the years leading up to the Civil War.
Bruce provides a masterly narration of the Tragedy. Around 1819, Colonel Solomon P. Sharp, one of Kentucky's leading politicians, allegedly seduced Ann Cooke, who subsequently delivered a stillborn child she claimed was fathered by Sharp. During the summer of 1825, rumors of the scandal circulated, incensing both Cooke and her husband, Jereboam Beauchamp, who decided, with the support of his wife, that honor compelled him to kill Sharp. He did so, admitted to the act, and was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to die. On the morning of the execution, the couple attempted suicide by stabbing in Beauchamp's jail cell. Cooke died, but Beauchamp was merely wounded and met his date with the hangman later that day.
The lurid story appeared widely in the popular press and captured the imaginations of many antebellum writers, including William Gilmore Simms and Edgar Allan Poe. Bruce reveals that the Kentucky Tragedy elicited more literary works than did any other episode of the period. By exploring the transformation of the Tragedy into literature, he illuminates the shifting social, political, and intellectual forces that revolutionized American life in this era.
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creating a forum
Blackboard allows instructors to set up multiple, threaded, asynchronous discussions from the Control Panel, or from any Content Area.
The Discussion Board is broken down into forums: Each forum represents a particular broad subject of discussion, week of class, or group of users. Forums are further broken down into threads: Each thread is a collection of messages constituting a conversation about a more particular subject. For example, a forum about the United States Constitution may contain a thread about the pursuit of happiness, another thread about the First Amendment, and a third about current proposed Constitutional amendments.
Create a Discussion Forum
- Click on Control Panel > Course Tools > Discussion Board to see all of your discussion boards; click on the discussion board where you want to add a forum.
- Click on the Create Forum button.
- Fill in the forum title and description.
- Decide on availability of the forum and choose forum settings.
If Allow post tagging is enabled, instructors can create and apply text labels, after they have collected thread messages, to allow for grouping of message independent of thread or thread status. Other Discussion Board users can read, filter, and search messages using the tags, but cannot create new ones.
Note: If you are using tagging and you notice it's taking a long time for Discussion Board pages to load, turn tagging off. If you use tagging at the beginning of a term, and then turn it off during times of heavy forum usage, you can re-enable tagging later in the term, which will restore all previous tag data.
If Allow members to rate posts is enabled, students can rate each others' posts on a five point scale. The overall rating shown is an average of all rates given.
If Allow members to subscribe to threads is enabled, a student can click on the thread to subscribe to, then click the Subscribe button. This provides an e-mail alert whenever the thread is updated or replied to; if you select "include body of post in the email" under "Subscribe," students will also see the content of posts in their e-mail alert. Students can unsubscribe in the same way, but the button will be labeled Unsubscribe.
If Allow members to subscribe to forum is enabled, then you and your students will see a Subscribe button at the top of the page when you enter your discussion forum.
Note that if you choose "Allow members to subscribe to threads," students will have to subscribe to each individual thread.
5. Click Submit.
Note: You can also link to the Discussion Board page, link to a specific Discussion Board forum, or create a new Discussion Board forum from any Content Area using the Add Interactive Tool menu.
To add a Discussion Board to a Content Area:
- Select the Content Area you wish to add a Discussion Board to from the main menu. Click the Add Interactive Tool button and select Discussion Board.
- You can create a link to the general Discussion Board within this Content Area; create a link to a specific forum within the Discussion Board; or, create an entirely new forum for the Discussion Board. In order to create a link to a forum that has been created in this manner, you must select the Add Interactive Tool button again from the Content Area, and then select one of the first two linking options.
Instructors can enable private Discussion Boards for groups.
Instructors can see statistics of each student’s participation by going to the Performance Dashboard in the Control Panel. Click Evaluation> Performance Dashboard to display information for a particular student. | <urn:uuid:5d8f84eb-5dcb-48c3-9eb4-1daf54dcd268> | {
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Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP) is a powerful technique of chemical characterization capable of simultaneously measuring up to 50 different trace elements, sometimes at concentrations as low as several parts per billion. The ICP-MS functions by passing small amounts of material into a plasma, a super-heated gas, which ionizes the sample material. The plasma itself operates at around 8000 degrees C, a temperature greater than the surface of the sun. This ionized sample is then sent through a series of powerful magnets called a mass spectrometer, which separates sample ions on the basis of their mass/charge ratio. These ions are then measured by a detector to establish sample composition.
Sample can be introduced into the ICP-MS either as a vaporized solid, or as a liquid. One such method is Laser Ablation, in which a pulsed laser is used to remove small amounts of sample material, which is then swept into the plasma via a Helium carrier gas. Alternatively, samples can be dissolved in solution and sent into the plasma in liquid form. Depending on sample composition, this may involve dissolving the sample in strong acids, assited by high heat and pressure produced by bombarding the sample with microwaves. Our Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Laboratory operates around a high sensitivity Varian quadrupole ICP-MS and a New Wave UP213 laser ablation system for solid sample introduction. Additionally, the ICP-MS laboratory houses a Milestone microwave digestion system for sample dissolution and liquid sample introduction.
The EAF ICP-MS laboratory. The Varian ICP-MS is connected to our adaptable chamber UP266 laser ablation system, with a ceramic vessel from the north coast of Papua New Guinea positioned for analysis.
Laser Ablation is particularly valuable due to its ability to target specific components of samples. For ceramics, it is possible to target paste, paints, temper, slips, and glazes separately. In one study performed by museum scientists, the glazes on Chinese Blue and White porcelains and Celadon wares were analyzed chemically by LA-ICP-MS. This study demonstrated that the majority of such ceramics found at archaeological sites in western India and eastern Africa were produced by Chinese kilns, and were not imitation wares produced at Middle Eastern or southeast Asian kilns. Other projects have studied production and exchange of ceramics from Belgian Neolithic sites, proto-historical and historical archaeological sites in the Phillippines, Chinese Neolithic sites, ceramics on the northern coast of Papua New Guinea, and archaeological ceramics from throughout the central Andes. Likewise, LA-ICP-MS can be used to analyze metal and corrosion products separately on metal artifacts, eliminating problems that have plagued bulk characterization studies of archaeological metals. LA-ICP-MS is also highly useful for rapidly characterzing obsidian and artificial glasses. The EAF has large ongoing projects applying LA-ICP-MS to characterize glass beads traded in the Indian Ocean, and obsidian from archaeological sites in the western Pacific, Andes, and Belize.
The EAF also houses a modified adaptable chamber New Wave UP266 laser ablation system developed in collaboration with Dr. Richard Cox at the University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, Canada. This adaptable chamber laser ablation system is the first of its kind applied in a museum setting, having only been employed in experimental industrial systems previously. As such, it equips the Field Museum with unique, virtually non-destructive, high precision, multi-element analysis for large objects that cannot be destructively subsampled, such as complete ceramic vessels. Ongoing projects using the adaptable chamber to analyze collections objects include analysis of glass objects from the Sumerian city of Kish, and analysis of ceramics from the western Pacific. | <urn:uuid:41f2c479-72da-4147-93b2-b92d29f8263e> | {
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Four-year-old John Kaykay is a serious and quiet boy—“my thoughtful one,” his dad calls him. When the official greeters at the front door of the McClure early-childhood center in Tulsa welcome him with their clipboards and electric cheer—“Good morning, John! How are you today?”—he just slowly nods his small chin in their direction. When he gets to Christie Housley’s large, sunny classroom, he focuses intensely on signing in, writing the four letters of his name with a crayon as his dad crouches behind him. When he’s asked the question of the day—“Do you like music?”—he pauses for a minute before putting his magnetic nameplate in the “no” section.
John’s third day of pre-kindergarten will be filled with more questions. Since yesterday was the 20th and tomorrow is the 22nd, what day is today? Can he pick out the card with the number 21 written on it? If the colors go pink, blue, pink, blue, what comes next in the pattern? How many of his friends are in school today? Can he think of a word that rhymes with dog?
Historically, Americans have operated on the assumption that kids will just somehow pick up such essentials along the way to “real” school. But, with concerns mounting over rising dropout rates and grim earning prospects for poorly educated Americans, the matter of when and under what circumstances we begin to teach children is of growing importance. Guided by research that shows that most of the wiring for future academic accomplishment happens in the first five years of life, education experts have been exploring how to get our children off to a better, and earlier, start. Many point to France and some of the Scandinavian countries, where almost all three- and four-year-olds participate in good, public preschool.
But the United States has several stalwarts of early education, too. Even with budgetary challenges, Georgia, Arkansas, and West Virginia have all managed to create high-quality pre-kindergarten programs with strong enrollment over the past few years. But it is John Kaykay’s home state, Oklahoma, that offers the single best example of how preschool can work when it’s done well—of how it can elevate its students’ learning, expand the horizons of the educational system, and enhance the entire community.
Despite growing evidence of the benefits of early education, nationwide only 28 percent of four-year-olds are enrolled in public pre-K. Among three-year-olds, a paltry 4 percent are enrolled in a public educational program. The numbers could decrease even more as pre-K falls victim to recessionary belt-tightening. States have already cut $90 million from education for three- and four-year-olds over the past two years. Eleven states provide no program at all.
Oklahoma has bucked the national trend. Seventy-four percent of four-year-olds—more than in any other state—are in high-quality pre-K. Virtually every parent who wants a spot can get one, whether in a public school or in a partner organization, such as Tulsa’s Community Action Project, which runs John Kaykay’s pre-K classroom. The effort has been so thorough and so widely embraced that, in effect, public school in Oklahoma begins at age four.
Even among the states that do well by their preschoolers, Oklahoma is exceptional. On paper, nine states have universal pre--kindergarten, meaning that all four-year-olds are theoretically eligible. But in most of those states, there isn’t nearly enough funding for everyone to enroll. That’s the case in New York, where fewer than half of four-year-olds participate in the “universal” program. Other states do a superb job with enrollment but a poor job of providing the education. Florida, for instance, has the highest percentage of four-year-olds in pre-K programs—76 percent, slightly more than Oklahoma, according to the most recent “State of Preschool” report by the National Institute for Early Education Research. But because Florida doesn’t require its teachers to have a college degree in early education—and because the state spends so little on each child—just $2,422 per child per year, $5,000 less than in Oklahoma—the quality of the program is low.
Oklahoma’s pre-K teachers don’t make the piddling wages that prevail in much of the rest of the country. They’re paid the same as elementary and high-school teachers. Christie Housley, along with all other pre-K teachers in Oklahoma, has not only a bachelor’s degree but also certification in early-childhood education—so she knows how young kids typically learn to read, she can recognize the disabilities that tend to emerge at this age, and she understands the best ways to handle behavior problems. State law also mandates that pre-K teachers not have more than 20 students in their classroom and that they have an aide.
In fact, only six children were present the August morning I was in Housley’s classroom, which allowed her to focus on them individually. John, who was sitting quietly, drew praise for listening carefully to instructions—important feedback for a child who might get no attention at all in a larger class. A little girl who had pigtails and raised her hand at every opportunity was rewarded with a relatively tough question: “What is the opposite of inside?” When one girl strained to remember what day it was, Housley helped by leading the class in a round of their days-of-the-week song.
A boy named Justice demanded a different kind of attention—and Housley was able to give that, too. While his peers were sitting together and learning about the calendar, Justice remained outside the circle playing with blocks and singing loudly. When Housley invited him to join the others, he stayed where he was and increased the volume of his song. Teaching the basic skills of how to participate in a group is one of the biggest tasks of pre-K—and it’s hard to do in big classes. When the rest of the children moved on to washing their hands before snack time, Housley sat next to his block tower and talked with him. “Can you hear what the rest of us are saying when you’re over here by yourself?” she asked gently. The lesson is part of a bigger one that they’ll all learn and relearn this year: how to be a productive, contributing member of a community. Justice, who eventually joined the circle, seemed to be on his way to getting it.
While Oklahoma has a model statewide pre-K system, the city of Tulsa illustrates the public-private partnerships that can grow within that model. The state’s second-largest city, in the foothills of the Ozark Mountains, Tulsa has great economic extremes. Some 84 percent of children in Tulsa public schools qualify for free or reduced lunch, meaning they live in households that earn no more than $42,643 for a family of four. But there is also great wealth here, much of it from the local energy industry. Because Oklahoma’s law enables private organizations to provide pre-K, a good deal of that wealth has been leveraged to bolster the public system.
Tulsa’s Community Action Project (CAP), which has created and runs McClure as well as 13 other early-education facilities, is a sort of turbo-charged Head Start provider. With an annual budget of more than $52 million, it has married private money—primarily from local oilman and philanthropist George Kaiser—with state and federal funds to serve young children. Because state funding covers the four-year-olds, CAP can devote much of its budget to children three and under. One-third of Tulsa’s qualifying three-year-olds are now in public preschool; the Union School District, which has gone the furthest in enrolling younger students, is on course to serve all three-year-olds within the next year. Plenty of kids in Tulsa may still be behind the curve on their first day of school, but here that first day often comes at age three rather than four or five.
The result is that Tulsa has become a sort of Sweden of the Ozarks—a magnet for the country’s best early-education providers and researchers and a place where preschool is a routine part of growing up. It’s a haven for both children and their parents. CAP works hard to engage adults who may have been alienated by schools in the past. To encourage parents to interact with the schools, the organization consciously decided not to provide busing. The schools’ daily schedules and yearly calendars are synced with nearby public elementary schools, with which some also share land and playgrounds, a setup that allows parents to drop off their preschoolers and scoot next door to drop off older siblings. In the same CAP buildings—which are carefully designed not to feel institutional—they can also take parenting classes, get career training, and receive financial services.
Though CAP is by mission an anti-poverty organization and serves only students who qualify for free and reduced lunch, its classrooms “don’t look like they’re for poor people,” as one mother remarked upon entering the pine cone–festooned space in which her four-year-old would be learning. Draped with natural-hued fabrics and brightened with “uplighting,” which radiates from standing lamps and is thought to be more calming than old-style fluorescent bulbs overhead, the room looks more like a spread from a Pottery Barn catalog than a traditional classroom. When you look out from its picture windows to the sprawling playground where the students are climbing and digging during outdoor playtime, and then beyond to the garden plots the kids will plant and harvest throughout the year, you can’t help wanting this for all young Americans.
The students who go to pre-K tend to emerge from the year recognizably ahead of their peers. Studies have shown it, and teachers know it. Laura Hamilton, who teaches kindergarten at Northwoods, an elementary school in Sand Springs, Oklahoma, says she easily picked out the 8 kids in her class of 25 this year who hadn’t gone to pre-K. “They’re the ones who don’t know how to line up. They’re not used to sharing, and they’re not used to drawing or writing,” she says, fishing out four of her new kindergarteners’ drawings. Three show recognizable scenes—a family of stick figures, a house with two girls in front, and a house with a sky in the background. The fourth, drawn by a child who didn’t attend pre-K, is of seemingly random scribbles. “It’s usually these kids that have to stay back and repeat kindergarten,” Hamilton says, pointing to the scribbles.
How did Oklahoma—a poor state, and one of the “reddest” in the country—become a preschooling pioneer? It wouldn’t have happened if ardent children’s advocates hadn’t been in the right positions at the right times.
Ramona Paul, who retired last year as the state’s assistant superintendent of public education, was the first to get pre-K rolling in 1980. “I still remember, it was one o’clock on a Thursday,” says Paul, a commanding, white-haired woman who worked in the state Department of Education for more than two decades. “My boss walked into my office and said, ‘Ramona, what would you like to see for four-year-old children? You just write the model, and I’ll get it funded.’”
Paul had taken part in a four-year-old program herself as a young child (“It was called nursery school back in those days,” she says), had gone on to teach preschool and college courses in child development, and was present at the Rose Garden Ceremony when President Lyndon Johnson unveiled Head Start.
The first big government early-education effort, Head Start was launched in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty. The aim was to address the achievement gap. As with public schooling more broadly, public pre-K was initially seen as an alternative for economically disadvantaged children who couldn’t afford private or church schools. In Oklahoma, which ranks 20th in child poverty, there have always been a lot of those children.
The model Paul designed reflected both her experience and the state’s demographics. She knew to include high standards for teacher education and pay. She was clear that she wanted the program to be available to all children—not just poor children, who made up the majority of the small number of public preschoolers in the country at the time. “Why would we want to educate just a certain group of children?” she asks.
Paul’s pilot program was launched that same year. But it was only a half-day, and its small budget limited it to certain parts of the state. It wasn’t until 1998 that a legislator named Joe Eddins quietly pushed through a law that supplied the funding to expand Paul’s vision into a mostly full-day program that would be offered throughout the state. Eddins, too, was well suited to advancing early education. A Democratic legislator who had worked as a rancher and high-school biology teacher, he had spent his first few years in the legislature learning about early education—and becoming convinced that school failure was sending a growing number of Oklahoma’s kids down a life path of poverty and underperformance.
Eddins’s allies included not just child--development experts and education policymakers but also a handful of business leaders who had come to see early education as the state’s economic salvation. Getting young Oklahomans into school earlier was not only in the kids’ best interest, they argued; it was important for businesses, which were facing a dwindling pool of potential workers and customers.
Eddins had first waded into the education issue to fix what seemed a discrete problem: Many school districts, especially in rural areas, were enrolling four-year-olds in kindergarten. Because the state’s population was shrinking, these schools were facing declining numbers of students—and thus declining school budgets. Putting four-year-olds in kindergarten sometimes allowed the districts to bring in enough money to keep their schools open because they were receiving funds based on the number of children in school. But the four-year-olds were in classes designed to teach them at a kindergarten level, and they were lost.
Eddins was creative—some say stealthy—in winning support for universal pre-K. He presented the legislation as an amendment to the school law merely designed to fix the four-year-old problem. His bill did do that. But it also created a statewide four-year-old program that surpassed any other in the country. Among the changes it heralded was the ability of school districts to partner with outside entities on pre-K so the programs could be housed in a variety of settings, including tribal programs, churches, and assisted-living facilities. That shift paved the way for a massive partnership between the public schools and Head Start providers, such as CAP, a move that might have raised red flags for some Republicans—had they known about it.
Eddins was able to gloss over this groundbreaking aspect of his bill in large part because he was trusted and well liked; few of his fellow legislators felt the need to actually read the legislation. Instead, he summarized it. When he did, he chose his words carefully. “I didn’t explain that we’d have this huge collaboration with Head Start,” Eddins says. “I emphasized the part that said you could contract with private providers. Republicans have always loved that.”
Eddins’s bill also dodged several potential problems. It kept pre-K voluntary for parents, thus inoculating it from the criticism of social conservatives who believed that mothers should be home with their kids. By building its cost into the larger public-school funding formula, rather than funding early education separately in the state budget, it also protected pre-K from fiscal conservatives who might object to it as part of a “nanny state.”
This seemingly small detail may be the key difference separating Oklahoma from other states, such as Arizona and Illinois, where pre-K funding was slashed during the recent recession. Indeed, in Oklahoma, pre-K is essentially just another grade—as unlikely to be singled out as 5th or 11th. “In so many other states, you have huge fights over whether pre-K funding should be cut,” says Lisa Guernsey, director of the Early Education Initiative at the New America Foundation. “It’s forever seen as an extra line at the bottom of the spreadsheet.”
Although Eddins’s law also made pre-K voluntary, “people started camping out that first night before we started enrolling,” says Cathy Burden, the superintendent of Union Public Schools in Tulsa. That was in 1998, when Union enrolled less than half of its four-year-olds and pre-K was only half-day. Today, about 75 percent of the district’s four-year-olds are enrolled, all are in school for full days, and demand continues to grow. “If anyone tried to get rid of pre-K now,” Burden says, “they’d get run out of town.”
No doubt, part of pre-K’s appeal is that it’s a safe—and free—place for children to be while their parents work. Child care can cost more than $500 per week. But for most parents, the educational value of pre-K is at least as important as the financial benefit.
“I wanted my son to learn,” explains Maria Mauricio, who lives in the low-income Tulsa neighborhood of Kendall-Whittier. Her four-year-old son, Gabriel, attends pre-K through Educare, another local Head Start provider. A stay-at-home mom of five, Mauricio could have kept Gabriel with her during the day. When she was growing up in Mexico, Mauricio went to school only through seventh grade, stopping so she could help her grandmother support the family by picking peanuts. She wanted more for her son, who, by the age of two, wasn’t speaking either English or Spanish understandably, partly because of hearing problems. Mauricio felt confident that starting school early would give Gabriel the best shot at success.
There are mountains of data to confirm Mauricio’s hunch. Economically disadvantaged children who take part in a high-quality pre-K program go on to do better academically. They’re less likely to need special education, less likely to repeat a grade, and more likely to graduate from high school. Perhaps more important are the other ways they fare better: Attending pre-K lowers their chances of becoming pregnant as a teen, abusing or neglecting their own children when they become parents, and winding up incarcerated or dependent on public benefits as an adult.
The most dramatic illustration of these gains comes out of the Perry preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Started in the early 1960s as an effort to improve the academic performance of low-income students, the Perry program enrolled three- and four-year-olds who performed poorly on tests and had low IQ scores. The early results were impressive. Those who went through the half-day Perry program had higher IQs when the program ended at age 5. The longer-term benefits were even more stunning. At age 14, there were moderate to large differences between the test scores of Perry preschool kids and those who didn’t go through the program. At 27, they drank and smoked less. At 40, they were less likely to have been arrested and far outearned their peers. A cost-benefit analysis of Perry provided incontrovertible evidence of the money that could be saved in the long term by working with such young kids. By the time the Perry preschoolers reached age 27, every public dollar spent on their early education yielded a savings of $7.16.
But compelling as the Perry study was, it was based on only 58 preschool students, and all were poor and African American. Another well-studied preschool, the Carolina Abecedarian Project in North Carolina, had similarly impressive results but was also small and exclusively for poor children. As the idea of universal pre-K began to grow around the country, its opponents homed in on the fact that the most clear-cut benefits had been for poor kids. Since there hadn’t been large-scale studies of the long-term benefits of pre-K on middle-class kids, they argued, it wasn’t worth educating all four-year-olds in tight budgetary times. As governor of Massachusetts, Mitt Romney used this logic when he vetoed a 2006 bill unanimously approved by the legislature that would have set up a statewide pre-K program.
In 2002, Bill Gormley, a Georgetown University professor, saw Oklahoma’s program as an opportunity to study the impact of early education on all kids. Because pre-K in Oklahoma cost around $7,500 per child—more than the national average but still far less than the intensive Abecedarian and Perry programs—he could measure the benefits of a four-year-old program with a more acceptable price tag. Because Oklahoma’s pre-K was not just high-quality but also delivered on a massive scale, he could address the question of whether it could do more than level the playing field for poor kids.
The Tulsa Public School District, the largest in the state, offered an ideal place to get results from the statewide experiment. While there’s plenty of poverty in Tulsa, more than 15 percent of students are middle-class. Unlike most of the kids previously studied, Tulsa’s population is multiracial, with almost equal numbers of white, African American, and Hispanic kids, as well as a slightly smaller group of Native Americans. Oklahoma law also requires that all children be evaluated when they enter kindergarten, so Gormley was able to use those results to compare kids who had attended pre-K with those who hadn’t.
The gains he found in 2002-2003 were among the biggest ever documented for a universal pre-K program. By the time they started kindergarten, pre-K kids were nine months ahead of their peers with the skills necessary for reading, like recognizing letters and being able to tell stories. They were seven months ahead in pre-writing, including the ability to hold a pencil, and five months ahead in counting and other pre-math skills. The four-year-olds who had been through CAP’s Head Start, as opposed to the regular state pre-K program in Tulsa public schools, were equally ahead in math, though not quite as dramatically ahead when it came to early literacy. (This is likely because Head Start, in addition to its academic goals, has a broader mission, including improving children’s health, establishing their sense of responsibility to society, and increasing their self-worth.) The most impressive part was that the gains were throughout this entire population. Though the poorest kids were helped the most, all of Tulsa’s kids got a boost from pre-K.
The case for universal pre-K ought to be closed. In Oklahoma, it is. Even as enthusiasm for the Tea Party has swept the state, the program has gained in popularity. Oklahomans on both sides of the aisle take pride in being recognized as a national leader in early education. Many rural school administrators regard the program as a lifeline because it helped them keep schools open even as the number of children in their districts diminished. Regardless of their political stripe, most working parents here embrace pre-K as a superior alternative to day care.
Ironically, the rest of the country remains more conflicted about pre-K than rural, conservative Oklahoma. Though President Barack Obama has acknowledged universal pre-K as among the worthiest of public expenditures—he pledged funding for it back in the 2008 campaign and continues to sing its praises—he has done little to expand it in his first four years. This September, his administration established the Center on Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes and is contributing $1.4 million of federal funds per year to help it provide states with technical assistance on their pre-K programs.
The president also used stimulus money to significantly expand Head Start and Early Head Start, the federal programs that serve low-income kids from birth through age four. But these programs are within the Administration for Children and Families, which focuses on social and economic well-being, rather than in the education system. Most pre-K advocates want Obama to fight harder to include early education within the Department of Education and leverage federal funds to encourage more state spending on pre-K programs. It’s not clear, though, that he’d succeed even if he did. Many Republicans oppose such an expansion—and some call for shutting down the Education Department altogether. “They want as little federal involvement in education as possible,” says Steven Barnett, director of the National Institute for Early Education Research.
The bigger problem, though, may be convincing lawmakers in both parties to take the long view of pre-K. “People always want me to tell them how quickly it’s going to pay off, because if we’re not going to save enough money in the first five years, then they don’t want to pay for it,” Barnett says. “But the big payoff is when kids are older, when they have a job, are making money, are not in jail.”
Even Oklahoma’s big, well-studied program hasn’t been around long enough to document the full extent of the bang for the bucks invested. Gormley’s research team at Georgetown recently published a paper using data from Tulsa to estimate that pre-K participation could boost a child’s future annual earnings enormously—by an average of $30,548 for low-income kids and an average of $24,610 for middle-class children.
But that’s just a projection. Oklahoma’s universal pre-K is only in its 15th year. It’ll be two decades or so before John Kaykay and his classmates reach the point where they can be expected to assume financial responsibility and make their mark on the world. If the rest of the country waits that long to learn from Oklahoma’s early-education model, another generation will be lost.
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(If there's one thing we know about comment trolls, it's that they're lazy) | <urn:uuid:dff63a08-2491-49dd-a7df-2d65c61d3449> | {
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UCIL identified two Uranium blocks named Killung and Rangam in West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya, with total reserves of 9.22 million tones with rated capacity of 0.375 MTPA. The project has acquired 351 ha of land for the establishment of mines, processing plant, DCDA plant (for H2SO4 plant), township and other facilities.
Both mining blocks will produce 9.22 million tones of Uranium ore and 62 million tones of waste materials (overburden) in 24 years. The Killung block is divided into Killung A and Killung B and Rangam block will mine separately as a single block. The executive summary is silent on whether all blocks will be operated simultaneously or will operate in stages. However, it seems that both blocks will be mined simultaneously because there are wide various in uranium percentage in the ores of Killung A and Killung B and Rangam.
Location wise project is very sensitive because project is located in hilly terrain and receives very high rainfall. Further, project site is an important watershed of various tributaries and rivers. Therefore, estimation of silt load and erosion potential of an area is crucial, however the executive summary has failed to address this significant issue.
Executive summary is silent on quantity and quality of tailing wastes, the report states that tailing waste will be stored initially in tailing pond adjacent to plant and disposed off in mined out area along with overburden. This will commenced from the fifth year. According to the executive summary, processing plant and tailing ponds are located in the watershed of Mawkhan River, which is a tributary of Wah Phodthra River. Hence a potential risk of surface water contamination is high. Moreover, executive summary is competently silent on the impacts of project on the watershed and also failed to highlight the safeguard strategies. The executive summary is also silent on quality, quantity and mode of disposal of wastewater from the process plant.
Executive summary has failed to provide information on the land use pattern of acquired land and landuse pattern in buffer zone such as forest cover, agricultural land, wasteland etc.
The proposed uranium ore handling and its management seem very poor. The crusher will crush ore at the mine pit; crushed ore will be transported continuously to the processing plant by the dumper after covering a distance of 5.5 km. Further, the crushed ore is proposed to store in open at the processing plant. Hence, high radiation risk could be anticipated through air borne particles. Further, multiple handling of ore, coupled with dumper transportation and open storage would likely to increase the risk of air and water contamination.
The background level of gamma radiation at the proposed site is comparatively higher with respect to global average 0.9mSv.y-1. According to the executive summary, the radon level around the proposed site was 60 to 91 Bqm-3 and in the village area it ranges from 6.7 to 23.8 Bqm-3, which is comparatively less with respect to prescribed range (workplace range 600 to 1500 Bqm-3, dwelling range 200 to 600 Bqm-3) given by ICRP. The hilly terrain coupled with high rainfall clearly indicates that entire area is highly vulnerable to pollution. It can be anticipated that both silt and radioactive substances would contaminate the exiting rivers in the area once the mines and plant begins to operate at full rated capacity. It could be anticipated that background concentration of radioactive substances would likely to increase in future because of site sensitivity and poor proposed solid waste management (mine i.e. overburden, ore processing plant i.e. tailing waste). The natural river would be worst impacted by overburden and tailing pond because tailing pond and ore processing plant is proposed in the watershed of the river.
The executive summary states that the background concentration of uranium in surface water is low but failed to provide the background concentration level. The report has referred AMD data on the background concentration, which was conducted during 1990 –1998. As per AMD data, background level of Uranium was in the range of< 0.1 to 1.1 mg. m-3 and radium-226 in the range 15 to 115 Bqm-3.
The executive summary is silent on flora and fauna status in the study area and failed to provide information on biodiversity such as presence of scheduled listed species, forest cover area and forest density. According to forest department, fauna in West Khasi district is characterize by the presence of elephants, apes, monkeys, deer, sambar, tigers, wild boars, bears, leopards. It clearly shows that schedule I listed animals exist in the region but executive summary failed to provide any information on flora and fauna characteristic in the study areas.
Executive summary is silent on the overburden management; the report states that around 39 ha of land are earmarked for the initial dumping of overburden materials. It seems that at the initial stage of mining, external dumping will be undertaken. If this is the scenario, then high siltation risk, increase of radioactive contaminants in the surface water could be anticipated. The risk probability would be of high magnitude because mine lease areas provides water to Umshopphnew and Wahphodthra rivers, both these rivers finally drains in Kynshi River. The report also states that mine will generate 2.5 million tones of overburden per year but failed to provide basic information like commencement of backfilling and mine reclamation.
The plant will also generate large quantity of solid waste from the process, DCDA plant, ETP plant. But no information is available on the characteristic, quantity and mode of solid wastes disposal. | <urn:uuid:026f0e19-898f-45d4-9464-92075481c620> | {
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Governador Valadares is a
Brazilian city in the state of Minas Gerais.
In 2006, its population was 260,405
inhabitants.It is an economical center of the middle Valley of the
Rio Doce, making a significant influence on the east and northeast
of Minas Gerais and local authorities of the state of the Espírito Santo
. Governador Valadares
sits on the bank of the Rio Doce, 324 km from Belo
The main watercourse through the municipality is the Doce River
("Rio Doce" in Portuguese) whose basin
(of 83,500 square kilometers) is composed of 222 municipalities.
Nowadays its waters are very polluted, with little vegetation on
its banks and depleted fish stocks.
Valadares is also a statistical micro-region including 25
municipalities: Alpercata, Campanário, Capitão
Andrade, Coroaci, Divino das Laranjeiras, Engenheiro Caldas, Fernandes Tourinho, Frei Inocêncio, Galiléia, Governador Valadares, Itambacuri, Itanhomi, Jampruca, Marilac, Mathias Lobato, Nacip
Raydan, Nova Módica, Pescador, São Geraldo da Piedade, São Geraldo do Baixio, São José da Safira, São José do
Divino, Sobrália, Tumiritinga, and Virgolândia.
Its population (2006) was estimated by the
IBGE to be 407,815 inhabitants in a total area of 11,
The area around Governador Valadares was explored in colonial
first expedition to reach the Doce River was in 1573, leaving from
Seguro in Bahia. Only in the beginning
of the nineteenth century was its colonization begun when in 1808
the Portuguese government created military divisions in the
In 1823, the D. Manoel barracks was established, on
the left bank of the Doce, exactly at the point at which the river
begins to be partially navigable as far as the sea. By the end of
the nineteenth century, Dom Manuel
the main river port on the Doce, being a meeting place for
muleteers and canoes that took products to the coast. Only after
the beginning of the twentieth century was the occupation of the
territory accelerated, with the construction of the Vitória-Minas
railway in 1902. In 1925 the first electric plant was installed to
serve the residences of the town. It was powered by steam.
Throughout its history Governador Valdares has had several
- 1734 - Arraial de Porto de Dom Manuel
- 1808 - Porto das Canoas
- 1888 - Santo Antônio da Figueira
- 1889 – Distrito De Santo Antônio do Bonsucesso
- 1923 - Figueira
In 1937 the municipality of Figueira do Rio Doce was established,
which then changed its name to Governador Valadares, who was the
governor at the time.
Production and the intense trade in precious stones is the reason
the "Brazil Gem Show" takes place in the local authority every
year: an event that consists of the commerce of precious stones
with Brazilians and foreign visitors
Governador Valadares is the biggest city and commercial center of
the Eastern region of the state of Minas Gerais, having several
cities in his area of influence, such as Teófilo Otoni and
Caratinga. At present, Governador Valadares is growing in
industrial development, due to its strategic position, human
resources and international reputation.
It is a trade and industrial center. Sawmills and food-processing
plants are in the city, and mica
are mined in the area. Governador Valadares is
one of the most famous gem-trading centres in Brazil. Gem minerals
. The Golconda
mine, one of the oldest in the city, attracts the curiosity of
tourists and stone collectors from all over the world.
The city is served by the railroad Vitória-Minas, of the CVRD and
by the highway Rio-Bahia (BR 116). It is also connected with the
capital of the state by the BR 381.
The city is on the Belo Horizonte–Vitória railway and on the Rio de
Janeiro–Salvador highway.Distances from major centers:
The local airport is a category 3 airport, with a paved runway
1,400 meters long. There are regular flights to Belo
Paulo, Rio de
Seguro, Salvador, and Vitória.
The city hosts of one of the stages of the Brazilian Championship
of Hang gliding being that the competitors get off the Ibituruna's
Peak, where it is possible to catch sight of the whole region of
the Valley of the Rio Doce which bed is on the feet of the peak,
and also it hosts several international championships of hang
gliding, which takes the local authority to be known like "The
World-wide Capital of the Hang gliding".
It is also the city where the greatest soccer player Pedro Paulo
was born.The city is known internationally for the World Paragliding
that has been held at Ibituruna
Peak (1123 meters).
- Annual average: 32.6 °C [90.7 °F]
- Annual maximum average: 40.7 °C [105.3 °F]
- Annual minimum average: 18.3 °C [65 °F]
Average annual rainfall index: 1,350 mm
Governador Valadares is twinned
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See also the
Dr. Math FAQ:
Browse High School Practical Geometry
Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or
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We use rolled carpet in our business and would like to know how much is
left on a roll given the remaining diameter...
- How Much Material on a Spool? [05/02/2007]
A reel of flat blade has an outer diameter of 1016 mm and an inner
diameter of 508 mm. The blade thickness is 20 mm. Could you tell me
the length of the blade and show me the formula for working it out? | <urn:uuid:e80e3279-da65-413a-a6e8-6a2fbd3ac89d> | {
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Is there no possible way that it has a final digit?
He even proved a stronger result,
Yes, Loiville 1882 (I believe).not algebraic?
It was not proven geometrical. It was proven based on an integration that produces as a result.Geometrically, if we were drawing a circle, the ends must touch? (Even at the very small value level?)
Here's my little conjecture (since I don't know how to prove it and excel says it doesn't work, but after 200 terms I don't know how accurate excel can be)
This shows that the closer you get to infinity, the more decimal places will be in pi, but what if you reach infinity (which you obviously can't do)? You would get infinite decimal places, and it would equal pi...
Does this mean that the ends of a circle do not touch at all? (Apart from at infinity)
How can you calculate that in excel??
The best I can get for calculating pi is doing the sum of about 100000 inverse squares!
If Pi has infinite decimal places then it must never be closed circle as there must be a space somewhere on the circle that is infinitely small and can not be filled.
What I'm thinking is usually hard to understand so think of it like this...
Pretend your drawing a circle with an incredibly fine pencil and your drawing of the circle is literally perfect.
The diameter of the circle is 1cm so the circumference is Pi. You start at a point and draw 3cm. The circle is not yet complete as there is 0.14159..cm left so you draw 0.1cm but there's still 0.0415926...cm left to draw! You get closer and closer but since pi has infinite decimal places (that aren't all 0s) you will never reach the starting point of the circle!
I hope thats easy enough to follow!
It's clear what you mean, but mathematically there's no problem and practically, there's no difference with other numbers.
Take a diameter of 1/pi, then you have to draw the circle with circumference 1. You have your fine pencil and you start drawing, already at 0.9, then 0.95, then 0.9997, then... Stopping at exactly 1, isn't fysically/practially "easier" than stopping at pi.
The circle is closed, because pi is what it is, it's not 3.14 and not 3.141592653, but pi.
My mistake was assuming pi would be drawn from a meaurable point of view when really "it is what it is".
So in theory - no problem. Pi has its value and thats the value in the ratio from diameter to circumference. However, on paper it can be a problem as if you draw a perfect closed circle (ie. no errors in drawing it whatsoever) there will always be an infinitesimally small gap!
Why still the gap? The paper doesn't know about real numbers, nor about our concept of 'meters'.
The only problem which we practically encounter is our inability to draw so perfectly.
For us, it's not harder/easier to draw a perfect 3-4-5 (5² = 3²+4²) right triangle, than to draw a 1,1,sqrt(2) (sqrt(2)² = 1²+2²) right triangle, although this last one has a side which has an irrational number as length!
A number is said to be constructable when we can using Euclidean toys (striaghtedge and compass) construct . This is an algebra question but the important fact about the set of all constructable numbers is that . Meaning the it contains all rational numbers. Thus, what you need to show is that you cannot constuct and hence show it is irrational (note, not transcendental! this does not show this). The problem with this approach is that these concepts was purposely created to simplify construcability problems but we are going backwards meaning from this approach making more difficult. | <urn:uuid:6ea69df8-29c5-4951-a058-658f63ac8872> | {
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News tagged with immune
Related topics: immune system
Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.
Adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination. Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from a immune host. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived, usually lasts only a few months, whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life-long. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity.
This text uses material from Wikipedia and is available under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Human breastmilk responds quickly to protect the child when there is an infection in mothers or babies, according to new international research led by The University of Western Australia.
Immunology 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 (1) | 0
(Medical Xpress)—Scientists at Emory Vaccine Center have shown that an immune regulatory molecule called IL-21 is needed for long-lasting antibody responses in mice against viral infections.
Immunology 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 (1) | 0 |
More than half of patients diagnosed with Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) are now surviving the disease thanks to improved diagnosis and treatment, according to a new report1 from Cancer Research UK.
Cancer 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 (1) | 0 | <urn:uuid:b19fd1d1-6503-476a-a07b-3dc5e2ac812b> | {
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"Frederick, Maryland-Civil War Crossroads" Frederick by GentleSpirit
Frederick Travel Guide: 72 reviews and 148 photos
For a long time, Frederick was a distant suburb of the Washington DC Metro area. Gradually, a few major industries set up shop near the city and things have changed. Prices tend to be somewhat cheaper in Frederick County(compared to Montgomery County and Fairfax County), so a lot of people have come out this way seeking better value in housing. As you drive out to Frederick from the nearer-in suburbs you will notice more green spaces, more farms. You are getting farther from the big city.
Frederick is the seat of Frederick County, with a 2010 population of about 65,000 (seems small). Frederick is at the junction of several major highways and is reasonably well located in north-west Maryland. It is 46 miles (74 km) west from Baltimore (Maryland) 49 miles (79 km) north and west of Washington DC.
Frederick itself dates back to colonial times, being settled by German immigrants around 1745. Later came the Irish, until which time German was the main language spoken in the town.
Because of its location, Frederick (city) was a crossroads during the Civil War. Three significant Civil War battlefields are within 50 miles of city limits. Frederick also served as major hospital center during the Civil War.
Frederick County had two major Civil War battles. One was the 1862 Battle of South Mountain and the 1864 Battle of Monocacy. Being on the Mason Dixon line, Frederick was taken over and re-conquered several times. Not too far away you will find the Antietam National Battlefield, the site of the bloodiest single battle in the Civil War. Also fairly close by is Gettysburg (Penn.).
- Pros:artsy, nice old town, antique shopping
- Cons:not very good public transport connections
- In a nutshell:Great for Civil War history
North of Frederick you can see the 38 mile Catoctin Mountain National Scenic Byway. This was established as a scenic... more travel advice
I have to say that Frederick County did a great job with this center. Located in a remodelled warehouse, they put... more travel advice
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Latest: May 16, 2013 | <urn:uuid:1e130038-3d3e-4d67-859f-4def103bafce> | {
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Large circular ear ornaments were popular personal adornments of prominent ancient Peruvian lords and a symbol of their status and wealth. The weight of the frontal, which could reach widths of more than four inches, was counterbalanced by a long tubular shaft that went through the distended hole in the earlobe. Particularly impressive are those earflares with colorful mosaics. On this pair, bird-headed (or masked) winged runners, worked in turquoise, sodalite, and spondylus shell, hold bags in their outstretched hands. Their eyes and beaks are sheathed in gold. They may be depictions of mythological messengers. | <urn:uuid:212bd00b-3d79-491f-a844-082d86928506> | {
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Claude Lorrain (Claude Gellée) (French, 1604/5?–1682)
Pen and brown ink, brown wash over black chalk, heightened with white
11 13/16 x 17 1/2 in. (30 x 44.4 cm)
Purchase, The Annenberg Foundation Gift, 1997 (1997.156)
This magnificent compositional study, which came to light in the late 1980s, stands out in Claude's graphic oeuvre for its high degree of finish and detail. The biblical subject is set in an invented landscape animated by a diffuse naturalistic light. It was presumably made as a presentation drawing for François Bosquet, bishop of Montpellier, who had commissioned from the artist a pendant to his Sermon on the Mount (Frick Collection, New York). The resulting painting, considered by Claude to be his most beautiful, was later largely destroyed by fire (a fragment survives at Holkham Hall, England). Claude here depicts the Old Testament story of Queen Esther, who went to the king's palace to implore mercy for her condemned people. As uninvited appearances before the king were forbidden under penalty of death, Esther collapsed in fear as she neared his throne, a scene commonly depicted by Baroque artists. By choosing instead the moment of Esther's approach to the palace, which is not described in the biblical text, Claude has shifted the focus from the clemency of the king to Esther's act of bravery when its outcome was still unclear. | <urn:uuid:74ba683d-e4b8-44a2-b3cf-2b4c6575b87d> | {
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Today’s interest in northern Ontario’s Ring of Fire is similar in some ways. Again there’s a frenzy over mineral riches in a remote area of Canada. And, as in the great gold rush of yore, it’s largely over one mineral – in this case, chromite. But that’s where the similarities more or less end.
For one thing, the word “rush” seems out-of-place in today’s regulated mining sector. Anyone who wants to start mining at a particular site has regulatory hurdles to overcome and communities to consult. Getting from the idea of a mine to an actual mine is a challenging, years-long process.
Still, there are many companies willing to endure that process in order to tap into the apparently great mineral wealth beneath the Ring of Fire’s surface of wetlands, rocks and trees. There are, after all, riches below the surface and considerable profits to be made.
The RingThe Ring of Fire is a crescent-shaped area approximately 500 kilometres northeast of Thunder Bay, in the James Bay lowlands north of the Albany River. The Attawapiskat River runs through some of it. Predominantly muskeg, the Ring is more than 5,100 sq. km of land hitherto untouched by industry. Wildlife in the region includes some species at risk – black terns, bald eagles, wolverines and woodland caribou among them. Muskeg, birds and furry mammals aren’t what make the area so intriguing to miners, of course. The big attraction in this case is chromite, a dark iron chromium oxide that’s valued for its resistance to high temperatures. Chromite is a key ingredient in the stainless steel that our pots and pans are made of. It’s also commonly used for protective coating of automobile parts. There is at present no chromite mine in North America.
The sizable chromite deposits are vestiges of geological events that occurred 2.7 billion years ago. Magma containing chromium rose from the Earth’s mantle and dissolved iron-rich rock in the crust. The result was crystallized chromite. The same thing, more or less, happened in many places on our planet, but for some reason it left especially rich deposits of chromite in the Ring of Fire.
Early in the current century, De Beers Canada (which operates the Victor Diamond Mine to the east) found significant copper and zinc deposits there. Subsequent exploration uncovered chromite deposits that rival those at any location in South Africa, the world’s leading producer. Other minerals were also found, including nickel, gold and platinum-group metals. Because it was a somewhat ring-shaped “hot” exploration region, and (some say) because a key player was a Johnny Cash fan, it was dubbed the Ring of Fire.
The Ontario government said in May 2012 that Ohio-based Cliffs Natural Resources is expected to spend more than $3 billion on getting chromite out of the Ring and to market. That sum includes $1.85 billion for a processing facility in Sudbury. “This is very, very important, not only for Sudbury but for the entire province,” then-Minister of Northern Development and Mines Rick Bartolucci said at a news conference in the nickel city.
Other companies are also keen on getting a piece of the Ring. Toronto-headquartered Noront Resources is focused on developing its Eagle’s Nest nickel-copper-PGM project in the area, as well as a high-grade chromite deposit dubbed Blackbird. Bold Ventures, also out of Toronto, has reached an agreement with KWG Resources under which Bold will operate exploration at Koper Lake and KWG will fund the exploration. Dozens of other companies have staked thousands of claims.
But the odyssey from exploration to mining won’t be smooth sailing. Environmentalists, politicians and aboriginal groups have all expressed concern over mining companies’ Ring ambitions.
ChallengesIndeed, opposition politicians were quick to pounce on the fact that Bartolucci’s Sudbury news conference had no First Nations representation. “If First Nations aren’t part of (development), it won’t be happening,” Norm Miller, MPP for Parry Sound-Muskoka, told the Toronto Star. “You could also ask why was the federal government not part of (the news conference). There are federal and provincial reviews. There are still a lot of challenges going forward … despite it sounding like the ground was being broken today.”
Noting that the all-weather road Cliffs wants to build from the town of Nakina to its Black Thor (McFaulds Lake) project would run through sensitive wildlands, a leading conservation group said the plan lacked proper assessment of environmental impacts. “The most important decision is the location of infrastructure. Where, how much, and what? These are questions we needed Ontario to ask,” said Janet Sumner of CPAWS Wildland League.
Communities in the Ring of Fire’s vicinity include Webequie and Nibinamik (Summer Beaver) First Nations to the west, Marten Falls First Nation to the south, and Neskantaga First Nation to the southwest. All are members of Matawa First Nations, and they are remote reserves lacking road access. In January 2011 Matawa named Raymond Ferris, former chief of Constance Lake First Nation, as its Ring of Fire Coordinator responsible for seeing that member communities participate in and benefit from Ring development.
First Nations see mining as a provider of jobs and development in reserves with extremely high unemployment and vexing social problems that include high rates of drug addiction and youth suicide. They also recognize the social benefit of a road finally connecting them to the outside world, and for that reason Marten Falls wants the road rerouted to hook up with its 300 residents.
But Matawa First Nations are also concerned about water pollution and other impacts on the area’s ecology. “We know we’re going to get some benefits once they start development,” Marten Falls Chief Eli Moonias told the Canadian Press last year. “We know that in some ways we’ll be involved as well. The issue is the environment.”
Moonias said a road connection could help Marten Falls improve its drinking-water situation by enabling easier access for experts and suppliers who could help fix the reserve’s water-quality problems. Marten Falls’ drinking-water supply is in need of major repair.
The Province signalled its keen interest in seeing development move forward by creating a Ring of Fire Secretariat within the Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. The federal government has designated Treasury Board President Tony Clement as its point man for progress in the area.
Cliffs aims to begin production at the Black Thor deposit by late 2016 even though the company’s President and CEO, Joseph Carrabba, told analysts last October that cost pressures and other factors could push the start to 2017.
“Right now, the target remains 2016 and it’s a schedule that’s got some risk of slippage,” Cliffs Senior Vice-President Bill Boor told a Sudbury Chamber of Commerce luncheon audience in early November.
Factors that could delay production include environmental assessment processes and trying to reach working agreements with First Nations. Boor said discussions with First Nations are progressing but “we need to move the relationship to the point where they’re willing to work with us in this project. We’re not asking them to agree with the project. We’re asking them to work with us to figure it out. And we do need a bit of breakthrough there.”
In an email to this author, Cliffs Public Affairs Representative Jennifer Mihalcin said the company must “finalize a definitive deal” with Ontario before it can begin the construction phase of its ferrochrome project. Although that deal was not yet done as of March 2013, and despite the political uncertainties associated with an impending provincial election, she reiterated the company’s expectation that Black Thor operations will “commence at the end of 2016.”
In an interview with the Financial Post, Noront’s then-CEO Wes Hanson said Noront could conceivably begin commercial production at Eagle’s Nest by 2016 or 2017. He said Noront would use the road Cliffs wants built and pay for road use in proportion to how much freight it hauls down the route. He explained that Noront was planning to produce 150,000 tonnes of concentrate annually while Cliffs was planning to produce about 20 times as much.
In short, there’s still much work to be done before anyone gets rich on the Ring of Fire. | <urn:uuid:fed5c042-428f-4016-9808-78108dc746e5> | {
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This is the second homework blog posting... Did you already complete the post on Gamma Rays and Dysfunctional Families?
It is due before class starts on Monday, Dec. 15
In The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds, Tillie conducts an unusual science project. She subjects three different batches of marigolds to the potentially damaging effects of gamma rays - a topic we addressed in a previous blog post. But why did the play's author, Paul Zindel, choose marigolds as the flower to use in the science experiment? Click on the following links and please read the information on marigolds at wikipedia and this information on growing marigolds.
Do not concern yourself with the all the Latin terms or varieties, but focus on the specific characteristics of the flower... Then post your ideas about the use of marigolds as a symbol in the story. What makes marigolds unique? What do they need to survive? When do marigolds bloom? How might the characteristics or qualities of this particular flower be a symbol that connects to important ideas in the play? Why might have Zindel used marigolds as the flower? | <urn:uuid:cdbe578d-531e-4f9e-a58b-24d5f549729f> | {
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Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol
Prof. D.M. Sherman
Lecture 1: Chemical Fundamentals, Thermodynamics, Acid-Base and Solubility Equilibria
One the most important tools we have in environmental geochemistry is thermodynamics. Thisenables us to predict how chemical reactions will proceed. Using thermodynamics, we can calculate the solubilities of minerals and how reactions with minerals and gases will control the compositions of aqueous solutions. | <urn:uuid:57dcfa2d-9077-4c52-8c4f-e8d5c8b57294> | {
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In an 18 July 1952 letter, Martin Luther King wrote to his future wife, Coretta Scott, about his beliefs as a minister and proclaimed: ‘‘Let us continue to hope, work, and pray that in the future we will live to see a warless world, a better distribution of wealth, and a brotherhood that transcends race or color. This is the gospel that I will preach to the world’’ (Papers 6:126). As a self-described ‘‘advocator of the social gospel,’’ King’s theology was concerned ‘‘with the whole man, not only his soul but his body, not only his spiritual well-being, but his material well-being’’ (Papers 6:72; Papers 5:422). His ministry built upon the social gospel of the Protestant church at the turn of the twentieth century and his own family’s practice of preaching on the social conditions of parishioners.
The early social gospel movement emerged during the rapidly industrializing American society following the Civil War. Recognizing the injustices of ‘‘triumphant capitalism,’’ some progressive ministers prescribed a large dose of ‘‘practical Christianity’’ to right these wrongs and directly address the social needs of the era (Hopkins, 121). One of the most prominent was Walter Rauschenbusch, a German-American who pastored a church in the Hell’s Kitchen district of New York in the late nineteenth century. In Christianity and the Social Crisis, Rauschenbusch traced the social gospel back to the lives of the Hebrew prophets. He stated that rather than ritualistic ceremonies, the prophets ‘‘insisted on a right life as the true worship of God’’ (Rauschenbusch, 5). This ‘‘right life’’ included the belief that ‘‘social problems are moral problems on a large scale’’ (Rauschenbusch, 6). King read Christianity and the Social Crisis at Crozer Theological Seminary and wrote that its message ‘‘left an indelible imprint on my thinking by giving me a theological basis for the social concern which had already grown up in me’’ (Papers 4:474).
Social gospel proponent Henry Emerson Fosdick, popular pastor of New York’s Riverside Church during the 1930s and 1940s, was an early influence on King’s preaching. Fosdick felt that a church ‘‘that pretends to care for the souls of people but is not interested in the slums that damn them, the city government that corrupts them, the economic order that cripples them, and international relationships that, leading to peace or war, determine the spiritual destiny of innumerable souls’’ would receive divine condemnation (Fosdick, 25). He also emphasized that ‘‘the saving of society does depend on things which only high, personal religion can supply’’ (Fosdick, 38).
King’s family put him on a social gospel path, one that had already been cleared by his grandfather, A. D. Williams, and father, King, Sr. Williams, who was minister of Ebenezer Baptist Church at the turn of the twentieth century, helped form the Georgia Equal Rights League in February 1906, and was a founding member of Atlanta’s branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. King, Sr., succeeded Williams at Ebenezer and, in a 1940 address to the Atlanta Missionary Baptist Association, he envisioned a ‘‘time when every minister will become a registered voter and a part of every movement for the betterment of our people’’ (Papers 1:34). In his unpublished 1973 autobiography, King, Sr., asserted that his ministry was never ‘‘solely oriented toward life and death. It has been equally concerned with the here and now, with improving man’s lot in this life. I have therefore stressed the social gospel’’ (‘‘A Black Rebel’’). Other influences on King’s social gospel included Morehouse College president and minister Benjamin Mays, who regularly spoke against segregation in Tuesday morning chapel at the college during King’s years there. He chastised both African Americans who favored a gradualist approach to civil rights and whites who did not ‘‘want democracy to function in certain areas: especially in areas that involve Negroes’’ (Mays, ‘‘Three Great Fears’’).
King’s studies of Reinhold Niebuhr’s writings at Crozer and Boston University tempered his belief in the social gospel’s typical confidence in liberal theology and its reliance on human agency as a primary force for change. ‘‘While I still believed in man’s potential for good, Niebuhr made me realize his potential for evil as well,’’ King later recalled (King, Stride, 99). He also appreciated Niebuhr’s assertion that ‘‘the glaring reality of collective evil’’ was one explanation for racial hatred (King, Stride, 99).
King arrived as pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church still ‘‘a firm believer in what is called the ‘social gospel’’’ (Papers 6:141). King tied this faith to the nonviolent protest that characterized the Montgomery bus boycott, noting that ‘‘Christ furnished the spirit and motivation’’ for the boycott (Papers 5:423).
King took to task those churches that separated the secular realities of daily life from spiritual needs. His vision of the church’s role in social concerns was based on the early church’s identity, in his mind, as an institution that shaped social mores and conditions. King believed that God would harshly judge the church’s apathy on these matters and, conversely, praise those clergy who would take public stands on issues confronting their parishioners’ everyday lives.
King remained a proponent of the social gospel despite the many setbacks the civil rights movement suffered in the later 1960s. In a speech delivered the day before his death, King asserted that ‘‘somehow the preacher must have a kind of fire shut up in his bones, and whenever injustice is around he must tell it’’ (King, ‘‘I’ve Been,’’ 213).
Fosdick, Hope of the World, 1933.
Hopkins, Rise of the Social Gospel, 1940.
Introduction, in Papers 1:1, 10, 14, 34, 38.
Introduction, in Papers 6:2.
King, ‘‘Accepting Responsibility for Your Actions,’’ 26 July 1953, in Papers 6:139–142.
King, ‘‘I’ve Been to the Mountaintop,’’ in Call to Conscience, eds. Carson and Shepard, 2001.
King, ‘‘Letter from Birmingham Jail,’’ in Why We Can’t Wait, 1964.
King, ‘‘My Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,’’ 1 September 1958, in Papers 4:473–481.
King, ‘‘Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,’’ 13 April 1960, in Papers 5:419–425.
King, ‘‘Preaching Ministry,’’ in Papers 6:69–72.
King, Stride Toward Freedom, 1958.
King to Coretta Scott, 18 July 1952, in Papers 6:123–126.
King. Sr., ‘‘A Black Rebel: The Autobiography of M. L. King, Sr.,’’ 1973, MLKJP-GAMK.
Mays, ‘‘Three Great Fears,’’ Pittsburgh Courier, 17 April 1948.
Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, 1907. | <urn:uuid:598be009-7910-40a7-9014-18d686c2cde5> | {
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The first scene was on the earth. Here is an important FAQ from IMDB, where it clearly states:
There is no definite answer. It could very well be Earth in the early stages of life, possibly sometime after the extinction of the dinosaurs (the meteor which was responsible actually resulted in a mass extinction of nearly all life on the planet; the Engineers could have chosen Earth as it was a planet capable of supporting life, and maybe saw the creation of humanity as a way to "heal" the damage). However, there is no indication that it is specifically Earth. It could very well be another planet, as it is suggested that the Engineers created other life besides humans.
Another site stated supporting it was earth:
Our Theory: What we are seeing in the beginning is the creation of Earth. The giant ship (which is different from the ring-shaped one we see later in the film, weirdly) has landed on Earth to drop off the Engineer so that he can terraform the planet and make it sustainable for life. We think he drinks the black goo to break down his own structure and spread life on Earth through his own DNA, but that doesn’t really explain his surprise while he’s disintegrating (and if the Engineers do have the same DNA as us, it’s hard to say why the Engineers had to be broken down in order to create humanity)
The prometheus forum also states it is earth showed in the first scene.
The engineer basically killed himself by drinking that stuff, which broke down his body and allowed his DNA to be dispersed and then (as per the film) this kick started life on Earth.
As far as the same landscape is concerned you can see there is are touches of "slight greenery" in the first scene, whereas when Prometheus was entering the planet, no such greenery could be seen! Also water was present in the first scene, whereas no signs of water was there before entering the cave in Prometheus. The planet was full of rocks, sands and all. No signs of life was there. This makes the two landscapes different. However filming was done on the earth only. So there can be some symmetries ;)
slight greenery in starting scene
greenery as well as water in the first scene | <urn:uuid:4f2fd8f8-c623-4bd5-9680-c2dfc9598bc8> | {
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This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it.
If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file.
Sesame Street: Song: Hop This Way
sesame street, Elmo, Rev Run, hop, song, hop this way
If you're watching videos with your preschooler and would like to do so in a safe, child-friendly environment, please join us at http://www.sesamestreet.org
Elmo and Rev Run sing about hopping.
Sesame Street is a production of Sesame Workshop, a nonprofit educational organization which also produces Pinky Dinky Doo, The Electric Company, and other programs for children around the world. | <urn:uuid:b12468e6-56f4-4369-8a10-a9b3e2a5e810> | {
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Bakers and Basques
A Social History of Bread in Mexico
Publication Year: 2012
Mexico City’s colorful panaderías (bakeries) have long been vital neighborhood institutions. They were also crucial sites where labor, subsistence, and politics collided. From the 1880s well into the twentieth century, Basque immigrants dominated the bread trade, to the detriment of small Mexican bakers. By taking us inside the panadería, into the heart of bread strikes, and through government halls, Robert Weis reveals why authorities and organized workers supported the so-called Spanish monopoly in ways that countered the promises of law and ideology. He tells the gritty story of how class struggle and the politics of food shaped the state and the market. More than a book about bread, Bakers and Basques places food and labor at the center of the upheavals in Mexican history from independence to the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution.
Published by: University of New Mexico Press
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Financial support for the research and writing of this book came from the University of California Institute for Mexico and the United States (UC MEXUS), the Reed Smith Fellowship, the UC Davis History Department, the Jarena D. Wright Scholarship, the UC Davis Hemispheric Institute on the Americas, ...
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A young bakery worker, maybe ten years old, appears in a photograph from 1930. He stands in the passage that divides the retail section of the panadería (bakery) from the workroom in back. Thin and dark, he is dressed in an apron and cloth hairnet and looks at the camera somewhat timidly out of the corner of his eye, ...
1: “Zelo y desvelo”: The Bread Monopoly and Late Colonial Market Reforms
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A black slave, owned by Hernán Cortés, allegedly planted Mexico’s first wheat after he found three grains at the bottom of a rice sack. A single grain yielded 180; soon, wrote the sixteenth-century chronicler Francisco López de Gómara, “there was infinite wheat.” Cortés established the Santo Domingo Mill ...
2: “A system that offends the hands of brothers”: Small Bakers and the Free Market in Independent Mexico
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The leaders of independent Mexico explicitly followed the late Bourbon model of free market with limited government oversight. They continued the search for a balance between releasing the supposedly innate dynamism of competition and curbing the equally innate greed of merchants and producers. ...
3: “An uncle in America”: Chain Migration and the Spanish Monopoly
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Few Spaniards took part in the “invasion of pastry chefs” of the 1850s. But a decade later, immigrants from northern Spain, particularly the Basque province of Navarre, slowly began to arrive in Mexico City and venture into the bread trade. By the 1890s, they had become owners of most of the city’s panaderías. ...
4: “Dough Kneaded with Blood”
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Gendarme No. 905 was at his downtown post near the Plazuela Aguilita around 11:30 p.m. when he heard a tremendous crash and a voice calling for help. He ran down the street and entered La Florida, the flour mill that Pedro Albaitero and José Arrache had established the year before. ...
5: “We have no bread”: Hunger, Opportunity, and War
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At the high point of the revolution’s violence, in fall of 1915, Coronel Ignacio C. Enríquez, interim president of Mexico City, ordered his subaltern Pablo des Georges to take the next day’s train to San Andrés Chalchicomula, Puebla, where he was to pick up four thousand cargas (around 710 tons) ...
6: The Bakers’ Revolution
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The bakers’ revolution began in 1915, when the civil war brought the worst misery on the city, five years after the initial outbreak of violence in other parts of the country. It was no accident that bakers formed their union while residents were suffering hunger. Workers, who felt the crisis disproportionately, ...
7: Unionists, Tlalchicholes, and Canasteros
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The Spanish monopoly had proven itself to be an essential partner of the governments that emerged in the revolution and its aftermath. Hunger coincided with the brutal factional battles, and the government’s ability to see that people were fed became a crucial sign of political legitimacy. ...
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In the mural in the Abelardo L. Rodríguez Market, chubby capitalists count money they have extracted from workers whom artificial scarcities have reduced to walking skeletons. Placed anywhere else, the mural would be a simple denunciation of inequality, an accusation that the rich profited from the hunger of the poor. ...
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Page Count: 232
Illustrations: 5 halftones, 6 tables
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The wonders of astronomy in a comfortableseat regardless of the time of day—or the weather!
25 May - 2 Jun 2013
Until 24 May 2013
On Friday 10 May, Australia will be treated to a special solar eclipse.
Comets Lemmon and PANSTARRS together in the south.
Celebrating Pluto Day.
A close encounter with 2012 DA14.
Remembering the crew of Columbia
Bushfire at one of Australia's top astronomy research centres.
Answers to common astronomy questions.
A monthly series that provides a guide to the stars and constellations.
View 2013 moon phases or choose another year from the menu at left.
Time for the Sun, Moon and five bright planets as seen from Melbourne.
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Our Living Climate is one of four shows currently running at the Planetarium - the others are called Tilt, Tycho to the Moon, and Black Holes: Journey... | <urn:uuid:b8ffdd49-a60f-4af0-b0f4-04bc60696938> | {
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A chord does not have to be made up of thirds. A chord is by definition two or more notes heard as if sounded simultaneously. Not all chords have three notes either. There are dyads (two notes), triads (three), tetrachords (four), pentachords (five), and hexachords (six). There's no limit on the number of notes, and also, by definition, there's no limits on which notes.
C - E - G is a chord.
D - E - F - C is a chord. However, the most common triads are the major, minor, augmented, and diminished (there is also the suspended). All of these are composed of a root, a third, and a fifth (except the suspended, which uses the root, perfect fourth and perfect fifth).
So, now to your question, why thirds? First, realize there are two types of thirds: the major and the minor. The major consists of four semitones and the minor three semitones. Quoting Wikipedia:
The major third is classed as an imperfect consonance and is considered one of the most consonant intervals after the unison, octave, perfect fifth, and perfect fourth. In the common practice period, thirds were considered interesting and dynamic consonances along with their inverses the sixths.
After the major third became established as such, it become pretty standard. Every classical piece makes use of it in some way. The other reason the major third is so widely used is that it is found in the harmonic series (between the fourth and fifth). Early brass (e.g., posthorn, natural trumpet) had no valves or slides and were limited to the harmonic series. This encouraged use of and familiarity with the major third. However, I'd say the most important of all these reasons is the first. It is highly consonant.
The minor third has the same level of consonance as the major third, but is found higher up in the harmonic series (between fifth and sixth). Also, there are many common transposing instruments which sound a minor third higher or lower form where they are written. For example, the Eb clarinet and the Eb trumpet both sound a minor third higher than written. The oboe d'amore, popular in the eighteenth and twentieth centuries, and the soprano clarinet in A sound a minor third higher than written. Of these reasons, I'd say the first (again) is the most important.
As for other intervals, any interval can be used, but some are more common than others. The perfect fifth, octave, unison, and seventh (in no particular order) are very common. All major, minor, and suspended chords have a perfect fifth. Also important are the perfect second, perfect fourth, and major sixth. To learn more about different chords and the intervals that make them up, read this article on intervals and this one on chords. They are both very informative.
Thirds are the most consonant intervals (after the unison, octave, perfect fifth, and perfect fourth).
Are other intervals sometimes used?
Many other intervals are used. See here for a list of the main ones. They include the perfect fifth, the perfect seventh, the octave, the major sixth and the perfect fourth. | <urn:uuid:bcc3f63c-01f2-445c-b608-18421cb1141f> | {
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Yogurt, a fermented dairy food, has been around for thousands of years and is an important part of the diet in the Middle East, Asia, Russia and Eastern European countries, such as Bulgaria. The beneficial bacteria in yogurt, also known as probiotics, improve your body’s ability to absorb essential nutrients, particularly calcium. Yogurt is also a potent inflammation-fighter, with well-documented curative effects for the pain and stiffness of arthritis, making it an important part of The Arthritis Healing Diet.
1. Yogurt blocks inflammation. People with arthritis should eat yogurt often because it blocks inflammation. A study in the World Journal of Gastroenterology found that the probiotics in yogurt trigger a decrease in C-reactive protein (CRP), a blood marker for inflammation that can go sky high in people with arthritis. Even more compelling, researchers noted that the bacteria strains Lactobacillus and Propionibacterium exert an especially strong effect on CRP. This means that certain beneficial bacteria have “strain-specific” anti-inflammatory abilities, so look for yogurt that contains these two when shopping. The same study found that yogurt’s beneficial bacteria caused a reduction in the body’s production of cytokines, body chemicals that turn on the inflammation response in joints.
For more scientific studies on probiotics go to: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go/pubmed
2. Calcium is critical for joint health. Ounce for ounce, yogurt contains more assimilable calcium than an equal amount of milk. Calcium is an essential mineral for bone and cartilage health. Just 1 cup of plain nonyogurt provides 414 mg of calcium — 25% more than the same amount of nonfat milk. On top of that, the milk sugar (lactose) in yogurt has been predigested by beneficial bacteria, which greatly improves calcium absorption. Bottom line? Eating yogurt regularly is vital for everyone with arthritis.
More calcium also makes weight loss easier, giving relief to over-stressed joints. A study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, found that eating a diet high in calcium boosts fat burning in the body. Women aged 18-30 whose weight was normal were put on either a high-calcium or a low-calcium meal plan for a full year. The high-calcium women took in 1000-1400 mg of calcium daily from food sources, while the low-calcium group got less than 800 mg calcium daily. Results? The high-calcium group burned fat at 20 times the rate of the low-calcium group! This is a testament to calcium’s fat-burning power and its importance for people with arthritis.
3. Not all yogurts are arthritis-friendly. Steer clear of any yogurt containing sugar, artificial sweeteners, artificial coloring, candy and cookie pieces. These bear little resemblance to real yogurt. Most also have been pasteurized, which kills the live bacteria, rendering the yogurt ineffective in treating arthritis. When shopping, read yogurt labels carefully. Look for organic yogurt with labels marked “living active cultures” or “live active cultures.” Some of the most beneficial bacteria to look for include L. bulgaricus, B. bifidus, L. casei, L. rhamnosus and L. reuteria. If you find plain yogurt to be too sour for your taste, just add a little fresh fruit, cinnamon and ground flaxseed for a sweet, healthful and delicious meal or snack any time of day. | <urn:uuid:1a56ea10-b42b-475c-bf55-1f1971644de5> | {
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Is participation in adult learning increasing?
Adult education activities are formal activities including basic skills training, apprenticeships, work-related courses, personal interest courses, English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, and part-time college or university degree programs. This indicator examines the participation rates of individuals age 16 or older in adult education activities.
Overall participation in adult education among individuals age 16 or older increased from 40 percent in 1995 to 46 percent in 2001 and then declined to 44 percent in 2005. In 2005, among the various types of adult education activities, individuals age 16 or older participated most in work-related courses (27 percent), followed by personal interest courses (21 percent), part-time college or university degree programs (5 percent), and other activities (3 percent).
Participation rates varied by sex, age, race/ethnicity, employment/occupation, and education in 2005. For example, a greater percentage of females than males participated in personal interest courses (24 vs. 18 percent) and work-related activities (29 vs. 25 percent). Individuals ages 16–24 had a higher overall participation rate in adult education activities than their counterparts age 55 or older. Blacks and Whites had higher rates of overall participation in adult education than their Hispanic peers. Among those employed in the past 12 months, the overall participation rate in adult education was higher for those in a professional or managerial occupation (70 percent) than for those employed in service, sales, or support jobs (48 percent) or those in trade occupations (34 percent). In addition, the overall participation rate in adult education for bachelor’s degree recipients or higher was greater than for those individuals who had some college or less education.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The Condition of Education 2007 (NCES 2007-064), Indicator 10.
Related Tables and Figures: (Listed by Release Date)
Other Resources: (Listed by Release Date) | <urn:uuid:eb8f98df-03a1-40bb-811f-f62df68aa608> | {
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October 9th is the 50th anniversary of the death of Pope Pius XII. Although his memory has been shrouded in controversy over his actions, or lack thereof, during the Second World War and specifically during the Holocaust, he is also remembered for his many encyclicals and messages that laid the groundwork for future developments within the Catholic Church.
His encyclicals on the Mystical Body of Christ and the renewal of Biblical studies, both published in 1943, provided inspiration for a more biblically-based ecclesiology and for a scientifically critical study of Sacred Scripture, both of which had a major influence on the Second Vatican Council, convened two decades later by his successor, John XXIII.
In 1947 Pius XII issued yet another encyclical on liturgical renewal, followed almost a decade later by his full-scale reform of the Holy Week liturgies. Both of these also fed into Vatican II, which promoted the active participation of the laity in the Church’s worship.
Earlier, in 1944, with the war still raging, the pope issued a Christmas message on democracy and the need for a lasting peace.
Reading that message today, one is struck by its florid style. What was unprecedented at the time, however, was its near-endorsement of democracy as the form of government best suited to insure justice for all.
The call for “democracy and more democracy,” he wrote, “cannot have any other meaning than to place the citizen ever more in the position to hold his own opinion, to express it and to make it prevail in a fashion conducive to the common good” (para. 20).
Nearly a half-century later, Pope John Paul II gave voice to the Catholic Church’s strongest support for democracy thus far.
In his 1991 encyclical Centesimus annus, marking the one-hundredth anniversary of Leo XIII’s landmark encyclical Rerum novarum, John Paul II wrote: “The Church values the democratic system inasmuch as it ensures the participation of citizens in making political choices, guarantees to the governed the possibility both of electing and holding accountable those who govern them, and of replacing them through peaceful means when appropriate” (n. 46).
Those values are tested regularly in democratic elections held at various levels and intervals. Indeed, the United States is currently in the midst of a campaign to elect a new President and Vice President.
Like the pontificate of Pius XII, the campaign is shrouded in controversy. The candidate for Vice President on the Republican ticket, Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska, is what we used to refer to as a “fallen-away” Catholic.
Baptized and raised as a Catholic, she began attending a Pentecostalist church as a teenager and later joined, and retains active membership in, a fundamentalist Bible church in Wasilla, Alaska, where she formerly served as mayor.
She may, however, escape criticism from the vocal group of bishops who tend to be more upset with practicing Catholic candidates like Governor Palin’s counterpart on the Democratic ticket, Senator Joseph Biden of Delaware. They disparage him as pro-choice on the issue of abortion, and therefore pro-abortion, because he does not favor the path of criminalization.
In a recent interview on “Meet the Press” (9/7/08), Senator Biden made clear that he accepted the teaching of the Catholic Church that human life begins at the moment of conception. But he also pointed out that this is a “religiously-based view,” a matter of faith, not scientific evidence that every reasonable person would have to accept.
Senator Biden noted that many American citizens–Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and others–have a different view, even though they “believe in God as strongly as I do. They’re intensely as religious as I am....For me to impose that judgment (of faith) on everyone else who is equally and maybe even more devout than I am seems to me is inappropriate in a pluralistic society.”
When Tom Brokaw, the interviewer, asked why Senator Biden had voted for abortion rights, Biden objected. He said that he had voted against “curtailing the right, criminalizing abortion. I voted,” he continued, “against telling everyone else in the country that they have to accept my religiously-based view that (life begins at the) moment of conception.”
He pointed out that he has not voted in favor of public funding of abortion “because that flips the burden. That’s then telling me that I have to accept a different view.”
What we all need to do, he said, is “reduce considerably the amount of abortions...by providing the care, the assistance and the encouragement for people to be able to carry to term and to raise their children.”
Such are the ways of democracy, as Pope Pius XII noted in 1944. | <urn:uuid:03444b47-28bf-44aa-a65e-cb0ec6e73fd1> | {
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In addition to the above types of problems, considerable research is directed to basic questions such as, Do we understand how quasars form and evolve? Can we connect theories of galaxy and black hole formation with the observations of quasars at high redshift and the incidence of black holes in galaxies at low redshift? Here I mention briefly some recent theoretical work that demonstrates progress in our understanding of quasars and ties in with present and future observational work.
Haiman, Madau, and Loeb (1998) point out that the scarcity of quasars at z > 3.5 in the Hubble Deep Field implies that the formation of quasars in halos with circular velocities less than 50 km/s is suppressed (on the assumption that black holes form with constant efficiency in cold dark matter halos). They note that the Next Generation Space Telescope should be able to detect the epoch of formation of the earliest quasars.
Cavaliere and Vittorini (1998) note that the observed form for the evolution of the space density of quasars can be understood at early times when cosmology and the processes of structure formation provide material for accretion onto central black holes as galaxies assemble. Quasars then turn off at later times because interaction with companions cause the accretion to diminish.
Haehnelt, Natarajan, and Rees (1998) show that the peak of quasar activity occurs at the same time as the first deep potential wells form. The Press-Schechter approach provides a way to estimate the space density of dark matter halos. But the space density of z = 3 quasars is less than 1% that of star-forming galaxies, which implies the quasar lifetime is much less than a Hubble time. For an assumed relation between quasar luminosity and timescale and the Eddington limit, it is possible to connect the observed quasar luminosity density with dark matter halos and the numbers of black holes in nearby galaxies. The apparently large number of local galaxies with black holes implies that accretion processes for quasars are inefficient in producing blue light. | <urn:uuid:3b1a9e85-b862-4186-8471-8747530a00ce> | {
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Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a new tool to study brain function and is being investigated as a treatment modality for depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders.1,2 To perform rTMS, a powerful electromagnetic coil is placed on the scalp. The coil produces a rapidly changing focal magnetic field that induces an electrical current that depolarizes neurons. Because the magnetic field produced by the coil decreases exponentially with distance,3 only superficial structures are directly stimulated.
Currently in most rTMS applications, rTMS is dosed for each individual according to the amount of stimulation required to cause contraction of the contralateral (right extremity) abductor pollicis brevis. This is called the motor threshold (MT), and it is commonly expressed as a percentage of the total magnetic pulse capable for each machine. Surprisingly, despite more than a decade of research now using TMS as a tool to investigate the motor system, the relationship between the motor threshold for each individual and the distance from the individual's scalp to cortex is not well understood. Because the motor threshold is inexpensively determined and appears to relate to seizure risk,4 most studies using TMS over nonmotor regions such as the prefrontal cortex have stimulated with the intensity determined by the motor threshold over motor cortex. An untested assumption is made that the motor cortex variables apply to the prefrontal cortex.
Initial open studies5—7 and later crossover8,9 and now double-blind parallel studies10 all suggest that rTMS has antidepressant properties. Not all studies have been positive.11 For example, psychotically depressed patients appear not to respond to rTMS as currently applied.12 Moreover, in all studies, older subjects have not responded as well as younger subjects.7,13
Imaging studies have shown that the prefrontal cortex atrophies with age in depressed subjects.14,15 Accordingly, the trend of nonresponse in elderly patients in the TMS antidepressant trials prompted us to wonder if the degree of brain atrophy, particularly prefrontal, might play a role in the relative nonresponse in older depressed subjects. We thus carried out the following magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study in adult depressed subjects participating in a parallel-design randomized placebo-controlled trial of left prefrontal rTMS for the treatment of depression. (For full details of this clinical trial, see Nahas et al.10)
Thirty-two depressed adults enrolled in a 2-week double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Two subjects who had been randomized to receive active rTMS did not tolerate the procedure and dropped out after fewer than three treatments. They were excluded from final analysis. Prior to treatment, all subjects had an MRI scan of the head. One subject could not tolerate the initial MRI scan. Included for this MRI study, therefore, were 29 patients (11 men) who met DSM-IV criteria for either major depressive disorder (n=21; 7 men) or bipolar disorder—most recent episode depressed (n=8; 4 men). They were randomized into one of three cells, in each of which the subjects received 10 days of prefrontal stimulation over 2 weeks. The cells and the subject means (±SD) for Hamilton depression score (Ham-D) and years of age were as follows: high frequency (Active, 20 Hz, n=12; Ham-D=30±5.86, age=42.6±14); low frequency (Active, 5 Hz, n=8; Ham-D=26.3±5.98, age=42.4±7); and placebo (n=9; Ham-D=23.8±4.1, age=48.5±8.8). Following full explanation of the procedures, all subjects signed a written informed consent document according to the declaration of Helsinki and as approved by the Medical University of South Carolina Institutional Review Board and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Devices Section.
Subjects were free of antidepressant medications for at least 2 weeks prior to study entry. Three exceptions were bipolar patients who required ongoing mood stabilizers or benzodiazepines for anxiety. No subjects were currently abusing substances. Two subjects, however, had a history of alcohol dependence, and one had a history of heroine and butane abuse.
Subjects underwent an MRI scan of the brain at the beginning and end of the study16 and had three regional cerebral blood flow single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans: at baseline, during the fifth rTMS session, and 3 days after completion of the trial prior to restarting medications. This report discusses the initial MRI scans only; the SPECT results have been discussed elsewhere.17,18 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of MRI scans done before and after the 2 weeks of treatment showed that rTMS produced no MRI changes.16
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
A medical doctor (A.M.S., Z.N., or M.S.G.) trained in the proper use of repetitive rTMS used a Cadwell Magnetic Stimulator (Cadwell; Kennewick, WA) equipped with a figure-8-shaped coil and a continuous water cooling system to prevent overheating. Subjects were seated upright in a comfortable chair with eyes open during rTMS. On the initial treatment visit, motor threshold was determined at rest in the contralateral (right extremity) abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscle, as described previously,13 by using visible twitch. The left prefrontal cortex stimulation site was defined as the location 5 cm rostral and in a parasagittal plane from the site of maximal APB stimulation.
Subjects were randomly assigned to receive stimulation over 20 minutes each weekday morning for 2 weeks as active (5 Hz or 20 Hz; see Nahas et al.10 for discussion of the role of stimulation frequency) or placebo (coil held tangential off the head). The left prefrontal cortex was stimulated at 100% MT, with an equal total number of 16,000 stimulations across all cells.
Ratings and Response Classification
Before entering the study, subjects were screened and diagnosed by trained clinicians using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia.19 In addition, the Ham-D (21 items)20 was administered at baseline, on the fifth day of treatment (end of week 1), and at the end of the study (week 2). Trained psychiatric nurses, blind to treatment arm, performed all ratings. Ham-D scores were used to calculate percentage improvement from the beginning to the end of treatment (2 weeks). Subjects who showed ≥50% improvement in the 21-item Ham-D at 2 weeks from baseline were classified as antidepressant treatment responders.
One day prior to the beginning of treatment, a T1-weighted 3D volumetric MRI sequence was obtained with a 1.5-tesla Picker MRI scanner (Picker International; Cleveland, OH). Scans in this study were 142 1-mm-thick sagittal slices covering the entire brain (128×128, FOV=20 cm, TE=4.4, TR=13; voxel size 1.2×1.2×1 mm). Most, but not all, subjects (21 of 29) had vitamin E capsule fiducials (approximately 7 mm×12 mm oval) placed at the site of rTMS prefrontal stimulation.
MRI Scan Reformatting and Distance Calculations
The T1-weighted MRI scans were reformatted from sagittal to coronal plane by a blinded reader (F.A.K. or C.D.) using Analyze Mayo Clinic Image Processing System version 7.5.2 on a SUN UltraSPARC 20 station. A line was drawn on the midsagittal view to bisect the anterior commissure and posterior commissure. The corresponding transverse image was resliced and corrected for problems in roll or yaw. The roll-correction was done by equalizing the structures of both eyes in the transverse plane and correcting yaw such that the midsagittal sulcus appeared vertical in that slice. The image was reformatted to the coronal plane, with 250 1-mm-thick slices from the caudal to the rostral aspect of the skull.
MRI distance measurements were performed by a trained observer (F.A.K.) blind to all patient variables, using MedX 2.1 (Sensor Systems; Alexandria, VA) on a DEC Alpha workstation with a 21-inch high-resolution screen. The coronal MRI images were enlarged so that there were three slices per screen (approximately 7×12 cm image size on the screen). The software, MedX, has a semi-automated function where, when a line is drawn from one point to another, the distance (in mm) and a reference angle (e.g., moving from one point vertically upward to another gives a value of —90.00 degrees) are computed based on image voxel sizes (see F1).
Prefrontal Cortex Distance Measurement (D-PFC)
A trained and blinded investigator (F.A.K.) assessed the shortest distance from the TMS coil to the nearest prefrontal cortex by using three different techniques.
After determining the D-PFC with all three methods, we elected to use the standard method for testing our hypotheses because it allowed the inclusion of the 8 subjects where the fiducial was not visible. In addition, there were concerns that the fiducials, even when visible, might have been moved from the true site because of hair, gravity, or displacement by the inflatable head holder used while scanning.
Motor Cortex Distance Measurement (D-MC)
Fiducials were not placed at the scalp position where the motor cortex threshold was determined. Because of the difficulty of determining the motor cortex region for thumb control from a structural MRI scan, particularly in the coronal plane,21 we chose not to identify the motor cortex directly. In the clinical trial, however, we determined the prefrontal stimulation location by empirically finding the area of motor cortex for APB and then moving in a parasagittal plane 5 cm forward. Thus, the motor cortex stimulation site would theoretically be 5 cm caudal from the prefrontal stimulation site. We therefore decided to use the prefrontal site as the point of reference from which to determine the motor cortex site, using the following algorithm.
In order to measure the distance from the coil to the motor cortex, we first counted 16 slices rostral from the corpus callosum (which was the first slice measured using the standard method) and copied the vertical line from lateral left eye socket to the skull that was created by the standard method for measuring the prefrontal cortex. We then moved 50 slices (5 cm) caudally, and the vertical line was copied unchanged onto this slice (the first presumed motor cortex slice). This provided a point of intersection between the skull and the line. A measurement was taken from that intersection to the nearest cortex. This was recorded as the distance from the coil to the motor cortex in millimeters (D-MC). The line was copied onto the next eight rostral contiguous slices, and distance measurements were taken as above.
First, using a paired Student's t-test, we compared whether D-MC significantly differed from D-PFC. Correlational hypotheses were tested by using StatView 4.5, where bivariate plots were performed and a Pearson's correlation with a Fisher's r to z (P-values) was calculated to determine if significant relationships existed between our hypothesized variables (P<0.05).
We analyzed the relationship of distance from coil to motor cortex (D-MC) with 1) percentage output to reach motor threshold; 2) age; 3) distance from coil to prefrontal cortex (D-PFC); and 4) percentage antidepressant clinical response. Next, we analyzed the correlation of D-PFC with 1) percentage clinical response; 2) age among responders and nonresponders; and 3) percentage output to reach motor threshold. Finally, potential relationships between the nondistance measures were tested (age, percentage output to reach motor threshold, and percentage antidepressant clinical response).
For a full description of this patient sample, see Nahas et al.10 As noted above, there were 11 men and 18 women; 20 subjects with MRI scans were in the active group and 9 in the placebo group. This antidepressant trial had 7 responders and 22 (9 placebo) nonresponders.
Motor Distance and Prefrontal Distance
D-PFC was significantly greater than D-MC (D-PFC=14.4±2.7 mm, D-MC=12.7 ±2.6 mm, t=—3.6, P<0.01; mean±SD and Student's paired t-test).
Distance and Motor Threshold
MT significantly increased with increasing D-MC (P<0.01, Fisher's r to z, 29 subjects; see F2). There was no significant relationship between D-PFC and MT (P=0.0525). D-MC and D-PFC significantly cross-correlated (r=0.562, P<0.01).
D-MC (r=0.525, P<0.01) as well as D-PFC (r=0.611, P<0.001) significantly increased with age. Interestingly, a trend for D-PFC to increase more with age than D-MC was found in this depressed cohort (see F3). In this small group, there was not a significant correlation (P=0.5746) between age and D-MC minus D-PFC. There was not a significant correlation between age and MT (P=0.1340) or between age and percentage antidepressant response (P=0.1271).
Correlation with Clinical Antidepressant Response
There was no correlation between D-MC or D-PFC and percentage clinical response. (D-PFC did not correlate with percentage clinical response with any of the three measuring methods: fiducial to cortex (P=0.1216), skull under fiducial to cortex (P=0.4885), or standard (P=0.2029). When we examined D-PFC and age, analyzed separately for responders and nonresponders (see F4), the responders were significantly younger (t=—2.430, P=0.0258), but response did not significantly correlate with D-PFC. There does seem to be a maximum threshold of age and distance, with the responders being younger than 55 years of age and having a D-PFC of less than 17.00 mm.
There was not a significant correlation between percentage output to reach MT and percentage clinical antidepressant response (P=0.1693).
This is the first study addressing the complicated area of whether and to what degree the distance from coil to motor or prefrontal cortex interacts with motor threshold. This study also examines the relationships between age, prefrontal cortex distance, and clinical antidepressant response. As the first study exploring these questions, it suffers from several methodological shortcomings outlined below. Nevertheless, there were several important findings. The estimated distance from TMS coil to prefrontal cortex (D-PFC) was greater than the distance from coil to motor cortex (D-MC). The motor threshold (MT) significantly correlated with D-MC, whereas it did not correlate with D-PFC. Both motor and prefrontal cortex distances increased with age in this depressed cohort, with D-PFC showing a trend to increase at a faster rate than D-MC. Finally, there was not a linear correlation between D-PFC and clinical antidepressant response. All subjects however, who responded were below a critical threshold of age and prefrontal cortex distance.
There are several limitations of this study that bear on proper interpretation. The most important of these was difficulty in determining the TMS sites on the MRI scans. One method used was to place a fiducial at the site of the rTMS. When designing the study, we reasoned that this fiducial would enable a relatively precise localization of the actual site of stimulation. Using this method alone, however, would have limited an already small sample size, because only about three-fifths of the subjects studied and scanned had fiducials that could be seen on the MRI scan. Complicating things further, during scanning several of the fiducials appeared to have moved off of the scalp, resulting in a placement that no longer represented the true site of rTMS. Because of these confounding factors, we felt that using the actual fiducial to measure the distance to nearest cortex in this study was not an accurate method.
While trying to develop a more accurate method, we noticed that the prefrontal fiducial was often directly in line with a vertical (—90 degree) line from the lateral center point of the left eye. We found that the fiducial was commonly 20 slices anterior from the corpus callosum and therefore adopted this as the "virtual" location of the rTMS coil to start measuring the eight scans. By performing the measurement 4 mm in front of and behind this chosen intersection, we averaged the scalp to cortex distance over the likely prefrontal spot. Thus, even if we did not measure directly under the actual TMS spot, we were able to obtain a distance measurement that likely represented the average distance of skull to cortex in this region. Further, this averaging system of a virtual spot enabled us to utilize all of the scans available for analysis, and the technique often correlated well with the position of the fiducial. The limitation was that we could not be sure how close to the actual coil stimulation the measurements were performed. Despite these difficulties, the standardized method of measuring eight scans and averaging the result does appear to give a rough approximation of the distance to the nearest cortex in the area stimulated. This corresponds to either the left medial frontal gyrus or the left superior frontal gyrus (Talairach coordinates: x plane from —25 to —40, y from 50 to 58, z from 20 to 40). Future studies with more precise fiducial placement, or even MRI phase maps of the actual magnetic field3 in all subjects, would improve on the current study.
Similarly, there was no fiducial over the motor cortex APB area where MT was actually determined. Thus, we were forced to empirically determine this spot as well by measuring backward from the prefrontal site. We again measured the motor cortex distance over a relatively large area (8 mm) in order to compensate for the imprecision of our location. Because we measured motor cortex distance on 8 slices, the number used as a dependent variable is thus more likely a rough measure of motor cortex atrophy, rather than the exact distance from coil to motor cortex.
Despite all these factors, the robust correlation of motor threshold with distance to motor cortex is surprising, especially given these limitations in spatial location. Future studies with fiducials directly over the true site of optimum APB stimulation are needed.
The motor threshold was determined in this study by using visible movement, which is not standard practice but which our group has shown on a different machine to correspond to MT determined by motor evoked potentials.13 Future studies exploring these issues might use electrophysiologically determined MT. Similarly, our choice of the percentage change in Ham-D as the dependent variable for clinical response is relatively imprecise, but a standard practice. Future studies using other behavioral, neuroendocrine, or even brain metabolism measures might better address the correlation between distance and clinical response. Finally, the small sample size could have reduced the power of the study such that the relationship between distance to the cortex and percentage response was not statistically significant. Our sample was especially small at the extremes of age (5 subjects>55 years old) and distance to the prefrontal cortex (3 subjects>17 mm). On a more theoretical note, the magnetic field declines logarithmically with distance, and we tested for correlations that assumed linear relationships. Future studies with larger samples might explore whether nonlinear relationships exist between the distance variables and the other factors examined in this study. Despite these important limitations, these data provide intriguing results that will require further investigation combining rTMS and imaging.
Motor Cortex Distance and Motor Threshold:
The distance to motor cortex correlated strongly with the motor threshold, while the prefrontal distance did not (although there was a nonsignificant trend). This would imply that the distance from the coil to the nearest cortex is critical in determining the amount of energy required to depolarize the pyramidal tract neurons in the motor cortex. Another interpretation, however, is that brain atrophy by neuronal degeneration of cortical neurons may disproportionately alter the excitatory and inhibitory balance, requiring a higher MT. In this interpretation, the increased distance is not the most important variable and instead reflects another process that also alters the motor threshold. The current study cannot distinguish which of these, or even other, explanations lies behind the observed relationship between motor cortex distance and motor threshold.
Regardless of mechanism, a greater distance to cortex would indicate a higher motor threshold. Further studies will be needed to address this question of mechanism. In this study, the skull to motor cortex distance alone accounts for 49.7% (r-correlation value) of the variance in MT across individuals. Presumably other factors such as gyral orientation and intrinsic neuronal excitation (particularly inhibition) account for the rest of the variance across individuals. This finding of the importance of distance in determining MT, if confirmed, would imply that the distance is an important variable that might be measured and used as a covariate in studies where the motor threshold is used to examine pharmacology or other questions.22
Lack of Direct Correlation Between Prefrontal Distance and Antidepressant Response:
The antidepressant mechanisms of action of rTMS are unknown. Positive clinical effects have been found over both left and right prefrontal cortex, at intensities from 80% to 110% MT, and at frequencies from 0.5 to 20 Hz. Some have suggested that the studies to date have a trend toward larger antidepressant effects with greater intensity, although this has not been directly examined.1 An assumption is made, but not formally tested, that stimulation with an intensity sufficient to cause neuronal depolarization is necessary and that low-intensity stimulation would not cause cortical cell depolarization with trans-synaptic effects. In light of these working assumptions in this new field of TMS and depression, we hypothesized that increasing skull-to-cortex distance might correlate with clinical antidepressant response. Although we failed to find a direct linear relationship, the many limitations of the current study preclude any large interpretation of this negative result. Future clinical trials in conjunction with imaging are needed to directly test the assumptions above about the antidepressant effects of TMS, intensity, and distance to prefrontal cortex.
Increase in Distance With Age:
Although the motor and prefrontal measurements both increase with age and do correspond to each other, the distance to prefrontal cortex appears to increase faster with age (though not significantly) than the distance to motor cortex. This finding of greater prefrontal atrophy with age in a depressed cohort is similar to findings in other studies that have examined depressed subjects compared with age-matched healthy control subjects.14,15 Although in this study MT also increased with age (though not significantly), it may be the case that there is a greater D-PFC in older depressed subjects that is not accounted for by the more modest increase in MT with age. Our finding that no individuals older than 55 years or with a prefrontal distance greater than 17 mm responded to rTMS is consistent with this idea, although larger studies in elderly depressed subjects are needed to directly test it. Some have suggested that older depressed patients do not respond as well to medication therapy. An age-related variable, therefore, such as prefrontal atrophy, itself may confer a resistance to antidepressant response independent of D-PFC. Further study is indicated to understand the relationships between distance, age, and antidepressant action.
We have found that the motor threshold measurement used in TMS studies is highly dependent on the distance from cortex to skull under the TMS coil. Further, this distance increases with age, and in a depressed cohort there is prefrontal cortical atrophy that may outpace the motor cortex declines. These distances do not directly correlate with antidepressant clinical response, although TMS did not work in older subjects with large prefrontal distances. Further work combining TMS with imaging will likely expand knowledge of TMS brain effects.
The authors thank Drs. James C. Ballenger, Jeremy Young, George Arana, Eric Wassermann, Sarah Lisanby, and Ulf Ziemann for helpful reviews and comments. Andrew M. Speer assisted in the scanning and rTMS for the study. The National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression and the Ted and Vada Stanley Foundation provided grants to Dr. George. An abstract of this work was presented at the New Research Session of the 152nd annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, May 1999.23 | <urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea> | {
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His parents were Tescelin, lord of Fontaines, and Aleth of Montbard, both belonging to the highest nobility of Burgundy. Bernard, the third of a family of seven children, six of whom were sons, was educated with particular care, because, while yet unborn, a devout man had foretold his great destiny. At the age of nine years, Bernard was sent to a much renowned school at Chatillon-sur-Seine, kept by the secular canons of Saint-Vorles. He had a great taste for literature and devoted himself for some time to poetry. His success in his studies won the admiration of his masters, and his growth in virtue was no less marked. Bernard's great desire was to excel in literature in order to take up the study of Sacred Scripture, which later on became, as it were, his own tongue. "Piety was his all," says Bossuet. He had a special devotion to the Blessed Virgin, and there is no one who speaks more sublimely of the Queen of Heaven. Bernard was scarcely nineteen years of age when his mother died. During his youth, he did not escape trying temptations, but his virtue triumphed over them, in many instances in a heroic manner, and from this time he thought of retiring from the world and living a life of solitude and prayer.
St. Robert, Abbot of Molesmes, had founded, in 1098, the monastery of Cîteaux, about four leagues from Dijon, with the purpose of restoring the Rule of St. Benedict in all its rigour. Returning to Molesmes, he left the government of the new abbey to St. Alberic, who died in the year 1109. St. Stephen had just succeeded him (1113) as third Abbot of Cîteaux, when Bernard with thirty young noblemen of Burgundy, sought admission into the order. Three years later, St. Stephen sent the young Bernard, at the head of a band of monks, the third to leave Cîteaux, to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, or Valley of Bitterness, in the Diocese of Langres. This Bernard named Claire Vallée, of Clairvaux, on the 25th of June, 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux thence became inseparable. During the absence of the Bishop of Langres, Bernard was blessed as abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne, who saw in him the predestined man, servum Dei. From that moment a strong friendship sprang up between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris, and the founder of the cloister of St. Victor.
The beginnings of Clairvaux were trying and painful. The regime was so austere that Bernard's health was impaired by it, and only the influence of his friend William of Champeaux, and the authority of the General Chapter could make him mitigate his austerities. The monastery, however, made rapid progress. Disciples flocked to it in great numbers, desirous of putting themselves under the direction of Bernard. His father, the aged Tescelin, and all his brothers entered Clairvaux as religious, leaving only Humbeline, his sister, in the world and she, with the consent of her husband, soon took the veil in the Benedictine Convent of Jully. Clairvaux becoming too small for the religious who crowded there, it was necessary to send out bands to found new houses. n 1118, the Monastery of the Three Fountains was founded in the Diocese of Châlons; in 1119, that of Fontenay in the Diocese of Auton (now Dijon) and in 1121, that of Foigny, near Vervins, in the Diocese of Laon (now Soissons), Notwithstanding this prosperity, the Abbot of Clairvaux had his trials. During an absence from Clairvaux, the Grand Prior of Cluny, Bernard of Uxells, sent by the Prince of Priors, to use the expression of Bernard, went to Clairvaux and enticed away the abbot's cousin, Robert of Châtillon. This was the occasion of the longest, and most touching of Bernard's letters.
In the year 1119, Bernard was present at the first general chapter of the order convoked by Stephen of Cîteaux. Though not yet thirty years old, Bernard was listened to with the greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primitive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. It was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the regulations of the "Charter of Charity" which Pope Callixtus II confirmed 23 December, 1119. In 1120 Bernard composed his first work "De Gradibus Superbiae et Humilitatis" and his homilies which he entitles "De Laudibus Mariae". The monks of Cluny had not seen, with satisfaction, those of Cîteaux take the first place among the religious orders for regularity and fervour. For this reason there was a temptation on the part of the "Black Monks" to make it appear that the rules of the new order were impracticable. At the solicitation of William of St. Thierry, Bernard defended himself by publishing his "Apology" which is divided into two parts. In the first part he proves himself innocent of the invectives against Cluny, which had been attributed to him, and in the second he gives his reasons for his attack upon averred abuses. He protests his profound esteem for the Benedictines of Cluny whom he declares he loves equally as well as the other religious orders. Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, answered the Abbot of Clairvaux without wounding charity in the least, and assured him of his great admiration and sincere friendship. In the meantime Cluny established a reform, and Suger himself, the minister of Louis le Gros, and Abbot of St. Denis, was converted by the apology of Bernard. He hastened to terminate his worldly life and restore discipline in his monastery. The zeal of Bernard did not stop here; it extended to the bishops, the clergy, and the faithful, and remarkable conversions of persons engaged in worldly pursuits were among the fruits of his labours. Bernard's letter to the Archbishop of Sens is a real treatise "De Officiis Episcoporum". About the same time he wrote his work on "Grace and Free Will".
In the year 1128, Bernard assisted at the Council of Troyes, which had been convoked by Pope Honorius II, and was presided over by Cardinal Matthew, Bishop of Albano. The purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of Paris, and regulate other matters of the Church of France. The bishops made Bernard secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes. After the council, the Bishop of Verdun was deposed. There then arose against Bernard unjust reproaches and he was denounced even in Rome, as a monk who meddled with matters that did not concern him. Cardinal Harmeric, on behalf of the pope, wrote Bernard a sharp letter of remonstrance. "It is not fitting" he said "that noisy and troublesome frogs should come out of their marshes to trouble the Holy See and the cardinals". Bernard answered the letter by saying that, if he had assisted at the council, it was because he had been dragged to it, as it were, by force. "Now illustrious Harmeric", he added, "if you so wished, who would have been more capable of freeing me from the necessity of assisting at the council than yourself? Forbid those noisy troublesome frogs to come out of their holes, to leave their marshes . . . Then your friend will no longer be exposed to the accusations of pride and presumption". This letter made a great impression upon the cardinal, and justified its author both in his eyes and before the Holy See. It was at this council that Bernard traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templars who soon became the ideal of the French nobility. Bernard praises it in his "De Laudibus Novae Militiae".
The influence of the Abbot of Clairvaux was soon felt in provincial affairs. He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henry Archbishop of Sens, and Stephen de Senlis, Bishop of Paris. On the death of Honorius II, which occurred on the 14th of February, 1130, a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Innocent II and Anacletus II. Innocent II having been banished from Rome by Anacletus took refuge in France. King Louis le Gros convened a national council of the French bishops at Etampes, and Bernard, summoned thither by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II, caused him to be recognized by all the great Catholic powers, went with him into Italy, calmed the troubles that agitated the country, reconciled Pisa with Genoa, and Milan with the pope and Lothaire. According to the desire of the latter, the pope went to Liège to consult with the emperor upon the best means to be taken for his return to Rome, for it was there that Lothaire was to receive the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. From Liège, the pope returned to France, paid a visit to the Abbey of St. Denis, and then to Clairvaux where his reception was of a simple and purely religious character. The whole pontifical court was touched by the saintly demeanor of this band of monks. In the refectory only a few common fishes were found for the pope, and instead of wine, the juice of herbs was served for drink, says an annalist of Cîteaux. It was not a table feast that was served to the pope and his followers, but a feast of virtues. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II, whose oracle he was; and then in Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William, Count of Poitiers, from the cause of Anacletus.
In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to this celebrated abbey--an action which gave rise to a quarrel between the "White Monks" and the "Black Monks" which lasted twenty years. In the month of May, the pope supported by the army of Lothaire, entered Rome, but Lothaire, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September, 1133. In the meantime the abbot had returned to France in June, and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. This would have died out of itself if William could have been detached from the cause of Gerard, who had usurped the See of Bordeaux and retained that of Angoulême. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. At the moment of the Communion, placing the Sacred Host upon the paten, he went to the door of the church where William was, and pointing to the Host, he adjured the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants. William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan, which had been deceived and misled by the ambitious prelate Anselm, Archbishop of Milan, to obedience to the pose, refused the Archbishopric of Milan, and returned finally to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of those pious and learned works which have won for him the title of "Doctor of the Church". He wrote at this time his sermons on the "Canticle of Canticles". In 1137 he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothaire and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II and in silencing Peter of Pisa who sustained Anacletus. The latter died of grief and disappointment in 1138, and with him the schism. Returning to Clairvaux, Bernard occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his too-crowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Three Fountains Abbey, near the Salvian Waters in Rome, from which Pope Eugenius III was chosen. Bernard resumed his commentary on the "Canticle of Canticles", assisted in 1139, at the Second General Lateran Council and the Tenth Oecumenical, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by St. Malachi, metropolitan of the Church in Ireland, and a very close friendship was formed between them. St. Malachi would gladly have taken the Cistercian habit, but the sovereign pontiff would not give his permission. He died, however, at Clairvaux in 1148.
In the year 1140, we find Bernard engaged in other matters which disturbed the peace of the Church. Towards the close of the eleventh century, the schools of philosophy and theology, dominated by the passion for discussion and a spirit of independence which had introduced itself into political and religious questions, became a veritable public arena, with no other motive than that of ambition. This exaltation of human reason and rationalism found an ardent and powerful adherent in Abelard, the most eloquent and learned man of the age after Bernard. "The history of the calamities and the refutation of his doctrine by St. Bernard", says Ratisbonne, "form the greatest episode of the twelfth century". Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned in 1121, and he himself had thrown his book into the fire. But in 1139 he advocated new errors. Bernard, informed of this by William of St. Thierry, wrote to Abelard who answered in an insulting manner. Bernard then denounced him to the pope who caused a general council to be held at Sens. Abelard asked for a public discussion with Bernard; the latter showed his opponent's errors with such clearness and force of logic that he was unable to make any reply, and was obliged, after being condemned, to retire. he pope confirmed the judgment of the council, Abelard submitted without resistance, and retired to Cluny to live under Peter the Venerable, where he died two years later.
Innocent II died in 1143. His two successors, Celestin II and Lucius, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, Abbott of Three Fountains, and known thereafter as Eugenius III, raised to the Chair of St. Peter. Bernard sent him, at his own request, various instructions which compose the "Book of Consideration", the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the Church ought to commence with the sanctity of the head. Temporal matters are merely accessories; the principal are piety, meditation, or consideration, which ought to precede action. The book contains a most beautiful page on the papacy, and has always been greatly esteemed by the sovereign pontiffs, many of whom used it for their ordinary reading.
Alarming news came at this time from the East. Edessa had fallen into the hands of the Turks, and Jerusalem and Antioch were threatened with similar disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors. The pope commissioned Bernard to preach a new Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Urban II had accorded to the first. A parliament was convoked at Vézelay in Burgundy in 1146, and Bernard preached before the assembly. The King, Louis le Jeune, Queen Eleanor, and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of the Abbot of Clairvaux to receive the cross. The saint was obliged to use portions of his habit to make crosses to satisfy the zeal and ardour of the multitude who wished to take part in the Crusade. Bernard passed into Germany, and the miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. The Emperor Conrad and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, received the pilgrims' cross from the hand of Bernard, and Pope Eugenius, to encourage the enterprise, came in person to France. It was on the occasion of this visit, 1147, that a council was held at Paris, at which the errors of Gilbert de la Porée, Bishop of Poitiers, were examined. He advanced among other absurdities that the essence and the attributes of God are not God, that the properties of the Persons of the Trinity are not the persons themselves in fine that the Divine Nature did not become incarnate. The discussion was warm on both sides. The decision was left for the council which was held at Reims the following year (1148), and in which Eon de l'Etoile was one of the judges. Bernard was chosen by the council to draw up a profession of faith directly opposed to that of Gilbert, who concluding by stating to the Fathers: "If you believe and assert differently than I have done I am willing to believe and speak as you do". The consequence of this declaration was that the pope condemned the assertions of Gilbert without denouncing him personally. After the council the pope paid a visit to Clairvaux, where he held a general chapter of the order and was able to realize the prosperity of which Bernard was the soul.
The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the Crusade he had preached, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him. He had accredited the enterprise by miracles, but he had not guaranteed its success against the misconduct and perfidy of those who participated in it. Lack of discipline and the over-confidence of the German troops, the intrigues of the Prince of Antioch and Queen Eleanor, and finally the avarice and evident treason of the Christian nobles of Syria, who prevented the capture of Damascus, appear to have been the cause of disaster. Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the pope and it is inserted in the second part of his "Book of Consideration". There he explains how, with the crusaders as with the Hebrew people, in whose favour the Lord had multiplies his prodigies, their sins were the cause of their misfortune and miseries. The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end The first to die was Suger (1152), of whom the Abbot wrote to Eugenius III: "If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger". Thibaud, Count of Champagne, Conrad, Emperor of Germany, and his son Henry died the same year. From the beginning of the year 1153 Bernard felt his death approaching. The passing of Pope Eugenius had struck the fatal blow by taking from him one whom he considered his greatest friend and consoler. Bernard died in the sixty-third year of his age, after forty years spent in the cloister. He founded one hundred and sixty-three monasteries in different parts of Europe; at his death they numbered three hundred and forty-three. He was the first Cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by Alexander III, 18 January 1174. Pope Pius VIII bestowed on him the title of Doctor of the Church. The Cistercians honour him as only the founders of orders are honoured, because of the wonderful and widespread activity which he gave to the Order of Cîteaux.
The works of St. Bernard are as follows:
His sermons are also numerous:
Many other letters, treatises, etc., falsely attributed to him are found among his works, such as the "l'Echelle du Cloître", which is the work of Guigues, Prior of La Grande Chartreuse, les Méditations, l'Edification de la Maison intérieure, etc.
APA citation. (1907). St. Bernard of Clairvaux. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02498d.htm
MLA citation. "St. Bernard of Clairvaux." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02498d.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Janet Grayson.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads. | <urn:uuid:6968a694-a288-435c-8309-71cc7b2c4d1f> | {
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Dangerous levels of climate change could be reached in just over 20 years if nothing is done to stop global warming, a WWF-UK study claims.
Polar bears are at risk of dying out if the Arctic summer sea ice melts
At current rates, the Earth will be 2C above pre-industrial levels some time between 2026 and 2060, says a paper by Dr Mark New of Oxford University.
Temperatures in the Arctic could rise by three times this amount, he says.
It would lead to a loss of summer sea ice and tundra vegetation, with polar bears and other animals dying out.
It would also mean a fundamental change in the ways Inuit and other Arctic residents live.
Dr New said: "A very robust result from global climate models is that warming due to greenhouse gases will reduce the amount of snow and ice cover in the Arctic, which will in turn produce an additional warming as more solar radiation is absorbed by the ground and the ocean."
Ice and snow reflect more solar radiation back to space than unfrozen surfaces.
According to the WWF, the perennial ice, or summer sea ice, is currently melting at a rate of 9.6% per decade and will disappear completely by the end of the century if present trends continue.
Boreal forests would spread north and overwhelm up to 60% of dwarf shrub tundra, a critical habitat and vital breeding ground for many birds.
"If we don't act immediately, the Arctic will soon become unrecognisable," said Dr Catarina Cardoso, head of climate change at WWF-UK.
"Polar bears will be consigned to history, something that our grandchildren can only read about in books."
Dr New's paper - Arctic Climate Change with a 2C Global Warming - is one of four papers contributing to a report by WWF.
The papers will be presented at the Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change conference in Exeter between 1 and 3 February. The conference has been organised by the UK's Met Office. | <urn:uuid:a4009282-c6b2-4aa9-afda-e8f103788535> | {
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The research team includes first author Bradley Bernstein, recipient of a Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) physician postdoctoral fellowship who works in the Harvard University laboratory of HHMI investigator Stuart L. Schreiber. Other co-authors are from the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, and Affymetrix. Their findings are published in the January 28, 2005 issue of Cell.
"Now that the human genome has been sequenced, it is vital to learn how the genome is translated to make living cells and organisms, and how we can use that information to improve human health," said Bernstein, who is an instructor of pathology at Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School. "Every one of our cells has the same genome, yet is completely different. Muscle cells are different from neurons. They are different because different genes are on."
Many scientists believe changes in the regulatory scaffolding surrounding the genome may be as important as changes in the genome itself in causing diseases such as cancer.
This regulatory structure, called chromatin, is a key regulator of gene expression in healthy and diseased cells, Bernstein said. Chromatin is composed of DNA spooled around bundles of histone proteins, and resembles a chain of beads which is then compressed into a working chromosome. Chemical tags placed on the histones alter the way chromatin is organized, thus allowing the right combination of genes to be turned on.
In their study, the researchers analyzed the chromatin structure of the two shortest human chromosomes, numbers 21 and 22, containing about two percent of the human genome. They also sampled additional regions in both the human and mouse gen
Contact: Jennifer Donovan
Howard Hughes Medical Institute | <urn:uuid:aae296f5-e272-44fe-8411-166e5b63049e> | {
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Cure for eczema comes closer to realityPublished On: Thu, Nov 24th, 2011 | Skin care | By BioNews
An effective cure for inflammatory skin conditions like eczema is a step closer to reality, researchers say.
Scientists have found that a strain of yeast implicated in skin conditions like eczema, can be killed by certain peptides and could provide a new treatment for these debilitating skin conditions.
20 percent of children in the UK suffer from atopic eczema and whilst this usually clears up in adolescence, 7 percent of adults will continue to suffer throughout their lifetime.
Furthermore, this type of eczema, characterized by dry, itchy, flaking skin, is increasing in prevalence. Whilst the cause of eczema remains unknown, one known trigger factor is the yeast Malassezia sympodialis.
This strain of yeast is one of the most common skin yeasts in both healthy individuals and those suffering from eczema. The skin barrier is more fragile and often broken in those suffering from such skin conditions, and this allows the yeast to cause infection, which then further exacerbates the condition.
Scientists at Karolinska Institute in Sweden looked for a way to kill Malassezia sympodialis without harming healthy human cells.
The researchers looked at the effect on the yeast of 21 peptides that had either; cell-penetrating or antimicrobial properties.
Cell-penetrating peptides are often investigated as drug delivery vectors and are able to cross the cell membrane, although the exact mechanism for this is unknown.
Antimicrobial peptides, on the other hand, are natural antibiotics and kill many different types of microbe including some bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Tina Holm and her colleagues added these different peptides types to separate yeast colonies and assessed the toxicity of each peptide type to the yeast.
They found that six of the 21 peptides they tested, successfully killed the yeast without damaging the membrane of keratinocytes, human skin cells.
“Many questions remain to be solved before these peptides can be used in humans,” Holm said.
“However, the appealing combination of being toxic to the yeast at low concentrations whilst sparing human cells makes them very promising as antifungal agents.”
“We hope that these peptides in the future can be used to ease the symptoms of patients suffering from atopic eczema and significantly increase their quality of life,” she added.
The study was recently published in the Society for Applied Microbiology’s journal, Letters in Applied Microbiology. | <urn:uuid:86b0d1d9-7be1-4578-bf89-66d4b6b3ef58> | {
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Why champagne is so bubblyPublished On: Sat, Dec 31st, 2011 | Food & Nutrition | By BioNews
The unique bubbly fizz and taste that comes on popping the champagne cork is because of trapped carbon dioxide in the drink, a new study has suggested.
A New Year’s themed video produced by the American Chemical Society, explained Henry’s Law, which is a law of physics that states that the pressure of a gas above a solution is proportional to the concentration of the gas within the solution.
For champagne, carbon dioxide is the gas that forms those delightful bubbles. And, in an unopened bottle of champagne, there is equilibrium between the CO2 inside the liquid and the gas in the spaces of the cork, the Discovery News reported.
Popping the cork disturbs this equilibrium, which is only regained as the CO2 bubbles out. To get raise a perfect toast, make sure to pour on an angle, which preserves up to twice as much CO2 compared to pouring into the middle of the glass, according to a 2010 paper in the Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry.
The video demonstrated that “as the bubbles ascend the length of the glass in tiny trains, they drag along molecules of flavor and aroma which explode out of the surface, tickling the nose and stimulating the senses.”
Champagne making process includes two fermentations that must be done absolutely accurately to ensure the correct concentration of bubbles in the final product. During the first fermentation, just as for any other kind of wine, yeast eats up sugar molecules in grape juice and releases CO2 and ethanol. The second fermentation traps CO2 inside the liquid.
This procedure is definitely not that easy as during 1600s, when Dom Perignon is rumoured to have discovered champagne (or at least helped perfect it), bottles seldom ended up with no bubbles while in some occasions, CO2 levels were so high that bottles exploded. (ANI) | <urn:uuid:fe8bfa4b-192d-4d2e-8c1b-70f6c7dba5e1> | {
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Just as the Obama administration ditches NASA plans to return to the moon, a group in Japan is vowing to send humanoid robots there by 2015. Call it a giant leap for droidkind.
The Space Oriented Higashiosaka Leading Association (SOHLA), a satellite-manufacturing consortium in the Osaka area, has vowed to put bipedal humanoid bots on the moon in the next five years, according to a Jiji Press report. SOHLA is now developing a prototype astro-bot called "Maido-kun" that it hopes will follow in the steps of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin (minus the "Dancing with the Stars" part).
The robot will be smaller than a person and, if it makes it onto the moon, may do things like record astronomical observations and take geological surveys (and maybe do a bit of robot moonwalking).
Development costs for Maido-kun are estimated at $10.6 million, but the idea is being floated in part as an economic stimulus project for small and midsize tech firms in the Osaka region.
SOHLA has already worked with Japan's New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). In 2009, it launched the Maido 1 weather observation microsatellite aboard a JAXA HII-A rocket. SOHLA wants its robot to hitch a ride on a JAXA rocket bound for the moon in five years.
"Humanoid robots are glamorous, and they tend to get people fired up," SOHLA board member Noriyuki Yoshida was quoted as saying by Pink Tentacle. "We hope to develop a charming robot to fulfill the dream of going to space." | <urn:uuid:ce96b306-a12b-43bc-b943-9755d8460443> | {
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Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation. Conditions that can be considered slavery include debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servants kept in captivity, adoption in which children are effectively forced to work as slaves, child soldiers, and forced marriage. Slavery predates written records, has existed in many cultures. The number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history, remaining as high as 12 million to 27 million, though this is probably the smallest proportion of the world's population in history. Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations. Human trafficking is primarily for prostituting women and children into sex industries. | <urn:uuid:b7dd2b6e-b58f-4547-8987-ab76dd59e87c> | {
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Facing criticism, biofuels industry forms new lobby group to influence lawmakers
July 25, 2008
The group, known as the Alliance for Abundant Food and Energy, was created by Archer Daniels Midland Co, DuPont Co, Deere & Co, Monsanto Co and the Renewable Fuels Association. Its initial budget is "in the multimillions", according to the group's executive director Mark Kornblau.
"There are critics who are trying to create an either-or decision between food and fuel," Kornblau was quoted as saying by Reuters. "We believe this is a false choice. Today, more than 90 percent of crops in the United States and around the world are used exclusively for food."
The group will promote genetically modified crops to improve crops yields as a solution to meeting global food needs. It does not aim to curtail biofuel production and will lobby Congress to keep subsidies for ethanol and biodiesel production in place.
The alliance says that the current run up in food prices is linked to high energy prices, not production of biofuels from feedstocks such as corn and soy.
The U.S. Agriculture Department estimates that one-third of the U.S. corn crop this year will be used to make ethanol. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization says that biofuel production has consumed roughly 100 million tons of grains. Food prices have doubled in the past three years according to the World Bank. The International Food Policy Research Institute estimates that biofuels account for more than 30 percent of the increase.
Environmentalists say ethanol and biodiesel subsidies in Europe and the United States have caused market distortions that have displaced biofuel feedstock production into rainforests, tropical savannas, and other biologically-rich ecosystems.
Biofuels can reduce emissions, but not when grown in place of rainforests
(7/22/2008) Biofuels meant to help alleviate greenhouse gas emissions may be in fact contributing to climate change when grown on converted tropical forest lands, warns a comprehensive study published earlier this month in the journal Environmental Research Letters. Analyzing the carbon debt for biofuel crops grown in ecosystems around the world, Holly Gibbs and colleagues report that "while expansion of biofuels into productive tropical ecosystems will always lead to net carbon emissions for decades to centuries... [expansion] into degraded or already cultivated land will provide almost immediate carbon savings." The results suggest that under the right conditions, biofuels could be part of the effort to reduce humanity's carbon footprint.
Beyond high food prices, little to show for $11B/yr in biofuel support, says OECD report
(7/17/2008) Government support of biofuel production in rich countries is squandering vast amounts of amounts of money while exacerbating the global food crisis and failing to meaningfully curb greenhouse gas emissions and improve energy security, alleges a new report from the OECD, the club of industrialized nations.
Palm oil industry moves into the Amazon rainforest
(7/9/2008) Malaysia's Land Development Authority FELDA has announced plans to immediately establish 100,000 hectares (250,000) of oil palm plantations in the Brazilian Amazon. The agency will partner with Braspalma, a local company, to form Felda Global Ventures Brazil Sdn Bhd. FELDA will have a 70 percent stake in the venture. The announcement had been expected. Last month Najib said Malaysia would seek to expand its booming palm oil industry overseas. The country is facing land constraints at home.
Britain urges 'cautious approach' on biofuels
(7/7/2008) Britain and the E.U. should exercise caution in pushing for wider use of biofuels, warns a new study commissioned by the U.K. government.
Biofuel production on abandoned lands could meet 8% of global energy needs
(6/23/2008) Using abandoned agricultural lands for biofuel production could help meet up to 8 percent of global energy needs without compromising food supplies or diminishing biologically-rich habitats, reports a new study published in the journal Environmental Science and Technology.
U.S. may allow corn farming on conservation land
(6/23/2008) The U.S. Department of Agriculture may allow farmers to plant corn on million of acres of conservation land to bolster the food supply in response to flooding in the Midwest and record high prices spurred by demand for domestic ethanol production, according to a report in the New York Times.
Global Commodities Boom Fuels New Assault on Amazon
(6/20/2008) With soaring prices for agricultural goods and new demand for biofuels, the clearing of the world's largest rain forest has accelerated dramatically. Unless forceful measures are taken, half of the Brazilian Amazon could be cut, burned or dried out within 20 years.
Nestle Chairman: Biofuels are "ethically indefensible"
(6/14/2008) The emergence and expansion of biofuels produced from food crops has exacerabted world's agriculture and water crisis and is a bigger short-term threat than global warming, argued Peter Brabeck-Letmathe in an editorial published Thursday in the Wall Street Journal Asia.
Biofuels expansion in Africa may impact rainforests, wetlands
(5/28/2008) Biofuel feedstock expansion in Africa will likely come at the expense of ecologically-sensitive lands, reports a new analysis presented by Wetlands International at the Convention of Biological Diversity in Bonn.
Half of oil palm expansion in Malaysia, Indonesia occurs at expense of forests
(5/20/2008) More than half of the oil palm expansion between 1990 and 2005 Malaysia and Indonesia occurred at expense of forests, reports a new analysis published in the journal conservation Letters. Analyzing data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Lian Pin Koh and David S. Wilcove of Princeton University found that 55-59 percent of oil palm expansion in Malaysia and at least 56 percent of that in Indonesia occurred at the expense of forests. Given that oil palm plantations are biologically impoverished relative to primary and secondary forests, the researchers recommend restricting future expansion to pre-existing cropland and degraded habitats.
Global ban on biofuels would lead to immediate decline in food prices
(5/16/2008) A global moratorium on biofuels produced from food crops would result in a significant decline in the price of corn, sugar, cassava and wheat by 2010, reports the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Record food prices to climb through 2010
(3/6/2008) The U.N. expects record high food prices to continue through 2010, driving hunger and poverty in the world's poorest countries, said a top U.N. official Thursday.
UN: biofuels are starving the poor by driving up food prices
(2/14/2008) Echoing sentiments increasingly expressed by politicians, scientists, and advocates for the poor, the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization warned that the world's poorest people are suffering as a result of the push to use food crops for biofuel production. | <urn:uuid:a9d3d891-0bda-4139-9707-d8bfa5bd85ab> | {
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by Leigh MacMillan | Posted on Thursday, Jan. 31, 2013 — 9:29 AM
In a wide-ranging lecture that moved from plants to nematode worms to human leukemia, Nobel laureate Andrew Fire, Ph.D., outlined his vision for a genomics-based understanding of how organisms respond to novel information.
Biological responses to foreign information involve an “immune response” — mediated in some organisms by RNA and in others by proteins and cells, said Fire, professor of Pathology and Genetics at Stanford University School of Medicine.
Fire and Craig Mello, Ph.D., were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of RNA interference — an RNA-based immune response that allows cells to selectively silence certain genes, for example those of a pathogenic virus.
Immune responses like RNA interference can be “positive” and directed against a pathogen, or they can be “negative” and directed against the organism itself (generating autoimmune disorders in humans).
“We live at this interface between having the immunity good enough to target as many viruses as possible coming from outside, and having it not so effective that it starts to target our own natural products and turn off processes that are very important,” Fire said.
In the course of their studies of RNA interference, Fire and his colleagues began to use high-throughput DNA sequencing as a tool to probe all of the RNAs produced in response to foreign information. They wondered if DNA sequencing might also be applied to the human immune response, in particular to the production of antibodies and T cell receptors.
DNA sequencing revealed “lots of sequences” in a healthy individual – a rich diversity and repertoire of antibodies and receptors. In individuals with leukemia or lymphoma, the sequencing detected the amplification of single clonal receptors. The findings may be useful clinically, Fire said, to track the recurrence of such clonal cells and improve monitoring of residual disease after treatment.
Fire also described using the approach to follow responses to the flu vaccine and to dengue virus infection.
“As we get more sophisticated about this, we should be able to classify antibodies by similarity to each other and … build a way to track diseases,” Fire said. “I think it’s an opportunity to develop sequence-based diagnostics.”
Fire was the Department of Cell and Developmental Biology Distinguished Faculty Speaker. For a complete schedule of the Flexner Discovery Lecture series and archived video of previous lectures, go to www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/discoveryseries.
Leigh MacMillan, (615) 322-4747
There are lots of ways to keep up with Vanderbilt. Choose your preferred method: | <urn:uuid:66a5ce21-e0a8-4174-83b5-42bdb448a39e> | {
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A team of amateurs has discovered evidence for 42 alien planets, including a Jupiter-size world that could potentially be habitable, by sifting through data from a NASA spacecraft.
Forty volunteers with the crowd-sourcing Planet Hunters project discovered the new planet candidates, which include 15 potentially habitable worlds and PH2 b, a Jupiter-size planet that the team confirmed to be in the habitable zone of its parent star.
This is the second time Planet Hunters project, which is overseen by Zooniverse, has confirmed a new exoplanet discovery. What's more, several candidate planets found by the project may be in the habitable zones of their parent stars. These candidates are awaiting confirmation by professional astronomers.
Researchers suggested this bonanza of planets in the so-called Goldilocks zone around a star, a habitable zone in which conditions are liquid water to exist on a planet’s surface and potentially supportlife, could mean there is a "traffic jam" of worlds where life could exist, project officials said.
"These are planet candidates that slipped through the net, being missed by professional astronomers and rescued by volunteers in front of their web browsers,” said the University of Oxford's Chris Lintott, who helms the Zooniverse, in a statement. “It's remarkable to think that absolutely anyone can discover a planet.”
Life on an 'Avatar'-like moon
The planet PH2 b was found using data from NASA's prolific Kepler Space Telescope and confirmed with 99.9 percent confidence by observations at the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii.
Ph2 b is considered much too large to host life. However, any moons orbiting the planet could be strong candidates, astronomers said. The atmospheric temperature on the planet would range between 86 and minus 126 degrees Fahrenheit (30 and minus 88 degrees Celsius) in the habitable zone.
“Any moon around this newly discovered, Jupiter-sized planet might be habitable," stated Ji Wang, a postdoctoral researcher at Yale University. He is lead author of a paper about the discoveries, which has been submitted to the Astrophysical Journal and is available on the pre-publishing website Arxiv.
If a theoretical moon were to host life, it would likely have a rocky core, plus a greenhouse atmosphere of some sort that could have liquid water on its surface, the researchers said.
"It’s very similar to what was depicted in the movie ‘Avatar’ – the habitable moon Pandora around a giant planet, Polyphemus," Wang added.
A telltale dim
Volunteers spotted PH2 b by watching its parent star. As the planet passed in front of the star, the apparent brightness from Earth dimmed.
This is one of two commonly used techniques for finding exoplanets; the other is looking for wobbles in a star's gravityas a planet speeds around it.
Excluding PH2 b, citizen scientists recently discovered 42 planetary candidates, with 20 of those likely in their respective stars' habitable regions.
"These detections nearly double the number of gas giant planet candidates orbiting at habitable zone distances," the paper stated.
Planet Hunters includes participation from Oxford, Yale and several other institutions. Volunteers pour over data from Kepler. Once the strongest candidates are identified, professional astronomers take a look at them.
Planet Hunters has found 48 candidate planets so far. The first confirmed planet, PH1, was revealed in October 2011.
To learn how to participate in the Planet Hunters project, visit: http://www.planethunters.org/
- 9 Exoplanets That Could Host Alien Life
- Alien Planet Quiz: Are You an Exoplanet Expert?
- Exoplanet Art: The Illustrations of Lynette Cook | <urn:uuid:6a9c15ae-84ea-46ff-af58-9be9eda5879c> | {
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FIRST PERSON | New research directly ties a deficiency of Vitamin D in older adults to mobility limitations and other disabilities. The findings of the six-year study put a name on the culprit behind some of the most significant physical problems that plague American seniors.
Results from the Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center research effort are among the earliest that looked at insufficient levels of Vitamin D and the onset of mobility limitations in older adults, according to Medical News Today. The North Carolina researchers published their conclusions in the Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences.
Their project utilized data from the National Institute on Aging's Health, Aging, and Body study. Researchers defined subjects' limitations as any difficulty walking several blocks or climbing a flight of stairs. They considered disability to mean the inability to perform these activities.
Denise K. Houston, Ph.D., of Wake Forest University served as study director. The school indicates that the initial goals included a pilot study to find cost-effective ways to identify individuals at elevated risk for functional decline with insufficient vitamin D levels and gathering data useful for an eventual full-scale randomized trial. The more than 3,000 subjects consisted of black and white men and women between ages 70 and 79.
Researchers noted around a 30 percent elevated risk of limitations in mobility for those with low levels of vitamin D. The same group had nearly a two-fold greater risk of mobility disability.
Vitamin D is crucial to muscle function. Having an insufficient amount has already been linked to disorders such as high blood pressure, bone-density thinning, cardiovascular disease, and lung disease. Individuals get vitamin D from sun exposure, from foods rich in the vitamin, or from supplements. The Mayo Clinic suggests that as little as 10 minutes of daily sun exposure can prevent deficiencies.
However, older adults tend to spend less time outdoors than average. Houston recommends that individuals older than 70 get 800 International Units of vitamin D each day, either through diet or by taking supplements.
For several years, I have struggled with getting adequate levels of vitamin D. Although I undergo blood work every few months due to having Crohn's disease, until I experienced significant bone thinning, the tests never included vitamin D levels. When the doctor ordered the measurement, the extent of the deficiency was shocking.
The Crohn's & Colitis Foundation of America indicates a vitamin D deficiency can result in increased disease activity and a reduced quality of life for patients with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, the most common inflammatory bowel diseases. Due to extreme deficiency, I had to take 50,000 International Units of this vitamin weekly for six months. Now that my levels are barely normal, I take 5,000 units a day of vitamin D to help maintain maximum mobility in my senior years.
Vonda J. Sines has published thousands of print and online health and medical articles. She has a special interest in diseases and other conditions that affect quality of life. | <urn:uuid:cc0f040f-0c03-499c-ac1f-b2016c4a1208> | {
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223 years ago this weekend, Fletcher Christian and 17 other sailors held the domineering Captain Bligh at bayonet point against the mast of His Majesty’s Armed Vessel Bounty in the most famous mutiny in history. One month ago, National Geographic embarked on a journey through their footsteps, but with the very different goal of studying the pristine coral reefs of the area (read blogs).
Bligh was set adrift in the ship’s small launch with 18 loyal shipmates, a compass, his journals, some tools, supplies, cutlasses, and food, rum, wine, and water. He navigated the castaways through the open sea some 3000 miles to safety in Timor, and then continued to Britain to begin his attempts to bring all the mutineers to justice at the gallows.
Fletcher Christian led the Bounty back to “Otaheite” where they once again enjoyed laid back island life (and women) until fear of discovery drove them to find a new home where they’d never be discovered by the British law.
That island was Pitcairn. 50 descendants of the mutineers and their Tahitian wives live there to this day. In 1957 National Geographic’s Luis Marden voyaged to Pitcairn and discovered the last remnants of the Bounty in the waters of the island’s bay (read original article, see photos). Now, over the past several weeks, NG Explorer-in-Residence Enric Sala has led an expedition to survey the sea-life in the area’s nearly un-touched waters (read blogs, see photos).
In the gallery above, see photos from this most recent expedition, meet some of the locals, see some of the sights, and get a sense of what remains on Pitcairn Island more than two centuries after the legendary mutiny.
More From the Pitcairn Islands Expedition | <urn:uuid:b3f01c8d-216a-4859-889d-bd9a90ba9098> | {
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The Reason Behind West Nile’s Appearance [AUDIO]
Cases of West Nile Virus are on the rise throughout the United States. In the Garden State alone there have been fifteen confirmed cases of the virus afflicting people, one of which resulted in the death of a Burlington County man. So why is the virus making so much noise this late into the summer?
Robert Kent, Administrator of the Department of Environmental Protection’s Office of Mosquito Control Coordination says the age of insects is one of the factors for the spread of West Nile.
“We’re dealing with an old mosquito population that’s been flying for a great portion of the summer, and this gives West Nile Virus the opportunity to accumulate in the mosquito population. And as the mosquitoes continue to feed on birds the virus is amplified.”
Once a mosquito takes blood from a bird infected with West Nile, it’s able to metabolize the virus into something that is transferable and could be spread through other blood meals (humans).
“From our stepped up surveillance it’s suggesting that one in ten mosquitoes might be positive for West Nile Virus.”
While it may sound scary Kent says compared to the average seasonal flu West Nile’s affects aren’t as prevalent. He notes symptoms don’t appear in everyone.
“Well believe it or not about 80% of the people who have West Nile Virus don’t know they have it. There’s no symptoms whatsoever, but of the remaining 20 percent it could be quite severe.”
Kent says those who do experience symptoms could have anything from a mild fever and headache, all the way to serious symptoms such as extreme fever, paralysis and neuro-invasive symptoms. Kent points out though it’s usually the very young and very old who are vulnerable to West Nile, they have had middle age and young adult individuals who fell ill.
He suggests anyone who suspects they have symptoms, contact their physician who will decide if samples should be sent to Trenton for testing. | <urn:uuid:ed971f7d-9b29-4daa-afce-ff13f5c77027> | {
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Organic Foods are Mainstream
What does organic mean? Why does organic cost more? Is organic better for my health? These questions are becoming more common now that "organics" have hit the mainstream supermarkets, delis, and "fast food" chains. Organic foods no longer solely exist in health-food stores.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), organic agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, and grains must be grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, radiation, or bioengineering. Organic meats, poultry, eggs, and dairy products are manufactured from livestock that are not fed or injected with antibiotics or growth hormones, live in natural living conditions appropriate for their species, and are fed only organic feed.
October 2002 was the rollout of the new national standards for organics. To receive the USDA Organic Seal, a product's label must contain 95-100% organic ingredients. Labels that state 100% Organic contain only organic ingredients, whereas, labels stating Organic contain at least 95% organic ingredients. "Made with organic ingredients" are food products containing at least 70% organic ingredients. If the product is made with less than 70% organic ingredients, these ingredient may be listed on the side of the package, but "organic" claims may not be on the front of the package. When making these claims, not only must the ingredients be certified organic but all processing and handling must also follow organic protocols.
The checkbook is often a driving factor when making food purchases. Costs of organic items vary from pennies above to double a conventional item's typical price. This price difference is a result of increased levels of labor and management required to comply with organic certifications mandated by the USDA. Keep your refrigerator stocked and your pocket full by purchasing organics in bulk and from your local farmers market.
Twelve produce items nick-named the "Dirty Dozen" have been shown to contain significantly higher levels of pesticide residues than other produce items even after thorough washing. Pesticides may have harmful effects on children's developing bodies. The "Dirty Dozen" foods include: apples, cherries, grapes, nectarines, peaches, pears, raspberries, strawberries, bell peppers, celery, potatoes, and spinach. Conventional meat, poultry, and dairy products have been linked to increased bacterial resistance in humans. Organic foods are shown to have higher levels of phytonutrients. Phytonutrients are linked to many health benefits ranging from battling the common cold to improving cardiovascular health.
Organic foods have made their way into the mainstream food markets and are here to stay. A survey conducted in August 2005 for Whole Foods Market found 65 percent of Americans saying they had tried organic foods and beverages. This is up from 54 percent in similar surveys conducted in 2003 and 2004. As science reveals more about the health benefits of organics, the demand for these foods will increase, and the prices at food markets will likely go down. In the meantime, when you find yourself with a few extra pennies for food shopping, consider using the change to purchase organic produce from the "Dirty Dozen" list.
Reasons to Buy Organic...
- Organic farming practices do not contaminate our water supply.
- Organic foods have higher levels of some nutrients.
- Organic farming methods help prevent soil erosion.
- Animals are treated more humanely under organic conditions.
- Organic farmers help cultivate nutrient rich soil.
- Organic farming practices are better for the health of farmers and their families.
- Buying organic supports small family farms across the country.
- Organic farming promotes biodiversity.
For more information on organic foods visit:
- Dill Garlic Salmon (NEW!)
- Pan Seared Striped Bass With Asian Dill Slaw
- Rosemary and Lemon Pan Seared Chicken Breast
- Pan Seared Rosemary Salmon Skewers
- Portobello and Spinach Bolognese
- Thyme and Wild Mushroom Risotto
- Potato Gnocchi with Zucchini and Thyme Sauce
- Herbed Goat Cheese and Roasted Vegetable Sandwich with Herbed Tomato Couscous
- Pumpkin and Thyme Gnocchi
- Thyme and Lemon Seared Salmon
- Summer Chicken Stir Fry With Brown Rice
- Mediterranean Chicken Salad Pita
- Vegetable Pad Thai
- Caribbean Chicken Soup
- Aztec Cilantro Couscous
- Gazpacho Soup
- Chicken Quesadilla with Pico de Gallo
- Sweet Potato Fries
- Turkey Burger
- Asian-Flavored Coleslaw with Rice Vinegar and Ginger
- Tofu Breakfast Burritos
- Heart Healthy and Planet Friendly Black Bean Burrito
- Sweet Potato Portobello Mushroom Wrap with Savory Yogurt Dressing
- Heart Healthy Turkey Cranberry Sandwich
- Lentil and Spinach Wrap
- Butternut Squash Bisque
- Heart-Healthy Avocado Pita Pocket
- Lemon-Herb Grilled Chicken
- Fruity Chicken Salad Wrap with Acorn Squash Salad
- Spinach Salad
- Pesto, Tomato and Feta Cheese Pizza
- Chunky Roasted Vegetable Chili
- Mexican Bean Salad
- Flank Steak, Spinach & Goat Cheese Wrap
- Portobello Wrap
- Spinach, Zucchini and Walnut Pasta
- Heart Healthy Breakfast Sandwich | <urn:uuid:aab9e802-2c49-4fa2-ae13-8d72001de526> | {
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Google has celebrated Jorge Luis Borge’s birthday with one of their iconic homepage images.
We’ll join in the party with a quotation from his prologue to The Invention of Morel, by his close friend and frequent collaborator Adolfo Bioy Casares (they wrote detective stories together under the name H. Bustos Domecq):
Detective stories—another popular genre in this century that cannot invent plots—tell of mysterious events that are later explained and justified by reasonable facts. In this book [The Invention of Morel] Adolfo Bioy Casares easily solves a problem that is perhaps more difficult. The odyssey of marvels he unfolds seems to have no possible explanation other than hallucination or symbolism, and he uses a single fantastic but not supernatural postulate to decipher it. My fear of making premature or partial revelations restrains me from examining the plot and the wealth of delicate wisdom in its execution. Let me only say that Bioy renews in literature a concept that was refuted by St. Augustine and Origen, studied by Louis-Auguste Blanqui, and expressed in memorable cadence by Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
Above is a picture of Borges (left) and Bioy Casares together. | <urn:uuid:51322b33-8393-42c6-a612-9f32432ce654> | {
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The government's being urged to set targets to eradicate child poverty following New Zealand's poor ranking in a new Unicef report. The report, Measuring Child Poverty, ranks New Zealand 20th out of 35 OECD countries based on the percentage of children living in relative poverty. That means children living in a household where disposable income is less than 50 per cent of the national median income.
Photo by SNPA May 28, 2012
Copyright © 2013 Yahoo! New Zealand
All rights reserved.
Select your region to see news and weather for your area. | <urn:uuid:fb18bf23-0505-4c0f-8459-f66ec624be98> | {
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