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ciers in western greenland and extreme northeastern canada permafrost on islands virtually ice locked from october to june ships subject to superstructure icing from october to may environment current issues endangered marine species include walruses and whales fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage thinning polar icepack seasonal hole in ozone layer over the north pole reduction of the area of arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet s albedo thus possibly affecting global warming many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the arctic may cause large amounts of fresh arctic ocean meltwater to enter the north atlantic possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns potentially severe changes in the earth s climate might then ensue ports and harbors arctic ocean seaports churchill inuvik prudhoe bay barrow pevek tiksi dikson dudinka arkhangelsk murmansk churchill manitoba canada inuvik canada prudhoe bay us barrow us pevek russia tiksi |
russia dikson russia dudinka russia murmansk russia arkhangelsk russia kirkenes norway vard norway transportation note sparse network of air ocean river and land routes the northwest passage north america and northern sea route eurasia are important seasonal waterways exploration the first surface crossing of the arctic ocean was led by wally herbert in one nine six nine in a dogsled expedition from alaska to svalbard with air support see also northwest passage open polar sea references bibliography neatby leslie h discovery in russian and siberian waters one nine seven three isbn zero eight two one four zero one two four six ray l and stonehouse b eds the arctic ocean one nine eight two isbn zero three three three three one zero one seven nine thor n ragnar v a picture atlas of the arctic one nine six nine isbn zero eight two one four zero one two four six based on public domain text by us naval oceanographer http oceanographer navy mil arctic html see also north pole external links arctic council the north |
ern forum arctic environmental atlas interactive map of the greater arctic including shaded relief and bathymetry of the arctic ocean noaa arctic theme page comprehensive arctic resource with data photos maps essays on key arctic issues and much more noaa in situ ocean data viewer plot and download ocean observations arctic time series the unaami data collection viewable interdisciplinary diverse collection of arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types noaa north pole web cam images from web cams deployed in spring on an ice floe in the middle of the arctic ocean noaa near realtime north pole weather data data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the arctic ocean search for arctic life heats up by stephen leahy oceans seas arctic the android data portrayed by brent spiner from the tv series star trek the next generation an android is an artificially created robot an automaton that resembles a human being usually both in appearance and behavior the word derives from |
the greek andr meaning man male and the suffix eides used to mean of the species alike from eidos species the word droid a robot in the star wars universe is derived from this meaning in the semantic sense the word android is a misnomer the intended meaning is an artificial human being like being while the literal translation is an artificial male being the word andros has definite meaning of male human being in greek while the word man can mean either male human being or human being in general the gender neutral word for human being in greek is anthropos and the correct word for an artificial human being like automaton would be anthropoid toc usage and distinctions unlike the terms robot a mechanical being and cyborg a being that is partly organic and partly mechanical the word android has been used in literature and other media to denote several different kinds of artificially constructed beings a robot that closely resembles a human a cyborg that closely resembles a human an artificially created yet primar |
ily organic being that closely resembles a human although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts simulacra devices that exhibit likeness and automata devices that have independence the term android was first used by the french author mathias villiers de l isle adam one eight three eight one eight eight nine in his work tomorrow s eve featuring an artificial human like robot named hadaly as said by the officer in the story in this age of realien advancement who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls although karel apek s robots in r u r rossum s universal robots one nine two one the play that introduced the word robot to the world were organic artificial humans the word robot has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans animals and other beings the term android can mean either one of these while a cyborg cybernetic organi |
sm or bionic man would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts ambiguity historically science fiction authors have used android in a greater diversity of ways than the terms robot and cyborg in some fiction works the primary difference between a robot and android is only skin deep with androids being made to look almost exactly like humans on the outside but with internal mechanics exactly the same as that of robots in other stories authors have defined android to indicate a wholly organic yet artificial creation other definitions of android fall somewhere in between the character data from the television series star trek the next generation is described as an android data became intoxicated in an early episode the naked now and is later referred to having bioplast sheeting for skin the most toys perhaps suggesting that he was initially intended by the writers to be at least partially organic otherwise data was shown to be mechanical throughout and this often became a central plot |
theme the replicants from the movie blade runner were bioengineered organic beings while they were not referred to as either robots or androids in the movie the screenplay was originally based on a novel by philip k dick called do androids dream of electric sheep in the video game beneath a steel sky genetically engineered androids similar to blade runner s replicants are a central plot theme however despite their organic makeup their behavior is programmed by computer the robots of apek s r u r were organic in nature today an author writing a similar story might very well be inclined to call them androids the character ash in the movie alien another artificial organic being is often referred to as an android though not in the dialogue of the movie itself similarly the character bishop in aliens and alien is a more advanced android commonly called a synthetic but prefers to be called an artificial person much later in the series timeline the character call in alien resurrection is ashamed of being an android |
c three po and r two d two from the star wars movies are referred to as droids while c three po could reasonably be called an android because he is humanoid in appearance the squat cylinder r two d two is only humanoid in behavior in the movie a i the robotic characters are called mechanoids but the film is loosely based on a short story written by brian aldiss called supertoys last all summer long in which the central character david is called an android by which aldiss seemed to be referring to an organic creation in the anime manga chobits androids are known as persicoms essentially computers in a man made body the series does not go into their internal composition but it is assumed to be artificial with a very realistic outside one of the key points of this series was a special type of persicom named a chobit a persicom that had free will and the ability to fall in love and have emotions androids in fiction thus far androids have remained mostly within the domain of science fiction and frequently in film |
and television however some humanoid robots exist one of the earliest android characters is otho from the captain future stories of edmond hamilton otho s construction is never discussed but he is much more human like than his companion grag a mechanical robot isaac asimov s robot stories are mostly about androids many are collected in i robot one nine five zero they promulgated a set of rules of ethics for androids and robots see three laws of robotics that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject most of asimov s robots appear too artificial to be mistaken for human beings with the notable exceptions of r jander panell r daneel olivaw and andrew martin perhaps the most famous android is data played by actor brent spiner of the series star trek the next generation one nine eight seven one nine nine four and several spin off motion pictures this character was largely inspired by another android character created by gene roddenberry for the questor tapes data s immediate |
family brothers lore and b four et al daughter lal and mother dr juliana tainer were also androids and the fembots are properly though rarely referred to as gynoids from the same creator dr noonien soong earlier in star trek the motion picture one nine seven nine the ilia probe a precisely duplicated biomechanical drone of lieutenant ilia with some of her emotions intact was dispatched by v ger to gather information about the crew of the starship enterprise in the tv series gene roddenberry s andromeda two zero zero zero two zero zero five the gynoid rommie is an extension of the starship s ai operating system represented by an avatar of rommie in the re imagined series battlestar galactica two zero zero three the gynoid number six is one of a seductive variant of the antagonistic robotic cylons that is used to infiltrate the fleeing human colonial forces and particularly the mind of the scientist dr gaius baltar androids jinzou ningen in japanese meaning artificial human are also a race in dragon ball dragon |
ball z and dragon ball gt the androids names were only numbers such as android one three or android two zero they were created by dr gero dr muu and the red ribbon army some are entirely artificial and some are created from humans and can be considered cyborgs jinzo ningen kikaider was the first manga and tokusatsu series to feature an android protagonist the series xenosaga borrows villiers original term realian when referring to a race of beings created by vector corporation two playable characters are androids momo and kos mos one is refered to as a realian while the second is simply an android in their respective series by capcom mega man was initially called a humanoid which was then simplified to robot x a later version is said to be more advanced more independent of thought and closer to an android other beings based off his design are called reploids many more examples may be found in this list of fictional robots references kerman judith b one nine nine one retrofitting blade runner issues in ridley |
scott s blade runner and philip k dick s do androids dream of electric sheep bowling green oh bowling green state university popular press isbn zero eight seven nine seven two five zero nine five shelde per one nine nine three androids humanoids and other science fiction monsters science and soul in science fiction films new york new york university press isbn zero eight one four seven seven nine three zero one sidney perkowitz two zero zero four digital people from bionic humans to androids joseph henry press isbn zero three zero nine zero nine six one nine seven see also animatronic cyborg domestic robot muscle wire robot sex doll realdoll statuephilia gynoid artificial intelligence humanoid humanoid robot transhumanism repliee q one external links android world valerie the domestic female android science fiction themes robots alberta is one of canada s provinces it celebrated one zero zero years as a province on september one two zero zero five alberta is located in western canada it is bounded on the wes |
t by the province of british columbia on the north by the northwest territories on the east by the province of saskatchewan and on the south by the united states of america state of montana alberta s capital is the city of edmonton located just south of the centre of the province the most populous city and metropolitan area is calgary calgary is also the province s busiest transportation hub for road air and rail and is one of canada s major commerce centres other major municipalities include red deer lethbridge medicine hat fort mcmurray grande prairie camrose lloydminster wetaskiwin banff and jasper see also list of communities in alberta the premier of the province is hon ralph klein progressive conservative see also list of alberta premiers alberta is named after princess louise caroline alberta one eight four eight one nine three nine the fourth daughter of queen victoria princess louise was also the wife of sir john campbell who was the governor general of canada from one eight seven eight one eight eig |
ht three lake louise was also named in honour of princess louise geography main article geography of alberta alberta is in western canada and covers an area of six six one one nine zero km two five five two eight seven mi to the south it borders the us state of montana at a latitude of four nine n or the four nine th parallel to the east at a longitude of one one zero w it borders the province of saskatchewan at six zero n it is bordered by the northwest territories to the west its border with british columbia follows the line of peaks of the rocky mountains range along the continental divide which runs northwesterly until it reaches one two zero w at which point the border follows this meridian to six zero n with the exception of the southeastern section the province is well watered alberta contains dozens of rivers and lakes ideal for swimming water skiing fishing and a full range of other water sports there are a multitude of fresh water lakes each less than two six zero km situated in alberta and three of |
more considerable size these three larger lakes are lake athabasca seven eight nine eight km part of which lies in the province of saskatchewan lake claire one four three six km which lies just west of lake athabasca in wood bufflao national park and lesser slave lake one one six eight km which is well northwest of edmonton as alberta extends for one two zero zero km from north to south and about six zero zero km wide at its greatest east west extent it is natural that the climate should vary considerably between the four nine th and six zero th parallels it is also further influenced by altitude especially in the southwestern part of the province within the canadian rockies and adjacent areas directly to the east banff national park northern alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has fewer frost free days than southern alberta which is often semi arid due to the summer heat and much lower rainfall western alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the warmth brought by winter chinook winds whi |
le southeastern alberta is flat dry prairie where temperatures can range from very cold three five c three one f in the winter to very hot three five c nine five f or higher in the summer central and parts of northwestern alberta in the peace river region are largely aspen parkland a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north after southern ontario central alberta is the most likely region in canada to experience tornadoes thunderstorms some of them severe are frequent in the summer especially in central and southern alberta the region surrounding the calgary edmonton corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in canada overall alberta has cold winters with a daytime average of about one zero c one four f in the south to two four c one two f in the north in the summer the daytime temperature averages from about one three c five five f in the rocky mountains to one nine c six seven f in the dry prairie to the south east the northern and western parts of the |
province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures alberta s capital city edmonton is located almost in the geographic centre of the province and most of alberta s oil is refined here southern alberta where calgary is located is known for its ranching much of the unforested part of alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming with ranching predominantly a southern alberta industry in southeastern alberta where the red deer river traverses the flat prairie and farmland are the alberta badlands with deep gorges and striking landforms dinosaur provincial park near drumheller alberta showcases the badlands terrain desert flora and remnants from alberta s past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape alberta is one of only two canadian provinces to have no maritime coast the other being the neighbouring province of saskatchewan largest municipalities and metro areas by population major municipalities of alberta municipality two zero zero five two |
zero zero one one nine nine six census metropolitan areas calgary cma one zero six zero three zero zero nine five one three nine five eight two one six two eight edmonton cma one zero one six zero zero zero nine three seven eight four five eight six two five nine seven cities one zero largest calgary nine five six zero seven eight eight seven eight eight six six seven six eight zero eight two edmonton seven one two three nine one six six six one zero four six one six three zero six red deer seven nine zero eight two six seven seven zero seven six zero zero eight zero lethbridge seven seven two zero two six seven three seven four six three zero five three st albert included in edmonton cma five six three one eight five three zero eight one four six eight eight eight medicine hat five six zero four eight five one two four nine four six seven eight three grande prairie four four six three one three six nine eight three three one three five three airdrie included in calgary cma two seven zero six nine two zero t |
hree eight two one five nine four six spruce grove included in edmonton cma one eight four zero five one five nine eight three one four two seven one camrose one five eight five zero one four eight five four one three seven two eight districts three largest strathcona county included in edmonton cma eight zero two three two seven one nine eight six six four one seven six regional municipality of wood buffalo seven three one seven six four one four six six three five two one three municipality of rocky view included in calgary cma three zero six eight eight two eight four four one two three three two six calgary alberta sources all two zero zero five figures are based on official two zero zero five census data from municipalities where no two zero zero five data is available indicates the most recent official data from either the municipality or the two zero zero one statistics canada federal census all data for two zero zero one and one nine nine six is from the respective federal census indicates two zero ze |
ro five cma estimates according to statistics canada population of census metropolitan areas although the city of lloydminster has a total population of two three six three two it is not included on the list because the city straddles the alberta saskatchewan border only one five four eight seven people live on the alberta side which would make it alberta s one one th largest city industry main article industry in alberta alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil synthetic crude natural gas and gas products in the country two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in north america are located in central and north central alberta in both red deer and edmonton world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world and edmonton s oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of edmonton the athabasca oil sands previously known as the athabasca tar sands have estimated oil reserves in excess of that of the rest of |
the world estimated to be one six trillion barrels two five four km with the advancement of extraction methods bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude this technology is alberta grown and developed many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non conventional methods to extract the bitumen from the athabasca deposit with current technology only three one five billion barrels five zero km are recoverable fort mcmurray one of canada s youngest and liveliest cities has grown up entirely because of the large multinational corporations which have taken on the task of oil production another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the tar sands is the price of oil in two zero zero five record oil prices have made it more than profitable to extract this oil which in the past would give little profit or even a loss while edmonton is considered the pipeline junction manufacturing chemical processing research and refining centre of the p |
rovince calgary is known for its senior and junior oil company head offices unlike edmonton calgary is not close to any large sources of oil with concerted effort and support from the provincial government several high tech industries have found their birth in alberta notably the invention and perfection of liquid crystal display systems with a growing economy alberta has several financial institutions dealing with several civil and private funds agriculture and forestry farm buildings alberta canola field grain elevator alberta agriculture has a significant position in the province s economy over five million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another and alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market nearly one half of all canadian beef is produced in alberta alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo bison for the consumer market sheep for wool and mutton are also raised wheat and canola are primary farm crops with alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production with oth |
er grains also prominent much of the farming is dryland farming often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation continuous cropping in which there is no fallow season is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion across the province the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points alberta is the leading beekeeping province of canada with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern alberta then migrating north during the summer into the peace river valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed hybrid canola also requires bee pollination and some beekeepers service this need the vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow alberta to produce large quantities of lumber and plywood and several northern alberta plants supply north america and the p |
acific rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint government see also politics of alberta edmonton is the seat of government of alberta it is a parliamentary democracy its unicameral legislature the legislative assembly consists of eight three members as canada s head of state queen elizabeth ii is the government of alberta s chief executive her duties in alberta are carried out by lieutenant governor norman kwong the government is headed by the premier ralph klein the city of edmonton is alberta s government capital the province s revenue comes mainly from the taxation of oil natural gas beef softwood lumber and wheat but also includes grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects albertans are the lowest taxed people in canada and alberta is the only province in canada without a provincial sales tax though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax the gst alberta s municipalities have their own governments which usually work in co operation with the provincial go |
vernment alberta s politics are much more conservative than those of other canadian provinces alberta has traditionally had three political parties the progressive conservatives conservatives or tories the centrist liberals and the social democratic new democrats a fourth party the strongly conservative social credit party was a power in alberta for many decades but fell from the political map after the progressive conservatives came to power in the early one nine seven zero s since that time no other political party has governed alberta in fact only three parties have governed alberta the united farmers of alberta the social credit party and the currently governing progressive conservative party as is the case with many western canadian provinces alberta has had occasional bouts of separatist sentiment even during the one nine eight zero s when these feelings were at their strongest there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referenda there are a number of groups wis |
hing to promote the independence of alberta in some form currently active in the province see also alberta separatism in the two zero zero four provincial election held in november the alberta alliance party running to the right wing politics of the conservatives won one seat see also list of alberta premiers list of alberta general elections education as with any canadian province the alberta government is the highest authority in education creating and regulating the school boards public colleges universities and other educational institutions k one two the vast majority of alberta s schools are run by publicly funded school boards each with its own district of authority the largest are english language public school boards alberta also has english separate catholic boards throughout the province which serve a substantial minority of students there is one protestant school board in part of the province where numbers warrant there are francophone school boards public and separate catholic all five of these t |
ypes of boards are primarily publicly funded basic school fees range from two zero zero seven five zero depending on the school board by local property taxes and provincial grants given on an equal per student basis by the province with some adjustments the different types of school boards are a necessity under the canadian constitution which guarantees the francophones and catholic communities both the right to their own schools and the right to administer them some other canadian provinces have reformed their school systems on non religious lines by seeking a constitutional amendment but alberta has not often the decision to go to one system or another is not based on religion but a parent s belief of which system provides a better education starting in one nine nine four the province has allowed some chartered schools to operate independently of any district school board reporting directly to the province homeschooling is officially recognized and partially funded from within the alberta school system orig |
inally in alberta school boards had the power to levy property taxes within their respective districts however this meant districts with a low tax base were underfunded so the province moved to a system that pools the education property tax and distributes it based on student population and need post secondary alberta s oldest and largest university is edmonton s university of alberta the university of calgary once affiliated with the university of alberta gained its autonomy in one nine six six and is now the second largest university in alberta there is also athabasca university which focuses on distance learning and the university of lethbridge there are one five colleges that receive direct public funding along with two technical institutes nait and sait students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions transportation alberta has over one eight zero zero zero zero km of highways and roads of which nearly five zero zero zero zero km are paved the main north |
south corridor is highway two which begins south of cardston at the carway border crossing highway four which effectively extends u s interstate highway one five into alberta and is the busiest u s gateway to the province begins at the coutts border crossing and ends at lethbridge highway three joins lethbridge to fort macleod and links highway four to highway two highway two travels northward through fort macleod calgary red deer and edmonton before dividing into two highways one continues northwest as highway four three into grande prairie and the peace river country the other highway six three travels northeast to fort mcmurray the location of the athabasca oil sands highway two is supplimented by two more highways that run parallel to it highway two two west of highway two known as the cowboy trail and highway two one east of highway two alberta has two main east west corridors the southern corridor part of the trans canada highway system enters the province near medicine hat runs westward through calgar |
y and leaves alberta through banff national park the northern corridor also part of the trans canada network but known alternatively as the yellowhead highway highway one six runs west from lloydminster in eastern alberta through edmonton and jasper national park into british columbia on a sunny spring or fall day one of the most scenic drives in the world is along the icefields parkway which runs some three zero zero km between jasper and banff with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length urban stretches of alberta s major highways and freeways are often called trails for example highway two is deerfoot trail as it passes through calgary calgary trail as it leaves edmonton southbound and st albert trail as it leaves edmonton northbound toward the city of st albert visitors from outside alberta often find this disconcerting accustomed as they are to the notion that a trail is an unpaved route primarily for pedestrians edmonton calgary red deer medicine hat and lethbridge have substant |
ial mass transit systems edmonton and calgary also operate light rail vehicles alberta is well connected by air with international airports at both edmonton and calgary calgary s airport is the larger of the two and is also the fourth busiest in canada it is a hub airport for a significant proportion of the connecting trans border and international flights into and out of central canada there are over nine zero zero zero km of operating mainline railway and many tourists see alberta aboard via rail or rocky mountain railtours culture main article culture of alberta alberta is well known for its warm and outgoing friendliness and frontier spirit whyte avenue edmonton summer brings many festivals to the province edmonton s fringe festival is the world s second largest after edinburgh s alberta also hosts some of canada s largest folk festivals multicultural festivals and heritage days to name a few calgary is also home to carifest the second largest caribbean festival in the nation after caribana in toronto the |
se events highlight the province s cultural diversity and love of entertainment most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as edmonton s arts barns and the francis winspear centre alberta also has a large ethnic population both the chinese and east indian communities are significant according to statistics canada alberta is home to the second highest proportion two percent of francophones in western canada after manitoba many of alberta s french speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province as reported in the two zero zero one census the chinese represented nearly four percent of alberta s population and east indians represented better than two percent both edmonton and calgary have chinatowns and calgary s is canada s third largest aboriginal albertans make up approximately three percent of the population the major contributors to alberta s ethnic diversity have been the european nations forty four percent of alberta |
ns are of british and irish descent and there are also large numbers of germans ukrainians and scandinavians both cities heavily support first class canadian football league and national hockey league teams soccer rugby union and lacrosse are also played professionally in alberta tourism is also important to albertans a million visitors come to alberta each year just for calgary s world famous stampede and for edmonton s klondike days edmonton was the gateway to the only all canadian route to the yukon gold fields and the only route which did not require gold seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous chilkoot pass stephen avenue calgary visitors throng to calgary for ten days every july for a taste of stampede fever as a celebration of canada s own wild west and the cattle ranching industry the stampede welcomes around one two million people each year only an hour s drive from the rocky mountains calgary also makes a visit to tourist attractions like banff national park something which can easily be done |
in a day calgary and banff each host nearly five million tourists yearly alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to ski and hike alberta boasts several world class ski resorts hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive trophies and tall tales from their experiences in alberta s wilderness demographics alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years due in large part to its burgeoning economy between two zero zero three and two zero zero four the province saw high birthrates on par with some larger provinces such as british columbia relatively high immigration and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces as of two zero zero five the population of the province was three two one two eight one three albertans eight one of this population lives in urban areas and one nine is rural the calgary edmonton corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and one of the densest in canada many of alberta s cities |
and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history population of alberta since one nine zero one alberta s population has grown steadily for over a century racially and ethnically the province is predominantly caucasian eight eight eight of the population is either white or aboriginal aboriginals represent a fairly small proportion of this percentage however this number is significantly smaller in many of the cities particularly calgary and edmonton which are home to a much larger number of visible minorities visible minorities three three chinese two three asian one one black one one filipino most albertans identify as christians nevertheless many people in the province observe other faiths or do not profess to a religion at all alberta has a somewhat higher percentage of evangelical christians than do other provinces conversely alberta also has the second highest percentage of non religious residents in canada after british columbia the mormons of alberta reside primarily in the ex |
treme south of the province there are temples in both cardston and edmonton many alberta mormons descend from mormon pioneers who emigrated from utah around the turn of the two zero th century alberta also has a large hutterite population a communal anabaptist sect similar to the mennonites and a significant population of seventh day adventists in and around the lacombe area due to the presence of the canadian university college many people of the hindu sikh and muslim faiths also make alberta their home one of the largest sikh temples in canada is located just outside of edmonton religion protestant three eight nine roman catholic two six seven no affiliation two three six christian orthodox one five other christian four one muslim one five buddhist one one history main article history of alberta the present province of alberta as far north as about five three north latitude was a part of rupert s land from the time of the incorporation of the hudson s bay company one six seven zero after the arrival in the |
north west of the french around one seven three one they settled the prairies of the west establishing communities such as lac la biche and bonnyville fort la jonqui re was established near what is now calgary in one seven five two the north west company of montreal occupied the northern part of alberta territory before the hudson s bay company arrived from hudson bay to take possession of it the first explorer of the athabasca region was peter pond who on behalf of the north west company of montreal built fort athabasca on lac la biche in one seven seven eight roderick mackenzie built fort chipewyan on lake athabasca ten years later in one seven eight eight his cousin sir alexander mackenzie followed the north saskatchewan river to its northernmost point near edmonton then setting northward on foot trekked to the athabasca river which he followed to lake athabasca it was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name the mackenzie river which he followed to its outlet in the arctic ocean r |
eturning to lake athabasca he followed the peace river upstream eventually reaching the pacific ocean and so being the first white man to cross the north american continent north of mexico the district of alberta was created as part of the north west territories in one eight eight two as settlement increased local representatives to the north west legislative assembly were added after a long campaign for autonomy in one nine zero five the district of alberta was enlarged and given provincial status fauna and flora fauna the three climatic regions alpine forest and prairie of alberta are home to many different species of animals the south and central prairie was the land of the bison its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo the buffalo population was decimated during early settlement but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback and thrive on farms and in parks all over alberta alberta is home to many large carnivores among them are the grizzly and black bears whic |
h are found in the mountains and wooded regions smaller carnivores of the dog and cat families include coyotes wolves fox lynx bobcat and mountain lion cougar rocky mountains bighorn sheep herbivorous or plant eating animals are found throughout the province moose and deer both mule and white tail varieties are found in the wooded regions and pronghorn antelope can be found in the prairies of southern alberta bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the rocky mountains rabbits porcupines skunks squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province alberta is fortunate in that it is home to only one variety of venomous snake the prairie rattlesnake central and northern alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of the migratory birds vast numbers of ducks geese swans and pelicans arrive in alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern alberta eagles hawks owls and crows are plentiful and a huge variety of smaller |
seed and insect eating birds can be found alberta like other temperate regions is home to mosquitoes flies wasps and bees rivers and lakes are well stocked with pike walleye white fish rainbow speckled and brown trout and even sturgeon turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in alberta flora in central and northern alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie anemone the avens crocuses and other early flowers the advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower family until in august the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple the southern part of alberta is covered by a short grass very nutritive but dries up as summer lengthens to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the buffalo bean fleabane and sage both yellow and purple clover fill the roadways and the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents the trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hi |
llsides these are largely deciduous typically birch poplar and tamarack many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain on the north side of the north saskatchewan river evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres aspen poplar balsam poplar or cottonwood and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species conifers include jack pine rocky mountain pine lodgepole pine both white and black spruce and the deciduous conifer tamarack see also family law act external links government of alberta website travel alberta alberta encyclopedia alberta community profiles a site offering info on tax census info and economic development of large and small albertan communities alberta demosphere alberta for the fast food restaurant chain see arctic circle restaurants image arctic circle zero two one one zero six jpg a sign along the dalton highway marking the location of the arctic circle the arctic circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the |
earth this is the parallel of latitude that in two zero zero zero runs six six three three three nine north of the equator everything north of this circle is known as the arctic and the zone just to the south of this circle is the northern temperate zone the arctic circle marks the southern extremity of the polar day of the summer solstice in june and the polar night of the winter solstice in december within the arctic circle the arctic sun is above the horizon for at least two four continuous hours once per year in conjunction with the arctic s summer solstice this is often referred to in local as midnight sun likewise in conjunction with the arctic s winter solstice the arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least two four continuous hours in fact because of refraction and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about five zero nine zero km south of the geometric arctic circle similarly at the day of the winter so |
lstice part of the sun may be seen up to about five zero north of the geometric arctic circle this is true at sea level these limits increase with elevation above sea level however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon the position of the arctic circle is determined by the axial tilt angle of the polar axis of rotation of the earth on the ecliptic this angle is not constant but has a complex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods due to nutation the tilt oscillates over nine about two eight zero m on the surface over a period of one eight six years the main long term cycle has a period of four one zero zero zero years and an amplitude of about zero six eight or seven six km on the surface currently the tilt is decreasing by about zero four seven per year so the arctic circle is moving north by about one four m per year also see precession countries which have significant territory within the arctic circle are russia canada denmark greenland united states o |
f america alaska norway sweden finland the country of iceland also has territory within the arctic circle but less than one sq km this area is on a few small islets of which only gr msey which lies directly on the arctic circle is inhabited see also antarctic circle circumpolar arctic external links santa s lapland and christmas club lapland and arctic circle topographical map of arctic circle centered about north pole map of arctic circle dotted line showing major population areas terra incognita exploration of the canadian arctic historical essay about early expeditions to the canadian arctic illustrated with maps photographs and drawings arctic geography of nunavut geography of the northwest territories lines of latitude m one six a two u s this version was adopted in one nine eight two an assault rifle is a type of automatic rifle generally defined as a selective fire rifle or carbine depending on the particular firearm s size using intermediate powered ammunition they are categorized between the larger a |
nd heavier light machine gun and the weaker submachine gun assault rifles are the standard small arm in most modern armies having largely replaced or suplemented the larger more powerful rifles of the past the name is a literal translation of the german term sturmgewehr or storm weapon first applied to the sturmgewehr four four developed during world war ii it gradually became a popular term for this type of firearm the term has since been retro actively applied to earlier weapons with similar traits history one nine zero zero s to the one nine three zero s light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges federov avtomat russia the weapon fired the japanese rifle cartridge these automatic firearms tended to use used pre existing rifle cartridges kinetic energy ranged between three zero zero zero five zero zero zero j two two zero zero three seven zero zero foot pounds velocites of seven five zero nine zero zero m s two four six zero two nine five zero ft s and bullets of nine to one three g one three nine two ze |
ro zero grains the first true assault rifle was probably the italian made cei rigotti which was developed in the one eight nine zero s and finished around one nine zero zero at the beginning of the two zero th century it never entered military service however the first service assault rifle was the russian federov avtomat of one nine one six chambered for the japanese arisaka six five five zero mm rifle cartridge which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems the browning automatic rifle bar was a world war i era weapon that used a full power round it was an automatic rifle by today s definition and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire the weight of roughly one five pounds seven kg meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters later developments added heavier barrels and bipods that lent it to being used as more like today s light machine gun or squad automatic weapon though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles the bar wa |
s produced in large numbers widely adopted and served into the one nine six zero s with the u s military and other nations while it did not use an intermediate cartridge it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier machine guns such as the lewis gun during wwi a few weaker submachine guns also entered service such as the villar perosa the berretta one nine one eight and the mp one eight these weapons fired rounds based of pistols nine mm glisenti and nine mm bergmann the nine mm bergman was based on the nine mm parabellum with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the mp one eight the developers of the thompson submachine gun also developed during the one nine one zero s originally intended to use rifle powered rounds however a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and it ended up using the four five acp cartridge these firearms are considered part of the submachine gun class but were an important part in the development of the assault rifles one nin |
e three zero s automatic intermediate weapons some of these automatic and semi automatic firearms used new intermediate cartridges others used pre existing rounds an attempt to provide soldiers with a rifle with intermediate power ammunition that was heavier than a submachine gun too weak with short range due to the pistol ammunition but lighter than a long rifle uncomfortable to fire and difficult to control on fully automatic mode due to the powerful ammunition more expensive to design and manufacture by the italian arms company beretta resulted in the mab three eight moschetto automatico beretta one nine three eight the mab three eight used a fiocchi nine m three eight cartridge and a higher powered nine mm parabellum cartridge which could provide longer range fire the effective range was about two zero zero m although it was declared to be effective up to five zero zero m the mab three eight was a multipurpose weapon m one carbine u s unlike the m one the later m two and m three were fully automatic in on |
e nine three eight prior to world war ii the united states introduced the m one carbine which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the three zero carbine cartridge the m one carbine was originally planned to have automatic fire but this was dropped from the first version although later in the war selective fire variants were made m two and m three carbines the weapon had higher stopping power than submachine guns but was not as powerful as full size automatic rifles such as the bar the longer barrel one eight inch provided the carbine with higher muzzle velocity than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same three zero round the m one carbine series was designed for close quarters engagements a concept that would be re applied later it marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass produced in such large numbers it became the most produced american weapon of the war with millions made the m one carbine series would remain in service with the u s military until repl |
aced by the m one six rifle in the one nine six zero s it continued to be used in other nations one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s maschinenkarabiner sturmgewehr others used new intermediate cartridges kinetic energy ranged between one four zero zero two one zero zero j one zero three three one five five zero foot pounds muzzle velocities of six zero zero eight zero zero m s one nine seven zero two six two five ft s and bullets of seven nine g one zero eight one three nine grains germany like other countries had studied the problem since world war i and their factories made a variety of non standard cartridges therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers the seven nine two three zero mm cartridge was an example of these experiments in one nine four one it was improved to seven nine two three three mm infanterie kurz patrone infantry short standard in one nine four two it was again improved as maschinenkarabiner patrone s and in one nine four three pistolen patrone four three me |
then finally infanterie kurz patrone four three it is just a coincidence but the intermediate cartridge developed by winchester for the m one carbine developed slightly before also measured three three mm in one nine four two walther presented the maschinenkarabiner automatic carbine abbr mkb named mkb four two w in the same year haenel presented the mkb four two h designed by hugo schmeisser as a result of this program rheinmetall borsig some said krieghoff presented its fg four two fallschirmjaeger gewehr four two sponsored by hermann g ring though this was in a different role and using a heavy eight five seven mm eight mm mauser cartridge which was not an intermediate round war time tests in russia indicated the mkb four two h performed better than the other two schmeisser developed it first as the mp four three then mp four three one and finally as the mp four four sturmgewehr four four abbreviated stg four four it immediately entered large scale production more than five zero zero zero units had been pr |
oduced by february one nine four four and five five zero zero zero by the following november following the end of the war the soviet union developed the ak four seven which was vaguely similar in concept and layout to the german stg four four but extremely different mechanically it fired the seven six two three nine mm cartridge which had been developed during wwii the round was similar to the stg four four s in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the russian rifle ammunition one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s lighter automatic weapons and lighter smaller bullets many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers but fired at very high velocity kinetic energy ranged between one three zero zero one eight zero zero j nine six zero one three three zero foot pounds velocities of nine zero zero one zero five zero m s two nine five zero three four five zero ft s and bullets of three four g four six six two grains sig five five zero swiss t |
he sig fires gw pat nine zero which has the same caliber as the five five six mm nato many nations continued the development of traditional high powered rifles with ranges of five zero zero meters five five zero yards and beyond most designs of this period used low caliber but high velocity ammunition with some experiments in flechettes and other exotic ammunition statistical studies of world war ii battles performed by the u s army revealed that infantry combat beyond three zero zero meters three two five yards was rare the russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman s ability to aim therefore a lighter less powerful cartridge could be effective this permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition making them more autonomous a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space in addition the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit tank crews support troops and units with missions other than front line co |
mbat the five five six four five mm nato cartridge was developed in the one nine six zero s and was adopted for use in the m one six assault rifle the m one six a one version soon followed and was then replaced in one nine eight two by the m one six a two the soviet union also developed its own similar round the five four five three nine mm which was used in the ak seven four the successor of the ak four seven these rounds are usually considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds that fired larger rifle caliber ammunition with reduced propellant but the smaller caliber and lighter bullets achieve higher velocities than even a hunting rifle bullet these high speeds induce additional lethality through bullet shattering although these high speed rounds generally do not exceed the momentum of the heavier but slower bullets of the less sophisticated ak four seven any pointed spitzer round will tumble in soft tissue if the jacket has a cannelure like the u s five five six four five mm |
m one nine three round the bullet will fragment leading to significant blood loss and internal damage blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue since combat use of rifles expends around five zero zero zero zero rounds in suppressive fire for each combatant killed trading lighter cartridge weight and lower recoil for slower but more sure incapacitation often makes good sense the key to the assault rifle concept is firing at both known and suspected enemy positions this allows an attacking infantry unit to shoot at a hidden enemy first rather than waiting for the enemy to fire first good volume and distribution of aimed suppressive fire delivered by infantry squad members as they maneuver prevents enemy return fire and in turn allows the assaulting unit to maneuver through enemy fields of fire faster faster maneuver limits the assaulting unit s vulnerability to small arms fire artillery mortars or counter attack of course this requires a larger basic am |
munition load and steady supply of rifle ammunition one nine seven zero s one nine eight zero s one nine nine zero s new form factors and features many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras but focused on using new form factors materials and added features like standard telescopic and reflex sights famas france it was adopted in one nine seven eight the biggest change since adoption of high velocity rounds of five mm caliber and higher has been designs that have new form factors sights electronics and materials a number of bullpup rifles entered service in the late one nine seven zero s one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s although bullpup rifles had existed since the one nine three zero s the united kingdom s em two was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time examples of the new trend include the famas steyr aug and sa eight zero they were all bullpup rifles that made heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls and the latter |
both added a low power telescopic sight to the standard service version the sar two one the tavor tar two one and qbz nine five follow a similar trend as well with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites the heckler seven mm range with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber faster modern rounds and the standard caliber slower rounds of the previous generation china in the late one nine eight zero s introduced a five eight four two mm round with an initial velocity of nine three zero m s four two six g bullet and one eight four two j of energy china claims the new round provides superior performace and lethality to the nato and modern soviet intermediate rounds in the united states remington has developed the six eight mm remington spc cartridge which is the same overall length at the five five six x four five mm nato round but fires a bullet the same caliber at the two seven zero winchester hunting cartridge its similar size to t |
he five five six four five mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of trouble development of a four seven three mm caseless ammunition and advanced assault rifle in the one nine seven zero one nine eight zero s by germany was effectively halted by the german reunification in one nine nine zero and that rifle never entered full production assault weapons vs fully automatic weapons primarily in the united states the term assault weapon is an arbitrary and politicized phrase generally used to describe a collection of semi automatic firearms that have certain features associated with military police use such as a folding stock flash suppressor bayonet protruding pistol grip or the ability to accept a detachable magazine of a capacity larger than ten rounds the phrase assault weapon has been used primarily in relation to a specific expired gun law that was commonly known as the assault weapons ban clinton gun ban or one nine nine four crime bill it is a common misconception that |
the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully automatic fire such as assault rifles and machine guns fully automatic weapons were unaffected by the ban because they have been heavily restricted since the national firearms act of one nine three four and other more recent laws the term assault weapon has often been erroneously used to describe machine guns many states and localities still use the term assault weapon with a variety of variations following the california model loosely see separate article on assault weapons for further information see also automatic firearm for clarification on similar categories battle rifle federal assault weapons ban usa firearm action gas operated list of firearms external links assault rifles and their ammunition history and prospects rifles assault rifles animals are a major group of organisms classified as the kingdom animalia or metazoa in general they are multicellular capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment and feed by consuming other org |
anisms their body plan becomes fixed as they develop usually early on in their development as embryos although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on the name animal comes from the latin word animal of which animalia is the plural and ultimately from anima meaning vital breath or soul characteristics kingdom animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things animals are eukaryotic and multicellular which separates them from bacteria and most protists they are heterotrophic generally digesting food in an internal chamber which separates them from plants and algae they are also distinguished from plants algae and fungi by lacking cell walls structure with a few exceptions most notably the sponges phylum porifera animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues these include muscles which are able to contract and control locomotion and a nervous system which sends and processes signals there is also typically an internal digestive chamber with one or two openings an |
imals with this sort of organization are called metazoans or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general all animals have eukaryotic cells surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins this may be calcified to form structures like shells bones and spicules during development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized making complex structures possible in contrast other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls and so develop by progressive growth also unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions tight junctions gap junctions and desmosomes reproduction and development nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction adults are diploid or occasionally polyploid they have a few specialized reproductive cells which undergo meiosis to produce smaller motile spermatozoa or larger non motile ova these fuse to form zygotes which |
develop into new individuals many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction this may take place through parthenogenesis where fertile eggs are produced without mating or in some cases through fragmentation a zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere called a blastula which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation in sponges blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge in most other groups the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement it first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber and two separate germ layers an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm in most cases a mesoderm also develops between them these germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight plants use this energy to turn air into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis these sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow when animals eat these plants or eat other animals w |
hich have eaten plants the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal they are either used directly to help the animal grow or broken down releasing stored solar energy and giving the animal the energy required for motion this process is known as glycolysis origin and fossil record animals are generally considered to have evolved from flagellate protozoa their closest living relatives are the choanoflagellates collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the opisthokonts which also include the fungi and a few small parasitic protists the name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells such as most animal sperm whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella the first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the precambrian around six zero zero million years ago and are known as the vendian biota these are difficult to relate to later fossils however some may repres |
ent precursors of modern phyla but they may be separate groups and it is possible they are not really animals at all aside from them most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the cambrian period about five seven zero million years ago it is still disputed whether this event called the cambrian explosion represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible groups of animals elephant ear sponge the sponges porifera diverged from other animals early as mentioned they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla their cells are differentiated but not organized into distinct tissues sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through pores archaeocyatha which have fused skeletons may represent sponges or a separate phylum brain coral among the eumetazoan phyla two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening which serves as both the mouth and the anus these are the cni |
daria which include sea anemones corals and jellyfish and the ctenophora or comb jellies both have distinct tissues but they are not organized into organs there are only two main germ layers the ectoderm and endoderm with only scattered cells between them as such these animals are sometimes called diploblastic the tiny phylum placozoa is similar but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber the remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the bilateria for the most part they are bilaterally symmetric and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs the body is triploblastic i e all three germ layers are well developed and tissues form distinct organs the digestive chamber has two openings a mouth and an anus and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom there are exceptions to each of these characteristics however for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures clownfish i |
n their sea anemone home genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the bilateria most appear to belong to four major lineages deuterostomes ecdysozoa platyzoa lophotrochozoa in addition to these there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups these include the acoelomorpha rhombozoa and orthonectida the myxozoa single celled parasites that were originally considered protozoa are now believed to have developed from the bilateria as well the magellanic penguin deuterostomes deuterostomes differ from the other bilateria called protostomes in several ways in both cases there is a complete digestive tract however in protostomes the initial opening the archenteron develops into the mouth and an anus forms separately in deuterostomes this is reversed in most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm called schizocoelous development but in deuteros |
tomes it forms through invagination of the endoderm called enterocoelic pouching deuterostomes also have a dorsal rather than a ventral nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage all this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate monophyletic lineages the main phyla of deuterostomes are the echinodermata and chordata the former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine such as sea stars sea urchins and sea cucumbers the latter are dominated by the vertebrates animals with backbones these include fish amphibians reptiles birds and mammals in addition to these the deuterostomes also include the hemichordata or acorn worms although they are not especially prominent today the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group the chaetognatha or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes but this is less certain ecdysozoa the yellow winged darter the ecdysozoa are protostomes named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis the largest animal phylum belongs here the arth |
ropoda including insects spiders crabs and their kin all these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments typically with paired appendages two smaller phyla the onychophora and tardigrada are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits roundworm the ecdysozoans also include the nematoda or roundworms the second largest animal phylum roundworms are typically microscopic and occur in nearly every environment where there is water a number are important parasites smaller phyla related to them are the nematomorpha or horsehair worms which are visible to the unaided eye and the kinorhyncha priapulida and loricifera which are all microscopic these groups have a reduced coelom called a pseudocoelom the remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the spiralia since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage bedford s flatworm platyzoa the platyzoa include the phylum platyhelminthes the flatworms these were originally considered some of the most primitive bilateria bu |
t it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors rotifer a number of parasites are included in this group such as the flukes and tapeworms flatworms lack a coelom as do their closest relatives the microscopic gastrotricha the other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate the most prominent are the rotifera or rotifers which are common in aqueous environments they also include the acanthocephala or spiny headed worms the gnathostomulida micrognathozoa and possibly the cycliophora these groups share the presence of complex jaws from which they are called the gnathifera lophotrochozoa big blue octopus the lophotrochozoa include two of the most successful animal phyla the mollusca and annelida the former includes animals such as snails clams and squids and the latter comprises the segmented worms such as earthworms and leeches these two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae but the annelids were considered closer to the arthrop |
ods because they are both segmented now this is generally considered convergent evolution owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla the lophotrochozoa also include the nemertea or ribbon worms the sipuncula and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth called a lophophore these were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates but it now appears they are paraphyletic some closer to the nemertea and some to the mollusca and annelida they include the brachiopoda or lamp shells which are prominent in the fossil record the entoprocta the phoronida and possibly the bryozoa or moss animals history of classification white s tree frog vulpes vulpes the red fox aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants and this was followed by carolus linnaeus in the first hierarchical classification since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships and so these groups have been restricted somewhat for instance microscopic protozoa were orig |
inally considered animals because they move but are now treated separately in linnaeus original scheme the animals were one of three kingdoms divided into the classes of vermes insecta pisces amphibia aves and mammalia since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum the chordata whereas the various other forms have been separated out the above lists represent our current understanding of the group though there is some variation from source to source usage of the word animal in everyday usage animal refers to any member of the animal kingdom that is not a human being and sometimes excludes insects although including such arthropods as crabs this confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals farm animals and pets not from an analytical distinction between insects humans and the rest of the animal kingdom examples some well known types of animals listed by their common names aardvark afghan hound albatross alligator alpaca anaconda angelfish anglerfish ant antlion anteater |
antelope ape aphid armadillo arrow crab asp ass baboon badger bald eagle bandicoot barnacle basilisk barracuda bass basset hound bat bear beaver bed bug bee beetle bird bison blackbird black panther black widow blue jay blue whale boa bobcat bobolink booby box jellyfish boston terrier bovid buffalo bug bulldog bull terrier butterfly buzzard camel canid cape buffalo cardinal bird caribou carp cat caterpillar catfish centipede cephalopod chameleon cheetah chickadee chicken chihuahua chimpanzee chinchilla chipmunk clam clownfish cobra cockroach cod collie condor constrictor coral cougar coyote cow crab crane crane fly crawdad crayfish cricket crocodile crow cuckoo daddy longlegs damselfly deer dingo dinosaur dog dolphin donkey dormouse dove dragonfly duck dung beetle eagle earthworm earwig eel egret elephant elephant seal elk emu english pointer english setter ermine falcon ferret finch firefly fish flamingo flea fly flyingfish fowl fox frog fruit bat gazelle gecko gerbil german shepherd giant panda giant squid |
gibbon gila monster guanaco guineafowl giraffe goat golden retriever goldfinch goldfish goose gopher gorilla grasshopper great blue heron great dane great white shark greyhound grizzly bear grouse guinea pig gull guppy haddock halibut hammerhead shark hamster hare harrier hawk hedgehog hermit crab heron herring hippopotamus hookworm hornet horse hound human hummingbird humpback whale husky hyena iguana impala insect irish setter irish wolfhound irukandji jellyfish jackal jaguar jay jellyfish kangaroo kangaroo mouse kangaroo rat kingfisher kite kiwi koala koi komodo dragon krill labrador retriever ladybug lamprey lark leech lemming lemur leopard leopon liger lion lizard llama lobster locust loon louse lungfish lynx macaw mackerel magpie mammal manta ray marlin marmoset marmot marsupial marten mastiff meadowlark meerkat mink minnow mite mockingbird mole mollusk mongoose monitor lizard monkey moose mosquito moth mountain goat mouse mule muskox mussel narwhal newt nightingale ocelot octopus old english sheepdog o |
possum orangutan orca ostrich otter owl ox oyster panda panther panthera hybrid parakeet parrot parrotfish partridge peacock peafowl pekingese pelican penguin perch peregrine falcon persian cat pheasant pig pigeon pike pilot whale piranha platypus polar bear poodle porcupine porpoise portuguese man o war possum prairie dog prawn praying mantis primate puffin puma python quail rabbit raccoon rainbow trout rat rattlesnake raven reindeer rhinoceros right whale roadrunner robin rodent rook roundworm sailfish saint bernard salamander salmon sawfish scallop scorpion seahorse sea lion sea slug sea urchin setter shark sheep sheepdog shrew shrimp siamese cat silkworm silverfish skink skunk sloth slug smelt snail snake snipe snow leopard sockeye salmon sole spaniel sperm whale spider spider monkey spoonbill squid squirrel starfish star nosed mole steelhead trout stoat stork sturgeon swallow swan swift swordfish swordtail tabby cat tahr takin tapeworm tapir tarantula tasmanian devil termite tern terrier thrush tiger tig |
er shark tigon toad tortoise toucan toy poodle trapdoor spider tree frog trout tuna turkey turtle tyrannosaurus urial vampire bat viper vole vulture wallaby walrus wasp warbler water buffalo weasel whale whitefish whooping crane wild cat wildebeest wildfowl wolf wolverine wombat woodpecker worm wren yak zebra references klaus nielsen animal evolution interrelationships of the living phyla two nd edition oxford univ press two zero zero one knut schmidt nielsen animal physiology adaptation and environment five th edition cambridge univ press one nine nine seven external links tree of life project arkive multimedia database of worldwide endangered protected species and of uk common species sounds of the world s animals animal sounds in many languages animals see anthropology a list of notable anthropologists notoc a john adair timothy asch b nigel barley fredrik barth vasily bartold keith h basso ruth behar ruth benedict theodore c bestor wilhelm bleek franz boas pere bosch gimpera paul pierre broca c mauro camp |
agnoli joseph campbell napol on chagnon pierre clastres carleton coon frank hamilton cushing d raymond dart ella cara deloria mary douglas eugene dubois e mircea eliade e e evans pritchard f raymond firth dian fossey james frazer g clifford geertz alfred gell ernest gellner max gluckman jane goodall robert j gorden hilma granqvist marcel griaule jacob grimm wilhelm grimm h marvin harris cassidy hendrickson arthur maurice hocart earnest hooton ale hrdli ka i j william jones k richard g klein dorinne k kondo conrad kottak grover krantz charles h kraft alfred l kroeber hilda kuper l william labov george lakoff bruno latour edmund leach louis leakey mary leakey richard leakey claude l vi strauss robert lowie m bronislaw malinowski marcel mauss grant mccracken margaret mead mervyn meggitt nikolay miklukho maklay sidney mintz ashley montagu james mooney john h moore lewis h morgan george murdock n laura nader raoul naroll o gananath obeyesekere marvin opler morris opler p glenn petersen bronislav pilsudski hortense |
powdermaker q r wilhelm radloff hans ras alfred reginald radcliffe brown gerardo reichel dolmatoff w h r rivers eric ross s marshall sahlins roger sandall edward sapir wilhelm schmidt tobias schneebaum afanasy shchapov marilyn strathern t edward burnett tylor colin turnbull victor turner u v christine vanpool karl verner w camilla wedgwood hank wesselman leslie white ben white tim white benjamin whorf clark wissler eric wolf sol worth x y z lists of people by occupation anthropologists astronomy and astrophysics abbreviated as a a in the astronomical literature or else astron astrophys is a european journal publishing papers on theoretical observational and instrumental astronomy and astrophysics it was published by springer verlag from one nine six nine two zero zero zero while edp sciences published the companion a a supplement series in two zero zero zero the two journals merged with the combined journal known simply as astronomy and astrophysics and published by edp sciences a a is one of the major journ |
als of astronomy alongside the astrophysical journal astronomical journal and the monthly notices of the royal astronomical society while the first two are often the preferred journal of us based researchers and the mnras is often the favoured journal for uk and commonwealth based astronomers a a tends to be the preferred journal of astronomers based in europe excluding the uk particularly since page charges are waived for astronomers working in member countries a a was created from the merger in one nine six nine of six major european astronomical journals annales d astrophysique france founded in one nine three eight arkiv for astronomi sweden founded in one nine four eight bulletin of the astronomical institutes of the netherlands founded in one nine two one bulletin astronomique france founded in one eight eight four journal des observateurs france founded in one nine one five zeitschrift fur astrophysik germany founded in one nine three zero and extended in one nine nine two by the incorporation of bulle |
tin of the astronomical institutes of czechoslovakia founded in one nine four seven external links a a home page a a publisher s home page astronomy journals the actinopterygii are the ray finned fish they are the dominant group of vertebrates with over two seven zero zero zero species ubiquitous throughout fresh water and marine environments classification traditionally three grades of actinopterygii have been recognized the chondrostei holostei and teleostei the second is paraphyletic and tends to be abandoned however while the first is now restricted to those forms closer to extant chondrostei than to the other groups nearly all fish alive today are teleosts a listing of the different groups is given below down to the level of orders arranged in what is believed to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of superorder subclass chondrostei order polypteriformes bichirs order acipenseriformes sturgeons paddlefish subclass neopterygii order semionotiformes gars order amiiformes bowfins infraclas |
s teleostei superorder osteoglossomorpha order osteoglossiformes bony tongues etc order hiodontiformes mooneye etc superorder elopomorpha order elopiformes tarpons etc order albuliformes bonefishes order notacanthiformes spiny eels order anguilliformes true eels gulpers order saccopharyngiformes superorder clupeomorpha order clupeiformes herrings allies superorder ostariophysi order gonorynchiformes order cypriniformes minnows allies order characiformes characins allies order gymnotiformes electric eels knifefishes order siluriformes catfishes superorder protacanthopterygii order salmoniformes salmon allies order esociformes pikes allies order osmeriformes smelts allies superorder sternopterygii order ateleopodiformes jellynose fishes order stomiiformes dragonfishes allies superorder cyclosquamata order aulopiformes lizardfishes superorder scopelomorpha order myctophiformes lanternfishes superorder lampridiomorpha order lampridiformes opahs etc superorder polymyxiomorpha order polymixiiformes beardfishes supe |
rorder paracanthopterygii order percopsiformes trout perches allies order batrachoidiformes toadfishes order lophiiformes goosefishes etc order gadiformes cods allies order ophidiiformes cusk eels etc superorder acanthopterygii order mugiliformes mullets allies order atheriniformes silversides allies order beloniformes needlefishes etc order cetomimiformes whalefishes order cyprinodontiformes killifishes etc order stephanoberyciformes pricklefishes whalefishes etc order beryciformes alfonsinos etc order zeiformes dories etc order gasterosteiformes sticklebacks pipefishes seahorses etc order synbranchiformes swamp eels etc order tetraodontiformes triggerfishes allies order pleuronectiformes flatfishes allies order scorpaeniformes scorpionfishes allies order perciformes perches many allies subphulum vertebrata external links ncbi taxonomy entry references ray finned fish bony fish albert einstein photographed by oren j turner in one nine four seven albert einstein march one four one eight seven nine april one e |
ight one nine five five was a german born theoretical physicist widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the two zero th century he was the author of the general theory of relativity and made important contributions to the special theory of relativity quantum mechanics statistical mechanics and cosmology he was awarded the one nine two one nobel prize for physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in one nine zero five his miracle year and for his services to theoretical physics after british solar eclipse expeditions in one nine one nine confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in the exact amount he predicted in his general theory of relativity einstein became world famous an unusual achievement for a scientist in his later years his fame exceeded that of any other scientist in history in popular culture his name has become synonymous with great intelligence and genius biography young einstein before the einsteins moved from germany to italy yout |
h and college einstein was born on march one four one eight seven nine at ulm in baden w rttemberg german empire about one zero zero km east of stuttgart his parents were hermann einstein a featherbed salesman who later ran an electrochemical works and pauline whose maiden name was koch they were married in stuttgart bad cannstatt the family was jewish non observant albert attended a catholic elementary school and at the insistence of his mother was given violin lessons though he initially disliked and eventually discontinued the lessons he would later take great solace in mozart s violin sonatas when albert was five his father showed him a pocket compass and einstein realized that something in empty space acted upon the needle he would later describe the experience as one of the most revelatory of his life though he built models and mechanical devices for fun and showed great mathematical faculty early on he was considered a slow learner possibly due to dyslexia simple shyness or the significantly rare and u |
nusual structure of his brain examined after his death he later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness saying that by pondering space and time later than most children he was able to apply a more developed intellect some researchers have speculated that einstein may have exhibited some traits of mild forms of autism although they concede that a reliable posthumous diagnosis is impossible in one eight eight nine a student named max talmud introduced einstein to key science and philosophy texts including kant s critique of pure reason two of his uncles would further foster his intellectual interests during his late childhood and early adolescence by suggesting and providing books on science mathematics and philosophy einstein attended the luitpold gymnasium where he received a relatively progressive education he began to learn mathematics around age twelve in one eight nine one he taught himself euclidean plane geometry from a school booklet and began to study calculus there is a |
recurring rumor that he failed mathematics later in his education but this is untrue a change in the way grades were assigned caused confusion years later while there he clashed with authority and resented the school regimen believing the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in such an endeavor as strict memorization in one eight nine four following the failure of hermann s electrochemical business the einsteins moved from munich to pavia italy near milan einstein s first scientific work was written therein called the investigation of the state of aether in magnetic fields albert remained behind in munich lodgings to finish school completing only one term before leaving the gymnasium in spring one eight nine five to rejoin his family in pavia he quit without telling his parents and a year and a half prior to final examinations einstein convinced the school to let him go with a medical note from a friendly doctor but this meant he had no secondary school certificate that year at the age of one six |
he performed the thought experiment known as albert einstein s mirror after gazing into a mirror he examined what would happen to his image if he were moving at the speed of light his conclusion that the speed of light is independent of the observer would later become one of the two postulates of special relativity despite excelling in the mathematics and science portion his failure of the liberal arts portion of the eidgen ssische technische hochschule eth swiss federal institute of technology in zurich entrance exam the following year was a setback his family sent him to aarau switzerland to finish secondary school where he studied the seldom taught maxwell s electromagnetic theory and received his diploma in september one eight nine six during this time he lodged with professor jost winteler s family and became enamoured with marie their daughter his first sweetheart albert s sister maja was to later marry their son paul and his friend michele besso married their other daughter anna einstein subsequently |
enrolled at the eidgen ssische technische hochschule in october and moved to zurich while marie moved to olsberg for a teaching post the same year he renounced his w rttemberg citizenship and became stateless in the spring of one eight nine six the serbian mileva mari started initially as a medical student at the university of zurich but after a term switched to the same section as einstein as the only woman that year to study for the same diploma einstein s relationship with mileva developed into romance over the next few years in one nine zero zero he was granted a teaching diploma by the eidgen ssische technische hochschule eth zurich einstein then wrote his first published paper on the capillary forces of a drinking straw wherein he tried to unify the laws of physics an attempt he would continually make throughout his life it was titled folgerungen aus den capillarit tserscheinungen which translated is consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena found in annalen der physik volume four page f |
ive one three shortly following einstein was accepted as a swiss citizen in one nine zero one he kept his swiss passport for his whole life through his friend michelle besso an engineer he was presented with the works of ernst mach and later would consider him the best sounding board in europe for physical ideas during this time einstein discussed his scientific interests with a group of close friends including besso and mileva the men referred to themselves as the olympia academy he and mileva had an illegitimate daughter lieserl born in january one nine zero two work and doctorate einstein in one nine zero five when he wrote the annus mirabilis papers upon graduation einstein could not find a teaching post mostly because his brashness as a young man had apparently irritated most of his professors the father of a classmate helped him obtain employment as a technical assistant examiner at the swiss patent office in one nine zero two there einstein judged the worth of inventors patent applications for devices |
that required a knowledge of physics to understand in particular he was chiefly charged to evaluate patents relating to electromagnetic devices he also learned how to discern the essence of applications despite sometimes poor descriptions and was taught by the director how to express himself correctly he occasionally rectified their design errors while evaluating the practicality of their work einstein married mileva mari on january six one nine zero three einstein s marriage to mari who was a mathematician was both a personal and intellectual partnership einstein referred to mileva as a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as i am ronald w clark a biographer of einstein claimed that einstein depended on the distance that existed in his and mileva s marriage in order to have the solitude necessary to accomplish his work he required intellectual isolation abram joffe a soviet physicist who knew einstein in an obituary of einstein wrote the author of the papers of one nine zero five was |
a bureaucrat at the patent office in bern einstein mari and this has recently been taken as evidence of a collaborative relationship however according to alberto a mart nez of the center for einstein studies at boston university joffe only ascribed authorship to einstein as he believed that it was a swiss custom at the time to append the spouse s last name to the husband s name whatever the truth the extent of her influence on einstein s work is a highly controversial and debated question on may one four one nine zero four the couple s first son hans albert einstein was born in one nine zero three einstein s position at the swiss patent office had been made permanent though he was passed over for promotion until he had fully mastered machine technology he obtained his doctorate after submitting his thesis a new determination of molecular dimensions eine neue bestimmung der molek ldimensionen in one nine zero five that same year he wrote four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics without muc |
h scientific literature to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories most physicists agree that three of those papers on brownian motion the photoelectric effect and special relativity deserved nobel prizes only the paper on the photoelectric effect would be mentioned by the nobel committee in the award this is ironic not only because einstein is far better known for relativity but also because the photoelectric effect is a quantum phenomenon and einstein became somewhat disenchanted with the path quantum theory would take in each of these papers einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades max planck and einstein annus mirabilis papers einstein submitted the series of papers to the annalen der physik they are commonly referred to as the annus mirabilis papers from annus mirabilis latin for year of wonders the international union of pure and |
applied physics iupap commemorated the one zero zero th year of the publication of einstein s extensive work in one nine zero five as the world year of physics two zero zero five the first paper named on a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light ber einen die erzeugung und verwandlung des lichtes betreffenden heuristischen gesichtspunkt proposed that energy quanta which are essentially what we now call photons were real and showed how they could be used to explain such phenomena as the photoelectric effect this paper was specifically cited for his nobel prize max planck had made the formal assumption that energy was quantized in deriving his black body radiation law published in one nine zero one but had considered this to be no more than a mathematical trick the photoelectric effect thus provided a simple confirmation of max planck s hypothesis of quanta his second article in one nine zero five named on the motion required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat of small par |
ticles suspended in a stationary liquid ber die von der molekularkinetischen theorie der w rme geforderte bewegung von in ruhenden fl ssigkeiten suspendierten teilchen covered his study of brownian motion and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms before this paper atoms were recognized as a useful concept but physicists and chemists hotly debated whether atoms were real entities einstein s statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope wilhelm ostwald one of the leaders of the anti atom school later told arnold sommerfeld that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by einstein s complete explanation of brownian motion at the same time as einstein brownian motion was also described by smoluchowski einstein s third paper that year on the electrodynamics of moving bodies zur elektrodynamik bewegter k rper was published in september one nine zero five this paper introduced the special theory of relativity a theory |
of time distance mass and energy which was consistent with electromagnetism but omitted the force of gravity while developing this paper einstein wrote to mileva about our work on relative motion and this has led some to ask whether mileva played a part in its development a few historians of science believe that einstein and his wife were both aware that the famous frenchman henri poincar had already published the equations of relativity a few weeks before einstein submitted his paper most believe their work independent especially given einstein s isolation at this time a fourth paper does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content ist die tr gheit eines k rpers von seinem energieinhalt abh ngig published late in one nine zero five showed one further deduction from relativity s axioms the famous equation that the energy of a body at rest e equals its mass m times the speed of light c squared e mc middle years einstein at the one nine one one solvay conference in one nine zero six einstein was promo |
ted to technical examiner second class in one nine zero eight einstein was licensed in bern switzerland as a privatdozent unsalaried teacher at a university einstein s second son eduard was born on july two eight one nine one zero at this time he described why the sky is blue in his paper on the phenomenon of critical opalescence which shows the cumulative effect of scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere in one nine one one einstein became first associate professor at the university of zurich and shortly afterwards full professor at the german university of prague only to return the following year to zurich in order to become full professor at the eth zurich at that time he worked closely with the mathematician marcel grossmann in one nine one two einstein started to refer to time as the fourth dimension although h g wells had done this earlier in one eight nine five in the time machine in one nine one four just before the start of world war i einstein settled in berlin as professor at |
the local university and became a member of the prussian academy of sciences he took german citizenship his pacifism and jewish origins irritated german nationalists after he became world famous nationalistic hatred of him grew and for the first time he was the subject of an organized campaign to discredit his theories from one nine one four to one nine three three he served as director of the kaiser wilhelm institute for physics in berlin and it was during this time that he was awarded his nobel prize and made his most groundbreaking discoveries he was also an extraordinary professor at the leiden university from one nine two zero until officially one nine four six where he regularly gave guest lectures in one nine one seven einstein published on the quantum mechanics of radiation zur quantenmechanik der strahlung physkalische zeitschrift one eight one two one one two eight this article introduced the concept of stimulated emission the physical principle that allows light amplification in the laser he also p |
ublished a paper that year that used the general theory of relativity to model the behavior of the entire universe setting the stage for modern cosmology in this work he created his self described worst blunder the cosmological constant einstein divorced mileva on february one four one nine one nine and married his cousin elsa l wenthal born einstein l wenthal was the surname of her first husband max on june two one nine one nine elsa was albert s first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally she was three years older than albert and had nursed him to health after he had suffered a partial nervous breakdown combined with a severe stomach ailment there were no children from this marriage the fate of albert and mileva s first child lieserl is unknown some believe she died in infancy while others believe she was given out for adoption they later had two sons eduard and hans albert eduard intended to practice as a freudian analyst but was institutionalized for schizophrenia and died in an asylum hans a |
lbert his older brother became a professor of hydraulic engineering at the university of california berkeley having little interaction with his father einstein theory triumphs declared the new york times on november one zero one nine one nine general relativity in november one nine one five einstein presented a series of lectures before the prussian academy of sciences in which he described his theory of gravity known as general relativity the final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced newton s law of gravity the field equation which was first derived from a variational principle by david hilbert this theory considered all observers to be equivalent not only those moving at a uniform speed in general relativity gravity is no longer a force as it is in newton s law of gravity but is a consequence of the curvature of space time the theory provided the foundation for the study of cosmology and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were disco |
vered well after einstein s death a truly revolutionary theory general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics initially scientists were skeptical because the theory was derived by mathematical reasoning and rational analysis not by experiment or observation but in one nine one nine predictions made using the theory were confirmed by arthur eddington s measurements during a solar eclipse of how much the light emanating from a star was bent by the sun s gravity when it passed close to the sun an effect called gravitational lensing the observations were carried out on may two nine one nine one nine at two locations one in sobral cear brazil and another in the island of principe in the west coast of africa on november seven the times reported the confirmation cementing einstein s fame many scientists were still unconvinced for various reasons ranging from disagreement with einstein s interpretation of the experiments to n |
ot being able to tolerate the absence of an absolute frame of reference in einstein s view many of them simply could not understand the mathematics involved einstein s public fame which followed the one nine one nine article created resentment among these scientists some of which lasted well into the one nine three zero s in the early one nine two zero s einstein was the lead figure in a famous weekly physics colloquium at the university of berlin on march three zero one nine two one einstein went to new york to give a lecture on his new theory of relativity the same year he was awarded the nobel prize though he is now most famous for his work on relativity it was for his earlier work on the photoelectric effect that he was given the prize as his work on general relativity was still disputed the nobel committee decided that citing his less contested theory in the prize would gain more acceptance from the scientific community sir edmund whittaker one nine five three stated that david hilbert published the theo |
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