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variant measure on that algebra with lambda zero one times zero one times cdots times zero one one the lebesgue measure also has the property of being finite null sets a subset of r n is a null set if for every zero it can be covered with countably many products of n intervals whose total volume is at most all countable sets are null sets and so are sets in r n whose dimension is smaller than n for instance straight lines or circles in r two in order to show that a given set a is lebesgue measurable one usually tries to find a nicer set b which differs from a only by a null set in the sense that the symmetric difference a b b a is a null set and then shows that b can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets construction of the lebesgue measure the modern construction of the lebesgue measure based on outer measures is due to carath odory it proceeds as follows for any subset b of r n we can define lambda b inf m m supseteq b mbox m mbox here vol m is sum of the product of |
the lengths of the involved intervals we then define the set a to be lebesgue measurable if lambda b lambda a cap b lambda b a for all sets b these lebesgue measurable sets form a algebra and the lebesgue measure is defined by a a for any lebesgue measurable set a according to the vitali theorem there exists a subset of the real numbers r that is not lebesgue measurable relation to other measures the borel measure agrees with the lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined however there are many more lebesgue measurable sets than there are borel measurable sets the borel measure is translation invariant but not complete the haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the lebesgue measure r n with addition is a locally compact group the hausdorff measure see hausdorff dimension is a generalization of the lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the sets of r n of lower dimensions than n like submanifolds for example surfaces or curves in r three and fract |
al sets history henri lebesgue described his measure in one nine zero one followed the next year by his description of the lebesgue integral both were published as part of his dissertation in one nine zero two see also lebesgue s density theorem measure theory landsat photo lake champlain french lac champlain named for the french explorer samuel de champlain who encountered it one six zero nine is a large lake in north america mostly within the borders of the united states states of vermont and new york but partially situated across the us canada border in the province of quebec it is the sixth largest body of fresh water in the contiguous united states situated in the champlain valley between the green mountains of vermont and the adirondack mountains of new york drained northward by the richelieu river into the st lawrence river near montreal and fed by otter creek the winooski missisquoi and lamoille rivers in vermont and the ausable chazy and saranac rivers in new york lake champlain also receives water f |
rom lake george via the la chute river the lake varies from nine five to one zero zero feet above mean sea level while the ports of burlington vermont port henry new york and plattsburgh new york are little used nowadays except by small crafts ferries and lake cruise ships they had substantial commercial and military importance in the one eight th and one nine th century a region of large freshwater lakes lake champlain at sunset looking west from grand isle to plattsburgh ny and crab island lake champlain is one of a large number of large lakes spread in an arc from labrador through the northern united states and into the northwest territories of canada although it cannot be compared with ontario erie huron superior or michigan lake champlain is a large body of fresh water approximately one one three zero km four three five square miles in area the lake is roughly one eight zero km one one zero miles long and one nine km one two miles across at its widest point it contains roughly eight zero islands includin |
g an entire county in vermont colonial america and the revolutionary war in colonial times lake champlain provided an easily traversed water or in winter ice passage between the saint lawrence and the hudson valleys boats and sledges were usually preferable to the unpaved and frequently mud bound roads of the time the northern tip of the lake at saint jean sur richelieu quebec st john in colonial times is a short distance from montreal the southern tip at whitehall skeenesboro in colonial times is a short distance from saratoga glens falls and albany new york forts at ticonderoga and crown point fort st frederic controlled passage of the lake in colonial times important battles were fought at ticonderoga in one seven five eight and one seven seven seven a significant naval battle was fought in one seven seven six at valcour island in the battle of valcour island benedict arnold delayed british ships enough to prevent the fall of these forts until the following year allowing the continental army to grow strong |
er and enabling the later victory at saratoga war of one eight one two in the early one nine th century the construction of the new york barge canal connected lake champlain to the hudson river system allowing north south commerce by water from new york city to montreal and atlantic canada the battle of plattsburgh also known as the battle of lake champlain fought in one eight one four ended the final invasion of the northern states during the war of one eight one two fought just prior to the signing of the treaty of ghent the american victory denied the british any leverage to demand exclusive control over the great lakes and any territorial gains against the new england states see battle of plattsburgh fort blunder more properly known as fort montgomery was built by the americans on an arm of lake champlain after the war of one eight one two to protect against attacks from british canada its name comes from a surveying error that caused it to inadvertently be built on the canadian side of the border modern |
history a false color landsat image of lake champlain source usgs lake champlain briefly became the nation s sixth great lake on march six one nine nine eight when president clinton signed senate bill nine two seven this bill which reauthorized the national sea grant program contained a line penned by u s senator patrick leahy a democrat declaring lake champlain to be a great lake not coincidentally this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources following a small uproar the great lake status was rescinded although vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake one of the more enduring myths surrounding lake champlain is that of champ reminiscent of the loch ness monster ogopogo and other phenomena of cryptozoology champ is purportedly a giant aquatic animal that makes the lake its home sightings have been sporadic over time regardless locals and tourists have developed something of a fondnes |
s for the creature and its legend and representations of champ can now be found on tee shirts coffee mugs and many other tourist souvenirs the vermont lake monsters a minor league baseball team have a cartoonish version of champ as their mascot the alburg peninsula also known as the alburg tongue extending south from the quebec shore of the lake into vermont shares with point roberts washington and the northwest angle in minnesota as well as province point see below the distinction of being reachable by land from the rest of its state only via canada however unlike the other three cases this is no longer of practical significance since highway bridges across the lake do provide access to the peninsula within the united states from three directions in fact a few kilometres to the north east of the town of east alburg however the southernmost tip of a small promontory province point is cut through by the us canadian border lake crossings mainland the lake can be crossed by road at only one southerly point the c |
hamplain bridge connecting chimney point in vermont with crown point new york to the north grand island county vermont connects to the new york mainland via vermont route two to rouses point ny adjacent to the canadian border ferry north of ticonderoga ny the lake widens appreciably ferry service is provided by the lake champlain transportation company at charlotte vt to essex ny may not travel when the lake is frozen burlington vt to port kent ny seasonal the lctc ferry slip at grand isle vt grand isle vt to plattsburgh ny year round icebreaking service the most southerly crossing is the fort ticonderoga ferry connecting ticonderoga new york with shoreham vermont just north of the historic fort see also ile aux noix lakes of new york lakes of vermont in computer science the lambda calculus is a formal system designed to investigate function definition function application and recursion it was introduced by alonzo church and stephen cole kleene in the one nine three zero s church used the lambda calculus in o |
ne nine three six to give a negative answer to the entscheidungsproblem the calculus can be used to cleanly define what a computable function is the question of whether two lambda calculus expressions are equivalent cannot be solved by a general algorithm and this was the first question even before the halting problem for which undecidability could be proved lambda calculus has greatly influenced functional programming languages especially lisp the lambda calculus can be called the smallest universal programming language the lambda calculus consists of a single transformation rule variable substitution and a single function definition scheme the lambda calculus is universal in the sense that any computable function can be expressed and evaluated using this formalism it is thus equivalent to the turing machine formalism however the lambda calculus emphasizes the use of transformation rules and does not care about the actual machine implementing them it is an approach more related to software than to hardware t |
his article deals with the untyped lambda calculus as originally conceived by church since then some typed lambda calculi have been developed history originally church had tried to construct a complete formal system for the foundations of mathematics when the system turned out to be susceptible to the analog of russell s paradox he separated out the lambda calculus and used it to study computability culminating in his negative answer to the entscheidungsproblem informal description in lambda calculus every expression stands for a function with a single argument the argument of the function is in turn a function with a single argument and the value of the function is another function with a single argument a function is anonymously defined by a lambda expression which expresses the function s action on its argument for instance the add two function f such that f x x two would be expressed in lambda calculus as x x two or equivalently as y y two the name of the formal argument is immaterial and the number f thr |
ee would be written as x x two three function application is left associative operator associative f x y f x y consider the function which takes a function as argument and applies it to the argument three f f three this latter function could be applied to our earlier add two function as follows f f three x x two the three expressions f f three x x two and x x two three and three two are equivalent a function of two variables is expressed in lambda calculus as a function of one argument which returns a function of one argument see currying for instance the function f x y x y would be written as x y x y a common convention is to abbreviate curried functions as for instance x y x y the three expressions x y x y seven two and y seven y two and seven two are equivalent it is this equivalence of lambda expressions which in general can not be decided by an algorithm not every lambda expression can be reduced to a definite value like the ones above consider for instance x x x x x x or x x x x x x x x and try to visua |
lize what happens as you start to apply the first function to its argument x x x is also known as the combinator x x x x x x is known as x x x x x x x x as two etc while the lambda calculus itself does not contain symbols for integers or addition these can be defined as abbreviations within the calculus and arithmetic can be expressed as we will see below lambda calculus expressions may contain free variables i e variables not bound by any for example the variable y is free in the expression x y representing a function which always produces the result y occasionally this necessitates the renaming of formal arguments for instance in order to reduce x y y x x y to z z x y if one only formalizes the notion of function application and does not allow lambda expressions one obtains combinatory logic formal definition formally we start with a countably infinite set of identifiers say the set of all lambda expressions can then be described by the following context free grammar in bnf the first two rules generate func |
tions while the third describes the application of a function to an argument usually the parentheses for lambda abstraction rule two and function application rule three are omitted if there is no ambiguity under the assumptions that one function application is left associative and two a lambda binds to the entire expression following it for example the expression x x x y y can be simply written as x x x y y lambda expressions such as x x y do not define functions because the occurrence of the variable y is free i e it is not bound by any in the expression the binding of occurrences of variables is with induction upon the structure of the lambda expression defined by the following rules in an expression of the form v where v is a variable this v is the single free occurrence in an expression of the form v e the free occurrences are the free occurrences in e except those of v in this case the occurrences of v in e are said to be bound by the before v in an expression of the form e e the free occurrences are the |
free occurrences in e and e over the set of lambda expressions an equivalence relation here denoted as is defined that captures the intuition that two expressions denote the same function this equivalence relation is defined by the conversion rule and the reduction rule sometimes an alternate equivalence relation obtained by adopting a third rule called conversion is used conversion the alpha conversion rule is intended to express the idea that the names of the bound variables are unimportant for example that x x and y y are the same function however the rule is not as simple as it first appears there are a number of restrictions on when one bound variable may be replaced with another the alpha conversion rule states that if v and w are variables e is a lambda expression and e v w means the expression e with every free occurrence of v in e replaced with w then v e w e v w if w does not appear freely in e and w is not bound by a in e whenever it replaces a v this rule tells us for example that x x x x is the |
same as y x x y reduction the beta reduction rule expresses the idea of function application it states that v e e e v e if all free occurrences in e remain free in e v e the relation is then defined as the smallest equivalence relation that satisfies these two rules a more operational definition of the equivalence relation can be given by applying the rules only from left to right a lambda expression which does not allow any beta reduction i e has no subexpression of the form v e e is called a normal form not every lambda expression is equivalent to a normal form but if it is then the normal form is unique up to naming of the formal arguments furthermore there is an algorithm for computing normal forms keep replacing the first left most formal argument with its corresponding concrete argument until no further reduction is possible this algorithm halts iff the lambda expression has a normal form the church rosser theorem then states that two expressions result in the same normal form up to renaming of the form |
al arguments iff they are equivalent conversion there is a third rule eta conversion which may be added to these two to form a new equivalence relation eta conversion expresses the idea of extensionality which in this context is that two functions are the same iff they give the same result for all arguments eta conversion converts between x f x and f whenever x does not appear free in f this can be seen to be equivalent to extensionality as follows if f and g are extensionally equivalent i e if f a g a for all lambda expressions a then in particular by taking a to be a variable x not appearing free in f nor g we have f x g x and hence x f x x g x and so by eta conversion f g so if we take eta conversion to be valid we find extensionality is valid conversely if extensionality is taken to be valid then since by beta reduction for all y we have x f x y f y we have x f x f i e eta conversion is found to be valid arithmetic in lambda calculus there are several possible ways to define the natural numbers in lambda |
calculus but by far the most common are the church numerals which can be defined as follows zero f x x one f x f x two f x f f x three f x f f f x and so on intuitively the number n in lambda calculus is a function that takes a function f as argument and returns the n th composition of f that is to say a church numeral is a higher order function it takes a single argument function f and returns another single argument function note that in church s original lambda calculus the formal parameter of a lambda expression was required to occur at least once in the function body which made the above definition of zero impossible given this definition of the church numerals we can define a successor function which takes a number n and returns n one succ n f x f n f x addition is defined as follows plus m n f x m f n f x plus can be thought of as a function taking two natural numbers as arguments and returning a natural number it is fun to verify that plus two three and five are equivalent lambda expressions multiplic |
ation can then be defined as mult m n m plus n zero the idea being that multiplying m and n is the same as m times adding n to zero alternatively mult m n f m n f the predecessor pred n n one of a positive integer n is more difficult pred n f x n g h h g f u x u u or alternatively pred n n g k g one u plus g k one k v zero zero note the trick g one u plus g k one k which evaluates to k if g one is zero and to g k one otherwise logic and predicates by convention the following two definitions known as church booleans are used for the boolean values true and false true x y x false x y y note that false is equivalent to the church numeral zero defined above then with these two terms we can define some logic operators and p q p q false or p q p true q not p p false true ifthenelse p x y p x y we are now able to compute some logic functions as for example and true false p q p q false true false true false false x y x false false false and we see that and true false is equivalent to false a predicate is a function w |
hich returns a boolean value the most fundamental predicate is iszero which returns true if its argument is the church numeral zero and false if its argument is any other church numeral iszero n n x false true the availability of predicates and the above definition of true and false make it convenient to write if then else statements in lambda calculus recursion recursion is the definition of a function using the function itself on the face of it lambda calculus does not allow this however this impression is misleading consider for instance the factorial function f n recursively defined by f n one if n zero and n f n one if n zero in lambda calculus one cannot define a function which includes itself to get around this one may start by defining a function here called g which takes a function f as an argument and returns another function that takes n as an argument g f n one if n zero and n f n one if n zero the function that g returns either returns the constant one or returns n times the application of the fu |
nction f to n one using the iszero predicate and boolean and algebraic definitions described above the function g can be defined in lambda calculus however g by itself is still not recursive in order to use g to create the recursive factorial function the function passed to g as f must have specific properties namely the function passed as f must expand to the function g called with one argument and that argument must be the function that was passed as f again in other words f must expand to g f this call to g will then expand to the above factorial function and calculate down to another level of recursion in that expansion the function f will appear again and will again expand to g f and continue the recursion this kind of function where f g f is called a fixed point of g and it turns out that it can be implemented in the lambda calculus using what is known as the paradoxical operator or fixed point operator and is represented as y the y combinator y g x g x x x g x x in the lambda calculus y g is a fixed po |
int of g as it expands to g y g now to complete our recursive call to the factorial function we would simply call g y g n where n is the number we are calculating the factorial of given n five for example this expands to n one if n zero and n y g n one if n zero five one if five zero and five g y g five one if five zero five g y g four five n one if n zero and n y g n one if n zero four five one if four zero and four g y g four one if four zero five four g y g three five four n one if n zero and n y g n one if n zero three five four one if three zero and three g y g three one if three zero five four three g y g two and so on evaluating the structure of the algorithm recursively every recursively defined function can be seen as a fixed point of some other suitable function and therefore using y every recursively defined function can be expressed as a lambda expression in particular we can now cleanly define the subtraction multiplication and comparison predicate of natural numbers recursively computable functi |
ons and lambda calculus a function f n n of natural numbers is a computable function if and only if there exists a lambda expression f such that for every pair of x y in n f x y if and only if f x y where x and y are the church numerals corresponding to x and y respectively this is one of the many ways to define computability see the church turing thesis for a discussion of other approaches and their equivalence undecidability of equivalence there is no algorithm which takes as input two lambda expressions and outputs true or false depending on whether or not the two expressions are equivalent this was historically the first problem for which the unsolvability could be proven of course in order to do so the notion of algorithm has to be cleanly defined church used a definition via recursive functions which is now known to be equivalent to all other reasonable definitions of the notion church s proof first reduces the problem to determining whether a given lambda expression has a normal form a normal form is a |
n equivalent expression which cannot be reduced any further then he assumes that this predicate is computable and can hence be expressed in lambda calculus building on earlier work by kleene and constructing a g del numbering for lambda expressions he constructs a lambda expression e which closely follows the proof of g del s first incompleteness theorem if e is applied to its own g del number a contradiction results lambda calculus and programming languages most programming languages are equivalent to the lambda calculus extended with some additional programming language constructs the classical work where this viewpoint was put forward was peter landin s a correspondence between algol six zero and church s lambda notation published in cacm in one nine six five the key point is that the lambda calculus expresses the kind of procedural abstraction and application useful for any programming language prominently functional programming languages are basically the lambda calculus with some constants and datatypes |
added lisp uses a variant of lambda notation for defining functions but only its purely functional subset is really equivalent to lambda calculus actually implementing the lambda calculus on a computer involves treating functions as first class objects which turns out to be rather difficult to accomplish using stack based computer languages this is known as the funarg problem theory of the lambda calculus says that lambda calculus computations can always be carried out sequentially not that they must be carried out sequentially the lambda calculus is suitable for expressing some kinds of parallelism for example call by future evaluation however the lambda calculus does not in general implement concurrency related calculi such as the calculus have been designed to overcome this limitation see also ski combinator calculus h p barendregt s lambda cube jean yves girard s system f thierry coquand s calculus of constructions typed lambda calculus curry howard isomorphism anonymous recursion unlambda references abe |
lson harold see also the paper introduction to lambda calculus church alonzo an unsolvable problem of elementary number theory american journal of mathematics five eight one nine three six pp three four five three six three this paper contains the proof that the equivalence of lambda expressions is in general not decidable punit gupta amit one seven three and two one nine two four four contains the lambda calculus definitions of several familiar functions larson jim an introduction to lambda calculus and scheme a gentle introduction for programmers some parts of this article are based on material from foldoc used with permission external links l allison some executable calculus examples georg p loczewski the lambda calculus and a david c keenan to dissect a mockingbird a graphical notation for the lambda calculus with animated reduction mathematical logic computational models logic in computer science lambda calculus theoretical computer science formal methods a lossy data compression method is one where comp |
ressing data and then decompressing it retrieves data that may well be different from the original but is close enough to be useful in some way this type of compression is used frequently on the internet and especially in streaming media and telephony applications these methods are typically referred to as codecs in this context this is in contrast with lossless data compression depending on the design of the format lossy data compression often suffers from generation loss that is compressing and decompressing multiple times will do more damage to the data than doing it once types of lossy compression there are two basic lossy compression schemes in lossy transform codecs samples of picture or sound are taken chopped into small segments transformed into a new basis space and quantized the resulting quantized values are then entropy coded in lossy predictive codecs previous and or subsequent decoded data is used to predict the current sound sample or image frame the error between the predicted data and the rea |
l data together with any extra information needed to reproduce the prediction is then quantized and coded in some systems the two techniques are combined with transform codecs being used to compress the error signals generated by the predictive stage lossy vs lossless compression the advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy method can produce a much smaller compressed file than any known lossless method while still meeting the requirements of the application lossy methods are most often used for compressing sound images or videos the compression ratio that is the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file of lossy video codecs are nearly always far superior to those of the audio and still image equivalents audio can be compressed at one zero one with no noticeable loss of quality video can be compressed immensely with little visible quality loss eg three zero zero one lossily compressed still images are often compressed to one one zero th their |
original size as with audio but the quality loss is more noticeable especially on closer inspection when a user acquires a lossily compressed file for example to reduce download time the retrieved file can be quite different to the original at the bit level while being indistinguishable to the human ear or eye for most practical purposes many methods focus on the idiosyncrasies of the human anatomy taking into account for example that the human eye can see only certain frequencies of light the psychoacoustic model describes how sound can be highly compressed without degrading the perceived quality of the sound flaws caused by lossy compression that are noticeable to the human eye or ear are known as compression artifacts example of lossy compression the above images show the use of lossy compression to reduce the file size of the image the image is an excerpt of the image of lena a de facto industry standard test image the first picture is one two two four nine bytes the second picture has been compressed jpe |
g quality three zero and is eight five smaller at one eight six nine bytes notice the loss of detail in the brim of the hat the third picture has been highly compressed jpeg quality five and is nine six smaller at five five nine bytes the compression artifacts are much more noticeable even though the third image has high distortion the face is still recognizable good lossy compression algorithms are able to throw away less important information and still retain the essential information lossy compression methods still image compression fractal compression jpeg jpeg two zero zero zero jpeg s successor format that uses wavelets wavelet compression cartesian perceptual compression also known as cpc djvu icer used by the mars rovers related to jpeg two zero zero zero in its use of wavelets moving image compression flash also supports jpeg sprites h two six one h two six three h two six four mpeg four avc mng supports jpeg sprites motion jpeg mpeg one part two mpeg two part two mpeg four part two ogg theora noted |
for its lack of patent restrictions sorenson video codec vc one sound compression music aac used by for example apple computer adpcm atrac dolby ac three mp two mp three musepack ogg vorbis noted for its lack of patent restrictions wma microsoft invention speech celp g seven one one g seven two six hiln speex noted for its lack of patent restrictions other types of data technically reducing text size by removing all vowels can be considered a lossy data compression as well the text is usually still readable from the context given by the consonants researchers have also performed lossy compression on text by either using a thesaurus to substitute short words for long ones or generative text techniques although these sometimes fall into the related category of lossy data conversion see also lossless data compression compression artifact list of codecs external links comparing lossy and lossless audio formats for music archiving lossy png image compression research using lossy gif png compression for the web art |
icle data compression lossy compression algorithms lossless data compression is a class of data compression algorithms that allows the exact original data to be reconstructed from the compressed data contrast with lossy data compression lossless data compression is used in software compression tools such as the highly popular zip file format used by pkzip winzip and mac os one zero three and the unix programs bzip two gzip and compress other popular formats include stuffit rar and seven z lossless compression is used when it is important that the original and the decompressed data be identical or when no assumption can be made on whether certain deviation is uncritical typical examples are executable programs and source code some image file formats notably png use only lossless compression while others like tiff and mng may use either lossless or lossy methods gif uses a lossless compression method but most gif implementations are incapable of representing full color so they quantize the image often with dith |
ering to two five six or fewer colors before encoding as gif color quantization is a lossy process but reconstructing the color image and then re quantizing it produces no additional loss some rare gif implementations make multiple passes over an image adding two five five new colors on each pass lossless compression techniques lossless compression methods may be categorized according to the type of data they are designed to compress the three main types of targets for compression algorithms are text images and sound whilst in principle any general purpose lossless compression algorithm general purpose means that they can handle all binary input can be used on any type of data many are unable to achieve significant compression on data that is not of the form that they are designed to deal with sound data for instance cannot be compressed well with conventional text compression algorithms most lossless compression programs use two different kinds of algorithms one which generates a statistical model for the in |
put data and another which maps the input data to bit strings using this model in such a way that probable e g frequently encountered data will produce shorter output than improbable data often only the former algorithm is named while the second is implied through common use standardization etc or unspecified statistical modelling algorithms for text or text like binary data such as executables include burrows wheeler transform block sorting preprocessing that makes compression more efficient lz seven seven used by deflate lzw encoding algorithms to produce bit sequences are huffman coding also used by deflate arithmetic coding many of these methods are implemented in open source and proprietary tools particularly lzw and its variants some algorithms are patented in the usa and other countries and their legal usage requires licensing by the patent holder because of patents on certain kinds of lzw compression and in particular licensing practices by patent holder unisys that many developers considered abusive |
some open source activists encouraged people to avoid using the graphics interchange format gif for compressing image files in favor of portable network graphics png which combines the lz seven seven based deflate algorithm with a selection of domain specific prediction filters many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images but there are other techniques that do not work for typical text that are useful for some images particularly simple bitmaps and other techniques that take advantage of the specific characteristics of images such as the common phenomenon of contiguous two d areas of similar tones and the fact that colour images usually have a preponderance to a limited range of colours out of those representable in the colour space as mentioned previously lossless sound compression is a somewhat specialised area lossless sound compression algorithms can take advantage of the repeating patterns shown by the wave like nature of the data essentially usin |
g models to predict the next value and encoding the hopefully small difference between the expected value and the actual data if the difference between the predicted and the actual data called the error tends to be small then certain difference values like zero one one etc on sample values become very frequent which can be exploited by encoding them in few output bits it is sometimes beneficial to compress only the differences between two versions of a file or in video compression of an image this is called delta compression from the greek letter which is commonly used in mathematics to denote a difference but the term is typically only used if both versions are meaningful outside compression and decompression for example while the process of compressing the error in the above mentioned lossless audio compression scheme could be described as delta compression from the approximated sound wave to the original sound wave the approximated version of the sound wave is not meaningful in any other context lossless c |
ompression methods for a complete list see audio compression apple lossless alac apple lossless audio codec direct stream transfer dst free lossless audio codec flac meridian lossless packing mlp monkey s audio monkey s audio ape realplayer realaudio lossless shorten shn tta true audio lossless wavpack wavpack lossless wma lossless windows media lossless graphic compression abo adaptive binary optimization gif png portable network graphics jpeg ls lossless near lossless compression standard jpeg two zero zero zero includes lossless compression method tiff tiff video compression huffyuv sheervideo corepng msu lossless video codec lcl animation codec lagarith h two six four mpeg four avc lossless data compression must always make some files longer lossless data compression algorithms cannot guarantee to compress that is make smaller all input data sets in other words for any lossless data compression algorithm there will be an input data set that does not get smaller when processed by the algorithm this is easi |
ly proven with elementary mathematics using a counting argument as follows assume that each file is represented as a string of bits of some arbitrary length suppose that there is a compression algorithm that transforms every file into a distinct file which is no longer than the original file and that at least one file will be compressed into something that is shorter than itself let m be the least number such that there is a file f with length m bits that compresses to something shorter let n be the length of the compressed version of f because n n such files together with f this makes two n one files which all compress into one of the two n files of length n but two n is smaller than two n one so there must be some file of length n which is simultaneously the output of the compression function on two different inputs that file cannot be decompressed reliably which of the two originals should that yield which contradicts the assumption that the algorithm was lossless we must conclude that our original hypothe |
sis that the compression function makes no file longer must be untrue any lossless compression algorithm that makes some files shorter must necessarily make some files longer but it is not necessary that those files become very much longer most practical compression algorithms provide an escape facility that can turn off the normal coding for files that would become longer by being encoded then the only increase in size is a few bits to tell the decoder that the normal coding has been turned off for the entire input for example deflate compressed files never need to grow by more than five bytes per six five five three five bytes of input thus the main lesson from the argument is not that one risks big losses but merely that one cannot always win to choose an algorithm always means to implicitly select a subset of all files that will become usefully shorter this is the theoretical reason why we need to have different compression algorithms for different kinds of files there cannot be any algorithm that is good |
for all kinds of data the most common class of real world data files that fail to become shorter on compression are cases when a file containing data compressed by one algorithm are fed to another algorithm for instance when already compressed audio or image files are added to a zip or gzip compressed archive see also audio data compression david a huffman information entropy kolmogorov complexity lossless transform audio compression ltac lossy data compression list of codecs ross williams http ross net started the comp compression newsgroup his lzrw one algorithm is still one of the fastest known text compression algorithms jean loup gailly http w three teaser fr jlgailly wrote gzip external links lossless data compression benchmarks and tests comparison of lossless audio compressors at hydrogenaudio wiki comparing lossless and lossy audio formats for music archiving comparison of lossless video codecs links to data compression topics and tutorials catalog of lossless compression sites the lossless audio bl |
og data compression lossless compression algorithms larry niven laurence van cott niven born april three zero one nine three eight is a us science fiction author perhaps his best known work is ringworld one nine seven zero which received hugo locus ditmar and nebula awards his work is in hard science fiction utilizing big science concepts and theoretical physics in his stories his writing also often includes elements of detective fiction and adventure stories biography larry niven was born in los angeles california he graduated with a b a in mathematics with a minor in psychology from washburn university topeka kansas in one nine six two he has since lived in los angeles suburbs including chatsworth and tarzana as a full time writer he is independently wealthy having inherited a substantial amount from his grandfather edward l doheny otherwise known as a player in the teapot dome scandal of the one nine two zero s career niven is the author of numerous science fiction short stories and novels beginning with h |
is one nine six four story the coldest place in this story the coldest place concerned is the dark side of mercury which at the time the story was written was thought to be tidally locked with the sun it was found to rotate in a two three resonance just months before the story was published in one nine six seven niven won the hugo award for best short story for neutron star he won the same award in one nine seven two for inconstant moon and in one nine seven five for the hole man in one nine seven six he won the hugo award for best novelette for the borderland of sol niven has also written scripts for various science fiction television shows including the original land of the lost series and star trek the animated series the slaver weapon with the kzinti species one of his short stories inconstant moon was adapted for an episode of the television series the outer limits he has also written for the dc comics character green lantern including in his stories hard science fiction concepts such as universal entrop |
y and the red shift effect which are common to his novels but unusual in comic books many of niven s stories take place in his known space universe in which humanity shares the several solar systems nearest to sol with over a dozen alien species including species known as the kzinti and pierson s puppeteers which are frequently central characters the ringworld series is set in the known space universe niven has also written a logical fantasy series set in the warlock s era detailed in the magic goes away in recent years most of his writing has been in collaboration with jerry pournelle and or steven barnes miscellaneous notes a thinly disguised niven appears as the character lawrence van cott in the greg bear novel the forge of god a part of the computer game wing commander ii takes place in the niven sector it is believed that the kilrathi the feline alien enemy in the wing commander series were based on niven s kzinti there are those who think that niven numbers may have been named in his honor but despite |
his popularity and mathematical background they are actually named for ivan m niven niven s idea of a beanstalk sucking dry a planet see rainbow mars seems to be copied in the animated movie kaena the prophecy and also in the game halo two by game company bungie there is a magic the gathering card named nevinyrral s disk which contains larry niven s name backwards when activated it destroys all creature enchantment and artifact cards in play including itself this is a reference to the warlock s wheel from the warlock s era series which when activated drains all magic from a region by using it up with an open ended enchantment as well the game netrunner has an artificial intelligence named nevinyrral larry niven introduced the idea of a flash crowd in his story flash crowd one nine seven three which evolved in two zero zero three to the flash mob in which people meet together to protest in a creative way at a specific time and place to disappear as quickly as they appeared some minutes later the term flash cro |
wd is also used to describe a web site showing little or no response due to excessive amounts of traffic a flash crowd on a web site is synonymous with slashdotting larry niven s novels frequently make use of the stasis field concept which he also popularized an interesting note about larry niven s work is that he often employs the use of terms that by the choice of words are evidently metaphorical but are in fact meant to be taken literally a few examples of this are the novel entitled destiny s road is in fact about a road on a planet called destiny in the ringworld series there was an event in the ringworld s past known as the fall of the cities in which floating cities literally fell out of the sky the novel entitled the integral trees is in fact referring to trees with tufts at each end shaped like the mathematical integral sign bibliography known space ringworld ringworld one nine seven zero the ringworld engineers one nine seven nine guide to larry niven s ringworld one nine nine four with kevin stein |
the ringworld throne one nine nine six ringworld s children two zero zero four man kzin man kzin wars one nine eight eight man kzin wars ii one nine eight nine man kzin wars iii one nine nine zero man kzin wars iv one nine nine one man kzin wars v one nine nine two man kzin wars vi one nine nine four man kzin wars vii one nine nine five man kzin wars viii choosing names one nine nine eight man kzin wars ix two zero zero two man kzin wars x the wunder war two zero zero three the world of ptavvs one nine six six a gift from earth one nine six eight neutron star collection one nine six eight the shape of space collection one nine six nine protector one nine seven three tales of known space the universe of larry niven collection one nine seven five three books of known space omnibus one nine eight nine destiny s road one nine nine seven the long arm of gil hamilton fix up novel one nine seven six the patchwork girl one nine eight zero world of ptavvs a gift from earth neutron star omnibus one nine nine one flatla |
nder the collected tales of gil the arm hamilton omnibus one nine nine five with jerry pournelle inferno one nine seven six lucifer s hammer one nine seven seven oath of fealty one nine eight two footfall one nine eight five moties the mote in god s eye one nine seven four the gripping hand aka the moat around murcheson s eye one nine nine three golden road set in the same fantasy world as the magic goes away the burning city two zero zero zero burning tower two zero zero five heorot with steven barnes and jerry pournelle the legacy of heorot one nine eight seven the dragons of heorot aka beowulf s children one nine nine five dream park with steven barnes dreampark one nine eight one the barsoom project one nine eight nine the california voodoo game aka the voodoo game one nine nine two the descent of anansi one nine eight two integral tree the integral trees one nine eight four the smoke ring one nine eight seven magic goes away the magic goes away one nine seven eight the magic may return one nine eight one |
more magic one nine eight four the magic goes away collection omnibus two zero zero five graphic novels death by ecstasy illustrated adaptation of the larry niven novella one nine nine one green lantern ganthet s tale one nine nine eight with john l byrne collections all the myriad ways one nine seven one the flight of the horse one nine seven three inconstant moon one nine seven three a hole in space one nine seven four convergent series one nine seven nine niven s laws one nine eight four limits one nine eight five n space one nine nine zero playgrounds of the mind one nine nine one bridging the galaxies one nine nine three crashlander one nine nine four rainbow mars one nine nine nine scatterbrain two zero zero three larry niven short stories volume one two zero zero three larry niven short stories volume two two zero zero three larry niven short stories volume three two zero zero three the draco tavern two zero zero six novels the flying sorcerers with david gerrold one nine seven one a world out of time |
one nine seven six berserker base a collaberative novel one nine eight four with poul anderson edward bryant stephen donaldson fred saberhagen connie willis and roger zelazny fallen angels one nine nine one with jerry pournelle and michael flynn achilles choice one nine nine two with steven barnes saturn s race two zero zero zero with steven barnes building harlequin s moon two zero zero five with brenda cooper external links known space the future worlds of larry niven his own biography bibliography on scifan one nine three eight births american science fiction writers california writers hugo award winning authors science fiction writers filkers living people a linux distribution is a unix like operating system comprising the linux kernel the gnu operating system or most of it other assorted free software open source software and possibly proprietary software commercially backed distributions such as red hat ubuntu backed by canonical ltd suse backed by novell and mandriva and community projects such as deb |
ian and gentoo assemble and test the software before releasing their distribution there are currently over three hundred linux distribution projects in active development revising and improving their respective distributions history before the first linux distributions a would be linux user was required to be something of a unix expert not only knowing what libraries and executables were needed to successfully get the system to boot and run but also important details concerning configuration and placement of files in the system linux distributions began to appear soon after the linux kernel was first used by individuals outside the original linux programmers they were more interested in developing the operating system than in application programs the user interface or convenient packaging early distributions included mcc interim linux which was made available to the public for download on the ftp server of university of manchester in february one nine nine two tamu created by individuals at texas a this is th |
e oldest distribution still in active development linux distributions attracted users as an alternative to the dos and microsoft windows operating systems on the pc and to mac os on the apple macintosh most early adopters were used to unix from work or school they embraced linux for its stability low if any cost and for the inclusion of the source code for most or all of the software included the distributions were originally simply a convenience but today they have become the usual resort even for unix or linux gurus to date linux has proven more popular in the server market primarily for web and database servers see also lamp than in the desktop market composition a typical gnu linux distribution comprises a linux kernel gnu tools and libraries additional software documentation and some multimedia such as fonts desktop wallpapers system sounds etc most of the included software is free software open source software which is distributed by its maintainers both as pre compiled binaries and in source code form |
allowing users to modify and compile the original source code if they wish other software included with some distributions may be proprietary and may not be available in source code form a gnu linux distribution almost always offers compiled versions of the linux kernel gnu system libraries and assorted programs that make up the rest of an operating system many provide an install program procedure akin to that provided with other operating systems e g solaris operating environment microsoft windows etc self hosting distributions e g gentoo linux linux from scratch etc see source distribution section of list of linux distributions provide the source code of all software and include binaries only of a basic kernel compilation tools e g a compiler make utility etc and an installer the installer compiles all the software for the specific microarchitecture of the user s machine distributions are normally segmented into packages each package holding a specific application or service one package may contain a librar |
y for handling png images another may contain a number of fonts while a third may supply a web browser in addition to providing packaged compiled code most distributions offer tools for installation removal of packages that are more powerful than a simple file archiver this software is said to be the package management system pms of the distribution each package intended for such a pms contains meta information like description version dependencies etc the package management system can evaluate this meta information to allow package searches to perform an automatic upgrade to a newer version to check that all dependencies of a package are fulfilled and or to fulfill them automatically and more package management systems include rpm now r pm p ackage m anager but originally r ed hat p ackage m anager originally from red hat but now used by many other distributors as well deb deb ian package originally from debian but also used by others like knoppix tgz or tar gz standard t ar gz ip possibly with some extra co |
ntrol files used by slackware and others or sometimes when distributing very simple handmade packages ebuild the file containing information on how to retrieve compile and install a package in gentoo s portage system using the command emerge typically these are source primary installs though binary packages can be installed in this fashion as well recipe the file containing information on how to download unpack compile and install a package in gobo linux distribution using its compile tool this system is similar to the gentoo s portage but is more simplistic in design src building the packages from source often binary packages are provided in parallel on many systems klik klik aims to provide an easy way of getting software packages for most major distributions without the dependency problems so common in many other package formats although gnu linux distributions typically contain much more software than proprietary operating systems it is normal for local administrators to install software not included with |
the distribution an example would be a newer version of a software application than that supplied with a distribution or an alternative to that chosen by the distribution e g kde rather than gnome or vice versa if the additional software is distributed in source only form this approach requires local compilation however if additional software is locally added the state of the local system may fall out of synchronization with the state of the package manager s database if so the local administrator user will be required to take additional measures to ensure the entire system is kept up to date that all required patches are installed etc the package manager may no longer be able to do so automatically most distributions install packages including the kernel and other core operating system components in a predetermined configuration few now require or even permit configuration adjustments at first install time this makes installation less daunting particularly for new users but is not always acceptable for spec |
ific requirements much software must be carefully configured to be useful to work correctly with other software or to be secure and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring assorted software some distributions go to considerable lengths to specifically adjust all or some of the software they include to their particular distribution location of particular files and so on but not all do so some distributions provide configuration tools to assist in this process but again not all do so note that such adjustments are typically site specific and it is not possible for anyone including a distribution s designer to pre configure the software provided to meet individual requirements as with all operating systems linux and its distributions impose a system administration obligation on its users operators owners linux distributors differ from most operating system vendors in not claiming that no administration is required this honesty can worry potential users who have been told |
otherwise in marketing claims of other operating systems by replacing everything provided in a distribution an administrator may reach a distribution less state everything was retrieved compiled configured and installed locally it is possible to build such a system from scratch bypassing any distribution altogether but one needs a way to generate the first binaries until the system is self hosting i e has a bootable kernel and compilation tools to generate more binaries this can be done via compilation on another system capable of building binaries for the intended target possibly by cross compilation see for example linux from scratch for instructions choosing a linux distribution gnu linux distributions differ in several important aspects notable differences pertain to the choice of the following components installation program package management system e g dpkg for debian rpm for fedora the desktop environment installed by default e g kde gnome xfce media e g one or two floppies livecd bootable keydrive or |
cd dvd sets for hard drive installation localization customization including fonts for a specific language and country inclusion of proprietary software customization for a specific application e g firewalls and security robotics desktop workstation supported microprocessor x eight six linux on zseries linux on power etc and computer hardware based on the choices made by each distribution each distribution has its relative merits which may make it more suitable for a specific task hardware platform or user for instance some distributions have sophisticated install programs that are able to create a partition or resize existing ones automatically detect hardware and install appropriate device drivers and provide a graphical user interface during installation to configure network settings package selection and user accounts which makes the process of installation fairly easy some distributions notably debian and gentoo include a large number of packages that can be readily installed for that particular distrib |
ution and this reduces the amount of effort required for initial configuration after installation some distributions include proprietary device drivers and the latest packages in an attempt to provide maximum compatibility with the newest hardware this makes them a more suitable candidate for use on newer hardware and laptops whether a particular distribution opts to include the latest versions of available packages or decides to include only a more stable but older version is another important factor the choice of a graphical user interface included fonts wallpapers etc also lend an individual identity to each distribution which may make it more or less appealing to an individual some distributions provide tools for users to run applications developed for other operating systems and this can be an important factor for users who are migrating from another platform the choice of the package management system system configuration utility and availability of high quality technical support are other important fac |
tors each distribution also has its own philosophy which influences its development this makes the particular distribution more suitable for a certain class of users than for others each distro therefore has formed its own micro community inside the wider linux community and this community in turn influences the philosophy of the distro for example a distribution that comes with a strong philosophy which is generalised beyond software is ubuntu linux read about ubuntu ideology slackware s philosophy is about having only stable components and not caring much about graphical interfaces on the other hand red hat is accused to rely more on graphics and user friendliness to beginners therefore diminishing its quality other distributions also have specific viewpoints which can be found on their websites many gnu linux distributions now provide a livecd version that allows the user to try out the distribution without making changes to his system this is a good way to evaluate a distribution and in particular its sup |
port for the intended hardware a list of livecds is available at frozentech s livecd list in order to select a distribution that is most appropriate for a particular user the user must first clearly state his intended uses of the system the hardware on which the distribution will be installed the extent of support required and as far as possible the applications that will be used the user should then visit the websites of several distributions and obtain livecds to evaluate their suitability for his particular needs before making a final decision comparison of linux distributions and list of linux distributions contain useful information to help you select a distribution a list of popular distributions is also available at distrowatch which attempts to provide some measure of their popularity linux distribution chooser attempts to guide a user to a suitable choice of a distribution by asking several questions and offering suggestions based on the answers at this time however its awareness is limited to only a |
few distributions interdistribution issues the free standards group is an organization formed by major software and hardware vendors that aims to improve interoperability between different distributions among their proposed standards are the linux standard base which defines a common abi and packaging system for gnu linux and the filesystem hierarchy standard which recommends a standard filenaming chart notably the basic directory names found on the root of the tree of any linux filesystem those standards however see limited use even among the distributions developed by members of the organization see also comparison of linux distributions list of linux distributions livedistro gnu linux naming controversy linux consolidation minilinux notes linux distributions may also be referred to as gnu linux distributions though the latter may more often refer to the debian system the term distribution often suffices and is at least sufficient enough to distinguish free operating systems like linux gnu bsd from proprie |
tary operating systems such as microsoft windows or apple mac os x the term distribution is often informally shortened to distro external links distrowatch linux distromania linux screenshots linux screencasts linux mobile system linuxiso org linux iso cd images and livecds distro reviews distribution reviews mini distributions live cds a comprehensive list of one zero zero live linux distros the linux mirror project download linux distributions over bittorrent a linux distribution sucks rules meter built from searches for different distributions and sucks or rules rocks livedistro org linux releases howtos for building your own live linux distribution linuxdistro info most popular distro s listed with information and news linux linux distributions brooklyn dodgers redirects here for the american football teams of the same name see brooklyn dodgers football the los angeles dodgers are a major league baseball team based in los angeles california they are in the western division of the national league the team |
originated in brooklyn new york where it was known as the brooklyn dodgers before moving to los angeles for the one nine five eight season franchise history early brooklyn history the city of brooklyn had a history of outstanding baseball clubs dating back to the mid one eight five zero s notably the brooklyn atlantics the brooklyn eckfords and the brooklyn excellsiors who combined to dominate play through the late one eight six zero s as part of the national association of base ball players the first baseball game requiring paid admission was an all star contest between new york and brooklyn in one eight five eight brooklyn also featured the first two enclosed baseball grounds the union grounds and the capitoline grounds which accelerated the evolution of the game from amateurism to professionalism despite the success of brooklyn clubs in amateur play however no strong brooklyn based club emerged after the first professional league the national association of professional baseball players was formed in one e |
ight seven one the brooklyn baseball club that would become the dodgers was first formed in one eight eight three and joined the american association the following year the bridegrooms won the aa pennant in one eight eight nine upon switching to the national league in one eight nine zero the franchise became the only one in mlb history to win pennants in different leagues in consecutive years eight years passed before any more success followed several hall of fame players were sold to brooklyn by the soon to be defunct baltimore orioles along with their manager ned hanlon this catapulted brooklyn to instant contention and hanlon s superbas lived up to their name winning pennants in one eight nine nine and one nine zero zero teams of this era played in two principal ballparks washington park and eastern park they first earned the nickname trolley dodgers later shortened to dodgers while at eastern park during the one eight nine zero s because of the difficulty fans and players had in reaching the ballpark due |
to the number of trolley lines in the area the club also engaged in a series of mergers during this period acquiring the new york metropolitans in one eight eight eight for territorial protection and star contracts merging with the brooklyn wonders in one eight nine one as part of the players league settlement and merging with the baltimore orioles nl in one nine zero zero as part of the national league s consolidation of clubs in one nine zero two hanlon expressed his desire to buy a controlling interest in the team and move it back effectively to baltimore his plan was blocked by a lifelong club employee charles ebbets who put himself heavily in debt to buy the team and keep it in the borough ebbets ambition did not stop at owning the team he desired to replace the dilapidated washington park with a new ballpark and again invested heavily to finance the construction of ebbets field which would become the dodgers home in one nine one three uncle robbie and the daffiness boys manager wilbert robinson another |
former oriole popularly known as uncle robbie restored the brooklyn team to respectability with the robins winning pennants in the one nine one six and one nine two zero world series and contending perennially for several seasons upon assuming the title of president however robinson s ability to focus on the field declined and the teams of the late one nine two zero s became known as the daffiness boys for their distracted error ridden style of play outfielder babe herman was the leader both in hitting and in zaniness after his removal as club president robinson returned to managing and the club s performance rebounded somewhat it was during this era that willard mullin a noted sports cartoonist fixed the brooklyn team with the lovable nickname of dem bums after hearing his cab driver ask so how did those bums do today mullin decided to sketch an exaggerated version of famed circus clown emmett kelly to represent the dodgers in his much praised cartoons in the new york world telegram both the image and the ni |
ckname caught on so much so that many a dodger yearbook cover featured a willard mullin illustration with the brooklyn bum perhaps the highlight of the daffiness boys era came after wilbert robinson had left the dugout in one nine three four new york giants manager bill terry was asked about the dodgers chances in the coming pennant race and cracked infamously is brooklyn still in the league managed now by casey stengel who played for the dodgers in the one nine one zero s and would go on to greatness managing another team the one nine three four dodgers were determined to make their presence felt as it happened the season ended with the giants tied with the st louis cardinals for the pennant with the giants remaining games against the dodgers stengel led his bums to the polo grounds for the showdown and beat the giants twice to knock them out of the pennant race the gas house gang cardinals nailed the pennant by beating the reds those same two days one key development during this era was the one nine three e |
ight appointment of leland stanford macphail better known as larry macphail as the dodgers general manager macphail who brought night baseball to mlb as gm of the cincinnati reds brought night baseball to the dodgers home games and ordered the successful refurbishing of ebbets field he also brought reds voice red barber to brooklyn as the dodgers lead announcer in one nine three nine just after macphail broke the new york bseball execs agreement to ban live baseball broadcasts a ban enacted because of the fear of what the radio calls would have on the home teams attendance macphail remained with the dodgers until one nine four two when he returned to the armed forces for world war ii he later became one of the new york yankees co owners bidding unsuccessfully for barber to join him in the bronx as announcer macphail s surviving son leland jr lee macphail and surviving grandson andy macphail also became mlb execs the first major league baseball game to be televised was brooklyn s six one victory over cincinnat |
i at ebbets field on august two six one nine three nine batting helmets were introduced to major league baseball by the dodgers in one nine four one breaking the color line for the first half of the two zero th century not a single african american played on a major league baseball team a parallel system of negro leagues developed but many of the era s most talented players never got a chance to prove their skill before a national audience the first step in ending this injustice was taken by jackie robinson when he played his first major league game on april one five one nine four seven as a member of the brooklyn dodgers this event was the harbinger of the integration of sports in the united states the concomitant demise of the negro leagues and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the american civil rights movement robinson was an exceptional player a speedy runner who sparked the whole team with his intensity and was given the inaugural rookie of the year award wait til next year after the wildern |
ess years of the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s the dodgers were rebuilt into a contending club first by general manager larry macphail and then the legendary branch rickey led by pee wee reese jackie robinson and gil hodges in the infield duke snider in center field roy campanella behind the plate and don newcombe on the pitcher s mound the dodgers won pennants in one nine four one one nine four seven one nine four nine one nine five two and one nine five three in all five of those world series however they were defeated by the new york yankees the annual ritual of building excitement followed in the end by disappointment became old hat to the long suffering fans and wait til next year became an unofficial dodger slogan while the dodgers generally enjoyed resounding success during this period in one nine five one they fell victim to one of the largest collapses in the history of baseball on august one one brooklyn led the national league by an enormous one three one two games over their archri |
vals the new york giants however while the dodgers went two six two two from that time until the end of the season the giants went on an absolute tear winning an amazing three seven of their last four four games at the conclusion of the season the dodgers and the giants were tied for first place forcing a three game playoff for the pennant the giants took game one by a score of three one before being shut out by the dodgers clem labine in game two one zero zero it all came down to the final game and brooklyn seemed to have the pennant locked up holding a four two lead in the bottom of the ninth inning however giants third baseman bobby thomson hit a stunning three run walk off home run off the dodgers ralph branca to secure the nl championship in dramatic fashion for new york today this home run is known as the shot heard round the world and despite the crushing blow it represented for the dodgers is widely regarded as one of the greatest moments in baseball history in one nine five five by which time the cor |
e of the dodger team was beginning to age next year finally came the fabled boys of summer shot down the bronx bombers in seven games led by the first class pitching of young left hander johnny podres whose key pitch was a changeup known as pulling down the lampshade because of the arm motion used right when the ball was released podres won two series games including the deciding seventh the turning point of game seven was a spectacular double play that began with left fielder sandy amoros running down yogi berra s long fly then throwing perfectly to shortstop pee wee reese who doubled up a surprised gil mcdougald at first base to preserve the dodger lead although the dodgers again lost the world series to the yankees in one nine five six in which they became the victims of history s only postseason perfect game it hardly seemed to matter brooklyn fans had their memory of triumph and soon that would be all they were left with the move to california baseball pioneer walter o malley real estate businessman walt |
er o malley had acquired majority ownership of the team in one nine five zero when he bought the shares of his co owner branch rickey before long he was working to buy new land in brooklyn to build a more accessible and better arrayed ballpark than ebbets field beloved as it was ebbets field had grown old and was not well served by infrastructure to the point where the dodgers couldn t sell the park out even in the heat of a pennant race despite largely dominating the league for much of the time from one nine four six to one nine five seven new york city building czar robert moses however sought to force o malley into using a site in flushing meadows queens the site for what became shea stadium moses vision involved a city built city owned park which was greatly at odds with o malley s real estate savvy when it became clear to o malley that he wasn t going to be allowed to buy any suitable land in brooklyn he began thinking elsewhere when los angeles officials attended the one nine five five world series look |
ing to entice a team to move to the city of angels they weren t even thinking of the dodgers their original target was the lowly washington senators who would in fact move to minnesota as the twins in one nine six one at the same time o malley was looking for a contingency in case moses and other new york politicians refused to let him build the brooklyn stadium he wanted o malley sent word to the los angeles officials that he was interested in talking los angeles offered him what new york would not a chance to buy land suitable for building a new ballpark meanwhile new york giants owner horace stoneham was having similar difficulty finding a replacement for his antiquated home stadium and the two archrival teams moved out to the west coast together on april one eight one nine five eight the dodgers played their first game in los angeles defeating the san francisco giants six five before seven eight six seven two fans at the coliseum there has been much controversy over the move of the dodgers to california p |
erhaps more than over any other franchise move of that era walter o malley in particular is described as villainous by some and admirable by others certainly he demonstrated some measure of selfishness and greed but the same is also true of the new york city politicians who opposed him both sides were quite stubborn and fatally misjudged each other it should also be noted that brooklyn had declined in many ways under various social pressures and was a much less desirable location for a baseball team than it had been in fact both sides in the stadium dispute proposed to remove the dodgers from brooklyn moses plan for a team in flushing meadows was realized several years later with little alteration when the new york mets began playing in shea stadium o malley also deserves credit as a visionary until one nine five eight st louis had generally been the westernmost outpost of major league baseball whereas one two of baseball s three zero teams now have their homes farther west o malley was primarily concerned wi |
th making himself very rich which he did and certainly he broke the heart of many a new yorker but his move also helped lead the game of baseball to greater prominence and prosperity a new start the process of building walter o malley s dream stadium soon began in semi rural chavez ravine in the hills just north of downtown l a there was some political controversy as the residents of the ravine mostly hispanic and mostly poor resisted the eminent domain removal of their homes and gained some public sympathy still o malley and the city government were determined and construction proceeded in the meantime the dodgers played their home games from one nine five eight to one nine six one at the los angeles memorial coliseum a gargantuan football and track and field stadium that had been built to host the one nine three two summer olympics the coliseum s dimensions were not optimal for baseball and the only way to fit a diamond into the oval shaped stadium was to lay the third base line along the short axis of the |
oval and the first base line along the long axis see picture this resulted in a left field fence that was only some two five zero feet from home plate and a four zero foot screen was erected to prevent home runs from becoming too easy to hit still the one nine five eight season saw one eight two home runs hit to left field in the coliseum while only three were hit to center field and eight to right field dodgers outfielder wally moon newly acquired for the one nine five nine season became adept at launching lazy fly balls over the screen which became known as moon shots in one nine five nine the dodgers benefited from a general decline in the national league no team was dominant and several teams were in the thick of the pennant race until the very end the season ended in a tie between the dodgers and the milwaukee braves and the dodgers won the tie breaking playoff one nine five nine also saw a team other than the yankees win the a l pennant one of only two such years between one nine four nine and one nine |
six four in a lively world series the dodgers defeated the go go white sox in six games thoroughly cementing the bond between the team and its new california fans pitching defense and speed construction on dodger stadium was completed in time for opening day one nine six two with its clean simple lines and its picturesque setting amid hills and palm trees the ballpark quickly became an icon of the dodgers and their new california lifestyle and it remains a beloved landmark to this day o malley was determined that there would not be a bad seat in the house achieving this by cantilevered grandstands that have since been widely imitated more importantly for the team the stadium s spacious dimensions along with other factors gave defense an advantage over offense and the dodgers moved to take advantage of this by assembling a team that would excel with its pitching the core of the team s success in the one nine six zero s was the dominant pitching tandem of sandy koufax and don drysdale who combined to win four o |
f the five cy young awards from one nine six two to one nine six six top pitching also came from claude osteen an aging johnny podres and reliever ron perranoski the hitting attack on the other hand was not impressive and much of the offensive spark came from the exploits of speedy shortstop maury wills who led the league in stolen bases every year from one nine six zero to one nine six five and set a modern record with one zero four thefts in one nine six two the dodgers strategy was once described as follows wills hits a single steals second and takes third on a grounder a sacrifice fly brings him home koufax or drysdale pitches a shutout and the dodgers win one zero although few games followed this model exactly the dodgers indeed won a great many low scoring games hall of famer sandy koufax the one nine six two pennant race ended in a tie and the dodgers were defeated by the archrival giants in the tie breaking playoff but the dodgers proceeded to win the pennant in three of the next four years the one ni |
ne six three world series was a four game sweep of the yankees in which the dodgers so dominated that the vaunted bronx bombers never even took a lead against koufax podres and drysdale after an injury plagued one nine six four the dodgers bounced back to win the one nine six five world series in a thrilling seven games against the minnesota twins game one happened to fall on yom kippur and koufax who is jewish refused to pitch on the holy day a decision for which he was widely praised the dodgers rebounded from losing the first two games as koufax pitched shutouts in games five and seven with only two days rest in between to win the crown and the world series mvp award the dodgers again won the pennant in one nine six six but the team was running out of gas and was swept by the upstart baltimore orioles who went on to a successful run through the late six zero s and early seven zero s koufax retired that winter his career cut short by arthritis in his elbow and wills was traded away after offending walter o |
malley drysdale continued to be effective setting a record for consecutive scoreless innings in one nine six eight but he too retired early due to injuries while the dodgers were subpar for several seasons a new core of young talent was developing in their farm system a pennant in one nine seven four though quickly quashed by the dynastic oakland a s was a sign of good things to come the lasorda years for two three years beginning in one nine five four the dodgers had been managed by walter alston a quiet and unflappable man who commanded great respect from his players alston s tenure is the third longest in baseball history for a manager with a single team after connie mack and john mcgraw his retirement near the end of the one nine seven six season after winning seven pennants and four world series titles over his career cleared the way for an entirely different personality to take the helm of the dodgers tommy lasorda was a four nine year old former pitcher never very successful in that capacity who had be |
en the team s top coach under alston and before that had been manager of the dodgers top minor league team he was colorful and gregarious an enthusiastic cheerleader in contrast to alston s taciturn demeanor he quickly became a larger than life personality associating with frank sinatra and other celebrities and eating italian food in large volumes he became well known for sayings such as if you cut me i bleed dodger blue and for referring to god as the big dodger in the sky although some considered his persona to be a schtick and to find it wearing his enthusiasm won him a reputation as an ambassador for baseball and it is impossible to think of the dodgers from the late seven zero s to the early nine zero s without thinking of lasorda another transition had recently occurred higher up in the dodgers management walter o malley passed control of the team to his son peter who would continue to oversee the dodgers on his family s behalf through one nine nine eight new blood had also been injected into the team |
on the field the core of the team was now the infield composed of steve garvey one b davey lopes two b bill russell ss and ron cey three b these four remained in the starting lineup together from one nine seven three to one nine eight one longer than any other infield foursome in baseball history the pitching staff remained strong anchored by don sutton and tommy john the dodgers won nl west titles in both one nine seven seven and one nine seven eight both times defeating the philadelphia phillies to advance to the world series only to be defeated both times by the yankees in one nine eight zero they swept three games from the houston astros to finish the regular season in a tie but lost to the astros in the tie breaking playoff fernando and the bulldog the opening day starting pitcher for one nine eight one was a two zero year old rookie from mexico fernando valenzuela pressed into service due to an injury to jerry reuss valenzuela pitched a shutout that day and proceeded to win his first eight decisions thr |
ough mid may the youthful left hander speaking only spanish but sporting a devastating screwball became a sensation fernandomania gripped southern california as huge crowds turned out to see him pitch valenzuela became the only pitcher ever to win the rookie of the year and the cy young award in the same season the dodgers torrid start assured them of a playoff berth in the strike shortened split season and they proceeded to defeat the yankees in the world series the dodgers won nl west titles in one nine eight three and one nine eight five but lost the championship series in both those years to the phillies and cardinals respectively the one nine eight five nlcs was particularly memorable for game six in which the dodgers were protecting a five four lead in the ninth inning hoping to force a deciding seventh game with two runners on and first base open lasorda elected not to walk cards slugger jack clark who proceeded to hit a home run and send st louis to the world series after seven years of high strikeout |
totals and a two one win season in one nine eight six valenzuela sat out for most of the one nine eight eight season plagued by arm troubles that were widely blamed on his being overused by lasorda his effectiveness faded before he turned three zero the new anchor of the pitching staff was a bespectacled string bean of a right hander named orel hershiser he had been given the nickname bulldog by lasorda more as a hopeful motivational tool than an objective description of his personality but by one nine eight eight he had matured into one of baseball s most effective pitchers that year he won two three games and the cy young award and broke don drysdale s record by tossing five nine consecutive scoreless innings ending with a one zero inning shutout on his final start of the season the one nine eight eight championship is all the more magical for the fact that the dodgers were hardly baseball s best team on paper they enjoyed career years from several players and were inspired by the fiery intensity of newcom |
er kirk gibson the league s most valuable player that year as well as the quiet but steady hershiser and the always ebullient lasorda although they entered the nlcs as decided underdogs to the powerful new york mets the dodgers pulled out a thrilling back and forth series in seven games the world series matched them with an even more powerful opponent the oakland a s of mark mcgwire and jose canseco the a s took an early lead in game one on a grand slam by canseco and led four three in the bottom of the ninth in a surprise move gibson hobbling with injuries to both his legs pinch hit against the formidable oakland closer dennis eckersley and smacked a two run walk off home run to right field winning the game five four for the dodgers gibson s dramatic home run has been called one of the most memorable moments in baseball history and it set the tone for the rest of the series hershiser dominated the athletics in games two and five and was on the mound when the dodgers completed their stunning four games to one |
upset of the a s he capped off an incredible personal season by being named the series mvp the nineties and the fox era after one nine eight eight the dodgers did not win another postseason game until two zero zero four though they did reach the playoffs in one nine nine five and one nine nine six and narrowly missed in one nine nine one and strike cancelled one nine nine four hershiser like valenzuela before him suffered an arm injury in one nine nine zero due to overwork which took the edge off his effectiveness for the remainder of his career from one nine nine two to one nine nine six five consecutive dodgers were named rookie of the year eric karros mike piazza ra l mondes hideo nomo and todd hollandsworth after nearly two zero years at the helm lasorda retired in one nine nine six though he still remains with the dodgers as an executive vice president he was replaced as manager by longtime dodgers shortstop bill russell nearly a half century of unusual stability only two managers one nine five four one |
nine nine six owned by a single family one nine five zero one nine nine eight finally came to an end in one nine nine eight the o malley family sold the dodgers to rupert murdoch s news corporation owner of the fox network and two zero th century fox among the new ownership s early moves were trading away popular catcher piazza and replacing russell with celebrity manager davey johnson johnson s volatile tenure ended two years later and he was followed as manager by jim tracy to fans accustomed to the personal touch of the o malleys the fox corporate ownership often seemed clumsy and distracted huge contracts were awarded to injury prone pitchers kevin brown and darren dreifort unprofitably tying up money that could have improved the team in many other areas fox made the first changes to the home uniform since the club moved from brooklyn and introduced the team s first alternate jersey and cap adding silver to the team s official colors yet the team became more steady on the field in the early two zero zero |
zero s with four consecutive winning seasons under the leadership of manager tracy slugger shawn green third baseman adri n beltr and catcher paul lo duca the two zero zero two season was marked by the emergence of ric gagn as one of baseball s top relief pitchers gagn won the cy young award in two zero zero three the sabermetric experiment in two zero zero four the dodgers were returned to family ownership as news corp sold the team to real estate developer frank mccourt mccourt immediately hired paul depodesta schooled in billy beane s methods of using statistical approaches to evaluate players as general manager with a team largely assembled by depodesta s predecessors augmented by some shrewd acquisitions the dodgers were near the top of the standings through much of two zero zero four in an effort to put the team over the top depodesta then executed a blockbuster series of mid season trades sending away three starting players including popular team leader loduca and two key pitchers while obtaining seve |
ral new players the dodgers did win the nl west in two zero zero four but went down quickly three games to one in the division series to the pennant winning st louis cardinals during the winter of two zero zero four zero five the team parted with several more longtime players including beltre and green their replacements included starting pitcher derek lowe outfielder j d drew and hard hitting second baseman jeff kent depodesta s radical overhaul did not bear fruit in two zero zero five as the dodgers suffered from clubhouse strife and decimating injuries finishing with their second worst record in los angeles history supporters of depodesta note that many of the players he let go also had sub par seasons elsewhere but he was widely blamed for ignoring chemistry and other intangible factors in the players he acquired or let go manager jim tracy parted ways with the team citing irreconcilable differences with depodesta but depodesta himself was fired by mccourt less than a month later mccourt later citing depo |
desta s lack of leadership and personal skills ned colletti was hired as the new dodger gm on one seven november two zero zero five grady little was named the new manager on six december two zero zero five upon his hiring as general manager colletti immediately took steps to strengthen the dodgers into a contender again mainly through the free agent market he rebuilt the infield by signing former atlanta shortstop rafael furcal to a three year contract worth three nine million third baseman bill mueller formerly of the boston red sox was also signed to a contract outfielder kenny lofton previously with the phillies and catcher sandy alomar jr were picked up as well finally colletti made a big splash by inking nomar garciaparra to a one year deal worth six million although garciaparra is ordinarily a shortstop he is expected to be moved to first base in the light of furcal s addition to the team he is a former all star and he will most likely help the dodgers improve colletti also accquired two zero zero five |
all star closer danys baez and former closer and two zero zero three all star lance carter from the tampa bay devil rays for two prospects both carter and baez are expected to add depth to the bullpen with baez expected to be the set up man for eric gagne or handle the closing role until gagne returns from his injury or when gagne is being rested other historical notes team nickname prior to the declaration of an official team nickname in one nine three three sportswriters and fans applied a number of nicknames to the club early names included the brooks the atlantics after an earlier brooklyn atlantics club and the bridegrooms after several players married prior to the one eight eight eight season when the streetcar lines were set up in brooklyn writers began calling the city and the team by the somewhat pejorative term trolley dodgers which became shortened to dodgers under manager ned hanlon one eight nine nine one nine zero five the team became known as the superbas after a popular though unrelated acroba |
tic troupe at that time called hanlon s superbas under manager wilbert robinson one nine one four one nine three one the team was known as the robins though newspapers used robins and dodgers interchangeably often in the same game summary no nickname was acknowledged on team uniforms until one nine three three when the word dodgers finally appeared prior to that they had sported either the word brooklyn or a stylized letter b rivalry with the giants the historic and heated rivalry between the dodgers and the giants is more than a century old having begun when both clubs played in new york city the dodgers in brooklyn and the giants in manhattan when both franchises moved to california in one nine five eight the rivalry was easily transplanted with them as the cities of los angeles and san francisco have long been rivals in economic cultural and political arenas throughout the history of the state of california giants fans call the dodgers as the bums dodger fans call the giants the gnats vin scully vin scully |
has served as the play by play announcer for the dodgers for five five years the longest tenure of any broadcaster with a single club in professional sports history in one nine seven six he was selected by dodgers fans as the most memorable personality on the field or off of the team s history in l a he is also a member of the baseball hall of fame quick facts founded one eight eight three as a member of the minor inter state league the team moved up to the american association in one eight eight four and transferred to the national league in one eight nine zero manager grady little general manager ned colletti owner frank mccourt logo design cursive dodgers superimposed over a red streaming baseball uniform cap is dodger blue with white la letters overlapped centered on front of cap home is dodger blue on white jersey has cursive dodgers similar to logo but without baseball across chest away is dodger blue on gray jersey has similar cursive los angeles across chest as of two zero zero five names not printed |
on back of home or away jerseys baseball hall of famers alston drysdale koufax lasorda and sutton are the only hall of famers elected primarily for their service with los angeles bunning pitched nine games with los angeles in one nine six nine marichal two games in one nine seven five retired numbers one pee wee reese ss one nine four zero five eight played all but the last season in brooklyn two tommy lasorda p one nine five five five six brooklyn manager one nine seven six nine six los angeles four duke snider of one nine four seven six two brooklyn one nine four seven five seven los angeles one nine five eight six two also los angeles native one nine jim gilliam two b three b one nine five three six six brooklyn one nine five three five seven los angeles one nine five eight six six coach one nine six seven seven eight died suddenly at age four nine two zero don sutton p one nine six six eight zero one nine eight eight two four walter alston manager one nine five four seven six brooklyn one nine five four |
five seven los angeles one nine five eight seven six three two sandy koufax p one nine five five six six brooklyn one nine five five five seven los angeles one nine five eight six six three nine roy campanella c one nine four eight five seven all in brooklyn career ending injury just before move four two jackie robinson two b one nine four seven five six all in brooklyn although grew up in los angeles area five three don drysdale p one nine five six six nine all but first two seasons in los angeles also los angeles area native presidents wilbert robinson branch rickey and walter o malley walter o malley peter o malley rupert murdoch frank mccourt current roster minor league affiliations aaa las vegas five one s pacific coast league aa jacksonville suns southern league advanced a vero beach dodgers florida state league a columbus catfish south atlantic league rookie ogden raptors pioneer league rookie gcl dodgers gulf coast league rookie vsl dodgers venezuelan summer league recommended reading red barber rhuba |
rb in the catbird seat stanley cohen dodgers the first one zero zero years robert w creamer stengel his life and times steve delsohn true blue the dramatic history of the los angeles dodgers told by the men who lived it carl erskine and vin scully tales from the dodger dugout extra innings harvey froemmer new york city baseball cliff gewecke day by day in dodgers history andrew goldblatt the giants and the dodgers four cities two teams one rivalry peter golenbock bums an oral history of the brooklyn dodgers doris kearns goodwin wait till next year a memoir frank graham the brooklyn dodgers an informal history orel hershiser with jerry b jenkins out of the blue donald honig the los angeles dodgers their first quarter century roger kahn the boys of summer roger kahn the era one nine four seven one nine five seven when the yankees the giants and the dodgers ruled the world mark langill the los angeles dodgers tommy lasorda with david fisher the artful dodger jane leavy sandy koufax a lefty s legacy william mcnei |
l the dodgers encyclopedia tom meany editor the artful dodgers andrew paul mele a brooklyn dodgers reader john j monteleone editor branch rickey s little blue book david plaut chasing october the dodgers giants pennant race of one nine six two carl e prince brooklyn s dodgers the bums the borough and the best of baseball jackie robinson i never had it made gene schoor the complete dodgers record book gene schoor the pee wee reese story duke snider with bill gilbert the duke of flatbush michael shapiro the last good season brooklyn the dodgers and their final pennant race together glen stout the dodgers one two zero years of dodgers baseball neil j sullivan the dodgers move west jules tygiel baseball s great experiment jackie robinson and his legacy john weaver los angeles the enormous village one seven eight one one nine eight one see also freeway series dodgers angels interleague rivalry dodger dog dodgers award winners and league leaders dodgers statistical records and milestone achievements dodgers players |
of note dodgers broadcasters and media dodgers managers and ownership external links los angeles dodgers official web site walter o malley the official website the largest los angeles dodgers group on the web dodger thoughts dodgerdugout com the sabr dodgers sarah s dodger place when dodgers walked a filk song about the new york giants and brooklyn dodgers departed glory dodger blues los angeles dodgers fan site major league baseball teams louis andriessen born utrecht june six one nine three nine is considered to be the foremost dutch composer working today he was born into a musical family being the son of the composer hendrik andriessen one eight nine two one nine eight one and brother of composers jurriaan andriessen one nine two five one nine nine six and caecilia andriessen one nine three one as well as nephew of willem andriessen one eight eight seven one nine six four andriessen originally studied with his father and kees van baaren at royal conservatory of the hague before embarking upon two years s |
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