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1,400 | Mental_disorder | A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time and across cultures. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criteria listed in the ICD, DSM and other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include dissociative disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, ambulatory disorders and many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are often explained in terms of a diathesis-stress model and biopsychosocial model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Services for mental disorders may be based in hospitals or in the community. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions and self-help. Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for changes to services and attitudes. Classifications The definition and classification of mental disorder is a key issue for the mental health and for users and providers of mental health services. Most international clinical documents use the term "mental disorder" rather than "mental illness". There is no single definition and the inclusion criteria are said to vary depending on the social, legal and political context. In general, however, a mental disorder has been characterized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress, disability or increased risk of suffering. The term "serious mental illness" [SMI] is sometimes used to refer to more severe and long-lasting disorder. A broad definition can cover mental disorder, mental retardation, personality disorder and substance dependence. The phrase "mental health problems" may be used to refer only to milder or more transient issues. There is often a criterion that a condition should not be expected to occur as part of a person's usual culture or religion. Nevertheless, the term "mental" is not necessarily used to imply a distinction between mental (dys)functioning and brain (dys)functioning, or indeed between the brain and the rest of the body. There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders - Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), produced by the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Both list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes may be in use more locally, for example the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. Other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, for example the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. Some approaches to classification do not employ distinct categories based on cut-offs separating the abnormal from the normal. They are variously referred to as spectrum, continuum or dimensional systems. There is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical or a non-categorical system. There is also significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes, and about the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put. Disorders There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered. Gazzaniga, M.S., & Heatherton, T.F. (2006). Psychological Science. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. WebMD, Inc. (2005, July 01). Mental Health: Types of Mental Illness. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/mental-health-types-illness United States Department of Health & Human Services. (1999). Overview of Mental Illness. Retrieved April 19, 2007 NIMH (2005) Teacher's Guide: Information about Mental Illness and the Brain Curriculum supplement from The NIH Curriculum Supplements Series The state of anxiety or fear can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time. Commonly recognized categories of anxiety disorders include specific phobia, Generalized anxiety disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder. Relatively long lasting affective states can also become disordered. Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as Clinical depression (or Major depression), and may more generally be described as Emotional dysregulation. Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia. Bipolar disorder involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed mood. Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature. Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered. Psychotic disorders centrally involving this domain include Schizophrenia and Delusional disorder. Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the traits associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria. The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive. Categorical schemes list a number of different personality disorders, such as those classed as eccentric (e.g. Paranoid personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, Schizotypal personality disorder), those described as dramatic or emotional (Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder) or those seen as fear-related (Avoidant personality disorder, Dependent personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder). There may be an emerging consensus that personality disorders, like personality traits in the normal range, incorporate a mixture of more acute dysfunctional behaviors that resolve in relatively short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are relatively more stable. Non-categorical schemes may rate individuals via a profile across different dimensions of personality that are not seen as cut off from normal personality variation, commonly through schemes based on the Big Five personality traits. Other disorders may involve other attributes of human functioning. Eating practices can be disordered, at least in relatively rich industrialized areas, with either compulsive over-eating or under-eating or binging. Categories of disorder in this area include Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa, Exercise bulimia or Binge eating disorder. Sleep disorders such as Insomnia also exist and can disrupt normal sleep patterns. Sexual and gender identity disorders, such as Dyspareunia or Gender identity disorder or ego-dystonic homosexuality. People who are abnormally unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classed as having an impulse control disorder, including various kinds of Tic disorders such as Tourette's Syndrome, and disorders such as Kleptomania (stealing) or Pyromania (fire-setting). Substance-use disorders include Substance abuse disorder. Addictive gambling may be classed as a disorder. Inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances may be classed as an Adjustment disorder. The category of adjustment disorder is usually reserved for problems beginning within three months of the event or situation and ending within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated. People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classed as having a Dissociative identity disorder, such as Depersonalization disorder or Dissociative Identity Disorder itself (which has also been called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality"). Factitious disorders, such as Munchausen syndrome, also exist where symptoms are experienced and/or reported for personal gain. Disorders appearing to originate in the body, but thought to be mental, are known as somatoform disorders, including Somatization disorder. There are also disorders of the perception of the body, including Body dysmorphic disorder. Neurasthenia is a category involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but not by the DSM-IV. Memory or cognitive disorders, such as amnesia or Alzheimer's disease exist. Other proposed disorders include: Self-defeating personality disorder, Sadistic personality disorder, Passive-aggressive personality disorder, Premenstrual dysphoric disorder, Video game addiction, Internet addiction disorder. Culture Different societies, cultures, and even different individuals within a single culture may disagree as to what constitutes optimal or pathological biological and psychological functioning; and indeed research has demonstrated variation across cultures in the relative importance placed on, for example, happiness, autonomy, or social relationships for pleasure. Likewise, the fact that a behavior pattern is valued, accepted, encouraged, or even statistically normative within a particular culture does not necessarily mean it is conducive to optimal psychological functioning. Furthermore, while conceptions like incomprehensibility or bizarreness tend to be ubiquitous across cultures, determining exactly what qualifies as incomprehensible or bizarre is often ambiguous and subjective. These differences in determination can become highly contentious, especially with regards to religious, spiritual, or transpersonal experiences and beliefs. Such beliefs are typically not defined as disordered, especially if widely shared, despite meeting many criteria of delusional or psychotic disorders. Even when a belief or experience can be shown to produce distress or disability, the ordinary standard for judging mental disorders; the presence of a strong cultural basis is generally disqualifies it. Within the mental health community, the question of how to address the psycho-social interaction is an often contentious one. In recent years, some psychiatrists and psychologists have argued that current diagnostic standards tend to overstate or misinterpret neurophysiological findings and to understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables. Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology, critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers. Shankar Vedantam, Psychiatry's Missing Diagnosis: Patients' Diversity Is Often Discounted Washington Post: Mind and Culture, June 26 In addition, current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. Although these guidelines have been widely implemented, opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criteria set is accepted across different cultures, it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can only prove consistency, not legitimacy. Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal. Kleinman's negative view towards the culture-bound syndrome is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out, and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented. Bhugra, D. & Munro, A. (1997) Troublesome Disguises: Underdiagnosed Psychiatric Syndromes Blackwell Science Ltd Many mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with the these new culture-bound diagnoses, although not for the same reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of the DSM-III, has opined that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics, and that they lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only significant to specific symptom presentations. Clinical conceptions of mental illness also overlap with cultural values and in the realm of morality and social behavior. So much so in fact, that it is sometimes argued that separating the two would be impossible without fundamentally redefining a person's role in society. In clinical psychiatry, persistent distress and disability indicate an internal disorder requiring treatment; but in another context, that same distess and disability can be seen as an indicator of emotional struggle and the need to address social and structural problems. Tilbury, F., Rapley, M. (2004) 'There are orphans in Africa still looking for my hands': African women refugees and the sources of emotional distress Health Sociology Review. Vol 13, Issue 1, 54–64 This dichotomy has lead some academics and clinicians to advocate a postmodernist conceptualization of mental distress and well-being. Such approaches, along with cross-cultural and "heretical" psychologies centered on alternative cultural and ethnic identities and experiences stand in contrast to the mainstream psychiatric community's active avoidance of any involvement with either morality or culture. Diagnosis Many mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrists, seek to diagnose individuals by ascertaining their particular mental disorder. Some professionals, for example some clinical psychologists, may avoid diagnosis in favor of other assessment methods such as formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances. The majority of mental health problems are actually assessed and treated by family physicians during consultations, who may refer on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview (which may be referred to as a mental status examination), where judgments are made of the interviewee's appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in relatively rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice. HealthWise (2004) Mental Health Assessment. Yahoo! Health Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations. It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice. Mental illness involving hallucinations or delusions (especially schizophrenia) are prone to misdiagnosis in developing countries due to the presence of psychotic symptoms instigated by nutritional deficiencies. Comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, i.e. the same person given a diagnosis in more than one category of disorder. Services and treatments Treatment and support may be provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or any of a diverse range of community mental health services. Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities. A strong sense of being part of an interdependent society in developing countries makes the community-based treatment model the most effective mode of treatment. A combination of community-based treatment and the use of typical antipsychotic drugs have been found to yield the most positive, cost-effective results. Individuals may be treated against their will in some cases. Services in many countries are increasingly based on a Recovery model that supports an individual's personal journey to regain a meaningful life. Psychotherapy A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. There are several main types. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement. Medication A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication. There are several main groups. Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the tricyclics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain chemistry dealing with intercellular communication. Beta-blockers, developed as a heart medication, are also used as an antidepressant. Anxiolytics are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia. Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder. Lithium carbonate (a salt) and Lamictal (an epileptic drug) are notable for treating both mania and depression. The others, mainly targeting mania rather than depression, are a wide variety of epilepsy medications and antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Although there has not been any evidence of the superiority of newer, atypical antipsychotic drugs, they are being prescribed to individuals throughout the world. The prescription of relatively cheaper, older typical antipsychotic drugs is also used. Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated. There may also be off-label use of medications. There can be problems with adverse effects of medication and adherence. Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has come into severe criticism for hiding negative results from clinical trials from the public and the USFDA and for promoting medications for unapproved uses by pharmaceutical sales representatives. Prominent psychiatric researchers have also come under fire recently for failing to disclose drug company compensation which poses serious potential conflicts of interest with their research and professional activities. Other Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. Psychosurgery is considered experimental but is advocated by certain neurologists in certain rare cases. Mind Disorders Encyclopedia Psychosurgery [Retrieved on August 5th 2008] Psychoeducation may be used to provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help groups for mental health and supported housing or supported employment (including social firms). Some advocate dietary supplements. Many things have been found to help at least some people. A placebo effect may play a role in any intervention. Prognosis Prognosis depends on the disorder, the individual and numerous related factors. Some disorders may be transient, while some may last a lifetime in some cases. Some disorders may be very limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial disability and support needs. The degree of ability or disability may vary across different life domains. Continued disability has been linked to institutionalization, discrimination and social exclusion as well as to the inherent properties of disorders. Even those disorders often considered the most serious and intractable have varied courses. Long-term international studies of schizophrenia have found that over a half of individuals recover in terms of symptoms, and around a fifth to a third in terms of symptoms and functioning, with some requiring no medication. At the same time, many have serious difficulties and support needs for many years, although "late" recovery is still possible. The WHO concluded that the findings joined others in "relieving patients, carers and clinicians of the chronicity paradigm which dominated thinking throughout much of the 20th century." Around half of people initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder achieve syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks, and nearly all achieve it within two years, with nearly a half regaining their prior occupational and residential status in that period. However, nearly a half go on to experience a new episode of mania or major depression within the next two years. Functioning has been found to vary, being poor during periods of major depression or mania but otherwise fair to good, and possibly superior during periods of hypomania in Bipolar II. Despite often being characterized in purely negative terms, some mental states labeled as disorders can also involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy. In addition, the public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change. Ferney, V. (2003) The Hierarchy of Mental Illness: Which diagnosis is the least debilitating? New York City Voices Jan/March Prevalence Mental disorders have been found to be relatively common, with more than one in three people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria for at least one diagnosis at some point in their life up to the time they were assessed. WHO International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology (2000) Cross-national comparisons of the prevalences and correlates of mental disorders Bulletin of the World Health Organization v.78 n.4 A new WHO global survey currently underway indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but 1 country, followed by mood disorders in all but 2 countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent. Rates varied by region. Such statistics are widely believed to be underestimates, due to poor diagnosis (especially in countries without affordable access to mental health services) and low reporting rates, in part because of the predominant use of self-report data rather than semi-structured instruments. Actual lifetime prevalence rates for mental disorders are estimated to be between 65% and 85%. A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average. A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder (higher in some studies, and in women) and 0.8% for bipolar 1 disorder. The updated US National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) reported that nearly half of Americans (46.4%) meet criteria at some point in their life for either an anxiety disorder (28.8%), mood disorder (20.8%), impulse-control disorder (24.8%) or substance use disorder (14.6%). US National Institute of Mental Health (2006) The Numbers Count: Mental Disorders in America Retrieved May 2007 A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13.9%), anxiety disorders (13.6%) or alcohol disorder (5.2%). Approximately one in ten met criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of disorder. A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12 month period. An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries. Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13.4%). Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors. A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%. Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports. History Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the nineteenth century Ancient civilisations described and treated a number of mental disorders. The Greeks coined terms for melancholy, hysteria and phobia and developed the humorism theory. Psychiatric theories and treatments developed in Persia, Arabia and the Muslim Empire, particularly in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century, where the first psychiatric hospitals were built. Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, as well as more down to earth considerations. In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts but were increasingly admitted to local workhouses and jails or sometimes to private madhouses. Many terms for mental disorder that found their way into everyday use first became popular the 16th and 17th centuries. By the end of the 17th century and into the enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility. Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a moral treatment movement gradually developed. Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be relatively rare prior to the 1800s. Industrialization and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century. Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term psychiatry was coined, though medical superintendents were still known as alienists. The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which would later come to the fore, along with Kraepelin's classification scheme. Asylum "inmates" were increasingly referred to as "patients" and asylums renamed as hospitals. In the United States, a mental hygiene movement aimed to prevent mental disorders. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions. World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed "shell shock." World War II saw the development in the U.S. of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) followed suit with a section on mental disorders. The term stress, having emerged out of endocrinology work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders. Electroconvulsive therapy, insulin shock therapy, lobotomies and the "neuroleptic" chlorpromazine came to be used by mid-century. An antipsychiatry movement came to the fore in the 1960s. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. A consumer/survivor movement gained momentum. Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as "psychic energizers" and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of "official" diagnoses saw a large expansion. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. A recovery model developed. Professions and fields A number of professions have developed that specialise in the treatment of mental disorders, including the medical speciality of psychiatry (including psychiatric nursing), University of Melbourne. (2005, August 19). What is Psychiatry?. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.psychiatry.unimelb.edu.au/info/what_is_psych.html California Psychiatric Association. (2007, February 28). Frequently Asked Questions About Psychiatry & Psychiatrists. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.calpsych.org/publications/cpa/faqs.html the division of psychology known as clinical psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 12, http://www.apa.org/divisions/div12/aboutcp.html Social Work, Golightley, M. (2004) Social work and Mental Health Learning Matters, UK as well as Mental Health Counselors, Marriage and Family Therapists, Psychotherapists, Counselors and Public Health professionals. Those with personal experience of using mental health services are also increasingly involved in researching and delivering mental health services and working as mental health professionals. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (1998) The experiences of mental health service users as mental health professionals Terence V. McCann, John Baird, Eileen Clark, Sai Lu (2006) Beliefs about using consumer consultants in inpatient psychiatric units International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 15 (4), 258–265. The different clinical and scientific perspectives draw on diverse fields of research and theory, and different disciplines may favor differing models, explanations and goals. Movements The Consumer/Survivor Movement (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves "survivors" of mental health services. The movement campaigns for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society. Patient advocacy organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the stereotypes, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. An antipsychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including the reality or utility of psychiatric diagnoses of mental illnesses. The Antipsychiatry Coalition. (2005, November 26). The Antipsychiatry Coalition. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from www.antipsychiatry.org Laws and policies Three quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as Involuntary commitment or sectioning), is a controversial topic. From some points of view it can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social and other reasons; from other points of view, it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when unable to decide in their own interests. World Health Organization (2005) WHO Resource Book on Mental Health: Human rights and legislation ISBN 924156282 (PDF) All human-rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often utilized grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted may usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body. An individual must be shown to lack the capacity to give or withhold informed consent (i.e. to understand treatment information and its implications). Legal challenges in some areas have resulted in supreme court decisions that a person does NOT have to agree with a psychiatrist's characterization of their issues as an "illness", nor with a psychiatrist's conviction in medication, but only recognise the issues and the information about treatment options. Proxy consent (also known as substituted decision-making) may be given to a personal representative, a family member or a legally appointed guardian, or patients may have been able to enact an advance directive as to how they wish to be treated. The right to supported decision-making may also be included in legislation. Manitoba Family Services and Housing. The Vulnerable Persons Living with a Mental Disability Act, 1996 Involuntary treatment laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example outpatient commitment laws (known by different names) are used in New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom and most of the United States. The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated. In 1991, the United Nations adopted the Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care, which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. In 2006 the UN formally agreed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychosocial disabilities ENABLE website UN section on disability The term insanity, sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term. Perception and discrimination Stigma The social stigma associated with mental disorders is a widespread problem. Some people believe those with serious mental illnesses cannot recover, or are to blame for problems. CAMH: Toronto Star Opinion Editorial: Ending stigma of mental illness The US Surgeon General stated in 1999 that: "Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General - Chapter 8 Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness. Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness Stop Stigma Their methods and outcomes have sometimes been criticized as counterproductive. A study by Baylor University researchers found that clergy often deny or dismiss the existence of the mental illness. In a study published in Mental Health, Religion and Culture, researchers found that in a study of 293 Christian church members, more than 32 percent were told by their church pastor that they or their loved one did not really have a mental illness. The study found these church members were told the cause of their problem was solely spiritual in nature, such as a personal sin, lack of faith or demonic involvement. Baylor researchers also found that women were more likely than men to have their mental disorders dismissed by the church. All of the participants in both studies were previously diagnosed by a licensed mental health provider as having a serious mental illness, like bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, prior to approaching their local church for assistance. Study Finds Serious Mental Illness Often Dismissed by Local Church Newswise, Retrieved on October 15, 2008. Media and general public Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues. Edney, RD. (2004) Mass Media and Mental Illness: A Literature Review Canadian Mental Health Association Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence. In the United States, The Carter Center has created fellowships for journalists in South Africa, the U.S., and Romania, to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics. Former U.S. First Lady Rosalynn Carter began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media. Popular Hollywood films such as The Soloist and A Beautiful Mind are true stories explaining the reality for those with severe disorders and their families. The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill. Violence People with mental disorders are often afraid of violence against them. Over a quarter of individuals diagnosed with "severe mental illness" accessing community mental health services in a US inner-city area were found to have been victims of at least one violent crime in a year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average. The proportion is many times greater in every category of crime, including rape/sexual assault, other violent assaults, and personal and property theft. Linda A. Teplin, PhD; Gary M. McClelland, PhD; Karen M. Abram, PhD; Dana A. Weiner, PhD (2005) Crime Victimization in Adults With Severe Mental Illness: Comparison With the National Crime Victimization Survey Arch Gen Psychiatry. 62(8):911-921. Petersilia, J.R. (2001) Crime Victims With Developmental Disabilities: A Review Essay Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 6, 655-694 (2001) Findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence. However, fear of unpredictable violent acts by people with mental illness also exists though not as common as many people think. One US national survey indicated that a far higher percentage of Americans rated individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder (for example Schizophrenia or Substance Use Disorder) as "likely to do something violent to others" compared to those described as being 'troubled'. Research indicates, on balance, a higher than average number of violent acts by some individuals with certain diagnoses, notably antisocial or psychopathic personality disorders, but conflicting findings about specific symptoms (for example links between psychosis and violence in community settings) - but the mediating factors of such acts are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socio-economic status and, in particular, substance abuse (including alcohol). Steadman HJ, Mulvey EP, Monahan J, Robbins PC, Appelbaum PS, Grisso T, Roth LH, Silver E. (1998) Violence by people discharged from acute psychiatric inpatient facilities and by others in the same neighborhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry. May;55(5):393-401. For the most serious crimes, such as homicide, some diagnoses are over-represented in arrests/convictions; however, although high-profile cases have lead to fears that this has increased due to deinstitutionalization, this does not reflect the evidence. Taylor, P.J., Gunn, J. (1999) Homicides by people with mental illness: Myth and reality British Journal of Psychiatry Volume 174, Issue JAN., 1999, Pages 9-14 Violence related to mental disorder (in either direction) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers. Solomon, PL., Cavanaugh, MM., Gelles, RJ. (2005) Family Violence among Adults with Severe Mental Illness. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, Vol. 6, No. 1, 40-54 It is also an issue in health care settings and the wider community. B. Lögdberg, L.-L. Nilsson, M. T. Levander, S. Levander (2004) Schizophrenia, neighborhood, and crime. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 110(2) Page 92. Non-human Psychopathology in non-human primates has been studied since the mid 20th century. Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as (statistically) abnormal for their frequency, severity or oddness - some of which have also been observed in the wild. Captive great apes show gross behavioral abnormalities such as stereotypy of movements, self-mutilation, disturbed emotional reactions (mainly fear or aggression) towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized learned helplessness. In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes. The risk of anthropomorphism is often raised with regard to such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication. However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors - including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances - to neurochemical studies. It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgement of behaviors (especially when speech or language is impaired) and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable. Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of social isolation. Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness. Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers in to existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms. Remedial interventions have included careful individually-tailored re-socialization programs, behavior therapy, environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs. Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and care-giving is often not achieved. Laboratory researchers sometimes try to induce symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological or behavioral manipulation, although this has been criticized on empirical grounds and opposed on animal rights grounds. The modern city, in connection with the psychological disorders of its residents, has been described as a human zoo. See also Allan Memorial Institute Anti-psychiatry Douglas Hospital DSM-IV Codes List of mentally ill monarchs Mental disorder defence Mental disorders and gender Mental health Mental illness in films Mental retardation Psychiatric assessment Psychopathology Self-help groups for mental health Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) Notes Further reading Atkinson, J. (2006) Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press ISBN 1903765617 Wiencke, Markus (2006) Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie. In David Kim (ed.), Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity (pp. 123–155). Cambridge Scholars Press, Cambridge, ISBN 1-84718-060-5 External links NIMH.NIH.gov - 'Working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind, brain, and behavior', National Institute of Mental Health (United States) NIMHE - 'Responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services', National Institute for Mental Health (United Kingdom) International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health – an international body of women political leaders founded by the World Mental Health Federation to produce positive change for citizens who struggle with mental illnesses. 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1,401 | Historical_revisionism | For the denial and distortion of well-established historical facts see Historical revisionism (negationism). Within historiography, that is the academic field of history, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of orthodox views on evidence, motivations and decision-making processes surrounding an historical event. The assumption of the revisionist is that the interpretation of a historical event or period as it is accepted by the majority of scholars needs a significant change. Scholarly process Pulitzer Prize winning historian James McPherson, writing for the American Historical Association, described the importance of revisionism: Those historians who work within the existing establishment and who have a body of existing work from which they claim authority, often have the most to gain by maintaining the status quo. This can be called an accepted paradigm, which in some circles or societies takes the form of a denunciative stance towards revisionism of any kind. Historian David Williams describes the resistance to the advocates of a more inclusive United States history that would include the roles of women, African Americans, and the labor movement: After World War II “a new and more broadly based generation of scholars”, as the result of the GI Bill, the nationwide expansion of state universities and community colleges, and the feminist movement, civil rights movement, and American Indian Movement, expanded the scope of American history. Williams p. 11 If there were a universally accepted view of history that never changed, there would be no need to research it further. Many historians who write revisionist exposés are motivated by a genuine desire to educate and to correct history. Many great discoveries have come as a result of the research of men and women who have been curious enough to revisit certain historical events and explore them again in depth from a new perspective. Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., in contrasting the United States with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, wrote: Revisionist historians contest the mainstream or traditional view of historical events, they raise views at odds with traditionalists, which must be freshly judged. Revisionist history is often practiced by those who are in the minority, such as feminist historians, ethnic minority historians, those working outside of mainstream academia in smaller and less known universities, or the youngest scholars, essentially historians who have the most to gain and the least to lose in challenging the status quo. In the friction between the mainstream of accepted beliefs and the new perspectives of historical revisionism, received historical ideas are either changed, solidified, or clarified. If over a period of time the revisionist ideas become the new establishment status quo a paradigm shift is said to have occurred. Historian Forrest McDonald is often critical of the turn that revisionism has taken but he nevertheless admits that the turmoil of the 1960s in the United States changed the way history was written. He wrote: Historians, like all people, are inexorably influenced by the zeitgeist (the spirit of the times). Historian C. Vann Woodward sees this as a positive influence. Speaking of the changes that occurred after the end of World War II, he wrote: Developments in other academic areas, and cultural and political fashions, all help to shape the currently accepted model and outlines of history (the accepted historiographical paradigm). For example philosopher Karl Popper echoed Woodward’s sentiments regarding revisionism when he noted that “each generation has its own troubles and problems, and therefore its own interests and its own point of view” and: As time passes and these influences change so do most historians views on the explanation of historical events. The old consensus may no longer be considered by most historians to explain how and why certain events in the past occurred, and so the accepted model is revised to fit in with the current agreed-upon version of events. For example, historian John Hope Franklin in 1986 described four specific stages in the historiography of African American that were based on different consensus models. African-American History: Origins, Development, and Current State of the Field | Joe W. Trotter | OAH Magazine of History Denial The two leading critical exposés of Holocaust denial in the United States were written by historians Deborah Lipstadt (1993) and Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman (2000). These scholars make a distinction between historical revisionism and denial. Revisionism, in their view, entails a refinement of existing knowledge about an historical event, not a denial of the event itself, that comes through the examination of new empirical evidence or a reexamination or reinterpretation of existing evidence. Legitimate historical revisionism acknowledges a 'certain body of irrefutable evidence' or a 'convergence of evidence' that suggest that an event — like the black plague, American slavery, or the Holocaust — did in fact occur. (Lipstadt 1993:21; Shermer & Grobman 200:34 Denial, on the other hand, rejects the entire foundation of historical evidence...." Ronald J. Berger. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach, Aldine Transaction, 2002, ISBN 0202306704, p. 154. Influences Some of the influences on historians, which may change over time are: Accession of New Data: Much historical data has been lost. Even archives have to make decisions based on space and interest on what original material to obtain or keep. At times documents are discovered or publicized that give new views of well established events. Archived material may be sealed by Governments for many years, either to hide political scandals, or to protect information vital for national security. When these archives are opened, they can alter the historical perspective on an event. For example with the released of the ULTRA archives in the 1970s under the British 30 years rule, a lot of the Allied high command tactical decision making process was re-evaluated, particularly the Second battle of the Atlantic. The release of the ULTRA archives also forced a re-evaluation of the history of the electronic computer. In 1972, before the release of official documents about ULTRA, Herman Goldstine wrote in The Computer from Pascal to von Neuman page 321 that: "Britain had such vitality that it could immediately after the war embark on so many well-conceived and well-executed projects in the computer field". In 1976 after the archive were opened Brian Randell wrote in The COLOSSUS on page 87 that: "the COLOSSUS project was an important source of this vitality, one that has been largely unappreciated, as has the significance of its places in the chronology of the invention of the digital computer". Developments in other academic areas. DNA analysis has had an impact in various areas of history either confirming established historical theories or presenting new evidence that undermines the current established historical explanation. Professor Andrew Sherratt, a British prehistorian, was responsible for introducing the work of anthropological writings on the consumption of currently legal and illegal drugs and how to use these papers to explain certain aspects of prehistoric societies* Obituary of Andrew Sherratt in The Independent 6 March 2006 . Carbon dating, the examination of ice cores and tree rings and measuring oxygen isotopes in bones in the last few decades have provided new data with which to argue new hypotheses. The new area of 'ancient DNA', recovering partial results, allows scientists to argue for example whether or not humans are partly descended from Neanderthals. Language: For example as more sources in other languages become available historians may review their theories in light of the new sources. The revision of the meaning of the Dark Ages are an example of this. Nationalism: For example when reading schoolbook history in Europe, it is possible to read about an event from completely different perspectives. In the Battle of Waterloo most British, French, Dutch and German schoolbooks slant the battle to emphasise the importance of the contribution of their nations. Sometimes the name of an event is used to convey political or a national perspective. For example the same conflict between two English speaking countries is known by two different names, for example, the "American War of Independence" and the "American Revolutionary War". As perceptions of nationalism change so do those areas of history that are driven by such ideas. Culture: For example as regionalism has become more prominent in the UK some historians have been suggesting that the English Civil War is too Anglo-centric and that to understand the war, events that had previously been dismissed as on the periphery should be given greater prominence; to emphasise this, revisionist historians have suggested that the English Civil War becomes just one of a number of interlocking conflicts known as Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Ideology: For example during the 1940s it became fashionable to see the English Civil War from a Marxist school of thought. In the words of Christopher Hill, "the Civil War was a class war." In the post World War II years the influence of Marxist interpretation waned in British academia and by the 1970s this view came under attack by a new school of revisionists and it has been largely overturned as a major mainstream explanation of the middle 17th century conflict in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Historical causation: Issues of causation in history are often revised with new research: for example by the middle of the twentieth century the status quo was to see the French Revolution as the result of the triumphant rise of a new middle class. Research in the 1960s prompted by revisionist historians like Alfred Cobban and Francois Furet revealed the social situation to be much more complex and the question of what caused the Revolution is now a closely debated one. Examples These are examples of historical revisionist ideas. The "Dark Ages" As non-Latin texts such as Welsh, Gaelic and the Sagas have been analysed and added to the canon of knowledge about the period and a lot more archaeological evidence has come to light, the period traditionally known as the Dark Ages has narrowed to the point where many historians no longer believe that such a term is useful. Moreover, the term "Dark" implies less of a void of culture and law, but more a lack of many sources in mainland Europe. "Feudalism" The concept of feudalism has been questioned. Revisionist scholars led by historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown have rejected the term. Agincourt The Battle of Agincourt was for centuries believed to be an engagement in which the English army, though overwhelmingly outnumbered 4 to 1 by the French army, pulled off a stunning victory - a version especially popularised by Shakespeare's play Henry V. However, recent research by Professor Anne Curry using the original enrollment records, has brought into question this interpretation and although her research is not finished Page 288. Matthew Strickland The Great Warbow. Pub Sutton, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-3167-1 , she has published her initial findings Anne Curry. Agincourt: A New History, Pub Tempus, 2005, ISBN 0-7524-2828-4 , that the French only outnumbered the English and Welsh 12,000 to 8,000. If true, the numbers may have been exaggerated for patriotic reasons by the English. Richard Brooks Henry V’s payroll cuts Agincourt myth down to size May 29, 2005 Alchemy Science historians are taking a new look at alchemy. Traditionally there was little room in the history of science for alchemy, which famously tried to convert lead into gold (lead oxide has a yellow colour), and it has been seen as closer to magic or mysticism than science. However there has been a revival of scholarship on the field and historians are finding reasons to give at least some alchemy a new interpretation. Alchemists, some historians are now saying, contributed to the emergence of modern chemistry as a science. John Noble Wilford, "Transforming the Alchemists", New York Times, August 1, 2006 New World discovery In recounting the European colonization of the Americas, some history books of the past paid little attention to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, usually mentioning them only in passing and making no attempt to understand the events from their point of view. This was reflected in the once widespread description of Christopher Columbus having "discovered" America. The portrayal of these events has since been revised, and much present scholarship examines the impact of European exploration and colonization on indigenous peoples. Some of this historical writing is revisionist in the ideological sense of the word, such as in portrayals of Columbus as the perpetrator of a genocide, which are arguably polemical and presentist. But even moderate portrayals of Columbus now take into account modern revisionism, and rarely, for example, use the word discovery without quotation marks. (see Postcolonialism). Slavery and New World Africans During historical periods of slavery, slaves have not been considered equal to their masters, something that has been reflected in the accepted histories of the time. In the study of the Reconstruction era of the American South, the revisionist interpretation of events has completely replaced the Dunning School interpretation. Additionally, a more Afrocentrist paradigm increasingly has been utilized in the study of slave societies, and in studying the values, beliefs and traditions of Blacks in the New World, emphasizing the continuity of culture between them and Africans. French attack formations in the Napoleonic wars The military historian James R. Arnold argues that: Military leadership during the First World War The military leadership of the British Army during the First World War was frequently condemned as poor by historians and politicians for decades after the war ended. Common charges were that the generals commanding the army were blind to the realities of trench warfare, ignorant of the conditions of their men and were unable to learn from their mistakes, thus causing enormous numbers of casualties ('lions led by donkeys').<ref>Lions Led By Donkeys Thompson, P.A. Lions Led By Donkeys: Showing How Victory In The Great War Was Achieved By Those Who Made the Fewest Mistakes T. Werner Laurie, Ltd. 1st English Edition.1927 Bournes, John. Lions Led By Donkeys, Centre for First World War Studies, University of Birmingham.</ref> However, during the 1960s historians such as John Terraine began to challenge this interpretation. In recent years as new documents have come forth and the distance of time has allowed for more objective analysis, historians such as Gary D. Sheffield and Richard Holmes observe that the military leadership of the British Army on the Western Front had to cope with many problems that they could not control such as a lack of adequate military communications. Furthermore, military leadership improved throughout the war culminating in the Hundred Days Offensive advance to victory in 1918. Some historians, even revisionists, still criticise the British High Command severely, but they are less inclined to portray the war in a simplistic manner with brave troops being led by foolish officers. There has been a similar movement regarding the French Army during the war with contributions by historians such as Anthony Clayton. Revisionists are far more likely to view commanders such as French General Ferdinand Foch, British General Douglas Haig and other figures, such as American General Pershing, in a sympathetic light. Reconstruction in U.S. Revisionist historians of Reconstruction after the U.S. Civil War rejected the dominant Dunning School that found the blacks were tools of evil Carpetbaggers, and instead stressed economic greed on the part of northern businessmen. Bernard Weisberger, "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Reconstruction Historiography," The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Nov., 1959), pp. 427-447 in JSTOR Indeed, in recent years a "neoabolitionist" revisionism has become standard, that uses the moral standards of the 19th century abolitionists to criticize racial policies. "Foner's book represents the mature and settled Revisionist perspective," historian Michael Perman has concluded regarding Eric Foner's Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877'' (1988) Michael Perman, "Review: Eric Foner's Reconstruction: A Finished Revolution," Reviews in American History, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Mar., 1989), pp. 73-78 in JSTOR German guilt in causing World War I In reaction to the orthodox interpretation enshrined in the Versailles Treaty (which declared that Germany was guilty of starting World War I), the self-described "revisionist" historians of the 1920s rejected the orthodox view and presented a complex causation in which several other countries were equally guilty. Intense debate continues among scholars. See Selig Adler, "The War-Guilt Question and American Disillusionment, 1918-1928," Journal of Modern History, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Mar., 1951), pp. 1-28 in JSTOR Guilt for causing World War II The orthodox interpretation blamed Hitler and Nazi Germany, and Imperial Japan, for causing the war. Revisionist historians of World War II, notably Charles Beard, said the U.S. was partly to blame because it pressed the Japanese too hard in 1940-41 and rejected compromises. Samuel Flagg Bemis, "First Gun of a Revisionist Historiography for the Second World War," Journal of Modern History, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 1947), pp. 55-59 in JSTOR British historian A. J. P. Taylor ignited a firestorm when he argued that Hitler was a rather ordinary diplomat and did not deliberately set out to cause a war. Gordon Martel, ed. The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered: A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians. (2nd ed. 1999). See also Biblical criticism Black Legend Denialism Historical revisionism (negationism) The Inquisition myth New Historians — An on-going historical revisionism debate dealing with the early period of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. 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1,402 | Oboe | The oboe is a double reed musical instrument of the woodwind family. In English prior to 1770, the instrument was called "hautbois", "hoboy", or "French hoboy". Marcuse 1975, 371. The spelling "oboe" was adopted into English ca. 1770 from the Italian oboè, a transliteration in that language's orthography of the 17th-century pronunciation of the French word hautbois, a compound word made of haut ("high, loud") and bois ("wood, woodwind"). A musician who plays the oboe is called an oboist. Careful manipulation of embouchure and air pressure allows the player to express a large range of timbre and dynamics. Sound In comparison to other modern woodwind instruments, the oboe has a clear and penetrating voice. The Sprightly Companion, an instruction book of 1695, describes the voice as "Majestical and Stately, and not much Inferior to the Trumpet." Similarly, the voice is described in the play Angels in America as sounding like that of a duck if the duck were a songbird. Tony Kushner (1995) Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes Theatre Communications Group, page 149. "The same night as the end of Millennium. The sounds of wind and snow and magical Antarctic music; Mr. Lies is sitting alone, playing the oboe." The timbre of the oboe is derived from the oboe's conical bore (as opposed to the generally cylindrical bore of flutes and clarinets). As a result, oboes are readily audible over other instruments in large ensembles. The oboe is pitched in concert C and has a mezzo-soprano to soprano range. Orchestras frequently tune to a concert A (usually A440) played by the oboe. According to the League of American Orchestras, this is done because the pitch of the oboe is secure and its penetrating sound makes it ideal for tuning purposes. American League of Orchestras, "About the Orchestra," http://www.americanorchestras.org/utilities/about_the_orchestra.html "(accessed January 1, 2009). The pitch of the oboe is affected by the way in which the reed is made. Variations in cane and other construction materials, the age of the reed, and differences in scrape and length of reed can affect the pitch of the instrument. History Baroque Baroque oboe, Stanesby Copy The baroque oboe first appeared in the French court in the mid-17th century, where it was called hautbois, although this name was also used for its predecessor, the shawm. Burgess & Haynes 2004, 27 The basic form of the hautbois was derived from the shawm. Major differences between the two instruments include the division into three sections, or joints, for the hautbois (which allowed for more precise manufacture), and the elimination of the pirouette, a cap placed over the reed that enabled shawm players to produce greater volume. The latter development, more than any other, was responsible for bringing the hautbois indoors where, thanks to its more refined sound and style of playing, it took up a permanent place in the orchestra. The exact date and place of origin of the hautbois are obscure, as are the individuals who were responsible. Circumstantial evidence, such as the statement by Michel de la Barre in his Memoire, points to members of the Philidor (Filidor) and Hotteterre families. The instrument may in fact have had multiple inventors. Burgess & Haynes 2004, 28 ff The hautbois quickly spread throughout Europe, including England, where it was called "hautboy", "hoboy", "hautboit", "howboye", and similar variants of the French name. Carse 1965, 120. It was the main melody instrument in early military bands, until it was succeeded by the clarinet. Burgess & Haynes 2004, 102. The baroque oboe was generally made of boxwood and had three keys; a "great" key and two side keys. (The side key was often doubled to facilitate use of either the right or left hand on the bottom holes) In order to produce higher pitches, the player had to "overblow", or increase the air stream to reach the next harmonic. Notable oboe-makers of the period are the German Denner and Eichentopf, and the English Stanesby Sr. and Jr. The range for the baroque oboe comfortably extends from c1 to d3. With the resurgence of interest in early music in the mid 20th century, a few makers began producing copies to specifications from surviving historical instruments. Classical oboe, copy by Sand Dalton of an original by Johann Friedrich Floth, c. 1805 Classical The classical period brought an oboe whose bore was gradually narrowed, and the instrument became outfitted with several keys, among them were those for the notes D♯, F, and G♯. A key similar to the modern octave key was also added called the "slur key", though it was at first used more like the "flick" keys on the modern German bassoon. Only later did French instrument makers redesign the octave key to be used in the manner of the modern key (i.e. held open for the upper register, closed for the lower). The narrower bore allowed the higher notes to be more easily played, and composers began to more often utilize the oboe's upper register in their works. Because of this, the oboe's tessitura in the Classical era was somewhat broader than that found in baroque works. The range for the Classical oboe extends from c1 to f3, though some German and Austrian oboes were capable of playing one half-step lower. Classical-era composers who wrote concertos for oboe include Mozart (both the solo concerto in C major K. 314/285d and the lost original of Sinfonia Concertante in E-flat major K. 297b, as well as a fragment of E-flat major concerto k.417b), Haydn, (both the Sinfonia Concertante in B-flat Hob. I:105 and the spurious concerto in C major Hob. VIIg:C1), Beethoven (the F major concerto, Hess 12, of which only sketches survive, though the second movement was reconstructed in the late twentieth century), and numerous other composers including Johann Christian Bach, Johann Christian Fischer, Jan Antonín Koželuh, and Ludwig August Lebrun. Innumerable solos exist for the oboe in chamber, symphonic, and operatic compositions from the Classical era. Viennese oboe In Vienna, a unique oboe has been preserved with its bore and tonal characteristics remaining relatively unchanged in use to the present day. The Akademiemodel Wiener oboe, developed in the early 20th century by Hermann Zuleger, is now made by several makers, such as André Constantinides, Karl Rado, Guntram Wolf and Yamaha. In their definitive historical work "The Oboe", Geoffrey Burgess and Bruce Haynes write (page 212) "The differences are most clearly marked in the middle register, which is reedier and more pungent, and the upper register, which is richer in harmonics on the Viennese oboe". Conservatoire The oboe was developed further in the 19th century by the Triebert family of Paris. Using the Boehm flute as a source of ideas for key work, Guillaume Triebert and his sons, Charles and Frederic, devised a series of increasingly complex yet functional key systems. A variant form using large tone holes, the Boehm system oboe, was never in common use, though it was used in some military bands in Europe into the 20th century. F. Lorée of Paris made further developments to the modern instrument. Minor improvements to the bore and key work have continued through the 20th century, but there has been no fundamental change to the general characteristics of the instrument for several decades. Howe 2003. The modern oboe is most commonly made from grenadilla, also known as African Blackwood, though some manufacturers also make oboes out of other members of the genus Dalbergia, which includes cocobolo, rosewood, and violetwood. Ebony (genus Diospyros) has also been used. Student model oboes are often made from plastic resin, to avoid instrument cracking to which wood instruments are prone, but also to make the instrument more economical. The oboe has an extremely narrow conical bore. The oboe is played with a double reed consisting of two thin blades of cane tied together on a small-diameter metal tube (staple) which is inserted into the reed socket at the top of the instrument. The commonly accepted range for the oboe extends from b♭3 to about g6, over two and a half octaves, though its common tessitura lies from c4 to e♭6. Some student oboes only extend to b3; the key for b♭ is not present, however this variant is becoming less common. A modern oboe with the "full conservatory" ("conservatoire" outside the USA) or Gillet key system has 45 pieces of keywork, with the possible additions of a third octave key and alternate (left little finger) F- or C-key. The keys are usually made of nickel silver, and are silver or occasionally gold-plated. Besides the full conservatoire system, oboes are also made using the English thumbplate system. Most have "semi-automatic" octave keys, in which the second octave action closes the first, and some have a fully automatic octave key system, as used on saxophones. Some full conservatory oboes have finger holes covered with rings rather than plates ("open-holed"), and most of the professional models have at least the right hand third key open-holed. Professional oboes used in the UK frequently feature conservatoire system combined with a thumb plate. With this type of mechanism the oboist has the best of both worlds as far as the convenience of fingerings is concerned. Other members of the oboe family The oboe has several siblings. The most widely known today is the cor anglais, or English horn, the tenor (or alto) member of the family. A transposing instrument; it is pitched in F, a perfect fifth lower than the oboe. The oboe d'amore, the alto (or mezzo-soprano) member of the family, is pitched in A, a minor third lower than the oboe. J.S. Bach made extensive use of both the oboe d'amore as well as the taille and oboe da caccia, Baroque antecedents of the cor anglais. Even less common is the bass oboe (also called baritone oboe), which sounds one octave lower than the oboe. Delius and Holst both scored for the instrument. Similar to the bass oboe is the more powerful heckelphone, which has a wider bore and larger tone than the bass oboe. Only 165 heckelphones have ever been made. Not surprisingly, competent heckelphone players are difficult to find due to the extreme rarity of this particular instrument Howe and Hurd 2004. . The least common of all are the musette (also called oboe musette or piccolo oboe), the sopranino member of the family (it is usually pitched in E-flat or F above the oboe), and the contrabass oboe (typically pitched in C, two octaves deeper than the standard oboe). Keyless folk versions of the oboe (most descended from the shawm) are found throughout Europe. These include the musette (France) and bombarde (Brittany), the piffaro and ciaramella (Italy), and the xirimia or chirimia (Spain). Many of these are played in tandem with local forms of bagpipe, particularly with the Italian zampogna. Similar oboe-like instruments, most believed to derive from Middle Eastern models, are also found throughout Asia as well as in North Africa. Reeds Oboist Albrecht Mayer preparing reeds for use. Most oboists scrape their own reeds to achieve the desired tone and response. An oboe reed. Oboe reeds need a period of "breaking-in" and can take a few days playing to become reliable and controlable. Novice oboists sometimes start playing with a Fibrecane reed, which is made of a synthetic material. Fibrecane reeds are much easier for the novice to control, take far shorter time to "break-in" than cane reeds, and usually last longer. After learning on Fibrecane reeds, the oboist generally moves-on to commercially available cane reeds, which are available in several degrees of hardness; a medium reed usually being used. These reeds, like clarinet and bassoon reeds, are made from arundo donax. As oboists gain more experience, they may start making their own reeds after the model of their teacher, or buying hand-made reeds (usually from a professional oboist) and using special tools including gougers, pre-gougers, guillotines, knives, and other tools to make the reed to their own liking. Most professional oboists make their own reeds. . According to the late John Mack, former principal oboist of the Cleveland Orchestra, an oboe student must fill a laundry basket with finished reeds in order to master the art Masterclass by John Mack, Aspen Music Festival and School, 2004 . "Making good reeds requires years of practice, and the amateur is often well advised not to embark on making his own reeds, ... Orchestral musicians sometimes do this [make reeds], and co-principals in particular often earn a bit on the side in this way. ... Many professional musicians import their reed cane ... directly from the growers in southern France and split it vertically into three parts themselves. Oboes require thicknesses of about 10 millimetres, bassoons of 20 to 25 millimetres."</ref> This allows each player to adjust the reeds precisely for individual embouchure, oral cavity, oboe angle, and air support. The reed is considered the part of oboe playing that makes it so difficult because slight variations in temperature, altitude, weather, and climate will change a perfectly working reed into an unplayable collection of cane. Principal oboist Séc. XIX Barret, Apollon M.R. Bomtempo, João Domingos Brod, Henry Sellner, Joseph Modern Alex Klein Alfred Laubin Bert Gassman Bertrand Grenat Burkhard Glaetzner David Walter Diana Doherty Elaine Douvas Eugene Izotov François Leleux Georg Merwein Gordon Hunt Hansjorg Schellenberger Harold Gomberg Heinz Holliger Humbert Luccarelli Antony Camden Joel Gisiger John de Lancie John Ferrillo John Mack José Francisco Silva José Cocarelli Joseph Robinson Keisuke Wakao Kim Bryden Lady Evelyn Barbirolli Leandro Finotti Lon Bussell Luís Carlos Justi Malcom Messiter Manuel Munzlinger Mark Weiger Marcel Tabuteau Marco Miglietta Maurice Bourgue Michelle Zwi Nicholas Daniel Ray Still Richard Kanter Richard Woodhams Robert Atherholt Robert Bloom Sarah Francis Sergio Sousa Theodore Baskin Thomas Indermühle Washington Barella Today's Baroque (specialists in Baroque performance with instruments) Jürg Schaeftlein Gonzalo X. Ruiz Stephen Hammer Washington McClain David Reichenberg Sand Dalton Michel Piguet Notable classical works featuring the oboe See also Oboe concerto. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Oboe Concerto in C major, Quartet in F major Antonio Vivaldi, at least 15 oboe concertos Antonio Pasculli, oboe concertos for oboe and piano/orchestra Johann Sebastian Bach, Brandenburg concertos nos. 1 and 2, Concerto for Violin and oboe, lost oboe concerti, numerous oboe obbligato lines in the sacred and secular cantatas Tomaso Albinoni, Oboe (and two-oboe) Concerti George Frideric Handel, The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba, Oboe Concerti and Sonatas Georg Philipp Telemann, Oboe Concerti and Sonatas, trio sonatas for oboe, recorder and basso continuo Richard Strauss, Oboe Concerto Joseph Haydn (spurious), Oboe Concerto in C major Vincenzo Bellini, Concerto in E, for oboe and string orchestra (before 1825) Luciano Berio, Sequenza VII (1969), also Chemins IV (on Sequenza VII), for oboe and string orchestra (1975) Domenico Cimarosa, Oboe Concerto in C major (arranged) Francis Poulenc, Oboe Sonata Benjamin Britten, Six Metamorphoses after Ovid, Op.49, Temporal Variations,Two Insect Pieces,Phantasy Quartet, Op. 2 Robert Schumann, Three Romances for oboe or violin and piano Edmund Rubbra, Oboe Sonata Carl Nielsen, Two Fantasy Pieces for Oboe and Piano Alessandro Marcello, Concerto in D minor Ralph Vaughan Williams, Concerto for Oboe and Strings, Ten Blake Songs for oboe and tenor Camille Saint-Saëns, Sonata for Oboe and Piano in D Major Bohuslav Martinů, Oboe Concerto Darius Milhaud, Les rêves de Jacob, op. 294, for oboe, violin, viola, cello, and doublebass (1949); Sonatina, op. 337, for oboe and piano (1954) Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Concerto for Oboe and Small Orchestra (1952) Carlos Chávez, Upingos, for unaccompanied oboe Hans Werner Henze, Doppio concerto, for oboe, harp, and string orchestra (1966) Bruno Maderna, three oboe concertos (1962–63) (1967) (1973); Grande aulodia, for flute, oboe, and orchestra (1970) Witold Lutosławski, Double Concerto for Oboe, Harp, and Chamber Orchestra Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, Oboe Concerto Paul Hindemith, Sonata for Oboe and Piano Ennio Morricone, "Gabriel's Oboe" from The Mission. It is usually followed by The Mission'''s main theme and the choral symphony On Earth as It Is in Heaven. Samuel Barber, Canzonetta, op. 48, for oboe and string orchestra (1977–78, orch. completed by Charles Turner) Igor Stravinsky, Pastorale (transcribed in 1933 for Violin and Wind Quartet) Elliott Carter, Oboe Concerto (1986-87); Trilogy, for oboe and harp (1992); Quartet for oboe, violin, viola, and cello (2001) Heinz Holliger, Sonata, for unaccompanied oboe (1956–57/99); Mobile, for oboe and harp (1962); Trio, for oboe (doubling English horn), viola, and harp (1966); Studie über Mehrklänge, for unaccompanied oboe (1971); Sechs Stücke, for oboe (doubling oboe d’amore) and harp (1998–99) Jan Dismas Zelenka (1723) Concertanti, Oboe Trios and other works http://www.jdzelenka.net/ Tchaikovsky, Theme to Swan Lake Use outside of classical music While the oboe is rarely used in musical genres other than Western classical, there have been a few notable exceptions. Traditional and folk music Although keyless folk oboes are still used in many European folk music traditions, the modern oboe has been little used in folk music. One exception was Derek Bell, harpist for the Irish group The Chieftains, who used the instrument in some performances and recordings. The United States contra dance band Wild Asparagus, based in western Massachusetts, also uses the oboe, played by David Cantieni. The folk musician Paul Sartin plays the oboe in several English folk bands including Faustus and Bellowhead. The bagpipe player and bagpipe maker Jonathan Shorland plays the oboe with the bands Primeaval and Juice, and formerly played with Fernhill, which play traditional British Isles music. Jazz Although the oboe has never been featured prominently in jazz music, some early bands, most notably that of Paul Whiteman, included it for coloristic purposes. The multi-instrumentalist Garvin Bushell (1902-1991) played the oboe in jazz bands as early as 1924 and used the instrument throughout his career, eventually recording with John Coltrane in 1961. Gil Evans scored for the instrument in his famous Miles Davis collaboration Sketches of Spain. Though primarily a tenor saxophone and flute player, Yusef Lateef was among the first (in 1963) to use the oboe as a solo instrument in modern jazz performances and recordings. Composer and double bassist Charles Mingus gave the oboe a brief but prominent role (played by Dick Hafer) in his composition "I.X. Love" on the 1963 album Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus. Marshall Allen occasionally played an oboe with Sun Ra. With the birth of Jazz fusion in the late 1960s, and its continuous development through the following decade, the oboe started to fulfill a more important role in composition, replacing on some occasions the saxophone as the focal point. The oboe was used with great success by the Welsh multi-instrumentalist Karl Jenkins in his work with the groups Nucleus and Soft Machine, and by the American woodwind player Paul McCandless, co-founder of the Paul Winter Consort and later Oregon. Romeo Penque also played the oboe on Roland Kirk's 1975 album Return of the 5000 Lb. Man, in the song "Theme for the Eulipions." The 1980s saw an increasing number of oboists try their hand at non-classical work, and many players of note have recorded and performed alternative music on oboe. Some present-day jazz groups influenced by classical music, such as the Maria Schneider Orchestra, feature the oboe. Double reedist Charles Pillow makes use of oboe and has made an instructional recording for jazz oboe. Rock and pop The oboe has been used sporadically in rock recordings, generally by studio musicians on recordings of specific songs. In the late 1960s and 1970s, several bands emerged that featured oboists as members, including The Moody Blues (Ray Thomas), Henry Cow (Lindsay Cooper), New York Rock & Roll Ensemble (Martin Fulterman and Michael Kamen, the latter having played oboe with rock musicians such as David Gilmour), Roxy Music (Andy Mackay), Electric Light Orchestra (Roy Wood), Wizzard (Roy Wood), King Crimson((Icehouse (but only in one song, Man of Colours)) (Robin Miller) and Japan (Mick Karn). The oboists in these bands generally used the oboe as a secondary instrument, not playing it on every song. Japan and Roxy Music, however, did use the oboe quite frequently. Since the 1990s, the oboe has been used in rock most notably by Sigur Rós (played by Kjartan Sveinsson), as well as by indie rock musician Sufjan Stevens (who also plays cor anglais and often overdubs both instruments on his albums). Jarlaath, the vocalist of the French gothic metal band Penumbra, plays the oboe in a number of the band's songs, as does Robbie J. de Klerk, the vocalist of the Dutch melodic doom/death metal band Another Messiah http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=15556 . In America, the band Hoboe defines itself as a rock band showcasing amplified oboe, fronted by oboist Zen Ben.The oboe also played a significant role in Coldplay's new album Viva la Vida, in which the instrument was featured in the song "Reign of Love" For a historical sampling of songs featuring the oboe see Oboes in popular music. Film music The oboe is frequently featured in film music, often to underscore a particularly poignant or sad scene. One of the most prominent uses of the oboe in a film score is Ennio Morricone's "Gabriel's Oboe" theme from the 1986 film The Mission. It is also featured as a solo instrument in the theme "Across the Stars" from the John Williams score to Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones. Oboe was used to a great effect by A. R. Rahman in the 2008 Bollywood movie Jodhaa Akbar. The oboe in popular culture In popular culture, the oboe is commonly associated (sometimes negatively) with the sound of a duck, a stereotype which was established most notably in Sergei Prokofiev's 1936 composition Peter and the Wolf, a children's orchestral work in which the oboe "plays" the duck character. Young children's literature also reinforces this connection. Domnauer, Teresa, "Moo-Moo Went the Tuba," p. 13, http://books.google.com/books?id=nKrGYSGVji4C&pg=PA13&vq=duck+oboe Research has shown that among young instrumentalists, the flute, clarinet, and oboe are considered feminine instruments, even though boys favored the sound of the oboe, English horn and bassoon over that of other wind instruments. Walker, Mark J., "Influences of Gender and Sex-Stereotyping of Middle School Students' Perception and Selection of Musical Instruments: A Review of the Literature," VRME, Volume 4, January 2004, http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/v4n1/ Kuhlman, Kristyn, "The Impact of Gender on Students' Instrument Timbre Preferences and Instrument Choices," VRME, Volume 5, June 2004, http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/articles5/kuhlman/index.htm Some musicians have commented that negative stereotypes associated with the oboe could lead to instrumentation deficits for symphonies in the future. BBC, "In defence of the oboe," 25 October, 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3951303.stm Among the orchestral community, oboists are known for their perfectionism, especially when it comes to the selection of reeds, hence the famous oboe joke, "How many oboists does it take to change a light bulb? Just one, but he may have to sort through 30 or 40 bulbs to find the right one." Oestreich, James R., "At Peace in the Lonely Realm of the Oboe," New York Times, July 9, 1995, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEFDC1F3CF93AA35754C0A963958260&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss&pagewanted=2 Famous oboists Oboe manufacturers Barrington Instruments Inc. (Barrington, Illinois, USA) Boosey and Hawkes (1851-1970s) (London, UK) Buffet Crampon (Mantes-la-Ville, France) Bulgheroni (Parè, Italy) Cabart (1893-1974, bought out by F. Lorée) (Paris, France) Chauvet (until ~ 1975) (Paris, France) Mark Chudnow (MCW, Sierra) (Napa, California, USA) Constantinides (Pöggstall, Austria) Covey (Blairsville, Georgia, USA) Dupin (Moutfort, Luxembourg) Fossati (incl. Tiery) (Paris, France) Fox (South Whitley, Indiana, USA) Frank (Berlin, Germany) Heckel (until the 1960s) (Wiesbaden, Germany) Thomas Hiniker Woodwinds (Rochester, Minnesota, USA) Howarth (London, UK) Incagnoli (Rome, Italy) A. Jardé (prior to WWII) (Paris, France) Josef (Tokyo, Japan) V. Kohlert & Söhne (1840-1948 Graslitz, Czechoslovakia, 1948-1970s Kohlert & Co. Winnenden, Germany) Kreul (incl. Mirafone) (Tübingen, Germany) J. R. LaFleur (1865-1938, bought by Boosey & Hawkes) (London, UK) Larilee Woodwind Corp. (USA) (Elkhart, Indiana, USA) A. Läubin (incl. "A. Barré") (Peekskill, New York, USA) G. LeBlanc (France-USA) [part of selmer now?] Linton (Elkhart, Indiana, USA) F. Lorée (incl. Cabart) (Paris, France) Louis (prior to WWII) (London, UK) Malerne (until 1974, bought by Marigaux) (La Couture-Boussey, France) Marigaux (Mantes-la-Ville, France) Markardt (until 1976, bought by Mönnig) (Erlbach, Germany) Mollenauer (before WWII; now only recorders) (Fulda, Germany) Orsi (Tradate, Italy) Gebr. Mönnig - Oscar Adler (Markneukirchen, Germany) John Packer (Taunton, UK) Patricola (Castelnuovo Scrivia, Italy) Püchner (Nauheim, Germany) Karl Radovanovic (Vienna, Austria) Rigoutat (incl. RIEC) (Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France) A. Robert (prior to WWII) (Paris, France) Selmer (incl. Bundy, Lesher, Omega, Signet) (France, USA) Tom Sparkes (Hornsby, New South Wales, Australia) Ward & Winterbourne (London, UK) Guntram Wolf (Kronach, Germany) Yamaha (Japan) Sources Baines, Anthony. 1967. Woodwind Instruments and Their History. Third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. London: Faber and Faber. Burgess, Geoffrey, and Bruce Haynes. 2004. The Oboe. The Yale Musical Instrument Series. New Haven, Conn. and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300093179 Carse, Adam. 1965. Musical Wind Instruments: A History of the Wind Instruments Used in European Orchestras and Wind-Bands from the Later Middle Ages up to the Present Time. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80005-5. Harris-Warrick, Rebecca. 1990. "A Few Thoughts on Lully's hautbois." Early Music 18, no. 1 (February, "The Baroque Stage II"): 97-98+101-102+105-106. Mauro Gioielli, La "calamaula" di Eutichiano, Utriculus, anno VIII, n. 4 (32), ottobre-dicembre 1999, pp. 44-45. Haynes, Bruce. 1985. Music for Oboe, 1650-1800: A Bibliography. Fallen Leaf Reference Books in Music, 8755-268X; no. 4. Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press. ISBN 0914913034 Haynes, Bruce. 1988. "Lully and the Rise of the Oboe as Seen in Works of Art." Early Music 16, no. 3 (August): 324–38. Haynes, Bruce. 2001. The Eloquent Oboe: A History of the Hautboy 1640–1760. Oxford Early Music Series. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019816646X Howe, Robert. 2003. "The Boehm System Oboe and its Role in the Development of the Modern Oboe". Galpin Society Journal 56:27–60 +plates on 190–92. Howe, Robert, and Peter Hurd. 2004. "The Heckelphone at 100". Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society 30:98–165. Marcuse, Sybil. 1975. Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary''. Revised edition. The Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00758-8. References External links Oboe Fingering Trainer Interactive Oboe Fingering Trainer! Bruce Haynes / Peter Wuttke: Music for oboe, online bibliography of literature for oboe written between 1650 and 1800. Oboe and Reed Making Information Experiments in Jazz Oboe by Alison Wilson (archive link, was dead) OboeSpace: Oboe information ASU Oboe Homepage Origin Oboe fingering guide Fingering chart for Baroque oboe by Stephen Hammer hautboy.org resource site for early oboes Reed making information and new music featuring oboe Oboist Liang Wang: His Reeds Come First NPR story by Debbie Elliott High Wood Fanlisting for the Oboe oboeinsight Gesellschaft der Freunde der Wiener Oboe (Viennese Oboe Society) "Oboe FM" Listening NPR interview with New York Philharmonic principal oboist Liang Wang, September 2006 Oboe sound gallery of clips of dozens of prominent oboists in the United States, Europe, and Australia | Oboe |@lemmatized oboe:182 double:8 reed:36 musical:7 instrument:42 woodwind:7 family:7 english:8 prior:4 call:7 hautbois:9 hoboy:3 french:6 marcuse:2 spell:1 adopt:1 ca:1 italian:2 oboè:1 transliteration:1 language:1 orthography:1 century:8 pronunciation:1 word:2 compound:1 make:28 haut:1 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1,403 | Gaia_philosophy | Gaia philosophy(named after Gaia, Greek goddess of the Earth) is a broadly inclusive term for related concepts that living organisms on a planet will affect the nature of their environment in order to make the environment more suitable for life. This set of theories holds that all organisms on an extraterrestrial life giving planet regulate the biosphere to the benefit of the whole. The Gaia concept draws a connection between the survivability of a species, (hence its evolutionary course) and its usefulness to the survival of other species. While there were a number of precursors to Gaia theory, the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock, a UK chemist, in 1970. The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of homeostasis, and claims the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act as a single, self-regulating system. This system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere. While controversial at first, various forms of this idea have become accepted to some degree by many within the scientific community (See Amsterdam declaration on Global Change). These theories are also significant in green politics. Predecessors to the Gaia theory There are some mystical, scientific and religious predecessors to the Gaia philosophy, which had a Gaia-like conceptual basis. Many religious mythologies had a view of Earth as being a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g. some Native American religions and various forms of shamanism). Lewis Thomas believed that Earth should be viewed as a single cell; he derived this view from Johannes Kepler's view of Earth as a single round organism. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a paleontologist and geologist, believed that evolution unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and ultimately the whole universe, as we humans see it from our limited perspective. Teilhard later influenced Thomas Berry and many Catholic humanist thinkers of the 20th century. Buckminster Fuller is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century. Building to some degree on his observations and artifacts, e.g. the Dymaxion map of the Earth he created, others began to ask if there was a way to make the Gaia theory scientifically sound. Oberon Zell-Ravenheart in 1970 in an article in Green Egg Magazine, independently articulated the Gaea Thesis . None of these ideas are considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions. As the above claims are not testable, they are outside the bounds of current science. These are conjectures and perhaps can only be considered as social and maybe political philosophy; they may have implications for theology, or thealogy as Zell-Ravenheart and Isaac Bonewits put it. Range of views According to James Kirchner there is a spectrum of Gaia hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable to radical. At one end is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition. A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of equilibrium that is conducive to life. Biologists usually view this activity as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one. An even stronger claim is that all lifeforms are part of a single planetary being, called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas, the terrestrial crust would be the result of interventions carried out by Gaia, through the coevolving diversity of living organisms. Many scientists deny the possibility of this view; however, such a view is considered within scientific possibility. The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism; in this view the Earth's biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of homeostasis. Many non-scientists instinctively and incorrectly see homeostasis as a process that requires conscious control. The more speculative versions of Gaia, including versions in which it is believed that the Earth is actually conscious, sentient, and highly intelligent, are usually considered outside the bounds of what is usually considered science. Gaia in biology and science See the main article Gaia theory (science) for more. Buckminster Fuller has been credited as the first to incorporate scientific ideas into a Gaia theory, which he did with his Dymaxion map of the Earth. The first scientifically rigorous theory was the Gaia Hypothesis by James Lovelock, a UK chemist. While controversial at first, various forms of this idea became accepted to some degree by many scientists. A variant of this hypothesis was developed by Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist, in 1979. Her version is sometimes called the "Gaia Theory" (note uppercase-T). Her model is more limited in scope than the one that Lovelock proposed. Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the extent to which these mechanisms stabilize and modify the Earth's overall climate are not known. The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's ecosystem is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one. Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream neo-Darwinism. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism. A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief, which has only come about because most people do not understand the concept of homeostasis because many non-scientists incorrectly see homeostasis as a process requiring conscious control. This leads to some confusion on both sides, and the topic is still under debate. Gaia in the social sciences A social science view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a keystone species who may be able to accomplish global homeostasis. One recommended reading is "The Tao of Physics" by Fritjof Capra who explores the confluence of quantum physics and eastern mysticism. Gaia in politics Some radical political environmentalists who accept some form of the Gaia theory call themselves Gaians. They actively seek to restore the Earth's homeostasis - whenever they see it out of balance, e.g. to prevent manmade climate change, primate extinction, or rainforest loss. In effect, they seek to cooperate to 'become' the "system consciously manipulating to make conditions more conducive to life". Such activity 'defines' the homeostasis, but for leverage it relies on deep investigation of the homeorhetic balances, if only to find places to intervene in a system which is changing in undesirable ways. Tony Bondhus brings up the point in his book, Society of Conceivia, that if Gaia is alive, then societies are living things as well. This suggests that our understanding of Gaia can be used to create a better society and to design a better political system. Gaians are attempting to create a new ideology which fuses conclusions from science and politics; they see this as a "protoscience" of human ecology. These ideas include the idea of humans as the keystone species, say act to prevent climate change, primate extinction, etc., and might deliberately maintain the balances of the entire biosphere with their own cognition. However, humans cannot be a keystone species by definition, because a keystone species must be rare relative to the magnitude of their effect. Because human distribution is global and population density high, humans are precluded from being a keystone species. Gaians do not passively ask "what is going on", but rather, "what to do next", e.g. in terraforming or climate engineering or even on a small scale as gardening. Changes could thus be planned, consented to by many people, and very deliberate, as in urban ecology and especially industrial ecology. See arcology for more on this 'active' view. Gaians argue that it is a human duty to act as such - committing themselves in particular to the Precautionary Principle. Such views began to influence the Green Parties, Greenpeace, and a few more radical wings of the environmental movement such as the Gaia Liberation Front and the Earth Liberation Front. These views dominate some such groups, e.g. the Bioneers. Some refer to this political activity as a separate and radical branch of the ecology movement, one that takes the axioms of the science of ecology in general, and Gaia theory in particular, and raises them to a kind of theory of personal conduct or moral code. The Human Role in Gaia There are some theories that humans play a role in Gaia, such as the idea of humanity as a keystone species. However, humans perform no ecological niche, and constantly disrupt Earth's ecology through pollution and deforestation. Although humans may currently be negative to the world, humans have much potential to help it. Humans are the only sapient species on Earth, and the only one to escape it's atmosphere. Given those facts, humans are surely the most successful species known. It is possible that humans could serve as it's protectors or guardians. With clever thinking and some technological advancements, humans could prevent many world-ending disasters, such as using nuclear missiles to destroy large asteroids and comets, or serving as bio-regulators by preventing a naturally occurring ecological collapse. Another possibility is that humans could become Gaia's reproductive system. In the future, humans could colonize and terraform other planets and therefore create another Gaia. If humans did terraform another planet, they would be essentially modifying the planet to be capable of supporting life and the bringing life from Earth and allow it to spread and form a new Gaia. Also, if humanity does rise to serve the above purposes, the internet could be considered the Gaian nervous system. Humanity would have come to represent Gaia and become its main thought and executionary system. The internet allows the transfer of information around the world. It connects people and places like nothing else. In the future it could allow humans to swiftly and efficiently execute functions which need to be accomplished. For now the internet can be considered a proto-nervous system Semantic debate The question of "what is an organism" and at what scale is it rational to speak about organisms vs. biospheres, give rise to a semantic debate. We are all ecologies in the sense that our (human) bodies contain gut bacteria, parasite species, etc., and to them our body is not organism but rather more of a microclimate or biome. Applying that thinking to whole planets: The argument is that these symbiotic organisms, being unable to survive apart from each other and their climate and local conditions, form an organism in their own right, under a wider conception of the term organism than is conventionally used. It is a matter for often heated debate whether this is a valid usage of the term, but ultimately it appears to be a semantic dispute. In this sense of the word organism, it is argued under the theory that the entire biomass of the Earth is a single organism (as Johannes Kepler thought). Unfortunately, many supporters of the various Gaia theories do not state exactly where they sit on this spectrum; this makes discussion and criticism difficult. Much effort on behalf of those analyzing the theory currently is an attempt to clarify what these different hypotheses are, and whether they are proposals to 'test' or 'manipulate' outcomes. Both Lovelock's and Margulis's understanding of Gaia are considered scientific hypotheses, and like all scientific theories are constantly put to the test. More speculative versions of Gaia, including all versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious, are currently held to be outside the bounds of science, and are not supported by either Lovelock or Margulis. Other Notes At least one work of fiction, the film Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, uses Gaia philosophy as a central point to the plot, and may arguably represent a fictional parallel to Sir James Lovelock in the character of Dr. Sid, who is met with skepticism from the scientific and social community when he promotes the idea of a "living Earth". In the film, Dr. Cid attempts to create a "waveform" from the positive energy signature of the Earth's spirit, in order to combat the films antagonists, the negative energy "Phantoms", through use of phase inversion canceling. Computer game Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri and its expansion Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire are set on the planet Chiron in the Alpha Centauri system where all indigenous life appears to behave in accordance with the Gaia philosophy. The intelligent force behind this behavior is called simply "Planet" and, in the expansion, is revealed to be artificially created by an alien race. At the time the game takes place, Planet is nearing its self-awareness threshold. Normally, the nature of Planet's life causes it never to attain full sentience; however, human presence adds an unknown variable into the equation. See also Arcology Climate engineering Gaia hypothesis (James Lovelock's ideas) Gardening Industrial ecology James Kirchner Guy Murchie winner of the 1956 John Burroughs Medal Keystone species Odic force Places to intervene in a system Pandeism Pantheism Technogaianism Teleology Urban ecology Steven M. Greer - Categorises entire planets to be individual conscious organisms Gaia spore External links Humans are the Gaian Reproductive Strategy The Gaia Conservancy Official Gaiaist site | Gaia_philosophy |@lemmatized gaia:43 philosophy:5 name:1 greek:1 goddess:1 earth:26 broadly:1 inclusive:1 term:3 related:1 concept:5 live:2 organism:17 planet:13 affect:1 nature:2 environment:5 order:4 make:8 suitable:1 life:13 set:2 theory:19 hold:3 extraterrestrial:1 give:3 regulate:1 biosphere:7 benefit:1 whole:5 draw:1 connection:1 survivability:1 specie:13 hence:1 evolutionary:2 course:1 usefulness:1 survival:1 number:3 precursor:1 first:5 scientific:11 form:9 idea:12 propose:2 hypothesis:12 james:6 lovelock:7 uk:2 chemist:2 deal:1 homeostasis:9 claim:4 resident:1 host:1 couple:1 act:6 single:7 self:5 regulating:1 system:15 include:4 near:2 surface:1 rock:1 soil:1 atmosphere:6 controversial:2 various:4 become:5 accept:6 degree:3 many:11 within:3 community:2 see:9 amsterdam:1 declaration:1 global:3 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1,404 | Klingon_language | The Klingon language (tlhIngan Hol in Klingon) is the constructed language spoken by Klingons in the fictional Star Trek universe. Deliberately designed by Marc Okrand to be "alien", it contains many peculiarities. The language's basic sound, along with a few words, was first devised by actor James Doohan ("Scotty") for Star Trek: The Motion Picture. That film marked the first time the language had been heard on screen; in all previous appearances, Klingons spoke in English. Klingon was subsequently developed by Okrand into a full-fledged language. Klingon is sometimes referred to as "Klingonese" (most notably in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "The Trouble with Tribbles", where it was actually pronounced by a Klingon character as ), but among the Klingon-speaking community this is often understood to refer to another Klingon language that is described in John M. Ford's Star Trek novels as Klingonaase. A small number of people, mostly dedicated Star Trek fans or language aficionados, can converse in Klingon. Its vocabulary, heavily centered on Star Trek-Klingon concepts such as "spacecraft" or "warfare", can sometimes make it cumbersome for everyday use for instance, while there are words for "transporter ionizer unit" (jolvoy) or "bridge (of a ship)" (meH), there is currently no word for "bridge" in the sense of a crossing over water. Nonetheless, mundane conversations are common among skilled speakers. History Though mentioned in the original Star Trek series, Klingon was first used on-screen in Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979); for Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984), Okrand enlarged the lexicon and developed grammar around the original dozen words Doohan had created. It would be used intermittently in later movies featuring the original cast: in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991), translation difficulties would serve as a plot device. With the advent of the series Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987) – in which one of the main characters, Worf, was a Klingon – and successors, the language and various cultural aspects for the fictional species were expanded. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode A Matter of Honor, several Klingons speak a language that is not translated for the benefit of the viewer, until one Klingon orders the others to "speak their (i.e. humans') language". The use of untranslated Klingon words interspersed with conversation translated into English was commonplace in later seasons of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, when Klingons became a more important part of the series' overall plot arcs. Worf would later reappear among the regular characters in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1992) and B'Elanna Torres, a Klingon-human hybrid, would become a main character on Star Trek: Voyager (1995). Later in the pilot episode of the prequel series Star Trek: Enterprise, "Broken Bow" (2001), the Klingon language is described as having "eighty polyguttural dialects constructed on an adaptive syntax"; however, Klingon as described on television is often not entirely congruous with Klingon developed by Okrand. Language The Klingon language has a following and numerous reference works. A description of the actual Klingon language can be found in Okrand's book The Klingon Dictionary (Published by Pocket Books, Simon & Schuster, 1985, second edition with new addendum 1992, ISBN 0-671-74559-X). In May 2009, Simon & Schuster in collaboration with Ultralingua Inc., a developer of electronic dictionary applications, announced the release of a suite of electronic Klingon language software for most computer platforms and handhelds including a dictionary, a phrasebook and an audio learning tool. Other notable works include The Klingon Way (with Klingon sayings and proverbs), Klingon for the Galactic Traveler and the two audio productions Conversational Klingon and Power Klingon. The Klingon Hamlet Three books have also been published in the tongue: ghIlghameS (Gilgamesh), Hamlet (Hamlet), and paghmo' tIn mIS (Much Ado About Nothing). These last two choices were inspired by a remark from High Chancellor Gorkon in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country that "Shakespeare is best read in the original Klingon". Some fans assumed it to be a joke, though another explanation subsequently surfaced that a future Klingon time traveler had translated some Klingon operas and sold them to Shakespeare. Others took it to be an allusion to Soviet propaganda techniques where major world inventions were attributed to Russians or other Slavic peoples. In the bonus material for the DVD screenwriter Nicholas Meyer and actor William Shatner both explain that this was an allusion to the "German myth" that Shakespeare was in fact German. However, this myth is unknown in Germany. The Klingon Language Institute exists to promote the language. Qapla' Some Trekkies take the time to learn it and at some Star Trek conventions one can hear enthusiasts use it amongst themselves. They often greet each other with the Klingon word nuqneH (literally: "What do you want?"). This is the only greeting in Klingon. Another phrase commonly heard among Star Trek fans is Qapla', the Klingon word for "success". Paramount Pictures owns a copyright to the official dictionary and other canonical descriptions of the language. No challenge has been brought to court. It is commonly postulated that features of the Klingon language were taken from various real Earth languages which Okrand has studied, particularly Native American languages. , Slate Magazine, Retrieved on May 8th, 2009 It is known however, that a design principle of the Klingon language was dissimilarity to existing natural languages. Its way of forming noun clauses, and of forming noun "and" sequences (e.g. "gun and sword and spear"), follows Sanskrit. According to Guinness World Records for 2006, it is the most spoken fictional language by number of speakers. Mind Performance Hacks http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/mindperfhks/ mentions learning a constructed language for reasons related to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggesting that knowing an alternate language may provide a different method of critical thought when tackling a difficult problem; the book mentions Klingon as one such language. Other mentioned languages include Lojban and Solresol, as well as a passing reference to Sindarin (Elf, J.R.R. Tolkien). Canon An important concept to spoken and written Klingon is canonicity. Only words and grammatical forms introduced by Marc Okrand are considered proper, canonical Klingon. It is a point of contention among Klingonists as to what level of neologism is permissible. Klingon as Linguistic Capital, Yens Wahlgren, June 2000 Sources The following are works which are considered by the Klingon Language Institute to be canon Klingon and are the sources of Klingon vocabulary and grammar for all other works. KLI Wiki, Canon sources Books The Klingon Dictionary (TKD) The Klingon Way (TKW) Klingon for the Galactic Traveler (KGT) Sarek, a novel which includes some tlhIngan Hol Federation Travel Guide, a pamphlet from Pocketbooks. Audio tapes Conversational Klingon (CK) Power Klingon (PK) The Klingon Way (TKW) Electronic resources The Klingon Language Suite, language learning tools from Ultralingua with Simon & Schuster Other sources certain articles in HolQeD (the journal of the KLI) (HQ) certain Skybox Trading Cards (SKY) a Star Trek Bird of Prey poster (BoP) Star Trek: Klingon, a CD-ROM game (KCD, also STK) On-line and in-person text/speech by Marc Okrand (mostly newsgroup postings) The letters in parentheses following each item (if any) indicate the acronym by which the source is referred to when quoting canon. Phonology Klingon has been developed with a phonology that, while based on human natural languages, is intended to sound alien. When initially developed, Paramount Pictures (owners of the Star Trek franchise) wanted the Klingon language to be guttural and harsh and Okrand wanted it to be unusual, so he selected sounds that combined in ways not generally found in other languages. The effect is mainly achieved by the use of a number of retroflex and uvular consonants in the language's inventory. Klingon has twenty-one consonants and five cardinal vowels. Klingon is normally written in a variant of the Latin alphabet (see below). In this orthography, upper and lower case letters are not interchangeable (uppercase letters mostly represent sounds different to those expected by English speakers). In the discussion below, standard Klingon orthography appears in <angle brackets>, and the phonemic transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet is written between /slashes/. Consonants The inventory of consonants in Klingon is spread over a number of places of articulation. In spite of this, the inventory has many gaps: Klingon has no velar plosives, and only one sibilant. Deliberately, this arrangement is quite bizarre by the standards of human languages. The combination of aspirated voiceless alveolar plosive and voiced retroflex plosive is particularly unusual, for example. The consonants <D> and <r> () can be realized as and , respectively. Note that the apostrophe character <'> is not a punctuation mark but a full-fledged letter, representing the glottal stop (). Labial Dental or alveolar Retroflex Postalveolar or palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Central Lateral Plosive voiceless p t q ' // voiced b D Affricate voiceless tlh ch voiced j Fricative voiceless S H voiced v Nasal m n ng Trill r () Approximant w l y Vowels In contrast to consonants, Klingon's inventory of vowels is simple and similar to many human languages, such as Spanish. There are five vowels spaced evenly around the vowel space, with two back rounded vowels, and two front or near-front unrounded vowelsthe most common for human languages. There is also a back unrounded vowel. The two front vowels, <e> and <I>, represent sounds that are found in English but are more open and lax than a typical English speaker might assume when reading Klingon text written in the Latin alphabet, causing the consonants of a word to be more prominent. This enhances the sense that Klingon is a clipped and harsh-sounding language. Vowels <a> open back unrounded vowel (in English spa) <e> open-mid front unrounded vowel (in English bed) <I> near-close near-front unrounded vowel (in English bit) <o> close-mid back rounded vowel (in French eau) <u> close back rounded vowel (in Spanish tu) Diphthongs can be analyzed phonetically as the combination of the five vowels plus one of the two semivowels and (represented by <w> and <y>, respectively). Thus, the combinations <ay>, <ey>, <Iy>, <oy>, <uy>, <aw>, <ew> and <Iw> are possible. There are no words in the Klingon language that contain *<ow> or *<uw>. Vowel stress In verbs, the stressed syllable is usually the verb itself, as opposed to a prefix or any suffixes except when a suffix ending with ' is separated from the verb by at least one other suffix, in which case the suffix ending in ' is also stressed. In addition, stress may shift to a suffix which is meant to be emphasized. In nouns, the final syllable of the stem (the noun itself, excluding any affixes) is stressed. If any syllables ending in ' are present, the stress shifts to those syllables. The stress in other words seems to be variable, but this is not a serious issue because most of these words are only one syllable in length. Still, there are some words which should fall under the rules above, but do not, although using the standard rules would still be acceptable. Syllabification Klingon syllable structure is extremely strict: a syllable must start with a consonant (which includes the glottal stop) followed by one vowel. In prefixes and other more rare syllables, this is enough. More commonly, this consonant-vowel pair is followed by one consonant or one of three biconsonantal codas: /-w' -y' -rgh/. Thus, ta "record", tar "poison" and targh "targ" (a type of animal) are all legal syllable forms, but *tarD and *ar are not. Despite this, there is one suffix that takes the shape vowel+consonant: the endearment suffix -oy. Grammar Klingon is an agglutinative language, using mainly affixes in order to alter the function or meaning of words. Some nouns have inherently plural forms: "jengva'" "plate" vs. "ngop" "plates", for instance. In other cases, a suffix is required to denote plurality. Depending on the type of noun (body part, being capable of using language, or neither), the suffix changes. For beings capable of using language, the suffix is "-pu'", as in "tlhInganpu'", meaning Klingons, or "jaghpu'", meaning enemies. For body parts, the plural suffix is "-Du'", as in "qeylIS minDu'", the Eyes of Kahless. For items that are neither body parts, nor capable of speech, the suffix is "-mey", such as "sarqmey", (sarks), for the Klingon horse, or "targhmey", or (targs), for a Klingon kind of boar. Klingon nouns take suffixes to indicate grammatical number, gender, two levels of deixis, possession and syntactic function. In all, 29 noun suffixes from five classes may be employed: jupoypu'na'wI'vaD "for my beloved true friends". Speakers are limited to no more than one suffix from each class to be added to a word, and the classes have a specific order of appearance. Another important suffix is "-ngan", as in "romuluSngan". It denotes that someone, or something, is from the first part of the word - in this case, Romulus. In cases like "vereng" (Ferenginar), the last "ng" is dropped, in favor of the suffix. Gender in Klingon does not indicate sex, as in English, or have an arbitrary assignment as in Danish or many other languages. It indicates whether a noun refers to a body part, a being capable of using language, or neither of these. In certain cases, however, there is a word part that defines gender. The words "puqloD" and "puqbe'" (meaning son and daughter respectively), when referenced with other words, imply that "-loD" means "male", where "-be'" is female ("puq-" meaning "child"). Verbs in Klingon are even more complex, taking a prefix indicating the number and person of the subject and object, plus suffixes from nine ordered classes, plus a special suffix class called rovers. Each of the four known rovers has its own unique rule controlling its position among the suffixes in the verb. Verbs are marked for aspect, certainty, predisposition and volition, dynamic, causative, mood, negation, and honorific, and the Klingon verb has two moods: indicative and imperative. The most common word order in Klingon is Object Verb Subject, and in some cases the word order is the exact reverse of word order in English: DaH mojaq-mey-vam DI-vuS-nIS-be' 'e' vI-Har''' now suffix-PL-DEM 1PL.A.3PL.P-limit-need-NEG that 1SG.A.3SG.P-believe "I believe that we do not need to limit these suffixes now." Note that hyphens are used in the above only to illustrate the use of affixes. Hyphens are not used in Klingon. Unlike most artificial auxiliary languages, which seek to either emulate elements of several evolved human languages in order to be easier to learn, or to be more regular with fewer exceptions than is the case in evolved existing languages, the Klingon language tries to break away from the most common features of other languages and embraces the exceptions to its own rules. Writing systems The official Klingon writing system is the Latin alphabet as used above, but on the television series, the Klingons use their own alien writing system. In The Klingon Dictionary this alphabet is named as pIqaD, but no information is given about it. When Klingon symbols are used in Star Trek productions they are merely decorative graphic elements, designed to emulate real writing and create an appropriate atmosphere. The Astra Image Corporation designed the symbols (currently used to "write" Klingon) for Star Trek: The Motion Picture, although these symbols are often incorrectly attributed to Michael Okuda. Symbols attributed to Okuda: the Klingon Language Institute's Klingon FAQ (edited by d'Armond Speers), question 2.13 by Will Martin (August 18 1994). Symbols incorrectly attributed to Okuda: KLI founder Lawrence M. Schoen's "On Orthography" (PDF), citing J. Lee's "An Interview with Michael Okuda" in the KLI's journal HolQed 1.1 (March 1992), p. 11. Symbols actually designed by Astra Image Corporation: Michael Everson's Proposal....[3]. They based the letters on the Klingon battlecruiser hull markings (three letters) first created by Matt Jeffries, and on Tibetan writing because the script had sharp letter forms used as a testament to the Klingons' love for knives and blades. Vocabulary A design principle of the Klingon language is the great degree of lexical-cultural correlation in the vocabulary. For example, there are several words meaning "to fight" or "to clash against", each having a different degree of intensity. There is an abundance of words relating to warfare and weaponry and also a great variety of curses (cursing is considered a fine art in Klingon culture). This helps lend a particular character to the language. There are also many "in jokes" built into the language. Puns in the Vocabulary of tlhIngan Hol For example, the word for "pair" is chang'eng, a reference to the twins Chang and Eng, and the word for "fish" is ghotI'. See also Klingon culture Alien language Klingonaase, an earlier, non-canonical Klingon language put forth by author John M. Ford. Stovokor, a heavy metal band who sing exclusively in Klingon Klingon Language Institute References Bernard Comrie, 1995, ‘The Paleo-Klingon numeral system’. HolQeD'' 4.4: 6–10. External links Klingon Language Suite (electronic), Klingon Language Institute Klingon and its User: A Sociolinguistic Profile, a sociolinguistics MA thesis. Klingon as Linguistic Capital: A Sociologic Study of Nineteen Advanced Klingonists (PDF) Klingonska Akademien Is Klingon an Ohlonean language? A comparison of Mutsun and Klingon Omniglot: Klingon Alphabet Deutsche-Welle's Klingon Language Service BBC article on Deutsche-Welle's Klingon Language Service Klingon wikia dictionary in Klingon Deutsche Welle Germany's International broadcaster goes Klingon Voragh's Notes on Klingon Swearing Eatoni Ergonomics' Klingon page includes BDF, TTF fonts and a Klingon text entry demo. | Klingon_language |@lemmatized klingon:102 language:62 tlhingan:3 hol:3 constructed:2 speak:5 klingons:7 fictional:3 star:24 trek:24 universe:1 deliberately:2 design:6 marc:3 okrand:9 alien:4 contain:2 many:5 peculiarity:1 basic:1 sound:5 along:1 word:26 first:5 devise:1 actor:2 james:1 doohan:2 scotty:1 motion:3 picture:5 film:1 mark:3 time:3 hear:3 screen:2 previous:1 appearance:2 english:10 subsequently:2 develop:5 full:2 fledged:2 sometimes:2 refer:3 klingonese:1 notably:1 original:5 series:6 episode:3 trouble:1 tribbles:1 actually:2 pronounce:1 character:6 among:6 speaking:1 community:1 often:4 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1,405 | Global_illumination | Global illumination is a general name for a group of algorithms used in 3D computer graphics that are meant to add more realistic lighting to 3D scenes. Such algorithms take into account not only the light which comes directly from a light source (direct illumination), but also subsequent cases in which light rays from the same source are reflected by other surfaces in the scene, whether reflective or non (indirect illumination). Theoretically reflections, refractions, and shadows are all examples of global illumination, because when simulating them, one object affects the rendering of another object (as opposed to an object being affected only by a direct light). In practice, however, only the simulation of diffuse inter-reflection or caustics is called global illumination. Images rendered using global illumination algorithms often appear more photorealistic than images rendered using only direct illumination algorithms. However, such images are computationally more expensive and consequently much slower to generate. One common approach is to compute the global illumination of a scene and store that information with the geometry, i.e., radiosity. That stored data can then be used to generate images from different viewpoints for generating walkthroughs of a scene without having to go through expensive lighting calculations repeatedly. Radiosity, ray tracing, beam tracing, cone tracing, path tracing, Metropolis light transport, ambient occlusion, photon mapping, and image based lighting are examples of algorithms used in global illumination, some of which may be used together to yield results that are fast, but accurate. These algorithms model diffuse inter-reflection which is a very important part of global illumination; however most of these (excluding radiosity) also model specular reflection, which makes them more accurate algorithms to solve the lighting equation and provide a more realistically illuminated scene. The algorithms used to calculate the distribution of light energy between surfaces of a scene are closely related to heat transfer simulations performed using finite-element methods in engineering design. In real-time 3D graphics, the diffuse inter-reflection component of global illumination is sometimes approximated by an "ambient" term in the lighting equation, which is also called "ambient lighting" or "ambient color" in 3D software packages. Though this method of approximation (also known as a "cheat" because it's not really a global illumination method) is easy to perform computationally, when used alone it does not provide an adequately realistic effect. Ambient lighting is known to "flatten" shadows in 3D scenes, making the overall visual effect more bland. However, used properly, ambient lighting can be an efficient way to make up for a lack of processing power. Rendering without global illumination. Areas that lie outside of the ceiling lamp's direct light lack definition. For example, the lamp's housing appears completely uniform. Without the ambient light added into the render, it would appear uniformly black.Rendering with global illumination. Light is reflected by surfaces, and colored light transfers from one surface to another. Notice how color from the red wall and green wall (not visible) reflects onto other surfaces in the scene. Also notable is the caustic projected onto the red wall from light passing through the glass sphere. See also :Category:Global illumination software External links SSRT – C++ source code for a Monte-carlo pathtracer (supporting GI) - written with ease of understanding in mind. 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1,406 | Dunstan | Dunstan (c.909–19 May 988) was an abbot of Glastonbury, a bishop of Worcester, a bishop of London, and an archbishop of Canterbury who was later canonized as a saint. His work restored monastic life in England and reformed the English Church. His 11th century biographer, Osbern, himself an artist and scribe, states that Dunstan was skilled in "making a picture and forming letters", as were other clergy of his age who reached senior rank. Dunstan served as an important minister of state to several English kings. He was the most popular saint in England for nearly two centuries, having gained fame for the many stories of his greatness. Adding to Dunstan's myth was his legendary cunning in dealing with the Devil. Early life (909-43) Birth Dunstan was born in Baltonsborough. He was the son of Heorstan, a noble of Wessex. Heorstan was the brother of the bishops of Wells and of Winchester. It is recorded his mother, Cynethryth, was a pious woman. Osbern relates that a messenger miraculously told her of the saintly child she would give birth: The anonymous author of the earliest Life places Dunstan's birth during the reign of Athelstan, while Osbern fixed it at "the first year of the reign of King Æthelstan", 924 or 925. This date, however, cannot be reconciled with other known dates of Dunstan's life and creates many obvious anachronisms. Historians therefore assume that Dunstan was born circa 910 or earlier. Lapidge, Michael, "Dunstan" in Lapidge et al. (eds), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell, Oxford, 1999. ISBN 0-631-15565-1 School to the king's court As a young boy, Dunstan studied under the Irish monks who then occupied the ruins of Glastonbury abbey. Accounts tell of his youthful optimism and of his vision of the abbey being restored. While still a boy, Dunstan was stricken with a near-fatal illness and effected a seemingly miraculous recovery. Even as a child, he was noted for his devotion to learning and for his mastery of many kinds of artistic craftsmanship. With his parent's consent he was tonsured, received minor orders and served in the ancient church of St Mary. He became so well known for his devotion to learning that he is said to have been summoned by his uncle Athelm, the archbishop of Canterbury, to enter his service. He was later appointed to the court of King Athelstan. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church by F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) Oxford University Press, USA; 3 edition p.514 (March 13, 1997) Dunstan playing his harp as the devil is paying a visit. Dunstan soon became a favourite of the king and was the envy of other members of the court. A plot was hatched to disgrace him and Dunstan was accused of being involved with witchcraft and black magic. The king ordered him to leave the court and as Dunstan was leaving the palace his enemies physically attacked him, beat him severely, bound him, and threw him into a cesspool. He managed to crawl out and make his way to the house of a friend. From there, he journeyed to Winchester and entered the service of his uncle, Ælfheah, bishop of Winchester. The bishop tried to persuade him to become a monk, but Dunstan was doubtful whether he had a vocation to a celibate life. The answer came in the form of an attack of swelling tumours all over Dunstan's body. This ailment was so severe that it was thought to be leprosy. It was more probably some form of blood poisoning caused by being beaten and thrown in the cesspool. Whatever the cause, it changed Dunstan's mind. He took Holy Orders in 943, in the presence of Ælfheah, and returned to live the life of a hermit at Glastonbury. Against the old church of St Mary he built a small cell five feet long and two and a half feet deep. It was there that Dunstan studied, worked at his handicrafts, and played on his harp. It is at this point that, according to a late 11th century legend, that the Devil is said to have tempted Dunstan and to have been held by the face with Dunstan's tongs. Monk, abbot, and bishop (943-60) Life as a monk Possible self-portrait of Dunstan. Detail from the Glastonbury Classbook. Dunstan worked as a silversmith and in the scriptorium while he was living at Glastonbury. It is thought likely that he was the artist who drew the well-known image of Christ with a small kneeling monk beside him in the Glastonbury Classbook, "one of the first of a series of outline drawings which were to become a special feature of Anglo-Saxon art of this period." p.9 Dunstan became famous as a musician, illuminator, and metalworker. Lady Æthelflaed, King Æthelstan's niece, made Dunstan a trusted adviser and on her death she left a considerable fortune to him. He used this money later in life to foster and encourage a monastic revival in England. About the same time, his father Heorstan died and Dunstan inherited his fortune as well. He became a person of great influence, and on the death of King Æthelstan in 940, the new King, Edmund, summoned him to his court at Cheddar and made him a minister. Again, royal favour fostered jealousy among other courtiers and again Dunstan's enemies succeeded in their plots. The king was prepared to send Dunstan away. There were then at Cheddar certain envoys from the "Eastern Kingdom", which probably meant East Anglia. Dunstan implored the envoys to take him with them when they returned to their homes. They agreed to do so, but it never happened. The story is recorded: Abbot of Glastonbury Dunstan, now abbot of Glastonbury, went to work at once on the task of reform. He had to re-create monastic life and to rebuild the abbey. He began by establishing Benedictine monasticism at Glastonbury. That the Rule of St. Benedict was the basis of his restoration is not only definitely stated by his first biographer, who knew Dunstan well, but it is also in accordance with the nature of his first measures as abbot, with the significance of his first buildings, and with the Benedictine leanings of his most prominent disciples.Remains of the choir of Glastonbury abbey church. Dunstan's first care was to rebuild the church of St. Peter, rebuild the cloister, and re-establish the monastic enclosure. The secular affairs of the house were committed to his brother; Wulfric, "so that neither himself nor any of the professed monks might break enclosure." A school for the local youth was founded and soon became the most famous of its time in England. A substantial extension of the irrigation system on the surrounding Somerset Levels was also completed. Within two years after the appointment, in 946, King Edmund was assassinated. His successor was Edred. The policy of the new government was supported by the Queen Mother, Edgiva of Kent, by the primate, Oda, and by the East Anglian nobles, at whose head was the powerful ealdorman Æthelstan the "Half-king". It was a policy of unification and conciliation with the Danish half of the kingdom. The goal was a firm establishment of the royal authority. In ecclesiastical matters it favoured the spread of Catholic observance, the rebuilding of churches, the moral reform of the clergy and laity, and the end of the religion of the Danes in England. Against all these reforms were the nobles of Wessex, which included most of the Dunstan's own relatives, who had an interest in maintaining established customs. For nine years Dunstan's influence was dominant, during which time he twice refused the office of bishop (that of Winchester in 951 and Crediton in 953), affirming that he would not leave the king's side so long as the king lived and he needed him. Changes in fortune In 955, Edred died, and the situation was at once changed. Edwy, the elder son of Edmund, who then came to the throne, was a headstrong youth who was wholly devoted to the reactionary nobles. According to one legend, the feud with Dunstan began on the day of Edwy's coronation, when he failed to attend a meeting of nobles. When Dunstan eventually found the young monarch, he was cavorting with a noblewoman named Ælfgifu, and her mother, and refused to return with the bishop. Infuriated by this, Dunstan dragged Edwy back and forced him to renounce the girl as a "strumpet." Later realizing that he had provoked the king, Dunstan fled to the apparent sanctuary of his cloister, but Edwy, incited by Ælfgifu, whom he married, followed him and plundered the monastery. King Edwy's reign was marred by conflicts with his family and with Dunstan. Though Dunstan managed to escape, he saw that his life was threatened. He fled England and crossed the channel to Flanders, where he found himself ignorant of the language and of the customs of the locals. The count of Flanders, Arnulf I, received him with honour and lodged him in the Abbey of Mont Blandin, near Ghent. This was one of the centres of the Benedictine revival in that country, and Dunstan was able for the first time to observe the strict observance that had seen its rebirth at Cluny at the beginning of the century. His exile was not of long duration. Before the end of 957, the Mercians and Northumbrians revolted and drove out Edwy, choosing his brother Edgar as king of the country north of the Thames. The south remained faithful to Edwy. At once Edgar's advisers recalled Dunstan. On his return, the archbishop consecrated Dunstan a bishop and, on the death of Coenwald of Worcester at the end of 957, Oda appointed Dunstan to that see. Powicke, F. Maurice and E. B. Fryde Handbook of British Chronology 2nd. ed. London:Royal Historical Society 1961 p. 260 In the following year the See of London became vacant and was conferred on Dunstan, who held it in conjunction with Worcester. In October 959, Edwy died and his brother Edgar was readily accepted as ruler of Wessex. One of the last acts of Edwy had been to appoint a successor to Archbishop Oda, who died on 2 June 958. First he appointed Aelfsige of Winchester, but he perished of cold in the Alps as he journeyed to Rome for the pallium. In his place Edwy nominated Birthelm, the bishop of Wells. As soon as Edgar became king he reversed this act on the ground that Brithelm had not been able to govern even his former diocese properly. The archbishopric was then conferred on Dunstan. Archbishop of Canterbury (960–78) Dunstan himself went to Rome in 960, and received the pallium from Pope John XII. On his journey there, Dunstan's charities were so lavish as to leave nothing for himself and his attendants. His steward complained, but Dunstan seems to have suggested that they trust in Jesus Christ. On his return from Rome, Dunstan at once regained his position as virtual prime minister of the kingdom. By his advice Ælfstan was appointed to the Bishopric of London, and Oswald to that of Worcester. In 963, Æthelwold, the abbot of Abingdon, was appointed to the See of Winchester. With their aid and with the ready support of King Edgar, Dunstan pushed forward his reforms in the English Church. The monks in his communities were taught to live in a spirit of self-sacrifice, and Dunstan actively enforced the law of celibacy whenever possible. He forbade the practices of simony (selling ecclesiastical offices for money) and ended the custom of clerics appointing relatives to offices under their jurisdiction. Monasteries were built, and in some of the great cathedrals, monks took the place of the secular canons; in the rest the canons were obliged to live according to rule. The parish priests were compelled to be qualified for their office; they were urged to teach parishioners not only the truths of the Christian faith, but also trades to improve their position. The State saw reforms as well. Throughout the realm there was good order maintained and respect for law. Trained bands policed the north, a navy guarded the shores from Viking raids. There was a level of peace in the kingdom that was not within living memory. In 973, Dunstan's statesmanship reached its zenith when he performed the solemn coronation of King Edgar. Edgar was crowned at Bath in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign (a move that must have taken a great deal of preliminary diplomacy). This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle forms the basis of the present-day British coronation ceremony. p.134 There was a second symbolic coronation held later. This was an important step, as other kings of Britain came and gave their allegiance to Edgar at Chester. Six kings in Britain, including the kings of Scotland and of Strathclyde, pledged their faith that they would be the king's liege-men on sea and land. Two years after his crowning Edgar died, and was succeeded by his eldest son Eadweard II. His accession was disputed by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who wished her own son Ethelred to reign. Through the influence of Dunstan, Eadward was chosen and crowned at Winchester. The death of Edgar had given courage to the reactionary nobles. At once there was a determined attack upon the monks, the protagonists of reform. Throughout Mercia they were persecuted and deprived of their possessions. Their cause, however, was supported by Æthelwine, the ealdorman of East Anglia, and the realm was in serious danger of civil war. Three meetings of the Witan were held to settle these disputes, at Kyrtlington, at Calne, and at Amesbury. At the second place the floor of the hall where the Witan was sitting gave way, and all except Dunstan, who clung to a beam, fell into the room below, several men were killed. Final years (978–88) In March 978, King Eadweard was assassinated at Corfe Castle, possibly at the instigation of his stepmother, and Ethelred the Unready became king. His coronation on Low Sunday 31 March, 978, was the last action of the state in which Dunstan took part. When the young king took the usual oath to govern well, Dunstan addressed him in solemn warning, criticizing the violent act whereby he became king and prophesying the misfortunes that were shortly to fall on the kingdom. p.139 But Dunstan's influence at court was ended. p.514 Dunstan retired to Canterbury to teach at the cathedral school. Theological manuscript from Glastonbury Abbey (Bodleian Library):Abbot Dunstan ordered the writing of this book. Only three more public acts are known. In 980, Dunstan joined Ælfhere of Mercia in the solemn translation of the relics of King Eadward II, soon to be known as St Edward the Martyr, from their grave at Wareham to a shrine at Shaftesbury Abbey. In 984, when in obedience to a vision of St Andrew, he persuaded King Ethelred to appoint Ælfheah as bishop of Winchester in succession to Æthelwold. In 986, when he induced the king, by a donation of 100 pounds of silver, to stop his persecution of the see of Rochester. Dunstan's retirement at Canterbury consisted of long hours, both day and night, spent in private prayer, besides his regular attendance at Mass and the daily office. He would visit the shrines of St Augustine and St Æthelberht, and there are reports of a vision of angels who sang to him heavenly canticles. He worked to improve the spiritual and temporal well-being of his people, to build and restore churches, to establish schools, to judge suits, to defend widows and orphans, to promote peace, and to enforce respect for purity. St. Dunstan - Catholic Online He practised his crafts, made bells and organs and corrected the books in the cathedral library. He encouraged and protected scholars of Europe who came to England, and was active as a teacher of boys in the cathedral school. On the vigil of Ascension Day 988, it is recorded that a vision of angels warned he would die in three days. On the feast day itself, Dunstan said Mass and preached three times to the people: at the Gospel, at the benediction, and after the Agnus Dei. In this last address, he announced his impending death and wished them well. That afternoon he chose the spot for his tomb, then went to his bed. His strength failed rapidly, and on Saturday morning, 19 May, he caused the clergy to assemble. Mass was celebrated in his presence, then he received Extreme Unction and the Viaticum, and died. Dunstan's final words are reported to be, "He hath made a remembrance of his wonderful works, being a merciful and gracious Lord: He hath given food to them that fear Him." The English people accepted him as a saint shortly thereafter. He was formally canonized in 1029. That year at the Synod of Winchester, St Dunstan's feast was ordered to be kept solemnly throughout England. Legacy Until St Thomas Becket’s fame overshadowed Dunstan's, he was the favourite saint of the English people. Dunstan had been buried in his Cathedral; and when that building was destroyed by a fire in 1074, his relics were translated by archbishop Lanfranc to a tomb on the south side of the high altar in the rebuilt Canterbury Cathedral. Dunstan shoeing the Devil's hoof, as illustrated by George Cruikshank The monks of Glastonbury used to claim that during the sack of Canterbury by the Danes in 1012, Dunstan's body had been carried for safety to their abbey. This story was disproved by Archbishop William Warham, who opened the tomb at Canterbury in 1508. They found Dunstan's relics still to be there at that time. Within a century, his shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation. He functions as the patron saint of goldsmiths, as he worked as a blacksmith, painter, and jeweller. St Dunstan's - the charity providing support, rehabilitation and respite care to blind ex-service personnel of the British Armed Forces - is named for him. Many churches all over the world are named for him as well. St Dunstan's, Mayfield, St Dunstan's, Stepney, St Dunstan-in-the-East, London, and St Dunstan-in-the-West, London are four of the more famous ones in England. English literature contains many references to him, for example in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, and in this folk rhyme: St Dunstan, as the story goes, Once pull'd the devil by the nose With red-hot tongs, which made him roar, That he was heard three miles or more. From this the tongs have become a symbol of St Dunstan and are featured in the arms of Tower Hamlets. Another story relates how Dunstan nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's hoof when he was asked to re-shoe the Devil's horse. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is over the door. This is claimed as the origin of the lucky horseshoe. The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Anglican Communion mark his feast day on May 19. pp. 206-207 See also List of bishops of Worcester References Further reading Primary sources ‘Author B’, Vita S. Dunstani, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 3–52. Portions of the text are translated by Dorothy Whitelock in English Historical Documents c. 500-1042. 2nd ed. London, 1979. A new edition and translation by Michael Lapidge is forthcoming. Adelard of Ghent, Epistola Adelardi ad Elfegum Archiepiscopum de Vita Sancti Dunstani, Adelard's letter to Archbishop Ælfheah of Canterbury (1005-1012) on the Life of St Dunstan, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series 63. London, 1874. 53–68. Wulfstan of Winchester, The Life of St Æthelwold, ed. and tr. M. Lapidge and M. Winterbottom, Wulfstan of Winchester. The Life of St Æthelwold. Oxford Medieval Texts. Oxford, 1991. Reliquiae Dunstanianae, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 354-439. Fragmenta ritualia de Dunstano, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 440-57. Osbern of Canterbury, Vita sancti Dunstani and Liber Miraculorum Sancti Dunstani, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 69-161. Eadmer, Vita S. Dunstani and Miracula S. Dunstani, ed. and tr. Bernard J. Muir and Andrew J. Turner, Eadmer of Canterbury. Lives and Miracles of Saints Oda, Dunstan, and Oswald. OMT. Oxford, 2006. 41-159 and 160-212; ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series 63. London, 1874. 162–249, 412–25. William of Malmesbury, Vita sancti Dunstani, ed. and tr. Bernard J. Muir and Andrew J. Turner, William of Malmesbury. Lives of SS. Wulfstan, Dunstan, Patrick, Benignus and Indract. Oxford Medieval Texts. Oxford, 2002; ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 250-324. John Capgrave, Vita sancti Dunstani, ed. W. Stubbs, Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Rolls Series. London, 1874. 325-53. Secondary sources Dales, Douglas, Dunstan: Saint and Statesman, Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1988. Duckett, Eleanor. Saint Dunstan of Canterbury (1955). Dunstan, St. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 vols. Gale Research, 1998. Knowles, David. The Monastic Orders in England (1940; 2d ed. 1963). Ramsay, Nigel St Dunstan: his Life, Times, and Cult, Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1992. Sayles, G. O., The Medieval Foundations of England (1948; 2d ed. 1950). External links Early British Kingdoms: St Dunstan The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil by Edward G. Flight, illustrated by George Cruikshank, published in 1871, and available from Project Gutenberg Early British Kingdoms: St. Dunstan enshrined at Glastonbury or Canterbury? 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1,407 | Empirical_formula | In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is a simple expression of the relative numbers of each type of atom in it, or the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. An empirical formula makes no reference to isomerism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The empirical formula is used as standard for most ionic compounds, such as CaCl2, and for macromolecules, such as SiO2. The term empirical refers to the process of elemental analysis, a technique of analytical chemistry used to determine the relative amounts of each element in a chemical compound. In contrast, the molecular formula identifies a numbers of each type of atom in a molecule, and the structural formula also shows the structure of the molecule. For example, the chemical compound n-hexane has the structural formula CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3, which shows that it has 6 carbon atoms arranged in a straight chain, and 14 hydrogen atoms. Hexane's molecular formula is C6H14, and its empirical formula is C3H7, showing a C:H ratio of 3:7. Examples of common substances Substance Molecular formula Empirical formula Water H2O H2O Methane CH4 CH4 Benzene C6H6 CH Sulfur S8 S Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O Use in physics In physics, an empirical formula is a mathematical equation that predicts observed results, but is derived from experiment or conjecture and not directly from first principles. An example was the Rydberg formula to predict the wavelengths of hydrogen spectral lines. Proposed in 1888, it perfectly predicted the wavelengths of the Lyman series, but lacked a theoretical basis until Niels Bohr produced his Bohr model of the atom in 1913. Construction of empirical formulas for prediction of experimental data is considered by M.Ribaric and L.Sustersic in http://arxiv.org/pdf/0810.0905 so as to point out relevant technical problems. See also Empiricism (Philosophic usage and history) Empirical research (More on the scientific usage) Empirical Phenomenology | Empirical_formula |@lemmatized chemistry:2 empirical:10 formula:13 chemical:3 compound:5 simple:2 expression:1 relative:2 number:4 type:2 atom:7 whole:1 ratio:2 element:2 present:1 make:1 reference:1 isomerism:1 structure:2 absolute:1 use:3 standard:1 ionic:1 macromolecule:1 term:1 refers:1 process:1 elemental:1 analysis:1 technique:1 analytical:1 determine:1 amount:1 contrast:1 molecular:3 identify:1 molecule:2 structural:2 also:2 show:3 example:3 n:1 hexane:2 carbon:1 arrange:1 straight:1 chain:1 hydrogen:2 c:1 h:1 common:1 substance:2 water:1 methane:1 benzene:1 ch:1 sulfur:1 glucose:1 physic:2 mathematical:1 equation:1 predict:3 observed:1 result:1 derive:1 experiment:1 conjecture:1 directly:1 first:1 principle:1 rydberg:1 wavelength:2 spectral:1 line:1 propose:1 perfectly:1 lyman:1 series:1 lack:1 theoretical:1 basis:1 niels:1 bohr:2 produce:1 model:1 construction:1 prediction:1 experimental:1 data:1 consider:1 ribaric:1 l:1 sustersic:1 http:1 arxiv:1 org:1 pdf:1 point:1 relevant:1 technical:1 problem:1 see:1 empiricism:1 philosophic:1 usage:2 history:1 research:1 scientific:1 phenomenology:1 |@bigram analytical_chemistry:1 carbon_atom:1 hydrogen_atom:1 rydberg_formula:1 niels_bohr:1 arxiv_org:1 |
1,408 | David_Ricardo | David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a political economist, often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus and Adam Smith. Sowell, Thomas (2006). On classical economics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. He was also a member of Parliament, businessman, financier and speculator, who amassed a considerable personal fortune. Perhaps the most important of his contributions was the theory of comparative advantage, a fundamental argument in favor of free trade among countries and of specialization among individuals. Ricardo argued that there is mutual benefit from trade (or exchange) even if one party (e.g. resource-rich country, highly-skilled artisan) is more productive in every possible area than its trading counterpart (e.g. resource-poor country, unskilled laborer), as long as each concentrates on the activities where it has relative productivity advantage. Personal life Born in London, Ricardo was the third of seventeen children of a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from Holland. His father was a well-to-do stockbroker. Ricardo later went on to be a stockbroker, just like his father. At age 21, Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla Anne Wilkinson, leading to estrangement from his family. It seems that his mother never spoke to him again. His father disowned him. Due to his estrangement with his family, he had to start his own business as a stockbroker, in which he became quite successful thanks to the business connection he made when working with his father. During the Battle of Waterloo, just like Nathan Mayer Rothschild he bet against the French victory and invested in British securities. By the time he retired from the Exchange at the age of 43, his fortune was estimated at about £600,000 of his time. At the time of his marriage, Ricardo disconnected from Judaism and became a Unitarian. He had eight children including three sons, of whom Osman Ricardo (1795-1881; MP for Worcester 1847–1865) and another David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) became members of parliament, while the third, Mortimer Ricardo, served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society. Ricardo became interested in economics after reading Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1799 on a vacation to the English resort of Bath. This was Ricardo's first contact with economics. He wrote his first economics article at age 37 and within another ten years he reached the height of his fame. Ricardo's work with the stock exchange made him quite wealthy, which allowed him to retire from business in 1814 at the age of 42. He then purchased and moved to Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire. In 1819, Ricardo took a seat in the House of Commons as the MP for Portarlington, an Irish rotten borough. He held the seat, which had initially been made available to him by his friend, Conversation Sharp, until his death in 1823. In 1846 his nephew, John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-on-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill, who encouraged him in his political ambitions and writings about economics. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of land owners in a society. He also was a member of London's intellectuals, later becoming a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs. Ideas Value Theory Ricardo's most famous work is his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). Ricardo opens the first chapter with a statement of the labor theory of value. Later in this chapter, he demonstrates that prices do not correspond to this value. He retained the theory, however, as an approximation. The labour theory of value states that the relative price of two goods is determined by the ratio of the quantities of labour required in their production. His labour theory of value, however, required several assumptions: 1) both sectors have the same wage rate and the same profit rate; 2) the capital employed in production is made up of wages only; 3) the period of production has the same length for both goods. Ricardo himself realized that the second and third assumptions were quite unrealistic and hence admitted two exceptions to his labour theory of value: 1) production periods may differ; 2) the two production processes may employ instruments and equipment as capital and not just wages, and in very different proportions. Ricardo continued to work on his value theory to the end of his life. the end Trade Restriction Protectionism Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was also an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws"—tariffs on agriculture products—ensured that less-productive domestic land would be harvested and rents would be driven up. . Thus, the surplus would be directed more toward feudal landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Since landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than investments, Ricardo believed that the Corn Laws were leading to the economic stagnation of the British economy. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846. Market Created Restriction on Trade Rent Ricardo is responsible for developing theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labor." The model for this theory basically said that while only one grade of land is being used for cultivation, rent will not exist, but when multiple grades of land are being utilised, rent will be charged on the higher grades and will increase with the ascension of the grade. As such, Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land utilisation and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, benefited first and foremost the landowners because they would receive the rent payments either in money or in product. In a careful analysis of the effects of different forms of taxation, Ricardo concludes in chapters 10 and 12 that a tax on land value, equivalent to a tax on the land rent, was the only form of taxation that would not lead to price increases; it is paid by the landlord, who is not able to pass it on to a tennant. He stated that the poorest grade land in use has no (land) rent and so pays no land value tax; as prices are determined at this marginal site for the whole economy, prices will not be increased by a land value tax. His analysis distinguishes between rent of (unimproved) land and rent associated with capital improvements such as buildings. Accumulation of Inequality of Distribution of varied qualities of Accumulatable Scarce Necessary Means of Production. In his book, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo's concept of rent is layed out. Due to variation in scarcity of land (or some other accumulatable scarce necessities of varied utility), some land pays a higher monopoly value due to its scarcity than other land. This return on investment is higher than what one would otherwise expect based simply on the value and scarcity of the produce; this return on investment comes from the incident of ownership that allows a monopoly price to be paid. Such premium over real social value that an individual is able to reap due to incident of ownership constitutes real value to an individual but is at best On The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street, by David Ricardo, 1817 (third edition 1821) -- Chapter 6, On Profits: paragraph 28, "Thus, taking the former . . ." and paragraph 33, "There can, however . . ." a paper monetary return to society. The portion of such purely individual benefit, and exclusively that portion, that accrues to scarce, accumulatable resources such as land or gold or houses, that is over and above any socially beneficial exchange, Ricardo labels Rent. If all land were equally situated, however scarce, one could determine that all market exchange of the produce thereof was free and equal and that the exact value of the trade was conveyed simultaneously to both parties and to society. In the case of increasing scarcity of the land of higher absolute utility, the free market principle fails to either properly measure or convey value. This gap between personal value accrual and social value accrual, in the case of land, is Ricardian Rent. Rent therefore constitutes value for nothing and as such constitutes a loss to society above maximum production, and one that increases at a faster rate than the decline in production that comes from the scarcity of the land, as land becomes more scarce. Proposals to solve this by various types of land tax are explored further. The key problem then, Ricardo discusses, would be to find a tax that is able to maximally differentiate between tax on profit and tax on such purely Ricardian rent. A no easy task, as he points out, as in the case of how one differentiates between the basic land return, that portion that constitutes such excess above social productivity that he labels rent, and that portion that comes from non-rent producing capital investment in fertilizer, irrigation, deep plowing and land improvements of all types, barns, etc. Malthus's criticism and Extrapolation of the problem of Ricardian Rent In demonstrating that Ricardian Rent constitutes value for nothing, Ricardo was momentarily neglecting Say's Law that all savings by-definition-equals investment, overlooks that such value-for-nothing doesn't necessarily disappear upon mis-payment to a landlord. This is what Malthus, Ricardo's personal friend and intellectual opponent, states in his own book on Rent, one of his works that expounds from a point of view of Malthus's Surplus Value theories, rather than Malthus's earlier and more quoted Scarcity Value Theory. Thus, says Malthus, Rent, however mis-placed, constitutes a prime source of savings and investment for the future. We need then, if contented by Malthus, only look for such portion of Ricardian Rent that due to its over-investment (due to its misallocation) represents lost economic value to the society as a whole. Malthus' Criticism of Ricardian Rent does not in Malthus' book on Rent touch on this problem of Ricardian over-investment as expounded by Malthus (the General Glut controversy); rather, in his later works, Malthus does so. So, to Ricardo Economic Rent is a surplus of individual investors' paper profit (which has its value in control over resources rather than directly in the resources themselves) over societal gain. As such, it does not represent any gain but rather an unearned transfer of wealth. To Malthus, there is material gain created in the re-investment which is rent, but at some point such gain may, as says Ricardo in regards to the paper profit he believes Economic Rent to be, be in excess of social utility. Earlier writers touched on Economic Rent too. Ricardo advises caution in responses to the problem of Economic Rent To be clear, the topic of Economic Rent, as expounded by Ricardo, was by earlier writers such as Smith. Ricardo's book forms a sort of textbook of such earlier expounded theories, in which he adds his own analysis while comparing and contrasting different views and pointing out the flaws in them. Ricardo, after spending many chapters contented with this view of Rent, ascribes it to Smith and then says it is true but probably not so important in an expanding economy and measures to address it should be marked with caution as they would likely produce different effects in different situations. Chapter 18 of Principles Competitive Advantage The problem of Competitive Advantage Ricardo extrapolates the problem of monopolistic rent to other situations/resources that are fundamentally scarce: land or gold. He questions whether all trade has a fundamental problem of inequality that is inevitably hard to bridge. This is the problem of absolute competitive advantage -- where one party has an unbridgeable competitive advantage due wealth or productive advantages in every field. If so, can trade profitably continue? Ricardo solves this with Comparative Advantage. Comparative Advantage Comparative Advantage This book, Principles of Political Economy, introduces the theory of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo's theory, even if a country could produce everything more efficiently than another country, it would reap gains from specializing in what it was best at producing and trading with other nations. (Case & Fair, 1999: 812–818). Ricardo believed that wages should be left to free competition, so there should be no restrictions on the importation of agricultural products from abroad. The benefits of comparative advantage are both distributional and related to improved real income. Within Ricardo's theory, distributional effects implied that foreign trade could not directly affect profits, because profits change only in response to the level of wages. The effects on income are always beneficial because foreign trade does not affect value. Comparative advantage forms the basis of modern trade theory, reformulated as the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, which states that a country has a comparative advantage in the production of a product if the country is relatively well-endowed with inputs that are used intensively in producing the product. . Ricardian equivalence Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (i.e., whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. Ironically, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence. Ricardo's theories of wages and profits Ricardo believed that in the long run, prices reflect the cost of production, and referred to this long run price as a Natural price. The natural price of labour was the cost of its production, that cost of maintaining the labourer. If wages correspond to the natural price of labour, then wages would be at subsistence level. However, due to an improving economy, wages may remain indefinitely above subsistence level: Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an improving society, for an indefinite period, be constantly above it; for no sooner may the impulse, which an increased capital gives to a new demand for labour, be obeyed, than another increase of capital may produce the same effect; and thus, if the increase of capital be gradual and constant, the demand for labour may give a continued stimulus to an increase of people.… It has been calculated, that under favourable circumstances population may be doubled in twenty-five years; but under the same favourable circumstances, the whole capital of a country might possibly be doubled in a shorter period. In that case, wages during the whole period would have a tendency to rise, because the demand for labour would increase still faster than the supply. (On the Principles of Political Economy, Chapter 5, "On Wages"). In his Theory of Profit, Ricardo stated that as real wages increase, real profits decrease because the revenue from the sale of manufactured goods is split between profits and wages. He said in his Essay on Profits, "Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food." Publications Ricardo's publications included: The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes (1810), which advocated the adoption of a metallic currency Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815), which argued that repealing the Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners. Notes References Samuel Hollander (1979)). The Economics of David Ricardo. University of Toronto Press. G. de Vivo (1987). "Ricardo, David," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 183–98 Samuelson, P. A. (2001). "Ricardo, David (1772–1823)," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 13,330–13,334. Abstract. External links Biography, at the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Biography at New School University Biography at EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History The Works of David Ricardo (McCulloch edition 1888) at the Online Library of Liberty The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo (Sraffa edition) 11 vols at the Online Library of Liberty Timeline of the Life of David Ricardo (1772-1823) at the Online Library of Liberty On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, by David Ricardo. 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1,409 | Fairmount,_Indiana | Fairmount is a town in Fairmount Township, Grant County in east central Indiana. The population was 2,866 at the 2006 census. It is ninety kilometers (fifty-five miles) northeast of Indianapolis. Largely a bedroom community to its three thousand citizens, Fairmount is best known as the boyhood home of actor James Dean, who is buried there. Geography Fairmount is located at (40.417702, -85.648942). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.5 square miles (3.8 km²), all of it land. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 2,992 people, 1,226 households, and 859 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,033.0 people per square mile (785.9/km²). There were 1,325 housing units at an average density of 900.3/sq mi (348.0/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 98.30% White, 0.17% Black or African American, 0.70% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.07% from other races, and 0.57% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.43% of the population. There were 1,226 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.91. In the town the population was spread out with 25.2% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males. The median income for a household in the town was $33,843, and the median income for a family was $44,033. Males had a median income of $31,136 versus $23,041 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,029. About 7.4% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over. History The Fairmount area was settled in the 1830s mostly by Quakers from North Carolina. The town was laid out in 1850 and named for Fairmount Park in Philadelphia; it was formally incorporated in 1870. After a large deposit of natural gas was found in 1887, Fairmount became part of the Indiana Gas Boom and a center of the glass industry for the rest of the nineteenth century. Shortly after the depletion of the gas in 1900 the automobile industry set up factories in the nearby large cities, and Fairmount became a bedroom community, restoring some of its lost prosperity. Fairmount High School in 2003. In the 1940s, James Dean lived with an uncle on a farm north of Fairmount. He attended Fairmount High School, graduating in 1949. After his death in 1955 James Dean was brought back to Fairmount and buried in Park Cemetery. In 1996 a small memorial park north of the town's business district was dedicated to him. During the prosperity of the 1960s, Fairmount enjoyed a time of building with a new town hall, water works, post office and elementary school. At the end of the decade the local school district merged with a neighboring one, forming the Madison-Grant united school district. A new high school was built for this district, and Fairmount High School became a middle school. When a new junior high school was opened in 1986, the Fairmount High School building was closed for good. Fairmount was hit very hard by the recession of 1980-1982, which brought the permanent loss of factory jobs and the failure of many farms. Yet the town managed to spring back later in the decade. Fairmount is still relatively prosperous despite the ill fortunes of nearby industrial cities and a steady loss of population. British singer Morrissey shot the video for his single "Suedehead" in Fairmount, tracing the steps of James Dean. Included in the video are the high school and farm Dean lived on. Notable residents James Dean, the actor, was raised in Fairmount. Dean graduated from Fairmount High School, and is buried in Park Cemetery in Fairmount. Jim Davis, the cartoonist of the comic strip Garfield, was born in Fairmount. Phil Jones is known throughout the U.S. for his work as a television journalist; Jones has been seen most recently on CBS's 48 Hours. Jones graduated from Fairmount High School in 1955. Robert Sheets is the former director of the National Hurricane Center in Coral Gables, Florida. Sheets is a 1955 graduate of Fairmount High School and attended Ball State University in nearby Muncie. Mary Jane Ward authored several books including The Snake Pit, a Book of the Month Club selection which became a major motion picture starring Olivia de Havilland. Ward was born in Fairmount in 1905. References External links The Town of Fairmount (official site) Fairmount Historical Museum Madison-Grant United School Corporation Fairmount Public Library Fairmount Veterinary Clinic The Fairmount Web Spot | Fairmount,_Indiana |@lemmatized fairmount:30 town:12 township:1 grant:3 county:1 east:1 central:1 indiana:2 population:6 census:3 ninety:1 kilometer:1 fifty:1 five:1 mile:3 northeast:1 indianapolis:1 largely:1 bedroom:2 community:2 three:1 thousand:1 citizen:1 best:1 know:2 boyhood:1 home:1 actor:2 james:5 dean:7 bury:3 geography:1 locate:1 accord:1 united:3 state:2 bureau:1 total:1 area:2 square:2 land:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:1 asian:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:4 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 include:3 history:1 settle:1 mostly:1 quaker:1 north:3 carolina:1 lay:1 name:1 park:4 philadelphia:1 formally:1 incorporate:1 large:2 deposit:1 natural:1 gas:3 find:1 become:4 part:1 boom:1 center:2 glass:1 industry:2 rest:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 shortly:1 depletion:1 automobile:1 set:1 factory:2 nearby:3 city:2 restore:1 lose:1 prosperity:2 high:10 school:15 uncle:1 farm:3 attend:2 graduate:4 death:1 bring:2 back:2 cemetery:2 small:1 memorial:1 business:1 district:4 dedicate:1 enjoy:1 time:1 building:2 new:3 hall:1 water:1 work:2 post:1 office:1 elementary:1 end:1 decade:2 local:1 merge:1 neighbor:1 one:1 form:1 madison:2 build:1 middle:1 junior:1 open:1 close:1 good:1 hit:1 hard:1 recession:1 permanent:1 loss:2 job:1 failure:1 many:1 yet:1 manage:1 spring:1 later:1 still:1 relatively:1 prosperous:1 despite:1 ill:1 fortune:1 industrial:1 steady:1 british:1 singer:1 morrissey:1 shoot:1 video:2 single:1 suedehead:1 trace:1 step:1 notable:1 resident:1 raise:1 jim:1 davis:1 cartoonist:1 comic:1 strip:1 garfield:1 bear:2 phil:1 jones:3 throughout:1 u:1 television:1 journalist:1 see:1 recently:1 cbs:1 hour:1 robert:1 sheet:2 former:1 director:1 national:1 hurricane:1 coral:1 gable:1 florida:1 ball:1 university:1 muncie:1 mary:1 jane:1 ward:2 author:1 several:1 book:2 snake:1 pit:1 month:1 club:1 selection:1 major:1 motion:1 picture:1 star:1 olivia:1 de:1 havilland:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 historical:1 museum:1 corporation:1 public:1 library:1 veterinary:1 clinic:1 web:1 spot:1 |@bigram census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 north_carolina:1 nineteenth_century:1 comic_strip:1 coral_gable:1 motion_picture:1 de_havilland:1 external_link:1 |
1,410 | Boeing_Vertol_CH-46_Sea_Knight | The Boeing CH-46 Sea Knight is a medium-lift tandem rotor cargo helicopter, used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC) to provide all-weather, day-or-night assault transport of combat troops, supplies and equipment. Assault Support is its primary function, and the movement of supplies and equipment is secondary. Additional tasks include combat support, search and rescue, support for forward refueling and rearming points, CASEVAC and Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP). The commercial version is the BV 107-II, commonly referred to as simply the "Vertol". Development Piasecki was a pioneering developer of tandem-rotor helicopters, with the most famous previous helicopter being the H-21 "Flying Banana". Piasecki's former company Vertol began work on a new tandem rotor helicopter designated the Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1957. The V-107 had two Lycoming T53 turboshaft engines, producing 860 shp (640 kW) each. Origins: Vertol V-107 & V-114, Vectorsite.net, July 1, 2004. The first flight of the V-107 took place on April 22, 1958. The V-107 was then put through a flight demonstration tour in the US and overseas. In June 1958, the US Army awarded a contract to Vertol for ten production aircraft designated "YHC-1A". Spenser, Jay P. Whirlybirds, A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers. University of Washington Press, 1998. ISBN 0-295-97699-3. A door gunner manning a pintle-mounted .50-caliber machine gun aboard a USMC CH-46. The order was later decreased to three, so the Army could divert funds to the V-114, also a turbine powered tandem, but larger than the V-107. The Army's three YHC-1As were powered by GE-T-58 engines. The YHC-1As first flew in August 1959, and were followed by an improved commercial/export model, the 107-II. CH-46 history page, US Navy, 16 November 2000. During 1960, the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) evolved a requirement for a twin-turbine troop/cargo assault helicopter to replace the piston engine types then in use. Following a design competition, Boeing Vertol was selected to build its model 107M as the HRB-1, early in 1961. Boeing had acquired Vertol in 1960 and renamed the group Boeing Vertol. The helicopter was first procured in 1961 "Tandem Twosome", Vertical Magazine, February-March 2007 to meet the medium-lift requirements of the Marine Corps. Its first flight in August 1962 was followed by a change in designation to CH-46A. Fleet introduction of CH-46As with the Marines and the Navy's UH-46As in November 1964. The UH-46A variant was modified for use in the vertical replenishment role. The CH-46A was equipped with a pair of T58-GE8-8B turboshaft engines rated at 1,250 shp (930 kW) each and could carry 17 passengers or 4,000 pounds (1,815 kg) of cargo. The USMC received 160 CH-46As and the US Navy acquired 14 UH-46As. Boeing-Vertol UH-46A. Helis.com. US Marines from the 24th MEU prepare to board a CH-46. Production of the improved CH-46D followed with deliveries beginning in 1966. Its improvements included modified rotor blades and more powerful T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines rated at each. The increased power allowed the D-model to carry 25 troop or of cargo. A total of 265 CH-46Ds were produced. The Navy received 10 UH-46Ds for ship resupply. Eden, Paul, ed. "Boeing-Vertol H-46 Sea Knight", Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1904687849. Also, approximately 12 CH-46As were upgraded to CH-46Ds. The Marines also received 174 CH-46Fs from 1968 to 1971. The F-model retained the D-model's T58-GE-10 engines but revised the avionics and included other modifications. The CH-46F was the final production model with the last helicopter being the 524th H-46 produced. The Sea Knight has undergone upgrades and modifications. Most USMC Sea Knights were upgraded to CH-46E standard. The CH-46E features fiberglass rotor blades, airframe reinforcement, and further uprated T58-GE-16 engines producing each. Some CH-46Es have been given doubled fuel capacity. The Dynamic Component Upgrade (DCU) incorporated starting in the mid-1990s provides for increased capabilities through strengthened drive systems and rotor controls. The commercial variant, the BV 107-II, was first ordered by New York Airways in 1960. They took delivery of their first three aircraft, configured for 25 passengers, in July 1962. In 1965, Boeing Vertol sold the manufacturing rights of the 107 to Kawasaki Heavy Industries. Under this arrangement, all Model 107 civilian and military aircraft built in Japan are known as KV 107. On December 15, 2006, Columbia Helicopters, Inc acquired the type certificate for the Boeing Vertol 107-II, and is in the process of acquiring a Production Certificate from the FAA. Plans for actual production of the aircraft have not been announced. Design The CH-46 has tandem contrarotating rotors that were powered by two GE T58 turboshaft engines. The engines are mounted on each side of the rear rotor pedestal with a driveshaft to the forward rotor. The engines are coupled so either could power both rotors in an emergency. The rotors feature three blades and could be folded for on-ship operations. Boeing Sea Knight, Vectorsite.net, July 1, 2004. The CH-46 has a cargo bay with a rear loading ramp that could be removed or left open in flight for extended cargo or for parachute drops. A belly sling hook could be attached for carrying external cargo. It has a crew of three. A pintle-mounted 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine gun was mounted on each side of the helicopter for self-defense. Service in southeast Asia resulted in the addition of armor with the guns. The CH-46 has fixed tricycle landing gear, with twin wheels on all three units. The gear configuration causes a nose-up stance to facilitate cargo loading and unloading. The main gear are fitted in rear sponsons that also contained fuel tanks with a total capacity of 350 US gallons (1,438 L). Operational history Military USMC CH-46E. Known colloquially as the "Phrog", and used in all Marine combat and peacetime environments since its introduction. Still regularly flown by the Marine Corps, its longevity as a reliable airframe has led to such mantras as "phrogs phorever" and "never trust a helicopter under 30". CH-46E Sea Knights were used by the USMC during its 2003 invasion of Iraq. CH-46Es transported personnel, brought supplies to forward arming and refueling points (FARP), carried ammunition and various tasks. Marine CH-46Es and CH-53Es carried US Army Rangers and Special Operations troops in a mission to extract captured Army Private Jessica Lynch from an Iraqi hospital on 1 April 2003. Stout, Jay A. Hammer from Above, Marine Air Combat Over Iraq. Ballantine Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0-89141-871-9. While the United States Navy retired the airframe on September 24, 2004, replacing it with the MH-60S Knighthawk, the Marine Corps plans to maintain its fleet until the MV-22 is fully fielded. In March 2006 Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 263 (HMM-263) was deactivated and redesignated VMM-263 to serve as the first MV-22 squadron. The replacement process is expected to continue through the other medium helicopter squadrons into 2014. Civilian Columbia Helicopters BV 107-II The Civilian version, the BV 107-II Vertol Eichel, Garth, "Columbia Helicopters", Vertical Magazine, February-March 2007 was developed prior to the military CH-46, and was operated commercially by New York Airways, Pan American World Airways and currently solely by Columbia Helicopters. As of December 15, 2006 Columbia Helicopters has purchased the Type certificate of the Model 107 from Boeing. Currently the company is seeking FAA issuance of a Production Certificate to produce parts with eventual issuance of a PC to produce aircraft. Variants US versions Taken at the West 30th Street Heliport, New York Airways N6676D is hooked to a Ford Mustang for publicity stunt. The Mustang was flown around Manhattan by the BV 107-II. Marines load a simulated casualty onto a CH-46E while conducting convoy operations training at Camp Dawson, West Virginia. A UH-46D lowers mail to the fantail of USS Decatur. Boeing Model 360 Total U.S. H-46 production amounted to 525, ending in 1971. Boeing H-46 helicopters built. Helis.com Model 107 Company model number for basic prototype, 1 built. Boeing BV-107 helicopters built. Helis.com Model 107-II Commercial airline helicopter. All subsequent commercial aircraft were produced as BV 107-II-2, 2 built as Boeing Vertol prototypes, 5 sold to New York Airways, 10 supplied to Kawasaki as sub-assemblies or as parts. Boeing BV-107/II helicopters built. Helis.com Model 107M Company model number for military transport of BV-107/II-2 for the United States Marine Corps. YHC-1A Vertol Model 107 for test and evaluation by the United States Army. Adopted by the United States Marine Corps as the HRB-1. Later redesignated YCH-46C, 3 built. YHC-1B Five Model 114s that that later became the CH-47A Chinook. HRB-1 Original designation before being renamed as CH-46A before delivery under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system CH-46A Assault, utility medium transport and SAR helicopter for the USMC, fitted with two 935-kW (1,250-shp) General Electric T58-GE-8 turboshaft engines. (Previously HRB-1). 160 built for USMC, 1 static airframe. UH-46A Utility medium transport helicopter for the United States Navy. Similar to the CH-46A. 14 built. HH-46A Approximately 50 CH-46As were converted into SAR helicopters for the United States Navy base rescue role. RH-46A Planned conversion of CH-46As into minesweeping helicopters for the US Navy, none converted. Nine SH-3As were converted to the RH-3A configuration instead. UH-46B Development of the CH-46A to specification HX/H2 for the United States Air Force; 12 ordered in 1962, cancelled and Sikorsky S-61R / CH-3C ordered instead. YCH-46C YHC-1A redesignated in 1962. United States Army retained 2, NASA used 1 for vertical autonomous landing trials (VALT). CH-46D Assault and utility medium transport helicopter for the USMC, fitted with two 1044-kW (1,400-shp) General Electric T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines. 266 built. HH-46D Surviving HH-46A were upgraded and a small number of UH-46Ds were converted into SAR helicopters. UH-46D Utility transport helicopter for the US Navy combat supply role. Similar to the CH-46D. 10 built and one conversion from CH-46D. CH-46E Approximately 275 -A, -D, and -F airframes were updated to CH-46E standards with improved avionics, hydraulics, drive train and upgraded T58-GE-16 engines. HH-46E Three CH-46Es were converted into SAR helicopters for Marine Transport Squadron One (VMR-1) at MCAS Cherry Point. CH-46F Improved version of CH-46D, electrical distribution, com/nav update BUNO 154845-157726. Last production model in the United States. 174 built. VH-46F Unofficial designation of standard CH-46F used by HMX-1 as VIP support transport helicopter. CH-46X Also known as the Boeing Model 360, this Advance Technology Demonstrator from the 1980s never entered production. The aircraft relied heavily on composites for its construction and had a beefier drive train to handle the twin Avco-Lycoming AL5512 engines (4200shp). Photo of Boeing Model 360 with CH-46X tail markings Boeing Model 360 Canadian versions Helis.com database for all Boeing BV-107/II helicopters built CH-113 Labrador Search and rescue version of the Model 107-II-9 for the Royal Canadian Air Force. 6 built. CH-113A Voyageur Assault and utility transport version of the Model 107-II-28 for the Canadian Army. 12 built. Later converted to CH-113A Labrador when the Canadian Forces acquired the CH-147 Chinook. Swedish Versions Helis.com database for all Boeing BV-107/II helicopters built Hkp 4A Boeing Vertol 107-II-14, used originally by Air Force for SAR, 10 built. Hkp 4B Boeing Vertol 107-II-15, mine-layer/ASW/SAR helo for Navy, 3 built and 1 conversion from Boeing-Vertol civil prototype. HKP 4C Kawasaki KV-107-II-16, advanced mine-layer/ASW/SAR helo for Navy, 8 built. HKP 4D Rebuilt Hkp 4A for Navy as SAR/ASW helo, 4 conversions. Japanese versions Helis.com database for all Kawasaki KV-107 helicopters built Columbia Helicopters' Kawasaki Vertol KV-107II at Fox Field A KV-107II from the film You Only Live Twice dropping the bad guys in Tokyo Bay. KV-107II-1 (CT58-110-1) Utility transport version, 1 built from Boeing supplied kits. KV-107II-2 (CT58-110-1) Commercial airline version, 9 built from Boeing supplied kits. KV-107IIA-2 (CT58-140-1) Improved version of the KV-107/II-2, 3 built. KV-107II-3 (CT58-110-1) Minesweeping version for the JMSDF, 2 built. KV-107IIA-3 (CT58-IHI-10-M1) Uprated version of the KV-107/II-3, 7 built. KV-107II-4 (CT58-IHI-110-1) Assault and utility transport version for the JGSDF, 41 built. KV-107II-4A (CT58-IHI-110-1) VIP version of the KV-107/II-4, 1 built. KV-107IIA-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1) Uprated version of the KV-107/II-4, 18 built. KV-107II-5 (CT58-IHI-110-1) Long-range SAR version for the JASDF, 17 built. KV-107IIA-5 (CT58-IHI-104-1) Uprated version of the KV-107II-5, 35 built. KV-107II-7 (CT58-110-1) VIP transport version, 1 built. KV-107II-16 HKP 4C for Swedish Navy. Powered by Rolls-Royce Gnome H.1200 turboshaft engines, 8 built. KV-107IIA-17 (CT58-140-1) Long-range transport version for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, 1 built. KV-107IIA-SM-1 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Firefighting helicopter for Saudi Arabia, 7 built. KV-107IIA-SM-2 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Aeromedical and rescue helicopter for Saudi Arabia, 4 built. KV-107IIA-SM-3 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) VIP transport helicopter for Saudi Arabia, 2 built. KV-107IIA-SM-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1) Air ambulance helicopter for Saudi Arabia, 3 built. Operators Military Operators Military operators of the CH-46 (Bright red = Active; Dark red = Former) Japan Air Self-Defense Force Ministry Of Interior (MOI) - General Civil Defence Agency (GCDA) Swedish Armed Forces Helicopter Wing United States Marine Corps Civilian operators Columbia Helicopters Inc Boeing Vertol 107 C-FHFW and Boeing 234 N245CH rest on the company pad in Aurora, Oregon Helifor Canada Corp (under lease from Columbia Helicopters) Columbia Helicopters Former operators Canadian Armed Forces Kawasaki Helicopter System, LTD Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Japan Ground Self-Defense Force Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Swedish Air Force Swedish Navy Royal Thai Army Royal Thai Army New York Airways Pan Am United States Navy Specifications (CH-46) Orthographically projected diagram of the CH-46 Sea Knight. See also References Notes Bibliography Donald, David ed. "Boeing Vertol Model 107 (H-46 Sea Knight)", The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Nobel Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5. External links CH-46D/E Sea Knight and CH-46 history pages on U.S. Navy site; CH-46 page on USMC site CH-46 product page and CH-46 history page on Boeing.com Columbia Helicopters - Largest Civilian Operator of BV/KV Model 107 Boeing Vertol 107 & H-46 Sea Knight on Airliners.net Kawasaki Helicopter Services (S.A.) 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1,411 | Bubble_Bobble | is an arcade game by Taito, first released in 1986 and later ported to numerous home computers and game consoles. The game, starring the twin Bubble Dragons and , is an action-platformer game in which players travel through one hundred different stages, busting and pushing bubbles, avoiding enemies and collecting a variety of items. The game became very popular and led to a long series of sequels and spinoffs. Game mechanics In the game, each player controls one of two dragons. The player can move along platforms, as well as jump from one platform to that above, or to the side, in a similar way to most platform games. The player can also blow bubbles. These can trap enemies, who are defeated if the bubble is then burst by the player's spiny back. The bubbles also float for a time before bursting, and can be jumped on, allowing access to otherwise inaccessible areas. If a bubble containing an enemy is allowed to burst on its own, the enemy turns "angry", becoming pink-colored and faster than normal. Contact with the enemy is deadly, resulting in the loss of a life. The game's well known music was written by Japanese team Zuntata. Peter Clarke and David Whittaker have arranged music for home computer ports (some versions have a new intro music by Whittaker). Ports The Game Boy and Game Boy Color versions have a Moon Water storyline, and are known as Bubble Bobble, and Classic Bubble Bobble respectively. The popularity of Bubble Bobble led Taito (or its licensees) to port to many home computers and video game consoles. Ports of the game were released for the Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Amiga, Atari ST, MSX, Amstrad CPC, Sharp X68000, PC (MS-DOS, 1989 and 1996), Apple II, FM Towns Marty, Sega Master System, Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Nintendo Entertainment System, Famicom Disk System, Sega Game Gear, mobile phone (Sprint PCS), and UltraCade's Taito Arcade Classics. A version also exists for the BBC Micro on public domain though never officially released. In 1996 Taito announced that they lost the original source code. As Probe Entertainment was in charge of the home conversions, Taito sent them a Bubble Bobble arcade PCB so they could play the original game and reproduce its mechanics. This led to the release of Bubble Bobble also featuring Rainbow Islands for Saturn, PlayStation and PC (MS-DOS) in 1996. At the end of 2006 a new port for mobile phones in Europe and Japan was released. In October 2005, a version was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and PC as part of the Taito Legends compilation of classic arcade games. Recently, a homebrew version for the TI-83 graphing calculator was released. On December 31, 2007, the NES version of Bubble Bobble was released on Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii. It costs 500 Wii Points, the equivalent of $5 USD. Legacy Bubble Bobble inspired many sequels, including: Rainbow Islands: The Story of Bubble Bobble 2 (1987) Rainbow Islands Extra Version (1988) Parasol Stars (1991 originally released for PC-Engine/TurboGrafx-16, converted for NES (Europe only), Amiga, Atari ST, and Game Boy (Europe only) Bubble Bobble Part 2 (1993 Nintendo Famicom, Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy) Bubble Bobble II (World) / Bubble Symphony (Europe, Japan, U.S.) (1994 Arcade, Sega Saturn (Japan only)) Bubble Memories - The Story of Bubble Bobble III (1995 Arcade) Rainbow Islands - Putty's Party (2000 Bandai Wonderswan) Rainbow Islands: Towering Adventure (2009 WiiWare) Bubble Bobble Plus! (2009 WiiWare) Bubble Bobble Neo! (2009 Xbox Live Arcade) References Bubble Bobble at Arcade History. External links Nintendo Archives' Review Bubble Trouble A detailed analysis of the arcade version, as published in Retro Gamer magazine. Bubble Bobble Video Game Vault A brief video look back on Bubble Bobble for the NES, by ScrewAttack | Bubble_Bobble |@lemmatized arcade:9 game:22 taito:6 first:1 release:9 later:1 port:6 numerous:1 home:4 computer:3 console:3 star:2 twin:1 bubble:25 dragon:2 action:1 platformer:1 player:5 travel:1 one:3 hundred:1 different:1 stage:1 bust:1 push:1 avoid:1 enemy:5 collect:1 variety:1 item:1 become:2 popular:1 lead:3 long:1 series:1 sequel:2 spinoffs:1 mechanic:2 control:1 two:1 move:1 along:1 platforms:1 well:2 jump:2 platform:2 side:1 similar:1 way:1 also:4 blow:1 trap:1 defeat:1 burst:2 spiny:1 back:2 float:1 time:1 bursting:1 allow:2 access:1 otherwise:1 inaccessible:1 area:1 contain:1 turn:1 angry:1 pink:1 color:3 faster:1 normal:1 contact:1 deadly:1 result:1 loss:1 life:1 know:2 music:3 write:1 japanese:1 team:1 zuntata:1 peter:1 clarke:1 david:1 whittaker:2 arrange:1 version:8 new:2 intro:1 boy:7 moon:1 water:1 storyline:1 bobble:16 classic:3 respectively:1 popularity:1 licensee:1 many:2 video:3 commodore:1 sinclair:1 zx:1 spectrum:1 amiga:2 atari:2 st:2 msx:1 amstrad:1 cpc:1 sharp:1 pc:5 ms:2 apple:1 ii:2 fm:1 town:1 marty:1 sega:4 master:1 system:4 advance:1 nintendo:6 playstation:3 saturn:3 entertainment:3 famicom:2 disk:1 gear:1 mobile:2 phone:2 sprint:1 ultracade:1 exist:1 bbc:1 micro:1 public:1 domain:1 though:1 never:1 officially:1 announce:1 lose:1 original:2 source:1 code:1 probe:1 charge:1 conversion:1 send:1 pcb:1 could:1 play:1 reproduce:1 feature:1 rainbow:5 island:4 end:1 europe:4 japan:3 october:1 xbox:2 part:2 legends:1 compilation:1 recently:1 homebrew:1 ti:1 graph:1 calculator:1 december:1 ne:3 virtual:1 service:1 wii:2 cost:1 point:1 equivalent:1 usd:1 legacy:1 inspire:1 include:1 story:2 extra:1 parasol:1 originally:1 engine:1 turbografx:1 convert:1 world:1 symphony:1 u:1 memory:1 iii:1 islands:1 putty:1 party:1 bandai:1 wonderswan:1 towering:1 adventure:1 wiiware:2 plus:1 neo:1 live:1 reference:1 history:1 external:1 link:1 archive:1 review:1 trouble:1 detailed:1 analysis:1 publish:1 retro:1 gamer:1 magazine:1 vault:1 brief:1 look:1 screwattack:1 |@bigram bubble_burst:1 bubble_bobble:16 sinclair_zx:1 zx_spectrum:1 amstrad_cpc:1 sega_saturn:2 nintendo_entertainment:2 famicom_disk:1 mobile_phone:2 xbox_playstation:1 nintendo_famicom:1 external_link:1 |
1,412 | Ka-Bar | USMC-issue Ka-Bar Ka-Bar (trademarked as KA-BAR) was a fighting and utility knife issued to American Marines. KA-BAR is also the name of a related manufacturing company most known for the same 11-3/4-inch fighting and utility Bowie knife used by the United States Marine Corps and United States Navy. A typical KA-BAR knife has a 7" clip point blade. The Ka-Bar fighting knife is made of 1095 carbon steel and features a leather-washer or synthetic handle made of Kraton (a non-slip rubber substitute). History The Ka-Bar fighting knife was originally designed as a hunting knife in 1898, and would have been considered unremarkable at that time. In 1942, soon after the United States' entry into World War II, American troops experienced the problematic nature of the M1917/1918 and Mark I trench knives that they were issued initially and, realizing the need for knives suited to trench warfare, Ka-Bar's design was chosen from a catalog of hunting gear. The Marines bought many different knives and designs from a large number of suppliers during World War II, but it was the Ka-Bar fighting knife that was most common and popular. It was chosen for continued purchase and issue after the war was over. The final shape was decided upon by the Marine Corps. The changes included a slightly longer blade for combat use, introduction of a small fuller to make the blade lighter, and the pinned pommel and stacked leather handle as standard. In addition, the blade, guard, and pommel were all finished in a non-reflective matte black or gray phosphate finish instead of the brightly polished steel of the original. Millions were made during World War II by Ka-Bar, Ontario Knife Company, Camillus Cutlery, Case Knives, and several other knife companies. The knife is inexpensive, easy to replace, and adequate for most tasks. It was also used as a diving knife in World War II, though the model in use at the time disintegrated rapidly in saltwater. The various forms of this knife are still very popular with hunters, fishermen, hikers, outdoorsmen, and the U.S. military. Manufacturing The Ka-Bar company was founded in 1897 as Tidioute Cutlery Company. Following its financial collapse and take-over it was renamed the Union Cutlery Company. Ka-Bar was initially a trademark but in 1952 the company renamed itself Ka-Bar Cutlery Inc. The headquarters are currently located in Olean, New York. The Alcas Corporation, parent company of Cutco, acquired the company in 1996. As to its name, Service Today, Ka-Bar makes Army and Navy versions as well. They are virtually identical to the Marine version except for different initials at the bottom of the blade and different symbols on the sheath. Marines today often give the blades, guards and pommels of their knives a few coats of non-reflective matte black spray paint to reduce reflected light and give them a little more protection against saltwater corrosion. Its moderate carbon and low chromium steel mixture allows the blade to hold an edge very well. The 1095 cro-van steel used in the blades of today's Ka-Bars has a hardness of 56-58 HRC; the guard and pommel are made from sintered 1095 carbon steel. In combat, the knife has been used to open cans, dig trenches, cut wood and roots, and for hand to hand combat. In 1995, the design was updated with a tool steel blade, synthetic handle, and synthetic sheath marketed as "The Next Generation". References External links Official Ka-Bar site Alcas Corporation website, parent corporation of Ka-Bar | Ka-Bar |@lemmatized usmc:1 issue:4 ka:17 bar:17 trademark:2 fighting:2 utility:2 knife:18 american:2 marine:6 also:2 name:2 related:1 manufacturing:1 company:9 know:1 inch:1 bowie:1 use:6 united:3 state:3 corp:2 navy:2 typical:1 clip:1 point:1 blade:9 fight:3 make:6 carbon:3 steel:6 feature:1 leather:2 washer:1 synthetic:3 handle:3 kraton:1 non:3 slip:1 rubber:1 substitute:1 history:1 originally:1 design:4 hunt:2 would:1 consider:1 unremarkable:1 time:2 soon:1 entry:1 world:4 war:5 ii:4 troop:1 experience:1 problematic:1 nature:1 mark:1 trench:3 initially:2 realize:1 need:1 suit:1 warfare:1 choose:2 catalog:1 gear:1 buy:1 many:1 different:3 large:1 number:1 supplier:1 common:1 popular:2 continued:1 purchase:1 final:1 shape:1 decide:1 upon:1 change:1 include:1 slightly:1 long:1 combat:3 introduction:1 small:1 fuller:1 lighter:1 pinned:1 pommel:4 stack:1 standard:1 addition:1 guard:3 finish:2 reflective:2 matte:2 black:2 gray:1 phosphate:1 instead:1 brightly:1 polish:1 original:1 million:1 ontario:1 camillus:1 cutlery:4 case:1 several:1 inexpensive:1 easy:1 replace:1 adequate:1 task:1 diving:1 though:1 model:1 disintegrate:1 rapidly:1 saltwater:2 various:1 form:1 still:1 hunter:1 fisherman:1 hiker:1 outdoorsman:1 u:1 military:1 manufacture:1 found:1 tidioute:1 follow:1 financial:1 collapse:1 take:1 rename:2 union:1 inc:1 headquarters:1 currently:1 locate:1 olean:1 new:1 york:1 alcas:2 corporation:3 parent:2 cutco:1 acquire:1 service:1 today:3 army:1 version:2 well:2 virtually:1 identical:1 except:1 initial:1 bottom:1 symbol:1 sheath:2 often:1 give:2 coat:1 spray:1 paint:1 reduce:1 reflect:1 light:1 little:1 protection:1 corrosion:1 moderate:1 low:1 chromium:1 mixture:1 allow:1 hold:1 edge:1 cro:1 van:1 hardness:1 hrc:1 sintered:1 open:1 dig:1 cut:1 wood:1 root:1 hand:2 update:1 tool:1 market:1 next:1 generation:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 website:1 |@bigram ka_bar:17 utility_knife:1 marine_corp:2 trench_warfare:1 spray_paint:1 external_link:1 |
1,413 | Emperor_Ninken | Disambiguation: Ninken redirects here. For the fictional summoned dogs in Naruto see Ninken (Naruto). , or rather Ninken okimi (-c.489) was the 24th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 30; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 117. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Ninken is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. In his yourth, he was known as Prince Oyoke. Along with his younger brother, Prince Woke, Oyoke was raised to greater prominence when Emperor Seinei died without an heir. The two young princes were said to be grandsons of Emperor Richū. Each of these brothers would ascend the throne as adopted heirs of Seinei, although it is unclear whether they had been "found" in Seinei's lifetime or only after that. Okyoke's younger brother, who would become posthumously known as Emperor Kenzo, ascended before his elder brother. This unconventional sequence was in accordance with an agreement made by the two brothers. When Emperor Kenzo died without heirs, Prince Oyoke succeeded him as Emperor Ninken. Ninken's daughter Tashiraka was later married to Keitai, successor or possibly usurper after her brother, and became mother of Kimmei, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of all future monarchs of Japan. There apparently was also another daughter, princess Tachibana, who in turn is recorded to have become a wife of Senka and mother of princess Iwahime, who herself became a consort of Kimmei and bore Bidatsu, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of current monarchs of Japan. Ninken was succeeded by his son, who would accede as Emperor Buretsu. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 393-398. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Ninken |@lemmatized disambiguation:1 ninken:7 redirects:1 fictional:1 summoned:1 dog:1 naruto:2 see:2 rather:1 okimi:1 c:2 emperor:10 japan:8 accord:1 traditional:1 order:1 succession:1 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:2 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 p:1 firm:1 date:1 assign:1 life:1 reign:1 consider:1 rule:1 country:1 late:1 century:1 paucity:1 information:1 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 yourth:1 know:2 prince:4 oyoke:3 along:1 young:3 brother:6 wake:1 raise:1 great:2 prominence:1 seinei:3 die:2 without:2 heir:3 two:2 say:1 grandson:1 richū:1 would:3 ascend:2 throne:1 adopt:1 although:1 unclear:1 whether:1 find:1 lifetime:1 okyoke:1 become:4 posthumously:1 kenzo:2 elder:1 unconventional:1 sequence:1 accordance:1 agreement:1 make:1 succeed:2 daughter:2 tashiraka:1 later:1 marry:1 keitai:1 successor:1 possibly:1 usurper:1 mother:2 kimmei:2 future:4 monarch:4 lineal:2 ancestor:2 apparently:1 also:2 another:1 princess:2 tachibana:1 turn:1 record:1 wife:1 senka:1 iwahime:1 consort:1 bore:1 bidatsu:1 current:1 son:1 accede:1 buretsu:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 early:1 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 gukanshō:2 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 ascend_throne:1 unclear_whether:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
1,414 | Fatherland | Fatherland is the nation of one's "fathers", "forefathers" or "patriarchs". It can be viewed as a nationalist concept, insofar as it relates to nations. (Compare to motherland and homeland.) Groups that refer to their native country as a "fatherland" Groups that refer to their native country as a "fatherland" (or rather, translations of this English word in their languages), or, arguably, associate it primarily with paternal concepts include: Romans, Italians, Romanians as Patria (probably short for patria terra "native land") the Afrikaners as Vaderland the Arabs as Watan the Albanian as Atdheu. the Armenians, as Hayrenik (as in the national anthem Mer Hayrenik, literally meaning Our Fatherland) the Bulgarians as Tatkovina and Otechestvo the Czechs as vlast or (rarely) otčina the Danes as fædreland the Estonians as isamaa (as in the national anthem Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm) the French as patrie the Finns as isänmaa the Frisians as heitelân the Georgians as Samshoblo (სამშობლო - "[land] of parents") or Mamuli (მამული) the Germans, as Vaterland (as in the national anthem Das Lied der Deutschen) the Greeks as patris, the root word for patriotism. the Icelanders as föðurland literally meaning "land of the father" the Indians as (), although the word for motherland, Matrubhumi, also being widely used. the Jews as Eretz Ha'Avot ()this literal translation is Land of the Forefathers the Kazakhs as atameken the Latvians as tēvija or tēvzeme (although dzimtene – roughly translated as "place of birth" – is more neutral and used more commonly nowadays) the Lithuanians as tėvynė the ethnic Macedonians as Tatkovina (татковина) the Dutch, as vaderland the Norwegians as fedreland the Persians as Vatan the Poles, as Ojczyzna (but there is also macierz, that is Motherland, although it is seldom used) the Portuguese, the Brazilians and all other Portuguese speakers as Pátria. the Russians, as Otechestvo (отечество) or Otchizna (отчизна), although Rodina, that is birthland, is more common. the Serbs as otadžbina (отаџбина) the Walkers as people that reside in New Cumberland (отаџбина) the Spaniards and all Spanish speakers as "patria." the Slovaks as vlasť, or rarely domovina. the Slovenes as očetnjava, although domovina (homeland) is more common. the Swedes as fäderneslandet, although fosterlandet is more common (meaning the land that fosterd/raised you). the Thais as pituphum (ปิตุภูมิ), the word is adapted from Sanskrit the Tibetans as pha yul (ཕ་ཡུལ་) the Vietnamese as Tổ quốc the Ukrainians as bat'kivschina (батьківщина) or, more rarely, vitchizna (вітчизна) English usage and Nazi connotations Assuming a specific Nazi usage of the term "Vaterland" (which in fact never existed), the direct English translation "fatherland" featured in news reports associated with Nazi Germany and in domestic anti-Nazi propaganda during World War II. As a result, the English word is now associated with the Nazi government of Germany (unlike in Germany itself, where the word means simply "homeland"). The word is not used often in post-World War II English unless one wishes to invoke the Nazis, or one is translating literally from a foreign language where that language's equivalent of "fatherland" does not bear Nazi connotations. The word Motherland in modern English carries similar associations with the Soviet Union. Prior to Nazism, however, the term was used throughout Germanic language countries without negative connotations (e.g. in Hermann Broch's novel The Sleepwalkers), or often to refer to their homelands much as the word "motherland" does. For example, "Wien Neêrlands Bloed", national anthem of the Netherlands between 1815 and 1932, makes extensive and conspicuous use of the parallel Dutch word. In most European countries it is still the norm to use the term "fatherland" and many would be offended if it was in any way compared with the Nazi term of the word. Fiction Fatherland can also refer to: Fatherland (novel), an alternative history novel by Robert Harris Fatherland (TV movie), a TV movie inspired by Harris' novel Fatherland (Ken Loach's film), a 1986 film directed by Ken Loach For The Fatherland, a compilation album by white nationalist duo Prussian Blue Fatherland, a single released in 1993 by German metal band Die Krupps Fatherland, a song that appears on Metropolis, an album released in 2000 by Czech gothic rock band XIII Stoleti See also Motherland Homeland National anthem External links Nationalism and Ethnicity - A Theoretical Overview The problem of German identity... National anthems ("Allons enfants de la Patrie", "Blühe, deutsches Vaterland") Origins of the German State, Robert Selig, German Life | Fatherland |@lemmatized fatherland:14 nation:2 one:3 father:2 forefather:2 patriarchs:1 view:1 nationalist:2 concept:2 insofar:1 relate:1 compare:2 motherland:6 homeland:5 group:2 refer:4 native:3 country:4 rather:1 translation:3 english:6 word:11 language:4 arguably:1 associate:3 primarily:1 paternal:1 include:1 roman:1 italian:1 romanian:1 patria:3 probably:1 short:1 terra:1 land:5 afrikaner:1 vaderland:2 arab:1 watan:1 albanian:1 atdheu:1 armenian:1 hayrenik:2 national:6 anthem:6 mer:1 literally:3 mean:4 bulgarian:1 tatkovina:2 otechestvo:2 czech:2 vlast:1 rarely:3 otčina:1 dane:1 fædreland:1 estonian:1 isamaa:2 mu:2 õnn:1 ja:1 rõõm:1 french:1 patrie:2 finn:1 isänmaa:1 frisian:1 heitelân:1 georgian:1 samshoblo:1 სამშობლო:1 parent:1 mamuli:1 მამული:1 german:5 vaterland:3 da:1 lie:1 der:1 deutschen:1 greek:1 patris:1 root:1 patriotism:1 icelander:1 föðurland:1 indian:1 although:6 matrubhumi:1 also:4 widely:1 use:7 jew:1 eretz:1 ha:1 avot:1 literal:1 kazakh:1 atameken:1 latvian:1 tēvija:1 tēvzeme:1 dzimtene:1 roughly:1 translate:2 place:1 birth:1 neutral:1 commonly:1 nowadays:1 lithuanian:1 tėvynė:1 ethnic:1 macedonian:1 татковина:1 dutch:2 norwegian:1 fedreland:1 persian:1 vatan:1 pole:1 ojczyzna:1 macierz:1 seldom:1 portuguese:2 brazilian:1 speaker:2 pátria:1 russian:1 отечество:1 otchizna:1 отчизна:1 rodina:1 birthland:1 common:3 serb:1 otadžbina:1 отаџбина:2 walker:1 people:1 reside:1 new:1 cumberland:1 spaniard:1 spanish:1 slovak:1 vlasť:1 domovina:2 slovene:1 očetnjava:1 swede:1 fäderneslandet:1 fosterlandet:1 fosterd:1 raise:1 thai:1 pituphum:1 ป:1 ต:1 ภ:1 ม:1 adapt:1 sanskrit:1 tibetan:1 pha:1 yul:1 ཕ:1 ཡ:1 ལ:1 vietnamese:1 tổ:1 quốc:1 ukrainian:1 bat:1 kivschina:1 батьківщина:1 vitchizna:1 вітчизна:1 usage:2 nazi:8 connotation:3 assume:1 specific:1 term:4 fact:1 never:1 exist:1 direct:2 feature:1 news:1 report:1 germany:3 domestic:1 anti:1 propaganda:1 world:2 war:2 ii:2 result:1 government:1 unlike:1 simply:1 often:2 post:1 unless:1 wish:1 invoke:1 foreign:1 equivalent:1 bear:1 modern:1 carry:1 similar:1 association:1 soviet:1 union:1 prior:1 nazism:1 however:1 throughout:1 germanic:1 without:1 negative:1 e:1 g:1 hermann:1 broch:1 novel:4 sleepwalker:1 much:1 example:1 wien:1 neêrlands:1 bloed:1 netherlands:1 make:1 extensive:1 conspicuous:1 parallel:1 european:1 still:1 norm:1 many:1 would:1 offend:1 way:1 fiction:1 alternative:1 history:1 robert:2 harris:2 tv:2 movie:2 inspire:1 ken:2 loach:2 film:2 compilation:1 album:2 white:1 duo:1 prussian:1 blue:1 single:1 release:2 metal:1 band:2 die:1 krupp:1 song:1 appear:1 metropolis:1 gothic:1 rock:1 xiii:1 stoleti:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 nationalism:1 ethnicity:1 theoretical:1 overview:1 problem:1 identity:1 allons:1 enfants:1 de:1 la:1 blühe:1 deutsches:1 origin:1 state:1 selig:1 life:1 |@bigram der_deutschen:1 literal_translation:1 soviet_union:1 negative_connotation:1 ken_loach:2 external_link:1 |
1,415 | Nebraska | Nebraska () is a state located on the Great Plains of the Midwestern United States and Western United States. The state's capital is Lincoln and its largest city is Omaha. Nebraska probably gets its name from the archaic Otoe words Ñí Brásge (contemporary Otoe Ñí Bráhge) or the Omaha Ní Btháska meaning "flat water," after the Platte River that flows through the state. American Indian tribes in Nebraska have included the Iowas, Omahas, Missourias, Poncas, Pawnees, Otoes, and various branches of the Sioux. Once considered part of the Great American Desert, it is now a leading farming and ranching state. History On May 30, 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act created the Kansas Territory and the Nebraska Territory, divided by the Parallel 40° North. NebraskaStudies.org. 2009. "1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act Signed." http://nebraskastudies.unl.edu/0500/frameset_reset.html?http://nebraskastudies.unl.edu/0500/stories/0502_0100.html . Retrieved February 3, 2009. The territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha. In the 1860s, the first great wave of homesteaders poured into Nebraska to claim free land granted by the federal government. Many of the first farm settlers built their homes out of sod because they found so few trees on the grassy land. Nebraska became the 37th state in 1867, shortly after the American Civil War. At that time, the capital was moved from Omaha to Lancaster, later renamed Lincoln after the recently assassinated President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. The Arbor Day holiday began in Nebraska, and the National Arbor Day Foundation is still headquartered in Nebraska City with some offices also located in Lincoln. Nebraska has a long history of civil rights activism, starting in 1912 with the foundation of Omaha's National Association for the Advancement of Colored People chapter. Geography The state is bordered by South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, across the Missouri River; Kansas to the south; Colorado to the southwest; and Wyoming to the west. The state has 93 counties; it occupies the central portion of the Frontier Strip. Nebraska is split into two time zones. The Central Time zone comprises the eastern half of the state, while the western half observes Mountain Time. Three rivers cross the state from west to east. The Platte River runs through the heart, the Niobrara River flows through the northern part of the state's region, and the Republican River traverses through the southern part of the state. Nebraska is composed of two major land regions: the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The easternmost portion of the state was scoured by Ice Age glaciers; the Dissected Till Plains were left behind after the glaciers retreated. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of gently rolling hills; Omaha and Lincoln are located within this region. The Great Plains occupy the majority of western Nebraska. The Great Plains itself consists of several smaller, diverse land regions, including the Sandhills, the Pine Ridge, the Rainwater Basin, the High Plains and the Wildcat Hills. Panorama Point, at 5,424 feet (1,653 m), is the highest point in Nebraska; despite its name and elevation, it is merely a low rise near the Colorado and Wyoming borders. Nebraska state welcome sign on Interstate 76 at the Colorado border A past Nebraska tourism slogan was "Where the West Begins"; locations given for the beginning of the "West" include the Missouri River, the intersection of 13th and O Streets in Lincoln (where it is marked by a red brick star), the 100th meridian, and Chimney Rock. Nebraska is in fact a triply landlocked state, as it does not border the ocean, nor do any of the states it borders, nor any that they border on. Note that Nebraska's designation as a "triply landlocked" state does not consider the fact that Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois have ports with access to the sea on the shores of the Great Lakes. Nebraska also claims to have more miles of river than any other state. Federal land management Areas under the management of the National Park Service include: Agate Fossil Beds National Monument near Harrison California National Historic Trail Chimney Rock National Historic Site near Bayard Homestead National Monument of America in Beatrice Lewis & Clark National Historic Trail Missouri National Recreational River near Ponca Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail Niobrara National Scenic River near Valentine Oregon National Historic Trail Pony Express National Historic Trail Scotts Bluff National Monument at Gering Areas under the management of the National Forest Service include: Nebraska National Forest Oglala National Grassland Samuel R. McKelvie National Forest Climate Two major climates are represented in Nebraska: the eastern half of the state has a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa), and the western half of the state has a semi-arid continental steppe climate (Koppen BSk). The entire state experiences wide seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation. Average temperatures are fairly uniform across Nebraska with hot summers and generally cold winters, while average annual precipitation decreases east to west from about 31.5 inches (800 mm) in the southeast corner of the state to about 13.8 inches (350 mm) in the Panhandle. Humidity also decreases significantly from east to west. Snowfall across the state is fairly even, with most of Nebraska receiving between 25 and 35 inches (650 to 900 mm) of snow annually. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/products/atlas.html Map of Nebraska Nebraska is located in Tornado Alley; thunderstorms are common in the spring and summer months, and violent thunderstorms and tornadoes happen primarily during the spring and summer, though can also happen in the autumn. The chinook winds from the Rocky Mountains provide a temporary moderating effect on temperatures in western Nebraska during the winter months. http://www.nebraskaclimateoffice.unl.edu/weather.summary.Dec99 Demographics As of 2008, Nebraska has an estimated population of 1,783,432, which is an increase of 8,891, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 72,169, or 4.2%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,995 people (that is 187,564 births minus 109,569 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 9,319 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 27,398 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 36,717 people. The center of population of Nebraska is located in Polk County, in the city of Shelby. As of 2004, the population of Nebraska included about 84,000 foreign-born residents (4.8% of the population). The five largest ancestry groups in Nebraska are German (38.6%), Irish (12.4%), English (9.6%), Swedish (4.9%), and Czech (4.9%). Nebraska has the largest Czech-American and non-Mormon Danish-American population (as a percentage of the total population) in the nation. German-Americans are the largest ancestry group in most of the state, particularly in the eastern counties. Thurston County (made up entirely of the Omaha and Winnebago reservations) has an American Indian majority, and Butler County is one of only two counties in the nation with a Czech-American plurality. Rural flight Population density of Nebraska Eighty-nine percent of the cities in Nebraska have fewer than 3,000 people. Nebraska shares this characteristic with five other Midwest and Southern states (Kansas, Oklahoma, North and South Dakota, and Iowa). Hundreds of towns have a population of fewer than 1,000. Fifty-three of Nebraska's 93 counties reported declining populations between 1990 and 2000, ranging from a 0.06% loss (Frontier County) to a 17.04% loss (Hitchcock County). While many areas of the state continue to suffer, others have experienced substantial growth. In 2000, the city of Omaha had a population of 390,007; in 2005, the city's estimated population was 414,521,(427,872 including the recently annexed city of Elkhorn) a 6.3% increase over five years. The city of Lincoln had a 2000 population of 225,581 and a 2005 estimated population of 239,213, a 6.0% change. This rural flight has also had an impact on schools with many schools needing to consolidate in order to survive. Religion The religious affiliations of the people of Nebraska are: Christian – 90% Protestant – 61% Lutheran – 16% Methodist – 11% Baptist – 9% Presbyterian – 4% Other Protestant – 21% Roman Catholic – 28% Other Christian – 1% Other religions – 1% Non-religious – 9% The largest single denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Catholic Church (372,791), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (128,570), the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (117,419) and the United Methodist Church (117,277). "State Membership Report". The Association of Religion Data Archives. Retrieved July 29, 2008. Economy The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates of Nebraska's gross state product in 2004 was $68 billion. Per capita personal income in 2004 was $31,339, 25th in the nation. Nebraska has a large agriculture sector, and is an important producer of beef, pork, corn (maize), and soybeans. Other important economic sectors include freight transport (by rail and truck), manufacturing, telecommunications, information technology, and insurance. Nebraska has four personal income tax brackets, ranging from 2.6% to 6.8%. Nebraska has a state sales tax of 5.5%. In addition to the state tax, some Nebraska cities assess a city sales and use tax, up to a maximum of 1.5%. One county in Nebraska, Dakota County, levies a sales tax. All real property located within the state of Nebraska is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. Since 1992, only depreciable personal property is subject to tax and all other personal property is exempt from tax. Inheritance tax is collected at the county level. Industry Kool-Aid was created in 1927 by Edwin Perkins in the city of Hastings, which celebrates the event the second weekend of every August with Kool-Aid Days. Kool-Aid is the official soft drink of Nebraska. CliffsNotes were invented in Rising City, Nebraska by Clifton Hillegass. His pamphlets were based on the original Canadian idea, "Coles Notes." Omaha is home to Berkshire Hathaway, whose CEO Warren Buffett was ranked in March 2009 by Forbes magazine as the 2nd richest person in the world. This city is also home to InfoUSA, TD Ameritrade, West Corporation, Valmont Industries, Woodmen of the World, Kiewit Corporation, and Union Pacific Railroad. UNIFI Companies, Sandhills Publishing Company and Duncan Aviation reside in Lincoln while The Buckle is based out of Kearney. Sidney is the national headquarters for Cabela's, a specialty retailer of outdoor goods. The world's largest train yard, Union Pacific's Bailey Yard, is located in North Platte. The Vise-Grip was invented by William Petersen in 1924, and was manufactured in De Witt until the plant closed in late 2008. Jirovsky, Kristin. "Owner of Nail Jack Tools wants to share former Vise-Grip plant." Lincoln Journal-Star Online. Jan 8, 2009. http://journalstar.com/articles/2009/01/08/news/business/doc4966307080dcd635956810.txt Memorial Stadium on the University of Nebraska campus in Lincoln holds 85,157 people. During football games, it holds almost twice the population of Bellevue (47,954) the third-most populous city in the state. The second-largest Powerball payout was on February 18, 2006. It was $365 million and was split 8 ways by workers from a Lincoln food plant operated by ConAgra. Transportation Railroads Nebraska has a rich railroad history. The Union Pacific Railroad, headquartered in Omaha, was incorporated on July 1, 1862, in the wake of the Pacific Railway Act of 1862. Bailey Yard, located in North Platte, is the largest railroad classification yard in the world. The route of the original transcontinental railroad runs through the state. Other major railroads with operations in the state are: Amtrak; Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway; Canadian Pacific Railway; and Iowa Interstate Railroad. Roads and highways Interstate Highways through the State of Nebraska The U.S. Routes in Nebraska Law and government Nebraska's government operates under the framework of the Nebraska Constitution, adopted in 1875, and is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The head of the executive branch is the Governor Dave Heineman. Other elected officials in the executive branch are the Lieutenant Governor Rick Sheehy (elected on the same ticket as the Governor), Attorney General Jon Bruning, Secretary of State John A. Gale, State Treasurer Shane Osborn, and State Auditor Mike Foley. All elected officials in the executive branch serve four-year terms. Nebraska is the only state in the United States with a unicameral legislature; that is, a legislature with only one house. Although this house is officially known simply as the "Legislature", and more commonly called the "Unicameral", its members still call themselves "senators". Nebraska's Legislature is also the only state legislature in the United States that is nonpartisan. The senators are elected with no party affiliation next to their names on the ballot, and the speaker and committee chairs are chosen at large, so that members of any party can be chosen for these positions. The Nebraska Legislature can also override a governor's veto with a three-fifths majority, in contrast to the two-thirds majority required in some other states. The Nebraska Legislature meets in the third Nebraska State Capitol building, built between 1922 and 1932. It was designed by Bertram G. Goodhue. Built from Indiana limestone, the Capitol's base in a cross within a square. A 400-foot domed tower rises from this base. The Golden Sower, a 19-foot bronze statue representing agriculture, crowns the Capitol. The state Capitol is considered an architectural achievement. It has been recognized by the American Institute of Architects. For years, United States Senator George Norris and other Nebraskans encouraged the idea of a unicameral legislature, and demanded the issue be decided in a referendum. Norris argued: Unicameral supporters also argued that a bicameral legislature had a significant undemocratic feature in the committees that reconciled Assembly and Senate legislation. Votes in these committees were secretive, and would sometimes add provisions to bills that neither house had approved. Nebraska's unicameral legislature today has rules that bills can contain only one subject, and must be given at least five days of consideration. Finally, in 1934, due in part to the budgetary pressure of the Great Depression, Nebraska's unicameral legislature was put in place by a state initiative. In effect, the Assembly (the house) was abolished; as noted, today's Nebraska state legislators are commonly referred to as "Senators". The judicial system in Nebraska is unified, with the Nebraska Supreme Court having administrative authority over all Nebraska courts. Nebraska uses the Missouri Plan for the selection of judges at all levels. The lowest courts in Nebraska are the county courts, above that are twelve district courts (containing one or more counties). The Court of Appeals hears appeals from the district courts, juvenile courts, and workers' compensation courts. The Nebraska Supreme Court is the final court of appeal. From 2008 to 2009, from when the Nebraska Supreme Court ruled that the state's only method of execution, electrocution, was in conflict with the state's constitution, Nebraska had no active death-penalty law. (Prior to that ruling, Nebraska was the only place in the world that used electrocution as the sole method of execution.) In May of 2009, the legislature passed and the governor signed a bill that changed the method of execution in Nebraska to lethal injection, enabling further capital punishment. However, executions in Nebraska had been infrequent; none had been carried out in the 21st century, and in the last few decades the state had strongly flirted with the idea of a moratorium on, or complete abolition of, capital punishment. Federal government representation The Nebraska State Capitol in Lincoln, Nebraska Nebraska's U.S. senators are Mike Johanns (R), the junior senator, and Ben Nelson (D), the senior senator. Nebraska has three representatives in the House of Representatives: Jeff Fortenberry (R) of the 1st district; Lee Terry (R) of the 2nd district; and Adrian M. Smith (R) of the 3rd district. Nebraska is one of two states that allow for a split in the state's allocation of electoral votes in presidential elections. Since 1991, two of Nebraska's five are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election while the other three go to the highest vote-getter in each of the state's three congressional districts. The only time Nebraska's electoral votes have been split was in the 2008 presidential election, when four votes went to Republican John McCain and one electoral vote went to Barack Obama. Nebraska politics For most of its history, Nebraska has been a solidly Republican state. Republicans have carried the state in all but one presidential election since 1940—the 1964 landslide election of Lyndon B. Johnson. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush won the state's five electoral votes by a 33% margin (the fourth-most Republican vote among states) with 65.9% of the overall vote; only Thurston County, which includes two American Indian reservations, voted for John Kerry. Despite the current Republican domination of Nebraska politics, the state has a long tradition of electing centrist members of both parties to state and federal office; examples include George Norris (who served few years in the Senate as an independent), J. James Exon, and Bob Kerrey. This tradition is illustrated by Nebraska's current senators: former Senator Chuck Hagel was considered a maverick within his party, while Ben Nelson is arguably one of the most conservative members of the Democratic Party in the Senate. Important cities and towns All population figures are 2006 Census Bureau estimates. Largest cities Downtown Omaha Downtown Lincoln 100,000+ population10,000+ populationOmaha - 432,921 Lincoln - 241,167Bellevue - 47,594 Grand Island - 44,632 Kearney - 29,385 Fremont - 25,417 Hastings - 25,144 North Platte - 24,386 Norfolk - 23,896Columbus - 21,414 Papillion - 21,271 La Vista - 16,041 Scottsbluff - 14,738 Beatrice - 12,921 South Sioux City - 12,137 Lexington - 10,251 Urban areas Metropolitan areasMicropolitan areasOmaha-Council Bluffs - 700,991 (Nebraska portion); 822,549 (total for Nebraska and Iowa) Lincoln - 283,970 Sioux City, Iowa - 26,757 (Nebraska portion); 143,474 (total for Nebraska, Iowa and South Dakota)Grand Island - 70,245 Kearney - 50,655 Norfolk - 49,413 Hastings - 39,749 Scottsbluff - 37,329North Platte - 37,111 Fremont - 36,171 Columbus - 31,962 Lexington - 26,996 Beatrice - 23,365 Other areas Grand Island, Hastings and Kearney comprise the “Tri-Cities” area. The northeast corner of Nebraska is part of the Siouxland region. Education Colleges and universities University of Nebraska system University of Nebraska–Lincoln University of Nebraska at Kearney University of Nebraska at Omaha University of Nebraska Medical Center Nebraska College of Technical Agriculture Nebraska State College System Chadron State College Peru State College Wayne State CollegePrivate colleges/universities Bellevue University Clarkson College College of Saint Mary Concordia University Creighton University Dana College Doane College Grace University Hastings College Midland Lutheran College Nebraska Christian College Nebraska Methodist College Nebraska Wesleyan University Summit Christian College Union College York CollegeNebraska Community College Association Central Community College Little Priest Tribal College Metropolitan Community College Mid-Plains Community College Nebraska Indian Community College Northeast Community College Southeast Community College Western Nebraska Community College Culture Arbor Day was founded by J. Sterling Morton. The National Arbor Day Foundation has its headquarters near his home in Nebraska City. The swing in the Hebron, Nebraska city park at 5th and Jefferson streets is claimed to be the world's largest porch swing, long enough to fit 18 adults or 24 children. Nebraska Huskers football influences many of Nebraska's residents. On sell out Saturday football game days, Memorial Stadium, Lincoln with a capacity of 85,500 becomes Nebraska's 3rd Largest city. Job's Daughters was founded in Omaha in 1920 by Ethel T. Wead Mick. There are now bethels in Canada, Australia, Brazil, and Philippines. Sports Professional sports Lincoln Saltdogs – American Association (independent minor league baseball) Omaha Beef – United Indoor Football Omaha Royals – Pacific Coast League (AAA minor league baseball; affiliate of the Kansas City Royals) NCAA Division I college sports Creighton Bluejays Nebraska Cornhuskers University of Nebraska at Omaha (Mavericks ice hockey only) NCAA Division II college sports University of Nebraska at Kearney Antelopes (Lopers) University of Nebraska at Omaha Mavericks (all sports except ice hockey) Wayne State College Wildcats Chadron State College Eagles Junior-level sports United States Hockey League Lincoln Stars – Omaha Lancers – United States Hockey League (home games played in Council Bluffs, Iowa) Tri-City Storm – United States Hockey League See also Index of Nebraska-related articles References Bibliography Surveys Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-227-7. Olson James C. and Ronald C. Naugle History of Nebraska 2nd ed (1997) Andreas, Alfred T. History of the State of Nebraska (1882 highly detailed history Creigh, Dorothy Weyers. Nebraska: A Bicentennial History (1977) Faulkner, Virginia, ed. Roundup: A Nebraska Reader (1957) Hickey, Donald R. Nebraska Moments: Glimpses of Nebraska's Past (1992). Miewald, Robert D. Nebraska Government & Politics (1984) Luebke Frederick C. Nebraska: An Illustrated History (1995) Morton, J. Sterling, ed. Illustrated History of Nebraska: A History of Nebraska from the Earliest Explorations of the Trans-Mississippi Region. 3 vols. (1905-13) Wishart, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains (2004), 900 pages of scholarly articles Scholarly special studies Barnhart, John D. "Rainfall and the Populist Party in Nebraska." American Political Science Review 19 (1925): 527-40. in JSTOR Beezley, William H. "Homesteading in Nebraska, 1862-1872," Nebraska History 53 (spring 1972): 59-75. Bentley, Arthur F. "The Condition of the Western Farmer as Illustrated by the Economic History of a Nebraska Township." Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science 11 (1893): 285-370. Cherny, Robert W. Populism, Progressivism, and the Transformation of Nebraska Politics, 1885-1915 (1981) Bogue Allen G. Money at Interest: The Farm Mortgage on the Middle Border (1955) Brunner, Edmund de S. Immigrant Farmers and Their Children (1929) Chudacoff, Howard P. Mobile Americans: Residential and Social Mobility in Omaha, 1880-1920 (1972) Chudacoff, Howard P. "A New Look at Ethnic Neighborhoods: Residential Dispersion and the Concept of Visibility in a Medium-sized City." Journal of American History 60 (1973): 76-93. about Omaha; in JSTOR Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan. 3 vols. 1964-69. Dick, Everett. The Sod-House Frontier: 1854-1890 (1937) Farragher, John Mack. Women and Men on the Overland Trail (1979) Fuller, Wayne E. The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Midwest (1982) Grant, Michael Johnston. "Down and Out on the Family Farm" (2002) Harper, Ivy. Walzing Matilda: Life and Times of Nebraska Senator Robert Kerrey (1992). Holter, Don W. Flames on the Plains: A History of United Methodism in Nebraska (1983). Jeffrey, Julie Roy. Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (1979) Klein, Maury. Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (1986) Klein, Maury. Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (1989). Larsen, Lawrence H. The Gate City: A History of Omaha (1982) Lowitt, Richard. George W. Norris 3 vols. 1971. Luebke, Frederick C. Immigrants and Politics: The Germans of Nebraska, 1880-1900 (1969) Luebke, Frederick C. "The German-American Alliance in Nebraska, 1910-1917." Nebraska History 49 (1969): 165-85. Olson, James C. J. Sterling Morton (1942) Overton, Richard C. Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad (1941) Parsons Stanley B. "Who Were the Nebraska Populists?" Nebraska History 44 (1963): 83-99. Pierce, Neal. The Great Plains States (1973) Pederson, James F., and Kenneth D. Wald. Shall the People Rule? A History of the Democratic Party in Nebraska Politics (1972) Riley, Glenda. The Female Frontier. A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (1978) Wenger, Robert W. "The Anti-Saloon League in Nebraska Politics, 1898-1910." Nebraska History 52 (1971): 267-92. External links Nebraska state government Energy Profile for Nebraska USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Nebraska U.S. Census Bureau Nebraska State Facts Nebraska Frequently Asked Questions Nebraska State Publications Online Nebraska city-data nebraskastudies.org - History of Nebraska from Nebraska Department of Education, Nebraska State Historical Society, and NET Nebraska State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Nebraska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. | Nebraska |@lemmatized nebraska:147 state:82 locate:8 great:10 plain:14 midwestern:1 united:12 western:7 capital:5 lincoln:19 large:13 city:27 omaha:22 probably:1 get:1 name:3 archaic:1 otoe:3 word:1 ñí:2 brásge:1 contemporary:1 bráhge:1 ní:1 btháska:1 meaning:1 flat:1 water:1 platte:6 river:10 flow:2 american:16 indian:4 tribe:1 include:11 iowa:8 missourias:1 ponca:2 pawnee:1 various:1 branch:5 sioux:3 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1,416 | Andrew_Johnson | Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th President of the United States (1865–69), succeeding to the Presidency upon the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. He was the first U.S. President to be impeached. At the time of the secession of the Southern states, Johnson was a U.S. Senator from Greeneville in eastern Tennessee. As a Unionist, he was the only southern Senator not to quit his post upon secession. He became the most prominent War Democrat from the South and supported the military policies of US President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. In 1862 Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee, where he proved to be energetic and effective in fighting the rebellion and beginning transition to Reconstruction. 'Andrew Johnson', Encyclopædia Britannica Johnson was nominated for the Vice President slot in 1864 on the National Union Party ticket. He and Lincoln were elected in November 1864. Johnson succeeded to the Presidency upon Lincoln's assassination on April 15, 1865. As president he took charge of Presidential Reconstruction the first phase of Reconstruction which lasted until the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. His conciliatory policies towards the South, his hurry to reincorporate the former Confederates back into the union, and his vetoes of civil rights bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with some Republicans. The Radicals in the House of Representatives impeached him in 1868 while charging him with violating the Tenure of Office Act, a law enacted by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto, but he was acquitted by a single vote in the Senate. He is the most recent President to represent a party other than the Republican or Democratic parties, having represented both the Democrats and the National Union Party. He is consistently ranked by historians as being among the worst U.S. presidents. Early life Johnson was born on December 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, to Jacob Johnson and Mary McDonough. Jacob died when Andrew was around three years old, leaving his family in poverty. Johnson's mother then took in work spinning and weaving to support her family and later remarried. She bound Andrew as an apprentice tailor when he was 10 or 14 years. 14 according to Britannica, 10 according to Karin L Zipf In the 1820s, he worked as a tailor in Laurens, South Carolina. Laurens Historic District historical marker Johnson didn't have any formal education and taught himself how to read and write. At age 16 or 17 Johnson broke his apprenticeship and ran away with his brother to Greeneville, Tennessee, where he found work as a tailor. Karin L Zipf. Labor Of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715–1919 (2005) pp 8–9 At the age of 18, Johnson married Eliza McCardle in 1827. Between 1828 and 1852, the couple had five children: Martha (1828), Charles (1830), Mary (1832), Robert (1834), and Andrew Jr. (1852). Eliza taught Johnson arithmetic up to basic algebra and also tutored him to improve his literacy and writing skills. Early political career Johnson participated in debates at the local academy at Greeneville, Tennessee Biography of Andrew Johnson www.whitehouse.gov and later organized a workingman's party that elected him as alderman in 1829. He served in this position until he was elected mayor in 1833. In 1835 he was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives where, after serving a single term, he was defeated for re-election. Timeline of President Andrew Johnson's Life (PDF) from the website of the President Andrew Johnson Museum and Library at Tusculum College Johnson was attracted to Andrew Jackson's states' rights Democratic Party. He became a spokesman for the more numerous yeomen farmers and mountaineers against the wealthier, but fewer, planter elite families that had held political control both in the state and nationally. In 1839 Johnson was elected to the Tennessee Senate, where he served two consecutive two-year terms. In 1843 he became the first Democrat to win election as the U.S. Representative from Tennessee's 1st congressional district. Among his activities for the common man's interests as a member of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Johnson advocated 'a free farm for the poor' bill where farms would be given to landless farmers. Johnson was a U.S. Representative for five terms until 1853, when he was elected governor of Tennessee. Political ascendancy Pre-Civil War photo of Johnson. Johnson was elected governor of Tennessee, serving from 1853 to 1857. He was then elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate, serving from October 8, 1857 to March 4, 1862. He was chairman of the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense (Thirty-sixth Congress). Before Tennessee voted on secession, Johnson who lived in Unionist east Tennessee toured the state speaking in opposition to the act, which he said was unconstitutional. Johnson was an aggressive stump speaker and often responded to hecklers, even those in the Senate. At the time of the secession of Tennessee, Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. His explanation for this decision was "Damn the negroes, I am fighting those traitorous aristocrats, their masters." Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee in March 1862 with the rank of brigadier general. During his three years in this office, he "moved resolutely to eradicate all pro-Confederate influences in the state." This "unwavering commitment to the Union" was a significant factor in his choice as vice-president by Lincoln. Sledge pg. 1071–1072 Johnson vigorously suppressed the Confederates and later spoke out for black suffrage, arguing, "The better class of them will go to work and sustain themselves, and that class ought to be allowed to vote, on the ground that a loyal negro is more worthy than a disloyal white man." Patton p 126 According to tradition and local lore, on August 8, 1863, Johnson freed his personal slaves. "Tennessee Recalls Emancipation, Segregation", National Public Radio Vice presidency As a leading War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was an ideal candidate for the Republicans in 1864 as they enlarged their base to include War Democrats. They changed the party name to the National Union Party to reflect this expansion. During the election Johnson replaced Hannibal Hamlin as Lincoln's running mate. He was elected Vice President of the United States and was inaugurated March 4, 1865. At the ceremony, Johnson, who had been drinking to offset the pain of typhoid fever (as he explained later), gave a rambling speech and appeared intoxicated to many. In early 1865, Johnson talked harshly of hanging traitors like Jefferson Davis, which endeared him to the Radicals. Trefousse p. 198 Lincoln assassination On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, while the President was attending a play at Ford's Theater. Booth's plan was to destroy the administration by ordering conspirators to assassinate Johnson, lieutenant general of the Union army Ulysses S Grant, and Secretary of State William H. Seward that same night. Grant survived when he failed to attend the theater with Lincoln as planned, Seward narrowly survived his wounds, while Johnson escaped attack as his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, failed to go through with the plan. Presidency 1865–1869 Engraving of Johnson The morning after Lincoln's assassination, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United States on April 15, 1865 by Lincoln's newly appointed Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. Johnson was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the assassination of a President and the third vice president to become a president upon the death of a sitting president. Complete list of U.S. presidents Johnson had an ambiguous party status. He attempted to build a party of loyalists under the National Union label, but he did not identify with the two main parties while President—though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked in 1868 why he did not become a Democrat, he said "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic Party. Why don't they join me...if I have administered the office of president so well?" Trefousse, Hans Louis. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1997), p. 338–339. Reconstruction A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865. The caption reads (Johnson to the former rail-splitter): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever!! (Lincoln to the former tailor): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended! Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense human cost of the war led to demands for harsh policies. Vice President Andrew Johnson had taken a hard line and spoke of hanging rebel Confederates. In late April, 1865 he was noted telling an Indiana delegation that, "Treason must be made odious... traitors must be punished and impoverished ... their social power must be destroyed." However, when he succeeded Lincoln as President, Johnson took a much softer line noting, "I say, as to the leaders, punishment. I also say leniency, reconciliation and amnesty to the thousands whom they have misled and deceived," Milton 183 and ended up pardoning many Confederate leaders and ex-Confederates to maintain their control of Southern state governments, Southern lands, and black people. Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989) His class-based resentment of the rich appeared in a May 1865 statement to W.H. Holden, the man he appointed governor of North Carolina: "I intend to confiscate the lands of these rich men whom I have excluded from pardon by my proclamation, and divide the proceeds thereof among the families of the wool hat boys, the Confederate soldiers, whom these men forced into battle to protect their property in slaves." "Memoirs of W.W. Holden: Electronic Edition". In practice, Johnson was not at all harsh toward the Confederate leaders. He allowed the Southern states to hold elections in 1865, resulting in prominent ex-Confederates being elected to the U.S. Congress; however, Congress did not seat them. Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about Reconstruction and the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration, similar to the plan of leniency that Lincoln advocated before his death. Break with the Republicans: 1866 Johnson-appointed governments all passed Black Codes that gave the freedmen second class status. In response to the Black Codes and worrisome signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Republicans blocked the re-admission of the ex-rebellious states to the Congress in fall 1865. Congress also renewed the Freedman's Bureau, but Johnson vetoed it. Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront at the Black Codes. Trumbull proposed the first Civil Rights bill. Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights Bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27. His veto message objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when eleven out of thirty-six States were unrepresented and attempted to fix by federal law "a perfect equality of the white and black races in every State of the Union." Johnson said it was an invasion by federal authority of the rights of the States; it had no warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. It was a "stride toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national government." Rhodes, History 6:68 Johnson, in a letter to Governor Thomas C. Fletcher of Missouri, wrote, "This is a country for white men, and by God, as long as I am President, it shall be a government for white men." Trefousse pg. 236. Online reference to the quote available at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/grant/peopleevents/e_impeach.html The Democratic Party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, North and South, aligned with Johnson. Trefousse 1999 However the Republicans in Congress overrode his veto (the Senate by the vote of 33:15, the House by 182:41) and the Civil Rights Bill became law. The last moderate proposal was the Fourteenth Amendment, also authored by moderate Trumbull. It was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution, but it went much further. It extended citizenship to everyone born in the United States (except Indians on reservations), penalized states that did not give the vote to freedmen, and most importantly, created new federal civil rights that could be protected by federal courts. It guaranteed the federal war debt and voided all Confederate war debts. Johnson unsuccessfully sought to block ratification of the amendment. The moderate effort to compromise with Johnson had failed and an all-out political war broke out between the Republicans (both Radical and moderate) on one side, and on the other Johnson and his allies in the Democratic party in the North, and the conservative groupings in the South. The decisive battle was the election of 1866. Johnson campaigned vigorously, undertaking a public speaking tour of the north that was known as the "Swing Around the Circle"; the tour proved politically disastrous, with Johnson widely ridiculed and occasionally engaging in hostile arguments with his audiences. Andrew Johnson Cleveland Speech (September 3, 1866) The Republicans won by a landslide (the Southern states were not allowed to vote), and took full control of Reconstruction. Johnson was almost powerless. Historian James Ford Rhodes has explained Johnson's inability to engage in serious negotiations:As Senator Charles Sumner shrewdly said, "the President himself is his own worst counselor, as he is his own worst defender." Johnson acted in accordance with his nature. He had intellectual force but it worked in a groove. Obstinate rather than firm it undoubtedly seemed to him that following counsel and making concessions were a display of weakness. At all events from his December message to the veto of the Civil Rights Bill he yielded not a jot to Congress. The moderate senators and representatives (who constituted a majority of the Union party) asked him for only a slight compromise; their action was really an entreaty that he would unite with them to preserve Congress and the country from the policy of the radicals. The two projects which Johnson had most at heart were the speedy admission of the Southern senators and representatives to Congress and the relegation of the question of 'negro suffrage' to the States themselves. Himself shrinking from the imposition on these communities of the franchise for the colored people, his unyielding position in regard to matters involving no vital principle did much to bring it about. His quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy; and for the quarrel and its unhappy results Johnson's lack of imagination and his inordinate sensitiveness to political gadflies were largely responsible: it was not a contest in which fundamentals were involved. He sacrificed two important objects to petty considerations. His pride of opinion, his desire to beat, blinded him to the real welfare of the South and of the whole country. Rhodes, History 6:74 Theodore R. Davis' illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the United States Senate, published in Harper's Weekly. Impeachment First attempt There were two attempts to remove President Andrew Johnson from office. The first occurred in the fall of 1867. On November 21, 1867, the House Judiciary committee produced a bill of impeachment that consisted of a vast collection of complaints against him. After a furious debate, a formal vote was held in the House of Representatives on December 5, 1867, which failed 57-108. Trefousse, 1989 pages 302–3 Second attempt The 1868 Impeachment Resolution Johnson notified Congress that he had removed Edwin Stanton as Secretary of War and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General Lorenzo Thomas. Johnson had wanted to replace Stanton with former General Ulysses S. Grant, who refused to accept the position. This violated the Tenure of Office Act, a law enacted by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Tenure of office act Britannica Online Encyclopedia Johnson had vetoed the act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case Myers v. United States in 1926, the Supreme Court ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional. Tenure of office act Britannica Concise The Senate and House entered into debate. Thomas attempted to move into the war office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House impeached Johnson for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act. On March 5, 1868, a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. William M. Evarts served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution, and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the act had already run its course. The SituationA Harper's Weekly cartoon gives a humorous breakdown of "the situation". Secretary of War Edwin Stanton aims a cannon labeled "Congress" on the side at President Johnson and Lorenzo Thomas to show how Stanton was using congress to defeat the president and his unsuccessful replacement. He also holds a rammer marked "Tenure of Office Bill" and cannon balls on the floor are marked "Justice". Ulysses S. Grant and an unidentified man stand to Stanton's left. There were three votes in the Senate: one on May 16 for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on May 26 for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "guilty" and nineteen "not guilty." As the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted; the 35-19 vote was one less than the majority required. A single changed vote for guilty would have convicted and removed Johnson from office. Seven Republican senators were disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated in order to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William Pitt Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, "Andrew Johnson Trial: The Consciences of Seven Republicans Save Johnson". and Edmund G. Ross of Kansas, who provided the decisive vote, "The Trial of Andrew Johnson, 1868". defied their party and public opinion and voted against conviction. Christmas Day amnesty for Confederates One of Johnson's last significant acts was granting unconditional amnesty to all Confederates on Christmas Day, December 25, 1868, after the election of U.S. Grant to succeed him, but before Grant took office in March 1869. Earlier amnesties, requiring signed oaths and excluding certain classes of people, had been issued by Lincoln and by Johnson. Administration and Cabinet Judicial appointments Johnson appointed only nine federal judges during his presidency, all to United States district courts: JudgeCourtBegan activeserviceEnded activeservice Samuel Blatchford S.D.N.Y. 18670503May 3, 1867 Recess appointment; formally nominated on July 13, 1867, confirmed by the United States Senate on July 16, 1867, and received commission on July 16, 1867. 18780304March 4, 1878 George Seabrook Bryan D.S.C. 18660312March 12, 1866 18860901September 1, 1886 Daniel Clark D.N.H. 18660727July 27, 1866 18910102January 2, 1891 Elmer Scipio Dundy D. Neb. 18680409April 9, 1868 18961028October 28, 1896 John Erskine N.D. Ga.S.D. Ga. 18650710July 10, 1865 Recess appointment; formally nominated on December 20, 1865, confirmed by the United States Senate on January 22, 1866, and received commission on January 22, 1866. 18831201April 25, 1882December 1, 1883 Edward Fox D. Me. 18660531May 31, 1866 18811214December 14, 1881 Robert Andrews Hill S.D. Miss.N.D. Miss. 18660501May 1, 1866 18910801August 1, 1891 Charles Taylor Sherman N.D. Ohio 18670302March 2, 1867 18721125November 25, 1872 States admitted to the Union Nebraska - March 1, 1867 Foreign policy Johnson forced the French out of Mexico by sending an army to the border and issuing an ultimatum. The French withdrew in 1867, and the government they supported quickly collapsed. Secretary of State Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia on April 9, 1867 for $7.2 million. This is equivalent to $ in present day terms. Critics sneered at "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox" and "Icebergia." Seward also negotiated to purchase the Danish West Indies, but the Senate refused to approve the purchase in 1867 (it eventually happened in 1917). The Senate likewise rejected Seward's arrangement with the United Kingdom to arbitrate the Alabama Claims. The U.S. experienced tense relations with the United Kingdom and its colonial government in Canada in the aftermath of the war. Lingering resentment over the perception of British sympathy towards the Confederacy resulted in Johnson initially turning a blind eye towards a series of armed incursions by Irish-American civil war veterans into British territory in Canada, named the Fenian Raids. The Fenian Raids Eventually, Johnson ordered the Fenians disarmed and barred from crossing the border, but his hesitant reaction to the crisis helped motivate the movement toward Canadian Confederation. Post-presidency The Johnson home in Greeneville, Tennessee, 1886, today restored and known as the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site. Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate from Tennessee in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. However, in 1874 the Tennessee legislature did elect him to the U.S. Senate. Johnson served from March 4, 1875, until his death from a stroke near Elizabethton, Tennessee, on July 31 that same year. In his first speech since returning to the Senate, which was also his last, Johnson spoke about political turmoil in Louisiana. United States Senate: Death of Andrew Johnson His passion aroused a standing ovation from many of his fellow senators who had once voted to remove him from the presidency. He is the only former President to serve in the Senate. Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, Greeneville, Tennessee. In accordance with Johnson's wishes, his body was wrapped in an American flag; under his head lay a copy of the U.S. Constitution. Andrew Johnson National Cemetery is now part of the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site. Historians' changing views on Andrew Johnson Today, historians generally regard Johnson as one of the worst presidents in U.S. history. The Worst President in History?, Sean Wilentz, Rolling Stone, April 21, 2006; accessed December 15, 2008. <ref name=US>The 10 Worst Presidents: No. 3 Andrew Johnson (1865-1869), Jay Tolson, U.S. News & World Report, February 16, 2007; accessed December 15, 2008.</ref> Eric Foner called him a "fervent white supremacist" who foiled Reconstruction. He's The Worst Ever, Eric Foner, Washington Post, December 3, 2006; accessed December 15, 2008. Sean Wilentz wrote that he "actively sided with former Confederates" in his attempts to derail it. This has been a modern trend of dis-esteem, primarily as the Reconstruction program itself has come to be seen as a "noble" effort to build an interracial nation.However, it should be noted that W. E. B. Du Bois, had proposed this view in his pioneering study, Black Reconstruction first published in 1935 (to which Foner and other recent historians are heir). The Dunning School of the early 20th century saw Johnson as a heroic bulwark against the corruption of the Radical Republicans who tried to remove the entire leadership class of the white South. In their view, Johnson seemed to be the legitimate heir of the sainted Abraham Lincoln. By the 1930s a series of favorable biographies enhanced his prestige. Highly favorable were Winston (1928), Stryker (1929), Milton (1930), and Claude Bowers, The Tragic Era (1929). Johnson's Republican critics of the 1860s appeared as disreputable to liberal historians as did the Republican critics of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Furthermore, a Beardian School (named after Charles Beard and typified by Howard K. Beale) argued that the Republican Party in the 1860s was a tool of corrupt business interests, and that Johnson stood for the people. They rated Johnson "near great," but have later changed their minds, rating Johnson "a flat failure". The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s brought a new perspective to the practice of history as well as to civil legislation. Historians noted African American efforts to establish public education and welfare institutions, gave muted praise for Republican efforts to extend suffrage and provide other social institutions, and excoriated Johnson for siding with the opposition to extending basic rights to former slaves. Johnson's purchase of Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 is believed to be his most important foreign policy action, with the purchase proving itself vital to national security during the Cold War (mid-1940s until the early 1990s). The idea and implementation is credited to Seward as Secretary of State, but Johnson approved the plan. Gold was not discovered in Alaska until 1880, thirteen years after the purchase and five years after Johnson's death, and oil was not discovered until 1968. See also List of American Civil War generals United States presidential election, 1864 History of the United States (1865-1918) Tennessee Johnson Bibliography Howard K. Beale, The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1930). ISBN 0804410852 Michael Les Benedict, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1999). ISBN 0393319822 Albert E. Castel, The Presidency of Andrew Johnson (1979). ISBN 0700601902 D. M. DeWitt, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1903). Du Bois, W. E. B. 'The Transubstantiation of a Poor White' in Black Reconstruction: An Essay Toward the History of the Part Which Black People Have Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880 (1935). ISBN 0527252808. W. A. Dunning, Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1898) W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Economic (New York, 1907) online edition Foster, G. Allen, Impeached: The President who almost lost his job (New York, 1964). Eric L. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1961). ISBN 0-19-505707-4 Martin E. Mantell; Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction (1973) Hatfield, Mark O., with the Senate Historical Office, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789-1993.(U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997), p.219 Howard Means, The Avenger Takes His Place: Andrew Johnson and the 45 Days That Changed the Nation (New York, 2006) Milton; George Fort. The Age of Hate: Andrew Johnson and the Radicals (1930) online edition Patton; James Welch. Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860–1869 (1934) online edition Rhodes; James Ford History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 Volume: 6. 1920. Pulitzer prize. Schouler, James. History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 7. 1865–1877. The Reconstruction Period (1917) Sledge, James L. III. "Johnson, Andrew" in Encyclopedia of the American Civil War. edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. (2000) Stewart, David, O. Impeached: the Trial of President Andrew Jackson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy (2009) Simon and Schuster, New York, NY. ISBN 978-1-4165-4749-5. Lloyd P. Stryker, Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage (1929). ISBN 0-403-01231-7 online edition Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989). ISBN 0-393-31742-0 online edition Winston; Robert W. Andrew Johnson: Plebeian and Patriot (1928) online edition Primary sources Ralph W. Haskins, LeRoy P. Graf, and Paul H. Bergeron et al., eds. The Papers of Andrew Johnson'' 16 volumes; University of Tennessee Press, (1967–2000). ISBN 1572330910.) Includes all letters and speeches by Johnson, and many letters written to him. Complete to 1875. Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869 Series of Harper's Weekly articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial Johnson's obituary, from the New York Times Notes External links Obituary, NY Times, August 1, 1875, Andrew Johnson Dead Articles of Impeachment White House Biography Vice Presidential biography. From the Senate Historical Office. Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson Andrew Johnson Cleveland Speech (September 3, 1866) Congressional Globe transcript of Johnsons inaugural address Speeches of Andrew Johnson : President of the United States 1866 collection at archive.org Andrew Johnson's 200th Birthday Celebration site at DiscoverGreeneville.com Andrew Johnson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Tennessee State Library & Archives, Andrew Johnson Papers, 1846-1875 Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of Governor Andrew Johnson, 1853-1857 Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of (Military) Governor Andrew Johnson, 1862-1865 Retrieved on 2009-03-02 Essay on Andrew Johnson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs | Andrew_Johnson |@lemmatized andrew:48 johnson:136 december:10 july:5 president:39 united:20 state:42 succeed:5 presidency:9 upon:5 assassination:6 abraham:5 lincoln:23 first:10 u:17 impeach:5 time:5 secession:4 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1,417 | Data_General_Nova | Data General Nova 1200 front panel The Data General Nova was a popular 16-bit minicomputer built by the United States company Data General starting in 1969. The Nova was packaged into a single rack mount case and had enough power to do most simple computing tasks. The Nova became popular in science laboratories around the world, and eventually 50,000 units were sold. It was followed by the Data General Eclipse, which was similar in most ways but added virtual memory support and other features required by modern operating systems. History deCastro and the Nova’s origin Edson deCastro was the Product Manager at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) of their pioneering PDP-8, a 12-bit computer generally considered by most to be the first true minicomputer. DeCastro was convinced, however, that it was possible to improve upon the PDP-8 by building a 16-bit minicomputer on a single board. Ken Olsen was not supportive of this project, so deCastro left DEC along with another hardware engineer, Richard Sogge, and a software engineer, Henry Burkhardt III, to found Data General (DG) in 1968. The fourth founder, Herbert Richman, had been a salesman for Fairchild Semiconductor and knew the others through his contacts with Digital Equipment. The next year DG released the 16-bit Nova at a base price of US$3,995, advertising it as "the best small computer in the world." The basic model was not very useful out of the box, and adding RAM in the form of core memory typically brought the price up to $7,995. In 1969, Data General shipped a total of 50,000 Novas at $8000 each. The Nova was one of the first 16-bit minicomputers and led the way toward word lengths that were multiples of the 8-bit byte. It was first to employ medium-scale integration (MSI) circuits from Fairchild Semiconductor, with subsequent models using large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits. Also notable was that in later models the entire central processor was contained on one printed circuit board. The Nova’s biggest competition was from the new DEC PDP-11 computer series, and to a lesser extent the older DEC PDP-8 systems. It has been said that the Nova was pretty crude compared to its competitors; but it was quite effective and very fast for its day, at least at its low-cost end of the market. Besides offering 16 bits compared to the 12 bits of the PDP-8, another big innovation of the Nova was in packaging. The original Nova CPU was built on only two large 15×15 inch (38×38 cm) printed circuit boards, which could be run off on an assembly line with no manual wiring required. This greatly reduced costs over the rival PDP-8 and PDP-8/I, which consisted of many smaller boards that had to be wired together. The larger-board construction also made the Nova more reliable, which made it especially attractive for industrial or lab settings. A further improvement on the Nova design followed the next year, the SuperNOVA. The SuperNOVA included a number of improvements that dramatically improved performance over the original. This included the use of ROM for library software that could be run much faster than the same code in the normal core memory, due to the latter’s need to be written immediately after being read. Additionally the system included a new set of core with an 800 ns cycle time, faster than the original’s 1200 ns version. Finally the SuperNOVA also replaced the earlier model’s 4-bits-at-a-time math unit with a new 16-bit parallel version, speeding math by up to four times. Soon after the introduction of the SuperNOVA, the SuperNOVA SC was introduced, featuring semiconductor memory in place of core. The much higher performance memory allowed the CPU, which was synchronous with memory, to be further increased in speed to run at a 300 nanosecond cycle time (3.3 MHz), which made it the fastest minicomputer for over a decade following its introduction. Later versions Running Nova 840 Further improvements in the line followed in 1970/1 with a pair of machines that replaced the Nova/SuperNOVA, the Nova 1200 and Nova 800 series. The 1200 used the original’s slower 1200ns core while the 800 featured the SuperNOVA’s 800ns core, explaining the somewhat confusing naming where the lower number represents the faster machine. Like the earlier models, the 1200 used a 4-bit math unit while the 800 used the SuperNOVA’s 16-bit unit. Both models were offered in a variety of cases, the 1200 with seven slots, the 1210 with four and the 1220 with fourteen. The 840, first offered in 1973, also included a new paged memory system allowing for up to 17-bit addresses. An index offset the base address into the larger 128 kWord memory. Actually installing this much memory required considerable space, the 840 shipped in a large 14-slot case. The next version was the Nova 2, with the first versions shipping in 1973. The Nova 2 was essentially a simplified version of the earlier machines as increasing chip densities allowed the CPU to be reduced in size. While the SuperNOVA used three 15″x15″ boards to implement the CPU and its memory, the Nova 2 fit all of this onto a single board. ROM was used to store the boot code, which was then copied into core when the “program load” switch was flipped. Versions were available with four, seven and ten slots. Data General Nova 3 The Nova 3 of 1975 added two more registers, used to control access to a built-in stack. The processor was also re-implemented using TTL components, further increasing the performance of the system. The Nova 3 was offered in four slot (the Nova 3/4) and twelve slot (the Nova 3/12) versions. It appears that Data General originally intended the Nova 3 to be the last of its line, planning to replace the Nova with the later Eclipse machines. However continued demand led to a Nova 4 machine, this time based on four AMD 2901 bit-slice ALUs. This machine was designed from the start to be both the Nova 4 and the Eclipse S/140, with different microcode for each. A floating-point co-processor was also available, taking up a separate slot. An additional option allowed for memory mapping, allowing programs to access up to 128 kwords of memory using bank switching. Unlike the earlier machines, the Nova 4 did not include a front panel console and instead relied on the terminal to emulate a console when needed. There were three different versions of the Nova 4, the Nova 4/C, and the Nova 4/S and Nova 4/X. The Nova 4/C was a single board implementation that included all of the memory (16 or 32 K words) on board. The Nova 4/S and 4/X used separate memory boards. The Nova 4/X had the on board Memory Mapping Unit (MMU) enabled to allow up to 128 Kwords of memory to be used (the MMU actually was on the Nova 4/S, but was disabled by firmware). Both the 4/S and the 4/X included a “prefetcher” to increase performance by fetching up to two instructions from memory before they were needed. microNOVA Data General also produced a series of single-chip implementations of the Nova processor as the microNOVA. Changes to the bus architecture limited speed dramatically, to the point where it was about one-half the speed of the original Nova. The original microNOVA with the “mN601” processor shipped in 1977. It was followed by the microNOVA MP/100 in 1979, which reduced the CPU to a single VLSI chip, the mN602. A larger version was also offered as the microNOVA MP/200, shipping the same year. The microNOVA was later re-packaged in a PC-style case with two floppy disks as the Enterprise. Enterprise shipped in 1981, running RDOS, but the introduction of the IBM PC the same year made most other machines disappear under the radar. Nova’s legacy The Nova influenced the design of both the Xerox Alto (1973) and Apple I (1976) computers, and its architecture was the basis for the Computervision CGP (Computervision Graphics Processor) series. Its external design has been reported to be the direct inspiration for the front panel of the MITS Altair (1975) microcomputer. Data General followed up on the success of the original Nova with a series of faster designs. The Eclipse family of systems was later introduced with an extended upwardly compatible instruction set, and the MV-series further extended the Eclipse into a 32-bit architecture to compete with the DEC VAX. The development of the MV-series was documented in Tracy Kidder’s popular 1981 book, The Soul of a New Machine. Data General itself would later evolve into a vendor of Intel processor-based servers and storage arrays, eventually being purchased by EMC. there are still 16-bit Novas and Eclipses running in a variety of applications worldwide, including air traffic control. There is a diverse but ardent group of people worldwide who restore and preserve legacy 16-bit Data General systems. Technical description Processor design Nova 3 PCB The Nova, like the PDP-8 was an accumulator-based architecture. It had four 16-bit accumulator registers, of which two (2 and 3) could be used as index registers. There was a 15-bit program counter and a single-bit carry register. As with the PDP-8, current + zero page addressing was central. There was no stack register, but later Eclipse designs would utilize a dedicated hardware memory address for this function. The earliest models of the Nova processed math serially in 4-bit packets. A year after its introduction the processor was upgraded to use a full 16-bit parallel math unit, this design being referred to as the SuperNova. Future versions of the system added a stack unit and hardware multiply/divide. The Nova 4 / Eclipse S/140 was based on four AMD 2901 bit-slice ALUs, with microcode in read-only memory, and was the first Nova designed for DRAM main memory only, without provision for magnetic core memory. Memory and I/O The first models were available with 4K words of magnetic core memory as an option, one that practically everyone had to buy, bringing the system cost up to $7,995. Even here DG managed to innovate, packing several planes of very small core and the corresponding support electronics onto a single standard 15 x board. Up to 32K of such core RAM could be supported in one external expansion box. Semiconductor ROM was already available at the time, and RAM-less systems (i.e. with ROM only) became popular in many industrial settings. The original Nova machines ran at approximately 0.2 MHz, but its SuperNova was designed to run at up to 3 MHz when used with special semiconductor main memory. The standardized backplane and I/O signals created a simple, efficient I/O design that made interfacing programmed I/O and Data Channel devices to the Nova simple compared to competitive machines. In addition to its dedicated I/O bus structure, the Nova backplane had wire wrap pins that could be used for non-standard connectors or other special purposes. Programming model The instruction format could be broadly categorized into one of three functions: 1) register-to-register manipulation, 2) memory reference, and 3) input/output. Each instruction was contained in one word. The register-to-register manipulation was almost RISC-like in its bit-efficiency; and an instruction that manipulated register data could also perform tests, shifts and even elect to discard the result. Hardware options included an integer multiply and divide unit, a floating-point unit (single and double precision), and memory management. Data General software on punched paper tape. The earliest Nova came with a BASIC interpreter on paper tape. As the product grew, Data General developed many languages for the Nova computers, running under a range of consistent operating systems. FORTRAN IV, ALGOL, Extended BASIC, Data General Business Basic, Interactive COBOL, and several assemblers were available from Data General. Third party vendors and the user community expanded the offerings with Forth, Lisp, BCPL, C, Algol, and other proprietary versions of COBOL and BASIC. Assembly language examples Hello world program This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language. It is designed to run under RDOS and prints the string “Hello, world.” on the console. ; a "hello, world" program for Nova running RDOS, by Toby Thain ; uses PCHAR system call .titl hello .nrel .ent start start: dochar: lda 0,@pmsg ; load ac0 with next character, mov# 0,0,snr ; test ac0; skip if nonzero (don't load result) jmp done .systm .pchar ; print first jmp er ; skipped if OK movs 0,0 ; swap bytes .systm .pchar ; print second jmp er ; skipped if OK isz pmsg ; point to next character jmp dochar ; go around again done: .systm ; normal exit .rtn er: .systm ; error exit .ertn halt pmsg: .+1 ; pointer to first character of string ; note bytes are packed right-to-left by default .txt /Hello, world.<15><12>/ ; that's CR LF 0 ; flag word to end string .end start 16-bit multiplication Basic models of the Nova came without built-in hardware multiply and divide capability, to keep prices competitive. The following routine multiplies two 16-bit words to produce a 16-bit word result (overflow is ignored). It demonstrates combined use of ALU op, shift, and test (skip). Note that when this routine is called by jsr, AC3 holds the return address. This is used by the return instruction jmp 0,3. An idiomatic way to clear an accumulator is sub 0,0. Other single instructions can be arranged to load a specific set of useful constants (e.g. -2, -1, or +1). mpy: ; multiply AC0 <- AC1 * AC2, by Toby Thain sub 0,0 ; clear result mbit: movzr 1,1,szc ; shift multiplier, test lsb add 2,0 ; 1: add multiplicand movzl 2,2,szr ; shift and test for zero jmp mbit ; not zero, do another bit jmp 0,3 ; return Binary print accumulator The following routine prints the value of AC1 as a 16 digit binary number, on the RDOS console. It reveals further quirks of the Nova instruction set. For instance, there is no instruction to load an arbitrary “immediate” value into an accumulator (although memory reference instructions do encode such a value to form an effective address). Accumulators must generally be loaded from initialised memory locations (e.g. n16). Other contemporary machines such as the PDP-11, and practically all modern architectures, allow for immediate loads, although many such as ARM restrict the range of values that can be loaded immediately. Because the RDOS .systm call macro implements a jsr, AC3 is overwritten by the return address for the .pchar function. Therefore a temporary location is needed to preserve the return address of the caller of this function. For a recursive or otherwise re-entrant routine, a stack, hardware if available, software if not, must be used instead. The return instruction becomes jmp @ retrn which exploits the Nova's indirect addressing mode to load the return PC. The constant definitions at the end show two assembler features: the assembler radix is octal by default (20 = sixteen), and character constants could be encoded as e.g. "0. pbin: ; print AC1 on console as 16 binary digits, by Toby Thain sta 3,retrn ; save return addr lda 2,n16 ; set up bit counter loop: lda 0,chr0 ; load ASCII '0' movzl 1,1,szc ; get next bit in carry inc 0,0 ; bump to '1' .systm .pchar ; AC0-2 preserved jmp err ; if error inc 2,2,szr ; bump counter jmp loop ; loop again if not zero lda 0,spc ; output a space .systm .pchar jmp err ; if error jmp @ retrn spc: " ;that's a space chr0: "0 n16: -20 retrn: 0 Emulating a Data General Nova Nova assembly language programs can be run under Bob Supnik’s SIMH emulator, in RDOS. Of the above examples, only Hello, world is a complete program. It includes the necessary directives for a successful assembly and generation of a runnable program. Stepwise instructions Start the Nova emulation and boot RDOS following the instructions under “Nova and Eclipse RDOS” in the file src/simh_swre.txt of the simh distribution. After booting, RDOS’ command prompt, R, should appear on the screen. Before the first assembly on a newly setup RDOS system, the macro assembler’s default symbol definitions need to be configured using the following command: <u>mac/s nbid osid nsid paru</u> Create the assembly source file under RDOS: xfer/a $tti test.sr (the xfer command will accept input at the console and copy it to a disk file named test.sr; after entering the command, copy and paste (or type in) a complete assembly language program, and finish with control-Z). Next, run the macro assembler on test.sr to create the object file test.rb: mac/l test (the /l [slash-ell] option enables the listing file test.ls, which can be copied to the console using the command type test.ls). The relocatable loader, rldr, takes the object file and creates the executable test.sv : rldr test To run the program, type test Before going further with serious experimentation, it can be convenient to check one’s programs at the PC using a suitable cross-assembler, such as the portable PDP-8/DG Nova cross-assembler listed in the External links section, before attempting execution in the RDOS environment. RDOS hints To have a directory listing of all files with basename test, type list test.- (note the hyphen, RDOS’ wildcard character) Delete files with delete (this might be needed because xfer won’t replace an existing file) A running program can usually be interrupted with Control-A To exit RDOS, type release %mdir% Quit simh at its prompt with q External links Bob Supnik’s SimH project – Includes a basic Nova emulator in a user-modifiable package The portable C compiler includes a NOVA target. 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1,418 | Lübeck | Lübeck, 15th century. The Hanseatic City of Lübeck () is the second largest city in Schleswig-Holstein, in northern Germany, and one of the major ports of Germany. It was for several centuries the "capital" of the Hanseatic League ("Queen of the Hanse") and because of its Brick Gothic architectural heritage is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. In 2005 it has a population of 213,983. Situated at the Trave River, Lübeck is the largest German port on the Baltic Sea. The old part of the town is an island enclosed by the Trave. The Elbe-Lübeck Canal connects the Trave with the Elbe River. Another important river near the town centre is the Wakenitz. Autobahn 1 connects Lübeck with Hamburg and Denmark (Vogelfluglinie). The borough Travemünde is a sea resort and ferry port at the coast of the Baltic Sea. History The area around Lübeck was settled after the last Ice Age. Several Neolithic dolmens can be found in the area. In addition, around 700 AD Slavic peoples started to come into the eastern parts of Holstein which had been left by many Germanic inhabitants in the course of the Migration Period. By the early 9th century Charlemagne, whose Christianisation attempts were opposed by Saxons, moved Saxons out and brought in Polabian Slavs, who were allied to Charlemagne, in their stead. Liubice ("lovely") was founded on the Trave banks about four kilometres north of the present-day city centre of Lübeck. In the 10th century it became the most important settlement of the Obotrite confederacy and a castle was built. The settlement was burned down in 1128 by pagan Rani from Rügen. The modern town was founded by Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein, in 1143 as a German settlement on the river island Bucu. He established a new castle which was first mentioned by Helmold in 1147. Adolf had to cede the castle to Henry the Lion in 1158. After Henry's fall in 1181, the town became an Imperial city for eight years. Emperor Barbarossa gave the city a ruling council with twenty members that survived into the 19th century. This council was dominated by merchants and caused Lübeck's politics to be dominated by trade interests for centuries to come. The town and castle changed ownership for a period afterwards and was part of the Duchy of Saxony until 1192, of the County of Holstein until 1217 and part of Denmark until the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227. Lübeck's seal, 1280. Around 1200 the port became the main point of departure for colonists leaving for the Baltic territories conquered by the Livonian Order and, later, Teutonic Order. In 1226 Emperor Frederick II elevated the town to an Imperial Free City, becoming the Free City of Lübeck. In the 14th century Lübeck became the "Queen of the Hanseatic League", being by far the largest and most powerful member of this mediaeval trade organization. In 1375, Emperor Charles IV. named Lübeck one of the five "Glories of the Empire", a title shared with Venice, Rome, Pisa and Florence. Several conflicts about trade privileges were fought by Lübeck and the Hanseatic League against Denmark and Norway with varying outcomes. While Lübeck and the Hanseatic League prevailed in conflicts in 1435 and 1512, Lübeck lost when it became involved in the Count's Feud, a civil war that raged in Denmark from 1534 to 1536. Lübeck also joined the Schmalkaldic League. After defeat in the Count's Feud, Lübeck's power slowly declined. Lübeck managed to remain neutral in the Thirty Years' War, but with the devastation caused by the decades-long war and the new transatlantic orientation of European trade, the Hanseatic League and thus Lübeck lost importance. After the Hanseatic League was de facto disbanded in 1669, Lübeck remained an important trading town on the Baltic Sea. The great composer Dieterich Buxtehude became organist at the Marienkirche in Lübeck in 1668 and remained at the post until at least 1703. Lübeck in 1641. In course of the war of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon, troops under Bernadotte occupied the neutral Lübeck after a battle against Blücher on November 6, 1806. Under the Continental System, the bank went into bankruptcy and from 1811 to 1813 Lübeck was formally annexed as part of France until the Vienna Congress of 1815. In 1937 the Nazis passed the so-called Greater Hamburg Act, where the nearby Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg was expanded, to encompass towns that had formally belonged to the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. To compensate Prussia for these losses (and partly because Hitler had a personal dislike for Lübeck), the 711-year-long independence of Lübeck came to an end and almost all its territory was incorporated into Schleswig-Holstein. During World War II, Lübeck was the first German city to be attacked in substantial numbers by the Royal Air Force. The attack on 28 March 1942 created a firestorm, that caused severe damage to the historic centre and the Bombing of Lübeck in World War II destroyed three of the main churches and greater parts of the built-up area. A POW camp for officers, Oflag X-C, was located near the city from 1940 until April 1945. Lübeck was occupied without resistance by the Second Army on May 2 1945. On May 3 1945, one of the biggest disasters in naval history happened in the Bay of Lübeck when RAF bombers sank three ships which, unknown to them, were packed with concentration-camp inmates. About 7,000 people were killed. Lübeck's population grew considerably from about 150,000 in 1939 to more than 220,000 after the war, owing to an influx of refugees expelled from the former Eastern provinces of Germany. Lübeck remained part of Schleswig-Holstein after the war (and consequently lay within West Germany) and was situated directly at the inner German border during the division of Germany into two rival states in the Cold War period. South of the city the border followed the path of the river Wakenitz that separated both countries by less than 10 m in many parts. The northernmost border crossing was in Lübeck's district of Schlutup. Lübeck's restored historic city centre became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. Main sights Buildings |Town Hall. |- |Lightship Fehmarnbelt in front of the Concert and Congress Center. |- |Hospital of the Holy Spirit, one of the oldest social institutions of Lübeck (1260) |- |A typical crow-stepped gabled town house |} Much of the old town has kept a medieval look with old buildings and narrow streets. The town once could only be entered by passing one of four town gates, of which two remain today, the well-known Holstentor (1478) and the Burgtor (1444). The old town centre is dominated by seven church steeples. The oldest ones are the Lübecker Dom (the city's cathedral) and the Marienkirche (Saint Mary's), both from the 13th and 14th centuries. Other sights include: the Lübecker Rathaus (Town Hall). Saint Catherine Church, Lübeck, a church that belonged to a former monastery, now the Katharineum, a Latin school. Thomas Mann's house. Günter Grass' house. Church of St. Lawrence, located on the site of a cemetery of people dead during the 16th century plague. Church of St. Jacob (Lübecker Jakobikirche, 1334). the Salzspeicher, historic warehouses where salt delivered from Lüneburg awaited shipment to Baltic ports. Museums Lübeck has many smaller museums like the St. Annen Museum, the Behnhaus and the Holstentor. Lübeck Museum of Theatre Puppets is a privately run museum. Waterside attractions are a lightvessel that served Fehmarnbelt and Lisa von Lübeck, a reconstruction of a Hanseatic 15th century caravel. Miscellaneous Lübeck is very famous for its excellent marzipan industry, and according to local legend, Marzipan was first made in Lübeck possibly in response to either a military siege of the city, or a famine year. The story, perhaps apocryphal, is that the town ran out of all foods except stored almonds and sugar, and used these to make loaves of marzipan "bread". Others believe that marzipan was actually invented in Persia a few hundred years before Lübeck claims to have invented it. The best known producer is Niederegger, which tourists often visit while in Lübeck, especially during Christmas time. Like many other places in Germany, Lübeck has a long tradition with Christmas market in December, which includes the famous handicrafts market inside the Heiligen-Geist-Hospital (Hospital of the Holy Spirit), located at the north end of Königstrasse. The Lübeck wine trade dates back to Hanseatic times. One Lübeck specialty is Rotspon, wine made from grapes processed and fermented in France and transported in wooden barrels to Lübeck, where it is stored, aged and bottled. Lübeck's only newspaper is Lübecker Nachrichten. The industrial Lübeck-Herrenwyk area, houses the static inverter plant of the HVDC Baltic-Cable. Lubec, Maine, the easternmost town in the United States, is named for Lübeck. Education Lübeck has three universities, Lübeck University of Applied Sciences, University of Lübeck and Musikhochschule Lübeck. The Graduate School for Computing in Medicine and Life Sciences is a central facility of the University and is founded by the German Excellence Initiative. The International School of New Media is an affiliated institute at the University. Notable people from Lübeck Hans Blumenberg – philosopher Willy Brandt – chancellor Ephraim Carlebach – rabbi Felix Carlebach – rabbi Joseph Carlebach – rabbi Björn Engholm – politician Christian Friedrich Heinecken – child prodigy Godfrey Kneller – painter Heinrich Mann – novelist Thomas Mann – novelist Michael Stadtlander – chef Sandra Völker – swimmer Parts The city of Lübeck is divided into 10 zones. These again are arranged into altogether 35 urban districts. The 10 zones with their official numbers, their associated urban districts and the numbers of inhabitants of the quarters: 01 City center (~ 12,000 Inhabitants) 02 St. Jürgen (~ 40,000 Inhabitants) Hüxtertor / Mühlentor / Gärtnergasse, Strecknitz / Rothebek, Blankensee, Wulfsdorf, Beidendorf, Krummesse, Kronsforde, Niederbüssau, Vorrade, Schiereichenkoppel, Oberbüssau 03 Moisling (~ 10,000 Inhabitants) Niendorf / Moorgarten, Reecke, Old-Moisling / Genin 04 Buntekuh (~ 10,000 Inhabitants) 05 St. Lorenz-South (~ 12,000 Inhabitants) 06 St. Lorenz-North (~ 40,000 Inhabitants) Holstentor-North, Falkenfeld / Vorwerk / Teerhof, Großsteinrade / Schönböcken, Dornbreite / Krempelsdorf 07 St. Gertrud (~ 40,000 Inhabitants) Burgtor / Stadtpark, Marli / Brandenbaum, Eichholz, Karlshof / Israelsdorf / Gothmund 08 Schlutup (~ 6,000 Inhabitants) 09 Kücknitz (~ 20,000 Inhabitants) Dänischburg / Siems / Rangenberg / Wallberg, Herrenwyk, Alt-Kücknitz / Dummersdorf / Roter Hahn, Poeppendorf 10 Travemünde (~ 15,000 Inhabitants) Ivendorf, Alt-Travemünde / Rönnau, Priwall, Teutendorf, Brodten Twin Towns - Sister Cities Lübeck is twinned with: Kotka in Finland (since 1969) Venice in Italy (since 1979 - friendship treaty) Wismar in Germany (since 1987) La Rochelle in France (since 1988) Klaipėda in Lithuania (since 1990) Kawasaki, Kanagawa in Japan (since 1992 - friendship treaty) Bergen in Norway (since 1996 - friendship treaty) Visby in Sweden (since 1999) Spokane, Washington in United States See also VfB Lübeck, soccer and sports club Free City of Lübeck Lübeck Airport Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival Nordische Filmtage Lübeck laws Ports of the Baltic Sea Baltic-Cable Bay of Lübeck SS Cap Arcona Oberschule zum Dom Oflag X-C Lübeck Waste Treatment Facility External links Official Homepage Lubeck information A Few Views of Lubeck in Old Postcards Notes and references | Lübeck |@lemmatized lübeck:63 century:10 hanseatic:10 city:18 second:2 large:3 schleswig:5 holstein:8 northern:1 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1,419 | Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator | EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was an early British computer. The machine, having been inspired by John von Neumann's seminal First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, was constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the first practical stored-program electronic computer. The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed "Baby", predated EDSAC as a stored-program computer, but was built as a test bed for the Williams tube and not as a machine for practical use. Later the project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., a British firm, who were rewarded with the first commercially applied computer, LEO I, based on the EDSAC design. EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the squares of the integers from 0 to 99 inclusive. and a list of prime numbers. Technical overview Physical components As soon as EDSAC was constructed, it began serving the University's research needs. None of its components were experimental. It used mercury delay lines for memory, and derated vacuum tubes for logic. Input was via 5-hole punched tape and output was via a teleprinter. Initially registers were limited to an accumulator and a multiplier register. In 1953, David Wheeler, returning from a stay at the University of Illinois, designed an index register as an extension to the original EDSAC hardware. Memory and instructions The EDSAC's memory consisted of 1024 locations, though only 512 locations were initially implemented. Each contained 18 bits, but the first bit was unavailable due to timing restrictions, so only 17 bits were used. An instruction consisted of a five-bit instruction code (designed to be represented by a mnemonic letter, so that the Add instruction, for example, used the bit pattern for the letter A), eleven bits for a memory address (although with 1024 words, only 10 bits were needed), and one bit (for certain instruction) to control whether the instruction operated on a number contained in one word or two. Internally, the EDSAC used two's complement, binary numbers. These were either 17 bits (one word) or 35 bits (two words) long. Unusually, the multiplier was designed to treat numbers as fixed-point fractions in the range -1 ≤ x < 1, ie the binary point was immediately to the right of the sign. The accumulator could hold 71 bits, including the sign, allowing two long (35-bit) numbers to be multiplied without losing any precision. The instructions available were: add, subtract, multiply, collate, This instruction added the bitwise AND of the specified memory word and the multiplier register to the accumulator. shift left, shift right, load multiplier register, store (and optionally clear) accumulator, conditional skip, read input tape, print character, round accumulator, no-op and stop. There was no division instruction (though a number of division subroutines were available) and no way to directly load a number into the accumulator (a “store and zero accumulator” instruction followed by an “add” instruction were necessary for this). System software The initial orders were hard-wired on a set of uniselector switches and loaded into the low words of memory at startup. By May 1949, the initial orders provided a primitive relocating assembler taking advantage of the mnemonic design described above, all in 31 words. This is the world's first assembler, and arguably the start of the global software industry. There is a simulation of EDSAC available and a full description of the initial orders and first programs. The machine was used by other members of the University to solve real problems, and many early techniques were developed that are now included in operating systems. Users prepared their programs by punching them (in assembler) onto a paper tape. They soon became good at being able to hold the paper tape up to the light and read back the codes. When a program was ready it was hung on a length of line strung up near the paper tape reader. The machine operators, who were present during the day, selected the next tape from the line and loaded it into EDSAC. This is of course well known today as job queues. If it printed something then the tape and the printout were returned to the user, otherwise they were informed at which memory location it had stopped. Debuggers were some time away, but a CRT screen could be set to display the contents of a particular piece of memory. This was used to see if a number was converging, for example. After office hours certain "Authorised Users" were allowed to run the machine for themselves, which went on late into the night until a valve blew - which usually happened according to one such user. Professor David Barron, Emeritus Professor of the University of Southampton at a Cambridge Computer Lab seminar to mark the 60th anniversary May 6th 2009. Programming technique The early programmers had to make use of techniques frowned upon today - especially altering the code. As there was no index register until much later the only way of accessing an array was to alter the memory location that a particular instruction referenced. David Wheeler, who earned the world's first Computer Science PhD working on the project, is credited with inventing the concept of a subroutine. A user wrote a program that called a subroutine by jumping to the start of the subroutine with the address of the program counter plus one in the single register (a Wheeler jump). By convention the subroutine expected this and the first thing it did was to overwrite its final jump instruction with that address so that it returned. Multiple and nested subroutines could be called so long as the user knew the length of each one in order to calculate the location to jump to. The user then copied the code for the subroutine from a master tape onto their own tape following the end of their own program. Application software The subroutine concept lead to the availability of a substantial subroutine library. By 1951, 87 subroutines in the following categories were available for general use: floating point arithmetic; arithmetic operations on complex numbers; checking; division; exponentiation; routines relating to functions; differential equations; special functions; power series; logarithms; miscellaneous; print and layout; quadrature; read (input); nth root; Trigonometric functions; counting operations (simulating “repeat”, “while” and “for” loops); vectors and matrices. Historical perspective Applications of EDSAC In 1951, Miller and Wheeler used the machine to discover a 79-digit prime—the largest known at the time. In 1952 A.S. Douglas developed OXO, a version of noughts and crosses (tic-tac-toe) for the EDSAC, with graphical output to a cathode ray tube. This may well have been the world's first video game. In the 1960s EDSAC was used to gather numerical evidence about solutions to elliptic curves, which led to the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture. Further developments EDSAC's successor, EDSAC 2, was commissioned in 1958. In 1961, an EDSAC 2 version of Autocode, an ALGOL-like high-level programming language for scientists and engineers, was developed by David Hartley. In the mid-1960s, a successor to the EDSAC 2 was planned, but the move was instead made to the Titan, a prototype Atlas 2—the latter having been developed from the Atlas Computer of the University of Manchester, Ferranti, and Plessey. Notes References The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer by Professor Sir Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler and Stanley Gill, Addison-Wesley, Edition 1, 1951 External links An EDSAC simulator – Developed by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick , England 50th Anniversary of EDSAC – Dedicated website at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory Nicholas Enticknap and Maurice Wilkes, Cambridge's Golden Jubilee – in: RESURRECTION The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society ISSN 0958-7403 Number 22 Summer 1999 | Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator |@lemmatized edsac:22 electronic:3 delay:2 storage:1 automatic:1 calculator:1 early:3 british:2 computer:11 machine:7 inspire:1 john:1 von:1 neumann:1 seminal:1 first:11 draft:1 report:1 edvac:1 construct:2 maurice:3 wilkes:3 team:1 university:8 cambridge:4 mathematical:1 laboratory:2 england:2 practical:2 store:3 program:12 manchester:2 small:1 scale:1 experimental:2 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1,420 | European_Conference_of_Postal_and_Telecommunications_Administrations | The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) was established on June 26, 1959 as a coordinating body for European state telecommunications and postal organizations. The acronym comes from the French version of its name Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications. CEPT was responsible for the creation of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988. CEPT is organised into two main components: Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) - responsible for radiocommunications and telecommunications matters The permanent secretariat of the ECC is the European Radiocommunications Office (ERO) European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP, after the French "Comité européen des régulateurs postaux") - responsible for postal matters Member countries As of October 2007: 48 countries. Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and Vatican City. See also CEPT1 standard International Telecommunication Union Universal Postal Union WiMAX External links CEPT web site CEPT Electronic Communications Committee ERO web site CERP web site | European_Conference_of_Postal_and_Telecommunications_Administrations |@lemmatized european:5 conference:1 postal:5 telecommunication:5 administration:2 cept:5 establish:1 june:1 coordinating:1 body:1 state:1 organization:1 acronym:1 come:1 french:2 version:1 name:1 conférence:1 européenne:1 de:3 postes:1 et:1 des:1 télécommunications:1 responsible:3 creation:1 standard:2 institute:1 etsi:1 organise:1 two:1 main:1 component:1 electronic:2 communication:2 committee:3 ecc:2 radiocommunication:2 matter:2 permanent:1 secretariat:1 office:1 ero:2 regulation:1 cerp:2 comité:1 européen:1 régulateurs:1 postaux:1 member:1 country:2 october:1 albania:1 andorra:1 austria:1 azerbaijan:1 belarus:1 belgium:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 bulgaria:1 croatia:1 cyprus:1 czech:1 republic:2 denmark:1 estonia:1 finland:1 france:1 georgia:1 germany:1 greece:1 hungary:1 iceland:1 ireland:1 italy:1 latvia:1 liechtenstein:1 lithuania:1 luxembourg:1 former:1 yugoslav:1 macedonia:1 malta:1 moldova:1 monaco:1 montenegro:1 netherlands:1 norway:1 poland:1 portugal:1 romania:1 russian:1 federation:1 san:1 marino:1 serbia:1 slovakia:1 slovenia:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 turkey:1 ukraine:1 united:1 kingdom:1 vatican:1 city:1 see:1 also:1 international:1 union:2 universal:1 wimax:1 external:1 link:1 web:3 site:3 |@bigram azerbaijan_belarus:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 czech_republic:1 republic_macedonia:1 san_marino:1 serbia_slovakia:1 slovakia_slovenia:1 universal_postal:1 external_link:1 |
1,421 | McIntosh_(apple) | |A McIntosh on the tree. The McIntosh Red (or McIntosh, colloquially "Mac") is an apple cultivar with red and green skin, a tart flavor, and tender white flesh. It becomes ripe in late September. It is traditionally the most popular cultivar in New England, well known for the pink sauce unpeeled McIntoshes make. Many consider it a superior eating apple and well suited for applesauce, cider, and pies. It is extremely common to find this particular cultivar packed in children's lunches across North America owing to its small to medium size and longstanding reputation as a healthy snack. Every McIntosh apple has a direct lineage to a single tree discovered in 1811 by John McIntosh on his farm in Dundela, a hamlet near Morrisburg, in Dundas County in the Canadian Province of Ontario. A McIntosh as bought, showing colouring. Offspring of the Mac include the firmer Macoun (a Jersey Black cross), Spartan (recorded as a Newtown Pippin cross), Cortland, Empire, Jonamac, maybe Paula Red, Jersey Mac, and others. The McIntosh was also reportedly the source of the name of the Macintosh computer. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7846575.stm External links The BSA McIntosh Apple Development Poster Ontario Heritage Foundation Ontario Plaques - John McIntosh United States Patent PP12863 - MacIntosh apple variety named `Miriela` Vermont Apples References | McIntosh_(apple) |@lemmatized mcintosh:10 tree:2 red:3 colloquially:1 mac:3 apple:6 cultivar:3 green:1 skin:1 tart:1 flavor:1 tender:1 white:1 flesh:1 become:1 ripe:1 late:1 september:1 traditionally:1 popular:1 new:1 england:1 well:2 know:1 pink:1 sauce:1 unpeeled:1 make:1 many:1 consider:1 superior:1 eating:1 suit:1 applesauce:1 cider:1 pie:1 extremely:1 common:1 find:1 particular:1 pack:1 child:1 lunch:1 across:1 north:1 america:1 owe:1 small:1 medium:1 size:1 longstanding:1 reputation:1 healthy:1 snack:1 every:1 direct:1 lineage:1 single:1 discover:1 john:2 farm:1 dundela:1 hamlet:1 near:1 morrisburg:1 dundas:1 county:1 canadian:1 province:1 ontario:3 bought:1 show:1 colour:1 offspring:1 include:1 firm:1 macoun:1 jersey:2 black:1 cross:2 spartan:1 record:1 newtown:1 pippin:1 cortland:1 empire:1 jonamac:1 maybe:1 paula:1 others:1 also:1 reportedly:1 source:1 name:2 macintosh:2 computer:1 http:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 technology:1 stm:1 external:1 link:1 bsa:1 development:1 poster:1 heritage:1 foundation:1 plaques:1 united:1 state:1 patent:1 variety:1 miriela:1 vermont:1 reference:1 |@bigram uk_hi:1 external_link:1 |
1,422 | Jack_Lemmon | John Uhler "Jack" Lemmon III (February 8, 1925 – June 27, 2001) was an Academy Award and Golden Globe-winning American actor known principally for his comedic roles. He starred in over 60 films including Some Like It Hot, The Apartment, Days of Wine and Roses, Irma La Douce, The Odd Couple, Save the Tiger, The Out-of-Towners, Glengarry Glen Ross, The China Syndrome and JFK. Early life Lemmon was born in an elevator at Newton-Wellesley Hospital in Newton, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. He was the son of Mildred Burgess LaRue (née Noel) and John Uhler Lemmon, Jr., who was the president of a doughnut company. Lemmon stated (on Inside the Actors Studio) that he had an Ulster-Scots heritage.1 Jack Lemmon Biography (1925-2001) Lemmon attended John Ward Elementary School in Newton. He later revealed that he knew he wanted to be an actor from the age of eight. Lemmon attended Phillips Academy (Class of 1943) and Harvard University (Class of 1947) where he lived in Adams House and was an active member of several Drama Clubs - becoming president of the Hasty Pudding Club - as well as a member of the Delphic Club for Gentleman, a final club at Harvard. After Harvard, Lemmon joined the Navy, receiving V-12 training and serving as an ensign. On being discharged, he took up acting professionally, working on radio, television and Broadway. He studied acting under Uta Hagen. He also became enthused with the piano and learned to play it on his own. He could also play the harmonica and the bass fiddle. Career Lemmon's film debut was a bit part as a plasterer/painter in the 1949 film The Lady Takes a Sailor but he was not noticed until his official debut opposite Judy Holliday in the 1954 comedy, It Should Happen to You. Lemmon worked with many legendary leading ladies of the cinema screen, among them Marilyn Monroe, Natalie Wood, Betty Grable, Janet Leigh, Shirley MacLaine, Romy Schneider, Doris Day, Kim Novak, Judy Holliday, Rita Hayworth, June Allyson, Virna Lisi, Ann Margret, Sophia Loren, Grace Lee Whitney, Kathryn Grant and many, many more. He was also close friends with Tony Curtis, Ernie Kovacs and Walter Matthau. He made two films with Curtis and eleven with Matthau. He became a favorite actor of director Billy Wilder, starring in his films Some Like It Hot, The Apartment, Irma La Douce, The Fortune Cookie, Avanti!, The Front Page and Buddy Buddy. Wilder felt Lemmon had a natural tendency toward overacting that had to be tempered; the Wilder biography Nobody's Perfect quotes the director as saying, "Lemmon, I would describe him as a ham, a fine ham, and with ham you have to trim a little fat". The biography also quotes Jack Lemmon as saying, "I am particularly susceptible to the parts I play... If my character was having a nervous breakdown, I started to have one". Lemmon recorded his own album in 1958 while filming Some Like It Hot with Marilyn Monroe. Twelve jazz tracks were created for Lemmon and another twelve tracks were added which were the soundtracks to the film. Lemmon also played the piano and recorded his own versions of Monroe's trademark songs, I Wanna Be Loved By You and I'm Through With Love, for the album which was released in 1959 as A Twist of Lemmon/Some Like It Hot. Lemmon was awarded the Best Supporting Actor Oscar in 1956 for Mister Roberts (1955) and the Best Actor Oscar for Save the Tiger (1973), becoming the first actor to achieve this double. He was also nominated for a Best Actor Oscar for his role in the controversial film Missing in 1982 and for his role in Some Like it Hot. In 1988, the American Film Institute gave him its Lifetime Achievement Award. Days of Wine and Roses (1962) was one of his favorite roles. He portrayed Joe Clay, a young, fun-loving alcoholic businessman. In that film, Lemmon delivered the line, "My name is Joe Clay ... I'm an alcoholic." Three and a half decades later, he admitted on the television program, Inside the Actors Studio, that he was not acting when he delivered that line, that he really was a recovering alcoholic at the end of his life. Lemmon's production company JML produced Cool Hand Luke in 1967. Paul Newman was grateful to Lemmon for his support and offered him the role later made famous by Robert Redford in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid but Lemmon turned it down. He did not like riding horses and he also felt he'd already played too many aspects of the Sundance Kid's character before. A slice of Lemmon for extra character, Bob Flynn, Panorama, p. 7, Canberra Times, August 15, 1998 Throughout his career, Lemmon often appeared in films alongside actor Walter Matthau. They would go on to be one of the most beloved duos in cinema history. Among their pairings was as Felix Unger (Lemmon) and Oscar Madison (Matthau) in the 1968 film, The Odd Couple. They also starred together in The Fortune Cookie (for which Matthau won an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor), The Front Page and Buddy Buddy. In 1971, Lemmon directed Matthau in the comedy Kotch. It was the only movie that Lemmon ever directed and Matthau was nominated for the Best Actor Oscar for his performance. Additionally, Lemmon and Matthau had small parts in Oliver Stone's 1991 film, JFK (the only film in which they both appeared but shared no screentime). In 1993, the duo teamed up again to star in Grumpy Old Men. The film was a surprise hit, earning the two actors a new generation of young fans. During the rest of the decade, they would go on to star together in Out to Sea, Grumpier Old Men and the widely-panned The Odd Couple II. The only death scenes that Lemmon performed were in The China Syndrome in 1979 and in The Legend of Bagger Vance where he played uncredited introductory and final scenes. For his part in The China Syndrome, he was awarded Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival. In 1982, he won another Cannes award for his performance in Missing (which also received the Palme d'Or). He is currently the only actor other than Marcello Mastroianni to have won it twice.. At the 1998 Golden Globe Awards, he was nominated for "Best Actor in a Made for TV Movie" for his role in Twelve Angry Men losing to Ving Rhames. After accepting the award, Rhames asked Lemmon to come onstage and in a move that stunned the audience, gave his award to him. (The Hollywood Foreign Press Association, which presents the Golden Globes, decided to have a second award made and sent to Rhames.). Personal life Lemmon was one of the best-liked actors in Hollywood. He is remembered as making time for people as the actor Kevin Spacey recalled in a tribute. When already regarded as a legend, he met the teenage Spacey backstage after a theater performance and spoke to him about pursuing an acting career. YouTube - Charlie Rose - Kevin Spacey / Jamaica Kincaid Spacey would later work with Lemmon in Dad (1989), the critically acclaimed film Glengarry Glen Ross (1992) and on stage in a revival of Long Day's Journey Into Night. Lemmon's performance even inspired Gil Gunderson, a character on The Simpsons that is modeled on Lemmon's character in the film. Lemmon was married twice. His son, Chris Lemmon, (b. 1954), was his first child by his first wife, actress Cynthia Stone (b. February 26, 1926, Peoria, Illinois). He is also an actor. His second wife was the western actress Felicia Farr, with whom he had a daughter, Courtney, born in 1966. Jack Lemmon died of colon cancer and metastatic cancer of the bladder Find A Grave - Millions of Cemetery Records on June 27, 2001. He had been fighting the disease, very privately, for two years before his death. Lemmon's son, Chris Lemmon, made several TV shows and movies. He also wrote a book about his father after his death named A Twist of Lemmon: A Tribute to My Father. He is interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Westwood, California where he is buried next to his friend and Odd Couple co-star, Walter Matthau. In typical Jack Lemmon wit, his gravestone simply reads 'Jack Lemmon — in'. After Matthau's death in 2000, Lemmon appeared with friends and relatives of the actor on a Larry King Live show in tribute. A year later, many of the same people appeared on the show again to pay tribute to Lemmon. Filmography Film Year Film Role Notes1949The Lady Takes a SailorPlastererUncredited1954It Should Happen to YouPete SheppardPhffft!Robert Tracey1955Three for the ShowMartin 'Marty' StewartMister Roberts Ens. Frank Thurlowe PulverAcademy Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActorMy Sister EileenRobert 'Bob' BakerHollywood Bronc BustersHimself1956You Can't Run Away from ItPeter Warne1957Fire Down Below TonyOperation Mad Ball (1957) Pvt. Hogan1958Cowboy Frank Harris Bell, Book and CandleNicky Holroyd1959Some Like It HotJerry - 'Daphne'BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActorGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorIt Happened to JaneGeorge Denham1960The ApartmentC.C. Baxter BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActorGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorStowaway in the SkyNarratorvoicePepeHimselfCameo appearance as Daphne The Wackiest Ship In the Army Lt. Rip Crandall1962The Notorious Landlady William 'Bill' GridleyDays of Wine and Roses Joe ClaySan Sebastián International Film Festival Award for Best ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1963Irma la DouceNestor Patou / Lord X Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyUnder the Yum Yum Tree HoganNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1964Good Neighbor SamSam BisselNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor1965How to Murder Your Wife Stanley FordNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActorThe Great Race Prof. FateNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1966The Fortune Cookie Harry Hinkle 1967Luv Harry Berlin1968There Comes a DayThe Odd Couple Felix UngarNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1969The April Fools Howard Brubaker1970The Out-of-Towners George Kellerman Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1971Kotch Sleeping bus passengeruncredited1972 The War Between Men and Women Peter Edward WilsonAvanti! Wendell Armbruster, Jr.Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1973Save the Tiger Harry StonerAcademy Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1974The Police Can't MoveNarratorvoiceThe Front Page Hildy JohnsonDavid di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor shared with Walter MatthauNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1975Wednesday Jerry Murphy The Gentleman TrampNarratorThe Prisoner of Second AvenueMel Edison1976Alex & the Gypsy Alexander Main1977Airport '77Capt. Don Gallagher 1979The China Syndrome Jack GodellBest Actor Award (Cannes Film Festival)David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor tied with Dustin Hoffman for Kramer vs. KramerBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1980Tribute Scottie TempletonSilver Bear for Best ActorGenie Award for Best Performance by a Foreign ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — American Movie Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1981Buddy Buddy Victor Clooney1982Missing Ed HormanBest Actor Award (Cannes Film Festival)Nominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1984Mass Appeal Father Tim Farley1985Macaroni Robert Traven1986That's Life! Harvey FairchildNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy1989DadJake TremontNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1991JFKJack Martin 1992Beyond 'JFK': The Question of ConspiracyHimself also archive footageThe Player HimselfGlengarry Glen Ross Shelley LeveneNational Board of Review Award for Best ActorValladolid International Film Festival Award for Best ActorVolpi Cup1993Luck, Trust & Ketchup: Robert Altman In Carver County HimselfShort Cuts Paul FinniganGolden Globe Special Award for Best Ensemble CastVolpi CupGrumpy Old Men John GustafsonNominated — American Comedy Award for Funniest Actor in a Motion Picture1995The Grass Harp Dr. Morris RitzGrumpier Old Men John Gustafson1996Getting Away with Murder Max Mueller / Karl LugerMy Fellow AmericansPresident Russell P. KramerHamlet Marcellus1997Out to Sea Herb SullivanOff the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's Himself1998Puppies for Sale Pet Shop OwnerThe Odd Couple II Felix Ungar2000The Legend of Bagger Vance Narrator / Old Hardy Greaves uncredited Television {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |-style="background:#B0C4DE;" ! Year ! Film ! Role ! Notes |- |1949-1950 |That Wonderful Guy|Harold | |- |1950 |Toni Twin Time|Host |Episode dated May 31, 1950 |- |1951 |The Ad-Libbers |Celebrity Panelist |cancelled after 5 episodes |- |1951-1952 |The Frances Langford-Don Ameche Show |Newlywed |in 'The Couple Next Door' sketches |- |1952 |Heaven for Betsy |Pete Bell |cancelled after a few weeks |- |1954 |The Road of Life|Surgeon |cancelled after a few weeks |- |1957 |What's My Line?|Mystery Guest |November 3, 1957 Episode # 388, Season 9, Ep 10 |- |1957-1958 |Alcoa Theatre|Henry CoyleSteve TylerWally MallLieutenant Tony CrawfordEdward King |Episode "Disappearance"Episode "Most Likely to Succeed"Episode "Loudmouth"Episode "The Days of November"Episode "Souvenir" |- |1976 |The Entertainer |Archie Rice | |- |1987 |Long Day's Journey Into Night |James Tyrone Sr. |Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film |- |1988 |The Murder of Mary Phagan| Gov. John Slaton |Nominated — Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor – Miniseries or a MovieNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film |- |1992 |For Richer, for Poorer| Aram Katourian | |- |1993 |A Life in the Theater |Robert |Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film |- |1996 |A Weekend in the Country|Bud Bailey | |- |rowspan=2|1997 |The Simpsons |Frank Ormand (voice) |Episode "The Twisted World of Marge Simpson" |- |12 Angry Men |Juror #8 |Nominated — Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor – Miniseries or a MovieNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television FilmNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie |- |1998 |The Long Way Home |Thomas Gerrin | |- |rowspan=2|1999 |Inherit the Wind |Henry Drummond |Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television FilmNominated — Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor – Miniseries or a Movie |- |Tuesdays with Morrie |Morrie Schwartz |Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor – Miniseries or a MovieScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television MovieNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film |} Discography A Twist of Lemmon/Some Like It Hot (1959) Piano Selections from Irma La Douce (1963) Piano and Vocals (1990) Peter and the Wolf (1991) Songs and music from Some Like It Hot (2001) Personal quotes Death ends a life, not a relationship. (Tuesdays with Morrie) I won't quit until I get run over by a truck, a producer or a critic. Failure seldom stops you. What stops you is the fear of failure. If you think it's hard to meet new people, try picking up the wrong golf ball. It's hard enough to write a good drama, it's much harder to write a good comedy, and it's hardest of all to write a drama with comedy. Which is what life is. Nobody deserves this much money - certainly not an actor. Stay humble. Always answer your phone - no matter who else is in the car. [on Marilyn Monroe] Difficult? Yes. But she was a wonderful comedienne and she had a charisma like no one before or since. [on Judy Holliday] She was intelligent and not at all like the dumb blonds she so often depicted. She didn't give a damn where the camera was placed, how she was made to look, or about being a star. She just played the scene—acted with, not at. She was also one of the nicest people I ever met. [on Billy Wilder] I've had directors who were marvelous at breaking scenes down and handling people. But when you would string all the pearls together, they wouldn't make a beautiful necklace. But Billy is the kind of picture-maker who can make a beautiful string of pearls. He makes the kind of movies that are classics and last forever. [on Walter Matthau] Walter is a helluva actor. The best I've ever worked with. Bibliography References External links Actor Jack Lemmon dead at 76 Jack Lemmon at the Archive of American Television Obituary in the Los Angeles Times | Jack_Lemmon |@lemmatized john:6 uhler:2 jack:9 lemmon:47 iii:1 february:2 june:3 academy:8 award:62 golden:23 globe:26 win:5 american:5 actor:60 know:2 principally:1 comedic:1 role:8 star:7 film:29 include:1 like:11 hot:7 apartment:2 day:7 wine:3 rose:3 irma:3 la:4 douce:3 odd:6 couple:7 save:2 tiger:3 towner:2 glengarry:2 glen:3 ross:3 china:4 syndrome:4 jfk:3 early:1 life:8 bear:3 elevator:1 newton:3 wellesley:1 hospital:1 massachusetts:1 suburb:1 boston:1 son:3 mildred:1 burgess:1 larue:1 née:1 noel:1 jr:2 president:2 doughnut:1 company:2 state:1 inside:2 studio:2 ulster:1 scots:1 heritage:1 biography:3 attend:2 ward:1 elementary:1 school:1 later:5 reveal:1 want:1 age:1 eight:1 phillips:1 class:2 harvard:3 university:1 live:2 adam:1 house:1 active:1 member:2 several:2 drama:3 club:4 become:4 hasty:1 pudding:1 well:1 delphic:1 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1,423 | Classics | Bust of Homer. Classics is the branch of the Humanities comprising the languages, literature, philosophy, history, art, archaeology and other culture of the ancient Mediterranean World; especially Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome during Classical Antiquity (Bronze Age ca. BC 3000 – Dark Ages ca. AD 500). Initially, study of the Classics (the period’s literature) was the principal study in the humanities. Traditionally, the Classics studied the Mediterranean civilisations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, yet, Ancient Egypt was beyond the discipline. Contemporary classicists study a broader Classics field that comprises the Oriental ancient Mediterranean World, thus, Orientalist scholars concentrate upon the near and far Eastern Mediterranean civilisations — the Persian Empire, the kingdoms of Ancient India, et al. History of the Western Classics The word “classics” derives from the Latin adjective classicus: “belonging to the highest class of citizens”, connoting superiority, authority, and perfection. The first application of “Classic” to a writer was by Aulus Gellius, a second-century Roman writer who, in the miscellany Noctes Atticae (19, 8, 15), refers to a writer as a Classicus scriptor, non proletarius (“A distinguished, not a commonplace writer”). Such classification began with the Greeks’ ranking their cultural works, with the word canon (“carpenter’s rule”). Moreover, early Christian Church Fathers used canon to rank the authoritative texts of the New Testament, preserving them, given the expense of vellum and papyrus and mechanical book reproduction, thus, being comprehended in a canon ensured a book’s preservation as the best of a civilisation. Contemporarily, the Western canon defines the best of Western culture. In the ancient world, at the Alexandrian Library, scholars coined the Greek term Hoi enkrithentes (“the admitted”, “the included”) to identify the writers in the canon. The method of study in the Classical World was “Philo’s Rule”: μεταχάραττε τὸ θεῖον νόμισμα (“Metacharatte to theion nomisma”) — the law of strict continuity in preserving words and ideas. Although the definitions of words and ideas might broaden, continuity (preservation) requires retention of their original arete (excellence, virtue, goodness). “Philo’s Rule” imparts intellectual and æsthetic appreciation of “the best which has been thought and said in the world”. To wit, Oxford classicist Edward Copleston said that classical education “communicates to the mind . . . a high sense of honour, a disdain of death in a good cause, [and] a passionate devotion to the welfare of one’s country”, Edward Copleston, The Victorians and Ancient Greece, Richard Jenkyns, 60. thus concurring with Cicero that: “All literature, all philosophical treatises, all the voices of antiquity are full of examples for imitation, which would all lie unseen in darkness without the light of literature”. Legacy of the Classical World The Classical languages of the Ancient Mediterranean world influenced every Western European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application, thus, Latin was the international lingua franca in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic, and religious, until the seventeenth century. In turn, the Classical languages continued, Latin evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects. Moreover, it is in the specialised science and technology vocabularies that the Latin influence in English and the Greek influence in English are notable, however, it is Ecclesiastical Latin (a dialect), the Roman Catholic Church’s official tongue, that remains a living legacy of the classical world to the contemporary world. Sub-disciplines within the classics One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding their studies to Northern Africa and the Middle East. Forebears of the Classical World The Classical civilization did not develop in isolation; the ancient Greeks were partially indebted to their geographical proximity to much older cultures. But their originality and achievements are undeniable. Ancient Egypt Babylonia Phoenicia India China/Manchuria Philology Traditionally, classics was essentially the philology of ancient texts. Although now less dominant, philology retains a central role. One definition of classical philology describes it as "the science which concerns itself with everything that has been transmitted from antiquity in the Greek or Latin language. The object of this science is thus the Graeco-Roman, or Classical, world to the extent that it has left behind monuments in a linguistic form." J. and K. Kramer, La filologia classica, 1979 as quoted by [Christopher S. Mackay|http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/Philology.html] Of course, classicists also concern themselves with other languages than Classical Greek and Latin including Linear A, Linear B, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Oscan, Etruscan, and many more. Before the invention of the printing press, texts were reproduced by hand and distributed haphazardly. As a result, extant versions of the same text often differ from one another. Some classical philologists, known as textual critics, seek to synthesize these defective texts to find the most accurate version. Archaeology Classical archæology is the investigation of the physical remains of the great Mediterranean civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The archæologists’ field, laboratory, library, and documentation work make available the extant literary and linguistic cultural artefacts to the field’s sub-disciplines, such as Philology. Like-wise, archæologists rely upon the philology of ancient literatures in establishing historic contexts among the classic-era remains of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Art history Some art historians focus their study of the development of art on the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of Ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, Ancient Greek architecture gave us the Classical Orders: Doric order, Ionic order, and Corinthian order. The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world. Greek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several Ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias. Civilization and history With philology, archæology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilisation, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult, given the dearth of physical evidence; for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta’s principal rival; like-wise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans. Philosophy Pythagoras coined the word philosophy (“love of wisdom”), the work of the “Philosopher” who seeks understanding of the world as it is, thus, most classics scholars know that the roots of Western philosophy originate in Greek philosophy, the works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. Classical Greece Greek Philosophy Greek Mythology and religion Greek Science Greek History Greek Literature Greek Language The Presocratics pre-date Socrates. The 6th C. BC Milesians (Miletus, Ionia), are the earliest. Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Heraclitus Pythagoras Xenophanes The Eleatics worked in Elea, Magna Graecia. Parmenides Zeno The Atomists Leucippus Democritus The Sophists Gorgias Protagoras Antiphon Socrates Plato Aristotle Epicureanism Stoicism Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Epictetus Scepticism NeoplatonismGreek mythology Greek religion Greek astronomy and geography Ptolemy Greek mathematics Euclid Greek medicine Hippocrates GalenThe Minoan civilization The Mycenaean civilization The Dark Ages Classical Greece Alexander the Great The Hellenistic period Roman conquest of Greece The Byzantine (Roman) Empire Greek literature Poets Bucolic poetry Theocritus Didactic poetry Hesiod Epic poetry Homer Lyric poetry Alcaeus of Mytilene Alcman Archilochus Bacchylides Mimnermus Pindar Sappho Semonides Simonides of Ceos Tyrtaeus Playwrights Tragedians Aeschylus Euripides Sophocles Comic playwrights Aristophanes Menander Prose writers Historiography Herodotus Plutarch Polybius Thucydides Xenophon Oratory Aeschines Demosthenes Isocrates Lysias Other Lucian PlatoAeolic dialect Ancient Greek Attic dialect Doric dialect Greek alphabet Homeric Greek Ionic dialect Koine Classical Rome Roman Philosophy Roman mythology and religion Roman Science Roman History Roman Literature Latin Language Seneca the Younger Cicero Lucretius Marcus AureliusRoman mythology Roman religion Agriculture Cato the Elder Columella Varro Astrology/Astronomy Manilius Architecture/Engineering Frontinus VitruviusPeriods The founding of Rome Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire The fall of Rome Topics The Samnite Wars The Pyrrhic War The Punic Wars The First Punic War The Second Punic War The Third Punic War The Social War The Gallic Wars The Civil war between Antony and Octavian The Germanic Wars Poets Didactic poetry Ovid Virgil Drama Plautus Seneca the Younger Terence Elegiac poetry Catullus Ovid Propertius Tibullus Epic poetry Ennius Lucan Ovid Virgil Statius Epigram Martial Lyric poetry Catullus Horace Satire Horace Juvenal Persius Prose writers Epistolary writers Cicero Pliny the younger Seneca Encyclopedia Pliny the Elder Apuleius Petronius History Caesar Livy Sallust Suetonius Tacitus Oratory Rhetoric Quintilian Satire Petronius Seneca the YoungerLatin Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Famous Classicists Throughout the history of the Western world, many classicists have gone on to gain acknowledgment outside the field. James A. Baker III, Republican politician; Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of State, graduated in 1952 with a B.A. in Classics from Princeton University. George Berkeley, philosopher, read Classics at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was also Junior Lecturer in Greek Jerry Brown, former governor of California, mayor of Oakland, and California Attorney General; majored in Classics at the University of California, Berkeley. John Buchan, writer and politician, who served as Governor General of Canada. William S. Cohen, Republican politician and former United States Secretary of Defense, majored in Latin at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine and graduated cum laude in 1962. W. E. B. Du Bois, civil rights leader, Pan-Africanist, sociologist, historian, author; professor of Greek and Latin at Wilberforce University James Garfield, twentieth President of the United States, briefly taught Classics at what is now Hiram College. John William Fletcher, Methodist theologians; studied classics in Geneva. Sir James George Frazer, poet and anthropologist Charles Geschke, founder of Adobe Systems; earned Bachelor of Arts in classics at Xavier University William Gladstone, 19th century British Prime Minister, studied classics at Oxford University Jane Ellen Harrison, early 20th-century academic Newnham College Cambridge: Newnham Biographies Garret Augustus Hobart, Vice President of the United States under William McKinley. A.E. Housman, best known to the public as a poet and the author of A Shropshire Lad, was the most accomplished (and feared) textual critic of his generation and held the Kennedy Professorship of Latin at Trinity College, Cambridge from 1911 until his death in 1936. Boris Johnson, Conservative politician and Mayor of London Martha Kearney, journalist and broadcaster; self-confessed "lapsed Classicist" Anthony James Leggett, Nobel Prize in Physics laureate; studied Greats at Balliol College, Oxford before switching to physics Chris Martin, singer with Coldplay Karl Marx, philosopher and political thinker, studied Latin and Greek and received a Ph.D. for a dissertation on ancient Greek philosophy, entitled "The Difference between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature." His classical background is reflected in his philosophies—indeed the term "proletariat" which he coined came from that Latin word referring to the lowest class of citizen. John Milton, author of Paradise Lost and English Civil War figure; studied, like many educated people of the time, Latin and Greek texts, which influenced Paradise Lost Theodor Mommsen, author of History of Rome and works on Roman law; German politician, delegate in the Reichstag during the German Empire period Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher; earned Ph.D. and became Professor of Classics at the University of Basel in Switzerland Toni Morrison, noted author and Nobel Prize winner; studied classics at Howard University Howard University Department of English Website: http://www.coas.howard.edu/english/legends-Morrison.html Nick Owen, presenter of Midlands Today Ruth Padel, writer, scholar and poet Katherine Parkinson, actress, plays the character of Jen Baber in The IT Crowd Enoch Powell, British Conservative and later Ulster Unionist politician; wrote and edited texts on Herodotus Joanne Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series; studied classics at Exeter University J.R.R. Tolkien, writer and scholar; originally studied classics but changed to English Ted Turner, media mogul and CNN founder; studied classics before being expelled from Brown University Peter Weller, actor, played titular role in Robocop, holds master's degree in Roman art and is a frequent lecturer at Syracuse University Oscar Wilde, 19th-century playwright; studied classics at Trinity College, Dublin and Magdalen College, Oxford P.G. Wodehouse, writer, playwright, lyricist and creator of Jeeves; studied classics at Dulwich College Robert Greene, psychologist, author of 48 Laws of Power, Art of Seduction, and 33 Strategies of War; holds classics degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Modern Quotations About "Nor can I do better, in conclusion, than impress upon you the study of Greek literature, which not only elevates above the vulgar herd but leads not infrequently to positions of considerable emolument."—Thomas Gaisford, Christmas sermon, Christ Church, Oxford. "I would make them all learn English: and then I would let the clever ones learn Latin as an honour, and Greek as a treat."—Sir Winston Churchill, Roving Commission: My Early Life "He studied Latin like the violin, because he liked it."—Robert Frost, The Death of the Hired Man "I enquire now as to the genesis of a philologist and assert the following: 1. A young man cannot possibly know what the Greeks and Romans are. 2. He does not know whether he is suited for finding out about them."—Friedrich Nietzsche, Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen "A classic is something that everybody wants to have read and nobody wants to read." —Mark Twain, The Disappearance of Literature. "I doubt whether classical education ever has been or can be successfully carried out without corporal punishment." —George Orwell "It's economically illiterate. A degree in Classics or Philosophy can be as valuable as anything else."—Boris Johnson See also Main list: List of basic topics in classical studies Digital Classicist Humanism Literae Humaniores Loeb Classical Library Philology Western culture Western World Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Classical scholars Classics journals Notes References Dictionaries Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists by Ward W. Briggs, Jr. (editor). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-24560-6). Classical Scholarship: A Biographical Encyclopedia (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) by Ward W. Briggs and William M. Calder III (editors). New York: Taylor & Francis, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8240-8448-9). Dictionary of British classicists, 1500–1960 by Richard B. Todd (General editor). Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 (ISBN 1-85506-997-0). Reviewed by Mary Beard in The Times Literary Supplement, April 15, 2005. An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology, edited by Nancy Thomson de Grummond. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-22066-2; ISBN 0-313-30204-9 (A–K); ISBN 0-313-30205-7 (L–Z)). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, ed. by Harry Thurston Peck. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1896; 2nd ed., 1897; New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1965. Medwid, Linda M. The Makers of Classical Archaeology: A Reference Work. New York: Humanity Books, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 1-57392-826-7). The New Century Classical Handbook, ed. by Catherine B. Avery. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, revised 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-19-860641-9). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, ed. by M.C. Howatson. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Miscellaneous Beard, Mary; Henderson, John. Classics: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-285313-9); 2000 (new edition, paperback, ISBN 0-19-285385-6). Briggs, Ward W.; Calder, III, William M. Classical scholarship: A biographical encyclopedia (Garland reference library of the humanities). London: Taylor & Francis, 1990 (ISBN 0-8240-8448-9). Forum: Class and Classics: Krevans, Nita. "Class and Classics: A Historical Perspective," The Classical Journal, Vol. 96, No. 3. (2001), p. 293. Moroney, Siobhan. "Latin, Greek and the American Schoolboy: Ancient Languages and Class Determinism in the Early Republic", The Classical Journal, Vol. 96, No. 3. (2001), pp. 295–307. Harrington Becker, Trudy. "Broadening Access to a Classical Education: State Universities in Virginia in the Nineteenth Century", The Classical Journal, Vol. 96, No. 3. (2001), pp. 309–322. Bryce, Jackson. "Teaching the Classics", The Classical Journal, Vol. 96, No. 3. (2001), pp. 323–334. Knox, Bernard. The Oldest Dead White European Males, And Other Reflections on the Classics. New York; London: W.W. Norton & Co., 1993. Macrone, Michael. Brush Up Your Classics. New York: Gramercy Books, 1991. (Guide to famous words, phrases and stories of Greek classics.) Nagy, Péter Tibor. "The meanings and functions of classical studies in Hungary in the 18th–20th century", in The social and political history of Hungarian education (ISBN 963-200-511-2). Wellek, René. "Classicism in Literature", in Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, ed. by Philip P. Wiener. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968. Winterer, Caroline. The Mirror of Antiquity: American Women and the Classical Tradition, 1750–1900. Ithaca, NY; London: Cornell University Press, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-8014-4163-9). External links The Classical Association, the largest classical organization in the UK. The American Classical League, the largest classics organization in the US, mainly a Latin, Greek, and Humanities teacher resource center The National Junior Classical League, the largest youth-oriented Classics organization in the world, with US and international chapters, and membership for all middle- and high-school students of the Classics Classical Resources on Internet at the Department of Classical Philology, University of Tartu. De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Electronic Resources for Classicists by the University of California, Irvine. 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1,424 | Cross_section_(physics) | In nuclear and particle physics, the concept of a cross section is used to express the likelihood of interaction between particles. When particles are thrown against a foil made of a certain substance, the cross section is a hypothetical area measure around the target particles (usually its atoms) that represents a surface. If a particle of the beam crosses this surface, there will be some kind of interaction. The term is derived from the purely classical picture of (a large number of) point-like projectiles directed to an area that includes a solid target. Assuming that an interaction will occur (with 100% probability) if the projectile hits the solid, and not at all (0% probability) if it misses, the total interaction probability for the single projectile will be the ratio of the area of the section of the solid (the cross section, represented by ) to the total targeted area. This basic concept is then extended to the cases where the interaction probability in the targeted area assumes intermediate values - because the target itself is not homogeneous, or because the interaction is mediated by a non-uniform field. A particular case is scattering. Scattering In scattering, a differential cross section is defined by the probability to observe a scattered particle in a given quantum state per solid angle unit, such as within a given cone of observation, if the target is irradiated by a flux of one particle per surface unit: To put it another way, it is the rate of scattering events () normalized to the beam intensity (), the target density (), the length of the beam-target interaction region (), the geometrical "size" of detector (), and the "counting" efficiency of the detector (). If the detector is small and sufficiently far from the target, then the geometrical "size" of the detector is given by: The integral cross section is the integral of the differential cross section on the whole sphere of observation (4 steradian): A cross section is therefore a measure of the effective surface area seen by the impinging particles, and as such is expressed in units of area. Usual units are the cm2, the barn (1 b = 10−28 m2) and the corresponding submultiples: the millibarn (1 mb = 10−3 b), the microbarn (1 b = 10−6 b), the nanobarn ( 1 nb = 10−9 b), the picobarn (1 pb = 10−12 b), and the shed (1 shed = 10−24 b). The cross section of two particles (i.e. observed when the two particles are colliding with each other) is a measure of the interaction event between the two particles. The cross section is proportional to the probability that an interaction will occur; for example in a simple scattering experiment the number of particles scattered per unit of time (current of scattered particles ) depends only to the number of incident particles per unit of time (current of incident particles ), to the characteristics of target (for example the number of particles per unit of surface N) and to the type of interaction expressed to the cross section. Relation to the S matrix If the reduced masses and momenta of the colliding system are mi, and mf, before and after the collision respectively, the differential cross section is given by where the on-shell T matrix is defined by in terms of the S matrix. The function is the distribution called the Dirac delta function. The computation of the S matrix is the main aim of the scattering theory. Nuclear physics In nuclear physics, it is convenient to express the probability of a particular event by a cross section. Statistically, the centers of the atoms in a thin foil can be considered as points evenly distributed over a plane. The center of an atomic projectile striking this plane has geometrically a definite probability of passing within a certain distance of one of these points. In fact, if there are atomic centers in an area of the plane, this probability is , which is simply the ratio of the aggregate area of circles of radius drawn around the points to the whole area. If we think of the atoms as impenetrable steel discs and the impinging particle as a bullet of negligible diameter, this ratio is the probability that the bullet will strike a steel disc, i.e., that the atomic projectile will be stopped by the foil. If it is the fraction of impinging atoms getting through the foil which is measured, the result can still be expressed in terms of the equivalent stopping cross section of the atoms. This notion can be extended to any interaction between the impinging particle and the atoms in the target. For example, the probability that an alpha particle striking a beryllium target will produce a neutron can be expressed as the equivalent cross section of beryllium for this type of reaction. See also Scattering theory Radar: The (monostatic) radar cross section is defined as 4 π times the radio differential cross section at 180 degrees. Cross sectional area References R.G. Newton. Scattering Theory of Waves and Particles. McGraw Hill, 1966. External links Nuclear Cross Section Scattering Cross Section IAEA - Nuclear Data Services BNL - National Nuclear Data Center Particle Data Group - The Review of Particle Physics IUPAC Goldbook - Definition: Reaction Cross Section IUPAC Goldbook - Definition: Collision Cross Section | Cross_section_(physics) |@lemmatized nuclear:6 particle:22 physic:4 concept:2 cross:22 section:21 use:1 express:6 likelihood:1 interaction:11 throw:1 foil:4 make:1 certain:2 substance:1 hypothetical:1 area:11 measure:4 around:2 target:11 usually:1 atom:6 represent:2 surface:5 beam:3 kind:1 term:3 derive:1 purely:1 classical:1 picture:1 large:1 number:4 point:4 like:1 projectile:5 direct:1 include:1 solid:4 assume:2 occur:2 probability:11 hit:1 miss:1 total:2 single:1 ratio:3 basic:1 extend:2 case:2 targeted:1 intermediate:1 value:1 homogeneous:1 mediate:1 non:1 uniform:1 field:1 particular:2 scatter:8 scattering:2 differential:4 define:3 observe:2 scattered:2 give:4 quantum:1 state:1 per:5 angle:1 unit:7 within:2 cone:1 observation:2 irradiate:1 flux:1 one:2 put:1 another:1 way:1 rate:1 event:3 normalize:1 intensity:1 density:1 length:1 region:1 geometrical:2 size:2 detector:4 counting:1 efficiency:1 small:1 sufficiently:1 far:1 integral:2 whole:2 sphere:1 steradian:1 therefore:1 effective:1 see:2 impinging:3 usual:1 barn:1 b:7 corresponding:1 submultiples:1 millibarn:1 mb:1 microbarn:1 nanobarn:1 nb:1 picobarn:1 pb:1 shed:2 two:3 e:2 collide:1 proportional:1 example:3 simple:1 experiment:1 time:3 current:2 depend:1 incident:2 characteristic:1 n:1 type:2 relation:1 matrix:4 reduced:1 mass:1 momentum:1 colliding:1 system:1 mi:1 mf:1 collision:2 respectively:1 shell:1 function:2 distribution:1 call:1 dirac:1 delta:1 computation:1 main:1 aim:1 theory:3 convenient:1 statistically:1 center:4 thin:1 consider:1 evenly:1 distribute:1 plane:3 atomic:3 strike:3 geometrically:1 definite:1 pass:1 distance:1 fact:1 simply:1 aggregate:1 circle:1 radius:1 drawn:1 think:1 impenetrable:1 steel:2 disc:2 bullet:2 negligible:1 diameter:1 stop:1 fraction:1 impinge:1 get:1 result:1 still:1 equivalent:2 stopping:1 notion:1 alpha:1 beryllium:2 produce:1 neutron:1 reaction:2 also:1 radar:2 monostatic:1 π:1 radio:1 degree:1 sectional:1 reference:1 r:1 g:1 newton:1 wave:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 external:1 link:1 iaea:1 data:3 service:1 bnl:1 national:1 group:1 review:1 iupac:2 goldbook:2 definition:2 |@bigram dirac_delta:1 evenly_distribute:1 cross_sectional:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 |
1,425 | Edo | Map of Edo as of 1840's View of Edo, left screen from a pair of six-panel folding screens, 17th century. In Zōjō-ji the Shoguns were buried Nihonbashi in Edo, Ukiyo-e by Hiroshige , literally: bay-door, "estuary", ), also romanized as Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of the Japanese capital Tokyo, and was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868. During this period it grew to become one of the largest cities in the world and the site of a vibrant urban culture centered on notions of the "floating world". Sansom, George. A History of Japan: 1615–1867, p. 114. History Edo magistrates Ishimaru Sadatsuga, 1661. Encyclopedia Britannica (1911): "Japan: Commerce in Tokugawa Times," p. 201. From the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu's headquarters at Edo, Kyoto remained merely the formal capital of the country. The de facto capital was now Edo, because it was the center of real political power. Edo consequently rapidly grew from what had been a small, virtually unknown fishing village in 1457 to a metropolis with an estimated population of 1,000,000 by 1721, the largest city in the world at the time. Gordon, Andrew. (2003). A Modern History of Japan from Tokugawa Times to the Present, p. 23. Edo was repeatedly devastated by fires, with the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657—in which an estimated 100,000 people died—perhaps the most disastrous. During the Edo period there were about one hundred fires, typically started by accident and often quickly escalating to giant proportions, spreading through neighbourhoods of wooden machiya that were heated with charcoal fires. Between 1600 and 1945, Edo/Tokyo was leveled every 25–50 years or so by fire, earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic eruptions, and war. In 1868, when the shogunate came to an end, the city was renamed Tokyo, meaning "eastern capital", and the emperor moved his residence to Tokyo, making the city the formal capital of Japan. Keiō 4, on the 17th day of the 7th month (September 3, 1868): Edo was renamed "Tokyo," i.e. meaning "Eastern Capital." Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1956). Kyoto: the Old Capital, 794–1869, p. 327. Keiō 4, on the 27th day of the 8th month, (October 12, 1868): Emperor Meiji is crowned in the Shishin-den in Kyoto. Ponsonby-Fane, p. 328. Keiō 4, on the 8th day of the 9th month (October 23, 1868): The nengō is formally changed from Keiō to Meiji; and a general amnesty is granted. [see above] Meiji 2''', on the 23rd day of the 10th month (1868): The emperor went to Tokyo; and Edo castle became an Imperial palace. [see above] Government and administration During the Edo period, the Shogunate appointed administrators called machi bugyō to run the police and, from the time of Tokugawa Yoshimune onward, the commoner fire department (machibikeshi). The machi bugyō heard criminal and civil suits and performed other administrative functions. Geography The city was arranged as a castle town, around Edo castle. The area immediately surrounding the castle, known as the "Yamanote", consisted largely of daimyō (feudal lords') mansions, whose families lived in Edo year-round as part of the sankin kōtai system; the daimyō themselves made journeys in alternating years to Edo and made use of these mansions for their extensive entourages. It was this extensive samurai (noble warrior class) population which defined the character of Edo, particularly in contrast to the two major cities of Kyoto and Osaka, neither of which were ruled by a daimyō or had any significant samurai population. Kyoto's character was dominated by the Imperial Court, the court nobles, its numerous Buddhist temples, and its traditional heritage and identity, while Osaka was the country's commercial center, dominated by the chōnin merchant class. Other areas further from the center were the domains of commoners, or chōnin (町人), literally "townsfolk." The area known as Shitamachi (下町, lit. "lower town" or "downtown"), to the northeast of the castle, was perhaps one of the key centers of urban culture. The ancient Buddhist temple of Sensō-ji still stands in Asakusa and marks the center of an area of traditional "low-town" culture. Some of the shops in the streets before the temple have been carried on continuously in the same location since the Edo period. The Sumida River, then simply called the Great River (大川), ran along the eastern edge of the city, along which one would find the shogunate's official rice storage warehouses Taxes, and samurai stipends, were paid not in coin, but in rice. See koku. and other official buildings, along with some of the city's most famous restaurants. The Edo Bridge (江戸橋, Edo-bashi) marked the center of the city's commercial center, an area also known as Kuramae (蔵前, "in front of the storehouses"). Many fishermen, craftsmen, and other producers and retailers operated here, as did shippers who managed ships to and from Osaka (called tarubune) and other cities, either taking goods into the city, or simply transferring them from sea-routes onto river barges or onto land routes such as the Tōkaidō, which terminated here. The area remains the center of Tokyo's financial and business district today. The northeastern corner of the city, regarded as a dangerous direction in traditional onmyōdō (cosmology/geomancy), is guarded from evil spirits by a series of temples, including Sensō-ji and Kan'ei-ji. Just beyond these lay the districts of the eta or outcastes, who engaged in unclean vocations and were thus separated from the main sections of commoner residences. A long dirt path extended west from the riverbank, a short distance north of these eta districts, leading along the northern edge of the city to the Yoshiwara pleasure districts. Previously located within the city proper, close to Asakusa, the districts were rebuilt in this more distant location after the Meireki Fire of 1657. Gallery See also 1703 Genroku earthquake Edokko (native of Edo) History of Tokyo Iki (a Japanese aesthetic ideal) Notes References Gordon, Andrew. (2003). A Modern History of Japan from Tokugawa Times to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-11060-9/ISBN 978-0-195-11060-9 (cloth); ISBN 0-195-11061-7/ISBN 978-0-195-11061-6. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1956). Kyoto: the Old Capital, 794–1869. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. Sansom, George. (1963). A History of Japan: 1615–1867. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0527-5/ISBN 978-0-804-70527-1. Akira Naito (Author), Kazuo Hozumi. Edo, the City that Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History''. Kodansha International, Tokyo (2003). ISBN 4770027575 Alternate spelling from 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article. 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1,426 | AFC_Ajax | Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax (), also referred to as AFC Ajax, or simply Ajax, is a professional football club from Amsterdam, Netherlands. The club is historically one of the three clubs that dominate the Dutch national football league (Eredivisie), the others being PSV and Feyenoord. Ajax is one of the five teams that has earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear the badge of honour; they won consecutively in 1971-1973. In 1972, they completed the European treble by winning the Dutch Eredivisie, KNVB Cup, and the European Cup; to date they are the only team to keep the European Cup and accomplish the European treble. They are also one of the only two teams to win the treble and the Intercontinental Cup in the same season/calendar year; with Manchester United in 1999 this was achieved in the 1971/72 season. UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Supercup for the first time in 1973. In 1972 was an unofficial edition and the I Centenary of Rangers FC (see History of the UEFA Supercup in uefa.com). Together with Juventus and Bayern Munich, they are one of only three clubs to have won all three major European trophies. (European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Cup) They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, and the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962. UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Intertoto Cup for the first time in 1995. In 1960s it was unofficial. See History of UEFA Intertoto Cup in uefa.com. History Amateur Era The club was founded in Amsterdam on March 18, 1900 by Floris Stempel, Carel Reeser and Johan Dade. It was the second incarnation, after a short-lived previous attempt (as the Footh-Ball Club Ajax) in 1894. Ajax succeeded in promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911, under the guidance of Jack Kirwan (their first official coach). The promotion meant that Ajax were forced to alter the club's strip, as Sparta of Rotterdam had the same kit, red-white vertical stripes with black shorts. Ajax adopted a broad vertical red stripe on a white background with white shorts, the club's kit to this day. Although their efforts were not unnoticed (Gé Fortgens became a frequent member of the Dutch national team for a while) they were relegated in 1914. While they immediately bounced back, they had to wait until 1917 to regain higher level status again: they did become league champions in both 1915 and 1916, however the 1915 league was declared unofficial (due to World War I), whereas in 1916 they did not make it through the promotion round. Under the guidance of Jack Reynolds (Kirwan's successor as of 1915) the club was promoted to the highest level in 1917 and won the Dutch national cup final, defeating VSV 5-0. Ajax went on to win their first national championship in 1918. The championship was secured in Tilburg where they faced Willem II without Jan de Natris, arguably the club's first 'star player', who missed the train to Tilburg and opted to stay in Amsterdam instead - earning him a fine of 10 cents. In the following season he earned a six month ban, but Ajax did well in his absence: not only did they retain the championship title, their 1919 campaign was also an unbeaten run for them - an accomplishment that was only repeated 76 years later by Ajax themselves. Now a regular contender for the Western Regional championship in the Netherlands, Ajax marched through the twenties with regional titles in 1921, 1927 and 1928, next to a few minor cups. The 1930s would prove to be more successful however; with household names as Wim Anderiesen Sr., Dolf van Kol, Piet Strijbosch, Wim Volkers, Jan van Diepenbeek, Bob ten Have, Erwin van Wijngaarden and prolific striker Piet van Reenen, Ajax' period from the late twenties until World War II was so successful that many people dubbed it 'the golden age' (a reference to the 17th century, the heyday of the Dutch Republic). With six regional titles (1930, 1931, 1932, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1939) and 5 national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939) Ajax was the most successful team of that era in the country. The thirties were also notable for the final culmination of the rivalry with Feyenoord, another squad that earned many awards in that time, as well as the creation of the stadium 'het Ajax-Stadion' dubbed 'De Meer' (named after the borough of its residence). Until the emergence of the Amsterdam ArenA in 1996, this was Ajax' home ground together with the Olympic Stadium for the bigger games. As of the 1940s, perhaps in line with Jack Reynolds' retirement (he had stayed - save for a few spells of absence - on for the entire time as Ajax' manager since his entry in 1915), Ajax went through a period of rebuilding. Gerrit Fischer and Erwin van Wijngaarden were retained, with Joop Stoffelen, Guus Dräger, Gé van Dijk, Jan Potharst and later Rinus Michels and Cor van der Hart brought in. After a Cup Final victory in 1943, Ajax went on to finish second in the championship league in 1946 (behind HFC Haarlem) followed by a league championship win in 1947. They became regional champions in 1950 again, though they never came near winning the championship. The season was notable for a match against Heerenveen, with Heerenveen coming back from 5-1 down to win 6-5. In 1941 Ajax performed the opposite: after being 6-0 behind to VUC in The Hague they managed to pull out a draw in the end (6-6). Until 1954, the year that professional football was introduced in the Netherlands, Ajax had some minor successes, with the regional title in 1952 and a second place in the regional championship in 1954 (equal in points with fellow Amsterdam club DWS). Professional football and the road to the top In 1955, professional football was finally permitted in the Netherlands. Ajax was still far from the international top, as was demonstrated in the European Cup match against Vasas SC, where they were beaten by the Hungarians 4-0 in the Népstadion). Similar European failures followed in 1960, with Ajax being knocked out by the Norwegian amateurs of Fredrikstad FK and in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1961 by Újpesti Dózsa of Ferenc Bene. Ajax achieved some success on the domestic level, earning the first Eredivisie-championship in 1957 and again in 1960 - the 1960 title decided by a playoff after equalling in points with arch-rivals Feyenoord. Ajax cruised to a 5-1 victory with a hat trick by striker Wim Bleijenberg. Bleijenberg was not the top scorer however. Henk Groot - the younger brother of Cees Groot who scored 100 goals for Ajax in his 5 year stay - arrived in 1959 from Stormvogels and scored 38 goals in 1959/60 and 41 goals in 1960/61. He was a vital part of Ajax in the early sixties, replacing star striker Piet van der Kuil who left for PSV in 1960. Alongside the man who would later become Mister Ajax, Sjaak Swart, Co Prins, Ton Pronk, Bennie Muller and a young Piet Keizer, Ajax added the National Cup in 1961 and the Intertoto Cup 1962 to their trophy cabinet. After missing out on the championship after a 5-2 defeat against PSV in 1963, Ajax entered a period of decline in the national league. Henk Groot left to Feyenoord that summer, and in 1964/65 they were near relegation. Things improved after former player Rinus Michels replaced Vic Buckingham as the head manager. Ajax managed to secure a midtable spot under Michels; however Buckingham's second tenure saw the introduction of Johan Cruijff during a 3-1 loss at GVAV. Michels started a revolution in Amsterdam, beginning with the return of Henk Groot and Co Prins, as well as the signing of goalkeeper Gert Bals. Michels built a side around the vision of Total Football, sacrificing players who he considered not to be good enough or fit the style of play. The most notable example of this was defender Frits Soetekouw - replaced by Ajax' new captain Velibor Vasović - whose own goal aided the victory of Dukla Prague in the quarter-final of the European Cup in 1966/67, after Ajax had knocked out Beşiktaş and defeated Liverpool 5-1. Ajax sealed their second consecutive championship in 1967. They were not as dominant as the previous year, but with a seemingly unstoppable attack they scored no less than 122 goals (still a national record), of which 33 were from Johan Cruijff, at 20 years old already the star player. It was also the season for another important milestone: for the first time in history, Ajax won the double (after defeating NAC in the cup final). It earned them European Cup qualification, being knocked out by Real Madrid in the subsequent season, with Ignacio Zoco scoring the winner for Los Merengues in extra time after two 1-1 draws, results which greatly enhanced the reputation of the club. Ajax won the Dutch title of 1968 overhauling Feyenoord, the league leaders for much of the season, and reached the European Cup final of 1969 in Madrid against AC Milan. In qualifying for the European Cup final Ajax defeated FC Nuremberg in the first round. They were almost knocked out by Benfica in the second, losing 3-1 to them in Amsterdam but winning the second leg in Lisbon 3-1. The decisive third match in neutral Paris was won 3-0 through goals by Inge Danielsson and Johan Cruijff. They repeated this score at home against the next opponent, Spartak Trnava in the next round, but struggled in the second leg qualifying narrowly on aggregate. In the final, Milan - lauded for their excellent defense and counter-attacks - easily won 4-1 with Pierino Prati opening the scoring after seven minutes and going on to score a hattrick, while Velibor Vasović was the only Ajax player on the scoresheet with a penalty. Milan's win was capped by a goal by Angelo Sormani.. Gloria Ajax - European dominance and treble Following their loss in the European Cup final, Ajax entered another period of rebuilding. Among the new additions were national top scorer Dick van Dijk and midfielders Gerrie Mühren and Nico Rijnders, while a second team player, Ruud Krol, was promoted to the first eleven. They replaced Klaas Nuninga, Inge Danielsson, Theo van Duijvenbode (all sold to other clubs) and Henk Groot, who retired from football after an injury while playing against Poland. Ton Pronk and Bennie Muller were no longer as frequently in the first eleven after many years of service. In 1969-70 Ajax won the Dutch league championship, winning 27 out of 34 games and scoring 100 goals. Feyenoord remained in contention throughout the season, but they had to settle for second place. Both clubs won a trophy however, with Ajax winning the Eredivisie title while Feyenoord captured the European Cup. Ajax reached the semi-finals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1970 (being knocked out by Arsenal after defeating Hannover 96, Napoli, Ruch Chorzów and Carl Zeiss Jena) 1971 became the long awaited year of glory, with Ajax winning trophies at both domestic and European level. For a substantial part of the season Ajax seemed to be on their way to the European treble (a feat only previously performed by Celtic in 1967). Domestically, Ajax finished second to Feyenoord in the league, winning the KNVB Cup after a replayed final against Sparta. In Europe, Ajax defeated 17 Nëntori, FC Basel, Celtic and Atlético Madrid en route to the 1971 European Cup final played at Wembley on June 2. There, 83,000 spectators witnessed a 2-0 victory over Panathinaikos, with goals from Dick van Dijk and an Arie Haan shot deflected by defender Kapsis. Captain Vasović could finally lift the European Cup, having lost two previous finals in 1966 with FK Partizan and again in 1969. In the following years Ajax established itself as the foremost club in European football. Stefan Kovacs replaced coach Michels in 1971, while Rijnders and Vasović' departed in the same year. Van Dijk's departed in 1972. Such changes in the side and management did not disrupt the success of the club, with Ajax completing the treble of European Cup, Dutch National Championship and the KNVB Cup in 1972 to which was added the Intercontinental Cup. In 1973, Ajax won a third consecutive European Cup and another Dutch championship; however, failure in the KNVB Cup meant Ajax missed out on a second consecutive treble. The departure of Johan Cruijff for Barcelona in 1973 signalled the end of the period of success, effectively ending the reign of the so called 'Twelve Apostles' (The usual line-up Heinz Stuy, Wim Suurbier, Barry Hulshoff, Horst Blankenburg, Ruud Krol, Arie Haan, Johan Neeskens, Gerrie Mühren, Sjaak Swart, Johan Cruijff, Piet Keizer plus the usual twelfth man who was Ruud Suurendonk until 1972 and then Johnny Rep). Whereas clubs like Real Madrid, Bayern Munich, Internazionale, Arsenal, Juventus and Independiente were beaten by Ajax between 1971 and 1973, failure in the European Cup at the hands of CSKA Sofia in late 1973 signalled the decline of Ajax in European football. Nevertheless, the Total Football that they had propagated became a lasting memory for many football fans, contributing to the Dutch national team reaching the final of the 1974 FIFA World Cup using similar tactics. The decline of Ajax and the loss to the Germans in the World Cup final saw the end of the Total Football era; later Ajax manager Tomislav Ivić would dub the era 'Gloria Ajax', illustrating the impact of their years at the top. The 1st Renaissance and 1980s After a period of decline, in 1977 Ivic coached Ajax to their first domestic championship since 1973. Ajax returned to domestic success winning 5 league championships after '77 as well as 4 cups, though impressive European performances were sparse. Ajax were knocked out by Juventus in the quarter-finals of the European Cup in 1978 and reached a European Cup semi-final in 1980, losing to eventual winners, the Brian Clough-managed Nottingham Forest. Disappointing European form between 1980 and 1986 saw the club not getting past the second round for six years in a row. Johan Cruijff returned to the club in 1981, with the club producing some talented youngsters in the mid-1980s such as Wim Kieft, John van 't Schip, Marco van Basten, Gerald Vanenburg, Jesper Olsen and Frank Rijkaard. After leaving the club in '83 after a conflict with president Harmsen, Cruijff returned once again in 1985 as the new manager. Cruijff's attacking tactics were immediately illustrated in his first active season, where Ajax ended the season with 120 goals in total, of which 37 were from Ajax's new star player Marco van Basten. Despite this, Ajax finished as runners up in the league to PSV Eindhoven twice in a row in '85/'86 and '86/'87. Despite the lack of domestic league success, Cruijff's Ajax won the '87 Cup Winners Cup, beating Lokomotive Leipzig. They reached the final again in the following season, losing out to KV Mechelen. Cruijff departed prior to the second Cup Winners Cup final, as a result of the declining results in the national league. With most of the 80's stars such as van Basten also leaving, Ajax once again declined. They continued to compete for the title with PSV in subsequent years, who became the dominant club in European and Dutch football, matching Ajax's 1972 achievement of a continental treble in 1988. Negative aspects of the period 1988-1991 were the fraud-case in 1989 and a year long ban from European competition in 1990-91 following an incident whereby a fan threw an iron bar at the Austria Vienna goalkeeper during a UEFA Cup tie in the 1989-1990 season. Under manager Leo Beenhakker, Ajax went on to win the championship race with PSV in 1990. They almost won the league again in 1991, losing narrowly to PSV. Van Gaal, European Success and Decline On departure to Real Madrid in 1991, Beenhakker was replaced by Louis van Gaal, the former assistant-coach. Like Cruijff, Van Gaal rapidly made his mark by altering Ajax' tactics. Also like Cruijff, his efforts were rewarded in his first season at the helm, by winning the 1992 UEFA Cup after a thrilling final against AC Torino. Although he did not play the final, the tournament saw the arrival of Dennis Bergkamp who contributed six goals during the competition. Despite Bergkamp being the top goalscorer in Dutch football in 1991, 1992, Ajax once again finished as runners up to PSV in the league. In 1992/93 Ajax even had to settle for a third spot, for first time since 1984, but won the KNVB Cup. In 1993, Bergkamp and Wim Jonk left to Internazionale, allowing Finn Jari Litmanen to establish himself as the new number 10 of Ajax. Aside from Litmanen, Ajax attracted Finidi George and the return of Frank Rijkaard, providing a base for Van Gaal to build on. 1994-1995 saw the return of European success after two decades, with Ajax winning the UEFA Champions League 1994-95 and the league title. The season saw an unbeaten run in the national league and the final season for Frank Rijkaard, while striker Patrick Kluivert had an excellent start to his season, with the then 18-year-old coming off the bench to score a late winner to beat AC Milan in the final of the Champions League. Ajax went on to beat Brazilian side Grêmio on penalties to win the Intercontinental Cup. The following season, Ajax continued to succeed on the European front, succumbing only to Juventus on penalties in the European Cup final. However, the subsequent period saw the departure of manager Van Gaal along with an exodus of many key players, several on free transfers following the Bosman ruling. Clarence Seedorf departed in 1995, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger, Finidi George and Nwankwo Kanu in 1996, Patrick Kluivert, Marc Overmars and Winston Bogarde in 1997, Ronald de Boer and Frank de Boer in 1998 and Edwin van der Sar and Jari Litmanen in 1999, together with the retirement of Frank Rijkaard in 1995 and Danny Blind in 1999. Van Gaal's replacement, Morten Olsen, attracted Danish national team captain Michael Laudrup to the club. Ajax won the league championship and the Dutch cup. Despite this success, Olsen could not replace the key players who had departed or maintain the success under Van Gaal. In Olsen's second year at the club, tension arose between Olsen and the Dutch players Ronald de Boer and Frank de Boer, and Olsen was sacked in 1998. In 1999, Ajax finished 6th in the league, their lowest position for over 20 years. Recent events Since the lost Champions League final in 1996, Ajax have struggled to return to European success. In the 2002/03 season, led by captain Cristian Chivu, Rafael van der Vaart, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Mido and the return of a legend in Jari Litmanen, manager Ronald Koeman guided a new crop of exciting young talents to the Champions League quarter finals against Milan, losing only to a last minute winner in the second-leg encounter at the San Siro. Ajax in a match against NEC in the Amsterdam ArenA in 2006 Koeman's early success was short-lived. In 2005, he resigned after Ajax' defeat to Auxerre in the UEFA Cup tournament. This resignation was also the aftermath of Koeman's long-standing spat with then football director Louis van Gaal who had questioned Koeman's managerial abilities after Ajax' dry spell in the domestic league — which saw them languishing in fifth position at the beginning of 2005. Former Ajax-player Danny Blind, who, aside from working as Koeman's technical coach and advisor, had virtually no top-level manager experience, was unveiled as their new coach. Blind instantly caused consternation by announcing that the club was to play using a 4-4-2, abandoning the Total Football-oriented 4-3-3 that has become Ajax' trademark. This season also saw the departure of key players Rafael van der Vaart and Nigel de Jong to Hamburg and Zlatan Ibrahimović to Juventus, while six others (Hatem Trabelsi, Tomáš Galásek, Hans Vonk, Nourdin Boukhari, Steven Pienaar and Maxwell) revealed they would leave the club at the end of the 2005-2006 season. Blind was sacked on May 10, 2006 after 422 days in charge. New coach Henk ten Cate, who won the Champions League and La Liga in 2006 as the assistant of Frank Rijkaard with Barcelona gave youngsters a shot to enter the selection of the first team. Ten Cate said youngsters Jan Vertonghen, and Robbert Schilder would be included in the selection, whereas Greek forward Angelos Charisteas was sold to Feyenoord. Ten Cate announced that he wished to return to form and win the Eredivisie in 2007. Ajax missed out on a Champions League place in 2006/2007 after their defeat against Copenhagen (3-2 on aggregate). As a result, Ajax played against Start from Norway in the first round of the UEFA Cup September 14 and 28, and won the match 9-2 on aggregate (2-5 away and 4-0 home). Having then progressed through the Group Stage, they drew German club Werder Bremen in the Round of 32. In the first leg in Germany, Ajax lost 3-0. On the return leg in Amsterdam, they rallied for two second half goals to win 3-1, but lost 4-3 in aggregate. In the 2006-07 season Ajax also achieved some successes with Henk ten Cate in charge. They won the Johan Cruijff Shield after a 3-1 win over rivals PSV and they also beat AZ 8-9 on penalties in the Dutch Cup final after a 1-1 draw after extra time. Ajax was very close to clinch the Eredivisie title after deducting a 10 point deficit from PSV, but lost it on goal difference on the last matchday to PSV (PSV: 75-25, Ajax 84-35). In the following 2007-08 season Ajax sold two of the biggest talents, Ryan Babel for 17 million Euros to Liverpool and Wesley Sneijder for 27 million Euros to Real Madrid. Luis Suárez came from Groningen to replace Ryan Babel. Ajax decided not to buy a replacement for Wesley Sneijder because of the difficulty in finding a similar-position type of player to replace him and also because the deal was finished close to the transfer deadline and Ajax would not rush though any signings. These events together with Edgar Davids breaking a leg disrupted the preparation for the qualification games for a Champions League place. Opponent Slavia Prague won both matches; with a 2-1 scoreline in Prague and 0-1 victory in Amsterdam. The failure to clinch a position in the Champions League group stage led to great criticism from both the supporters and the media, mainly directed at Henk ten Cate and the board of directors. A 1-0 victory over PSV for the Johan Cruijff Shield could not make up for the loss of a Champions League spot. Despite quite a good start in the competition with a lot of goals from both Luis Suárez and Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Ajax lost ground again in Europe after not making it to the group phase of the UEFA Cup; managing a 0-1 win away against Dinamo Zagreb but lost the tie in Amsterdam after extra time with the score 2-3 to Dinamo. With these string of European failures, coach Ten Cate has already failed to lead the team to the Champions League group stage for two seasons in a row and no European football at the ArenA for the remainder of the 2007/2008 season. With this result, Ten Cate lost the confidence of the supporters who demanded that the board sack him. A more viable solution came when Chelsea (in the same week) offered Ten Cate the job of assistant manager with a 3-year deal. On Tuesday October 9 Ten Cate left Ajax. Adrie Koster was selected to helm the squad. On 29 October 2007, captain Jaap Stam announced his immediate retirement from professional football, because of a lack of motivation to continue. Ajax finished the season second and, following the Play-offs, qualified for the UEFA Cup 2008–09. Following UEFA Euro 2008, ex-Ajax striker Marco van Basten was appointed as the new manager, succeeding Koster. Johan Cruijff was poised to take up a new position with the club to overhaul the youth program, but after a dispute with Van Basten he reneged on this commitment. Following Van Basten's appointement, a host of new players were brought into the squad, including Ismaïl Aissati and Miralem Sulejmani, whose €16.25 million transfer from Heerenveen broke the Dutch transfer record. Van Basten chose Klaas-Jan Huntelaar as the new club captain following his appointment. Huntelaar transferred to Real Madrid (for €27 million) after the 2008-09 transfer period finished, a decision for which Ajax has been criticized in the Dutch papers. The Volkskrant, for instance, referred to Ajax as a mere "trading company" which reduces its chances for a title by selling its main striker. In the 2008/2009 season, Ajax were unable to qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the 2009/2010 season as FC Twente finished second in the regular competition placing them in the third round of the qualifying stage. Ajax did not take several opportunities to gain the second place, as they were trashed 6-2 by PSV Eindhoven, drew 1-1 with champions and did not take the last opportunity to overtake Twente as they were sent home by Sparta Rotterdam after a staggering 4-0 loss. On May 6, 2009, coach Marco van Basten resigns citing the season's results and his inability to perform better next season as main reasons. He informed general manager Van den Boog early Wednesday morning and at 5pm local time, both men held a press conference where Van Basten enlightens the press about his decision. The team will be managed by assistant coach John van 't Schip during the last game of the season against FC Twente. Ajax will start their search for a new manager immediately and hopes to commit someone for a longer period of time, someone who knows the club, the playing style, the expectations and someone who is able and experienced as a coach. On May 26, 2009 Martin Jol has signed a contract for 3 years, which will make him the new coach of Ajax. Youth program The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth program that has produced many Dutch talents over the years - Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Dennis Bergkamp and Marco van Basten. Recent Dutch stars Ryan Babel, Wesley Sneijder, Rafael van der Vaart and John Heitinga had also came through the ranks at Ajax and all are now playing for top-flight clubs. Ajax has also expanded its talent searching program to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, this club filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the Eredivisie squad, such as Steven Pienaar and Cameroonian Eyong Enoh. In 1995, the year that they won the Champions League, the Dutch national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar, players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defense, Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield, and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack. The team was coached by Louis van Gaal, and also featured foreign stars such as Jari Litmanen, Nwankwo Kanu and Finidi George. Its current successes are mostly domestic, notwithstanding some minor successes in the 2002-03 Champions League. Rivalry Although Ajax have been vying for the championship with PSV in recent years, its main traditional rivalry is with Feyenoord from Rotterdam, culminating every year in the "Klassieker". It is a match between the two largest cities of the Netherlands, which are both quite distinct from each other. Amsterdam is a historic, touristic as well as a business city and it is the capital of the country. Furthermore the city identifies itself with artists, creativity and sophistication, whilst Rotterdam hosts the biggest port of Europe and thus identifies itself with hard, no-nonsense, industrial labour. There have been many violent clashes between the supporters of both clubs, of which the Beverwijk fight in 1997 was the most famous, resulting in the death of Ajax supporter Carlo Picornie. Ajax is historically both the most successful and the most popular club in The Netherlands. At the same time Ajax is also the most hated club by supporters of other clubs. Its historic success and with that its attitude, which is often seen as arrogant, contribute to that negative stance towards Ajax. Not only Feyenoord from Rotterdam but also fans of Utrecht and Den Haag regard Ajax as their main rival. Satellite clubs The following clubs are affiliated with AFC Ajax: K.F.C. Germinal Beerschot Cruzeiro Esporte Clube Beijing Guoan Ajax Cape Town HET-clubs HFC Haarlem FC Volendam FC Omniworld FC Barcelona Ajax Orlando Prospects (disbanded) Logo In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990, into an abstract version of the previous one. The new new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just eleven lines, symbolizing the eleven players of a football team. History of the Ajax logo Many supporters still consider the new logo a break from tradition and a symbol of the modern management of the club, which is seen as being cold and money-oriented. Colours Ajax originally played in an all black uniform with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. However, when, under manager Jack Kirwan, the club got promoted to the top flight of Dutch football for the first time in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or 'First Class', later named the Eredivisie), Ajax were forced to change their colours because Sparta Rotterdam already had the exact same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit. Amsterdam ArenA Exterior of Stadium Ajax's shirts have been sponsored by TDK, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON has replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of at least seven years. On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo: Florius. Florius is a banking program just launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match. The shirts have been manufactured by Umbro (1989-2000) and Adidas since 2000 (until at least 2009). Stadium Ajax' first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was simply called The Stadium. Ajax later played in the stadium that was built for the 1928 Summer Olympics, held in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known as the Olympic Stadium. In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh. The stadium could host 29.500 spectators and Ajax would continue to play there until 1996. During big European and national fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, where the capacity was about twice as high. In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam ArenA that was built at the cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding approximately 52,000 people. The average attendance in 2006/07 was 48,610 people; in the next season this rose to 49,128. The Arena has a retractable roof and was the example for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena has earned a reputation for having a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. A during the 2008-2009 season introduced artificial lighting system has finally reduced this problem considerably. The much-loved De Meer stadium was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters AJAX, nowadays in place on the façade of the youth training grounds De Toekomst, near the Amsterdam Arena. Players and managers Current squad As of January 20, 2009. Players out on loan Retired numbers Youth squad See Jong Ajax Staff Chairman: Uri Coronel Technical Manager: Danny Blind Teammanager: David Endt Manager: Martin Jol Assistant managers: Danny Blind, John van 't Schip List of Ajax managers Martin Jol (2009-present) John van 't Schip (interim, 2009) Marco van Basten (2008-2009) Adrie Koster (interim, 2007-2008) Henk ten Cate (2006-2007) Danny Blind (2005-2006) Ruud Krol (interim, 2005) Ronald Koeman (2001-2005) Co Adriaanse (2000-2001) Hans Westerhof (interim, 2000) Jan Wouters (1999-2000) Morten Olsen (1997-1999) Louis van Gaal (1991-1997) Leo Beenhakker (1989-1991) Spitz Kohn et al. (interim 1988-1989) Kurt Linder (1988) Johan Cruijff (1985-1988) Aad de Mos (1982-1985) Kurt Linder (1981-1982) Leo Beenhakker (1979-1981) Cor Brom (1978-1979) Tomislav Ivić (1976-1978) Rinus Michels (1975-1976) Hans Kraay (1974-1975) George Knobel (1973-1974) Ştefan Kovács (1971-1973) Rinus Michels (1965-1971) Vic Buckingham (1964-1965) Jack Rowley (1963-1964) Joseph Gruber (1962-1963) Keith Spurgeon (1961-1962) Vic Buckingham (1959-1961) Karl Humenberger (1954-1959) Walter Crook (1953-1954) Robert Thomson (1950-1953) Walter Crook (1948-1950) Robert Smith (1947-1948) Jack Reynolds (1942-1947) Dolf van Kol (1942-1942) Wim Volkers (1941-1942) Vilmos Halpern (1940-1941) Jack Reynolds (1928-1940) Stanley Castle (1926-1928) Harold Rose (1925-1926) Jack Reynolds (1915-1925) Jack Kirwan (1910-1915) Number 14 As of the 2007-08 season, no player will wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax, since the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for legend Johan Cruijff. Cruijff himself said that it would be better if the best player of the team would wear number 14. Spanish midfielder Roger was the last player to wear the number. Honours Official trophies (recognized by UEFA and FIFA) National Final standings of Ajax 1976-2005 International Football Europe: AFC Ajax; uefa.com UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Supercup for the first time in 1973. In 1972 was an unofficial edition and the I Centenary of Rangers FC (see History of the UEFA Supercup in uefa.com). Other trophies See also Dutch football league teams Jong AFC Ajax Bibliography David Endt, De godenzonen van Ajax, Rap, Amsterdam, 1993, ISBN 90-6005-463-6 Jan Baltus Kok, Naar Ajax. Mobiliteitspatronen van bezoekers bij vier thuiswedstrijden van Ajax, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1992, ISSN 0922-5625 Simon Kuper, Ajax, The Dutch, The War. Football in Europe during the Second World War, Orion, London (Translation of: Ajax, de Joden en Nederland ("Ajax, the Jews, The Netherlands)", Hardgras 2003, ISBN 0-7528-4274-9 Evert Vermeer, 95 jaar Ajax. 1900-1995'', Luitingh-Sijthoff, Amsterdam, 1996, ISBN 90-245-2364-8 External links Official Ajax.nl - Official website of AFC Ajax / Unofficial Ajaxinside - For all the news around AFC Ajax Ajax Foto Side - Photo fansite of AFC Ajax Ajaxfanz - Popular fansite of AFC Ajax Ajax Live - Dutch fansite of Ajax Ajax USA - American fansite of AFC Ajax Ajaxsupporters.com - German fansite of AFC Ajax Ajax Fr - French supporters site of AFC Ajax Ajax en France - French fansite of AFC Ajax Ajax Poland - Polish Ajax fansite Superajax.com - Russian fansite of AFC Ajax Ajax Portal Ajax-Zone Newsworld Football-Lineups.com - Ajax tactics and lineups Ajaxcn - china References | AFC_Ajax |@lemmatized amsterdamsche:1 football:27 club:48 ajax:169 also:21 refer:2 afc:13 simply:2 professional:5 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1,427 | Dionysius_Thrax | Dionysius Thrax () (170 BC‑90 BC) was a Hellenistic grammarian from Thrace (hence the name Thrax) who lived and is thought by some to have worked in Alexandria and later at Rhodes. The first extant grammar of Greek, "Art of Grammar" (Tékhnē grammatiké) is attributed to him but many scholars today doubt that the work really belongs solely to him due to the difference between the technical approach of most of the work and the more literary approach (similar to the second century's Alexandrian tradition) of the first few sections. It concerns itself primarily with a morphological description of Greek, lacking any treatment of syntax. The work was translated into Armenian and Syriac in the early Christian era. Thrax defines grammar at the beginning of the Tékhnē as "the practical knowledge of the general usages of poets and prose writers." Thus Thrax, like contemporary Alexandrian scholars who edited Attic Greek and Homeric texts, was concerned with facilitating the teaching of classic Greek literature to an audience who spoke Koine Greek. References Dionysios Thrax, Art of Grammar Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics (Indiana UP, 1967). (ISBN 0-253-35210-X) Robins, R. H. The Technē Grammatikē of Dionysius Thrax in historical perspective. In P. Swiggers, W. van Hoecke (Eds.), Mots et parties du discours. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1987. V. Di Benedetto, "At the Origins of Greek Grammar," Glotta 68 (1990): 19-39. J. Lallot, La grammaire de Denys le Thrace, Paris: CNRS Éditions, 1998 (2e édition 2003). | Dionysius_Thrax |@lemmatized dionysius:2 thrax:6 bc:2 hellenistic:1 grammarian:1 thrace:2 hence:1 name:1 live:1 think:1 work:4 alexandria:1 later:1 rhodes:1 first:2 extant:1 grammar:5 greek:6 art:2 tékhnē:2 grammatiké:1 attribute:1 many:1 scholar:2 today:1 doubt:1 really:1 belong:1 solely:1 due:1 difference:1 technical:1 approach:2 literary:1 similar:1 second:1 century:1 alexandrian:2 tradition:1 section:1 concern:2 primarily:1 morphological:1 description:1 lack:1 treatment:1 syntax:1 translate:1 armenian:1 syriac:1 early:1 christian:1 era:1 define:1 beginning:1 practical:1 knowledge:1 general:1 usage:1 poet:1 prose:1 writer:1 thus:1 like:1 contemporary:1 edit:1 attic:1 homeric:1 text:1 facilitate:1 teaching:1 classic:1 literature:1 audience:1 speak:1 koine:1 reference:1 dionysios:1 robin:1 r:2 h:2 short:1 history:1 linguistics:1 indiana:1 isbn:1 x:1 robins:1 technē:1 grammatikē:1 historical:1 perspective:1 p:1 swiggers:1 w:1 van:1 hoecke:1 eds:1 mot:1 et:1 party:1 du:1 discours:1 leuven:2 university:1 press:1 v:1 di:1 benedetto:1 origin:1 glotta:1 j:1 lallot:1 la:1 grammaire:1 de:1 denys:1 le:1 paris:1 cnrs:1 éditions:1 édition:1 |@bigram koine_greek:1 |
1,428 | Marietta_Alboni | Marietta Alboni, 1855 Marietta Alboni (March 6 1826 – June 23 1894) was a renowned Italian contralto opera singer. With the exception of Maria Malibran, she was considered the greatest contralto of the nineteenth century. Citation: Entry in New International Encyclopedia. Maria Malibran, however, was (in modern terminology) a mezzo-soprano who sang soprano roles. She was born at Città di Castello, in Umbria. She became a pupil of Antonio Bagioli of Cesena Romagna, and later of Gioachino Rossini. She made her début at the age of 15 at Bologna as Orsini in Lucrezia Borgia, and her success led to an engagement at La Scala, Milan. In 1846–47 she sang in all the principal cities of Europe; in London, at Covent Garden, in rivalry with Jenny Lind, who was at Her Majesty's Theatre. She toured the United States in 1852–53, appearing there with Camilla Urso. She sang a duet with Adelina Patti at Rossini's funeral in 1868. Marietta Alboni's voice, a fine contralto with a compass of two and one-half octaves, ranging as high as mezzo-soprano, possessed at once power, sweetness, fullness, and extraordinary flexibility. In passages requiring elevation and semi-religious calmness she had no peers, owing to the moving quality of her voice. She possessed vivacity, grace, and charm as an actress of the comédienne type, but her attempt at a strongly dramatic part, like Norma, turned out a failure. She married Count Carlo Pepoli, of the Papal States, but kept her maiden name on the stage, appearing in opera at Munich as late as 1872. Her husband died in 1866, and in 1877 she married M. Zieger, a French officer. She died at Ville d'Avray, near Paris, and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery. Notes Publications F. M. Colby and T. Williams (Eds.) (1917–1926), New International Encyclopedia (2nd Edition). Dodd, Mead & Co., The University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts. G. T. Ferris, Great Singers (New York, 1893) A. Pougin, Marietta Alboni (Paris, 1912) Arthur Pougin, Marietta Alboni (Cesena, 2001) (traduzione di Michele Massarelli con aggiunte di Lelio Burgini al testo originale) Henry Fothergill Chorley (1862), Thirty Years' Musical Recollections. Hurst & Blackett, London, Volume II, The Year 1847, 8-13. External links Coro Lirico Città di Cesena (Italian) | Marietta_Alboni |@lemmatized marietta:5 alboni:5 march:1 june:1 renowned:1 italian:2 contralto:3 opera:2 singer:2 exception:1 maria:2 malibran:2 consider:1 great:2 nineteenth:1 century:1 citation:1 entry:1 new:3 international:2 encyclopedia:2 however:1 modern:1 terminology:1 mezzo:2 soprano:3 sing:3 role:1 bear:1 città:2 di:4 castello:1 umbria:1 become:1 pupil:1 antonio:1 bagioli:1 cesena:3 romagna:1 later:1 gioachino:1 rossini:2 make:1 début:1 age:1 bologna:1 orsini:1 lucrezia:1 borgia:1 success:1 lead:1 engagement:1 la:1 scala:1 milan:1 principal:1 city:1 europe:1 london:2 covent:1 garden:1 rivalry:1 jenny:1 lind:1 majesty:1 theatre:1 tour:1 united:1 state:2 appear:2 camilla:1 urso:1 duet:1 adelina:1 patti:1 funeral:1 voice:2 fine:1 compass:1 two:1 one:1 half:1 octave:1 range:1 high:1 possess:2 power:1 sweetness:1 fullness:1 extraordinary:1 flexibility:1 passage:1 require:1 elevation:1 semi:1 religious:1 calmness:1 peer:1 owe:1 move:1 quality:1 vivacity:1 grace:1 charm:1 actress:1 comédienne:1 type:1 attempt:1 strongly:1 dramatic:1 part:1 like:1 norma:1 turn:1 failure:1 marry:2 count:1 carlo:1 pepoli:1 papal:1 keep:1 maiden:1 name:1 stage:1 munich:1 late:1 husband:1 die:2 zieger:1 french:1 officer:1 ville:1 avray:1 near:1 paris:2 bury:1 père:1 lachaise:1 cemetery:1 note:1 publication:1 f:1 colby:1 williams:1 ed:1 edition:1 dodd:1 mead:1 co:1 university:1 press:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 g:1 ferris:1 york:1 pougin:2 arthur:1 traduzione:1 michele:1 massarelli:1 con:1 aggiunte:1 lelio:1 burgini:1 al:1 testo:1 originale:1 henry:1 fothergill:1 chorley:1 thirty:1 year:2 musical:1 recollection:1 hurst:1 blackett:1 volume:1 ii:1 external:1 link:1 coro:1 lirico:1 |@bigram marietta_alboni:5 nineteenth_century:1 mezzo_soprano:2 gioachino_rossini:1 lucrezia_borgia:1 la_scala:1 covent_garden:1 jenny_lind:1 bury_père:1 père_lachaise:1 lachaise_cemetery:1 dodd_mead:1 external_link:1 |
1,429 | Bernardino_Ochino | Bernardino Ochino (1487-1564) was an Italian Reformer. Bernardino Ochino in an old engraving. Biography Bernardino Ochino was born at Siena. At an early age he entered the order of Observant Franciscan Friars, but, craving a stricter rule, transferred himself in 1534 to the newly-founded Order of Friars Minor Capuchin. He had already become famous for zeal and eloquence, and was the intimate friend of the Spaniard Juan de Valdes, of Bembo, Vittoria Colonna, Pietro Martire, Carnesecchi, and others destined to incur the suspicion of heresy, either from the moderation of their characters or from the evangelical tincture of their theology. In 1538 he was elected vicar-general of his order; in 1539, urged by Pietro Bembo, he visited Venice and delivered a remarkable course of sermons, showing a decided tendency to the doctrine of justification by faith, which appears still more evidently in his dialogues published the same year. He was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until the establishment of the Inquisition in Rome in June 1542, at the instigation of the austere zealot Carafa. Ochino almost immediately received a citation to Rome, and set out to obey it about the middle of August. According to his own statement, he was deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at Bologna, dying of poison administered by the reactionary party. He turned aside to Florence, and after some hesitation escaped across the Alps to Geneva. He was cordially received by Calvin, and published within two years several volumes of Prediche, controversial tracts rather than sermons, explaining and vindicating his change of religion. He also addressed replies to Vittoria Colonna, Tolomei, and other Italian sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same length as himself. His own breach with the Roman Catholic Church was decisive and irreparable, and illustrated the justice of Luther's description of justification by faith alone as the articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesiae, the vital point whose acceptance or rejection drew everything else along with it. In 1545 he became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at Augsburg, which he was compelled to forsake when, in January 1547, the city was occupied by the imperial forces. He found an asylum in England, where he was made a prebendary of Canterbury, received a pension from King Edward VI's privy purse, and composed his capital work, the Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped primacie of the Bishop of Rome, etc. This remarkable performance, originally written in Latin, is extant only in the 1549 translation of Bishop John Ponet, a splendid specimen of nervous English. The conception is highly dramatic; the form is that of a series of dialogues. Lucifer, enraged at the spread of Jesus' kingdom, convokes the fiends in council, and resolves to set up the pope as antichrist. The state, represented by the emperor Phocas, is persuaded to connive at the pope's assumption of spiritual authority; the other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's projects seem fully accomplished, when Heaven raises up Henry VIII of England and his son for their overthrow. The conception bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Paradise Lost; and it is nearly certain that Milton, whose sympathies with the Italian Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it. Several of Ochino's Prediche were also translated into English by a lady, Anna Cooke, afterwards wife of Sir Nicholas Bacon; and he published numerous controversial treatises on the Continent. In 1553 the accession of Mary I drove Ochino from England. He became pastor of the Italian congregation at Zürich, composed principally of refugees from Locarno, and continued to write books which, repeating the history of his early works, gave increasing evidence of his alienation from the strict orthodoxy around him. The most important of these was the Labyrinth, a discussion of the freedom of the will, covertly assailing the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination. In 1563 the long-gathering storm of obloquy burst upon the occasion of the publication of his Thirty Dialogues, in one of which his adversaries maintained that he had justified polygamy under colour of a pretended refutation. His dialogues on divorce and the Trinity were also obnoxious. No explanation was allowed. Ochino was banished from Zürich, and, after being refused a shelter by other Protestant cities, directed his steps towards Poland, at that time the most tolerant state in Europe. He had not resided there long when an edict appeared (August 8, 1564) banishing all foreign dissidents. Fleeing the country, he encountered the plague at Pińczów; three of his four children were carried off; and he himself, worn out by misfortune, expired in solitude and obscurity at Slavkov in Moravia, about the end of 1564. His reputation among Protestants was at the time so bad that he was charged with the authorship of the treatise De tribus Impostoribus, as well as with having carried his alleged approval of polygamy into practice. It was reserved for his biographer Karl Benrath to justify him, and to represent him as a fervent evangelist and at the same time as a speculative thinker with a passion for free inquiry, always learning and unlearning and arguing out difficult questions with himself in his dialogues, frequently without attaining to any absolute conviction. The general tendency of his mind, nevertheless, was counter to tradition, and he is remarkable as resuming in his individual history all the phases of Protestant theology from Luther to Socinus. He is especially interesting to Englishmen for his residence in England, and the probable influence of more than one of his writings upon Milton. References Karl Benrath's German biography, translated into English by Helen Zimmern, with a preface by the Rev. W. Arthur, London, 1876. Text taken from the 9th edition (1880s) of an unnamed encyclopedia See also Collegia Vicentina | Bernardino_Ochino |@lemmatized bernardino:3 ochino:7 italian:5 reformer:1 old:1 engraving:1 biography:2 bear:2 siena:1 early:2 age:1 enter:1 order:3 observant:1 franciscan:1 friar:2 crave:1 stricter:1 rule:1 transfer:1 newly:1 founded:1 minor:1 capuchin:1 already:1 become:3 famous:1 zeal:1 eloquence:1 intimate:1 friend:1 spaniard:1 juan:1 de:2 valdes:1 bembo:2 vittoria:2 colonna:2 pietro:2 martire:1 carnesecchi:1 others:1 destine:1 incur:1 suspicion:1 heresy:1 either:1 moderation:1 character:1 evangelical:1 tincture:1 theology:2 elect:1 vicar:1 general:2 urge:1 visit:1 venice:1 deliver:1 remarkable:4 course:1 sermon:2 show:1 decided:1 tendency:2 doctrine:2 justification:2 faith:2 appear:2 still:1 evidently:1 dialogue:5 publish:3 year:2 suspect:1 denounce:1 nothing:1 ensue:1 establishment:1 inquisition:1 rome:4 june:1 instigation:1 austere:1 zealot:1 carafa:1 almost:1 immediately:1 receive:3 citation:1 set:2 obey:1 middle:1 august:2 accord:1 statement:1 deter:1 present:1 warning:1 cardinal:1 contarini:1 find:2 bologna:1 die:1 poison:1 administer:1 reactionary:1 party:1 turn:1 aside:1 florence:1 hesitation:1 escape:1 across:1 alp:1 geneva:1 cordially:1 calvin:1 within:1 two:1 several:2 volume:1 prediche:2 controversial:2 tract:1 rather:1 explain:1 vindicate:1 change:1 religion:1 also:4 address:1 reply:1 tolomei:1 sympathizer:1 reluctant:1 go:1 length:1 breach:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:2 decisive:1 irreparable:1 illustrate:1 justice:1 luther:2 description:1 alone:1 articulus:1 stantis:1 vel:1 cadentis:1 ecclesiae:1 vital:1 point:1 whose:2 acceptance:1 rejection:1 draw:1 everything:1 else:1 along:1 minister:1 protestant:4 congregation:2 augsburg:1 compel:1 forsake:1 january:1 city:2 occupy:1 imperial:1 force:1 asylum:1 england:4 make:1 prebendary:1 canterbury:1 pension:1 king:1 edward:1 vi:1 privy:1 purse:1 compose:2 capital:1 work:2 tragoedie:1 dialoge:1 unjuste:1 usurp:1 primacie:1 bishop:2 etc:1 performance:1 originally:1 write:2 latin:1 extant:1 translation:1 john:1 ponet:1 splendid:1 specimen:1 nervous:1 english:3 conception:2 highly:1 dramatic:1 form:1 series:1 lucifer:2 enrage:1 spread:1 jesus:1 kingdom:1 convoke:1 fiend:1 council:1 resolve:1 pope:2 antichrist:1 state:2 represent:2 emperor:1 phoca:1 persuade:1 connive:1 assumption:1 spiritual:1 authority:1 intimidate:1 acquiescence:1 project:1 seem:1 fully:1 accomplish:1 heaven:1 raise:1 henry:1 viii:1 son:1 overthrow:1 resemblance:1 paradise:1 lose:1 nearly:1 certain:1 milton:2 sympathy:1 reformation:1 strong:1 must:1 acquaint:1 translate:2 lady:1 anna:1 cooke:1 afterwards:1 wife:1 sir:1 nicholas:1 bacon:1 numerous:1 treatise:2 continent:1 accession:1 mary:1 drive:1 pastor:1 zürich:2 principally:1 refugee:1 locarno:1 continue:1 book:1 repeat:1 history:2 give:1 increase:1 evidence:1 alienation:1 strict:1 orthodoxy:1 around:1 important:1 labyrinth:1 discussion:1 freedom:1 covertly:1 assail:1 calvinistic:1 predestination:1 long:2 gathering:1 storm:1 obloquy:1 burst:1 upon:2 occasion:1 publication:1 thirty:1 one:2 adversary:1 maintain:1 justify:2 polygamy:2 colour:1 pretended:1 refutation:1 divorce:1 trinity:1 obnoxious:1 explanation:1 allow:1 banish:2 refuse:1 shelter:1 direct:1 step:1 towards:1 poland:1 time:3 tolerant:1 europe:1 reside:1 edict:1 foreign:1 dissident:1 flee:1 country:1 encounter:1 plague:1 pińczów:1 three:1 four:1 child:1 carry:2 wear:1 misfortune:1 expire:1 solitude:1 obscurity:1 slavkov:1 moravia:1 end:1 reputation:1 among:1 bad:1 charge:1 authorship:1 tribus:1 impostoribus:1 well:1 alleged:1 approval:1 practice:1 reserve:1 biographer:1 karl:2 benrath:2 fervent:1 evangelist:1 speculative:1 thinker:1 passion:1 free:1 inquiry:1 always:1 learn:1 unlearning:1 argue:1 difficult:1 question:1 frequently:1 without:1 attain:1 absolute:1 conviction:1 mind:1 nevertheless:1 counter:1 tradition:1 resume:1 individual:1 phase:1 socinus:1 especially:1 interesting:1 englishmen:1 residence:1 probable:1 influence:1 writing:1 reference:1 german:1 helen:1 zimmern:1 preface:1 rev:1 w:1 arthur:1 london:1 text:1 take:1 edition:1 unnamed:1 encyclopedia:1 see:1 collegia:1 vicentina:1 |@bigram franciscan_friar:1 pietro_bembo:1 everything_else:1 privy_purse:1 henry_viii:1 remarkable_resemblance:1 doctrine_predestination:1 |
1,430 | Bubblegum_Crisis | is a cyberpunk anime set in a future, post-earthquake Tokyo, called "Mega Tokyo". Setting The eight-episode series begins in the late 2032, seven years after an earthquake has split Tokyo in two. During the first episode, disparities in wealth are shown to be more pronounced than in previous periods in post-war Japan. The main antagonist is Genom, a megacorporation with immense power and global influence. Its main product are boomers - cyborgs used for manual labor and military purposes. While Boomers are intended to serve mankind, they become deadly instruments in the hands of ruthless individuals. The AD Police are tasked to deal with Boomer-related crimes. One of the series' themes is the inability of the department to deal with threats due to political infighting, red tape, and an insufficient budget. The Knight Sabers are an all-female mercenary team and have considerable combat abilities using highly advanced body armors. They battle against long odds to overcome grave threats throughout the OVA series and preserve the overall safety of Mega Tokyo. Characters Production The OVA series was eight episodes long. It was originally slated to run for thirteen episodes, but due to legal problems between the two studios who jointly held the rights to the series, Artmic and Youmex, the series was discontinued. The problems may have been brought on by the series' lackluster sales in Japan. In North America, however, the series did comparatively well, and has remained a fan favorite. In Japan, a number of manga were produced that featured characters and storylines based in the BGC (a common abbreviation for the series name) universe. Some were very much thematically linked to the OVA series, others were "one shots" or comedy features. A number of artists participated in the creation of these comics, including Kenichi Sonoda, who had produced the original Knight Saber character designs. A North American comic based in the Bubblegum Crisis Universe was published in English by Dark Horse Comics. The series involves the adventures of the Knight Sabers, an all woman group of superheroes/mercenaries, who don powered armor and fight various problems, most frequently rogue boomers. Boomers are humanoid robots designed to perform a variety of tasks, from construction and firefighting to combat; a particular model of Boomer, the BU-33S "Sexaroid", is designed for sexual purposes. One of the central themes of the series, showing its Blade Runner influence strongly, is the exploration of what "human" really means. As in Blade Runner, this is often done by using the mechanical characters, especially focusing on BU-33S. Bubblegum Crisis was notable also in that it was one of the few early anime series that were brought over from Japan unedited and subtitled with English captions that still have a great deal of popularity today. While anime has become much more popular in the intervening years, in 1991 it was still mostly unknown as a storytelling medium in North America. In 1997, a new series was created, titled Bubblegum Crisis 2040, but was not a sequel to the original OVA series. Headed by Chiaki J. Konaka, it was a standalone television series, and while it used similar themes to the original, it employed new designs for the characters and the mechanical devices. This series ran for twenty six episodes. Some discussion has taken place between the production companies for a second season, tentatively titled Bubblegum Crisis 2041. Despite the age of the original series, a non-Japanese fandom still exists for it (further research is necessary to determine the size of a possible Japanese one), and throughout the years there have been many debates on parts of the series that were unclear or deliberately arranged as to provoke discussion. The community of fans have produced large quantities of "fan fiction" and "fan art" based on both the OVA and television series with the current estimated count of fanfiction in English language alone well exceeding 400 texts, Last version of the guide names 350 texts The BGC fanfiction repository on eyrie.org archive has over 400 texts. These do not fully overlap with ones named in the Fanfiction guide. The Bubblegum Crisis category on fanfiction.net lists further 292 texts, although it is unknown how many of them overlap with previously mentioned sources. though there is a preponderance of works and discussion based on the original series. Bubblegum Crisis has many features that have proven attractive to many viewers of anime. The mecha designs, cyberpunk characters, and post-apocalyptic city of Megatokyo are well-realized and leave a lasting impression. The storylines are varied and complex, and are (sometimes deliberately, sometimes not) filled with parts that have multiple possible interpretations. The series was also one of the earliest anime to have a strong yuri fandom. The music throughout the original OVA series is one of the most recognizable in anime fandom and generates a strong feeling of 1980's nostalgia. The opening song and sequence for the first OVA, as well as many of the other songs throughout the series, clearly draw inspiration from the 1984 movie Streets of Fire. Nearly all of the music is available, as there are 8 soundtrack releases (one per OVA), as well as numerous "vocal" albums which feature songs "inspired by" the series as well as many drawn directly from it. As a consequence Bubblegum Crisis, with its better than 1:1 soundtrack album to episode ratio (when one considers the "vocal" albums), may arguably have among the highest number of album-length music collections (percentage-wise) which may be attributed to any single title in contemporary anime. A roleplaying game based on the series was published by R. Talsorian in 1997 under the Fuzion system. It contains many original sketches of the characters, mecha and settings, as well as detailed background information about them. A supplement detailing the 1997 series was planned, but could not be completed before RTG's license expired in 2002. A digitally-remastered compilation of the original series' episodes, featuring bi-lingual tracks and production extras, was released on DVD in 2004 by AnimEigo Inc. Media Episodes # Title Release date Related media AD Police Files Bubblegum Crash Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040 AD Police: To Serve and Protect Parasite Dolls (a three-episode OVA about Branch, a secret division of the AD Police) Scramble Wars released with Ten Little Gall Force Holiday in Bali special (live action) Hurricane Live 2032 Hurricane Live 2033 Video games Crime Wave: game for PC-88, set in Megatokyo and featuring Knight Sabers as the main characters (an overview of the game can be found here ) Bubblegum Crash: game for TurboGrafx-16 (an overview of the game can be found here ) Comic book Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal produced by Adam Warren via Dark Horse Comics. Live-action movie In May 2009 it was announced that a live-action movie of "Bubblegum Crisis" was in the early stages of production. A production agreement was signed at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival. Other Bubblegum Crisis role-playing game produced by R. Talsorian Games. It introduces an alternate setting named "Bubblegum Crossfire", basing on a premise that data units with hardsuit blueprints have been sent to more individuals than just Sylia Stingray, resulting in that by 2033 there are numerous Knight Saber-like groups spread all over the globe. RTG's license to produce this game has expired and at present all copies of back stock have been sold. "Bubblegum Crisis: Before and After" (covering material from A.D. Police Files and Bubblegum Crash) "Bubblegum Crisis EX" which includes completely new materials (also incorporating early design concepts for BGC mecha and hardsuits as new variants) Ground Zero Games produces four sets of 28 mm scale miniatures based on Bubblegum Crisis: Product Listing - BGC Knight Sabers Boomers (actually BU-55 combat boomers) A.D. Police officers "GENOM bosses" (pack contains Quincy, Mason and GENOM battlesuit) "Soldier Blue" novel by Toshimichi Suzuki. Translated into English language in 1997 by R.Talsorian Games. A copy of the translation can be found here. Some images from BGC also were used in the CCG Ani-Mayhem. References External links AnimEigo's Bubblegum Crash website Anime in Retrospect: Bubblegum Crisis | Bubblegum_Crisis |@lemmatized cyberpunk:2 anime:8 set:4 future:1 post:3 earthquake:2 tokyo:5 call:1 mega:2 eight:2 episode:8 series:28 begin:1 late:1 seven:1 year:3 split:1 two:2 first:2 disparity:1 wealth:1 show:2 pronounced:1 previous:1 period:1 war:2 japan:4 main:3 antagonist:1 genom:3 megacorporation:1 immense:1 power:2 global:1 influence:2 product:2 boomer:8 cyborg:1 use:5 manual:1 labor:1 military:1 purpose:2 intend:1 serve:2 mankind:1 become:2 deadly:1 instrument:1 hand:1 ruthless:1 individual:2 ad:4 police:6 task:2 deal:3 related:1 crime:2 one:10 theme:3 inability:1 department:1 threat:2 due:2 political:1 infighting:1 red:1 tape:1 insufficient:1 budget:1 knight:6 saber:6 female:1 mercenary:2 team:1 considerable:1 combat:3 ability:1 highly:1 advanced:1 body:1 armor:2 battle:1 long:2 odds:1 overcome:1 grave:1 throughout:4 ova:5 preserve:1 overall:1 safety:1 character:8 production:5 originally:1 slat:1 run:2 thirteen:1 legal:1 problem:3 studio:1 jointly:1 hold:1 right:1 artmic:1 youmex:1 discontinue:1 may:4 bring:2 lackluster:1 sale:1 north:3 america:2 however:1 comparatively:1 well:7 remain:1 fan:4 favorite:1 number:3 manga:1 produce:7 featured:1 storyline:2 base:6 bgc:5 common:1 abbreviation:1 name:3 universe:2 much:2 thematically:1 link:2 others:1 shot:1 comedy:1 feature:5 artist:1 participate:1 creation:1 comic:5 include:2 kenichi:1 sonoda:1 original:8 design:6 american:1 bubblegum:20 crisis:15 publish:2 english:4 dark:2 horse:2 involve:1 adventure:1 woman:1 group:2 superheroes:1 fight:1 various:1 frequently:1 rogue:1 humanoid:1 robot:1 perform:1 variety:1 construction:1 firefighting:1 particular:1 model:1 bu:3 sexaroid:1 sexual:1 central:1 blade:2 runner:2 strongly:1 exploration:1 human:1 really:1 mean:1 often:1 mechanical:2 especially:1 focus:1 notable:1 also:4 early:4 unedited:1 subtitle:1 caption:1 still:3 great:1 popularity:1 today:1 popular:1 intervening:1 mostly:1 unknown:2 storytelling:1 medium:3 new:4 create:1 title:4 sequel:1 head:1 chiaki:1 j:1 konaka:1 standalone:1 television:2 similar:1 employ:1 device:1 twenty:1 six:1 discussion:3 take:1 place:1 company:1 second:1 season:1 tentatively:1 despite:1 age:1 non:1 japanese:2 fandom:3 exist:1 research:1 necessary:1 determine:1 size:1 possible:2 many:7 debate:1 part:2 unclear:1 deliberately:2 arrange:1 provoke:1 community:1 large:1 quantity:1 fiction:1 art:1 ovum:4 current:1 estimated:1 count:1 fanfiction:4 language:2 alone:1 exceed:1 text:3 last:1 version:1 guide:2 names:1 texts:1 repository:1 eyrie:1 org:1 archive:1 fully:1 overlap:2 category:1 net:1 list:2 far:1 although:1 previously:1 mention:1 source:1 though:1 preponderance:1 work:1 prove:1 attractive:1 viewer:1 mecha:3 apocalyptic:1 city:1 megatokyo:2 realize:1 leave:1 lasting:1 impression:1 varied:1 complex:1 sometimes:2 fill:1 multiple:1 interpretation:1 strong:2 yuri:1 music:3 recognizable:1 generate:1 feeling:1 nostalgia:1 opening:1 song:3 sequence:1 clearly:1 draw:2 inspiration:1 movie:3 street:1 fire:1 nearly:1 available:1 soundtrack:2 release:4 per:1 numerous:2 vocal:2 album:4 inspire:1 directly:1 consequence:1 good:1 ratio:1 consider:1 arguably:1 among:1 high:1 length:1 collection:1 percentage:1 wise:1 attribute:1 single:1 contemporary:1 roleplay:1 game:11 r:3 talsorian:3 fuzion:1 system:1 contain:2 sketch:1 setting:2 detail:2 background:1 information:1 supplement:1 plan:1 could:1 complete:1 rtg:2 license:2 expire:2 digitally:1 remastered:1 compilation:1 bi:1 lingual:1 track:1 extra:1 dvd:1 animeigo:2 inc:1 episodes:1 date:1 relate:1 file:2 crash:4 protect:1 parasite:1 doll:1 three:1 branch:1 secret:1 division:1 scramble:1 ten:1 little:1 gall:1 force:1 holiday:1 bali:1 special:1 live:5 action:3 hurricane:2 video:1 wave:1 pc:1 overview:2 find:3 turbografx:1 book:1 grand:1 mal:1 adam:1 warren:1 via:1 announce:1 stage:1 agreement:1 sign:1 cannes:1 film:1 festival:1 role:1 playing:1 introduce:1 alternate:1 crossfire:1 basing:1 premise:1 data:1 unit:1 hardsuit:1 blueprint:1 send:1 sylia:1 stingray:1 result:1 like:1 spread:1 globe:1 present:1 copy:2 back:1 stock:1 sell:1 cover:1 material:2 ex:1 completely:1 incorporate:1 concept:1 hardsuits:1 variant:1 ground:1 zero:1 four:1 mm:1 scale:1 miniature:1 actually:1 officer:1 boss:1 pack:1 quincy:1 mason:1 battlesuit:1 soldier:1 blue:1 novel:1 toshimichi:1 suzuki:1 translate:1 translation:1 image:1 ccg:1 ani:1 mayhem:1 reference:1 external:1 website:1 retrospect:1 |@bigram cyberpunk_anime:1 knight_saber:6 ova_series:5 bubblegum_crisis:15 blade_runner:2 post_apocalyptic:1 lasting_impression:1 r_talsorian:3 digitally_remastered:1 cannes_film:1 external_link:1 |
1,431 | Peter_Altenberg | Peter Altenberg 1907 in Café Central Peter Altenberg (r.) with Adolf Loos (l.), c. 1905 Peter Altenberg (March 9, 1859 - January 8, 1919) was a writer and poet from Vienna, Austria. He was key to the genesis of early modernism in the city. Biography He was born Richard Engländer on March 9, 1859. The nom de plume, "Altenberg", came from a small town on the Danube River. Allegedly, he chose the "Peter" to honor a young girl whom he remembered as an unrequited love (it had been her nickname). Although he grew up in a middle class Jewish family, Altenberg eventually separated himself from his family of origin by dropping out of both law and medical school, and embracing Bohemianism as a permanent lifestyle choice. He cultivated a feminine appearance and feminine handwriting, wore a cape, sandals and a broad-brimmed hat, and despised 'macho' masculinity. At the fin de siècle, when Vienna was a major crucible and center for modern arts and culture, Altenberg was a very influential part of a literary and artistic movement known as Jung Wien or "Young Vienna." Altenberg was a contemporary of Karl Kraus, Gustav Mahler, Arthur Schnitzler, Gustav Klimt, and Adolf Loos, with whom he had a very close relationship. He was somewhat older, in his early 30s, than the others. In addition to being a poet and prolific letter writer, he was an accomplished short story writer, prose writer, and essayist. He became well known throughout Vienna after the publication of a book of his fragmentary observations of women and children in everyday street activities. Because most of his literary work was written while he frequented various Viennese bars and coffeehouses, Altenberg is sometimes referred to as a cabaret or coffee house poet. His favorite coffeehouse was the Cafe Central, to which he even had his mail delivered. Altenberg's detractors (many of whom were anti-Semitic) said he was a drug addict and a womanizer. Altenberg was also rumored to have problems with alcoholism and mental illness. Yet his admirers considered him to be a highly creative individual with a great love for the aesthetic, for nature, and for young girls. He is certainly known to have made had a large collection of photographs and drawings of young girls, and those who knew him well (such as the daughter of his publisher) wrote of his adoration of young girls. Altenburg was never a commercially successful writer, but he did enjoy most if not all of the benefits of fame in his lifetime. Some of the aphoristic poetry he wrote on the backs of postcards and scraps of paper were set to music by composer Alban Berg. In 1913, Berg's Five songs on picture postcard texts by Peter Altenberg were premiered in Vienna. The piece caused an uproar, and the performance had to be halted: a complete performance of the work was not given until 1952. Altenberg, like many writers and artists, was constantly short of money, but he was adept at making friends, cultivating patrons, and convincing others to pay for his meals, his champagne, even his rent, with which he was frequently late. He repaid his debts with his talent, his wit, and his charm. Many academics consider him to have been a "bohemian's Bohemian." Most of Altenberg's work is published in the German language and, outside of anthology pieces, is difficult to find. Much of it remains in university libraries or private collections. Two selections have been translated, Evocations of Love (1960) and Telegrams of the Soul: Selected Prose of Peter Altenberg (2005). Altenberg, who never married, died January 8, 1919. He was 59 years old. He is buried at Central Cemetery in Vienna, Austria. Famous Quotes Art is life, life is life, but to lead life artistically is the art of life. Spectators: people who are interested in something they are not interested in at all A happy couple: he does what she wants and she does what she wants Religion is a kind of ideal application of persecution complex on human nerves There is only one thing indecent with nakedness, and that is to find nakedness indecent. Further reading Simpson, Josephine Mary Nelmes (1987). Peter Altenberg: A Neglected Writer of the Viennese Jahrhundertwende. Peter Lang GmbH. Wittels, Fritz (1995). Freud and the Child Woman: The Memoirs of Fritz Wittels. Yale University Press. (Has the best account of the erotic subculture of Vienna at the time). External links Works of Peter Altenberg at Zeno.org (German) Works of Peter Altenberg at eLib.at (German) Selected works (English) Two short stories Poem "To The Coffee House" | Peter_Altenberg |@lemmatized peter:10 altenberg:18 café:1 central:3 r:1 adolf:2 loo:2 l:1 c:1 march:2 january:2 writer:7 poet:3 vienna:7 austria:2 key:1 genesis:1 early:2 modernism:1 city:1 biography:1 bear:1 richard:1 engländer:1 nom:1 de:2 plume:1 come:1 small:1 town:1 danube:1 river:1 allegedly:1 choose:1 honor:1 young:5 girl:4 remember:1 unrequited:1 love:3 nickname:1 although:1 grow:1 middle:1 class:1 jewish:1 family:2 eventually:1 separate:1 origin:1 drop:1 law:1 medical:1 school:1 embrace:1 bohemianism:1 permanent:1 lifestyle:1 choice:1 cultivate:2 feminine:2 appearance:1 handwriting:1 wear:1 cape:1 sandal:1 broad:1 brim:1 hat:1 despise:1 macho:1 masculinity:1 fin:1 siècle:1 major:1 crucible:1 center:1 modern:1 art:3 culture:1 influential:1 part:1 literary:2 artistic:1 movement:1 know:4 jung:1 wien:1 contemporary:1 karl:1 kraus:1 gustav:2 mahler:1 arthur:1 schnitzler:1 klimt:1 close:1 relationship:1 somewhat:1 old:2 others:2 addition:1 prolific:1 letter:1 accomplished:1 short:3 story:2 prose:2 essayist:1 become:1 well:2 throughout:1 publication:1 book:1 fragmentary:1 observation:1 woman:2 child:2 everyday:1 street:1 activity:1 work:6 write:3 frequent:1 various:1 viennese:2 bar:1 coffeehouse:2 sometimes:1 refer:1 cabaret:1 coffee:2 house:2 favorite:1 cafe:1 even:2 mail:1 deliver:1 detractor:1 many:3 anti:1 semitic:1 say:1 drug:1 addict:1 womanizer:1 also:1 rumor:1 problem:1 alcoholism:1 mental:1 illness:1 yet:1 admirer:1 consider:2 highly:1 creative:1 individual:1 great:1 aesthetic:1 nature:1 certainly:1 make:2 large:1 collection:2 photograph:1 drawing:1 daughter:1 publisher:1 adoration:1 altenburg:1 never:2 commercially:1 successful:1 enjoy:1 benefit:1 fame:1 lifetime:1 aphoristic:1 poetry:1 back:1 postcard:2 scrap:1 paper:1 set:1 music:1 composer:1 alban:1 berg:2 five:1 song:1 picture:1 text:1 premier:1 piece:2 cause:1 uproar:1 performance:2 halt:1 complete:1 give:1 like:1 artist:1 constantly:1 money:1 adept:1 friend:1 patron:1 convince:1 pay:1 meal:1 champagne:1 rent:1 frequently:1 late:1 repay:1 debt:1 talent:1 wit:1 charm:1 academic:1 bohemian:2 publish:1 german:3 language:1 outside:1 anthology:1 difficult:1 find:2 much:1 remain:1 university:2 library:1 private:1 two:2 selection:1 translate:1 evocation:1 telegram:1 soul:1 select:2 marry:1 die:1 year:1 bury:1 cemetery:1 famous:1 quote:1 life:5 lead:1 artistically:1 spectator:1 people:1 interested:2 something:1 happy:1 couple:1 want:2 religion:1 kind:1 ideal:1 application:1 persecution:1 complex:1 human:1 nerve:1 one:1 thing:1 indecent:2 nakedness:2 reading:1 simpson:1 josephine:1 mary:1 nelmes:1 neglected:1 jahrhundertwende:1 lang:1 gmbh:1 wittels:2 fritz:2 freud:1 memoir:1 yale:1 press:1 best:1 account:1 erotic:1 subculture:1 time:1 external:1 link:1 zeno:1 org:1 elib:1 english:1 poem:1 |@bigram peter_altenberg:8 adolf_loo:2 nom_de:1 unrequited_love:1 brim_hat:1 gustav_mahler:1 gustav_klimt:1 writer_essayist:1 anti_semitic:1 drug_addict:1 mental_illness:1 commercially_successful:1 alban_berg:1 repay_debt:1 external_link:1 |
1,432 | George_Washington_Carver | George Washington Carver (January 1864 The Notable Names Database cites July 12, 1864 as Carver's birthday here. – January 5, 1943), was an American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor whose studies and teaching revolutionized agriculture in the Southern United States. The day and year of his birth are unknown; he is believed to have been born before slavery was abolished in Missouri in January 1864. Much of Carver's fame is based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, such as peanuts and sweet potatoes. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their quality of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes that used peanuts. Carver, George Washington. 1916. How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption. Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31. He also created or disseminated about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm, including cosmetics, dyes, paints, plastics, gasoline, and nitroglycerin. In the Reconstruction South, an agricultural monoculture of cotton depleted the soil, and in the early 20th century the boll weevil destroyed much of the cotton crop. Carver's work on peanuts was intended to provide an alternative crop. In addition to his work on agricultural extension education for purposes of advocacy of sustainable agriculture and appreciation of plants and nature, Carver's important accomplishments also included improvement of racial relations, mentoring children, poetry, painting, and religion. He served as an example of the importance of hard work, a positive attitude, and a good education. His humility, humanitarianism, good nature, frugality, and rejection of economic materialism also have been admired widely. One of his most important roles was in undermining, through the fame of his achievements and many talents, the widespread stereotype of the time that the black race was intellectually inferior to the white race. In 1941, Time magazine dubbed him a "Black Leonardo", a reference to the white polymath Leonardo da Vinci. To commemorate his life and inventions, George Washington Carver Recognition Day is celebrated on January 5, the anniversary of Carver's death. Early years Carver was born in Diamond Grove, Newton County, Marion Township, near Crystal Place, now known as Diamond, Missouri, on or around July 12, 1865. Pages 9-10 of George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol by Linda McMurry, 1982. New York: Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-503205-5) His slave owner, Moses Carver, was a German American immigrant who had purchased George's mother, Mary, and father, Giles, from William P. McGinnis on October 9, 1855, for seven hundred dollars. Carver had 10 sisters and a brother, all of whom died prematurely. George, one of his sisters, and his mother were kidnapped by night raiders and sold in Kentucky, a common practice. Moses Carver hired John Bentley to find them. Only Carver was found, orphaned and near death. Carver's mother and sister had already died, although some reports stated that his mother and sister had gone north with soldiers. For returning George, Moses Carver rewarded Bentley. After slavery was abolished, Moses Carver and his wife, Susan, raised George and his older brother, James, as their own children. They encouraged George Carver to continue his intellectual pursuits, and "Aunt Susan" taught him the basics of reading and writing. Since blacks were not allowed at the school in Diamond Grove, and he had received news that there was a school for blacks ten miles (16 km) south in Neosho, he resolved to go there at once. To his dismay, when he reached the town, the school had been closed for the night. As he had nowhere to stay, he slept in a nearby barn. By his own account, the next morning he met a kind woman, Mariah Watkins, from whom he wished to rent a room. When he identified himself as "Carver's George," as he had done his whole life, she replied that from now on his name was "George Carver". George liked this lady very much, and her words, "You must learn all you can, then go back out into the world and give your learning back to the people", made a great impression on him. At the age of thirteen, due to his desire to attend the academy there, he relocated to the home of another foster family in Fort Scott, Kansas. After witnessing the beating to death of a black man at the hands of a group of white men, George left Fort Scott. He subsequently attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in Minneapolis, Kansas. College At work in his laboratory Over the next five years, he sent several letters to colleges and was finally accepted at Highland College in Highland, Kansas. He traveled to the college, but he was rejected when they discovered that he was an African American. In August 1886, Carver traveled by wagon with J. F. Beeler from Highland to Eden Township in Ness County, Kansas. George Washington Carver: Scientist, Scholar, and Educator from the "Blue Skyways" website of the Kansas State Library He homesteaded a claim Southeast Quarter of Section 4, Township 19 South, Range 26 West of the Sixth Principal Meridian, Ness County, Kansas near Beeler, where he maintained a small conservatory of plants and flowers and a geological collection. With no help from domestic animals he plowed of the claim, planting rice, corn, Indian corn and garden produce, as well as various fruit trees, forest trees, and shrubbery. He also did odd jobs in town and worked as a ranch hand. In early 1888, Carver obtained a $3000 loan at the Bank of Ness City, stating he wanted to further his education, and by June of that year he had left the area. In 1890, Carver started studying art and piano at Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa. College Archives - George Washington Carver from the Simpson College website His art teacher, Etta Budd, recognized Carver's talent for painting flowers and plants and convinced him to study botany at Iowa State Agricultural College in Ames. He transferred there in 1891, the first black student and later the first black faculty member. In order to avoid confusion with another George Carver in his classes, he began to use the name George Washington Carver. At the end of his undergraduate career in 1894, recognizing Carver's potential, Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced Carver to stay at Iowa State for his master's degree. Carver then performed research at the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station under Pammel from 1894 to his graduation in 1896. It is his work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology that first gained him national recognition and respect as a botanist. At Tuskegee with Booker T. Washington In 1896, Carver was invited to lead the Agriculture Department at the five-year-old Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, later Tuskegee University, by its founder, Booker T. Washington. Carver accepted the position, and remained there for 47 years, teaching former slaves farming techniques for self-sufficiency. In response to Washington's directive to bring education to farmers, Carver designed a mobile school, called a "Jesup wagon" after the New York financier Morris Ketchum Jesup, who provided funding. The first Jesup Wagon from a National Park Service website Carver had numerous problems at Tuskegee before he became famous. Carver's perceived arrogance, his higher-than-normal salary and the two rooms he received for his personal use were resented by other faculty. Pages 45-47 of McMurry Single faculty members normally bunked two to a room. One of Carver's duties was to administer the Agricultural Experiment Station farms. He was expected to produce and sell farm products to make a profit. He soon proved to be a poor administrator. In 1900, Carver complained that the physical work and the letter-writing his agricultural work required were both too much for him. Volume 5, page 481 of Harlan In 1902, Booker T. Washington invited Frances Benjamin Johnston, a nationally famous female photographer, to Tuskegee. Carver and Nelson Henry, a Tuskegee graduate, accompanied the attractive white woman to the town of Ramer. Several white citizens thought Henry was improperly associating with a white woman. Someone fired three pistol shots at Henry, and he fled. Mobs prevented him from returning. Carver considered himself fortunate to escape alive. Volume 5, page 504 of Harlan In 1904, a committee reported that Carver's reports on the poultry yard were exaggerated, and Washington criticized Carver about the exaggerations. Carver replied to Washington "Now to be branded as a liar and party to such hellish deception it is more than I can bear, and if your committee feel that I have willfully lied or [was] party to such lies as were told my resignation is at your disposal." Volume 8, page 95 of Harlan In 1910, Carver submitted a letter of resignation in response to a reorganization of the agriculture programs. Volume 10, page 480 of Harlan Carver again threatened to resign in 1912 over his teaching assignment. Volume 12, page 95 of Harlan Carver submitted a letter of resignation in 1913, with the intention of heading up an experiment station elsewhere. Volume 12, pages 251-252 of Harlan He also threatened to resign in 1913 and 1914 when he didn't get a summer teaching assignment. Volume 12, page 201 of Harlan Volume 13, page 35 of Harlan In each case, Washington smoothed things over. It seemed that Carver's wounded pride prompted most of the resignation threats, especially the last two, because he did not need the money from summer work. In 1911, Washington wrote a lengthy letter to Carver complaining that Carver did not follow orders to plant certain crops at the experiment station. Volume 10, pages 592-596 of Harlan He also refused Carver's demands for a new laboratory and research supplies for Carver's exclusive use and for Carver to teach no classes. He complimented Carver's abilities in teaching and original research but bluntly remarked on his poor administrative skills, "When it comes to the organization of classes, the ability required to secure a properly organized and large school or section of a school, you are wanting in ability. When it comes to the matter of practical farm managing which will secure definite, practical, financial results, you are wanting again in ability." Also in 1911, Carver complained that his laboratory was still without the equipment promised 11 months earlier. At the same time, Carver complained of committees criticizing him and that his "nerves will not stand" any more committee meetings. Volume 4, page 239 of Harlan Despite their clashes, Booker T. Washington praised Carver in the 1911 book My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience. Booker T. Washington, 1856-1915 My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience Washington called Carver "one of the most thoroughly scientific men of the Negro race with whom I am acquainted." Like most later Carver biographies, it also contained exaggerations. It inaccurately claimed that as a young boy Carver "proved to be such a weak and sickly little creature that no attempt was made to put him to work and he was allowed to grow up among chickens and other animals around the servants' quarters, getting his living as best he could." Carver wrote elsewhere that his adoptive parents, the Carvers, were "very kind" to him. GWC | His Life in his own words Booker T. Washington died in 1915. His successor made fewer demands on Carver. From 1915 to 1923, Carver's major focus was compiling existing uses and proposing new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, pecans, and other crops. Special History Study from the National Park Service website This work and especially his promotion of peanuts for the peanut growers association and before Congress eventually made him the most famous African-American of his time. Rise to fame Carver had an interest in helping poor Southern farmers who were working low-quality soils that had been depleted of nutrients by repeated plantings of cotton crops. He and other agricultural cognoscenti urged farmers to restore nitrogen to their soils by practicing systematic crop rotation, alternating cotton crops with plantings of sweet potatoes or legumes (such as peanuts, soybeans and cowpeas) that were also sources of protein. Following the crop rotation practice resulted in improved cotton yields and gave farmers new foods and alternative cash crops. In order to train farmers to successfully rotate crops and cultivate the new foods, Carver developed an agricultural extension program for Alabama that was similar to the one at Iowa State. In addition, he founded an industrial research laboratory where he and assistants worked to popularize use of the new plants by developing hundreds of applications for them through original research and also by promoting recipes and applications that they collected from others. Carver distributed his information as agricultural bulletins. (See Carver bulletins below.) Peanut specimen collected by Carver Much of Carver's fame is related to the hundreds of plant products he popularized. After Carver's death, lists were created of the plant products Carver compiled or originated. Such lists enumerate about 300 applications for peanuts and 118 for sweet potatoes, although 73 of the 118 were dyes. He made similar investigations into uses for cowpeas, soybeans, and pecans. Carver did not write down formulas for most of his novel plant products so they could not be made by others. Until 1921, Carver was not widely known for his agricultural research. However, he was known in Washington, D.C. President Theodore Roosevelt publicly admired his work. James Wilson, a former Iowa state dean and teacher of Carver's, was U.S. secretary of agriculture from 1897 to 1913. Henry Cantwell Wallace, U.S. secretary of agriculture from 1921 to 1924, was one of Carver's teachers at Iowa State. Carver was a friend of Wallace's son, Henry A. Wallace, also an Iowa State graduate. The legacy of George Washington Carver-Friends & Colleagues (Henry Wallace The younger Wallace served as U.S. secretary of agriculture from 1933 to 1940 and as Franklin Delano Roosevelt's vice president from 1941 to 1945. In 1916 Carver was made a member of the Royal Society of Arts in England, one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor. However, Carver's promotion of peanuts gained him the most fame. In 1919, Carver wrote to a peanut company about the great potential he saw for his new peanut milk. Both he and the peanut industry seemed unaware that in 1917 William Melhuish had secured patent #1,243,855 for a milk substitute made from peanuts and soybeans. Despite reservations about his race, the peanut industry invited him as a speaker to their 1920 convention. He discussed "The Possibilities of the Peanut" and exhibited 145 peanut products. By 1920, U.S. peanut farmers were being undercut with imported peanuts from the Republic of China. White peanut farmers and processors came together in 1921 to plead their cause before a Congressional committee hearings on a tariff. Having already spoken on the subject at the convention of the United Peanut Associations of America, Carver was elected to speak in favor of a peanut tariff before the Ways and Means Committee of the United States House of Representatives. Carver was a novel choice because of U.S. racial segregation. On arrival, Carver was mocked by surprised Southern congressmen, but he was not deterred and began to explain some of the many uses for the peanut. Initially given ten minutes to present, the now spellbound committee extended his time again and again. The committee rose in applause as he finished his presentation, and the Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 included a tariff on imported peanuts. Carver's presentation to Congress made him famous, while his intelligence, eloquence, amiability, and courtesy delighted the general public. Life while famous During the last two decades of his life, Carver seemed to enjoy his celebrity status. He was often to be found on the road promoting Tuskegee, peanuts, and racial harmony. Although he only published six agricultural bulletins after 1922, he published articles in peanut industry journals and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Professor Carver's Advice". Business leaders came to seek his help, and he often responded with free advice. Three American presidents—Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge and Franklin Roosevelt—met with him, and the Crown Prince of Sweden studied with him for three weeks. In 1923, Carver received the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP, awarded annually for outstanding achievement. From 1923 to 1933, Carver toured white Southern colleges for the Commission on Interracial Cooperation. Carver was famously criticized in the November 20, 1924, New York Times article "Men of Science Never Talk That Way." The Times considered Carver's statements that God guided his research inconsistent with a scientific approach. The criticism garnered much sympathy for Carver, as many Christians viewed it as an attack on religion. In 1928, Simpson College bestowed on Carver an honorary doctorate. For a 1929 book on Carver, Raleigh H. Merritt contacted him. Merritt wrote "At present not a great deal has been done to utilize Dr. Carver's discoveries commercially. He says that he is merely scratching the surface of scientific investigations of the possibilities of the peanut and other Southern products." Raleigh Howard Merritt. From Captivity to Fame or The Life of George Washington Carver Yet, in 1932 professor of literature James Saxon Childers wrote that Carver and his peanut products were almost solely responsible for the rise in U.S. peanut production after the boll weevil devastated the American cotton crop beginning about 1892. Childer's 1932 article on Carver, "A Boy Who Was Traded for a Horse", in The American Magazine, and its 1937 reprint in Reader's Digest, did much to establish this Carver myth. Other major magazines and newspapers of the time also exaggerated Carver's impact on the peanut industry. From 1933 to 1935, Carver was largely occupied with work on peanut oil massages for treating infantile paralysis (polio). Carver received tremendous media attention and visitations from parents and their sick children; however, it was ultimately found that peanut oil was not the miracle cure it was made out to be—it was the massages which provided the benefits. Carver had been a trainer for the Iowa State football team and was skilled as a masseur. From 1935 to 1937, Carver participated in the USDA Disease Survey. Carver had specialized in plant diseases and mycology for his master's degree. In 1937, Carver attended two chemurgy conferences. He met Henry Ford at the Dearborn, Michigan, conference, and they became close friends. Also in 1937, Carver's health declined. Time magazine reported in 1941 that Henry Ford installed an elevator for Carver because his doctor told him not to climb the 19 stairs to his room. In 1942, the two men denied that they were working together on a solution to the wartime rubber shortage. Carver also did work with soy, which he and Ford considered as an alternative fuel. In 1939, Carver received the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture enscribed "to a scientist humbly seeking the guidance of God and a liberator to men of the white race as well as the black." In 1940, Carver established the George Washington Carver Foundation at the Tuskegee Institute. In 1941, The George Washington Carver Museum was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institute. In 1942, Henry Ford built a replica of Carver's slave cabin at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn as a tribute to his friend. Also in 1942, Ford dedicated the George Washington Carver Laboratory in Dearborn. Death and afterwards Upon returning home one day, Carver took a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital. Carver died January 5, 1943, at the age of 78 from complications (anemia) resulting from this fall. He was buried next to Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee University. Due to his frugality, Carver's life savings totaled $60,000, all of which he donated in his last years and at his death to the Carver Museum and to the George Washington Carver Foundation. GWC | Tour Of His Life |Page 6 On his grave was written, He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world. Before and after his death, there was a movement to establish a U.S. national monument to Carver. However, because of World War II such non-war expenditures were banned by presidential order. Missouri senator Harry S. Truman sponsored a bill anyway. In a committee hearing on the bill, one supporter argued that "The bill is not simply a momentary pause on the part of busy men engaged in the conduct of the war, to do honor to one of the truly great Americans of this country, but it is in essence a blow against the Axis, it is in essence a war measure in the sense that it will further unleash and release the energies of roughly 15,000,000 Negro people in this country for full support of our war effort." The bill passed in both houses without a single vote against. 1948 US postage stamp On July 14, 1943, George Washington Carver National Monument (U.S. National Park Service) President Franklin Delano Roosevelt dedicated $30,000 for the George Washington Carver National Monument west-southwest of Diamond, Missouri—an area where Carver had spent time in his childhood. This was the first national monument dedicated to an African-American and also the first to a non-President. At this national monument, there is a bust of Carver, a ¾-mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 Moses Carver house, and the Carver cemetery. Due to a variety of delays, the national monument was not opened until July, 1953. In December 1947, a fire destroyed all but three of 48 of Carver's paintings at the Carver Museum Carver appeared on U.S. commemorative stamps in 1948 and 1998, and he was depicted on a commemorative half dollar coin from 1951 to 1954. Two ships, the Liberty ship SS George Washington Carver and the nuclear submarine USS George Washington Carver (SSBN-656) were named in his honor. In 1977, Carver was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. In 1990, Carver was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In 1994, Iowa State University awarded Carver Doctor of Humane Letters. In 2000, Carver was a charter inductee in the USDA Hall of Heroes as the "Father of Chemurgy". USDA Hall of Heroes In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed George Washington Carver on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. In 2005, Carver's research at the Tuskegee Institute was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society. George Washington Carver: Chemist, Teacher, Symbol On February 15, 2005, an episode of Modern Marvels included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about Carver's work. In 2005, the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, opened a George Washington Carver garden in his honor, which includes a lifesize statue of him. Many institutions honor George Washington Carver to this day, particularly the American public school system. Dozens of elementary schools and high schools are named after him. National Basketball Association star David Robinson and his wife, Valerie, founded an academy named after Carver; it opened on September 17, 2001, in San Antonio, Texas. History from the Carver Academy website Reputed inventions George Washington Carver reputedly discovered three hundred uses for peanuts and hundreds more for soybeans, pecans and sweet potatoes. Among the listed items that he suggested to southern farmers to help them economically were adhesives, axle grease, bleach, buttermilk, chili sauce, fuel briquettes(a biofuel), ink, instant coffee, linoleum, mayonnaise, meat tenderizer, metal polish, paper, plastic, pavement, shaving cream, shoe polish, synthetic rubber, talcum powder and wood stain. Three patents (one for cosmetics, and two for paints and stains) were issued to George Washington Carver in the years 1925 to 1927; however, they were not commercially successful in the end. Aside from these patents and some recipes for food, he left no formulae or procedures for making his products. Mackintosh, Barry. 1977. George Washington Carver and the Peanut: New Light on a Much-loved Myth. American Heritage 28(5): 66-73. He did not keep a laboratory notebook. It is a common misconception that Carver's research on products that could be made by small farmers for their own use led to commercial successes that revolutionized Southern agriculture, McMurry, L.O. 1981. George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol. New York, Oxford University Press. Smith, Andrew F. 2002. Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. but these products were intended as adequate replacements for commercial products that were outside the budget of the small one-horse farmer. Carver's work to apply the scientific method to sustain small farmers and to provide them with the resources to be as independent of the cash economy as possible foreshadowed the "appropriate technology" work of E.F. Schumacher. Peanut products Dennis Keeney, director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University, wrote in the Leopold Letter newsletter: <blockquote> Carver worked on improving soils, growing crops with low inputs, and using species that fixed nitrogen (hence, the work on the cowpea and the peanut). Carver wrote in The Need of Scientific Agriculture in the South: "The virgin fertility of our soils and the vast amount of unskilled labor have been more of a curse than a blessing to agriculture. This exhaustive system for cultivation, the destruction of forest, the rapid and almost constant decomposition of organic matter, have made our agricultural problem one requiring more brains than of the North, East or West. </blockquote> (Information taken from Fishbein, Toby. "The legacy of George Washington Carver." http://lib.iastate.edu/spcl/gwc/bio.html) Carver did market a few of his peanut products. The Carver Penol Company sold a mixture of creosote and peanuts as a patent medicine for respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis. Other ventures were The Carver Products Company and the Carvoline Company. Carvoline Antiseptic Hair Dressing was a mix of peanut oil and lanolin. Carvoline Rubbing Oil was a peanut oil for massages. Sweet potato products Next to peanuts, Carver is most associated with sweet potato products. In his 1922 sweet potato bulletin Carver listed a few dozen recipes "many of which I have copied verbatim from Bulletin No. 129, U. S. Department of Agriculture". How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes, Geo. W. Carver from the Texas A&M University website The list of Carver's sweet potato inventions compiled from Carver's records includes 73 dyes, 17 wood fillers, 14 candies, 5 library pastes, 5 breakfast foods, 4 starches, 4 flours, and 3 molasseses. Carver Sweet Potato Products from the Tuskegee University website There are also listings for vinegar and spiced vinegar, dry coffee and instant coffee, candy, after-dinner mints, orange drops, and lemon drops. Carver bulletins During his more than four decades at Tuskegee, Carver's official published work consisted mainly of 44 practical bulletins for farmers. List of Bulletins by George Washington Carver from the Tuskegee University website His first bulletin in 1898 was on feeding acorns to farm animals. His final bulletin in 1943 was about the peanut. He also published six bulletins on sweet potatoes, five on cotton, and four on cowpeas. Some other individual bulletins dealt with alfalfa, wild plum, tomato, ornamental plants, corn, poultry, dairying, hogs, preserving meats in hot weather, and nature study in schools. His most popular bulletin, How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption, was first published in 1916 and was reprinted many times. It gave a short overview of peanut crop production and contained a list of recipes from other agricultural bulletins, cookbooks, magazines, and newspapers, such as the Peerless Cookbook, Good Housekeeping, and Berry's Fruit Recipes. Carver's was far from the first American agricultural bulletin devoted to peanuts, Handy, R.B. 1895. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. USDA Farmers' Bulletin 25. Newman, C.L. 1904. Peanuts. Fayetteville, Arkansas: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Beattie, W.R. 1909. Peanuts. USDA Farmers' Bulletin 356. Ferris, E.B. 1909. Peanuts. Agricultural College, Mississippi: Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station. Beattie, W.R. 1911. The Peanut. USDA Farmers' Bulletin 431. but his bulletins did seem to be more popular and widespread than previous ones. Religion While George Washington Carver is most widely recognized for his scientific contributions regarding the peanut, he is also often recognized as a devoted Christian. God and science were both areas of interest, not warring ideas in the mind of George Washington Carver. He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science. Man of science-and of God from The New American (January, 2004) via AccessMyLibrary George Washington Carver from CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science George Washington Carver became a Christian when he was ten years old. He matured in his faith by placing his understanding of God firmly in the words of the Bible. George Washington Carver: Pocket Watch and Bible from a National Park Service website http://www.mhmin.org/FC/fc-1293GeorgeC.htm When he was still a young boy, he was not expected to live past his twenty-first birthday due to conspicuously failing health. He used the prognosis as an opportunity to exercise his trust in God and pushed forward. He lived well past the age of twenty-one, and his trust in God's provision deepened as a result. Throughout his career, he always found friendship and safety in the fellowship of other Christians. He relied on them exceedingly when enduring harsh criticism from the scientific community and newsprint media regarding his research methodology. http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/n/Newman,Wilson_L. Dr. Carver's faith was foundational in how he approached life. He viewed faith in Jesus as a means to destroying both barriers of racial disharmony and social stratification. Quotes From Dr. Carver | Page 2 from a National Park Service website For Dr. Carver, faith was an agent of change. It increased knowledge rather than competing against it. The greater his faith increased, the more he desired to learn. The more he learned, the greater his faith became. Legends of Tuskegee: George Washington Carver-From Slave to Student from a National Park Service website In attempts to teach his students, he defaulted first and foremost to the proclamation of Christ. He taught that knowledge of God through the Bible and devotion to Jesus were paramount to what he could teach them pedagogically through numbers and formulas. The Educational Theory of George Washington Carver from newfoundations.com He was as concerned with his students' character development as he was with their intellectual development. He even compiled a list of eight cardinal virtues for his students to emulate and strive toward: A monument to Carver at the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO. Be clean both inside and out. Neither look up to the rich or down on the poor. Lose, if need be, without squealing. Win without bragging. Always be considerate of women, children, and older people. Be too brave to lie. Be too generous to cheat. Take your share of the world and let others take theirs. Carver also led a Bible class on Sundays while at Tuskegee, beginning in 1906, for several students at their request. In this class he would regularly tell the stories from the Bible by acting them out. Unconventional in respect to both his scientific method and his ambition as a teacher, he inspired as much criticism as he did praise. George Washington Carver Dr. Carver expressed this sentiment in response to this phenomenon: "When you do the common things in life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world." George Washington Carver Quotes The legacy of George Washington Carver's faith is included in many Christian book series for children and adults about great men and women of faith and the work they accomplished through their convictions respectively. One such series, the Sower series, includes his story alongside those of such men as Isaac Newton, Samuel Morse, Johannes Kepler, and the Wright brothers. Whole Life Stewardship - Books Other Christian literary references include "Man’s Slave, God’s Scientist", by David R. Collins and the Heroes of the Faith series book "George Washington Carver: Inventor and Naturalist" by Sam Wellman. He is also included in Christian and homeschooling curricula in the history units along with Abraham Lincoln, David Livingstone, and Eric Liddell. Notes References Carver, George Washington. "1897 or Thereabouts: George Washington Carver's Own Brief History of His Life." George Washington Carver National Monument. Kremer, Gary R. (editor). 1987. George Washington Carver in His Own Words. Columbia, Missouri.: University of Missouri Press. McMurry, L. O. Carver, George Washington. American National Biography Online Feb. 2000 George Washington Carver : Man’s Slave, God’s Scientist, Collins, David R., Mott Media, 1981) George Washington Carver: His Life & Faith in His Own Words (Hardcover) by William J. Federer Publisher: AmeriSearch (January 2003) ISBN 0965355764 George Washington Carver: In His Own Words (Paperback)by George W. Carver Publisher: University of Missouri Press; Reprint edition (January 1991) ISBN 0826207855 ISBN 978-0826207852 H.M. Morris, Men of Science, Men of God (1982) E.C.Barnett & D.Fisher, Scientists Who Believe (1984) G.R. Kremer, George Washington Carver in His Own Words (1987) See also African-American history Boll Weevil Carver Academy List of people on stamps of the United States Peanut External links National Park Service: Legends of Tuskegee: George Washington Carver from the National Parks Service National Parks Service, George Washington Carver National Monument from the National Parks Service Carver Tribute from Tuskegee University Iowa State University, The Legacy of George Washington Carver from Iowa State University National Historic Chemical Landmark from the American Chemical Society Print publications George Washington Carver. "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31 George Washington Carver. "How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes and Ways of Preparing Them for the Table," Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 38, 1936. George Washington Carver. "How to Grow the Tomato and 115 Ways to Prepare it for the Table" Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 36, 1936. Peter D. Burchard, "George Washington Carver: For His Time and Ours," National Parks Service: George Washington Carver National Monument. 2006. Louis R. Harlan, Ed., The Booker T. Washington Papers, Volume 4, pp. 127-128. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1975. Mark Hersey, "Hints and Suggestions to Farmers: George Washington Carver and Rural Conservation in the South," Environmental History April 2006 Barry Mackintosh, "George Washington Carver and the Peanut: New Light on a Much-loved Myth," American Heritage 28(5): 66-73, 1977. Linda O. McMurry, George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol,'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. (Questia Online Library: here, Google Books:here) Raleigh H. Merritt, From Captivity to Fame or the Life of George Washington Carver, Boston: Meador Publishing. 1929. 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1,433 | Boeing_E-3_Sentry | The Boeing E-3 Sentry is an American military airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control and communications, to the United States, United Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia, and NATO air defense forces. Production ended in 1992 after 68 had been built. Development In June 1965, the United States Air Force (USAF) asked for proposals for feasibility studies into the provision of an Airborne Early Warning and Control system to replace the Air Force's existing EC-121 Warning Stars, which served in the Airborne Early Warning role, taking advantage of improvements in radar technology which allowed airborne radars to "Look Down" and detect low flying aircraft, even over land, which would previously be undetectable due to ground clutter. Contracts were given to Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed, with Lockheed being eliminated in July 1966. In 1967, a parallel program was put into place to develop the radar, with Westinghouse and Hughes being asked to compete to supply the radar for the new aircraft. In 1968 it was referred to as Overland Radar Technology (ORT) during development tests on the modified EC-121Q. Davies 2005, p.2. The Westinghouse radar antenna was going to be used whoever won the radar competition, and the first two were placed on the two "brassboard" test aircraft which began flights in March 1972 and ended in July 1972. Westinghouse had pioneered the design of high power RF phase shifters (called Fox Phase Shifters after Gardner Fox of Bell Labs). Boeing's proposal, for an aircraft based on the Boeing 707, but powered by eight General Electric TF34 engines and carrying its radar in a rotating rotodome located above the fuselage, was selected ahead of McDonnell Douglas's proposal based on the DC-8 in July 1970. Initial orders were placed for two aircraft, designated EC-137D as test beds to evaluate the two competing radar designs. As the test-beds did not need the same 14 hour endurance demanded of the production aircraft, the EC-137s retained the normal Pratt & Whitney JT3D engines of the airliner. The first of the two EC-137s first flew on 9 February 1972, with the fly-off between the two radars beginning in March and continuing until July that year. As a result of these tests, the Westinghouse radar was chosen for the production aircraft. Davies 2005, pp.5-6. The Hughes radar was initially thought to be a sure thing, because much of the design was also going into the new F-15 radar program. The Westinghouse radar used a pipelined FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) designed by Edwin Sloane et al. to digitally resolve 128 Doppler frequencies, while the Hughes used analog filters from the F-15 design. The Westinghouse team won the competition by having a programmable 18-bit computer that software was modified before each flight, and for multiplexing a Beyond The Horizon (BTH) mode that could complement the Pulse Doppler radar mode. This proved beneficial when the BTH mode was used to detect ships when the beam was directed below the horizon. Approval was given on 26 January 1973 for full scale development of the AWACS aircraft, with orders being placed for three pre-production aircraft to allow further development of the aircraft's systems, with the first of these aircraft flying in February 1975. One change was that, in order to save costs, the endurance requirements were relaxed allowing the new aircraft to retain the four JT-3D (given the US Military designation TF-33) engines. J W R Taylor 1976, p.246. IBM and Hazeltine were selected to develop the mission computer and display system. The IBM computer receiving the designation 4PI, and the software is written in JOVIAL. A SAGE or BUIC operator would immediately be at home with the track displays and tabular displays, but differences in symbology would create compatibility problems in tactical ground radar systems in Iceland, Europe and Korea over Link-11 (TADIL-A). Modifications to the Boeing 707 for the E-3 Sentry included a rotating radar dome, single-point ground, and air refueling points, and a bail-out chute. The original design called for two bail-out chutes (one forward, and one aft) but the aft bail-out chute was deleted as a way to cut mounting costs. The use of parachutes was also deleted in the 1980s, as a way to save training and equipment costs. Since the parachutes were not issued to crew-members, but instead stored in the aft part of the plane, equipment additions left no place to store them. This also allowed the U.S. and NATO to drop the requirement for helmets which took hundreds of man-hours to inspect, repair, and maintain. Upgrades The USAF E-3 fleet completed its largest upgrade in 2001. Known as the Block 30/35 Modification Program, the upgrade includes four enhancements: Electronic Support Measures (ESM) for passive detection, an electronic surveillance capability to detect and identify air and surface-based emitters. Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) to provide secure, anti-jam communication for information distribution, position location and identification capabilities. This system enhanced TADIL-A Link-11 with a high speed exchange of radar information. System also known as TADIL-J, or Link-16. An increase in the memory capability in the computer to accommodate JTIDS (Link-16), ESM and future enhancements. Global Positioning System (GPS). Future direction Since the Boeing 707 is no longer in production, the E-3 mission package has been fitted into the Boeing E-767 for the Japan Air Self Defence Force. The E-10 MC2A was intended to replace the United States operated E-3 (along with the RC-135 and the E-8 Joint STARS), but the E-10 program was canceled. The USAF is now taking a new direction with the E-3 platform in order to bring it up to current technological standards. Boeing is currently testing its block 40/45 modified E-3. This aircraft represents the direction the USAF wants to take with its next upgrade of the Mission Crew section and Air Battle Management section of the E-3 fleet. http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/asw_isr/news/2008/q3/080910a_nr.html Another program under consideration is the Airframe Modernization Program (AMP). AMP would provide the E-3 with a glass cockpit and possibly re-engine the USAF fleet of E-3's with an engine that is more reliable and at least 19~22% more fuel efficient (the engines would pay for themselves in 4–5 years of use through fuel savings). New engines would give the USAF E-3's a longer range, longer on station time, shorter critical runway length (the E-3 could now operate with a full fuel load on a runway with only 10,000 feet at higher temperatures and pressure altitude) while providing better range for its line of sight sensors. Now that the E-8 Joint STARS is being fitted with the JT8D (the P&W JT8D-219 is publicized as being half the cost of the competing 707 re-engine powerplant the CFM-56) the Air Force is again studying the possibility of moving forward to upgrade its current obsolete engines. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-6720730_ITM However funding is currently unlikely since most upgrades to the E-3 fleet are not considered as essential at this time due to the current wars being fought. If these upgrades take place, it would replace many obsolete systems so the E-3 could sustain its C2 & AEW presence within the Air Force community. Design USAF E-3 Sentry prepared for flight at 4 Wing Cold Lake, Canada The E-3 Sentry is a modified Boeing 707-320B Advanced commercial airframe. Modifications included a rotating radar dome, single-point ground, and air refueling points, and a bail-out chute. The unpressurized dome is 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter, six feet (1.8 m) thick at the center, and is held 14 feet (4.2 m) above the fuselage by two struts. It is tilted down six degrees to reduce drag on take-off, and while flying endurance speed (which is corrected electronically by both the radar and SSR antenna phase shifters). The dome uses both bleed-air and cooling doors to maintain ambient temperature. The hydraulically rotated antenna system permits the AN/APY-1/2 passive electronically scanned array radar system to provide surveillance from the Earth's surface up into the stratosphere, over land or water. Other major subsystems in the E-3 are navigation, communications and computers (data processing). Consoles display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Console operators perform surveillance, identification, weapons control, battle management and communications functions. The radar and computer subsystems on the E-3 Sentry can gather and present broad and detailed battlefield information. Data are collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy aircraft and ships, and location and status of friendly aircraft and naval vessels. The information can be sent to major command and control centers in rear areas or aboard ships. In times of crisis, data can be forwarded to the National Command Authority in the United States via RC-135 or Naval Carrier Groups. Generators on each of the four engines provide the one megawatt of power required by the radar. The Pulse Doppler radar has a range of more than 250 miles (400 km) for low-flying targets at its operating altitude (essentially to the radar horizon), and the Pulse (BTH) beyond the horizon radar has a range of approximately 400 miles (650 km) for aerospace vehicles flying at medium to high altitudes (essentially above the radar horizon). The radar combined with an SSR subsystem thus providing a look down to detect, identify and track enemy and friendly low-flying aircraft while eliminating ground clutter returns. In support of air-to-ground operations, the Sentry can provide direct information needed for interdiction, reconnaissance, airlift and close-air support for friendly ground forces. It can also provide information for commanders of air operations to gain and maintain control of the air battle, whilst as an air defense asset, E-3s can detect, identify and track airborne enemy forces far from the boundaries of the United States or NATO countries and can direct fighter-interceptor aircraft to these targets. The E-3 as equipped in USAF and NATO service can fly without refueling for 8 hours or 4,000 miles, while newer examples in British, French and Saudi service, equipped with CFM56-2 engines can fly for 10 hours or 5,000 miles without refuelling. Its range and on-station time can be increased through inflight refueling and the crews can work in shifts by the use of an on-board crew rest area. The range and loiter time can be adjusted to alter the flight plan as required for operational reasons. RAF Boeing E-3D Sentry AEW1 at Kemble Air Day 2008, England. The E-3 is accompanied by two Panavia Tornado F3. Radar System Improvement Program The Radar System Improvement Program (RSIP) was a joint U.S./NATO development program. RSIP enhances the operational capability of the E-3 radar electronic counter-measures, and dramatically improve the system's reliability, maintainability and availability. Essentially, the program replaced the old TTL and MECL logic that was no longer available, with off-the-shelf computers. These computers being programmed in a high-level language instead of assembler. The real improvement comes from replacing the old 8-bit FFT with a 24-bit FFT, and the 12-bit A/D (Sign + 12-bits) with a 15-bit A/D (Sign + 15-bits). These hardware and software modifications improve radar performance, and provide enhanced detection with an emphasis toward low radar cross section (RCS) targets. Major advantages include: Increased range against reduced RCS targets to include cruise missiles; Improved electronic counter-counter measures (ECCM) against current threats; Improved radar system reliability and maintainability (R&M); and an Improved radar control and maintenance panel (RCMP) with embedded test equipment. RSIP utilizes a Pulse Doppler Pulse Compression (PDPC) waveform, increases data sampling rates, increases range and velocity resolution, increases signal integration time, adds new signal processing algorithms to enhance detection sensitivity and unambiguous range determination, and improves radar set monitoring and control. RSIP is a huge leap forward in a variety of factors. It increases the ability to detect and track smaller targets at greater distances, akin to giving the radar a set of binoculars. It also improves the reliability and maintainability for the radar hardware, which decreases the number of spares and amount of down time needed for repairs. Improved control and processing algorithms tailored to current threat data enhances system electronic counter-countermeasure (ECCM) capabilities. The improved electronic counter-counter measures mean it will be much more difficult for enemy forces to deceive or "jam" the AWACS with false electronic signals. The RSIP program added a spectrum analyzer and digital Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) display to the Airborne Radar Technician's (ART) console with which the operator can monitor the electromagnetic spectrum more effectively vis-a-vis the operating parameters of the radar. The U.K. also has joined the U.S. in adding RSIP to upgrade their radar. Retrofit of the fleet was completed in December 2000. Along with the RSIP upgrade was installation of the Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation Systems which dramatically improve positioning accuracy. In 2002, Boeing was awarded a contract to add RSIP to the French AWACS fleet. Installation was completed in 2006. Operational history NATO E-3s have the Coat of arms of Luxembourg and the registration LX on the tail. Royal Air Force E-3 Sentry Engineering, test and evaluation began on the first E-3 Sentry in October 1975. In March 1977 the 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing (now the 552d Air Control Wing at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma received the first E-3 aircraft. In total, 68 aircraft were built, with 2 hull losses (one USAF aircraft, one NATO aircraft). The United States Air Force have a total of 33 E-3s in active service. 28 are stationed at Tinker AFB and belong to the Air Combat Command (ACC). Four are assigned to the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and stationed at Kadena AB, Okinawa and Elmendorf AFB, Alaska. One aircraft (TS-3) is assigned to the Boeing Aircraft Company for testing and development. NATO acquired 18 E-3As and support equipment for a NATO air defense force. Since all aircraft must be registered with a certain country, the decision was made to register the 18 NATO AWACS planes with Luxembourg, a NATO country that until that point had not had any air force. The first NATO E-3 was delivered in January 1982. Presently 17 NATO E-3As are in the inventory, since one NATO E-3 was lost in a crash. NATO members United Kingdom and France are not part of the NATO E-3A Component, instead procuring E-3 aircraft through a joint project. The UK and France operate their E-3 aircraft independently of each other and of NATO. The UK operates seven aircraft and France operates four aircraft, all fitted with the newer CFM56-2 engines. The British requirement came about following unsatisfactory tests with modified Hawker Siddeley Nimrod aircraft to replace the Avro Shackleton AEW platform during the 1980s, with an order being placed in February 1987, deliveries starting in 1990. Lake 2009, p.44. The other operator of the type is Saudi Arabia which operates five aircraft, all fitted with CFM56-2 engines. Japan has four Boeing E-767 aircraft equipped to similar standards. E-3 Sentry aircraft were among the first to deploy during Operation Desert Shield where they immediately established an around-the-clock radar screen to defend against Iraqi forces. During Operation Desert Storm, E-3s flew more than 400 missions and logged more than 5,000 hours of on-station time. The data collection capability of the E-3 radar and computer subsystems allowed an entire air war to be recorded for the first time in history. In addition to providing senior leadership with time-critical information on the actions of enemy forces, E-3 controllers assisted in 38 of the 40 air-to-air kills recorded during the conflict. In March 1996, the US Air Force activated the 513th Air Control Group (513 ACG), an ACC-gained Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) AWACS unit under the Reserve Associate Program. Collocated with the 552 ACW at Tinker AFB, the 513 ACG which performs similar duties on active duty E-3 aircraft shared with the 552 ACW. Variants EC-137D Two prototype AWACS aircraft with JT3D engines, one fitted with a Westinghouse radar and the other with a Hughes radar. Both converted to E-3A standard with TF33 engines. E-3A Production aircraft with TF33 engines and AN/APY-1 radar, 25 built for USAF later converted to E-3B standard. 18 built for NATO with TF33 engines and five for Saudi Arabia with CFM56 engines. KE-3A These are not AWACS aircraft but CFM56 powered tankers for Saudi Arabia, 8 built. E-3B E-3As with improvements, 24 conversions. E-3C Production aircraft with AN/APY-2 radar (Maritime Rack) and system improvements, nine built. NATO E-3A aircraft although not re-designated have been modified to the same equipment standard. JE-3C One E-3A aircraft used by Boeing for trials later redesignated E-3C. E-3D Production aircraft for the Royal Air Force to E-3C standard with CFM56 engines and British modifications designated Sentry AEW.1, seven built. E-3F Production aircraft for the French Air Force to E-3C standard with CFM56 engines and French modifications, four built. E-3G USAF Block 40/45 modification with Airframe Modernization Program (AMP). Sentry AEW.1 British designation for the E-3D. Operators A NATO E-3 RAF Sentry takes off USAF E-3 in flight North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Based in Geilenkirchen, Germany, 18 E-3 AWACS were purchased - one lost in Greece. All of these aircraft are officially registered as aircraft of Luxembourg, a NATO member with no other Air Force. Responsible for monitoring airspace for NATO operations around the world. Squadron 1 Squadron 2 Squadron 3 Training Wing The French Air Force purchased 4 E-3F aircraft similar to the British E-3D aircraft. EDCA 01.036 EDCA 02.036 The Royal Saudi Air Force purchased five E-3A aircraft and eight KE-3A tanker aircraft in 1983. No. 18 Squadron RSAF Royal Air Force purchased 6 (later increased to 7) E-3D aircraft in December 1986. The aircraft are designated Sentry AEW.1. No. 8 Squadron No. 23 Squadron No. 54 Squadron The United States Air Force purchased 34 E-3As (24 later modified to E-3B and 10 to E-3C). One E-3B was lost in a crash in 1995. Another is on loan to Boeing Integrated Defense Systems for continuous testing, research, and development. 552d Air Control Wing has 28 E-3s stationed at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma Picture of the 76-1604, a US Air Force E-3B Sentry 960th AACS 963d AACS 964th AACS 965th AACS 966th AACS 3d Wing, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska 962d AACS 18th Wing, Kadena AB, Japan 961st AACS Incidents and accidents In the early 1980s, after refueling from a KC-135A over Saudi Arabia, an E-3 collided in mid-air with that refueling aircraft during formation flight to perform a photo opportunity. The E-3's left wingtip contacted the KC-135's wing inboard of the right inboard engine (#3), severing the control cables to the tanker's two starboard engines. Approximately 8 feet of the left wingtip of the E-3 broke off at a production break and was lost somewhere over the Arab desert. Both aircraft later recovered to Riyadh Military airport, Saudi Arabia without further incident. On 22 September 1995, a U.S. Air Force E-3 Sentry (Callsign Yukla 27, serial number 77-0354), crashed shortly after take off from Elmendorf AFB, AK. The plane lost power to both port side engines after these engines ingested several Canada Geese during takeoff. The aircraft went down in a heavily wooded area about two miles northeast of the runway, killing all 24 crew members on board. Aviation Safety Network > Accident investigation > CVR / FDR > Transcripts > CVR transcript Boeing E-3 USAF Yukla 27 - 22 SEP 1995 Yukla 27 Memorial A NATO E-3A was destroyed following an aborted take off following a birdstrike on 14 July 1996 at Aktion, Greece. http://www.aviationpics.de/military/1999/awacs/awacs.html Specifications USAF/NATO aircraft Royal Air Force/Royal Saudi Air Force/French Air Force aircraft A Sentry AEW1 of the RAF takes off See also References Davies, Ed. "AWACS Origins: Brassboard - Quest for the E-3 Radar". Air Enthusiast, No.119, September/October 2005. Stamford, Lincs, UK:Key Publishing. ISSN 0143-5450. pp. 2–6. Lake, Jon. "Aircraft of the RAF - Part 10 Sentry AEW.1". Air International, Vol 76 No. 2, February 2009. Stamford, Lincs, UK: Key Publishing. pp. 44–47. Taylor, John W R. (editor). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1976-77. London:Macdonald and Jane's, 1976. ISBN 0-354-00538-3. External links USAF E-3 Sentry fact sheet Royal Air Force E-3 Sentry information NATO AWACS-Spotter Geilenkirchen website | Boeing_E-3_Sentry |@lemmatized boeing:17 e:83 sentry:20 american:1 military:4 airborne:7 warning:5 control:14 system:21 awacs:13 aircraft:57 provide:11 weather:1 surveillance:4 command:5 communication:4 united:9 state:7 kingdom:2 france:4 saudi:9 arabia:6 nato:26 air:48 defense:5 force:32 production:10 end:2 build:5 development:7 june:1 usaf:15 ask:2 proposal:3 feasibility:1 study:2 provision:1 early:3 replace:6 exist:1 ec:6 star:3 serve:1 role:1 take:10 advantage:2 improvement:6 radar:48 technology:2 allow:5 look:2 detect:6 low:4 fly:11 even:1 land:2 would:7 previously:1 undetectable:1 due:2 ground:7 clutter:2 contract:2 give:5 douglas:2 lockheed:2 eliminate:2 july:5 parallel:1 program:14 put:1 place:7 develop:2 westinghouse:7 hughes:4 compete:3 supply:1 new:8 refer:1 overland:1 ort:1 test:10 modify:5 davy:3 p:4 antenna:3 go:3 use:9 whoever:1 win:2 competition:2 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1,434 | Magnavox_Odyssey² | The Magnavox Odyssey², known in Europe as the Philips Videopac G7000, in Brazil as the Philips Odyssey, in the United States as the Magnavox Odyssey² and the Philips Odyssey², and also by many other names, is a video game console released in 1978. In the early 1970s, Magnavox was an innovator in the home video game industry. They succeeded in bringing the first home video game system to market, the Odyssey, which was quickly followed by a number of later models, each with a few technological improvements. In 1978, Magnavox, now a subsidiary of North American Philips, released the Odyssey², their new second-generation video game console. Design The original Odyssey had a number of removable circuit cards that switched between the built-in games, of which there were ten in Europe and Asia, and twelve in America. The Odyssey² followed in the steps of the Fairchild Channel F and Atari 2600 by being designed to play programmable ROM cartridges. With this improvement, each game could be a completely unique experience, with its own background graphics, foreground graphics, gameplay, scoring, and music. The potential was enormous, as an unlimited number of games could be individually purchased; a game player could purchase a library of video games tailored to his or her own interest. Unlike any other system at that time, the Odyssey² included a full alphanumeric membrane keyboard, which was to be used for educational games, selecting options, or programming (Magnavox released a cartridge called Computer Intro! with the intent of teaching simple computer programming). The Odyssey² used the standard joystick design of the 1970s and early 1980s: the original console had a moderately-sized silver controller, held in one hand, with a square housing for its eight-direction stick that was manipulated with the other hand. Later releases had a similar black controller, with an 8-pointed star-shaped housing for its eight-direction joystick. In the upper corner of the joystick was a single 'Action' button, silver on the original controllers and red on the black controllers. The games, graphics and packaging were designed by Ron Bradford and Steve Lehner. Electronic Game Wizards One other difference in these controllers is that the earliest releases of the silver joystick were removable. They could be plugged and unplugged from the back of the unit, while all later silver and all black controllers were hardwired into the rear of the unit itself. One of the strongest points of the system was its excellent speech synthesis unit, which was released as an add-on for speech, music, and sound effects enhancement. The area that the Odyssey² may be best remembered for was its pioneering fusion of board and video games: The Master Strategy Series. The first game released was Quest for the Rings!, with gameplay somewhat similar to Dungeons & Dragons, and a storyline reminiscent of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, later two other games where released in this series, Conquest of the World, and The Great Wall Street Fortune Hunt, each with its own gameboard. Its graphics, and few color choices compared to its biggest competitors at the time, the Atari 2600, Intellivision and the Bally Astrocade, were its "weakest point", however the game characters would often have "added personality" programmed into them "The Complete Guide to Conquering Video Games" by Jeff Rovin, Collier Books, 1982 . Of these systems it was listed by Jeff Rovin as being the third in total of sales, and one of the seven major video game suppliers. Market life United States The Odyssey² sold moderately well in the US. Even without third-party developers, by 1983 over a million Odyssey² units were sold in the US alone. The lack of third-party support kept the number of new games very limited, but the success of the Philips Videopac G7000 overseas led to two other companies producing games for it: Parker Brothers released Popeye, Frogger, Q* Bert and Super Cobra, while Imagic released versions of their hit games Demon Attack and Atlantis. Finally, in 1983 the two Imagic games were brought to the US; these became strong sellers. Europe European models had no power button, and black action buttons In Europe and Brazil, the Odyssey² did very well on the market. In Europe, the console was most widely known as the Philips Videopac G7000, or just the Videopac, although branded variants were released in some areas of Europe under the names Radiola Jet 25, Schneider 7000, and Siera G7000. Philips, as Magnavox's European parent company, used their own name rather than Magnavox's for European marketing. A rare model, the Philips Videopac G7200, was only released in Europe; it had a built-in black-and-white monitor. Videopac game cartridges are mostly compatible with American Odyssey² units, although some games have color differences and a few are completely incompatible. A number of additional games were released in Europe that never came out in the US. Brazil In Brazil, the console was released as the Philips Odyssey; the Magnavox Odyssey was released in Brazil by a company named "Planil Comércio", not affiliated to Philips or Magnavox. Since just a few units were sold, the Brazilian branch of Philips released in 1983 Odyssey² without its number. Odyssey became much more popular in Brazil than it ever was in the US; tournaments were even held for popular games like K.C.'s Krazy Chase! (Come-Come in Brazil). Japan The Odyssey² was released in Japan in December 1982 by Kōton Trading Toitarii Enterprise (コートン・トレーディング・トイタリー・エンタープライズ, a division of DINGU company) under the name オデッセイ２ (odessei2). "Japanese" versions of the Odyssey² and its games consisted of the American boxes with katakana stickers on them and cheaply printed black-and-white Japanese manuals. The initial price for the console was ¥49,800. It was apparently not very successful; Japanese Odyssey² items are now very difficult to find. Technical specifications CPU Intel 8048 8-bit microcontroller running at 1.79 MHz Memory: CPU-internal RAM: 64 bytes Audio/video RAM: 128 bytes BIOS ROM: 1024 bytes Video: Intel 8244 custom IC 160×200 resolution (NTSC) 16-color fixed palette; sprites may only use 8 of these colors 4 8×8 single-color user-defined sprites; each sprite's color may be set independently 12 8×8 single-color characters; must be one of the 64 shapes built into the ROM BIOS; can be freely positioned like sprites, but cannot overlap each other; each character's color may be set independently 4 quad characters; groups of four characters displayed in a row 9×8 background grid; dots, lines, or solid blocks Audio: Intel 8244 custom IC mono 24-bit shift register, clockable at 2 frequencies noise generator NOTE: There is only one 8244 chip in the system, which performs both audio and video functions. Input: Two 8-way, one-button, digital joysticks. In the first production runs of the Magnavox Odyssey and the Philips 7000, these were permanently attached to the console; in later models, they were removable and replaceable. QWERTY-layout membrane keyboard Output: RF Audio/Video connector Péritel/SCART connector (France only) Media: ROM cartridges, typically 2 KB, 4 KB, or 8 KB in size. Videopac with chess module Expansion modules: The Voice - provides speech synthesis & enhanced sound effects Chess Module - The Odyssey2 didn't have enough memory and computing power for a decent implementation of chess on its own, so the C7010 chess module contained a secondary CPU with its own extra memory to run the chess program. Emulation An open source console emulator for the Odyssey² called O2EM is available. It includes Philips Videopac G7400 emulation among other features. The emulator works on Linux, Microsoft Windows, DOS and other platforms. O2EM, (originally not open source) was created in 1997 by computer programmer Daniel Boris. The open source multi-platform multi-system emulator MESS has good Odyssey² support, and is the only emulator to emulate The Voice expansion module without using sound samples. See also List of Videopac games Magnavox Odyssey Philips Videopac G7400 References External links Ed Averett - Programmer of 24 game titles for the Odyssey². O2EM Odyssey² & Videopac+ Emulator Videopac.org - Home of the Philips G7000* Dan Boris's Odyssey 2 Tech Page - technical documents on the Odyssey²'s hardware by the author of O2EM The Odyssey2 Homepage! - Odyssey² fan site. Information on collectibility and individual games Odyssey2.org - Home of the Magnavox Odyssey² The Dot Eaters article on the history of the Odyssey² Ozyr's Odyssey2 Archive - Instructions for U.S. Odyssey2, European & Brazilian games. Also includes scans of the Odyssey Adventure magazine. | Magnavox_Odyssey² |@lemmatized magnavox:12 know:2 europe:8 philip:15 videopac:12 brazil:7 odyssey:10 united:2 state:2 also:3 many:1 name:5 video:12 game:31 console:8 release:17 early:3 innovator:1 home:4 industry:1 succeed:1 bring:2 first:3 system:6 market:3 quickly:1 follow:2 number:6 late:2 model:4 technological:1 improvement:2 subsidiary:1 north:1 american:3 new:2 second:1 generation:1 design:4 original:3 removable:3 circuit:1 card:1 switch:1 build:3 ten:1 asia:1 twelve:1 america:1 step:1 fairchild:1 channel:1 f:1 atari:2 play:1 programmable:1 rom:4 cartridge:4 could:4 completely:2 unique:1 experience:1 background:2 graphic:4 foreground:1 gameplay:2 scoring:1 music:2 potential:1 enormous:1 unlimited:1 individually:1 purchase:2 player:1 library:1 tailor:1 interest:1 unlike:1 time:2 include:3 full:1 alphanumeric:1 membrane:2 keyboard:2 use:5 educational:1 select:1 option:1 programming:1 call:2 computer:3 intro:1 intent:1 teach:1 simple:1 program:3 standard:1 joystick:5 moderately:2 size:2 silver:4 controller:6 hold:2 one:7 hand:2 square:1 housing:2 eight:2 direction:2 stick:1 manipulate:1 later:3 similar:2 black:6 point:3 star:1 shape:2 upper:1 corner:1 single:3 action:2 button:4 red:1 packaging:1 ron:1 bradford:1 steve:1 lehner:1 electronic:1 wizard:1 difference:2 plug:1 unplug:1 back:1 unit:6 hardwired:1 rear:1 strong:2 excellent:1 speech:3 synthesis:2 add:2 sound:3 effect:2 enhancement:1 area:2 may:4 best:1 remember:1 pioneering:1 fusion:1 board:1 master:1 strategy:1 series:2 quest:1 ring:2 somewhat:1 dungeon:1 dragon:1 storyline:1 reminiscent:1 j:1 r:2 tolkien:1 lord:1 two:4 conquest:1 world:1 great:1 wall:1 street:1 fortune:1 hunt:1 gameboard:1 color:8 choice:1 compare:1 big:1 competitor:1 intellivision:1 bally:1 astrocade:1 weak:1 however:1 character:5 would:1 often:1 personality:1 complete:1 guide:1 conquer:1 jeff:2 rovin:2 collier:1 book:1 list:2 third:3 total:1 sale:1 seven:1 major:1 supplier:1 life:1 sell:3 well:2 u:6 even:2 without:3 party:2 developer:1 million:1 alone:1 lack:1 support:2 keep:1 limited:1 success:1 overseas:1 lead:1 company:4 produce:1 parker:1 brother:1 popeye:1 frogger:1 q:1 bert:1 super:1 cobra:1 imagic:2 version:2 hit:1 demon:1 attack:1 atlantis:1 finally:1 become:2 seller:1 european:4 power:2 widely:1 although:2 brand:1 variant:1 radiola:1 jet:1 schneider:1 siera:1 parent:1 rather:1 marketing:1 rare:1 white:2 monitor:1 mostly:1 compatible:1 incompatible:1 additional:1 never:1 come:3 planil:1 comércio:1 affiliate:1 since:1 brazilian:2 branch:1 much:1 popular:2 ever:1 tournament:1 like:2 k:1 c:1 krazy:1 chase:1 japan:2 december:1 kōton:1 trading:1 toitarii:1 enterprise:1 コートン:1 トレーディング:1 トイタリー:1 エンタープライズ:1 division:1 dingu:1 japanese:3 consist:1 box:1 katakana:1 sticker:1 cheaply:1 printed:1 manual:1 initial:1 price:1 apparently:1 successful:1 item:1 difficult:1 find:1 technical:2 specification:1 cpu:3 intel:3 bit:2 microcontroller:1 running:1 mhz:1 memory:3 internal:1 ram:2 byte:2 audio:4 bios:2 bytes:1 custom:2 ic:2 resolution:1 ntsc:1 fixed:1 palette:1 sprite:4 user:1 define:1 set:2 independently:2 must:1 freely:1 position:1 cannot:1 overlap:1 quad:1 group:1 four:1 display:1 row:1 grid:1 dot:2 line:1 solid:1 block:1 mono:1 shift:1 register:1 clockable:1 frequency:1 noise:1 generator:1 note:1 chip:1 perform:1 function:1 input:1 way:1 digital:1 production:1 run:2 permanently:1 attach:1 replaceable:1 qwerty:1 layout:1 output:1 rf:1 connector:2 péritel:1 scart:1 france:1 medium:1 typically:1 kb:3 chess:5 module:5 expansion:2 voice:2 provide:1 enhance:1 enough:1 compute:1 decent:1 implementation:1 contain:1 secondary:1 extra:1 emulation:2 open:3 source:3 emulator:5 available:1 among:1 feature:1 work:1 linux:1 microsoft:1 window:1 platform:2 originally:1 create:1 programmer:2 daniel:1 boris:2 multi:2 mess:1 good:1 emulate:1 sample:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ed:1 averett:1 title:1 org:2 dan:1 tech:1 page:1 document:1 hardware:1 author:1 homepage:1 fan:1 site:1 information:1 collectibility:1 individual:1 eater:1 article:1 history:1 ozyr:1 archive:1 instruction:1 scan:1 adventure:1 magazine:1 |@bigram philip_videopac:6 rom_cartridge:2 dungeon_dragon:1 atari_intellivision:1 jeff_rovin:2 magnavox_odyssey:3 sprite_sprite:1 kb_kb:2 microsoft_window:1 external_link:1 dot_eater:1 |
1,435 | Masaki_Kobayashi | was a Japanese director. Among his films is Kwaidan (1965), a collection of four ghost stories drawn from the book by Lafcadio Hearn, each of which has a surprise ending. Kobayashi also directed The Human Condition, a trilogy on the effects of World War II on a Japanese pacifist and socialist. The total length of the films is over 9 hours. Other notable films include Harakiri (1962) and Samurai Rebellion (1967). Harakiri won him an award at the 1963 Cannes Film Festival, solidifying his place in the history of cinema. He was also a candidate for directing the Japanese sequences for Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970) but instead Kinji Fukasaku and Toshio Masuda were chosen. Kobayashi, himself a pacifist, was drafted into the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II, but refused to fight and refused promotion to a rank higher than private. Partial filmography 1953: The Thick-Walled Room 1957: Black River 1959–1961: The Human Condition trilogy 1962: The Inheritance 1962: Seppuku, a.k.a. Harakiri 1964: Kaidan (Ghost Stories), a.k.a. Kwaidan 1967: Jōi-uchi: Hairyō-tsuma shimatsu (An Order to Kill: Over a Wife Bestowed, as It Were), a.k.a. Samurai Rebellion 1968: Hymn to a Tired Man 1971: Inn Of Evil 1975: The Fossil 1983: Tokyo Trial Film availability Seppuku, a.k.a. Harakiri (1962) DVD: Region 0 NTSC: The Criterion Collection (USA) Kaidan (Ghost Stories), a.k.a. Kwaidan (1964) DVD: Region 2 NTSC: The Masters of Cinema Series (UK) (Complete Version) DVD: Region 1 NTSC: The Criterion Collection (USA) (Incomplete Version) Jōi-uchi: Hairyō-tsuma shimatsu (An Order to Kill: Over a Wife Bestowed, as It Were), a.k.a. Samurai Rebellion (1964) DVD: Region 0 NTSC: The Criterion Collection (USA) External links | Masaki_Kobayashi |@lemmatized japanese:4 director:1 among:1 film:5 kwaidan:3 collection:4 four:1 ghost:3 story:3 draw:1 book:1 lafcadio:1 hearn:1 surprise:1 end:1 kobayashi:2 also:2 direct:2 human:2 condition:2 trilogy:2 effect:1 world:2 war:2 ii:2 pacifist:2 socialist:1 total:1 length:1 hour:1 notable:1 include:1 harakiri:4 samurai:3 rebellion:3 win:1 award:1 cannes:1 festival:1 solidify:1 place:1 history:1 cinema:2 candidate:1 sequence:1 tora:3 instead:1 kinji:1 fukasaku:1 toshio:1 masuda:1 choose:1 draft:1 imperial:1 army:1 refuse:2 fight:1 promotion:1 rank:1 high:1 private:1 partial:1 filmography:1 thick:1 wall:1 room:1 black:1 river:1 inheritance:1 seppuku:2 k:6 kaidan:2 jōi:2 uchi:2 hairyō:2 tsuma:2 shimatsu:2 order:2 kill:2 wife:2 bestow:2 hymn:1 tire:1 man:1 inn:1 evil:1 fossil:1 tokyo:1 trial:1 availability:1 dvd:4 region:4 ntsc:4 criterion:3 usa:3 master:1 series:1 uk:1 complete:1 version:2 incomplete:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram lafcadio_hearn:1 cannes_film:1 tora_tora:2 external_link:1 |
1,436 | Kamacite | Widmanstätten pattern showing the two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and Taenite, in an octahedrite meteorite Kamacite is a mineral. It is an alloy of iron and nickel, usually in the proportions of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as cobalt or carbon may be present. On the surface of Earth, it occurs naturally only in meteorites. It has a metallic lustre, is grey and has no clear cleavage although the structure is isometric-hexoctahedral. Its density is around 8 g/cm³ and its hardness is 4 on the Mohs scale. It is also sometimes called balkeneisen. The name was coined in 1861 and is derived from the Greek kamask (lath or beam). It is a major constituent of iron meteorites (octahedrite and hexahedrite types). In the octahedrites it is found in bands interleaving with taenite forming Widmanstätten patterns. In hexahedrites, fine parallel lines called Neumann lines are often seen, which are evidence for structural deformation of adjacent kamacite plates due to shock from impacts. At times kamacite can be found so closely intermixed with taenite that it is difficult to distinguish them visually, forming plessite. See also: list of minerals References Webmineral.com | Kamacite |@lemmatized widmanstätten:2 pattern:2 show:1 two:1 form:3 nickel:2 iron:3 kamacite:4 taenite:3 octahedrite:2 meteorite:3 mineral:2 alloy:1 usually:1 proportion:1 although:2 impurity:1 cobalt:1 carbon:1 may:1 present:1 surface:1 earth:1 occur:1 naturally:1 metallic:1 lustre:1 grey:1 clear:1 cleavage:1 structure:1 isometric:1 hexoctahedral:1 density:1 around:1 g:1 hardness:1 mohs:1 scale:1 also:2 sometimes:1 call:2 balkeneisen:1 name:1 coin:1 derive:1 greek:1 kamask:1 lath:1 beam:1 major:1 constituent:1 hexahedrite:1 type:1 octahedrites:1 find:2 band:1 interleave:1 hexahedrites:1 fine:1 parallel:1 line:2 neumann:1 often:1 see:2 evidence:1 structural:1 deformation:1 adjacent:1 plate:1 due:1 shock:1 impact:1 time:1 closely:1 intermixed:1 difficult:1 distinguish:1 visually:1 plessite:1 list:1 reference:1 webmineral:1 com:1 |@bigram kamacite_taenite:1 metallic_lustre:1 hardness_mohs:1 mohs_scale:1 |
1,437 | Neijia | The term "nèijiā" usually refers to Wudangquan or the internal styles of Chinese martial arts, which Sun Lutang identified in the 1920s as T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Xíngyìquán and Bāguàzhǎng. This classifies most other martial arts as "wàijiā" (lit. "external/outside sect"). Some other Chinese arts, such as Liuhebafa, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Foo Pai and Yiquan are frequently classified (or classify themselves) as internal or having internal qualities (aka External/Internal styles). These secondary neijia may be related to, or derived from, the primary arts. Taoist martial arts Shaolin is a family of Chinese martial arts that are linked with Buddhism and a particular mountain monastery that are categorized as wàijiā martial arts. The family of martial arts that are linked with Taoism are linked with the Taoist monastery on Wudang mountain and categorized as nèijiā martial arts. However, there is very little evidence that any of these internal styles actually originated in the Wudang area. There are additional ways of parsing the distinctions and defining the criteria that separate these two families of arts. All of these categories have some level of ambiguity and even the line between Buddhist and Taoist practices is not always a clear way to distinguish wàijiā and nèijiā martial arts. Criteria for distinguishing the neijia arts Sun Lutang identified the following as the criteria that distinguish an internal martial art: An emphasis on the use of the mind to coordinate the leverage of the relaxed body as opposed to the use of brute strength. The internal development, circulation, and expression of qì. The application of Taoist dǎoyǐn, qìgōng, and nèigōng (內功) principles of external movement. Sun Lutang's eponymous style of T'ai Chi Ch'uan fuses principles from all three arts he named as neijia. Some Chinese martial arts other than the ones Sun named also teach what are termed internal practices, despite being generally classified as external (e.g. Wing Chun). Some non-Chinese martial arts also claim to be internal. e.g. Aikido, I Liq Chuan, Ip Sun, and Kito Ryu jujutsu. Many martial artists, especially outside of China, disregard the distinction entirely. Some neijia schools refer to their arts as "soft style" martial arts. Earlier classifications The term "nèijiā" and the distinction between internal and external martial arts first appears in Huang Zongxi's 1669 Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan. Stanley Henning proposes that the Epitaph'''s identification of the internal martial arts with the Taoism indigenous to China and of the external martial arts with the foreign Buddhism of Shaolin—and the Manchu Qing Dynasty to which Huang Zongxi was opposed—was an act of political defiance rather than one of technical classification. In 1676 Huang Zongxi's son, Huang Baijia, who learned martial arts from Wang Zhengnan, compiled the earliest extant manual of internal martial arts, the Nèijiā quánfǎ. Shahar 2001 Characteristics of neijia training Wu Jianquan and student Pushing Hands, circa 1930 Internal styles (內家) focus on awareness of the spirit, mind, chi (breath) and the use of relaxed leverage rather than unrefined muscular tension. Pushing hands is a training method commonly used in neijia arts to develop sensitivity and softness. In recent years, many of "New Age"-oriented schools have appeared, which traditionalists criticize for emphasizing philosophy and speculation at the expense of hard work. For this reason, and because in most internal schools beginning students are expected to work on very basic principles for an extended period of time, many people believe internal styles lack "external" physical training. In the older schools, this is usually not the case. Much time may be spent on basic physical training, such as stance training (zhan zhuang), stretching and strengthening of muscles, as well as on empty hand and weapon forms which can be quite demanding. Also, many internal styles have basic two-person training, such as pushing hands and duet forms. Some forms in internal styles are performed slowly, although some include sudden outbursts of explosive movements (fa jin), such as those the Chen style of Taijiquan is famous for teaching earlier than some other styles (e.g. Yang and Wu). The reason for the generally slow pace is to improve coordination and balance by increasing the work load, and to require the student to pay minute attention to their whole body and its weight as they perform a technique. At an advanced level, and in actual fighting, internal styles are performed quickly, but the goal is to learn to involve the entire body in every motion, to stay relaxed, with deep, controlled breathing, and to coordinate the motions of the body and the breathing accurately according to the dictates of the forms while maintaining perfect balance. Citation is required Differences between internal and external arts The reason for the label "internal," according to most schools, is that there is a focus on the internal aspects earlier in the training, once these internal relationships are apprehended (the theory goes) they are then applied to the external applications of the styles in question. External style (外家, pinyin: wàijiā; literally "external family") are characterized by fast and explosive movements and a focus on physical strength and agility. External styles include both the traditional styles focusing on application and fighting, as well as the modern styles adapted for competition and exercise. Examples of external styles are Shaolinquan, with its direct explosive attacks and many Wushu forms that have spectacular aerial techniques. External styles begin with a training focus on muscular power, speed and application, and generally integrate their qigong aspects in advanced training, after their desired "hard" physical level has been reached. Some say that there is no differentiation between the so-called internal and external systems of the Chinese martial arts Francis, B.K. (1998). Power of Internal Martial Arts: Combat Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi, and Hsing-I. North Atlantic Books. Wong Kiew Kit (2002). Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment. Tuttle. , while other well known teachers have expressed differing opinions. For example, the Taijiquan teacher Wu Jianquan: Those who practice Shaolinquan leap about with strength and force; people not proficient at this kind of training soon lose their breath and are exhausted. Taijiquan is unlike this. Strive for quiescence of body, mind and intention. Current practice of neijia arts Today, only a few traditional schools teaching internal styles train martially. Most schools teach forms that are practised for health benefits only, as this is in higher demand. To condition oneself well enough to become adept at the internal style martial arts is a long-term proposition; many simply lose interest after a few years and never continue the practice. Many people who have not fully learned the martial aspects of their style teach publicly anyway, leading to a further diminution of the martial applications taught in many schools. Some instructors supplement what they are teaching with elements from other martial arts and their training becomes further diluted. Many health-oriented schools and teachers believe that the martial practices of neijia are no longer necessary in the modern world, as well as claiming that students may not need to practice martially to derive a benefit from the training. Traditionalists feel that a school not teaching martial aspects somewhere in their syllabus cannot be said to be actually teaching the art itself, that they have accredited themselves prematurely. Traditional teachers also believe that understanding the core theoretical principles of neijia and the ability to apply them are a necessary gateway to health benefits. Neijia in fiction Internal styles have been associated in legend and in much popular fiction with the Taoist monasteries of Wudangshan in central China. Neijia are a common theme in Chinese Wuxia novels and films, and are usually represented as originating in Wudang or similar mythologies. Often, genuine internal practices are highly exaggerated to the point of making them seem miraculous, as in Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon or Tai Chi Master. Internal concepts have also been a source of comedy, such as in the films Shaolin Soccer and Kung Fu Hustle''. In the popular anime title: Naruto; there is a character named "Neji Hyuga" who practices the "gentle fist" or "Gental Palm" techniques and uses the Baguan 8 Trigrams for his techniques; he most likely got his name in this fashion Notes See also Dantian Nei Jin Neo-Confucianism Taijitu Wudangquan Styles of Chinese martial arts External links Defining the Internal Martial Arts Internal vs. External, What Sets Them Apart? Neijia FAQ Glossary of Neijia Terms with Chinese characters | Neijia |@lemmatized term:5 nèijiā:5 usually:3 refer:2 wudangquan:2 internal:31 style:24 chinese:9 martial:28 art:33 sun:5 lutang:3 identify:2 ai:2 chi:5 ch:2 uan:2 xíngyìquán:1 bāguàzhǎng:1 classify:4 wàijiā:4 lit:1 external:17 outside:2 sect:1 liuhebafa:1 bak:1 mei:1 pai:2 bok:1 foo:1 yiquan:1 frequently:1 quality:1 aka:1 secondary:1 neijia:13 may:3 relate:1 derive:2 primary:1 taoist:5 shaolin:4 family:4 link:4 buddhism:2 particular:1 mountain:2 monastery:3 categorize:2 taoism:2 wudang:3 however:1 little:1 evidence:1 actually:2 originate:2 area:1 additional:1 way:2 parse:1 distinction:3 define:2 criterion:3 separate:1 two:2 category:1 level:3 ambiguity:1 even:1 line:1 buddhist:1 practice:9 always:1 clear:1 distinguish:3 arts:1 following:1 emphasis:1 use:5 mind:3 coordinate:2 leverage:2 relaxed:3 body:5 oppose:2 brute:1 strength:3 development:1 circulation:1 expression:1 qì:1 application:5 dǎoyǐn:1 qìgōng:1 nèigōng:1 內功:1 principle:4 movement:3 eponymous:1 fuse:1 three:1 name:4 one:2 also:6 teach:9 despite:1 generally:3 e:3 g:3 wing:1 chun:1 non:1 claim:2 aikido:1 liq:1 chuan:1 ip:1 kito:1 ryu:1 jujutsu:1 many:9 artist:1 especially:1 china:3 disregard:1 entirely:1 school:10 soft:1 early:3 classification:2 first:1 appear:2 huang:4 zongxi:3 epitaph:2 wang:2 zhengnan:2 stanley:1 henning:1 proposes:1 identification:1 indigenous:1 foreign:1 manchu:1 qing:1 dynasty:1 act:1 political:1 defiance:1 rather:2 technical:1 son:1 baijia:1 learn:3 compile:1 extant:1 manual:1 quánfǎ:1 shahar:1 characteristic:1 training:12 wu:3 jianquan:2 student:4 push:3 hand:4 circa:1 內家:1 focus:5 awareness:1 spirit:1 breath:2 unrefined:1 muscular:2 tension:1 method:1 commonly:1 develop:1 sensitivity:1 softness:1 recent:1 year:2 new:1 age:1 oriented:1 traditionalists:1 criticize:1 emphasize:1 philosophy:1 speculation:1 expense:1 hard:2 work:3 reason:3 begin:2 expect:1 basic:3 extended:1 period:1 time:2 people:3 believe:3 lack:1 physical:4 old:1 case:1 much:2 spend:1 stance:1 zhan:1 zhuang:1 stretching:1 strengthening:1 muscle:1 well:5 empty:1 weapon:1 form:6 quite:1 demand:2 person:1 duet:1 perform:3 slowly:1 although:1 include:2 sudden:1 outburst:1 explosive:3 fa:1 jin:2 chen:1 taijiquan:3 famous:1 yang:1 slow:1 pace:1 improve:1 coordination:1 balance:2 increase:1 load:1 require:2 pay:1 minute:1 attention:1 whole:1 weight:1 technique:4 advanced:2 actual:1 fighting:2 quickly:1 goal:1 involve:1 entire:1 every:1 motion:2 stay:1 deep:1 control:1 breathing:2 accurately:1 accord:2 dictate:1 maintain:1 perfect:1 citation:1 difference:1 label:1 aspect:4 earlier:1 relationship:1 apprehend:1 theory:1 go:1 apply:2 question:1 外家:1 pinyin:1 literally:1 characterize:1 fast:1 agility:1 traditional:3 modern:2 adapt:1 competition:1 exercise:1 example:2 shaolinquan:2 direct:1 attack:1 wushu:1 spectacular:1 aerial:1 power:2 speed:1 integrate:1 qigong:1 desired:1 reach:1 say:2 differentiation:1 call:1 system:1 francis:1 b:1 k:1 combat:1 secret:2 ba:1 gua:1 tai:2 hsing:1 north:1 atlantic:1 book:1 wong:1 kiew:1 kit:1 kung:3 fu:3 self:1 defense:1 health:4 enlightenment:1 tuttle:1 know:1 teacher:4 express:1 differing:1 opinion:1 leap:1 force:1 proficient:1 kind:1 soon:1 lose:2 exhaust:1 unlike:1 strive:1 quiescence:1 intention:1 current:1 today:1 train:1 martially:2 practise:1 benefit:3 high:1 condition:1 oneself:1 enough:1 become:2 adept:1 long:1 proposition:1 simply:1 interest:1 never:1 continue:1 fully:1 publicly:1 anyway:1 lead:1 diminution:1 instructor:1 supplement:1 element:1 far:1 dilute:1 orient:1 longer:1 necessary:2 world:1 need:1 traditionalist:1 feel:1 somewhere:1 syllabus:1 cannot:1 accredit:1 prematurely:1 understand:1 core:1 theoretical:1 ability:1 gateway:1 fiction:2 associate:1 legend:1 popular:2 wudangshan:1 central:1 common:1 theme:1 wuxia:1 novel:1 film:2 represent:1 similar:1 mythology:1 often:1 genuine:1 highly:1 exaggerated:1 point:1 make:1 seem:1 miraculous:1 crouch:1 tiger:1 hidden:1 dragon:1 master:1 concept:1 source:1 comedy:1 soccer:1 hustle:1 anime:1 title:1 naruto:1 character:2 neji:1 hyuga:1 gentle:1 fist:1 gental:1 palm:1 baguan:1 trigram:1 likely:1 get:1 fashion:1 note:1 see:1 dantian:1 nei:1 neo:1 confucianism:1 taijitu:1 v:1 set:1 apart:1 faq:1 glossary:1 |@bigram martial_art:23 buddhist_taoist:1 wing_chun:1 qing_dynasty:1 tai_chi:2 kung_fu:3 crouch_tiger:1 tiger_hidden:1 hidden_dragon:1 neo_confucianism:1 external_link:1 |
1,438 | Jewish_holidays | For the Gregorian dates of Jewish Holidays, see Jewish holidays 2000-2050.The Jewish Holidays, A Jewish holiday or festival is a day or series of days observed by Jews as a holy or secular commemoration of an important event in Jewish history. In Hebrew, Jewish holidays and festivals, depending on their nature, may be called yom tov ("good day") () or chag ("festival") or ta'anit ("fast"). The origins of various Jewish holidays generally can be found in Biblical mitzvot (commandments), rabbinical mandate, and modern Israeli history. Rosh Hashanah — The Jewish New Year Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish new year and day of judgment, in which God judges each person individually according to their deeds, and makes a decree for the following year. The holiday is characterized by the special mitzvah of blowing the shofar. For a variable number of days before Rosh Hashanah among Ashkenazim, and the entire month of Elul among Sephardim, special additional morning prayers are added known as Selichot. Erev Rosh Hashanah (evening of the first day) — 29 Elul Rosh Hashanah () — 1–2 Tishrei Rosh Hashanah is set aside by the Mishna as the new year for calculating calendar years, shmita and jubilee years, vegetable tithes, and tree-planting (determining the age of a tree). According to an opinion in Jewish oral tradition, the creation of the world was completed on Rosh Hashanah. The recitation of Tashlikh occurs during the afternoon of the first day. Officially North American Reform Judaism celebrates two days of Rosh Hashanah, Jewish Holidays, Union for Reform Judaism, accessed October 2, 2008 but a significant number of Reform congregations and members celebrate only one day; the non-Reform branches of Judaism celebrate it as a two-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of Israel. The two days are considered together to be a yoma arichta, a single "long day". Aseret Yemei Teshuva — Ten Days of Repentance The first ten days of the Jewish year (from the beginning of Rosh Hashanah until the end of Yom Kippur) are known as the Aseret Yemei Teshuva. During this time it is "exceedingly appropriate" for Jews to practice "Teshuvah," which is examining one's deeds and repenting for sins committed against both God and one's fellow man in anticipation of Yom Kippur. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one's deeds before God, fasting, and self-reflection. On the third day, the Fast of Gedalia is celebrated. Yom Kippur — Day of Atonement Erev Yom Kippur — 9 Tishrei Yom Kippur (יום כיפור) — 10 Tishrei Yom Kippur is considered by Jews to be the holiest and most solemn day of the year. Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation. Eating, drinking, bathing, anointing with oil, and marital relations are prohibited. Fasting begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. Yom Kippur services begin with the prayer known as "Kol Nidrei", which must be recited before sunset. (Kol Nidrei, Aramaic for "all vows," is a public annulment of religious vows made by Jews during the preceding year. It only concerns unfilled vows made between a person and God, and does not cancel or nullify any vows made between people.) A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening prayers; the only evening service of the year in which this is done. The Ne'ilah service is a special service held only on the day of Yom Kippur, and deals with the closing of the holiday. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of the land of Israel. Sukkot Sukkot (סוכות or סֻכּוֹת sukkōt) or Succoth is a 7-day festival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles. It is one of the three pilgrimage festivals mentioned in the Bible. The word sukkot is the plural of the Hebrew word sukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to "dwell" in booths during the holiday. This generally means taking meals, but some sleep in the sukkah as well. There are specific rules for constructing a sukkah. The seventh day of the holiday is called Hoshanah Rabbah. Erev Sukkot — 14 Tishrei Sukkot (חג הסוכות) — 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel) Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah Simchat Torah (שמחת תורה) means "rejoicing with the Torah". It actually refers to a special ceremony which takes place on the holiday of Shemini Atzeret. This holiday immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot. In Israel, Shemini Atzeret is one day long and includes the celebration of Simchat Torah. Outside Israel, Shemini Atzeret is two days long and Simchat Torah is observed on the second day, which is often referred to by the name of the ceremony. The last portion of the Torah is read, completing the annual cycle, followed by the first chapter of Genesis. Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved. Hanukkah — Festival of Lights Erev Hanukkah — 24 Kislev Hanukkah (חנוכה) — 25 Kislev – 2 or 3 Tevet The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud. Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from practicing Judaism. Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem. The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights — one on the first night, two on the second, and so on — using a special candle holder called a Chanukkiyah, or a Hanukkah menorah. There is a custom to give children money on Hanukkah to commemorate the learning of Torah in guise of Jews gathering in what was perceived as gambling at that time since Torah was forbidden. Because of this, there is also the custom to play with the dreidel (called a sevivon in Hebrew). Tenth of Tevet This minor fast day marks the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1 And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and they built forts against it round about. As a minor fast day, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not observed. A Torah reading and Haftorah reading, and a special prayer in the Amidah, are added at both Shacharit and Mincha services. Tu Bishvat-New Year of the Trees Tu Bishvat (חג האילנות - ט"ו בשבט) — 15 Shevat Tu Bishvat is the new year for trees. According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which fruit tithes are counted each year, and marks the timepoint from which the Biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit to the Temple in Jerusalem were counted. In modern times, it is celebrated by eating various fruits and nuts associated with the Land of Israel. During the 1600s, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples created a short seder, called Hemdat ha‑Yamim, reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe on Passover, that explores the holiday's Kabbalistic themes. Purim — Festival of Lots Erev Purim and Fast of Esther known as "Ta'anit Ester" — 13 Adar Purim (פורים) — 14 Adar Shushan Purim 15 Adar In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, Purim is observed in the Second Adar (Adar Sheni). Purim commemorates the events that took place in the Book of Esther. It is celebrated by reading or acting out the story of Esther, and by making disparaging noises at every mention of Haman's name. In Purim it is a tradition to masquerade around in costumes and to give Mishloakh Manot (care packages, i.e. gifts of food and drink) to the poor and the needy. In Israel it is also a tradition to arrange festive parades, known as Ad-D'lo-Yada, in the town's main street. Sometimes the children dress up and act out the story of Esther for their parents. New Year for Kings New Year for Kings — 1 Nisan. Although Rosh Hashanah marks the change of the Jewish calendar year, Nisan is considered the first month of the Hebrew calendar. The Mishnah indicates that the year of the reign of Jewish kings was counted from Nisan in Biblical times. Nisan is also considered the beginning of the calendar year in terms of the order of the holidays. In addition to this New Year, the Mishnah sets up three other legal New Years: 1st of Elul, New Year for animal tithes, 1st of Tishrei (Rosh Hashanah), the New Year for the calendar year and for vegetable tithes 15th of Shevat (Tu B'Shevat), the New Year for Trees/fruit tithes Pesach — Passover Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn known as "Ta'anit Bechorim" — 14 Nisan Passover (Hebrew: Pesach, פסח) (first two days) — 15 and 16 Nisan The "Last days of Passover", known as Acharon shel Pesach, are also a holiday commemorating K'riat Yam Suf, the Passage of the Red Sea. — 21 and 22 Nisan The semi-holiday days between the "first days" and the "last days" of Passover are known as Chol Hamo'ed, referred to as the "Intermediate days". Passover commemorates the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt. No leavened food is eaten during the week of Pesach, in commemoration of the fact that the Jews left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have enough time to rise. The first seder begins at sundown on the 15th of Nisan, and the second seder is held on the night of the 16th of Nisan. On the second night, Jews start counting the omer. The counting of the omer is a count of the days from the time they left Egypt until the time they arrived at Mount Sinai. Sefirah — Counting of the Omer Sefirah (ספירת העומר, Sefirat Ha'Omer) — Counting the Omer Sefirah is the 49 day ("seven weeks") period between Pesach and Shavuot; it is defined by the Torah as the period during which special offerings are to be brought to the Temple in Jerusalem. Judaism teaches that this makes physical the spiritual connection between Pesach and Shavuot. Lag Ba'omer Lag Ba'omer () is the 33rd day in the Omer count ( is the number 33 in Hebrew). The mourning restrictions on joyous activities during the Omer period are lifted on Lag Ba'Omer and there are often celebrations with picnics, bonfires and bow and arrow play by children. In Israel, youth can be seen gathering materials for bonfires. New Israeli/Jewish national holidays Since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has established four new Jewish holidays. Yom Yerushalayim — Jerusalem day Yom HaShoah — Holocaust Remembrance day Yom Hazikaron — Memorial Day Yom Ha'atzmaut — Israel Independence Day These four days are national holidays in the State of Israel, and in general have been accepted as religious holidays by the following groups: The Union of Orthodox Congregations and Rabbinical Council of America; The United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth (United Kingdom); The Chief Rabbinate of the State of Israel; All of Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism; The Union for Traditional Judaism and the Reconstructionist movement. These four new days are not accepted as religious holidays by Haredi Judaism, which includes Hasidic Judaism. These groups view these new days as Israeli national holidays, and they do not celebrate these holidays. Yom HaShoah — Holocaust Remembrance day Yom HaShoah () — 27 Nisan Yom HaShoah is also known as Holocaust Remembrance Day, and takes place on the 27th day of Nisan. Yom Hazikaron — Memorial Day Yom Hazikaron () — 4 Iyar Yom Hazikaron is the day of remembrance in honor of Israeli veterans and fallen soldiers of the Wars of Israel. The Memorial Day also commemorates fallen civilians, slain by acts of hostile terrorism. Yom Ha'atzmaut — Israel Independence Day Yom Ha'atzmaut () — 5 Iyar Yom Ha'atzmaut is Israel's Independence Day. An official ceremony is held annually on the eve of Yom Ha'atzmaut at Mount Herzl. The ceremony includes speeches by senior Israeli officials, an artistic presentation, a ritual march of flag-carrying soldiers forming elaborate structures (such as a Menorah, a Magen David and the number which represents the age of the State of Israel) and the lighting of twelve beacons (one for each of the Tribes of Israel). Dozens of Israeli citizens, who contributed significantly to the state, are selected to light these beacons. Yom Yerushalaim - Jerusalem Day Yom Yerushalayim () — 28 Iyar Jerusalem Day marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem and The Temple Mount under Jewish rule during the Six-Day War almost 1900 years after the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Shavuot — Feast of Weeks — Yom HaBikurim Erev Shavuot — 5 Sivan Shavuot () — 6, 7 Sivan Shavuot, The Feast of Weeks is one of the three pilgrim festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah, Shavuot marks the end of the counting of the Omer, the period between Passover and Shavuot. According to Rabbinic tradition, the Ten Commandments were given on this day. During this holiday the Torah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot. Seventeenth of Tammuz The 17th of Tammuz traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Second Temple during the Roman occupation. As a minor fast day, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not observed. A Torah reading and Haftorah reading, and a special prayer in the Amidah, are added at both Shacharit and Mincha services. The Three Weeks and the Nine Days The Three Weeks: Seventeenth of Tammuz, 17 Tammuz – 9 Av (Tisha B'Av) The Nine Days: 1–9 Av (See also Tenth of Tevet) The days between the 17th of Tammuz and the 9th of are days of mourning, on account of the collapse of Jerusalem during the Roman occupation which occurred during this time framework. Weddings and other joyful occasions are traditionally not held during this period. A further element is added within the three weeks, during the nine days between the 1st and 9th day of Av — the pious refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (a Mitzvah meal, such as a Pidyon Haben — the recognition of a firstborn male child — or the study completion of a religious text.) In addition, one's hair is not cut during this period. In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued several responsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 9th of Av itself. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding, and rabbis in those movements follow their individual consciences on such matters; some uphold the traditional prohibitions and some permit weddings on these days. Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional prohibitions. Tisha B'av — Ninth of Av Tisha B'Av (צום תשעה באב) — 9 Av Tisha B'Av is a fast day that commemorates two of the saddest events in Jewish history that both occurred on the ninth of Av — the destruction in 586 BCE of the First Temple, originally built by King Solomon, and destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B'Av, including King Edward I's edict compelling the Jews to leave England (1290) and the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492. Tithe of animals New Year for Animal Tithes (Taxes) — 1 Elul This commemoration is no longer observed. This day was set up by the Mishna as the New Year for animal tithes, which is somewhat equivalent to a new year for taxes. (This notion is similar to the tax deadline in the United States of America on April 15.) Rosh Chodesh — the New Month The first day of each month and the thirtieth day of the preceding month, if it has thirty days, is (in modern times) a minor holiday known as Rosh Chodesh (head of the month). The one exception is the month of Tishrei, whose beginning is a major holiday, Rosh Hashanah. There are also special prayers said upon observing the new Moon for the first time each month. Shabbat — The Sabbath — שבת Jewish law accords Shabbat the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week. Jewish law defines a day as ending at nightfall, which is when the next day then begins. Thus, Shabbat begins at sundown Friday night, and ends at nightfall Saturday night. In many ways halakha (Jewish law) gives Shabbat the status of being the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar. It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to observe it. The liturgy treats Shabbat as a bride and queen. The Torah reading on Shabbat has more sections of parshiot (Torah readings) than on Yom Kippur, the most of any Jewish holiday. There is a tradition that the Messiah will come if every Jew observes Shabbat perfectly twice in a row. Acharei hachagim Acharei hachagim (modern Hebrew: אחרי החגים) Literally: after the holidays. Used in modern Hebrew vernacular to suggest a delay. Many tasks get postponed until acharei hachagim, regardless of the proximity of the coming holiday. Acharei hachagim is considered a legitimate target date for the task in question. Variances in observances The denominations of Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism generally regard Jewish laws (halakha) relating to all these holidays as important, but no longer binding. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism hold that the halakha relating to these days are still normative (i.e. to be accepted as binding). There are a number of differences in religious practices between Orthodox and Conservative Jews, because these denominations have distinct ways of understanding the process of how halakha has historically developed, and thus how it can still develop. Nonetheless, both of these groups have similar teachings about how to observe these holidays. Reform Jews do not observe the 2nd day of Jewish holidays in the Diaspora. Name "Yom Tov" is also a Jewish given name. See also Jewish holidays 2000-2050 Public holidays in Israel Ta'anit Religious festival Torah readings of Yom Tov Hebrew calendar Rosh Hashanah Notes References Greenberg, Irving. The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. New York: Touchstone, 1988. Strassfeld, Michael. The Jewish Holidays: A Guide and Commentary. New York: Harper & Row, 1985. External links Hebcal Interactive Jewish calendar with candelighting times and Torah readings. A more detailed list of Jewish holidays A calculator that figures out the dates of Jewish holidays in any year Guide to all Jewish Holidays Introduction to Jewish Holidays Akhlah Hebrew Calendar Perpetual Hebrew date calendar with Torah readings and holidays. 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1,439 | Industrial_espionage | Industrial espionage or corporate espionage is espionage conducted for commercial purposes instead of national security purposes. The term is distinct from legal and ethical activities such as examining corporate publications, websites, patent filings, and the like to determine the activities of a corporation (this is normally referred to as competitive intelligence). Theoretically the difference between espionage and legal information gathering is clear. In practice, it is quite difficult to sometimes tell the difference between legal and illegal methods. Especially if one starts to consider the ethical side of information gathering, the border becomes even more blurred and elusive of definition. Industrial espionage describes activities such as theft of trade secrets, bribery, blackmail, and technological surveillance. As well as spying on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets of commercial espionage—for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract so that another tenderer can underbid. Industrial espionage is most commonly associated with technology-heavy industries, particularly the computer and automobile sectors. Espionage takes place in many forms. In short, the purpose of espionage is to gather knowledge about (an) organization(s). A spy may be hired, or may work for oneself. Information Information can make the difference between success and failure; if a trade secret is stolen, the competitive playing field is levelled or even tipped in favor of a competitor. Although a lot of information gathering is accomplished by combing through public records (public databases and patent filings), at times corporations feel the best way to get information is to take it. Corporate espionage is a threat to any business whose livelihood depends on information. The information competitors seek may be client lists, supplier agreements, personnel records, research documents, or prototype plans for a new product or service. The compilation of these crucial elements is called CIS or CRS, a Competitive Intelligence Solution or Competitive Response Solution. Other In recent years, corporate espionage has taken on an expanded definition. For instance, attempts to sabotage a corporation may be considered corporate espionage; in this sense, the term takes on the wider connotations of its parent word. In some cases, malware and spyware has even entered the arena of corporate espionage. That espionage and sabotage (corporate or otherwise) have become more clearly associated with each other is also demonstrated by a number of profiling studies, some government, some corporate (such as this paper from the Software Engineering Institute ). That the US Government currently has a polygraph examination for the "Test of Espionage and Sabotage" (TES) is also demonstrative of the increasingly popular (though not necessarily the group consensus) notion, by those studying espionage and sabotage countermeasures, of the interrelationship of the two. In practice, and particularly in regards to 'trusted insiders', they are more often than not considered functionally identical when it comes to the majority of the countermeasures. The government of France has been alleged to have conducted ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companiesand vice versa. This list, compiled from public sources over the last fifteen years of the countries that are known to be customers of stolen U.S. technology: Argentina, Brazil, France, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Libya, North Korea, Pakistan, Peoples Republic of China, USSR(Russia), South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan. Pitorri, Peter. Counterespionage for American Business. Chicago: Butterworth-Heinemann Limited, 1998. The Clinton administration has been accused of shifting U.S. intelligence assets from terrorism targets and toward economic targets to "level the playing field" for U.S. companies competing abroad. The Baltimore Sun, "Mixing Business with Spying," Nov. 1, 1996. (Fee required to read entire article.) mirror The development of the Tupolev Tu-144 supersonic aircraft, with its rapid design and similarity to Concorde, was one of the most prominent examples of industrial espionage in the 20th century. References Further reading Barry, Marc and Penenberg, Adam L. Spooked: Espionage in Corporate America. Perseus Books Group, December 5, 2000. ISBN 0-7382-0271-1 Fink, Steven. Sticky Fingers: Managing the Global Risk of Economic Espionage. Dearborn Trade, January 15, 2002. ISBN 0-7931-4827-8 Rustmann, F.W. Jr. CIA, INC.: Espionage and the Craft of Business Intelligence. Potomac Books, November 2002. ISBN 1-57488-520-0 Winker, Ira. Corporate Espionage: What It Is, Why It's Happening in Your Company, What You Must Do About It. Prima Lifestyles, April 9, 1997. ISBN 0-7615-0840-6 Pitorri, Peter. Counterespionage for American Business. Chicago: Butterworth-Heinemann Limited, 1998. See also Business intelligence Competitive intelligence Trade secret The American Industrial Espionage Act of 1996 The American Economic Espionage Act of 1996 External links Spyware as Corporate Espionage Threat. NewsFactor Network, July 19, 2005. Directory of Corporate Espionage detectives at ExpertLaw Recent cases and future of industrial espionage Comparing Insider IT Sabotage and Espionage: A Model-Based Analysis. 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1,440 | Monica_Lewinsky | Monica Samille Lewinsky (born July 23, 1973) is an American woman with whom then-United States President Bill Clinton admitted to having had an "improper relationship" while Lewinsky worked at the White House in 1995 and 1996. The affair and its repercussions, especially the impeachment of Bill Clinton, became known as the Lewinsky scandal. Biography Early life Monica Lewinsky was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in Southern California on the west side of Los Angeles and in Beverly Hills. She is of Russian Jewish descent. Her father is Dr. Bernhard Lewinsky, an oncologist; her mother, Marcia Lewis, is an author. Her parents are divorced. Her stepfather, R. Peter Straus, is a media executive. For her primary education she attended the John Thomas Dye School in Bel-Air. At Pacific Hills School (formerly Bel-Air Prep), she won the "Outstanding Junior of the Year" award. "That Girl" by Leonard Gill, March 15, 1999. Memphis Flyer book review. Accessed December 18, 2006. She later attended Beverly Hills High School, but transferred to and graduated from Pacific Hills School, formerly known as Bel Air Prep in 1991. She attended two-year community college, Santa Monica College, and completed her undergraduate studies at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon, graduating with a psychology degree in 1995. Lewinsky moved to Washington, D.C., where she worked at the White House as an unpaid summer intern starting in July 1995, moving to a paid position there in December 1995. Scandal Between November 1995 and March 1997, Lewinsky had an intimate relationship with President Bill Clinton. She later testified that the relationship involved oral sex in the Oval Office and other sexual contact but that sexual intercourse did not occur. Clinton had previously been confronted with allegations of sexual misconduct, most notably in regard to an alleged long-term relationship with singer Gennifer Flowers, and an encounter with Arkansas state employee Paula Jones (née Corbin). These events were alleged to have occurred during Clinton's time as Governor of Arkansas. Lewinsky's name surfaced during legal proceedings connected to the latter matter, when Jones's lawyers sought corroborating evidence of Clinton's conduct to substantiate Jones's allegations. In April 1996, Lewinsky's superiors relocated her job to the Pentagon because they felt she was spending too much time around Clinton. Lewinsky confided in a co-worker named Linda Tripp about her relationship with the President. Beginning in September 1997, Tripp began secretly recording their telephone conversations regarding the affair with Clinton. In January 1998, after Lewinsky had submitted an affidavit in the Paula Jones case denying any physical relationship with Clinton, and attempted to persuade Tripp to lie under oath in the Jones case, Tripp gave the tapes to Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, and these tapes added to his ongoing investigation into the Whitewater controversy. Starr broadened his investigation to include investigating Lewinsky, Clinton, and others for possible perjury and subornation of perjury in the Jones case. Noteworthy for its revelation of Tripp's motivations was her reporting of their conversations to literary agent Lucianne Goldberg. Tripp also convinced Lewinsky to save the gifts that Clinton had given her during their affair, and not to dry clean what would later be infamously known as "the blue dress." While under oath, Clinton denied having had "a sexual affair," "sexual relations," or "a sexual relationship" with Lewinsky, Starr Report: Nature of President Clinton's Relationship with Monica Lewinsky Accessed December 18, 2006. and on January 26, 1998 claimed "I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky" in a nationally televised White House news conference. Clinton also said, "there is not a sexual relationship, an improper sexual relationship or any other kind of improper relationship" The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer: President Bill Clinton January 21, 1998 which he defended as truthful on August 17, 1998 hearing because of the use of the present tense, famously arguing "it depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is" Videotaped Testimony of William Jefferson Clinton Before the Grand Jury Empaneled for Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr August 17, 1998 (i.e., he was not, at the time he made that statement, still having a sexual relationship with Lewinsky). Under pressure from Starr, who as Clinton learned had obtained from Lewinsky a blue dress with Clinton's semen stain, as well as testimony from Lewinsky that the President had inserted a cigar into her vagina, Clinton admitted that he lied to the American people and that he had had inappropriate intimate contact with Lewinsky. Clinton denied having committed perjury because, according to Clinton, the legal definition"Perjury about sexual relations from the Paula Jones deposition" by Steve Kangas. Accessed February 12, 2006 of oral sex was mutually exclusive of "sex" per se. In addition, relying upon the definition of "sexual relations" as proposed by the prosecution and agreed by the defense and by Judge Susan Webber Wright, who was hearing the Paula Jones case, Clinton claimed that because certain acts were performed on him, not by him, he did not engage in sexual relations. Lewinsky's testimony to the Starr Commission, however, contradicted Clinton's claim of being totally passive in their encounters. Both Clinton and Lewinsky were called before a grand jury; Clinton testified via closed-circuit television, Lewinsky in person. Given an opportunity to offer final words on the matter, Lewinsky told the jury, "I hate Linda Tripp." After the scandal The affair led to a period of pop culture celebrity for Lewinsky as a younger-generation focus of a political storm. Around early 1999, Lewinsky reportedly said "I'm well-known for something that isn't great to be well-known for." Ms. Magazine published a series of articles by writer Susan Jane Gilman, sexologist Susie Bright, and author-host Abiola Abrams arguing from three generations of women whether Monica Lewinsky's behavior had any meaning for feminism. Monica Abrams "For Lewinsky, fame the same as notoriety" by Leonard Pitts, April 20, 2000. Miami Herald. Accessed December 18, 2006. On March 3, 1999, she appeared on ABC's 20/20. She also appeared on MTV's The Tom Green Show in which the host took her to his parents' home in Ottawa in search of fabric for her new business. Lewinsky made a cameo appearance as herself in two sketches during the May 8, 1999 episode of NBC's Saturday Night Live, a program that had lampooned her relationship with Clinton over the prior sixteen months. She was also the host of the short-lived reality television dating program called Mr. Personality in 2003. After Clinton's autobiography My Life appeared in 2004, Lewinsky said in an interview with the British tabloid Daily Mail: In December 2006, Lewinsky graduated with a master's degree in social psychology from the London School of Economics where she had been studying since September 2005. "Weekly media coverage (August 26-September 8, 2005): Other News" September 8, 2005. London School of Economics. Accessed December 27, 2006 Her thesis at the LSE was titled “In Search of the Impartial Juror: An Exploration of the Third-person effect and Pre-Trial Publicity.” References Further reading Berlant, Lauren, and Duggan, Lisa. Our Monica, Ourselves: The Clinton Affair and the Public Interest (Sexual Cultures). New York: New York University Press, 2001. Clinton, Bill (2005). My Life. New York: Knopf, 2004. Kalb, Marvin. One Scandalous Story: Clinton, Lewinsky, and Thirteen Days That Tarnished American Journalism. New York: Free Press, 2001. Morton, Andrew: Monica's Story. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999. An authorized biography with interview. External links A Guide to the Monica Lewinsky Story, also: The Starr Report; Tripp Tapes; Articles of Impeachment; The "Stalker" Tale Timeline of the affair from Washington Post Lewinsky profile in New York magazine, 2001 | Monica_Lewinsky |@lemmatized monica:9 samille:1 lewinsky:34 bear:2 july:2 american:3 woman:3 united:1 state:2 president:6 bill:5 clinton:30 admit:2 improper:3 relationship:13 work:2 white:3 house:3 affair:7 repercussion:1 especially:1 impeachment:2 become:1 know:5 scandal:3 biography:2 early:2 life:3 san:1 francisco:1 california:2 grow:1 southern:1 west:1 side:1 los:1 angeles:1 beverly:2 hill:4 russian:1 jewish:1 descent:1 father:1 dr:1 bernhard:1 oncologist:1 mother:1 marcia:1 lewis:2 author:2 parent:2 divorce:1 stepfather:1 r:1 peter:1 straus:1 medium:2 executive:1 primary:1 education:1 attend:3 john:1 thomas:1 dye:1 school:6 bel:3 air:3 pacific:2 formerly:2 prep:2 win:1 outstanding:1 junior:1 year:2 award:1 girl:1 leonard:2 gill:1 march:3 memphis:1 fly:1 book:1 review:1 accessed:2 december:6 later:3 high:1 transfer:1 graduate:3 two:2 community:1 college:3 santa:1 complete:1 undergraduate:1 study:2 clark:1 portland:1 oregon:1 psychology:2 degree:2 move:2 washington:2 c:1 unpaid:1 summer:1 intern:1 starting:1 pay:1 position:1 november:1 intimate:2 testify:2 involve:1 oral:2 sex:3 oval:1 office:1 sexual:14 contact:2 intercourse:1 occur:2 previously:1 confront:1 allegation:2 misconduct:1 notably:1 regard:2 allege:2 long:1 term:1 singer:1 gennifer:1 flower:1 encounter:2 arkansas:2 employee:1 paula:4 jones:8 née:1 corbin:1 event:1 time:3 governor:1 name:2 surface:1 legal:2 proceeding:1 connect:1 latter:1 matter:2 lawyer:1 seek:1 corroborate:1 evidence:1 conduct:1 substantiate:1 april:2 superior:1 relocate:1 job:1 pentagon:1 felt:1 spend:1 much:1 around:2 confide:1 co:1 worker:1 linda:2 tripp:8 beginning:1 september:4 begin:1 secretly:1 record:1 telephone:1 conversation:2 january:3 submit:1 affidavit:1 case:4 deny:3 physical:1 attempt:1 persuade:1 lie:2 oath:2 give:3 tape:3 independent:2 counsel:2 kenneth:2 starr:7 add:1 ongoing:1 investigation:2 whitewater:1 controversy:1 broaden:1 include:1 investigate:1 others:1 possible:1 perjury:4 subornation:1 noteworthy:1 revelation:1 motivation:1 reporting:1 literary:1 agent:1 lucianne:1 goldberg:1 also:5 convince:1 save:1 gift:1 dry:1 clean:1 would:1 infamously:1 blue:2 dress:2 relation:5 report:2 nature:1 access:3 claim:3 miss:1 nationally:1 televise:1 news:2 conference:1 say:3 kind:1 newshour:1 jim:1 lehrer:1 defend:1 truthful:1 august:3 hearing:1 use:1 present:1 tense:1 famously:1 argue:2 depend:1 meaning:2 word:2 videotaped:1 testimony:3 william:1 jefferson:1 grand:2 jury:3 empanel:1 e:1 make:2 statement:1 still:1 pressure:1 learn:1 obtain:1 semen:1 stain:1 well:3 insert:1 cigar:1 vagina:1 people:1 inappropriate:1 commit:1 accord:1 definition:2 deposition:1 steve:1 kangas:1 february:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 per:1 se:1 addition:1 rely:1 upon:1 propose:1 prosecution:1 agree:1 defense:1 judge:1 susan:2 webber:1 wright:1 hear:1 certain:1 act:1 perform:1 engage:1 commission:1 however:1 contradict:1 totally:1 passive:1 call:2 via:1 closed:1 circuit:1 television:2 person:2 opportunity:1 offer:1 final:1 tell:1 hate:1 lead:1 period:1 pop:1 culture:2 celebrity:1 young:1 generation:2 focus:1 political:1 storm:1 reportedly:1 something:1 great:1 magazine:2 publish:1 series:1 article:2 writer:1 jane:1 gilman:1 sexologist:1 susie:1 bright:1 host:3 abiola:1 abrams:2 three:1 whether:1 behavior:1 feminism:1 fame:1 notoriety:1 pitt:1 miami:1 herald:1 appear:3 abc:1 mtv:1 tom:1 green:1 show:1 take:1 home:1 ottawa:1 search:2 fabric:1 new:7 business:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 sketch:1 may:1 episode:1 nbc:1 saturday:1 night:1 live:1 program:2 lampoon:1 prior:1 sixteen:1 month:1 short:1 lived:1 reality:1 date:1 mr:1 personality:1 autobiography:1 interview:2 british:1 tabloid:1 daily:1 mail:1 master:1 social:1 london:2 economics:2 since:1 weekly:1 coverage:1 thesis:1 lse:1 title:1 impartial:1 juror:1 exploration:1 third:1 effect:1 pre:1 trial:1 publicity:1 reference:1 reading:1 berlant:1 lauren:1 duggan:1 lisa:1 public:1 interest:1 york:6 university:1 press:3 knopf:1 kalb:1 marvin:1 one:1 scandalous:1 story:3 thirteen:1 day:1 tarnish:1 journalism:1 free:1 morton:1 andrew:1 st:1 martin:1 authorized:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 stalker:1 tale:1 timeline:1 post:1 profile:1 |@bigram bill_clinton:4 lewinsky_scandal:1 monica_lewinsky:4 san_francisco:1 los_angeles:1 beverly_hill:2 santa_monica:1 lewis_clark:1 portland_oregon:1 sexual_intercourse:1 sexual_misconduct:1 nationally_televise:1 newshour_jim:1 jim_lehrer:1 grand_jury:2 mutually_exclusive:1 per_se:1 fame_notoriety:1 miami_herald:1 cameo_appearance:1 saturday_night:1 short_lived:1 external_link:1 |
1,441 | Chernobyl | Chernobyl area as seen from the Russian space station Mir in 1997 (). Chernobyl (as transliterated from the , ), or Chornobyl (as transliterated from , ), is a city in northern Ukraine, in the Kyiv Oblast (province) near the border with Belarus. The city was evacuated in 1986 due to the Chernobyl disaster at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, which is located 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) north-northwest. The power plant is located within Chornobyl Raion (district), but the city was not the residence of the power plant workers. Together with the power plant construction, Pripyat, a city, which was larger and closer to the power plant, was built to be home for the power plant workers. Though the city today is mostly uninhabited, a small number of inhabitants reside in houses marked with signs stating that the "Owner of this house lives here". Workers on watch and administrative personnel of the Zone of Alienation are stationed in the city on a long term basis. Prior to its evacuation, the city was inhabited by about 14,000 residents. Name origin The city name comes from a combination of chornyi (чoрний, black) and byllia (билля, grass blades or stalks); hence it literally means black grass or black stalks. It may be named after the Ukrainian word for the plant mugwort. Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0198201710 The reason for this name is not known. Different explanations have appeared after the 1986 nuclear incident. In particular, there were attempts to link the accident to prophecies in the Book of Revelation in the Christian New Testament. For these, see Chernobyl in popular culture. History Chernobyl first appeared in a charter of 1193 described as a hunting-lodge of knyaz Rostislavich Chernobyl ancient history and maps. . It was a crown village of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century. The village was granted as a fiefdom to Filon Kmita, a captain of the royal cavalry, in 1566. The province containing Chernobyl was transferred to the Kingdom of Poland in 1569, and then annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793. Davies, Norman (1995) "Chernobyl", The Sarmatian Review, vol. 15, No. 1. Prior to the 20th century Chornobyl was inhabited by Ukrainian and some Polish peasants, and a relatively large number of Jews. Chernobyl had a rich religious history. The Jews were brought by Filon Kmita during the Polish campaign of colonization. The traditionally Christian Eastern Orthodox Ukrainian peasantry of the district was largely forced by Poland to convert to the Greek Catholic Uniate religion after 1596, and returned to Eastern Orthodoxy only after Ukraine was annexed by Muscovy. The Dominican church and monastery were founded in 1626 by Lukasz Sapieha, at the height of the Counter-reformation. There was a group of Old Catholics, which opposed the decrees of the Council of Trent. The Dominican monastery was sequestrated in 1832, and the church of the Old Catholics was disbanded in 1852. In the second half of 18th century, Chernobyl became one of the major centers of Hasidic Judaism. The Chernobyl Hasidic dynasty had been founded by Rabbi Menachem Nachum Twersky. The Jewish population suffered greatly from pogroms in October 1905 and in March–April 1919, when many Jews were killed and others were robbed, at the instigation of the Russian nationalist Black Hundreds. In 1920, the Twersky dynasty left Chornobyl, and it ceased to exist as a Hasidic center. Since the 1880s, Chernobyl has seen many changes of fortune. In 1898 Chernobyl had a population of 10,800, including 7,200 Jews. In World War I the village was occupied and in the ensuing Civil War was fought over by Bolsheviks and Ukrainians. In the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20, it was taken first by the Polish Army and then by cavalry of the Red Army. From 1921, it was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. During the period 1929–33 Chernobyl suffered greatly from mass killings during Stalin's collectivization campaign, and in the Holodomor (famine) that followed. The Polish community of Chernobyl was deported to Kazakhstan in 1936 during the Frontier Clearances. The Jewish community was killed during the German occupation of 1941–44. Twenty years later, the area was chosen as the site of the first nuclear power station on Ukrainian soil. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chernobyl remained part of Ukraine, now an independent nation. Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster On April 26, 1986, Reactor #4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near the town of Pripyat, Ukraine exploded. The explosion took place around midnight while the neighboring town of Pripyat slept. 4 workers were killed instantly. Four days later, the residents of Pripyat were ordered to evacuate. The residents never returned and the town still remains uninhabited to this day. In 2003, the United Nations Development Programme launched a project called the Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (CRDP) for the recovery of the affected areas. CRDP: Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (United Nations Development Program) The program launched its activities based on the Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident report recommendations and was initiated in February 2002. The main goal of the CRDP’s activities is supporting the Government of Ukraine to mitigate long-term social, economic and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe, among others. CRDP works in the four most Chernobyl-affected areas in Ukraine: Kyivska, Zhytomyrska, partially Kiev, Chernihivska and Rivnenska. Chernobylite Chernobylite is the name cited by two media sources BBC Special Report: 1997: Containing Chernobyl? Suicide Mission to Chernobyl: NOVA, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)1991, 60mins for highly radioactive, unusual and potentially novel crystalline formations found at the Chernobyl power-plant after the explosion. These formations were found in the basement below Reactor #4 during an investigation into missing reactor fuel. excerpt These formations may be similar or identical to Čejkaite Čejkaite at mindat.org See also List of Chernobyl-related articles References External links The Flickr Chernobyl-Pripyat Group Many photoreports from Chornobyl's Area. Chornobyl Disaster - Chronicle of Severe Days Amazing footage of the Chornobyl rescue work from the last film of Ukrainian film-maker Volodymyr Shevchenko, who died in the hospital after spending so much time near the reactor. Lost City of Chernobyl Photoblog of the abandoned city Chornobyl: the unreadable sign Twenty years after Chornobyl, Belarusian writer Svetlana Alexievich talks to Sonja Zekri about the new face of evil and the lessons to be learned from the reactor catastrophe. Hell on Earth The Guardian, 26 April 2006 Chernobyl and pripyat 22 years later Photo's and story by Thierry Buysse. | Chernobyl |@lemmatized chernobyl:31 area:5 see:4 russian:3 space:1 station:3 mir:1 transliterate:2 chornobyl:9 city:10 northern:1 ukraine:6 kyiv:1 oblast:1 province:2 near:3 border:1 belarus:1 evacuate:2 due:1 disaster:3 nuclear:6 power:9 plant:9 locate:2 kilometer:1 mile:1 north:1 northwest:1 within:1 raion:1 district:2 residence:1 worker:4 together:1 construction:1 pripyat:6 large:2 closer:1 build:1 home:1 though:1 today:1 mostly:1 uninhabited:2 small:1 number:2 inhabitant:1 reside:1 house:2 mark:1 sign:2 state:1 owner:1 live:1 watch:1 administrative:1 personnel:1 zone:1 alienation:1 long:2 term:2 basis:1 prior:2 evacuation:1 inhabit:2 resident:3 name:5 origin:1 come:1 combination:1 chornyi:1 чoрний:1 black:4 byllia:1 билля:1 grass:2 blade:1 stalk:2 hence:1 literally:1 mean:1 may:2 ukrainian:7 word:1 mugwort:1 norman:2 davy:2 europe:1 history:4 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 reason:1 know:1 different:1 explanation:1 appear:2 incident:1 particular:1 attempt:1 link:2 accident:2 prophecy:1 book:1 revelation:1 christian:2 new:2 testament:1 popular:1 culture:1 first:3 charter:1 describe:1 hunt:1 lodge:1 knyaz:1 rostislavich:1 ancient:1 map:1 crown:1 village:3 grand:1 duchy:1 lithuania:1 century:3 grant:1 fiefdom:1 filon:2 kmita:2 captain:1 royal:1 cavalry:2 contain:2 transfer:1 kingdom:1 poland:2 annex:2 empire:1 sarmatian:1 review:1 vol:1 polish:5 peasant:1 relatively:1 jew:4 rich:1 religious:1 bring:1 campaign:2 colonization:1 traditionally:1 eastern:2 orthodox:1 peasantry:1 largely:1 force:1 convert:1 greek:1 catholic:3 uniate:1 religion:1 return:2 orthodoxy:1 muscovy:1 dominican:2 church:2 monastery:2 found:2 lukasz:1 sapieha:1 height:1 counter:1 reformation:1 group:2 old:2 oppose:1 decree:1 council:1 trent:1 sequestrate:1 disband:1 second:1 half:1 become:1 one:1 major:1 center:2 hasidic:3 judaism:1 dynasty:2 rabbi:1 menachem:1 nachum:1 twersky:2 jewish:2 population:2 suffer:2 greatly:2 pogrom:1 october:1 march:1 april:3 many:3 kill:3 others:2 rob:1 instigation:1 nationalist:1 hundred:1 leave:1 cease:1 exist:1 since:1 change:1 fortune:1 include:1 world:1 war:3 occupy:1 ensue:1 civil:1 fight:1 bolshevik:1 soviet:2 take:2 army:2 red:1 incorporate:1 ssr:1 period:1 mass:1 killing:1 stalin:1 collectivization:1 holodomor:1 famine:1 follow:1 community:2 deport:1 kazakhstan:1 frontier:1 clearance:1 german:1 occupation:1 twenty:2 year:3 later:3 choose:1 site:1 soil:1 collapse:1 union:1 remain:2 part:1 independent:1 nation:3 reactor:6 town:3 explode:1 explosion:2 place:1 around:1 midnight:1 neighboring:1 slept:1 instantly:1 four:2 day:3 order:1 never:1 still:1 united:2 development:4 programme:3 launch:2 project:1 call:1 recovery:3 crdp:4 affected:2 program:2 activity:2 base:1 human:1 consequence:2 report:2 recommendation:1 initiate:1 february:1 main:1 goal:1 support:1 government:1 mitigate:1 social:1 economic:1 ecological:1 catastrophe:2 among:1 work:2 kyivska:1 zhytomyrska:1 partially:1 kiev:1 chernihivska:1 rivnenska:1 chernobylite:2 cite:1 two:1 medium:1 source:1 bbc:1 special:1 suicide:1 mission:1 nova:1 public:1 broadcasting:1 service:1 pb:1 highly:1 radioactive:1 unusual:1 potentially:1 novel:1 crystalline:1 formation:3 find:2 basement:1 investigation:1 miss:1 fuel:1 excerpt:1 similar:1 identical:1 čejkaite:2 mindat:1 org:1 also:1 list:1 related:1 article:1 reference:1 external:1 flickr:1 photoreports:1 chronicle:1 severe:1 amaze:1 footage:1 rescue:1 last:1 film:2 maker:1 volodymyr:1 shevchenko:1 die:1 hospital:1 spend:1 much:1 time:1 lose:1 photoblog:1 abandon:1 unreadable:1 belarusian:1 writer:1 svetlana:1 alexievich:1 talk:1 sonja:1 zekri:1 face:1 evil:1 lesson:1 learn:1 hell:1 earth:1 guardian:1 photo:1 story:1 thierry:1 buysse:1 |@bigram chernobyl_disaster:1 grand_duchy:1 duchy_lithuania:1 eastern_orthodox:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 counter_reformation:1 council_trent:1 hasidic_judaism:1 rabbi_menachem:1 ukrainian_ssr:1 soviet_union:1 nuclear_reactor:1 mindat_org:1 external_link:1 |
1,442 | Factoid | Mount Isa, Australia, is often incorrectly referred to as the largest city in the world by area. Toronto, Canada, was never designated by UNESCO as the world's most multicultural city. A factoid is a spurious—unverified, incorrect, or fabricated—statement formed and asserted as a fact, but with no veracity. The word appears in the Oxford English Dictionary as "something which becomes accepted as fact, although it may not be true." However, the word can sometimes mean, instead, an insignificant but true piece of information. Factoid was coined by Norman Mailer in his 1973 biography of Marilyn Monroe. Mailer described a factoid as "facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper", and created the word by combining the word fact and the ending -oid to mean "like a fact". The Washington Times described Mailer's new word as referring to "something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact". Wesley Pruden, Editorial in Washington Times Factoids may give rise to, or arise from, common misconceptions and urban legends. Examples Many residents of the Australian city of Mount Isa believe that their city, in terms of its area, is the world's largest city by surface area or second largest. In reality, Mount Isa is the second largest city in Australia; there are several cities around the world with larger incorporated areas. Their own local council web site incorrectly suggests it is the second largest city on earth. Mount Isa City Council page suggesting their city is the second largest city in the world The media in Canada have often reported that the city of Toronto was named by UNESCO as the most multicultural city in the world. Although there have been some reports suggesting that Toronto may be one of the world's most diverse cities (see Demographics of Toronto), the United Nations agency has never designated any city as being the most multicultural or diverse. Nonetheless, the belief in this status persisted for years, even finding its way onto UNESCO's own web site, UNESCO Best Practices for Human Settlements: Metro Toronto's Changing Communities into the pages of the New York Times Clyde H. Farnsworth, "Toronto Journal: To Battle Bigots, Help from South of the Border," New York Times, Friday, 12 February 1993, 4. and The Economist, City of diversity, Economist City Guide: Toronto, (retrieved May 24, 2007) and into international media reports in respect of Toronto's two Olympic bids. The Great Wall of China is often thought as being the only man-made object visible from the moon. See Great Wall of China's visibility In reality no man-made object can be seen with a naked eye from the moon. Given good circumstances one might be able to discern the result of some human activity such as the changing of Holland's coast or the partial drying out of the Aral Sea, but even that would not be easy. It is often thought that chameleons change colour to match their surroundings as camouflage. They are mostly well camouflaged and they can change colour, but they do not change colour to match their surroundings. The colour changes as its physical status changes and as a form of communication. Octopuses seem to change colour as a form of camouflage (but also as a way of communicating). Dogs and cats are often thought to be completely colour-blind and see the world in scales of grey. That is wrong. They do have colour vision, dichromate, but not nearly as good as that of humans, trichromate i.e. red, green and blue light. Other meanings The word factoid is now sometimes also used to mean a small piece of true but valueless or insignificant information, in contrast to the original definition. This has been popularized by the CNN Headline News TV channel, which, during the 1980s and 1990s, used to frequently include such a fact under the heading "factoid" during newscasts. In the United Kingdom, BBC Radio 2 presenter Steve Wright uses factoids extensively on his show. As a result of confusion over the meaning of factoid, some English-language style and usage guides recommend against its use. Language expert William Safire in his On Language column advocated the use of the word factlet to express a "little bit of arcana". William Safire, "On Language; Only the Factoids," New York Times, Sunday, 5 December 1993. See also Talking point Trivia Truthiness Meme Footnotes External links Cyclopedia of Factoids Gullible.info, Compendium of Factoids | Factoid |@lemmatized mount:4 isa:4 australia:2 often:5 incorrectly:2 refer:2 large:7 city:17 world:8 area:4 toronto:8 canada:2 never:2 designate:2 unesco:4 multicultural:3 factoid:11 spurious:1 unverified:1 incorrect:1 fabricate:1 statement:1 form:3 assert:1 fact:10 veracity:1 word:7 appear:2 oxford:1 english:2 dictionary:1 something:2 becomes:1 accept:1 although:2 may:4 true:3 however:1 sometimes:2 mean:3 instead:1 insignificant:2 piece:2 information:2 coin:1 norman:1 mailer:3 biography:1 marilyn:1 monroe:1 describe:2 existence:1 magazine:1 newspaper:1 create:1 combine:1 end:1 oid:1 like:2 washington:2 time:5 new:4 look:1 could:1 wesley:1 pruden:1 editorial:1 give:2 rise:1 arise:1 common:1 misconception:1 urban:1 legend:1 example:1 many:1 resident:1 australian:1 believe:1 term:1 surface:1 second:4 reality:2 several:1 around:1 incorporate:1 local:1 council:2 web:2 site:2 suggest:3 earth:1 page:2 medium:2 report:3 name:1 one:2 diverse:2 see:5 demographic:1 united:2 nation:1 agency:1 nonetheless:1 belief:1 status:2 persist:1 year:1 even:2 find:1 way:2 onto:1 best:1 practice:1 human:3 settlement:1 metro:1 change:7 community:1 york:3 clyde:1 h:1 farnsworth:1 journal:1 battle:1 bigot:1 help:1 south:1 border:1 friday:1 february:1 economist:2 diversity:1 guide:2 retrieve:1 international:1 respect:1 two:1 olympic:1 bid:1 great:2 wall:2 china:2 think:3 man:2 make:2 object:2 visible:1 moon:2 visibility:1 naked:1 eye:1 good:2 circumstance:1 might:1 able:1 discern:1 result:2 activity:1 changing:1 holland:1 coast:1 partial:1 dry:1 aral:1 sea:1 would:1 easy:1 chameleon:1 colour:7 match:2 surroundings:2 camouflage:3 mostly:1 well:1 physical:1 communication:1 octopuses:1 seem:1 also:3 communicate:1 dog:1 cat:1 completely:1 blind:1 scale:1 grey:1 wrong:1 vision:1 dichromate:1 nearly:1 trichromate:1 e:1 red:1 green:1 blue:1 light:1 meaning:2 use:5 small:1 valueless:1 contrast:1 original:1 definition:1 popularize:1 cnn:1 headline:1 news:1 tv:1 channel:1 frequently:1 include:1 heading:1 newscast:1 kingdom:1 bbc:1 radio:1 presenter:1 steve:1 wright:1 extensively:1 show:1 confusion:1 language:4 style:1 usage:1 recommend:1 expert:1 william:2 safire:2 column:1 advocate:1 factlet:1 express:1 little:1 bit:1 arcana:1 sunday:1 december:1 talk:1 point:1 trivia:1 truthiness:1 meme:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 cyclopedia:1 gullible:1 info:1 compendium:1 |@bigram norman_mailer:1 marilyn_monroe:1 naked_eye:1 aral_sea:1 william_safire:2 external_link:1 |
1,443 | Devonian | The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era spanning from . It is named after Devon, England, where rocks from this period were first studied. During the Devonian Period, which occurred in the Paleozoic era, the first fish evolved legs See Tiktaalik. and started to walk on land as tetrapods around 365 Ma. Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established. The first seed-bearing plants spread across dry land, forming huge forests. In the oceans, primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and the late Ordovician, and the first lobe-finned and ray finned (both are types of bony fish) evolved. The first ammonite mollusks appeared, and trilobites, the mollusc-like brachiopods, as well as great coral reefs were still common. The Late Devonian extinction severely affected marine life. The paleogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south, the continent of Siberia to the north, and the early formation of the small supercontinent of Euramerica in between. History The Devonian period marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants. With large herbivorous land-animals not yet being present, large forests could grow and shape the landscape. The period is named after Devon, a county in southwestern England, where Devonian outcrops are common. While the rock beds that define the start and end of the period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy (Ogg, 2004), the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian Period 416.0 ± 2.8 Ma, to the beginning of the Carboniferous Period 359.2 ± 2.5 Ma (in North America, the beginning of the Mississippian subperiod of the Carboniferous) (ICS 2004). In nineteenth-century texts the Devonian has been called the "Old Red Age", after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in the United Kingdom as the Old Red Sandstone in which early fossil discoveries were found. The Devonian has also erroneously been characterized as a "greenhouse age", due to sampling bias: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the strata of western Europe and eastern North America, which at the time straddled the Equator as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where fossil signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical climates that were warm and moderately humid but in fact the climate in the Devonian differed greatly between epochs and geographic regions. For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and South America had a warm temperate climate. In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common. Devonian subdivisions The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle, and Late subdivisions. The rocks corresponding to these epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle, and Upper parts of the Devonian System. The Early Devonian lasts from and begins with the Lockhovian stage, which lasts until the Pragian. This spans from , and is followed by the Emsian, which lasts until the Middle Devonian begins, . The middle Devonian comprises two subdivisions, the Eifelian giving way to the Givetian . During this time the armoured jawless ostracoderm fish were declining in diversity; the jawed fish were thriving and increasing in diversity in both the oceans and freshwater. The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop essential characteristics such as well developed lungs, and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time. Finally, the late Devonian starts with the Frasnian, , during which the first forests were taking shape on land. The first tetrapods appear in the fossil record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the Devonian, . Devonian paleogeography Geography of the Devonian world The Devonian period was a time of great tectonic activity, as Laurasia and Gondwanaland drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn, which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great airmasses, the Hadley cell and the Ferrel cell. In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator, the plate of Euramerica and Gondwana where starting to meet, beginning the early stages of assembling Pangaea. This activity further raised the northern Appalachian Mountains and fored the Caledonian Mountains in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The west coast of Devonian North America, by contrast, was a passive margin with deep silty embayments, river deltas and estuaries, in today's Idaho and Nevada; an approaching volcanic island arc reached the steep slope of the continental shelf in Late Devonian times and began to uplift deep water deposits, a collision that was the prelude to the mountain-building episode of Mississippian times called the Antler orogeny Devonian Paleogeography . Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas, where tropical reef organisms lived. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean, and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica). Devonian rocks are oil and gas producers in some areas. Devonian biota Devonian fishes, from Joseph Smits "from Nebula to Man", 1905, showing early shark, ray-finned fishes, a lungfish and the placoderm Bothriolepis. Phacopid trilobite from the Devonian of Ohio. Scale bar is 5.0 mm. SEM image of a hederelloid from the Devonian of Michigan (largest tube diameter is 0.75 mm). A Devonian spiriferid brachiopod from Ohio which served as a host substrate for a colony of hederelloids. The specimen is 5 cm wide. Marine biota Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by bryozoa, diverse and abundant brachiopods, the enigmatic hederelloids, and corals. Lily-like crinoids were abundant, and trilobites were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods due to the abundance of mobile swimming predators such as early sharks and predatory bony fish (Osteichthyes) such as Dunkleosteus. The ostracoderms were joined in the mid-Devonian by the first jawed fishes and were declining in diversity and were being out competed by the jawed fish in both the sea and fresh water, also the great armored placoderms, as well as the first sharks and ray-finned fish. The first abundant species of shark, the Cladoselache, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian period. They became abundant and diverse. In the late Devonian the lobe-finned fish appeared, giving rise to the first tetrapods. These developments of fish, and the great diversity of fish around at the time, have led to the Devonian being given the name "The Age of Fish" in popular culture. The first Ammonites also appeared during or slightly before the early Devonian period around 400 Ma. Palaeos Paleozoic: Devonian: The Devonian Period - 2 A recently discovered fossil of a fish embryo attached to its mother by an umbilical cord in 380 million year old Devonian strata provides the earliest fossil evidence of vertebrates giving live birth to their young. Oldest Live-Birth Fossil Found; Fish Had Umbilical Cord Reefs A great barrier reef, now left high and dry in the Kimberley Basin of northwest Australia, once extended a thousand kilometers, fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs in general are built by various carbonate-secreting organisms that have the ability to erect wave-resistant frameworks close to sea level. The main contributors of the Devonian reefs were unlike modern reefs, which are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous algae. They were composed of calcareous algae and coral-like stromatoporoids, and tabulate and rugose corals, in that order of importance. Terrestrial biota By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The moss forests and bacterial and algal mats of the Silurian were joined early in the period by primitive rooted plants that created the first stable soils and harbored arthropods like mites, scorpions and myriapods (although arthropods appeared on land much earlier than in the Early Devonian and the existence of fossils such as Climactichnites suggest that land arthropods may have appeared as early as the Cambrian period). Also the first possible fossils of insects appeared around 416 Ma in the Early Devonian. The greening of land Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably spread largely by vegetative growth, and did not grow much more than a few centimeters tall. By Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperms had evolved. Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The earliest known trees, from the genus Wattieza, appeared in the Late Devonian around 380 Ma. Fossil from a forest that gave Earth its breath of fresh air - Times Online In the Late Devonian, the tree-like ancestral fern Archaeopteris and the giant cladoxylopsid trees grew with true wood. (See also: lignin.) These are the oldest known trees of the world's first forests. Prototaxites was the fruiting body of an enormous fungus that stood more than 8 meters tall. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of so many plant groups and growth forms has been called the "Devonian Explosion". The 'greening' of the continents acted as a carbon dioxide sink, and atmospheric levels of this greenhouse gas may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive extinction event. See Late Devonian extinction. Animals and the first soils Primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed-plants that characterizes a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the Late Devonian. The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to changes in the speed and pattern of erosion and sediment deposition. The rapid evolution of a terrestrial ecosystem containing copious animals opened the way for the first vertebrates to seek out a terrestrial living. By the end of the Devonian, early amphibians and arthropods were solidly established on the land. Late Devonian extinction Comparison of the three episodes of extinction in the Late Devonian ("Late D") to other mass extinction events in Earth's history. Data based on marine genera. A major extinction occurred at the beginning of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Famennian faunal stage, (the Frasnian-Famennian boundary), about 364 Ma, when all the fossil agnathan fishes, save for the psammosteid heterostracans, suddenly disappeared. A second strong pulse closed the Devonian period. The Late Devonian extinction was one of five major extinction events in the history of the Earth's biota, more drastic than the familiar extinction event that closed the Cretaceous. The Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms. The most important group to be affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef-systems . Amongst the severely affected marine groups were the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, conodonts, and acritarchs, as well as jawless fish, and all placoderms. Land plants as well as freshwater species, such as our tetrapod ancestors, were relatively unaffected by the Late Devonian extinction event. The reasons for the Late Devonian extinctions are still unknown, and all explanations remain speculative. Canadian paleontologist Digby McLaren suggested in 1969 that the Devonian extinction events were caused by an asteroid impact. However, while there were Late Devonian collision events (see the Alamo bolide impact), little evidence supports the existence of a Devonian crater large enough. Notes References Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. Palaeos See also Geologic timescale Phacops rana: a Devonian trilobite. List of fossil sites (with link directory) External links The Devonian times - an excellent and frequently updated resource focussing on the Devonian period UC Berkeley site introduces the Devonian. Falls of the Ohio State Park USA, Indiana. One of the largest exposed Devonian fossil beds in the world. 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1,444 | MPEG-2 | MPEG-2 is used in Digital Video Broadcast and Digital Versatile Discs. The transport stream, TS, and program stream, PS, are container formats. MPEG-2 is a standard for "the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information". ISO/IEC 13818 MPEG-2 at the ISO Store. It describes a combination of lossy video compression and lossy audio data compression methods which permit storage and transmission of movies using currently available storage media and transmission bandwidth. Main characteristics MPEG-2 is widely used as the format of digital television signals that are broadcast by terrestrial (over-the-air), cable, and direct broadcast satellite TV systems. It also specifies the format of movies and other programs that are distributed on DVD and similar discs. As such, TV stations, TV receivers, DVD players, and other equipment are often designed to this standard. MPEG-2 was the second of several standards developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group (MPEG) and is an international standard (ISO/IEC 13818). Parts 1 and 2 of MPEG-2 were developed in a joint collaborative team with ITU-T, and they have a respective catalog number in the ITU-T Recommendation Series. While MPEG-2 is the core of most digital television and DVD formats, it does not completely specify them. Regional institutions can adapt it to their needs by restricting and augmenting aspects of the standard. See Profiles and Levels. MPEG-2 includes a Systems section, part 1, that defines two distinct, but related, container formats. One is the Transport Stream, designed to carry digital video and audio over possibly lossy media, such as broadcasting, examples of which include ATSC, DVB and SBTVD. MPEG-2 Systems also defines Program Stream, a container format designed for reasonably reliable media such as optical discs, DVDs and SVCDs. MPEG-2/System is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-1 and as ITU-T Rec. H.222.0. ITU-T Rec. H.222.0 The Video section, part 2 of MPEG-2, is similar to the previous MPEG-1 standard, but also provides support for interlaced video, the format used by analog broadcast TV systems. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, especially less than 1 Mbit/s at standard definition resolutions. However, it outperforms MPEG-1 at 3 Mbit/s and above. All standards-compliant MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams. MPEG-2/Video is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-2 and as ITU-T Rec. H.262. ITU-T Rec. H.262 With some enhancements, MPEG-2 Video and Systems are also used in some HDTV transmission systems. The MPEG-2 Audio section, defined in part 3 of the standard, enhances MPEG-1's audio by allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels. This method is backwards-compatible, allowing MPEG-1 audio decoders to decode the two main stereo components of the presentation. Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard specifies a rather different, non-backwards-compatible audio format. Part 7 is referred to as MPEG-2 AAC. AAC is more efficient than the previous MPEG audio standards, and is in some ways less complicated than the its predecessor, MPEG-1 Audio, Layer 3, in that it does not have the hybrid filter bank. Advanced Audio is also defined in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard. History MPEG-2 evolved out of the shortcomings of MPEG-1. MPEG-1's known weaknesses: a less efficient audio compression system lack of flexibility (fewer variations of acceptable packet types) does not support interlaced footage Video coding (simplified) An HDTV camera generates a raw video stream of up to 233,280,000 bytes per second. This stream must be compressed if digital TV is to fit in the bandwidth of available TV channels and if movies are to fit on DVDs. Fortunately, video compression is practical because the data in pictures is often redundant in space and time. For example, the sky can be blue across the top of a picture and that blue sky can persist for frame after frame. Also, because of the way the eye works, it is possible to delete some data from video pictures with almost no noticeable degradation in image quality. TV cameras used in broadcasting usually generate 25 pictures a second (in Europe) or 29.97 pictures a second (in North America). Digital television requires that these pictures be digitized so that they can be processed by computer hardware. Each picture element (a pixel) is then represented by one luma number and two chrominance numbers. These describe the brightness and the color of the pixel (see YCbCr). Thus, each digitized picture is initially represented by three rectangular arrays of numbers. A common (and old) trick to reduce the amount of data is to separate the picture into two fields: the "top field," which is the odd numbered rows, and the "bottom field," which is the even numbered rows. The two fields are displayed alternately. This format is called interlaced video; two successive fields are called a frame. The typical frame rate is then 25 or 29.97 frames per second. If the video is not interlaced, then it is called progressive video and each picture is a frame. MPEG-2 supports both options. Another common practice to reduce the data rate is to "thin out" or subsample the two chrominance planes. In effect, the remaining chrominance values represent the nearby values that are deleted. Thinning works because the eye better resolves brightness details than chrominance details. The 4:2:2 chrominance format indicates that half the chrominance values have been deleted. The 4:2:0 chrominance format indicates that three quarters of the chrominance values have been deleted. If no chrominance values have been deleted, the chrominance format is 4:4:4. MPEG-2 allows all three options. MPEG-2 specifies that the raw frames be compressed into three kinds of frames: intra-coded frames (I-frame), predictive-coded frames (P-frames), and bidirectionally-predictive-coded frames (B-frames). An I-frame is a compressed version of a single uncompressed (raw) frame. It takes advantage of spatial redundancy and of the inability of the eye to detect certain changes in the image. Unlike P-frames and B-frames, I-frames do not depend on data in the preceding or the following frames. Briefly, the raw frame is divided into 8 pixel by 8 pixel blocks. The data in each block is transformed by a discrete cosine transform. The result is an 8 by 8 matrix of coefficients. The transform converts spatial variations into frequency variations, but it does not change the information in the block; the original block can be recreated exactly by applying the inverse cosine transform. The advantage of doing this is that the image can now be simplified by quantizing the coefficients. Many of the coefficients, usually the higher frequency components, will then be zero. The penalty of this step is the loss of some subtle distinctions in brightness and color. If one applies the inverse transform to the matrix after it is quantized, one gets an image that looks very similar to the original image but that is not quite as nuanced. Next, the quantized coefficient matrix is itself compressed. Typically, one corner of the quantized matrix is filled with zeros. By starting in the opposite corner of the matrix, then zigzagging through the matrix to combine the coefficients into a string, then substituting run-length codes for consecutive zeros in that string, and then applying Huffman coding to that result, one reduces the matrix to a smaller array of numbers. It is this array that is broadcast or that is put on DVDs. In the receiver or the player, the whole process is reversed, enabling the receiver to reconstruct, to a close approximation, the original frame. Typically, every 15th frame or so is made into an I-frame. P-frames and B-frames might follow an I-frame like this, IBBPBBPBBPBB(I), to form a Group Of Pictures (GOP); however, the standard is flexible about this. Macroblocks P-frames provide more compression than I-frames because they take advantage of the data in the previous I-frame or P-frame. I-frames and P-frames are called reference frames. To generate a P-frame, the previous reference frame is reconstructed, just as it would be in a TV receiver or DVD player. The frame being compressed is divided into 16 pixel by 16 pixel macroblocks. Then, for each of those macroblocks, the reconstructed reference frame is searched to find that 16 by 16 macroblock that best matches the macroblock being compressed. The offset is encoded as a "motion vector." Frequently, the offset is zero. But, if something in the picture is moving, the offset might be something like 23 pixels to the right and 4 pixels up. The match between the two macroblocks will often not be perfect. To correct for this, the encoder computes the strings of coefficient values as described above for both macroblocks and, then, subtracts one from the other. This "residual" is appended to the motion vector and the result sent to the receiver or stored on the DVD for each macroblock being compressed. Sometimes no suitable match is found. Then, the macroblock is treated like an I-frame macroblock. The processing of B-frames is similar to that of P-frames except that B-frames use the picture in the following reference frame as well as the picture in the preceding reference frame. As a result, B-frames usually provide more compression than P-frames. B-frames are never reference frames. While the above generally describes MPEG-2 video compression, there are many details that are not discussed including details involving fields, chrominance formats, responses to scene changes, special codes that label the parts of the bitstream, and other pieces of information. Audio encoding MPEG-2 also introduces new audio encoding methods. These are low bitrate encoding with halved sampling rate (MPEG-1 Layer 1/2/3 LSF) multichannel encoding with up to 5.1 channels MPEG-2 AAC Video profiles and levels MPEG-2 video supports a wide range of applications from mobile to high quality HD editing. For many applications, it's unrealistic and too expensive to support the entire standard. To allow such applications to support only subsets of it, the standard defines profile and level. The profile defines the subset of features such as compression algorithm, chroma format, etc. The level defines the subset of quantitative capabilities such as maximum bit rate, maximum frame size, etc. A MPEG application then specifies the capabilities in terms of profile and level. For example, a DVD player may say it supports up to main profile and main level (often written as MP@ML). It means the player can play back any MPEG stream encoded as MP@ML or less. The tables below summarizes the limitations of each profile and level. There are many other constraints not listed here. + MPEG-2 Profiles Abbr. Name Picture Coding Types Chroma Format Aspect Ratios Scalable modes SP Simple profile I, P 4:2:0 square pixels, 4:3, or 16:9 none MP Main profile I, P, B 4:2:0 square pixels, 4:3, or 16:9 none SNR SNR Scalable profile I, P, B 4:2:0 square pixels, 4:3, or 16:9 SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) scalable Spatial Spatially Scalable profile I, P, B 4:2:0 square pixels, 4:3, or 16:9 SNR- or spatial-scalable HP High profile I, P, B 4:2:2 or 4:2:0 square pixels, 4:3, or 16:9 SNR- or spatial-scalable Exempting scalability (a rarely used feature where one MPEG-2 stream augments another), the following are some of the constraints on levels: + MPEG-2 Levels Abbr. Name Frame rates (Hz) Max horizontal resolution Max vertical resolution Max luminance samples per second (approximately height x width x framerate) Max bit rate in Main profile (Mbit/s) LL Low Level 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30 352 288 3,041,280 4 ML Main Level 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30 720 576 10,368,000, except in High profile, where constraint is 14,475,600 for 4:2:0 and 11,059,200 for 4:2:2 15 H-14 High 1440 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 50, 59.94, 60 1440 1152 47,001,600, except that in High profile with 4:2:0, constraint is 62,668,800 60 HL High Level 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 50, 59.94, 60 1920 1152 62,668,800, except that in High profile with 4:2:0, constraint is 83,558,400 80 Applications DVD The DVD standard uses MPEG-2 video, but imposes some restrictions: Allowed Resolutions 720 × 480, 704 × 480, 352 × 480, 352 × 240 pixel (NTSC) 720 × 576, 704 × 576, 352 × 576, 352 × 288 pixel (PAL) Allowed Aspect ratios (Display AR) 4:3 16:9 (1.85:1 and 2.35:1, among others, are often listed as valid DVD aspect ratios, but are actually just a 16:9 image with the top and bottom of the frame masked in black) Allowed Frame rates 29.97 frame/s (NTSC) 25 frame/s (PAL) Note: By using a pattern of REPEAT_FIRST_FIELD flags on the headers of encoded pictures, pictures can be displayed for either two or three fields and almost any picture display rate (minimum ⅔ of the frame rate) can be achieved. This is most often used to display 23.976 (approximately film rate) video on NTSC. Audio+video bitrate Video peak 9.8 Mbit/s Total peak 10.08 Mbit/s Minimum 300 kbit/s YUV 4:2:0 Additional subtitles possible Closed captioning (NTSC only) Audio Linear Pulse Code Modulation (LPCM): 48 kHz or 96 kHz; 16- or 24-bit; up to six channels (not all combinations possible due to bitrate constraints) MPEG Layer 2 (MP2): 48 kHz, up to 5.1 channels (required in PAL players only) Dolby Digital (DD, also known as AC-3): 48 kHz, 32–448 kbit/s, up to 5.1 channels Digital Theater Systems (DTS): 754 kbit/s or 1510 kbit/s (not required for DVD player compliance) NTSC DVDs must contain at least one LPCM or Dolby Digital audio track. PAL DVDs must contain at least one MPEG Layer 2, LPCM, or Dolby Digital audio track. Players are not required to play back audio with more than two channels, but must be able to downmix multichannel audio to two channels. GOP structure (Group Of Pictures) Sequence header must be present at the beginning of every GOP Maximum frames per GOP: 18 (NTSC) / 15 (PAL), i.e. 0.6 seconds both Closed GOP required for multi-angle DVDs DVB Application-specific restrictions on MPEG-2 video in the DVB standard: Allowed resolutions for SDTV: 720, 640, 544, 480 or 352 × 480 pixel, 24/1.001, 24, 30/1.001 or 30 frame/s 352 × 240 pixel, 24/1.001, 24, 30/1.001 or 30 frame/s 720, 704, 544, 480 or 352 × 576 pixel, 25 frame/s 352 × 288 pixel, 25 frame/s For HDTV: 720 x 576 x 50 frame/s progressive (576p50) 1280 x 720 x 25 or 50 frame/s progressive (720p50) 1440 or 1920 x 1080 x 25 frame/s progressive (1080p25 – film mode) 1440 or 1920 x 1080 x 25 frame/s interlace (1080i25) 1920 x 1080 x 50 frame/s progressive (1080p50) possible future H.264/AVC format ATSC and ISDB-T The ATSC A/53 standard, used in the United States, uses MPEG-2 video at the Main Profile @ High Level, with additional restrictions: The maximum bitrate of the MPEG-2 video stream is exactly 19.4 Mbit/s for broadcast television, and exactly 38.8 Mbit/s for the "high-data-rate" mode (e.g., cable television). (The practical limit is somewhat lower, since the MPEG-2 video stream must fit inside a transport stream, with overhead, sent out at 19.3927... Mbit/s for broadcast.) The amount of MPEG-2 stream buffer required at the decoder (the vbv_buffer_size_value) must be less than or equal to 999,424 bytes. In most cases, the transmitter can't start sending a coded image until within a half-second of when it's to be decoded (vbv_delay less than or equal to 45000 90-kHz clock increments). The stream must include colorimetry information (gamma curve, the precise RGB colors used, and the relationship between RGB and the coded YCbCr). The video must be 4:2:0 (chrominance resolution must be 1/2 of luma horizontal resolution and 1/2 of luma vertical resolution). Allowed video resolutions, aspect ratios, and frame/field rates: 1920 × 1080 pixel (16:9, with square pixels), at 30p, 29.97p, 24p, 23.98p, 30i, or 29.97i 1280 × 720 pixel (16:9, with square pixels), at 60p, 59.94p, 30p, 29.97p, 24p, or 23.98p 704 × 480 pixel (either 4:3 or 16:9 – either way, with non-square pixels), at 60p, 59.94p, 30p, 29.97p, 24p, 23.98p, 30i, or 29.97i 640 × 480 pixel (4:3, with square pixels), at 60p, 59.94p, 30p, 29.97p, 24p, 23.98p, 30i, or 29.97i Note that although the ATSC A/53 standard limits transmission to these 18 formats (and their 1000/1001-rate slowed-down versions), the U.S. Federal Communications Commission declined to mandate that television stations obey this part of the ATSC's standard. In theory, television stations in the U.S. are free to choose any resolution, aspect ratio, and frame/field rate, within the limits of Main Profile @ High Level. Many stations do go outside the bounds of the ATSC specification by using other resolutions – for example, 720 × 480. Also note that the ATSC specification and MPEG-2 allow the use of progressive frames, even within an interlaced video sequence. For example, NBC stations transmit a 1080i30 video sequence – meaning the formal output of the MPEG-2 decoding process is sixty 540-line fields per second. But for prime-time television shows, those 60 fields can be coded with 24 progressive frames. Some NBC stations do this, meaning they actually transmit an 1080p24 video stream (a sequence of 24 progressive frames per second) with metadata instructing the decoder to interlace them (and repeat them in 3:2 pulldown) before display. Thus, it would be incorrect to say that the ATSC standard doesn't contain 1080p video, or that broadcast HDTV doesn't use 1080p video. The ATSC specification allows 1080p30 and 1080p24 sequences – just not 1080p60 sequences. They aren't used in practice, because broadcasters want to be able to switch between 60 Hz (news, soap operas) and 24 Hz (prime-time) content without ending the MPEG-2 sequence. However, the ATSC specification also allows broadcasters to transmit progressive frames within an interlaced sequence, and some broadcasters actually do this in practice. Their transmissions could fairly be described as 1080p24, since they contain 24 progressively-coded frames per second. (This is the same mechanism used by HD-DVD to code 1080p24 content – progressive frames within an interlaced sequence.) Note: The 1080-line formats are encoded with 1920 × 1088 pixel luma matrices and 960 × 540 chroma matrices, but the last 8 lines are discarded by the MPEG-2 decoding and display process. MPEG-2 audio was a contender for the ATSC standard during the DTV "Grand Alliance" shootout, but lost out to Dolby AC-3. The Grand Alliance issued a statement finding the MP2 system to be "essentially equivalent" to Dolby, but only after the Dolby selection had been made. Later, a story emerged that MIT had entered into an agreement with Dolby whereupon the university would be awarded a large sum if the MP2 system was rejected. Dolby also offered an incentive for Zenith to switch their vote (which they did), however it is unknown whether they accepted the offer. MIT Getting Millions For Digital TV Deal, Keith J. Winsteln, The Tech (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), November 8, 2002 Note: All the text about MPEG-2 in ATSC is also valid for ISDB-T, except that in the main TS is aggregated a second program for mobile devices compressed in MPEG-4 H.264 AVC for video and AAC-LC for audio, mainly known as 1Seg. ISO/IEC 13818 Part 1 Systems – describes synchronization and multiplexing of video and audio. Also known as ITU-T Rec. H.222.0. See MPEG transport stream. Part 2 Video – compression codec for interlaced and non-interlaced video signals. Also known as ITU-T Rec. H.262. Part 3 Audio – compression codec for perceptual coding of audio signals. A multichannel-enabled extension of MPEG-1 audio. Part 4 Describes procedures for testing compliance. Part 5 Describes systems for Software simulation. Part 6 Describes extensions for DSM-CC (Digital Storage Media Command and Control). Part 7 Advanced Audio Coding (AAC). Part 9 Extension for real time interfaces. Part 10 Conformance extensions for DSM-CC. Part 11 Intellectual property management (IPMP) (Part 8: 10-bit video extension. Primary application was studio video. Part 8 has been withdrawn due to lack of interest by industry.) Patent holders Approximately 640 patents worldwide make up the "essential" patents surrounding MPEG-2. Mpeg La audioMPEG.com - - - US Patents These are held by over 20 corporations and one university. Where software patentability is upheld, the use of MPEG-2 requires the payment of licensing fees to the patent holders. The patent pool is managed and administered by MPEG Licensing Authority, a private organization. Other patents are licensed by Audio MPEG, Inc. audioMPEG.com - - - patent management and licensing company specializing in the licensing of audio technology The development of the standard itself took less time than the patent negotiations. Richard M Stallman, Patents - Barriers to development Theora Video and Vorbis Audio MPEG-LA Patents Alcatel-Lucent US 4,833,543—Image processing system and phaselocked loop used therein (Expired) -- Filed: December 24, 1986 Granted: May 23, 1989 US 4,970,590—System and device for package multiplexing in transmission of many data flows generated by a sole algorithm—Filed: December 21, 1989 Granted: November 13, 1990 US 5,453,790—Video decoder having asynchronous operation with respect to a video display—Filed: March 26, 1993 Granted: September 26, 1995 British Telecommunications plc US 5,291,284—Predictive coding and decoding with error drift reduction—Filed: July 23, 1991 Granted: March 1, 1994 Canon Inc. US 4,982,270—Video data transmitting system—Filed: February 3, 1989 Granted: January 1, 1991 CIF LICENSING, LLC US 5,068,724—Adaptive motion compensation for digital television—Filed: June 15, 1990 Granted: November 26, 1991 US 5,091,782—Apparatus and method for adaptively compressing successive blocks of digital video—Filed: April 9, 1990 Granted: February 25, 1992 US 5,093,720—Motion compensation for interlaced digital television signals—Filed: August 20, 1990 Granted: March 3, 1992 Columbia University US Re 35,093—Systems and methods for coding even fields of interlaced video sequences—Filed: December 9, 1994 Granted: November 21, 1995 Reissue of 05193004 Filed: December, 1990 Granted: March, 1993 France Telecom (CNET) US 4,796,087 Expired Fujitsu US 5,235,618—Video signal coding apparatus, coding method used in the video signal coding apparatus and video signal coding transmission system having the video signal coding apparatus—Filed: November 6, 1990 Granted: August 10, 1993 General Electric Capital Corporation US 4,706,260 Expired US 4,813,056 Expired General Instrument Corp. (now the broadband division of Motorola) US 4,394,774 Expired US 4,698,672 Expired GE Technology Development, Inc. US 5,426,464—Field elimination apparatus for a video compression/decompression system—Filed: October 18, 1994 Granted: June 20, 1995 US 5,486,864—Differential time code method and apparatus as for a compressed video signal—Filed: May 13, 1993 Granted: January 23, 1996 US 5,491,516—Field elimination apparatus for a video compression/decompression system—Filed: January 14, 1993 Granted: February 13, 1996 US 5,600,376—Field elimination apparatus for a video compression/decompression system—Filed: March 20, 1995 Granted: February 4, 1997 US 5,796,743—Data word indicator in a system for assembling transport data packets—Filed: November 30, 1993 Granted: August 18, 1998 Hitachi, Ltd. KDDI Corporation (KDDI) LG Electronics Inc. US Re 37,057—Apparatus and method for converting an HDTV signal to a non-HDTV signal—Filed: May 18, 1998 Granted: February 20, 2001 Reissue of 05519446 Filed: November, 1994 Granted: May., 1996 US Re 37,568—Inverse Quantizer—Filed: March 31, 1999 Granted: March 5, 2002 Reissue of 05617094 Filed: November, 1993 Granted: April, 1997 Matsushita / Panasonic US Re 35,910—Moving image signal encoding apparatus and decoding apparatus—Filed: May 12, 1994 Granted: September 29, 1998 Reissue of 05113255 Filed: May., 1990 Granted: May., 1992 US Re 36,015—Apparatus and method for processing groups of fields in a video data compression system—Filed: October 2, 1995 Granted: December 29, 1998 Reissue of 05293229 Filed: March, 1992 Granted: March, 1994 US Re 36,507—Apparatus and method for processing groups of fields in a video data compression system to encode a single frame as an I-field and a P-field—Filed: October 21, 1997 Granted: January 18, 2000 Reissue of 05293229 Filed: March, 1992 Granted: March, 1994 US Re 39,276—Method for determining motion compensation—Filed: April 27, 2000 Granted: September 12, 2006 Reissue of 05745182 Filed: July, 1994 Granted: April, 1998 US Re 39,278—Method for determining motion compensation—Filed: April 13, 2001 Granted: September 12, 2006 Reissue of 05745182 Filed: July, 1994 Granted: April, 1998 US Re 39,280—Method for determining motion compensation—Filed: May 30, 2001 Granted: September 12, 2006 Reissue of 05745182 Filed: July, 1994 Granted: April, 1998 US 5,223,949—Coding means for a signal processing system—Filed: April 17, 1992 Granted: June 29, 1993 US 5,412,430—Image coding method and image coding apparatus—Filed: May 4, 1994 Granted: May 2, 1995 US 5,784,107—Method and apparatus for picture coding and method and apparatus for picture decoding—Filed: January 23, 1996 Granted: July 21, 1998 Mitsubishi US 4,954,892—Buffer controlled picture signal encoding and decoding system—Filed: October 4, 1989 Granted: September 4, 1990 US 5,072,295—Adaptive quantization coder/decoder with limiter circuitry—Filed: August 20, 1990 Granted: December 10, 1991 US 5,268,846—Method and apparatus for nonsequential multimedia data interchange in a data processing system—Filed: April 10, 1991 Granted: December 7, 1993 US 5,949,489—Image signal coding system—Filed: July 31, 1998 Granted: September 7, 1999 US 5,963,258—Image signal coding system—Filed: July 31, 1998 Granted: October 5, 1999 US 5,970,175—Image signal coding system—Filed: October 26, 1998 Granted: October 19, 1999 US 5,990,960—Image signal coding system—Filed: December 9, 1998 Granted: November 23, 1999 US 6,002,439—Image signal coding system—Filed: May 27, 1999 Granted: December 14, 1999 US 6,097,759—Image signal coding system—Filed: November 22, 1999 Granted: August 1, 2000 US 6,188,794—Image signal coding system—Filed: May 20, 1999 Granted: February 13, 2001 US 6,307,973—Image signal coding system—Filed: December 4, 2000 Granted: October 23, 2001 Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (NTT) NXP Philips US 4,849,812 Expired US 4,901,075 Expired US 5,021,879—System for transmitting video pictures—Filed: September 24, 1990 Granted: June 4, 1991 US 5,027,206—High-definition television systems—Filed: September 13, 1989 Granted: June 25, 1991 US 5,128,758—Method and apparatus for digitally processing a high definition television augmentation signal—Filed: June 2, 1989 Granted: July 7, 1992 US 5,179,442—Method and apparatus for digitally processing a high definition television augmentation signal—Filed: November 26, 1990 Granted: January 12, 1993 US 5,333,135—Identification of a data stream transmitted as a sequence of packets—Filed: February 1, 1993 Granted: July 26, 1994 US 5,606,539—Method and apparatus for encoding and decoding an audio and/or video signal, and a record carrier for use with such apparatus—Filed: August 31, 1994 Granted: February 25, 1997 US 5,608,697—Record carrier containing an audio and/or video signal which has been encoded and includes a decoder delay time parameter indicating a time delay for one or more portions of the signal—Filed: March 18, 1996 Granted: March 4, 1997 US 5,740,310—Method of maintaining display continuity from a CD with slow-motion or freeze capability—Filed: June 28, 1994 Granted: April 14, 1998 US 5,844,867—Methods and apparatus for encoding and decoding an audio and/or video signal, and a record carrier used therewith or produced therefrom—Filed: September 9, 1996 Granted: December 1, 1998 Robert Bosch GmbH Samsung US 5,461,421—Encoding and decoding method and apparatus thereof—Filed: November 29, 1993 Granted: October 24, 1995 US 5,467,086—Apparatus and method of coding/decoding video data—Filed: June 18, 1993 Granted: November 14, 1995 US 5,654,706—System for variable length decoding digital transmission data which has been compressed by selecting a scanning pattern—Filed: December 18, 1996 Granted: August 5, 1997 US 6,680,975—Signal encoding and decoding system and method—Filed: November 2, 2000 Granted: January 20, 2004 US 7,292,657—Signal compressing signal—Filed: July 3, 2003 Granted: November 6, 2007 Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. Scientific Atlanta US 5,418,782—Methods and apparatus for providing virtual service selection in a multi-service communications system—Filed: January 6, 1994 Granted: May 23, 1995 US 5,420,866—Methods for providing conditional access information to decoders in a packet-based multiplexed communications system—Filed: March 29, 1994 Granted: May 30, 1995 US 5,457,701—Method for indicating packet errors in a packet-based multi-hop communications system—Filed: January 6, 1994 Granted: October 10, 1995 Sharp Sony US 4,864,393—Motion vector estimation in television images—Filed: May 31, 1988 Granted: September 5, 1989 Expired US Re 37,222—Video signal transmitting system—Filed: July 19, 1994 Granted: June 12, 2001 Reissue of 05132792 Filed: October, 1990 Granted: July, 1992 US 5,191,436—Method for recording coded motion picture data—Filed: April 30, 1991 Granted: March 2, 1993 US 5,291,486—Data multiplexing apparatus and multiplexed data demultiplexing apparatus—Filed: August 7, 1992 Granted: March 1, 1994 US 5,298,991—Variable length coding apparatus and method for motion vector—Filed: July 24, 1992 Granted: March 29, 1994 US 5,343,248—Moving image compressing and recording medium and moving image data encoder and decoder—Filed: July 16, 1992 Granted: August 30, 1994 US 5,428,396—Variable length coding/decoding method for motion vectors—Filed: December 27, 1993 Granted: June 27, 1995 US 5,461,420—Apparatus for coding and decoding a digital video signal derived from a motion picture film source—Filed: September 17, 1993 Granted: October 24, 1995 US 5,481,553—Methods and apparatus for preventing rounding errors when transform coefficients representing a motion picture signal are inversely transformed—Filed: February 28, 1994 Granted: January 2, 1996 US 5,510,840—Methods and devices for encoding and decoding frame signals and recording medium therefor—Filed: May 15, 1995 Granted: April 23, 1996 US 5,539,466—Efficient coding apparatus for picture signal and decoding apparatus therefor—Filed: September 26, 1994 Granted: July 23, 1996 US 5,543,847—Picture coding and decoding method for random accessing—Filed: December 13, 1993 Granted: August 6, 1996 US 5,559,557—Motion video coding with adaptive precision for DC component coefficient quantization and variable length coding—Filed: September 28, 1993 Granted: September 24, 1996 US 5,663,763—Picture signal encoding method and apparatus and picture signal decoding method and apparatus—Filed: October 18, 1993 Granted: September 2, 1997 US 5,666,461—High efficiency encoding and decoding of picture signals and recording medium containing same—Filed: May 30, 1995 Granted: September 9, 1997 US 5,701,164—Macroblock coding including difference between motion vectors—Filed: December 19, 1996 Granted: December 23, 1997 US 5,946,042—Macroblock coding including difference between motion vectors—Filed: July 2, 1997 Granted: August 31, 1999 US 5,982,437—Coding method and system, and decoding method and system—Filed: October 15, 1993 Granted: November 9, 1999 US 6,040,863—Method of coding and decoding motion vector and apparatus therefor, and method of coding and decoding picture signal and apparatus therefor—Filed: December 18, 1998 Granted: March 21, 2000 US 6,160,849—Selectable field and frame based predictive video coding—Filed: May 30, 1995 Granted: December 12, 2000 Thomson Licensing S.A. US 4,800,432 Expired US 4,969,055 Expired US 5,289,276—Method and apparatus for conveying compressed video data over a noisy communication channel—Filed: June 19, 1992 Granted: February 22, 1994 US 5,365,272—Method for formatting compressed video data into transport cells—Filed: July 2, 1993 Granted: November 15, 1994 US 5,381,181—Clock recovery apparatus as for a compressed video signal—Filed: May 13, 1993 Granted: January 10, 1995 US 5,422,676—System for coding an image representative signal—Filed: October 22, 1993 Granted: June 6, 1995 US 5,442,400—Error concealment apparatus for MPEG-like video data—Filed: April 29, 1993 Granted: August 15, 1995 US 5,459,789—Packet TV program component detector—Filed: April 22, 1994 Granted: October 17, 1995 US 5,483,287—Method for forming transport cells for conveying compressed video data—Filed: August 3, 1994 Granted: January 9, 1996 US 5,565,923—Apparatus for formatting a digital signal to include multiple time stamps for system synchronization—Filed: August 22, 1995 Granted: October 15, 1996 US 5,784,110—Data processor for assembling transport data packets—Filed: May 23, 1996 Granted: July 21, 1998 US 7,020,204—Adaptive method of encoding and decoding a series of pictures by transformation, and devices for implementing this method—Filed: February 8, 2002 Granted: March 28, 2006 Toshiba US 5,317,397—Predictive coding using spatial-temporal filtering and plural motion vectors—Filed: May 29, 1992 Granted: May 31, 1994 US 5,424,779—Video coding apparatus—Filed: November 24, 1993 Granted: June 13, 1995 US 5,467,136—Video decoder for determining a motion vector from a scaled vector and a difference vector—Filed: February 17, 1994 Granted: November 14, 1995 US 5,742,344—Motion compensated video decoding method and system for decoding a coded video signal using spatial and temporal filtering—Filed: April 3, 1996 Granted: April 21, 1998 US 5,986,713—Video coding apparatus using inter-field prediction—Filed: June 11, 1998 Granted: November 16, 1999 Victor Company of Japan, Limited (JVC). US Re 34,965—Inter-frame predictive encoding system with encoded and transmitted prediction error—Filed: January 14, 1993 Granted: June 13, 1995 Reissue of 04985768 Filed: January, 1990 Granted: January, 1991 US Re 35,158—Apparatus for adaptive inter-frame predictive encoding of video signal—Filed: December 28, 1992 Granted: February 20, 1996 Reissue of 04982285 Filed: April, 1990 Granted: January, 1991 US Re 36,822—Moving image signal coding apparatus and coded signal decoding apparatus—Filed: October 2, 1998 Granted: August 15, 2000 Reissue of 05748784 Filed: January, 1996 Granted: May., 1998 US 5,103,307—Interframe predictive coding/decoding system for varying interval between independent frames—Filed: January 18, 1991 Granted: April 7, 1992 US 5,175,618—Compression method for interlace moving image signals—Filed: October 30, 1991 Granted: December 29, 1992 Non-MPEG-LA Patents Alcatel-Lucent US 5,341,457—Perceptual coding of audio signals—Filed: August 20, 1993 Granted: August 23, 1994 US RE39,080—Rate loop processor for perceptual encoder/decoder—Filed: August 13, 2002 Granted: April 25, 2006 Reissue of 05627938 Filed: September, 1994 Granted: May., 1997 Audio MPEG, Inc US 4,972,484—Method of transmitting or storing masked sub-band coded audio signals—Filed: July 21, 1988 Granted: November 20, 1990 US 5,214,678—Digital transmission system using subband coding of a digital signal—Filed: May 31, 1990 Granted: May 25, 1993 US 5,323,396—Digital transmission system, transmitter and receiver for use in the transmission system—Filed: December 21, 1992 Granted: June 21, 1994 US 5,539,829—Subband coded digital transmission system using some composite signals—Filed: June 7, 1995 Granted: July 23, 1996 US 5,606,618—Subband coded digital transmission system using some composite signals—Filed: December 27, 1993 Granted: February 25, 1997 US 5,530,655—Digital sub-band transmission system with transmission of an additional signal—Filed: June 6, 1995 Granted: June 25, 1996 US 5,777,992—Decoder for decoding and encoded digital signal and a receiver comprising the decoder—Filed: June 7, 1995 Granted: July 7, 1998 US 6,289,308—Encoded wideband digital transmission signal and record carrier recorded with such a signal—Filed: March 8, 2000 Granted: September 11, 2001 US 5,481,643—Transmitter, receiver and record carrier for transmitting/receiving at least a first and a second signal component—Filed: April 24, 1995 Granted: January 2, 1996 US 5,544,247—Transmission and reception of a first and a second main signal component—Filed: October 25, 1994 Granted: August 6, 1996 US 5,610,985—Digital 3-channel transmission of left and right stereo signals and a center signal—Filed: January 21, 1994 Granted: March 11, 1997 US 5,740,317—Process for finding the overall monitoring threshold during a bit-rate-reducing source coding—Filed: August 30, 1995 Granted: April 14, 1998 US 5,878,080—N-channel transmission, compatible with 2-channel transmission and 1-channel transmission—Filed: February 7, 1997 Granted: March 2, 1999 US 5,960,037—Encoding of a plurality of information signals—Filed: April 9, 1997 Granted: September 28, 1999 US 5,991,715—Perceptual audio signal subband coding using value classes for successive scale factor differences—Filed: August 31, 1995 Granted: November 23, 1999 US 6,023,490—Encoding apparatus for encoding a plurality of information signals—Filed: April 9, 1997 Granted: February 8, 2000 Thomson US 4,821,260 Expired US 4,942,607 Expired US 5,214,742—Method for transmitting a signal—Filed: October 1, 1990 Granted: May 25, 1993 US 5,227,990—Process for transmitting and receiving a signal—Filed: January 17, 1992 Granted: July 13, 1993 US 5,384,811—Method for the transmission of a signal—Filed: August 24, 1992 Granted: January 24, 1995 US 5,736,943—Method for determining the type of coding to be selected for coding at least two signals—Filed: May 31, 1996 Granted: April 7, 1998 US 5,455,833—Process for the detecting of errors in the transmission of frequency-coded digital signals—Filed: April 26, 1993 Granted: October 3, 1995 US 5,559,834—Method of reducing crosstalk in processing of acoustic or optical signals—Filed: April 15, 1994 Granted: September 24, 1996 US 5,321,729—Method for transmitting a signal—Filed: April 26, 1993 Granted: June 14, 1994 US 5,706,309—Process for transmitting and/or storing digital signals of multiple channels—Filed: May 2, 1995 Granted: January 6, 1998 US 5,701,346—Method of coding a plurality of audio signals—Filed: September 12, 1996 Granted: December 23, 1997 US 5,742,735—Digital adaptive transformation coding method—Filed: August 25, 1994 Granted: April 21, 1998 US 5,812,672—Method for reducing data in the transmission and/or storage of digital signals of several dependent channels—Filed: December 15, 1994 Granted: September 22, 1998 US 5,579,430—Digital encoding process—Filed: January 26, 1995 Granted: November 26, 1996 US 6,185,539—Process of low sampling rate digital encoding of audio signals—Filed: May 26, 1998 Granted: February 6, 2001 US 6,009,399—Method and apparatus for encoding digital signals employing bit allocation using combinations of different threshold models to achieve desired bit rates—Filed: April 16, 1997 Granted: December 28, 1999 US 5,924,060—Digital coding process for transmission or storage of acoustical signals by transforming of scanning values into spectral coefficients—Filed: March 20, 1997 Granted: July 13, 1999 US 5,703,999—Process for reducing data in the transmission and/or storage of digital signals from several interdependent channels—Filed: November 18, 1996 Granted: December 30, 1997 According to the MPEG-LA Licensing Agreement MPEG-LA, any use of MPEG-2 technology is subject to royalties. Encoders are subject to a royalty of $2.50 per unit. Decoders are subject to a royalty of $2.50 per unit. MPEG-2 PATENT PORTFOLIO LICENSE Royalty-based sales of encoders and decoders are subject to different rules and $2.50 per unit. Also, any packaged medium (DVDs/Data Streams) is subject to licence fees according to length of recording/broadcast. In the case of free software such as VLC media player (which uses the ffmpeg library) and in which the software is not sold, the end-user bears the royalty. See also MPEG encoding MPEG transport stream MPEG-1 Audio Layer II MPEG-4 MP2, MP3 AAC DVD Theora References External links A Beginners Guide for MPEG-2 Standard MPEG-2 Overview (figures are lost) MPEG-2 video compression MIT 6.344 – Slides from lectures on video compression at MIT. A Discrete Cosine Transform tutorial IPTV MPEG and Quality of Experience Testing OpenIPMP: Open Source DRM Project for MPEG-2 ISO/IEC 13818 – MPEG-2 at the ISO Store. MPEG Books - A list of MPEG reference books. 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1,445 | Humphry_Davy | Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet FRS MRIA (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and inventor. He is probably best remembered today for his discoveries of several alkali and alkaline earth metals, as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. He invented the Davy lamp, which allowed miners to enter gassy workings. Berzelius called Davy's 1806 Bakerian Lecture On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity "one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry." Berzelius, J. J. (1818). Traite de chimie, trans. Jourdian and Esslinger, vol. 1, pg. 164. 1st Swedish ed. (Larbok i kemien), Stockholm, this ed., 8 vol., Paris (1829-33). This paper was central to any chemical affinity theory in the first half of the nineteenth century. Biography Davy was born at Penzance in Cornwall on 17 December 1778. The parish register of Madron (the parish church) records ‘Humphry Davy, son of Robert Davy, baptized at Penzance, January 22nd, 1779.’ Robert Davy was a wood-carver at Penzance, who pursued his art rather for amusement than profit. As the representative of an old family (monuments to his ancestors in Ludgvan Church date as far back as 1635), he became possessor of a modest patrimony. His wife, Grace Millett, came of an old but no longer wealthy family. Her parents died within a few hours of each other from malignant fever, when Grace and her two sisters were adopted by John Tonkin, an eminent surgeon in Penzance. Robert Davy and his wife became the parents of five children—two boys, Humphry, the eldest, and John, and three girls. In Davy's childhood the family moved from Penzance to Varfell, their family estate in Ludgvan. Davy's boyhood was spent partly with his parents and partly with Tonkin, who placed him at a preparatory school kept by a Mr. Bushell, who was so much struck with the boy's progress that he persuaded the father to send him to a better school. Davy was at an early age placed at the Penzance grammar school, then under the care of the Rev. J. C. Coryton. Numerous anecdotes show that Davy was a precocious boy, possessing a remarkable memory and being singularly rapid in acquiring knowledge of books. He was especially attracted by the ‘Pilgrim's Progress,’ and he delighted in reading history. When but eight years of age he would collect a number of boys, and standing on a cart in the market-place address them on the subject of his latest reading. He delighted in the folklore of this remote district, and became, as he himself tells us, a ‘tale-teller.’ The ‘applause of my companions,’ he says, ‘was my recompense for punishments incurred for being idle.’ These conditions developed a love of poetry and the composition of verses and ballads. At the same time Davy acquired a taste for experimental science. This was mainly due to a member of the Society of Friends named Robert Dunkin, a saddler and a man of original mind and of the most varied acquirements. Dunkin constructed for himself an electrical machine, voltaic piles, and Leyden jars, and made models illustrative of the principles of mechanics. By the aid of these appliances he instructed Davy in the rudiments of science. As professor at the Royal Institution, Davy repeated many of the ingenious experiments which he had learned from his Quaker instructor. From the Penzance school Davy went in 1793 to Truro, and finished his education under the Rev. Dr. Cardew, who, in a letter to Davies Gilbert, says: ‘I could not discern the faculties by which he was afterwards so much distinguished.’ Davy says himself: ‘I consider it fortunate I was left much to myself as a child, and put upon no particular plan of study. … What I am I made myself.’ Davy, Sir Humphry (1778–1829), natural philosopher, by Robert Hunt, Dictionary of National Biography, Published 1888 Apprentice and poet After the death of Davy's father in 1794, Tonkin apprenticed the boy to John Bingham Borlase, a surgeon in large practice at Penzance. Davy's indenture is dated 10 February 1795. In the apothecary's dispensary Davy became a chemist, and a garret in Tonkin's house was the scene of his earliest chemical operations. Davy's friends would often say: ‘This boy Humphry is incorrigible. He will blow us all into the air,’ and his eldest sister complained of the ravages made on her dresses by corrosive substances. Much has been said of Davy as a poet, and John Ayrton Paris somewhat hastily says that his verses ‘bear the stamp of lofty genius.’ Davy's first production preserved bears the date of 1795. It is entitled ‘The Sons of Genius,’ and is marked by the usual immaturity of youth. The poems, produced in the following years, especially those ‘On the Mount's Bay’ and ‘St. Michael's Mount,’ are pleasingly descriptive verses, showing sensibility, but no true poetic imagination. Davy soon abandoned poetry for science. While writing verses at the age of seventeen in honour of his first love, he was eagerly discussing with his Quaker friend the question of the materiality of heat. Dunkin once remarked: ‘I tell thee what, Humphry, thou art the most quibbling hand at a dispute I ever met with in my life.’ One winter day he took Dunkin to Larigan river, The Larigan, or Laregan, river is a stream in Penzance. to show him that the rubbing of two plates of ice together developed sufficient energy by motion to melt them, and that the motion being suspended the pieces were united by regelation. This was, in a rude form, an elementary version of an analogous experiment later exhibited by Davy in the lecture-room of the Royal Institution, which excited considerable attention. Early scientific leanings Davies Giddy, afterwards Davies Gilbert, accidentally saw Davy in Penzance, carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr. Borlase's house. Gilbert was interested by the lad's talk, offered him the use of his library, and invited him to his house at Tredrea. This led to an introduction to Dr. Edwards, who then resided at Hayle Copper House, and was also chemical lecturer in the school of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Dr. Edwards permitted Davy to use the apparatus in his laboratory, and appears to have directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of Hayle, which were rapidly decaying from the contact of copper and iron under the influence of seawater. This galvanic action was not then understood, but the phenomenon prepared the mind of Davy for his experiments on the copper sheathing of ships in later days. Gregory Watt, the son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his health's sake, and lodging at Mrs. Davy's house became a friend of her son and gave him instructions in chemistry. Davy also formed a useful acquaintance with the Wedgwoods, who spent a winter at Penzance. Thomas Beddoes and Professor Hailstone were engaged in a geological controversy upon the rival merits of the Plutonian and the Neptunist hypotheses. They travelled together to examine the Cornish coast accompanied by Davies Gilbert, and thus made Davy's acquaintance. Beddoes, who had recently established at Bristol a ‘Pneumatic Institution,’ required an assistant to superintend the laboratory. Gilbert recommended Davy for the post, and Gregory Watt placed (in April 1798) in the hands of Beddoes the ‘Young man's Researches on Heat and Light,’ which were subsequently published by him in the first volume of ‘West-Country Contributions.’ Prolonged negotiations were carried on, mainly by Gilbert. Mrs. Davy and Borlase consented to Davy's departure, but Tonkin desired to fix him in his native town as a surgeon, and actually altered his will when he found that Davy insisted on going to Dr. Beddoes. The Pneumatic Institution On 2 October 1798 Davy joined the ‘Pneumatic Institution’ at Bristol. This institution was established for the purpose of investigating the medical powers of factitious airs and gases, and to Davy was committed the superintendence of the various experiments. The arrangement concluded between Dr. Beddoes and Davy was a liberal one, and enabled Davy to give up all claims upon his paternal property in favour of his mother. He did not intend to abandon the profession of medicine, being still determined to study and graduate at Edinburgh. Davy threw himself energetically into the labours of the laboratory and formed a long friendship with Mrs Anna Beddoes who acted as his guide on walks and other fine sights of the locality Humphry Davy — a Penzance prodigy, Peter Cooper, The Pharmaceutical Journal Vol 265 No 7128 p920-921 December 23/30, 2000 http://www.pharmj.com/Editorial/20001223/articles/davy.html . During his residence at Bristol, Davy formed the acquaintance of the Earl of Durham, who became a resident for his health in the Pneumatic Institution, and of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey. In December 1799 Davy visited London for the first time, and his circle of friends was there much extended. In this year the first volume of the ‘West-Country Collections’ was issued. Half of the volume consisted of Davy's essays ‘On Heat, Light, and the Combinations of Light,’ ‘On Phos-oxygen and its Combinations,’ and on the ‘Theory of Respiration.’ On 22 February 1799 Davy, writing to Davies Gilbert, says: ‘I am now as much convinced of the non-existence of caloric as I am of the existence of light.’ In another letter written to Davies Gilbert, on 10 April, Davy informs him: I made a discovery yesterday which proves how necessary it is to repeat experiments. The gaseous oxide of azote (the laughing gas) is perfectly respirable when pure. It is never deleterious but when it contains nitrous gas. I have found a mode of making it pure.’ He then says that he breathed sixteen quarts of it for nearly seven minutes, and that it ‘absolutely intoxicated me.’ During this year Davy published his ‘Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration.’ In after years Davy regretted that he had ever published these immature hypotheses, which he himself subsequently designated as ‘the dreams of misemployed genius which the light of experiment and observation has never conducted to truth.’ The Royal Institution Satirical cartoon by James Gillray showing a Royal Institution lecture on pneumatics with Davy holding the bellows and Count Rumford looking on at extreme right. Dr Garnett is the lecturer holding the victim's nose In 1800 Davy informed Davies Gilbert that he had been ‘repeating the galvanic experiments with success’ in the intervals of the experiments on the gases, which ‘almost incessantly occupied him from January to April.’ In these experiments Davy ran considerable risks. His respiration of nitrous oxide may have led, by its union with common air in the mouth, to the formation of nitrous acid (HNO2), which severely injured the mucous membrane, and in Davy's attempt to breathe carburetted hydrogen gas he ‘seemed sinking into annihilation.’ On being removed into the open air, Davy faintly articulated, ‘I do not think I shall die,’ but some hours elapsed before the painful symptoms ceased. It is more likely that the nitrous oxide (N2O) he inhaled was contaminated by nitric oxide (NO), a toxic gas which combines with oxygen and water to form HNO3, a very strong acid and irritant, explaining the pain Davy felt. Davy's ‘Researches,’ which was full of striking and novel facts, and rich in chemical discoveries, soon attracted the attention of the scientific world, and Davy now made his grand move in life. In 1799 Count Rumford had proposed the establishment in London of an ‘Institution for Diffusing Knowledge,’ i.e. the Royal Institution. The house in Albemarle Street was bought in April 1799. Rumford became secretary to the institution, and Dr. Garnett was the first lecturer. Garnett was forced to resign from ill-health in 1801. Rumford had already been empowered to treat with Davy. Personal interviews followed, and on 15 July 1801 it was resolved by the managers ‘that Humphry Davy be engaged in the service of the Royal Institution in the capacity of assistant lecturer in chemistry, director of the chemical laboratory, and assistant editor of the journals of the institution, and that he be allowed to occupy a room in the house, and be furnished with coals and candles, and that he be paid a salary of 100l. per annum.’ In 1801 he was nominated professor at the Royal Institution of Great Britain and Fellow of the Royal Society, over which he would later preside. Electrolysis Davy was a pioneer in the field of electrolysis using the battery to split up common compounds and thus prepare many new elements. He went on to electrolyse molten salts and discovered several new metals, especially sodium and potassium, highly reactive elements known as the alkali metals. Potassium was discovered in 1807 by Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH). Before the 18th century, no distinction was made between potassium and sodium. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Sodium was first isolated by Davy in the same year by passing an electric current through molten sodium hydroxide. Davy went on to discover calcium in 1808 by electrolyzing a mixture of Lime and mercuric oxide. Davy was trying to isolate calcium; when he heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also discovered magnesium, boron and barium. Discovery of chlorine Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who called it dephlogisticated marine acid (see phlogiston theory) and mistakenly thought it contained oxygen. Scheele produced chlorine by reacting manganese dioxide (MnO2) with hydrogen chloride (HCl). 4 HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2 H2O + Cl2 Scheele observed several properties of chlorine gas, such as its bleaching effect on litmus, its deadly effect on insects, its yellow-green colour, and the similarity of its smell to that of aqua regia. However, Scheele was unable to publish his findings at the time. In 1810, chlorine was given its current name by Humphry Davy, who insisted that chlorine was in fact an element. He also showed that oxygen could not be obtained from the substance known as oxymuriatic acid (HCl solution). This discovery overturned Lavoisier's definition of acids as compounds of oxygen. Popular public figure Sir Humphry revelled in his public status, as his lectures gathered many spectators. He became well known due to his experiments with the physiological action of some gases, including laughing gas (nitrous oxide) - to which he was addicted, once stating that its properties bestowed all of the benefits of alcohol but was devoid of its flaws. Davy later damaged his eyesight in a laboratory accident with nitrogen trichloride. Pierre Louis Dulong first prepared this compound in 1812, and lost two fingers and an eye in two separate explosions with it. Davy's own accident induced him to hire Michael Faraday as a coworker. European travels Sir Humphry Davy, 1830 engraving based on the painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) A diamond crystal in its matrix In 1812, Davy was knighted, gave a farewell lecture to the Royal Institution, and married a wealthy widow, Jane Apreece. (While generally acknowledged as being faithful to his wife, their relationship was stormy, and in his later years Davy travelled to continental Europe alone.) In October 1813, he and his wife, accompanied by Michael Faraday as his scientific assistant (and valet), travelled to France to collect a medal that Napoleon Bonaparte had awarded Davy for his electro-chemical work. While in Paris, Davy was asked by Gay-Lussac to investigate a mysterious substance isolated by Bernard Courtois. Davy showed it to be an element, which is now called iodine. The party left Paris in December 1813, travelling south to Italy. For information on the continental tour of Davy and Faraday, see page 36 of They sojourned in Florence, where, in a series of experiments conducted with Faraday's assistance, Davy succeeded in using the sun's rays to ignite diamond, proving it is composed of pure carbon. Davy's party continued to Rome, and also visited Naples and Mount Vesuvius. By June 1814, they were in Milan, where they met Alessandro Volta, and then continued north to Geneva. They returned to Italy via Munich and Innsbruck, and when their plans to travel to Greece and Constantinople (Istanbul) were abandoned after Napoleon's escape from Elba, they returned to England. Davy lamp The Davy lamp After his return to England in 1815, Davy experimented with lamps for use in coal mines. There had been many mining explosions caused by firedamp or methane often ignited by open flames of the lamps then used by miners. In particular the Felling mine disaster in 1812 near Newcastle caused great loss of life, and action was needed to improve underground lighting and especially the lamps used by miners. Davy conceived of using an iron gauze to enclose a lamp's flame, and so prevent the methane burning inside the lamp from passing out to the general atmosphere. Although the idea of the safety lamp had already been demonstrated by William Reid Clanny and by the then unknown (but later very famous) engineer George Stephenson, Davy's use of wire gauze to prevent the spread of flame was used by many other inventors in their later designs. George Stephenson's lamp was very popular in the north-east coalfields, and used the same principle of preventing the flame reaching the general atmosphere, but by different means. Unfortunately, although the new design of gauze lamp initially did seem to offer protection, it gave much less light, and quickly deteriorated in the wet conditions of most pits. Rusting of the gauze quickly made the lamp unsafe, and the number of deaths from firedamp explosions rose yet further. There was some discussion as to whether Davy had discovered the principles behind his lamp without the help of the work of Smithson Tennant, but it was generally agreed that the work of both men had been independent. Davy refused to patent the lamp, and its invention led to him being awarded the Rumford medal in 1816. David Knight, ‘Davy, Sir Humphry, baronet (1778–1829)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 6 April 2008 Acid-base studies In 1815 Davy suggested that acids were substances that contained replaceable hydrogen – hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by metals. When acids reacted with metals they formed salts. Bases were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water. These definitions worked well for most of the nineteenth century. Last years and death Davy's gravesite in Geneva. In January 1819, Davy was awarded a baronetcy, at the time the highest honour ever conferred on a man of science in Britain. A year later he became President of the Royal Society. Davy died in Switzerland in 1829, his various inhalations of chemicals finally taking their toll on his health. He is buried in the Plainpalais Cemetery in Geneva. Davy is buried in plot 208 of the Plainpalais Cemetery, Rue des Rois, Geneva. For contemporary information on Davy's funeral service and memorials, see Davy's laboratory assistant, Michael Faraday, went on to enhance Davy's work and in the end he became the more famous and influential scientist – to the extent that Davy is supposed to have claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery. However, Davy later accused Faraday of plagiarism, causing Faraday (the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry) to cease all research in electromagnetism until his mentor's death. Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits. As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he “had not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet of his age,” and Southey said that “he had all the elements of a poet; he only wanted the art.” In spite of his ungainly exterior and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and illustration won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge went to hear him “to increase his stock of metaphors.” The dominating ambition of his life was to achieve fame, but though that sometimes betrayed him into petty jealousy, it did not leave him insensible to the claims on his knowledge of the “cause of humanity,” to use a phrase often employed by him in connection with his invention of the miners' lamp. Of the smaller observances of etiquette he was careless, and his frankness of disposition sometimes exposed him to annoyances which he might have avoided by the exercise of ordinary tact. Legacy and honours Statue of Davy in Penzance, Cornwall A lunar crater (Davy) is named after Sir Humphry Davy. It has a diameter of 34 km and coordinates of 11.8S, 8.1W. In Penzance in Cornwall, Davy's hometown, there is a statue of him in front of the imposing Market House, now owned by Lloyds TSB, at the top of Market Jew Street, the town's main high street. There also is a secondary school in Penzance named Humphry Davy School. Like James Prescott Joule and Isaac Newton, Davy is remembered in his hometown by a pub. The Sir Humphry Davy pub is located in Penzance opposite the Greenmarket at the end of Market Jew Street. Davy was the subject of the first ever clerihew. A satellite of the University of Sheffield at Golden Smithies Lane in Wath upon Dearne (Manvers) is called Humphry Davy House and is currently home to the School of Nursing and Midwifery, until April 2009. There is a street named after Sir Humphry Davy (Humphry-Davy-Straße) in the industrial quarter of the town of Cuxhaven, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The University of Plymouth has named one of its science buildings after the chemist The Royal Society of London has awarded the Davy Medal annually since 1877 "for an outstandingly important recent discovery in any branch of chemistry." Publications See Fullmer's work for a full list of Davy's articles. Davy's books are as follows: (on Davy's safety lamp) Bibliography References External links (Davy's first name is spelled incorrectly in this book.) The Collected Works of Humphry Davy Obituary (1830) ''Journal of a Tour made in the years 1828, 1829, through Styria, Carniola, and Italy, whilst accompanying the late Sir Humphry Davy by J.J. Tobin (1832) Dictionary of National Biography (1888) Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher by Thomas Edward Thorpe, New York: Macmillan, 1896 Young Humphry Davy: The Making of an Experimental Chemist by June Z. 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1,446 | International_Tropical_Timber_Agreement,_1983 | The International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA, 1983) is an agreement to provide an effective framework for cooperation between tropical timber producers and consumers and to encourage the development of national policies aimed at sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources. Opened for signature - November 18 1983 Entered into force - April 1 1985; this agreement expired when the International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994, went into force. Parties Fifty eight parties signed up to the agreement: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Cameroon, Canada, People's Republic of China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, European Union, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Liberia, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela References | International_Tropical_Timber_Agreement,_1983 |@lemmatized international:2 tropical:4 timber:3 agreement:5 itta:1 provide:1 effective:1 framework:1 cooperation:1 producer:1 consumer:1 encourage:1 development:1 national:1 policy:1 aim:1 sustainable:1 utilization:1 conservation:1 forest:1 genetic:1 resource:1 open:1 signature:1 november:1 enter:1 force:2 april:1 expire:1 go:1 party:2 fifty:1 eight:1 sign:1 australia:1 austria:1 belgium:1 bolivia:1 brazil:1 burma:1 cameroon:1 canada:1 people:1 republic:3 china:1 colombia:1 democratic:1 congo:2 côte:1 ivoire:1 denmark:1 ecuador:1 egypt:1 european:1 union:1 fiji:1 finland:1 france:1 gabon:1 germany:1 ghana:1 greece:1 guyana:1 honduras:1 india:1 indonesia:1 ireland:1 italy:1 japan:1 south:1 korea:1 liberia:1 luxembourg:1 malaysia:1 nepal:1 netherlands:1 new:2 zealand:1 norway:1 panama:1 papua:1 guinea:1 peru:1 philippine:1 portugal:1 russia:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 thailand:1 togo:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 united:2 kingdom:1 state:1 venezuela:1 reference:1 |@bigram tropical_timber:3 republic_congo:2 côte_ivoire:1 panama_papua:1 trinidad_tobago:1 |
1,447 | Justinian_I | Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus (; known in English as Justinian I or Justinian the Great), AD 483 – 13 or 14 November 565, was the second member of the Justinian Dynasty (after his uncle, Justin I) and Eastern Roman Emperor from 527 until his death. He is considered a saint amongst Eastern Orthodox Christians, and is also commemorated by some Lutheran Churches In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Justinian is commemorated on November 14 according to the Julian calendar, which currently equals to November 27 on the Gregorian calendar. He is commemorated on November 14 of the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church - Canada ; at the other end of the scale, his contemporary, Procopius, viewed Justinian as a cruel, venal, and incompetent ruler Procopius, Secret History . One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Byzantine Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and empire. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but ultimately failed renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire". J.F. Haldon, Byzantium in the seventh century (Cambridge, 2003), 17–19. Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the "Last Roman" in modern historiography, for instance by G.P. Baker (Justinian, New York 1931), or in the Outline of Great Books series (Justinian the Great). This ambition was expressed in the partial recovery of the territories of the Western Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries. A devastating outbreak of bubonic plague (see Plague of Justinian) in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendor. The empire entered a period of territorial decline not to be reversed until the ninth century. Procopius provides our primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which does not survive, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora. Procopius also wrote the Anekdota (the so-called Secret History), which reports on various scandals at Justinian's court. Other sources include the histories of Agathias, Menander Protector, John Malalas, the Paschal Chronicle, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna. Life Justinian was born Petrus Sabbatius at Tauresium in the Roman province of Dardania in AD 483. M. Meier, Justinian, 29: "481 or 482"; Moorhead (1994), p. 17: "about 482"; Maas (2005), p. 5: "around 483". His Latin-speaking peasant family is believed to have been of Thraco-Roman or Illyro-Roman origins. There has been some debate concerning Justinian's ethnic origins. According to Vasiliev (1952), "The theory of Justinian's Slavonic origin must (...) be discarded at present. Justin and Justinian were probably Illyrians or perhaps Albanians" (p. 129). According to the New Cambridge Medieval History, II, Justinian's uncle Justin I was "a peasant from Illyria" (p. 97). Justinian was "born at Tauresium (Illyricum, probably near Niš)" and was "of Latin-speaking peasant stock" (Joseph R. Strayer (ed.), Dictionary of the Middle Ages, New York 1982-2004). The Lexikon des Mittelalters, likewise, has: "Sohn eines (illyr.?) Bauern". According to J.R. Martindale, Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, II (Cambridge 1980), Justinian was "called Thrax apo Bederianas" (p. 645, Greek transcribed), while early sources (Evagrius, John Malalas, the Paschal Chronicle etc.) describe Justin I as being "of Thracian descent" (p. 648). Justinian referred to Latin as being his native tongue in several of his laws. See Moorhead (1994), p. 18. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian by Michael Maas Justinian and Theodora Robert Browning, Gorgias Press LLC, 2003, ISBN 1593330537,p. 23. The cognomen Iustinianus which he took later is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. The sole source for Justinian's full name, Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus (sometimes called Flavius Anicius Justinianus), are consular diptychs of the year 521 bearing his name. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace. The Serbs by Sima M. Ćirković The Dictionary of Art by Jane Turner Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life by Nevra Necipoğlu His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the imperial guard (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology and Roman history. Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, with significant help from Justinian. During Justin's reign (518-527), Justinian was the emperor's close confidant. Justinian showed much ambition, and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on 1 April 527, although there is no conclusive evidence for this. Moorhead (1994), pp. 21-22, with a reference to Procopius, Secret History 8.3. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler. Justinian was appointed consul in 521, and later commander of the army of the east. This post seems to have been titular; there is no evidence that Justinian had any military experience. See A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in: Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113-133 (pp. 113-114). Upon Justin I's death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign. The Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or Anastasius I. As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the Emperor who never sleeps" on account of his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amenable and easy to approach. See Procopius, Secret history, ch. 13. Justinian's family came from a lowly and provincial background, and therefore he had no power base in the traditional aristocracy of Constantinople. Instead, he surrounded himself with men and women of extraordinary talent, whom he selected not on the basis of aristocratic origin, but on the basis of merit. Around 525 he married in Constantinople Theodora, who was by profession a courtesan about 20 years his junior. Justinian would have, in earlier times, been unable to marry her because of her class, but his uncle Emperor Justin I had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes. M. Meier, Justinian, p. 57. Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent in marrying outside the aristocratic class. The marriage caused a scandal, but Theodora would prove to be very intelligent, "street smart", a good judge of character and Justinian's greatest supporter. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; his finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented general Belisarius. Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he almost lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562. See De Imperatoribus Romanis: Justinian. Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s, but recovered. Theodora died, perhaps of cancer, in 548, at a relatively young age, and Justinian outlived her by almost twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, Theological treatises authored by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86. became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died, on the night of November 13-14 of the year 565, he left no children. He was succeeded by Justin II, the son of his sister Vigilantia, who was married to Sophia, the niece of Empress Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Legislative activities Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislature is known today as the Corpus juris civilis. It consists of the Codex Justinianus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae. Early in his reign, Justinian appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the Codex Justinianus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta (or Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire. The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentum). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the Basilika of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest, by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554), Kunkel, W. (translated by J.M. Kelly) An introduction to Roman legal and constitutional history. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966; 168 from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia. Russia and the Roman law It remains influential to this day. Nika riots Justinian's habit of choosing efficient, but unpopular advisors nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally divided among themselves, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him by the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital, but he remained in the city on the stirring words of Theodora. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000 J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 200 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Diehl, Charles. Theodora, Empress of Byzantium ((c) 1972 by Frederick Ungar Publishing, Inc., transl. by S.R. Rosenbaum from the original French Theodora, Imperatice de Byzance), 89. Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed. Vasiliev (1958), p. 157. The destruction that had taken place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia. Military activities One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin which had slipped out of imperial control in the 5th century. For an account of Justinian's wars, see Moorhead (1994), pp. 22–24, 63–98, and 101–9. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. See A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in: Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–33 (pp. 113–14). For Justinian's own views, see the texts of Codex Justinianus 1.27.1 and Novellae 8.10.2 and 30.11.2. The reconquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius. Justinian himself took the field only once, during a campaign against the Huns in 559, when he was already an old man. This enterprise was largely symbolic and although no battle was fought, the emperor held a triumphal entry in the capital afterwards. (See Browning, R. Justinian and Theodora. London 1971, 193.) War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532 From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire. See Geoffrey Greatrex, "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century" in: Michael Maas (ed.). Age of Justinian (2005), pp. 477-509. In 530 a Persian army was defeated at Daraa, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum. When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 195. with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Arian Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire. Conquest of North Africa, 533–534 The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. In 533, Belisarius with a fleet of 92 dromons escorting 500 transports, landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia with an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off-guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem near Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign. Moorhead (1994), p. 68. :: An African prefecture was established in April 534, Moorhead (1994), p. 70. but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold. War in Italy, first phase, 535–540 As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and an usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius with 7,500 men J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 215 invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace which would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned to accept the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Moorhead (1994), pp. 84–86. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuentha with him. War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562 Modern or early modern drawing of a medallion celebrating the reconquest of Africa, c. 535 Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against Byzantium in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. See for this section Moorhead (1994), p. 89 ff., Greatrex (2005), p. 488 ff., and H. Boerm, "Der Perserkoenig im Imperium Romanum", in: Chiron 36, 2006, p. 299ff. He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 229 besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 229 Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but, after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of disloyalty on behalf of the general reaching the court. Procopius mentions this event both in the Wars and in the Secret History, but gives two entirely different explanations for it. The evidence is briefly discussed in Moorhead (1994), pp. 97-98. The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year 543. The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30,000 men, J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 235 but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that the Lazic War in the North continued for several years, until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi) to be paid by the Romans. Moorhead ((1994), p. 164) gives the lower, Greatrex ((2005), p. 489) the higher figure. War in Italy, second phase, 541–554 While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544, but lacked sufficient troops. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet with 200 ships. During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked the Greek coastlines. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Spain) under the command of Narses. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 251 The army reached Ravenna in June 552, and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy secured for the Empire, even though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 233 The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. Elder Justinian, mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (possibly a modified portrait of Theodoric). Other campaigns In addition to the other conquests, the Eastern Empire established a presence in Visigothic Spain, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against king Agila. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men under the octogenarian Liberius, who had served under the Ostrogoth kings of Italy since the 490s. The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion. During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius. Results The enlargement of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory between the rise to power of Justinian (red, 527) and his death (orange, 565) Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realised. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. See Lee (2005), p. 125 ff. The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented. While the final victory in Italy and the conquest of the coast of southern Spain significantly enlarged the area over which Byzantium could project its power and influence, and while they must have contributed to the empire's prestige, most of the conquests proved ephemeral. The greater part of Italy would be lost to the invading Lombards three years after Justinian's death (568), and within a century and a half Africa and Spain were forever lost for the empire. Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to explain the emperor's failure to protect the capital from the weakness of his body in his old age. W. Pohl, "Justinian and the Barbarian Kingdoms", in: Maas (2005), pp. 448-476; 472 In his efforts to renew the old Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched the resources of the Eastern Empire while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. See Haldon (2003), pp. 17-19. Paradoxically, Justinian's military successes probably contributed to the empire's subsequent decline. See Pohl, ibidem. Religious activities Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno I and Anastasius had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy which proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation which would have elevated its teachings to the status of dogma. The empress Theodora sympathised with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises. Treatises written by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86. Religious policy Justinian I, depicted on an AE Follis coin As with his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation; and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties; Cod., I., i. 5. whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. MPG, lxxxvi. 1, p. 993. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church, Cod., I., i. 7. and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. Novellae, cxxxi. The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command; Mansi, Concilia, viii. 970B. while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Novellae, xlii. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of the Church and clergy, for protecting and extending monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia or annual gifts from the imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation on monastic estates. Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, 283 the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople. Religious relations with Rome From the middle of the fifth century onward increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. For one thing, the radicals on all sides felt themselves constantly repelled by the creed adopted by the Council of Chalcedon to defend the biblical doctrine of the nature of Christ and bridge the gap between the dogmatic parties. The letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople was widely considered in the East as the work of Satan; so that nobody cared to hear of the Church of Rome. The emperors, however, had a policy of preserving the unity between Constantinople and Rome; and this remained possible only if they did not swerve from the line defined at Chalcedon. In addition, the factions in the East which had become stirred up and disaffected because of Chalcedon needed restraining and pacifying. This problem proved the more difficult because, in the East, the dissenting groups exceeded supporters of Chalcedon both in numerical strength and in intellectual ability. Tension from the incompatibility of the two aims grew: whoever chose Rome and the West must renounce the East, and vice versa. Consular diptych displaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521) Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Monophysite schism that had prevailed between Rome and Byzantium since 483. The recognition of the Roman see as the highest ecclesiastical authority cf. Novellae, cxxxi. remained the cornerstone of his Western policy. Offensive as it was to many in the East, nonetheless Justinian felt himself entirely free to take a Despotic stance toward the popes such as Silverius and Vigilius. While no compromise could ever be accepted by the dogmatic wing of the church, his sincere efforts at reconciliation gained him the approval of the major body of the church. A signal proof was his attitude in the Theopaschite controversy. At the outset he was of the opinion that the question turned on a quibble of words. By degrees, however, Justinian came to understand that the formula at issue not only appeared orthodox, but might also serve as a conciliatory measure toward the Monophysites, and he made a vain attempt to do this in the religious conference with the followers of Severus of Antioch, in 533. Again, Justinian moved toward compromise in the religious edict of 15 March 533, Cod., L, i. 6. and congratulated himself that Pope John II admitted the orthodoxy of the imperial confession. Cod., I., i. 8. The serious blunder that he had made at the beginning by abetting a severe persecution of the Monophysite bishops and monks and thereby embittering the population of vast regions and provinces, he remedied eventually. His constant aim now remained to win over the Monophysites, yet not to surrender the Chalcedonian faith. For many at court, he did not go far enough: Theodora especially would have rejoiced to see the Monophysites favored unreservedly. Justinian, however, felt restrained by the complications that would have ensued with the West. But in the condemnation of the Three Chapters Justinian tried to satisfy both the East and the West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. Although the pope assented to the condemnation, the West believed that the emperor had acted contrary to the decrees of Chalcedon. Though many delegates emerged in the East subservient to Justinian, many, especially the Monophysites, remained unsatisfied; all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters. Suppression of non-Christian religions Justinian was one of the first emperors to be depicted wielding the cross on the obverse of a coin. Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could be only the Orthodox (Nicaean). Those of a different belief had to recognize that the process of consolidation, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II, would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes Cod., I., xi. 9 and 10. which decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position. Perhaps the most noteworthy event occurred in 529 when the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens was placed under state control by order of Justinian, effectively strangling this training-school for Hellenism. Paganism was actively suppressed. In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus claimed to have converted 70,000 pagans. F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient chretien, ii., 1897, 482. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli, Procopius, Bellum Gothicum, ii. 14; Evagrius, Hist. eccl., iv. 20 the Huns dwelling near the Don, Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23. the Abasgi, Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22. and the Tzani in Caucasia. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 15. The worship of Amun at Augila in the Libyan desert was abolished; Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2. and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 19. The Presbyter Julian DCB, iii. 482 and the Bishop Longinus John of Ephesus, Hist. eccl., iv. 5 sqq. conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by despatching a bishop from Egypt. Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 20; Malalas, ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1831, pp. 433 sqq. The Jews, too, had to suffer; for not only did the authorities restrict their civil rights, Cod., I., v. 12 and threaten their religious privileges, Procopius, Historia Arcana, 28; but the emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue, Nov., cxlvi., 8 February, 553 and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. The recalcitrant were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted Belisarius in his Vandal campaign, had to embrace Christianity; their synagogue became a church. Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2. The emperor had much trouble with the Samaritans, resisting conversion to Christianity and repeatedly in insurrection. He opposed them with rigorous edicts, but yet could not prevent hostilities towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered severe persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. Cod., I., v. 12. At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning. F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient, ii., 1897, p. 481. Building activities, learning, art and literature Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. See Procopius, Buildings. Under Justinian's patronage the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed. Robert Browning. "Justinian I" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume VII (1986). Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. Vasiliev (1952), p. 189 Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. Brian Croke, "Justinian's Constantinople", in: Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 60-86 (p. 66) Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy (like Anicia Juliana) may have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige. See Croke (2005), p. 364 ff., and Moorhead (1994). Justinian also strengthened the borders of the empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications, and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious center of the Illyricum. In Justinian's era, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished during his reign. On the other hand, centers of learning as the Platonic Academy in Athens and the famous law school of Beirut Following a terrible earthquake in 551, the school at Beirut was transferred to Sidon and had no further significance after that date. (Vasiliev (1952), p. 147) lost their importance during his reign. Despite Justinian's passion for the glorious Roman past, the practice of choosing Roman consul, was allowed to lapse after 541. Vasiliev (1952), p. 192. Economy and administration As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat. John F. Haldon, "Economy and Administration", in: Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 28-59 (p. 35) Within the empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains, and Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. John Moorhead, Justinian (London/New York 1994), p. 57 Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity (London 1971), pp. 157-158 In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. Vasiliev (1952), p. 167 Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople, See Moorhead (1994), p. 167; Procopius, Wars, 8.17.1-8 and silk became an indigenous Byzantine product. Scene from daily life on a mosaic from the Great Palace of Constantinople, early 6th century At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 solidi (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. Haldon (2005), p. 50 According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalisation of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. Brown (1971), p. 157 It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 solidi in AD 550. Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East prospered, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale. Kenneth G. Holum, "The Classical City in the Sixth Century", in: Michael Maas (ed.), Age of Justinian (2005), pp. 99-100 Despite all these measures, the empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labour and a rising of wages. Moorhead (1994), pp. 100-101 The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s. John L. Teall, "The Barbarians in Justian's Armies", in: Speculum, vol. 40, No. 2, 1965, 294-322. The total strength of the Byzantine army under Justinian is estimated at 150,000 men (J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 259). The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance. Brown (1971), p. 158; Moorhead (1994), p. 101 See also Plague of Justinian History of the Roman Empire Notes References This article incorporates text from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion. Primary sources Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1976-64. Greek text. Procopius. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914-40. Greek text and English translation. Procopius, The Secret History, translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota. Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys, Roger Scott et al. 1986, The Chronicle of John Malalas: A Translation, Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies) ISBN 0959362622 Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. Bibliography Bury, J. B. (1958). History of the later Roman Empire, Vol. 2. New York (reprint). Cameron, Averil et al.(eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 14, Second Edition, Cambridge 2000. Evans, James Allan. The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-32582-0). Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, Cambridge 2005. Meier, Mischa. Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenzerfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Göttingen, 2003. Meier, Mischa. Justinian. Herrschaft, Reich, und Religion. Munich, 2004. Moorhead, John. Justinian, London 1994. Rosen, William. Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe, Viking Adult, 2007. ISBN 978-0670038558. Rubin, Berthold (1960). Das Zeitalter Iustinians. Berlin. German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful. Sarris, Peter. Economy and society in the age of Justinian. Cambridge, 2006. Vasiliev, A. A. History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453. Second edition. Madison, 1952. Continuité des élites à Byzance durante les siècles obscurs. Les princes caucasiens et l'Empire du VIe au IXe siècle, 2006 External links St Justinian the Emperor Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (November 14) The Anekdota ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation. The Buildings of Procopius in English translation. The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian - by Lars Brownworth De Imperatoribus Romanis. 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1,448 | International_Bureau_of_Weights_and_Measures | The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures in French), is an international standards organization, one of three such organizations established to maintain the International System of Units (SI) under the terms of the Metre Convention (Convention du Mètre). The organization is usually referred to by its French abbreviation, BIPM. The other organisations which maintain the SI system are the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, Conférence générale des poids et mesures) and the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM, Comité international des poids et mesures). History The BIPM was created in 20 May 1875, following the signing of the Convention du Mètre. It is based at the Pavillon de Breteuil in Sèvres, France, where it enjoys extraterritorial status. As such, it escaped German occupation during World War II. Function The BIPM helps to ensure uniformity of SI weights and measures around the world. It does this with the authority of the Metre Convention, a diplomatic treaty between fifty-one nations (), and it operates through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the national metrology laboratories of the Member States of the Convention, and through its own laboratory work. The BIPM carries out measurement-related research. It takes part in, and organises, international comparisons of national measurement standards, and it carries out calibrations for member states. The BIPM has an important role in maintaining accurate worldwide time of day. It combines, analyzes, and averages the official atomic time standards of member nations around the world to create a single, official Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). See also Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) International System of Units (SI) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Coordinated Universal Time References External links BIPM website be-x-old:Міжнароднае бюро мер і ваг | International_Bureau_of_Weights_and_Measures |@lemmatized international:9 bureau:2 weight:4 measure:4 de:4 poids:3 et:3 mesures:3 french:2 standard:4 organization:4 one:2 three:1 establish:1 maintain:3 system:3 unit:2 si:4 term:1 metre:2 convention:5 du:2 mètre:2 usually:1 refer:1 abbreviation:1 bipm:6 organisation:1 general:1 conference:1 cgpm:1 conférence:1 générale:1 committee:2 cipm:1 comité:1 history:1 create:2 may:1 follow:1 signing:1 base:1 pavillon:1 breteuil:1 sèvres:1 france:1 enjoy:1 extraterritorial:1 status:1 escape:1 german:1 occupation:1 world:3 war:1 ii:1 function:1 help:1 ensure:1 uniformity:1 around:2 authority:1 diplomatic:1 treaty:1 fifty:1 nation:2 operate:1 series:1 consultative:1 whose:1 member:4 national:3 metrology:1 laboratory:2 state:2 work:1 carry:2 measurement:3 relate:1 research:1 take:1 part:1 organise:1 comparison:1 calibration:1 important:1 role:1 accurate:1 worldwide:1 time:4 day:1 combine:1 analyzes:1 average:1 official:2 atomic:1 single:1 coordinate:2 universal:2 utc:1 see:1 also:1 institute:2 reference:2 material:1 irmm:1 standardization:1 iso:1 technology:1 nist:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 x:1 old:1 міжнароднае:1 бюро:1 мер:1 і:1 ваг:1 |@bigram de_poids:3 poids_et:3 et_mesures:3 du_mètre:2 measure_cgpm:1 conférence_générale:1 measure_cipm:1 pavillon_de:1 consultative_committee:1 organization_standardization:1 standardization_iso:1 external_link:1 |
1,449 | Intercalation | Intercalation may refer to: The insertion of a leap day, week or month into some calendar years to make the calendar follow the seasons. Chemistry, where intercalation is the insertion of a molecule (or group) between two other molecules (or groups). For example, 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2-(2,4 dichlorophenoxy-)propionic acid intercalates between layers of clays. In literature, a technique used to insert one narrative inside another, implying simultaneity. It is also called a "hybrid story" and is used often in the Gospel of Mark, for example in the narrative of the daughter of Jairus. University administration, where intercalation is the period when a student is officially suspended from studying for an academic degree. By very broad metaphor, intercalation is also used to describe the insertion of a (usually pithy) comment about an email or Usenet message into some structural part (like a signature) where message content would not normally go. In biology: Intercalation can refer to how certain drugs and mutagen bind to DNA. This type of intercalation was discovered by Leonard Lerman. Intercalated duct of exocrine glands Intercalated disc of cardiac muscle Intercalated cells of the collecting duct Intercalated cells of the amygdala | Intercalation |@lemmatized intercalation:6 may:1 refer:2 insertion:3 leap:1 day:1 week:1 month:1 calendar:2 year:1 make:1 follow:1 season:1 chemistry:1 molecule:2 group:2 two:1 example:2 dichlorophenoxyacetic:1 acid:2 dichlorophenoxy:1 propionic:1 intercalates:1 layer:1 clay:1 literature:1 technique:1 use:3 insert:1 one:1 narrative:2 inside:1 another:1 imply:1 simultaneity:1 also:2 call:1 hybrid:1 story:1 often:1 gospel:1 mark:1 daughter:1 jairus:1 university:1 administration:1 period:1 student:1 officially:1 suspend:1 study:1 academic:1 degree:1 broad:1 metaphor:1 describe:1 usually:1 pithy:1 comment:1 email:1 usenet:1 message:2 structural:1 part:1 like:1 signature:1 content:1 would:1 normally:1 go:1 biology:1 certain:1 drug:1 mutagen:1 bind:1 dna:1 type:1 discover:1 leonard:1 lerman:1 intercalated:3 duct:2 exocrine:1 gland:1 disc:1 cardiac:1 muscle:1 intercalate:1 cell:2 collect:1 amygdala:1 |@bigram propionic_acid:1 collect_duct:1 |
1,450 | Neurosurgery | Insertion of an electrode during neurosurgery for Parkinson's disease. Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central and peripheral nervous systems and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical intervention. In the United States there are only about 3,000 neurosurgeons. Neurosurgical Training In the United States, neurosurgeons typically have completed four years of pre-medical education (typically an undergraduate degree in the biological sciences), four years of medical school, and six to eight years of neurosurgical residency training (including the intern year). Neurosurgeons may also elect to complete a fellowship of one to two additional years in a neurosurgical subspecialty (pediatrics, oncology, endovascular, spine, functional, etc.). This training is the longest of all U.S. medical specialties. Neurosurgery is one of the five most-competitive specialties to which graduating medical students may apply, with fewer than 200 positions offered in each year's residency match (the other four being plastic surgery, dermatology, orthopaedic surgery, and otolaryngology) . Modern Neurosurgery Modern neurosurgery has benefited greatly from advances in computer assisted imaging (computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetoencephalography (MEG)) and the development of stereotactic surgery. Some neurosurgical procedures even involve the use of MRI and functional MRI intraoperatively. As one of the most research-oriented specialties of medicine, the scope of neurosurgery has expanded as new diagnostic techniques allow surgeons to perform more complicated surgeries. Some of the most recent and innovative advances have been radiosurgery using the gamma knife for tumor treatment and endovascular surgery for the treatment of aneurysms. Risks There are many risks to neurosurgery. Any operation dealing with the brain or spinal cord can cause paralysis (systemic), brain damage, infection, psychosis or death. Conditions Neurosurgical conditions include primarily brain, spinal cord, vertebral column and peripheral nerve disorders. Conditions treated by neurosurgeons include: Chiari Malformations Spinal disc herniation Spinal stenosis Hydrocephalus Head trauma (brain hemorrhages, skull fractures, etc.) Spinal cord trauma Traumatic injuries of peripheral nerves Brain tumors Infections and infestations Tumours of the spine, spinal cord and peripheral nerves Cerebral aneurysms Stroke, including hemorrhagic stroke and ischemic stroke Intracerebral hemorrhage, such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, intraparenchymal, and intraventricular hemorrhages Some forms of pharmacologically resistant epilepsy Some forms of movement disorders (advanced Parkinson's disease, chorea) this involves the use of specially developed minimally invasive stereotactic techniques (functional, stereotactic neurosurgery) such as ablative surgery and deep brain stimulation surgery Intractable pain of cancer or trauma patients and cranial/peripheral nerve pain Some forms of intractable psychiatric disorders Malformations of the nervous system Carotid artery stenosis Vascular malformations (i.e., arteriovenous malformations, venous angiomas, cavernous angiomas, capillary telangectasias) of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral neuropathies such as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and ulnar neuropathy Moyamoya disease Congenital malformations of the nervous system, including spina bifida and craniosynostosis See also Anton Eiselsberg Established Neurosurgery as an independent discipline Harvey Cushing Known as the father of neurosurgery Wilder Penfield Known as one of the founding fathers of neurosurgery Walter Dandy Known as one of the founding fathers of neurosurgery Gazi Yasargil Known as the father of modern microneurosurgery Ben Carson Famous African American Neurosurgeon Brian Andrews (doctor) Noted American Neurosurgeon Lars Leksell Swedish Neurosurgeon who developed the Gamma Knife Frances K. Conley Pioneer woman neurosurgeon at Stanford University | Neurosurgery |@lemmatized insertion:1 electrode:1 neurosurgery:12 parkinson:2 disease:4 surgical:2 discipline:2 focus:1 treat:2 central:1 peripheral:6 nervous:3 system:3 spinal:8 column:2 amenable:1 intervention:1 united:2 state:2 neurosurgeon:8 neurosurgical:5 training:3 typically:2 complete:2 four:3 year:6 pre:1 medical:4 education:1 undergraduate:1 degree:1 biological:1 science:1 school:1 six:1 eight:1 residency:2 include:5 intern:1 may:2 also:2 elect:1 fellowship:1 one:5 two:1 additional:1 subspecialty:1 pediatrics:1 oncology:1 endovascular:2 spine:2 functional:3 etc:2 long:1 u:1 specialty:3 five:1 competitive:1 graduate:1 student:1 apply:1 position:1 offer:1 match:1 plastic:1 surgery:7 dermatology:1 orthopaedic:1 otolaryngology:1 modern:3 benefit:1 greatly:1 advance:2 computer:1 assist:1 imaging:2 compute:1 tomography:2 ct:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 mri:3 positron:1 emission:1 pet:1 magnetoencephalography:1 meg:1 development:1 stereotactic:3 procedure:1 even:1 involve:2 use:3 intraoperatively:1 research:1 oriented:1 medicine:1 scope:1 expand:1 new:1 diagnostic:1 technique:2 allow:1 surgeon:1 perform:1 complicated:1 recent:1 innovative:1 radiosurgery:1 gamma:2 knife:2 tumor:2 treatment:2 aneurysm:2 risk:2 many:1 operation:1 deal:1 brain:7 cord:5 cause:1 paralysis:1 systemic:1 damage:1 infection:2 psychosis:1 death:1 condition:3 primarily:1 vertebral:1 nerve:4 disorder:3 chiari:1 malformation:5 disc:1 herniation:1 stenosis:2 hydrocephalus:1 head:1 trauma:3 hemorrhage:4 skull:1 fracture:1 traumatic:1 injury:1 infestation:1 tumour:1 cerebral:1 stroke:3 hemorrhagic:1 ischemic:1 intracerebral:1 subarachnoid:1 intraparenchymal:1 intraventricular:1 form:3 pharmacologically:1 resistant:1 epilepsy:1 movement:1 advanced:1 chorea:1 specially:1 develop:2 minimally:1 invasive:1 ablative:1 deep:1 stimulation:1 intractable:2 pain:2 cancer:1 patient:1 cranial:1 psychiatric:1 carotid:1 artery:1 vascular:1 e:1 arteriovenous:1 venous:1 angioma:2 cavernous:1 capillary:1 telangectasias:1 neuropathy:2 carpal:1 tunnel:1 syndrome:1 ulnar:1 moyamoya:1 congenital:1 spina:1 bifida:1 craniosynostosis:1 see:1 anton:1 eiselsberg:1 establish:1 independent:1 harvey:1 cushing:1 know:4 father:4 wilder:1 penfield:1 found:2 walter:1 dandy:1 gazi:1 yasargil:1 microneurosurgery:1 ben:1 carson:1 famous:1 african:1 american:2 brian:1 andrew:1 doctor:1 note:1 lars:1 leksell:1 swedish:1 france:1 k:1 conley:1 pioneer:1 woman:1 stanford:1 university:1 |@bigram parkinson_disease:2 peripheral_nervous:1 surgical_intervention:1 compute_tomography:1 tomography_ct:1 magnetic_resonance:1 resonance_imaging:1 imaging_mri:1 positron_emission:1 emission_tomography:1 tomography_pet:1 brain_spinal:3 spinal_cord:5 vertebral_column:1 peripheral_nerve:4 brain_hemorrhage:1 skull_fracture:1 cord_peripheral:2 hemorrhagic_stroke:1 ischemic_stroke:1 minimally_invasive:1 psychiatric_disorder:1 carotid_artery:1 arteriovenous_malformation:1 peripheral_neuropathy:1 carpal_tunnel:1 |
1,451 | List_of_fictional_guidebooks | Some fictional universes feature useful guidebooks which assist the hero and friends through difficult situations. Features of a great fictional guidebook: Such books are ideally compact enough to carry on even the most strenuous adventures, yet detailed enough to contain exactly the information the reader needs at that particular point in the plot. Many guidebooks are electronic in nature; some can access relevant information through a wireless connection. __TOC__ List of fictional guidebooks {|class="wikitable" |- !width="50%"|Fictional guidebook !width="50%"|Universe |- |Encyclopedia Galactica |The Foundation Series by Isaac Asimov |- |The Philosophy of Time Travel |Donnie Darko |- |The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Encyclopedia Galactica |Hitchhiker Trilogy (in five parts) by Douglas Adams |- |The Junior Woodchucks Guidebook |Donald Duck comics by Carl Barks and DuckTales |- |Encyclopedia Frobozzica |Zork |- |All Of Them Witches |Rosemary's Baby - book by Ira Levin, movie by Roman Polanski |- |The Book of Origin |Stargate Universe - priors of the Ori |- |The Book of Rules |The Dancing Gods series by Jack L. Chalker |- |A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer |Neal Stephenson's novel, The Diamond Age |- |[Necronomicon Ex-Mortis] |Evil Dead Series fictional Sumerian book series by Sam Raimi |- |Planetary Guides (annual) |Planetary by Warren Ellis |- |Pokédex |Pokémon games and animation |- |Highly Unpleasant Things It Is Sometimes Necessary to Know, Things That Are Not Good to Know at All |John Barnes's novel, One for the Morning Glory |- |The Mrin and Darine Codices |David Eddings' Belgariad and Malloreon |- |Ferengi Rules of Acquisition |Star Trek |- |Marcoh's Notes (AKA: Tim Marcoh's Guide on Baking Desserts - A guide written by the alchemist Tim Marcoh on the Philosophers' Stone, it is thought of as a cookbook, but is actually an alchemy reference written in code.) |Fullmetal Alchemist |- |Roylance Guide,Tobin's Spirit Guide,Spates Catalog |Ghostbusters |- |The Spells of Astoroth |Bedknobs and Broomsticks |- |Handbook for the Recently Deceased |Beetlejuice |- |The Code of Masked Wrestling |¡Mucha Lucha! |- |The Slayer Handbook |Buffy the Vampire Slayer |- |The Messiah's Handbook and Reminders for the Advanced Soul |Richard Bach's novel, Illusions |- |The Necronomicon |The Hound by H. P. Lovecraft. See 'Other Appearances' under Necronomicon for more. |- |A Really Useful Book |MirrorMask |- |Da Rules |Fairly Odd Parents |- |The Guide |Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide |- |Orange Catholic Bible |Frank Herbert's Dune series |- |The Nice and Accurate Prophecies of Agnes Nutter, Witch |Good Omens, by Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman |- |Thievus Racoonus|Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus|- |Hogwarts, A History|Harry Potter series |} Real fictional guidebooks A few guides to fictional places have also been published. The 1996 book Paris out of hand, by Karen Elizabeth Gordon, Barbara Hodgson, and Nick Bantock, is a guide to a fictionalized version of Paris. There are guidebooks to the fictional countries of Molvanîa: The Land that Dentistry Forgot (2003), Phaic Tăn: Sunstroke on a Shoestring (2004) and San Sombrèro: A Land of Carnivals, Cocktails and Coups'' (2006), written by Tom Gleisner, Santo Cilauro, and Rob Sitch. See also False document Fictional book Notes | List_of_fictional_guidebooks |@lemmatized fictional:9 universe:3 feature:2 useful:2 guidebook:8 assist:1 hero:1 friend:1 difficult:1 situation:1 great:1 book:8 ideally:1 compact:1 enough:2 carry:1 even:1 strenuous:1 adventure:1 yet:1 detail:1 contain:1 exactly:1 information:2 reader:1 need:1 particular:1 point:1 plot:1 many:1 electronic:1 nature:1 access:1 relevant:1 wireless:1 connection:1 list:1 class:1 wikitable:1 width:2 encyclopedia:3 galactica:2 foundation:1 series:6 isaac:1 asimov:1 philosophy:1 time:1 travel:1 donnie:1 darko:1 hitchhiker:2 guide:10 galaxy:1 trilogy:1 five:1 part:1 douglas:1 adam:1 junior:1 woodchuck:1 donald:1 duck:1 comic:1 carl:1 bark:1 ducktales:1 frobozzica:1 zork:1 witch:2 rosemary:1 baby:1 ira:1 levin:1 movie:1 roman:1 polanski:1 origin:1 stargate:1 prior:1 ori:1 rule:3 dancing:1 god:1 jack:1 l:1 chalker:1 young:1 lady:1 illustrate:1 primer:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 novel:3 diamond:1 age:1 necronomicon:3 ex:1 mortis:1 evil:1 dead:1 sumerian:1 sam:1 raimi:1 planetary:2 annual:1 warren:1 ellis:1 pokédex:1 pokémon:1 game:1 animation:1 highly:1 unpleasant:1 thing:2 sometimes:1 necessary:1 know:2 good:2 john:1 barnes:1 one:1 morning:1 glory:1 mrin:1 darine:1 codex:1 david:1 eddings:1 belgariad:1 malloreon:1 ferengi:1 acquisition:1 star:1 trek:1 marcoh:3 note:2 aka:1 tim:2 bake:1 dessert:1 write:3 alchemist:2 philosopher:1 stone:1 think:1 cookbook:1 actually:1 alchemy:1 reference:1 code:2 fullmetal:1 roylance:1 tobin:1 spirit:1 spat:1 catalog:1 ghostbusters:1 spell:1 astoroth:1 bedknobs:1 broomstick:1 handbook:3 recently:1 decease:1 beetlejuice:1 masked:1 wrestling:1 mucha:1 lucha:1 slayer:2 buffy:1 vampire:1 messiah:1 reminder:1 advanced:1 soul:1 richard:1 bach:1 illusion:1 hound:1 h:1 p:1 lovecraft:1 see:2 appearance:1 really:1 mirrormask:1 da:1 fairly:1 odd:1 parent:1 ned:1 declassify:1 school:1 survival:1 orange:1 catholic:1 bible:1 frank:1 herbert:1 dune:1 nice:1 accurate:1 prophecy:1 agnes:1 nutter:1 omen:1 terry:1 pratchett:1 neil:1 gaiman:1 thievus:1 racoonus:1 sly:1 cooper:1 thievius:1 raccoonus:1 hogwarts:1 history:1 harry:1 potter:1 real:1 place:1 also:2 publish:1 paris:2 hand:1 karen:1 elizabeth:1 gordon:1 barbara:1 hodgson:1 nick:1 bantock:1 fictionalized:1 version:1 country:1 molvanîa:1 land:2 dentistry:1 forget:1 phaic:1 tăn:1 sunstroke:1 shoestring:1 san:1 sombrèro:1 carnival:1 cocktail:1 coup:1 tom:1 gleisner:1 santo:1 cilauro:1 rob:1 sitch:1 false:1 document:1 |@bigram fictional_guidebook:4 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_width:1 isaac_asimov:1 donnie_darko:1 hitchhiker_guide:1 junior_woodchuck:1 donald_duck:1 carl_bark:1 rosemary_baby:1 roman_polanski:1 neal_stephenson:1 sam_raimi:1 star_trek:1 buffy_vampire:1 vampire_slayer:1 frank_herbert:1 terry_pratchett:1 neil_gaiman:1 harry_potter:1 |
1,452 | Jewish_eschatology | Jewish eschatology is concerned with the Jewish Messiah, afterlife, and the revival of the dead. Eschatology, generically, is the area of theology and philosophy concerned with the final events in the history of the world, the ultimate destiny of humanity, and related concepts. The Messiah The Hebrew word Mashiach (or Moshiach) means anointed one, and refers to a human being who will usher in a messianic era of peace and prosperity for both the living and the deceased: Judaism has taught that a moshiach ("messiah") will bring about a revival of both the ancient united Kingdom of Israel and its ancient form of sacrificial worship in the Temple in Jerusalem. In the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) Most of the textual requirements concerning the messiah, what he will do, and what will be done during his reign are located within the Book of Isaiah, although requirements are mentioned in other prophets as well. The Sanhedrin will be re-established (Isaiah 1:26) Once he is King, leaders of other nations will look to him for guidance (Isaiah 2:4) The whole world will worship the One God of Israel (Isaiah 2:17) He will be descended from King David (Isaiah 11:1) via King Solomon (1 Chron. 22:8–10) The Moshiach will be a man of this world, an observant Jew with "fear of God" (Isaiah 11:2) Evil and tyranny will not be able to stand before his leadership (Isaiah 11:4) Knowledge of God will fill the world (Isaiah 11:9) He will include and attract people from all cultures and nations (Isaiah 11:10) All Israelites will be returned to their homeland (Isaiah 11:12) Death will be swallowed up forever (Isaiah 25:8) There will be no more hunger or illness, and death will cease (Isaiah 25:8) All of the dead will rise again (Isaiah 26:19) The Jewish people will experience eternal joy and gladness (Isaiah 51:11) He will be a messenger of peace (Isaiah 52:7) Nations will recognize the wrongs they did Israel (Isaiah 52:13–53:5) The peoples of the world will turn to the Jews for spiritual guidance (Zechariah 8:23) The ruined cities of Israel will be restored (Ezekiel 16:55) Weapons of war will be destroyed (Ezekiel 39:9) The Temple will be rebuilt (Ezekiel 40) resuming many of the suspended mitzvot He will then perfect the entire world to serve God together (Zephaniah 3:9) Jews will know the Torah without Study (Jeremiah 31:33) He will take the barren land and make it abundant and fruitful (Isaiah 51:3, Amos 9:13–15, Ezekiel 36:29–30, Isaiah 11:6–9) In the Talmud The Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin, contains a long discussion of the events leading to the coming of the Messiah, for example: Throughout Jewish history Jews have compared these passages (and others) to contemporary events in search of signs of the Messiah's imminent arrival, continuing into present times. For example, many Orthodox Jewish leaders, have suggested that the devastation among Jews wrought by the Holocaust may represent a sign of hope for the Messiah's present imminent arrival. The Talmud tells many stories about the Messiah, some of which represent famous Talmudic rabbis as receiving personal visitations from Elijah the Prophet and the Messiah. For example: In Rabbinic Commentaries The Medieval rabbinic figure Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon), also known as the Rambam, notable for efforts to synthesize classical Jewish tradition with Aristotelian rationalism and the scientific beliefs of his age, wrote a commentary to tractate Sanhedrin stressing a relatively naturalistic interpretation of the Messiah and de-emphasizing miraculous elements. His commentary became widely (although not universally) accepted in the non- or less-mystical branches of Orthodox Judaism: Orthodox Judaism The belief in a personal messiah of the Davidic line is a universal tenet of faith among Orthodox Jews and one of Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith. Some authorities in Orthodox Judaism believe that this era will lead to supernatural events culminating in a bodily resurrection of the dead. Maimonides, on the other hand, holds that the events of the messianic era are not specifically connected with the resurrection. (See the Maimonides article.) Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism varies in its teachings. While it retains traditional references to a personal redeemer and prayers for the restoration of the Davidic line in the liturgy, Conservative Jews are more inclined to accept the idea of a messianic era: Reform Judaism Reform Judaism generally concurs with the more liberal Conservative perspective of a future messianic era rather than a personal messiah. Reflecting its philosophical position, Reform Judaism, unlike Conservative Judaism, has altered the traditional prayers to refer to "Redemption" rather than "a Redeemer" and removed petitions for restoration of the House of David. Reconstructionist Judaism Reconstructionist Judaism rejects the ideas of both a personal messiah and a divinely instituted messianic age. It does teach that human beings can help bring about a better future world. Like Reform Judaism, Reconstructionist Judaism has also altered traditional prayers so that they no longer refer to a personal Messiah. Olam Haba - the afterlife and the world to come Although Judaism concentrates on the importance of the Earthly world (Olam Ha'zeh — "this world"), all of classical Judaism posits an afterlife. Jewish tradition affirms that the human soul is immortal and thus survives the physical death of the body. The Hereafter is known as Olam Haba (the "world to come"), Gan Eden (the Heavenly "Garden of Eden", or Paradise) and Gehinom ("Purgatory"). Jewish Afterlife Beliefs at SimpleToRemember.com Afterlife at JewishVirtualLibrary.org Olam Ha-Ba: The Afterlife at JewFAQ.org Talmudic views The Mishnah (c. 200) lists belief in the resurrection as one of three essential beliefs necessary for a Jew to participate in it: All Israel have a portion in the world to come, for it is written: Thy people are all righteous; they shall inherit the land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I may be glorified.' But the following have no portion therein: one who maintains that resurrection is not a biblical doctrine, the Torah was not divinely revealed, and an Apikoros ("Epicurean, apostate"). Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:1, Talmud Sanhedrin 90a. The Gemara (Berachos 18b) relates several stories of people who visited cemeteries and either overheard conversations among dead people or actually conversed with the dead themselves, and received information that was later verified as factually correct. The Shem HaGedolim by the Chida, (entry on Rebbe Eliezer bar Nosson), relates and discusses several incidents of dead Sages returning to our world to visit their families and friends. Medieval rabbinical views While all classic rabbinic sources discuss the afterlife, the classic Medieval scholars dispute the nature of existence in the "End of Days" after the messianic period. While Maimonides describes an entirely spiritual existence for souls, which he calls "disembodied intellects," Nahmanides discusses an intensely spiritual existence on Earth, where spirituality and physicality are merged. Both agree that life after death is as Maimonides describes the "End of Days." This existence entails an extremely heightened understanding of and connection to the Divine Presence. This view is shared by all classic rabbinic scholars. There is much rabbinic material on what happens to the soul of the deceased after death, what it experiences, and where it goes. At various points in the afterlife journey, the soul may encounter: Hibbut ha-kever, the pains of the grave; Dumah, the angel of silence; Satan as the angel of death; the Kaf ha-Kela, the catapult of the soul; Gehinom (purgatory); and Gan Eden (heaven or paradise). All classic rabbinic scholars agree that these concepts are beyond typical human understanding. Therefore, these ideas are expressed throughout rabbinic literature through many varied parables and analogies. Gehinom is fairly well defined in rabbinic literature. It is sometimes translated as "hell", but one should note that the Christian view of hell differs greatly from the classical Jewish view. In Judaism, gehinom — while certainly a terribly unpleasant place or state — is not hell. The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that souls are not tortured in gehinom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be twelve months, with extremely rare exception. This is the reason that even when in mourning for near relatives, Jews will not recite mourner's kaddish for longer than an eleven month period. Gehinom is considered a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to Gan Eden ("Garden of Eden") soc.culture.jewish FAQ: Jewish Thought (6/12) . In Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism maintains the tenet of the bodily resurrection of the dead, including traditional references to it in the liturgy. In Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism has generally retained the tenet of the bodily resurrection of the dead, including traditional references to it in the liturgy. However, many Conservative Jews interpret the tenet metaphorically rather than literally. Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have altered traditional references to the resurrection of the dead ("who gives life to the dead") to refer to "who gives life to all". Conservative Judaism has retained the traditional language although some interpret it non-literally. Reincarnation The notion of reincarnation, while held as a mystical belief by some, is not an essential tenet of traditional Judaism. It is not mentioned in traditional classical sources such as the Tanakh ("Hebrew Bible"), the classical rabbinic works (Mishnah and Talmud), the writings of the Geonim, or Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith However, books of Kabbalah — Jewish mysticism — teach a belief in gilgul, transmigration of souls, and hence the belief is found in Hassidic Judaism, which generally regards the Kabbalah as canonical sacred texts. Rabbis who accepted the idea of reincarnation include the founder of Chassidism, the Baal Shem Tov, Levi ibn Habib (the Ralbah), Nahmanides (the Ramban), Rabbenu Bahya ben Asher, Rabbi Shelomoh Alkabez and Rabbi Hayyim Vital. Among well known Rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud and Leon de Modena. The idea of reincarnation, called gilgul, became popular in folk belief, and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. See also Eschatology Messiah Judaism References References Sanders, E.P. "Paul and Palestinian Judaism". Fortress Press. (Christian perspective on Judaism) Wright, N.T. "The New Testament and the People of God". Fortress Press: 1992. (Christian perspective on Judaism) Yitzchak Blau "Body and Soul: Tehiyyat ha-Metim and Gilgulim in Medieval and Modern Philosophy", The Torah U-Madda Journal, Volume 10, 2001 (Modern Orthodox perspective) External links Questions and answers regarding afterlife at AskMoses.com What is the Jewish Belief About 'The End of Days'? 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1,453 | History_of_Jamaica | The aftermath of the 1882 Kingston fire. Jamaica, one of the largest Caribbean islands, was inhabited by Arawak natives. When Christopher Columbus arrived at the island, he claimed the land for Spain. Still, it was not truly colonized until after his death. But only a few decades after Columbus' death almost all Arawaks were exterminated . Spain held the island against many buccaneer raids at the main city, which is now called Spanish Town. Eventually England claimed the island in a raid, but the Spanish did not relinquish their claim to the island until 1670. Jamaica became a base of operations for buccaneers, including Captain Henry Morgan. In return these buccaneers kept the other colonial powers from attacking the island. Africans were captured, kidnapped, and forced into slavery to work on plantations when sugarcane became the most important export on the island. Many slaves arrived in Jamaica via the Atlantic slave trade during the same time enslaved Africans arrived in North America. During this time there were many racial tensions, and Jamaica had one of the highest instances of slave uprisings of any Caribbean island. After the British crown abolished slavery, the Jamaicans began working toward independence. Since independence there have been political and economic disturbances, as well as a number of strong political leaders. Prehistory and European discovery Tainos from South America had settled in Jamaica at around 1,000 BC and called the land Xamayca, meaning "a land of wood and water". After Christopher Columbus' arrival in 1494, Spain claimed the island and began occupation in 1509, naming the island Santiago (St. James). The Arawaks were exterminated by the Spanish. Some also committed suicide, presumably to escape. Spain brought the first slaves to Jamaica in 1517. On Jamaica one outspoken man, Bartolomé de Las Casas, worked for the protection of the Taino population. It was also he who suggested, and later came to regret, the importation of slaves from Africa. De Las Casas was a Spanish priest, and wrote several books about the poor treatment of the natives by Spanish conquistadors. He believed that the Spanish should work to convert the Tainos to Christianity. Spanish rule The settlers later moved to Villa de la Vega, now called Spanish Town. This settlement became the capital of Jamaica. By the 1640s many people were attracted to Jamaica, which had a reputation for stunning beauty, not only when referring to the island but also to the natives. In fact, pirates were known to desert their raiding parties and stay on the island. For 100 years between 1555 and 1655 Spanish Jamaica was subject to many pirate attacks, the final attack left the island in the hands of the English. The English were also subject to pirate raids after they began their occupation of the island. The 1907 Catholic Encyclopedia states, "A review of the period of Spanish occupation is one which reflects very little credit on Spanish colonial administration in those days. Their treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants, whom they are accused of having practically exterminated, is a grave charge, and if true, cannot be condoned on the plea that such conduct was characteristic of the age, and that as bad or worse was perpetrated by other nations even in later years." This is borne out by the much more detailed history of Spanish Jamaica by Francisco Morales Padrón. English rule In May 1655, English forces in the form of a joint expedition by Admiral Sir William Penn (father of the founder of Pennsylvania), and General Robert Venables seized the island. In 1657 the Governor invited buccaneers to base themselves at Port Royal to deter Spanish aggression. In 1657 and 1658 the Spanish, sailing from Cuba, failed at the battles of Ocho Rios and Rio chapman in their attempts to retake the island, and in 1657 Admiral Robert Blake defeated the Spanish West Indian Fleet. The English extended colonisation in 1661 and gained formal recognition of possession from other European powers through the Treaty of Madrid in 1670. However part of the Island remained in the hands of the Maroons with whom they signed a treaty on 1 March 1738. Although much of the Spanish capital, Villa de la Vega, was burned during the conquest, the English renamed it Spanish Town and kept it as the island's capital. For some time, however, Port Royal functioned as the capital while Spanish Town was being rebuilt. The island was a major base for pirates, especially at Port Royal before it was destroyed in an earthquake in 1692. After the disaster, Kingston was founded across the harbour, one of the largest natural havens in the world, and rapidly became the major commercial centre of the island. It was also the site of the second regularly-published English-language newspaper in the Americas, the Weekly Jamaica Courant. British rule The cultivation of sugar cane and coffee by African slave labour made Jamaica one of the most valuable possessions in the world for more than 150 years. The colony's slaves, who vastly outnumbered their white masters by a ratio of 20:1 in 1800, mounted over a dozen major slave conspiracies and uprisings throughout much of the 18th century, including Tacky's revolt in 1760. Escaped slaves known as Maroons established independent communities in the mountainous interior that the British were unable to inhabit, despite major attempts in the 1730s and 1790s; one Maroon community was expelled from the island after the Second Maroon War in the 1790s and those Maroons eventually became part of the core of the Creole community of Sierra Leone. The colonial government enlisted the Maroons in capturing escaped plantation slaves. The British also used Jamaica's free people of color, 10,000 strong by 1800, to keep the enslaved population in check. During the Christmas holiday of 1831, a large scale slave revolt known as the Baptist War broke. It was organised originally as a peaceful strike by Samuel Sharp. The rebellion was suppressed by the militia of the Jamaican plantocracy and the British garrison ten days later in early 1832. Because the loss of property and life in the 1831 rebellion, the British Parliament held two inquiries. The results of these inquiries contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery as of August 1, 1834 throughout the British Empire. However the Jamaican slaves remained bound to their former owners' service, albeit with a guarantee of rights, until 1838 under what was called the Apprenticeship System. The freed population still faced significant hardships, marked by the October 1865 Morant Bay rebellion led by George William Gordon and Paul Bogle. It was brutally repressed. The sugar crop was declining in importance in the late 19th century and the colony diversified into bananas. In 1872 the capital was moved to Kingston, as the port city had far outstripped the inland Spanish Town in size and sophistication. In 1866 the Jamaican legislature renounced its powers, and the country became a crown colony. Some measure of self-government was restored in the 1880s, when islanders gained the right to elect nine members of a legislative council. The establishment of Crown Colony rule resulted over the next few decades in the growth of a middle class of low-level public officials and police officers drawn from the mass of the population whose social and political advancement was blocked by the colonial authorities. The Great Depression had a serious impact both on the emergent middle class and the working class of the 1930s. In the spring of 1938 sugar and dock workers around the island rose in revolt. Although the revolt was suppressed it led to significant changes including the emergence of an organized labour movement and a competitive party system. Independent Jamaica Jamaica gained a degree of local political control in the mid-1940s. The People's National Party (PNP) was founded in 1938. Its main rival, the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) was established five years later. The first elections under universal adult suffrage were held in 1944. Jamaica joined nine other UK territories in the Federation of the West Indies in 1958 but withdrew after Jamaican voters rejected membership in 1961. Jamaica gained independence on August 6, 1962, remaining a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The first prime minister was Alexander Bustamante of the Jamaica Labour Party. Initially, power swapped between the People's National Party and the Jamaican Labour Party regularly. Michael Manley was the first PNP prime minister in 1972 and he introduced socialist policies and relations with Cuba. His second term elections marked the start of repeated political violence. When the PNP lost power in 1980 Edward Seaga immediately began to reverse the policies of his predecessor, bringing in privatization and seeking closer ties with the USA. When the PNP and Manley returned to power in 1989 they continued the more moderate policies and were returned in the elections of 1993 and 1998. Manley resigned for health reasons in 1992 and was succeeded as leader of the PNP by Percival Patterson. Historically, Jamaican emigration has been heavy. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many Jamaicans migrated to Central America, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic to work in the banana and canefields. In the 1950s the primary destination was to the United Kingdom; but since the United Kingdom restricted emigration in 1962, major flow has been to the United States. The heaviest flow of emigration particularly to New York, and Miami occurred during the 1990s and continues to the present day due to high levels of violence, drugs, and gang warfare which is hampering Jamaica. About 20,000 Jamaicans emigrate to the United States each year; another 200,000 visit annually. New York, Miami, and Fort Lauderdale are among the U.S. cities with the largest Jamaican population. In New York, over half of Jamaican expatriates reside in Brooklyn. Remittances from the expatriate communities in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada make increasingly significant contributions to Jamaica's economy. References Black, Clinton V. 1983. The Story of Jamaica. London: Collins Educational. Ledgister, F.S.J. 1998. Class Alliances and the Liberal-Authoritarian State: The Roots of Post-Colonial Democracy in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Surinam. Trenton: Africa World Press. Morales Padrón, Francisco. 1953 2003. Spanish Jamaica. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers. Williams, Eric. 1964. British Historians and the West Indies. P.N.M. Publishing Company, Port-of-Spain. Sawh, Gobin, Ed. 1992. The Canadian Caribbean Connection: Bridging North and South: History, Influences, Lifestyles. Carindo Cultural Assoc., Halifax. Notes Further reading Michener, James, A. 1989. Caribbean. Secker & Warburg. London. ISBN 0-436-27971-1 (Especially Chap. XI. "Martial Law in Jamaica", pp. 403-442. Semi-fictional but mainly accurate). Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5. Barringer, Tim., Forrester, Gillian. and Martinez-Ruiz, Barbaro. 2007. Art and Empancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds. Yale University Press. New Haven and London. ISBN 978-0-300-11661-8 External links History of Jamaica History of Jamaica - Offers a history of the island from 1494 to the present. 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1,454 | Johann_Philipp_Abelin | Johann Philipp Abelin was a German chronicler whose career straddled the 16th and 17th centuries. He was born, probably, at Strasbourg, and died there between 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories under the pseudonyms of Abeleus, Philipp Arlanibäus, Johann Ludwig Gottfried and Gotofredus. He worked mainly as a translator for the publishing house of Lucas Jennisius, Matthäus Merian and Friedrich Hulsius in Frankfurt. Some of his works, such as a history of India, proved later to be mere translations. His own works consisted mainly of compilations of historical records, but met the likings of the time. Publications Translations: Historia Antipodum, 1655, a history of the West Indies Archontologia Cosmicum, translation and revision of Petrus d'Avirth's Monde. Proprietary works: Arma Suecica, 1631-1634, in 12 parts, describing the history of the wars of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Inventarium Sueciae, 1632 Both are compilations of the contemporary records and letters about the events of the war without further historical commentary. In the same style, he later published his best known work Theatrum Europaeum, a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the world down to 1619, reedited, updated and republished several times, including a translation into Dutch. He was himself responsible for the first two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to twenty-one volumes (1633–1738), including illustrations by the beautiful copperplate engravings of Matthäus Merian (1593–1650). Sources Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie - online version at Wikisource | Johann_Philipp_Abelin |@lemmatized johann:2 philipp:2 abelin:1 german:1 chronicler:1 whose:1 career:1 straddle:1 century:1 bear:1 probably:1 strasbourg:1 die:1 write:1 numerous:1 history:5 pseudonym:1 abeleus:1 arlanibäus:1 ludwig:1 gottfried:1 gotofredus:1 work:5 mainly:2 translator:1 publishing:1 house:1 lucas:1 jennisius:1 matthäus:2 merian:2 friedrich:1 hulsius:1 frankfurt:1 india:1 prove:1 later:2 mere:1 translation:4 consist:1 compilation:2 historical:2 record:2 meet:1 liking:1 time:2 publication:1 historia:1 antipodum:1 west:1 indies:1 archontologia:1 cosmicum:1 revision:1 petrus:1 avirth:1 monde:1 proprietary:1 arma:1 suecica:1 part:1 describe:1 war:2 gustavus:1 adolphus:1 sweden:1 inventarium:1 sueciae:1 contemporary:1 letter:1 event:2 without:1 commentary:1 style:1 publish:1 best:1 know:1 theatrum:1 europaeum:1 series:1 chronicle:1 chief:1 world:1 reedited:1 update:1 republish:1 several:1 include:2 dutch:1 responsible:1 first:1 two:1 volume:2 continue:1 various:1 writer:1 grow:1 twenty:1 one:1 illustration:1 beautiful:1 copperplate:1 engraving:1 source:1 allgemeine:1 deutsche:1 biographie:1 online:1 version:1 wikisource:1 |@bigram west_indies:1 gustavus_adolphus:1 adolphus_sweden:1 allgemeine_deutsche:1 deutsche_biographie:1 |
1,455 | Katakana | is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, Roy Andrew Miller, A Japanese Reader: Graded Lessons in the Modern Language, Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, Japan (1966), p. 28, Lesson 7 : Katakana : a—no. "Side by side with hiragana, modern Japanese writing makes use of another complete set of similar symbols called the katakana." kanji, and in some cases the Latin alphabet. The word katakana means "fragmentary kana", as the katakana scripts are derived from components of more complex kanji. Katakana are characterized by short, straight strokes and angular corners, and are the simplest of the Japanese scripts. Miller, p. 28. "The katana symbols, rather simpler, more angular and abrupt in their line than the hiragana..." There are two main systems of ordering katakana: the old-fashioned iroha ordering, and the more prevalent gojūon ordering. Usage In modern Japanese, katakana are most often used for transcription of words from foreign languages Yookoso! An Invitation to Contemporary Japanese 1st edition McGraw-Hill 1993, page 29 "The Japanese Writing System (2) Katakana" (called gairaigo). For example, "television" is written . Similarly, katakana is usually used for country names, foreign places, and personal names. For example, America is written (America also has its own kanji (ateji) or for short, , which literally means "Rice Country"). Katakana are also used for onomatopoeia, Yookoso! An Invitation to Contemporary Japanese 1st edition McGraw-Hill 1993, page 29 "The Japanese Writing System (2) Katakana" words used to represent sounds. For example, , the "ding-dong" sound of a doorbell, would usually be written in katakana. Also, katakana is used for words the writer wishes to emphasize. Yookoso! An Invitation to Contemporary Japanese 1st edition McGraw-Hill 1993, page 29 "The Japanese Writing System (2) Katakana" Technical and scientific terms, such as the names of animal and plant species and minerals, are also commonly written in katakana. , as a species, is written , rather than its kanji . Katakana are also often, but not always, used for transcription of Japanese company names. For example Suzuki is written スズキ, and Toyota is written トヨタ. Katakana are also used for emphasis, especially on signs, advertisements, and hoardings (i.e., billboards). For example, it is common to see ("here"), ("trash") or ("glasses"), and words to be emphasized in a sentence are also sometimes written in katakana, mirroring the European usage of italics. Pre-World War II official documents mix katakana and kanji in the same way that hiragana and kanji are mixed in modern Japanese texts, that is, katakana were used for and particles such as or . Katakana were also used for telegrams in Japan before 1988, and for computer systems—before the introduction of multibyte characters—in the 1980s. Most computers in that era used katakana instead of kanji and/or hiragana for output. Although words borrowed from ancient Chinese are usually written in kanji, loanwords from modern Chinese dialects which are borrowed directly rather than using the Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings, are often written in katakana. Examples include: Japanese Rōmaji Meaning Chinese Source languageマージャンmājanmahjong麻將 májiàngMandarinウーロン茶ūronchaOolong tea烏龍茶 wūlóngMandarinチャーハンchāhanfried rice炒飯 chǎofànMandarinチャーシューchāshūbarbecued pork叉燒 cha siuCantoneseシューマイshūmaia form of dim sum燒賣 siu maaiCantonese The very common Chinese loanword is rarely written with its kanji (). There are rare cases where the opposite has occurred, with kanji forms created from words originally written in katakana. An example of this is , ("coffee"), which can be alternatively written as . This kanji usage is occasionally employed by coffee manufacturers or coffee shops for novelty. Katakana are sometimes used instead of hiragana as furigana to give the pronunciation of a word written in Roman characters, or for a foreign word, which is written as kanji for the meaning, but intended to be pronounced as the original. Katakana are also sometimes used to indicate words being spoken in a foreign or otherwise unusual accent, by foreign characters, robots, etc. For example, in a manga, the speech of a foreign character or a robot may be represented by, for example, ("hello") instead of the more usual hiragana . Katakana are also used to indicate the (Chinese-derived readings) of a kanji in a kanji dictionary. Some Japanese personal names are written in katakana. This was more common in the past, hence elderly women often have katakana names. It is very common to write words with difficult-to-read kanji in katakana. This phenomenon is often seen with medical terminology. For example, in the word ("dermatology"), the second kanji, , is considered difficult to read, and thus the word is commonly written or , mixing kanji and katakana. Similarly, difficult-to-read kanji such as ('cancer') are often written in katakana or hiragana. Katakana is also used for traditional musical notations, as in the of , and in ensembles with , , and . Orthography Foreign phrases are sometimes transliterated with a space separating the words, or a middle dot called . When it is assumed that the reader knows the separate gairaigo words in the phrase, the middle dot is not used. For example, the phrase コンピュータゲーム konpyūta gēmu ("computer game") contains two well-known gairaigo, and therefore is not written with a middle dot. Katakana spelling differs slightly from hiragana. While hiragana spells long vowels with the addition of a second vowel kana, katakana usually uses a vowel extender mark called a chōon. This is a short line following the direction of the text, horizontal for yokogaki (horizontal text), and vertical for tategaki (vertical text). It is generally used in foreign loanwords; long vowels in katakana words of Japanese origin are usually spelt as they would be in hiragana. There are exceptions such as ローソク(蝋燭 rōsoku "candle") or ケータイ(携帯 kētai "mobile phone"). A small tsu (ッ) called a sokuon indicates a geminate consonant, represented in rōmaji by the doubling of the following consonant. For example, "bed" is represented in katakana as ベッド (beddo). The sokuon may also be used to approximate a non-native sound; Bach is written バッハ (Bahha); Mach as マッハ (Mahha). Foreign sounds may be challenging to express in Japanese, resulting in spellings such as Khrushchev (フルシチョフ Furushichofu), Ali Khamenei (アリー・ハーメネイー Arī Hāmeneī) or Itzhak Perlman (イツハク・パールマン Itsuhaku Pāruman or イツァーク・パールマン Itsāku Pāruman). Table of katakana This is a table of katakana together with their Hepburn romanization. Katakana with dakuten or handakuten follow the gojūon kana without them. Characters in red are obsolete, characters in green are modern additions. used mainly to represent sounds from other languages. Learning to read katakana is often complicated by the similarities between different characters. For example, shi シ and tsu ツ , as well as so ソ and n ン , look very similar in print except for the slant and stroke shape. (These differences in slant and shape are more prominent when written with an ink brush.) vowelsyōonア aイ iウ uエ eオ o ya yu yoカ kaキ kiク kuケ keコ koキャ kyaキュ kyuキョ kyoサ saシ shiス suセ seソ soシャ shaシュ shuショ shoタ taチ chiツ tsuテ teト toチャ chaチュ chuチョ choナ naニ niヌ nuネ neノ noニャ nyaニュ nyuニョ nyoハ haヒ hiフ fuヘ heホ hoヒャ hyaヒュ hyuヒョ hyoマ maミ miム muメ meモ moミャ myaミュ myuミョ myoヤ yaユ yuヨ yoラ raリ riル ruレ reロ roリャ ryaリュ ryuリョ ryoワ waヰ wiヱ weヲ wo 2ヰャ wyaヰュ wyuヰョ wyoン nガ gaギ giグ guゲ geゴ goギャ gyaギュ gyuギョ gyoザ zaジ jiズ zuゼ zeゾ zoジャ jaジュ juジョ joダ daヂ (ji)ヅ (dzu)デ deド doヂャ (ja)ヂュ (ju)ヂョ (jo)バ baビ biブ buベ beボ boビャ byaビュ byuビョ byoパ paピ piプ puペ peポ poピャ pyaピュ pyuピョ pyo ヵ small kaヶ small ke3 1 These now-obsolete katakana appeared in some textbooks as early as 1873 ( Meiji 6), but never became widespread. (ja) 「いろは と アイウエオ」 (ja) 伊豆での収穫 : 日本国語学史上比類なき変体仮名 2 In modern times, ウォ ("wo") is used as the representation of a "wo" sound instead. The katakana version of the wo kana, ヲ, is primarily used, albeit rarely, to represent the particle を in katakana. The particle is commonly pronounced the same as the o kana. 3 It is an abbreviation for the kanji 箇. History Katakana was developed in the early Heian Period from parts of man'yōgana characters as a form of shorthand. For example, ka カ comes from the left side of ka 加 "increase". The table below shows the origins of each katakana: the red markings of the original Chinese character eventually became each corresponding symbol. Japanese language instruction Some instructors "introduce katakana after the students have learned to read and write sentences in hiragana without difficulty and know the rules." Mutsuko Endo Simon, A Practical Guide for Teachers of Elementary Japanese, Center for Japanese Studies, the University of Michigan (1984) p. 36, 3.3 Katakana Most students who have learned hiragana "do not have great difficulty in memorizing" katakana as well. Simon, p. 36 Other instructors introduce the katakana first, because these are used with loanwords. This gives students a chance to practice reading and writing kana with meaningful words. This is the approach taken by Eleanor Harz Jorden. Computer encoding In addition to fonts intended for Japanese text and Unicode catch-all fonts (like Arial Unicode MS), many fonts intended for Chinese text also include katakana (such as MS Song). Katakana have two forms of encoding, halfwidth and fullwidth . The halfwidth forms come from JIS X 0201 originally. This includes halfwidth katakana in right side area of ASCII. That is, most halfwidth katakana could be represented by one byte each. In the late 1970s, two-byte character sets such as JIS X 0208 were introduced to represent hiragana, kanji, and other characters. JIS_X_0208 has its own katakana area independently of one-byte character set such as JIS_X_0201. katakana of JIS_X_0208 takes two-byte (at least), so many (especially old) devices output these katakana as two-byte-width. This is why katakana of JIS_X_0201 is called halfwidth and JIS_X_0208, fullwidth. Therefore, most encodings have no halfwidth hiragana. Although often said to be obsolete, in fact the halfwidth katakana are still used in many systems and encodings. For example, the titles of mini discs can only be entered in ASCII or halfwidth katakana, and halfwidth katakana were commonly used in computerized cash register displays, on shop receipts, and Japanese digital television and DVD subtitles. Several popular Japanese encodings such as EUC-JP, Unicode and Shift-JIS have halfwidth katakana code as well as fullwidth. By contrast, ISO-2022-JP has no halfwidth katakana, and is mainly used over SMTP and NNTP. Halfwidth katakana are commonly used to save memory space. Unicode In Unicode, fullwidth katakana occupy code points U+30A0 to U+30FF : 0123456789ABCDEF30A ゠ァアィイゥウェエォオカガキギク30B グケゲコゴサザシジスズセゼソゾタ30C ダチヂッツヅテデトドナニヌネノハ30D バパヒビピフブプヘベペホボポマミ30E ムメモャヤュユョヨラリルレロヮワ30F ヰヱヲンヴヵヶヷヸヹヺ・ーヽヾヿ Encoded in this block along with the katakana are the nakaguro word separation middle dot, the chōon vowel extender, the katakana iteration marks, and a ligature of コト sometimes used in vertical writing. Halfwidth equivalents to the fullwidth katakana also exist. These are encoded within the Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block (U+FF00–U+FFEF) , starting at U+FF65 and ending at U+FF9F (characters U+FF61–U+FF64 are halfwidth punctuation marks): 0123456789ABCDEFFF6 ｠｡｢｣､･ｦｧｨｩｪｫｬｭｮｯFF7 ｰｱｲｳｴｵｶｷｸｹｺｻｼｽｾｿFF8 ﾀﾁﾂﾃﾄﾅﾆﾇﾈﾉﾊﾋﾌﾍﾎﾏFF9 ﾐﾑﾒﾓﾔﾕﾖﾗﾘﾙﾚﾛﾜﾝﾞﾟ This block also includes the halfwidth dakuten and handakuten. The fullwidth versions of these characters are found in the hiragana block. Code points 32D0 to 32FE list circled katakana. A circled ン (n) is not included. 0123456789ABCDEF32D ㋐ ㋑ ㋒ ㋓ ㋔ ㋕ ㋖ ㋗ ㋘ ㋙ ㋚ ㋛ ㋜ ㋝ ㋞ ㋟32E ㋠ ㋡ ㋢ ㋣ ㋤ ㋥ ㋦ ㋧ ㋨ ㋩ ㋪ ㋫ ㋬ ㋭ ㋮ ㋯32F ㋰ ㋱ ㋲ ㋳ ㋴ ㋵ ㋶ ㋷ ㋸ ㋹ ㋺ ㋻ ㋼ ㋽ ㋾ Katakana uses in non-Japanese languages Ainu Katakana is sometimes used to write the Ainu language. In Ainu language katakana usage, the consonant that comes at the end of a syllable is represented by a small version of a katakana that corresponds to that final consonant and with an arbitrary vowel. For instance "up" is represented by ウㇷ゚ (ウプ—u followed by small pu). Ainu also requires three additional sounds, represented by セ゜ ([tse]), ツ゜ ([tu̜]) and ト゜ ([tu̜]). In Unicode, the Katakana Phonetic Extensions block (U+31F0–U+31FF) exists for Ainu language support. These characters are used mainly for the Ainu language only: 0123456789ABCDEF31F ㇰ(ク)ㇱ(シ)ㇲ(ス)ㇳ(ト)ㇴ(ヌ)ㇵ(ハ)ㇶ(ヒ)ㇷ(フ)ㇸ(ヘ)ㇹ(ホ)ㇺ(ム)ㇻ(ラ)ㇼ(リ)ㇽ(ル)ㇾ(レ)ㇿ(ロ) Taiwanese Taiwanese kana (タイ ヲァヌ ギイ カア ビェン) is a katakana-based writing system once used to write Holo Taiwanese, when Taiwan was ruled by Japan. It functioned as a phonetic guide to hanzi, much like furigana in Japanese or Zhuyin fuhao in Chinese. There were similar systems for other languages in Taiwan as well, including Hakka and Formosan languages. Unlike Japanese or Ainu, Taiwanese kana are used similarly to the Zhùyīn fúhào characters, with kana serving as initials, vowel medials and consonant finals, marked with tonal marks. A dot below the initial kana represented aspirated consonants, and チ, ツ, サ, セ, ソ, ウ and オ with a superpositional bar represented sounds found only in Taiwanese. Example transcriptions of katakana and foreign languages Medicine KatakanaRōmajiSource wordビタミン, ヴィタミンbitamin, Vitaminvitamin ミネラルminerarumineral カルシウムkarushiumucalcium ホルモンhorumonhormon Computing KatakanaRōmajiSource wordKanji and other wordsマウスmausumouse キーボードkībōdokeyboard ディスプレイdisupureidisplay 画面 gamenポインタ, ポインターpointa, pointāpointer プログラミングpuroguraminguprogramming ソフトウェアsofutoweasoftware ハードウェアhādoweahardware オペレーティング・システム, オペレイティング・システムoperētingu shisutemu, opereitingu shisutemu |operating system |基本ソフト kihonsofuto; OS ōesu|- |インターネット |intānetto|Internet | |- |ウェブ |webu''Web Personal names +from English namesKatakanaRōmajiSource nameジョンjonJohn ジョージjōjiGeorge メアリー or メリーmearī, merīMary マイケル or マイクルmaikeru, maikuruMichael ピーターpītāPeter スコットsukottoScott +from French namesKatakanaRōmajiSource nameマリーmarīMarie ミシェルmisheruMichel +from German namesKatakanaRōmajiSource nameマリアmariaMaria ミハエル, ミヒャエルmihaeru, mihyaeruMichael Regions Katakana Rōmaji Source nameKanjiアフリカafurikaAfrica 阿弗利加 AfurikaアメリカamerikaAmerica 亜米利加 AmerikaアジアajiaAsia 亜細亜 AjiaヨーロッパyōroppaEuropa 欧羅巴 Yōroppa欧州 Ōshūラテンアメリカraten amerikaLatin America 中南米 ChūnanbeiオセアニアoseaniaOceania 大洋州 Taiyōshū Nations Katakana Rōmaji Source name English nameアルゼンチンaruzenchinArgentina ArgentinaブラジルburajiruBrasil BrazilブルガリアburugariaБългария, Balgariya BulgariaカナダkanadaCanada CanadaチェコchekoČesko Czech RepublicチリchiliChile ChileイギリスigirisuInglês United Kingdom England is called イングランド (ingurando) フィンランドfinrandoFinland FinlandフランスfuransuFrance FranceドイツdoitsuDeutschland GermanyオランダorandaHolanda Holland (The Netherlands)インドindoIndia IndiaインドネシアindoneshiaIndonesia IndonesiaアイルランドairurandoIreland IrelandイタリアitariaItalia ItalyリトアニアritoaniaLithuania LithuaniaマレーシアmarēshiaMalaysia MalaysiaメキシコmekishikoMexico MexicoフィリピンfiripinFilipinas PhilippinesポーランドpōrandoPoland PolandポルトガルporutogaruPortugal Portugalルーマニアrūmania România RomaniaロシアroshiaРосси́я, Rossiya RussiaシンガポールshingapōruSingapore Singapore Cities Katakana Rōmaji Source name English nameベルファストberufasuto Belfast BelfastベルリンberurinBerlin Berlinブカレストbukaresuto Bucharest Bucharestブエノスアイレスbuenosu airesuBuenos Aires Buenos AiresシカゴshikagoChicago ChicagoハノイhanoiHà Nội Hanoiホンコンhonkon香港 Hong KongリスボンrisubonLisbon LisbonロンドンrondonLondon LondonロサンゼルスrosanzerusuLos Angeles Los AngelesマドリッドmadoriddoMadrid MadridマニラmaniraManila ,ManilaモスクワmosukuwaМосква, Moskva Moscowニューヨークnyū yōkuNew York New YorkパリpariParis Parisプラハpuraha Praha PragueローマrōmaRoma RomeサンフランシスコsanfuranshisukoSan Francisco San FranciscoサンティアゴsantiagoSantiago SantiagoシアトルshiatoruSeattle SeattleシドニーshidonīSydney SydneyトロントtorontoToronto TorontoワシントンwashintonWashington Washington References See also Japanese phonology Hiragana Historical kana usage Rōmaji Taiwanese kana External links Katakana Unicode chart | Katakana |@lemmatized japanese:29 syllabary:1 one:3 component:2 writing:6 system:10 along:2 hiragana:17 roy:1 andrew:1 miller:2 reader:2 graded:1 lesson:2 modern:7 language:12 rutland:1 vermont:1 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1,456 | Play_(theatre) | A play being performed. A play, or stageplay, is a form of literature written by a playwright, almost always consisting of scripted dialogue between fictional characters, intended for theatrical performance rather than reading. There are rare dramatists, notably George Bernard Shaw, who have had little preference whether their plays were performed or read. Therefore, the term "play" can refer to both the written works of playwrights and to their complete theatrical performance. "Play": Dictionary.com website. Retrieved on January 3, 2008. History The earliest recorded theatrical event dates back to 2000 BC with the passion plays of Ancient Egypt. This story of the god Osiris was performed annually at festivals throughout the civilization, marking the known beginning of a long relationship between theatre and religion. In Western culture, the play originated in Ancient Greece and was popular through Roman times. They began to fade from popularity until the late 16th century, when Shakespeare popularised theatres and plays. His influence on this literary form, and the English language, is still apparent today. Shakespeare may, in fact, have helped introduce the play to England, as before the late 1500s there were no set plays in England, just wandering minstrels performing scenes on request. The history of plays in Eastern theatre is traced back to 1000 BC with the Sanskrit drama of ancient Indian theatre. The earliest plays in Chinese theatre also date back to around the same time. Japanese forms of Kabuki, Noh, and Kyogen date back to the 17th century. Other Eastern forms were developed throughout China, Korea, and Southeast Asia. The most popular plays in the medieval Islamic world were passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than ta'ziya plays. Genres Comedy Comedies are plays which are designed to be humourous. Comedies are often filled with witty remarks, unusual characters, and strange circumstances. Certain comedies are geared toward different age groups. Comedies were one of the two original play types of Ancient Greece, along with tragedies. Farce A generally nonsensical genre of play, farces are often overacted and often involve slapstick humour. Satirical A satire is a play that tends to poke fun at current events or famous people. Tragedy These plays often involve death and are designed to cause the reader or viewer to feel sadness. Tragic plays convey all emotions, and have extremely dramatic conflicts. Tragedy was one of the two original play types of Ancient Greece. Historical These plays focus on actual historical events. They can be tragedies or comedies, but are often neither of these. History as a separate genre was popularised by William Shakespeare. Terminology The term "play" can be either a general term, or more specifically refer to a non-musical play. Sometimes the term "straight play" is used in contrast to "musical", which refers to a play based on music, dance, and songs sung by the play's characters. For a short play, the term "playet" is sometimes used. See also Lists List of basic theatre topics List of Canadian plays List of films based on stage plays or musicals List of plays made into feature films Related topics Closet drama Drama Dramatis personæ Playwright Theatre History of theatre Screenplay Musical theatre References | Play_(theatre) |@lemmatized play:34 perform:4 stageplay:1 form:4 literature:2 write:2 playwright:3 almost:1 always:1 consist:1 script:1 dialogue:1 fictional:1 character:3 intend:1 theatrical:3 performance:2 rather:1 read:2 rare:1 dramatist:1 notably:1 george:1 bernard:1 shaw:1 little:1 preference:1 whether:1 therefore:1 term:5 refer:3 work:1 complete:1 dictionary:1 com:1 website:1 retrieve:1 january:1 history:5 early:2 recorded:1 event:3 date:3 back:4 bc:2 passion:2 ancient:5 egypt:1 story:1 god:1 osiris:1 annually:1 festival:1 throughout:2 civilization:1 mark:1 known:1 beginning:1 long:1 relationship:1 theatre:9 religion:1 western:1 culture:1 originate:1 greece:3 popular:2 roman:1 time:2 begin:1 fade:1 popularity:1 late:2 century:2 shakespeare:3 popularise:2 influence:1 literary:1 english:1 language:1 still:1 apparent:1 today:1 may:1 fact:1 help:1 introduce:1 england:2 set:1 wander:1 minstrel:1 scene:1 request:1 eastern:2 trace:1 sanskrit:1 drama:3 indian:1 chinese:1 also:2 around:2 japanese:1 kabuki:1 noh:1 kyogen:1 develop:1 china:1 korea:1 southeast:1 asia:1 medieval:2 islamic:2 world:1 know:2 ta:2 ziya:2 actor:1 enact:1 episode:1 muslim:1 particular:1 shia:1 revolve:1 shaheed:1 martyrdom:1 ali:3 son:1 hasan:1 ibn:2 husayn:1 live:1 secular:1 akhraja:1 record:1 adab:1 though:1 less:1 common:1 genre:3 comedy:6 design:2 humourous:1 often:5 fill:1 witty:1 remark:1 unusual:1 strange:1 circumstance:1 certain:1 gear:1 toward:1 different:1 age:1 group:1 one:2 two:2 original:2 type:2 along:1 tragedy:4 farce:2 generally:1 nonsensical:1 overact:1 involve:2 slapstick:1 humour:1 satirical:1 satire:1 tend:1 poke:1 fun:1 current:1 famous:1 people:1 death:1 cause:1 reader:1 viewer:1 feel:1 sadness:1 tragic:1 convey:1 emotion:1 extremely:1 dramatic:1 conflict:1 historical:2 focus:1 actual:1 neither:1 separate:1 william:1 terminology:1 either:1 general:1 specifically:1 non:1 musical:4 sometimes:2 straight:1 use:1 contrast:1 base:2 music:1 dance:1 song:1 sing:1 short:1 playet:1 used:1 see:1 list:5 basic:1 topic:2 canadian:1 film:2 stage:1 make:1 feature:1 relate:1 closet:1 dramatis:1 personæ:1 screenplay:1 reference:1 |@bigram bernard_shaw:1 southeast_asia:1 revolve_around:1 hasan_ibn:1 husayn_ibn:1 poke_fun:1 |
1,457 | Christianity | Christianity (from the word "Christ") is a monotheistic religion Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, amongst other sources, the Catholic Encyclopedia (article "Monotheism"); William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, pp. 496–99; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". p. 111f. centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. BBC, BBC - Religion & Ethics - 566, Christianity The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God, and as Savior and Lord. Briggs, Charles A. The fundamental Christian faith: the origin, history and interpretation of the Apostles' and Nicene creeds. C. Scribner's sons, 1913. Online: http://books.google.com/books?id=VKMPAAAAIAAJ Adherents of Christianity, known as Christians, The term "Christian" (Greek ) was first used in reference to Jesus' disciples in the city of Antioch about 44 AD, meaning "followers of Christ". The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek ) was by Ignatius of Antioch, around 100 AD. See Elwell/Comfort. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, pp. 266, 828 believe that Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (the part of scripture common to Christianity and Judaism). The majority of orthodox Christian theology claims that Jesus suffered, died, and was resurrected to open heaven to humans. Sheed, Frank. "Theology and Sanity." (Ignatius Press: San Francisco, 1993), pp. 276. They further maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge all humans, living and dead, and grant immortality to his followers. He is considered the model of a virtuous life, and both the revealer and physical incarnation of God. McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, pp. 4-6. Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence refer to the earliest written accounts of his ministry as gospels. Christianity began as a Jewish sect Robinson, Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals, p. 229. Esler. The Early Christian World. p. 157f. and thus, like Judaism and Islam, is classified as an Abrahamic religion (see also Judeo-Christian). J.Z.Smith, p. 276. Anidjar, p. 3. Fowler, World Religions: An Introduction for Students, p. 131. Originating in the eastern Mediterranean, it quickly grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th century had become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was Christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 301-03. Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas and the rest of the world. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization at least since the 4th century. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has between 1.5 billion "between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed" (McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, page xvl.) "1.5 thousand million Christians" (Hinnells, The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion, p. 441.) and 2.1 billion adherents, representing about a quarter to a third of the world's population and is the world's largest religion. Hinnells, The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion, p. 441. In addition, Christianity, is the state religion of several countries. [see Christianity#Demographics for information and references] Beliefs The Sermon On the Mount by Carl Heinrich Bloch, Danish painter, d. 1890. In spite of important differences of interpretation and opinion, Christians share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith. Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief. Creeds Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries to become statements of faith. The Apostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed between the second and ninth centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. Since the Apostles Creed is still unaffected by the later Christological divisions, its statement of the articles of Christian faith remain largely acceptable to most Christian denominations: belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Holy Spirit the death, descent into hell, resurrection, and ascension of Christ the holiness of the Church and the communion of saints Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful. The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively Catholics United for the Faith, "We Believe in One God" Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism". and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. Catholic Encyclopedia, "Council of Ephesus". The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon. though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches, British Orthodox Church, The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless perfectly united into one person. Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian]</ref> The Athanasian Creed, received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance." Catholic Encyclopedia, "Athanasian Creed". Most Christians (Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Protestants alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above. A minority of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds. White, The History of the Church. Jesus Christ The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". A depiction of Jesus as a child with his mother, Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century). Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible, pp. 513, 649. While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history, Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead," , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father" and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final establishment of the Kingdom of God. According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds. Death and resurrection of Jesus Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history. Hanegraaff. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. , , The New Testament mentions several resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once," before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian Theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life. , , , , , , and . Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions. This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church. Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology, p. 11. Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, A Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary." Funk. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues. Lorenzen. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today, p. 13. Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless." Ball/Johnsson (ed.). The Essential Jesus. Salvation Paul of Tarsus, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life. For Paul the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are like Israel descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise". Galatians 3:29 Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? (Oxford, 1997), p. 121. The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh". Romans 8:9, 11, 16. Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' substitutionary death and resurrection. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized. CCC 846; Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 14 See quotations from Council of Trent on Justification at http://www.justforcatholics.org/a14.htm Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God's grace, sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism. Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible. Westminster Confession, Chapter X; Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism. In contrast Arminians, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Grace and Justification Trinity Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons; the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 87-90. Alexander. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. p. 514f. McGrath. Historical Theology. p. 61. although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead. Metzger/Coogan. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 782. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God". Kelly. The Athanasian Creed. They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg1207 The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" represents both the immanence and transcendence of God. God is believed to be infinite and God's presence may be perceived through the actions of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. Fowler. World Religions: An Introduction for Students. p. 58. According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three 'persons' are each eternal and omnipotent. The word trias, from which trinity is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)". Theophilus of Antioch Apologia ad Autolycum II 15 The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in Tertullian. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 50. Tertullian De Pudicitia chapter 21 In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 53. The "Hospitality of Abraham" by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God. Trinitarians Trinitarianism denotes those Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and Churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, theologians beginning in the third century developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as Father, God as Jesus the Son, and God as the Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply three gods, nor that each member of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God; Trinity is defined as one God in three Persons. Moltman, Jurgen. The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God. Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. ISBN 080062825X Non-trinitarians Nontrinitarianism refers to beliefs systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology. Harnack, History of Dogma. Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in Restorationism during the 19th century. Scriptures Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inerrant word of God. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108) Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text The books that are considered canon in the Bible vary depending upon the denomination using or defining it. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject. The Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures, the Tanakh, and includes additional books and reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the Old Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of the New Testament containing books originally written primarily in Greek. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other books from the Septuagint which Roman Catholics call Deuterocanonical. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture; Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Canon of Scripture", § 120 Protestants consider these books apocryphal. Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate Apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by the publisher. Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 39. Roman Catholic interpretation In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning. Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 69-78. Roman Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual. Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115-118. The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into: the allegorical sense, which includes typology. An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism. the moral sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. the anagogical sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Roman Catholic theology holds: the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal Thomas Aquinas, "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses" Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116 that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19). that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church" Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113. and that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome". Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85. Protestant interpretation Clarity of ScriptureProtestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as sola scriptura. Mathison. The Shape of Sola Scriptura. Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness." He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture." Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture. John Calvin wrote, "all who...follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light." John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14-18 The Second Helvetic (Latin for "Swiss") Article about Helvetic confessions Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer Zwingli) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches. Second Helvetic Confession, Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions Original intended meaningProtestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method.<ref>Sproul. Knowing Scripture, pp. 45-61; Bahnsen, [http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6)].</ref> The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is a effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text. This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre as well as theological (canonical) considerations. The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture." p. 205 Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics. p. 565 Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology. e.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.3) Matthew Henry interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion. Afterlife and Eschaton Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the Resurrection of the dead (see below) as well as the belief (held by Catholics, Catholic Encyclopedia, "Particular Judgment". Ott, Grundriß der Dogmatik, p. 566. Orthodox David Moser, What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead. Ken Collins, What Happens to Me When I Die?. and some Protestants) in a judgement particular to the individual soul upon physical death. In Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e. without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence. Audience of 4 August 1999 Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy"). Catholic Encyclopedia, "The Communion of Saints". Some churches, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, do not believe in a particular judgment at death. They hold that a typical deceased's eventuality is decided after his post-Armageddon resurrection during a thousand-year "Judgment Day". Spitz. The Protestant Reformation. Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time. All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99 Universal Reconciliation, also called Apocatastasis, is the view that all will eventually experience salvation, rejecting the concept that hell is everlasting. Farrar. Mercy and Judgment, pp. 378–82. Talbott. Three Pictures of God in Western Theology, pp. 13–15. Such a view was held in the 3rd century by Origen but was condemned as heretical. The notion was revived after the Reformation by the Anabaptist theologian Hans Denck. Christians espousing this view are known as Universalists. Retrieved 11 April 2009. Worship Samples of Christian religious objects- The Holy Bible, a Crucifix, and a Rosary. Justin Martyr described 2nd century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship: "And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need." Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The Lord's Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist: Some Christian denominations view communion as indicating those who are already united in the church, restricting participation to their members not in a state of mortal sin (closed communion). Most other churches view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all Christians or even anyone to participate (open communion). In some denominations, participation is decided by prior arrangement with a church leader. Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the original Sabbath), while others do not meet on a weekly basis. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts with rock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (e.g. many Churches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy). Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or weddings in the service or significant feast days. In the early church Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children's worship is often called Sunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services). Sacraments The Eucharist In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that mediates grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. Views concerning both what rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament vary among Christian denominations and traditions. Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. p. 1435f. The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, however, the majority of Christians recognize seven Sacraments or Divine Mysteries: Baptism, Confirmation (Chrismation in the Orthodox tradition), and the Eucharist, Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony. Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognised by churches in the High church tradition - notably Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic and some Anglicans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology. Some Christian denominations who believe these rites do not communicate grace prefer to call them ordinances. Liturgical calendar Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around a liturgical calendar. This includes holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, periods of fasting such as Lent, and other pious events such as memoria or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar. Hickman. Handbook of the Christian Year. Symbols An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel. Ephesus, Asia Minor. The cross, which is today one of the most widely recognised symbols in the world, was used as a Christian symbol from the earliest times. Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX). Tertuallian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3) Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the fifth century. Dilasser. The Symbols of the Church. Among the symbols employed by the primitive Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. From monumental sources such as tombs it is known that the symbolic fish was familiar to Christians from the earliest times. The fish was depicted as a Christian symbol in the first decades of the second century. Catholic Encyclopedia, "Symbolism of the Fish". Its popularity among Christians was due principally, it would seem, to the famous acrostic consisting of the initial letters of five Greek words forming the word for fish (Ichthys), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter, meaning, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. Christians from the very beginning adorned their tombs with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art. The first Christians had no prejudice against images, pictures, or statues. The idea that they must have feared the danger of idolatry among their new converts is disproved in the simplest way by the pictures even statues, that remain from the first centuries. Catholic Encyclopedia, "Veneration of Images. Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolising the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from writings found in the New Testament. History and origins Early Church and Christological Councils The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci (painted 1495-1498). Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean in the mid-first century. Its earliest development took place under the leadership of the Twelve Apostles, particularly Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle, followed by the early bishops, whom Christians considered the successors of the Apostles. From the beginning, Christians were subject to persecution. This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as Stephen and James, son of Zebedee. Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, first in the year 64, when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders Peter and Paul of Tarsus were each martyred in Rome. Further widespread persecutions of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under Decius and Diocletian. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. State persecution ceased in the 4th century, when Constantine I issued an edict of toleration in 313. On 27 February 380, Emperor Theodosius I enacted a law establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Theodosian Code XVI.i.2, in: Bettenson. Documents of the Christian Church. p. 31. From at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization. Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church (1993), preface. Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address the Arian heresy and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglican Communion, and many Protestant churches. Nicaea was the first of a series of Ecumenical (worldwide) Councils which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 37f. The Assyrian Church of the East did not accept the third and following Ecumenical Councils, and are still separate today. Early Middle Ages With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals. The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the former barbarian tribes. Catholicism spread among the Germanic peoples (initially in competition with Arianism Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 238–42. ), the Celtic and Slavic peoples, the Hungarians and the Scandinavian and Baltic peoples. Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From the 7th century onwards, Islam conquered the Christian lands of the Middle East, North Africa and much of Spain, Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 248–50. resulting in oppression of Christianity and numerous military struggles, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and wars against the Turks. The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 244–47. In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favour of icons. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, p. 260. In the early 10th century, western monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 278–81. High and Late Middle Ages In the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into universities (see University of Paris, University of Oxford, and University of Bologna.) Originally teaching only theology, these steadily added subjects including medicine, philosophy and law, becoming the direct ancestors of modern western institutions of learning. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 305, 312, 314f.. Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Western Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 303–07, 310f., 384–86. and the Dominicans Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 305, 310f., 316f. founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the Cistercians, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 321–23, 365f. Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade. From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 292–300. These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. Riley-Smith. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, resulting in a schism dividing it into a Western, largely Latin branch, the Roman Catholic Church, and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch, the Orthodox Church. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably papal primacy of jurisdiction. Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 91 The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Roman Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches. Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against the Cathar heresy, Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 300, 304–05. various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 310, 383, 385, 391. Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation An icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. Another major schism, the Reformation, resulted in the splintering of the Western Christendom into several Christian denominations. Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. p. 7. Martin Luther in 1517 protested against the sale of indulgences and soon moved on to deny several key points of Roman Catholic doctrine. Others like Zwingli and Calvin further criticized Roman Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices. Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. pp. 39, 55–61. The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved. Schama. A History of Britain. pp. 306–10. Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, pp. 242–44. The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Roman Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. pp. 109–120. Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe, the divides caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state religions in Western Europe: Lutheranism in parts of Germany and in Scandinavia and Anglicanism in England in 1534. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration. A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689. Christianity in the Modern Era In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism and socialism. Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity such as the Dechristianisation during the French Revolution, Mortimer Chambers, The Western Experience (vol. 2) chapter 21. the Spanish Civil War, and general hostility of Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution. Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own in Western Europe, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Western Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere in general, with western civilization no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Demographics Nations with Christianity as their state religion: With an estimated number of adherents that ranges between 1.5 billion Adherents.com Number of Christians in the world and 2.1 billion, split into around 34,000 separate denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion. The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33 per cent for the last hundred years. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world (around 23,000 per day) have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America (around 7,600 per day). Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000, (Cambridge University Press, 2003) pp. 219–20. It is still the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. Encyclopedia Britannica table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. However it is declining in many areas including the United States, American Religious Identification Survey 2008 Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, Barrett/Kurian.World Christian Encyclopedia, p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany). BBC NEWS - Guide: Christians in the Middle East Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? South Korea, Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year Taiwan and Macau A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church’s Bane ). In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades. Putnam, Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society, p. 408. Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, p. xvi. while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general. Peter Marber, Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles, p. 99. Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Roman Catholic), Armenia (Armenian Apostolic), Bolivia (Roman Catholic), Costa Rica (Roman Catholic), Denmark (Evangelical Lutheran), El Salvador (Roman Catholic), England (Anglican), Finland (Evangelical Lutheran & Orthodox), Georgia (Georgian Orthodox), Greece (Greek Orthodox), Iceland (Evangelical Lutheran), Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic), Malta (Roman Catholic), Monaco (Roman Catholic), Norway (Evangelical Lutheran), Scotland (Presbyterian), Switzerland (Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, or Protestant - denomination varies per canton) and Vatican City (Roman Catholic). There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition to a specific Christian denomination. Denominations There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified under denominations, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification system. Sydney E. Ahlstrom (, p. 381.) characterized denominationalism in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Roman Catholic church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." For specific citations, on the Roman Catholic Church see the Catechism of the Catholic Church §816; other examples: Donald Nash, Why the Churches of Christ are not a Denomination; Wendell Winkler, Christ's Church is not a Denomination; and David E. Pratt, What does God think about many Christian denominations? Christianity may be broadly represented as being divided into five main groupings: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Protestantism and Restorationism. A simplified chart of historical developments of major groups within Christianity. Roman Catholicism and other Catholic groups The Roman Catholic Church comprises those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance. Second Vatican Council, Lumen Gentium. Duffy, Saints and Sinners, p. 1. Like the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholic Church through Apostolic succession traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ. Hitchcock, Geography of Religion, p. 281. Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History, p. 11, 14. Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Roman Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities<ref name = "LumenGentium">Second Vatican Council, [http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium, chapter 2, paragraph 15. Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraph 865. and works towards reconciliation among all Christians. The Roman Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Marthaler, Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues (1994), preface. The 2,782 sees Annuario Pontificio (2007), p. 1172. are grouped into 23 particular rites, the largest being the Latin Rite, each with distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering the sacraments. Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 71 With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Roman Catholic Church is the largest church representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world's population. Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents Zenit.org, "Number of Catholics and Priests Rises", 12 February 2007. Central Intelligence Agency, CIA World Factbook (2007). Various smaller communities, such as the Old Catholic, Heenum Catholic and Independent Catholic Churches, include the word Catholic in their title, and share much in common with Roman Catholicism but are no longer in communion with the See of Rome. The Old Catholic Church is in communion with the Anglican Communion. According to the Bonn Accord of 1931, cited at Old Catholic Church of the Beatitudes. Council of Anglican Episcopal Churches in Germany. Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy comprises those churches in communion with the Patriarchal Sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p. 1199. Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through Apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of the individual, mostly national churches is emphasized. A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the Great Schism. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with over 200 million adherents. Oriental Orthodoxy The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called Old Oriental Churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology. Protestantism In the 16th century, Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin inaugurated what has come to be called Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the Reformed Tradition. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. pp. 251–59. Most Protestant traditions branch out from the Reformed tradition in some way. In addition to the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation, there is Anglicanism after the English Reformation. The Anabaptist tradition was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, but has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. The oldest Protestant groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century Protestant Reformation, followed in many cases by further divisions. For example, the Methodist Church grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical and revival movement in the Anglican Church. Several Pentecostal and non-denominational Churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of the Methodist Church. Because Methodists, Pentecostals, and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior", which comes from John Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth, they often refer to themselves as being born-again. Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in these categories, but it seems clear that Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Roman Catholicism in number of followers (although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination). A special grouping are the Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organised in the Anglican Communion.. Some Anglican churches consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic. Sykes/Booty/Knight. The Study of Anglicanism, p. 219. Some Anglicans consider their church a branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church" alongside of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a concept rejected by the Roman Catholic Church and some Eastern Orthodox. Gregory Hallam, Orthodoxy and Ecumenism. Gregory Mathewes-Green, "Whither the Branch Theory?", Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim Vol. 2, No. 4. Some Christians who come out of the Protestant tradition identify themselves simply as "Christian", or "born-again Christian"; they typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and/or creedalism of other Christian communities Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to describe "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.) by calling themselves "non-denominational"—often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Other The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the U.S. during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 91f. A common belief was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy. Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early-19th century camp meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement (with 7 million members JW-Media.org Membership 2005 ), and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Churches of Christ and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement with over 13 million members. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly. Mainstream Christianity is widely used to refer collectively to the common views of major denominations of Christianity (such as Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Anglicanism, Orthodox Christianity) as against the particular tenets of other sects or Christian denominations. The context is dependent on the particular issues addressed, but usually contrasts the orthodox majority view against heterodox minority views. In the most common sense, "mainstream" refers to Nicene Christianity, or rather the traditions which continue to claim adherence to the Nicene Creed. Ecumenism Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 581–84. One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia which includes Roman Catholics. The other way was institutional union with new United and uniting churches. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 413f. and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches. McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 498. Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 373. the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 583. and the Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches signing The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the Methodist church adopted the declaration. Methodist Statement See also Christian Apologetics Criticism of Christianity Freedom of religion Good news (Christianity), concerning the gospel message Political Catholicism Notes References General references American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin Company (2006). Catechism of the Catholic Church. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia of Religion. New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom et al. (ed.). World Christian Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press (2001). Monographies and articles Ahlstrom, Sydney E. Albright, William F. From the Stone Age to Christianity. Alexander, T. Desmond. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Anidjar, 2001. Bahnsen, Greg. [http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6)]. Martin Luther, Augustinian. Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294. Barry, John F. One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. William H. Sadlier (2001). ISBN 0-8215-2207-8 Bettenson, Henry (ed.). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1943). Bokenkotter, Thomas. A Concise History of the Catholic Church . Doubleday (2004). ISBN 0385505841 Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture. Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). ISBN 0-394-31734-3. Coffey, John. Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689. Pearson Education (2000). Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1997). ISBN 019211655X. Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2. Dilasser, Maurice. The Symbols of the Church. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). ISBN 0-8146-2538-X Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press (1997). ISBN 0-3000-7332-1 Elwell, Walter A.; Comfort, Philip Wesley. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897. Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). Farrar, F.W. Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?". Macmillan, London/New York (1904). Foutz, Scott. Martin Luther and Scripture] Martin Luther and Scripture. Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions: An Introduction for Students, Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486. Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X. Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church, Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) ISBN=157075375x Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789. Glenny, W. Edward. Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation, Harper Collins Publishers, New York (1984). Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000). IBSN 0849916437. Harnack, Adolf von. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma (1894). Hickman, Hoyt L. et al. Handbook of the Christian Year. Abingdon Press (1986). ISBN 0-687-16575-X Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion (2005). Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society (2004) ISBN 0-7922-7313-3 Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines. Kelly, J.N.D. The Athanasian Creed. Harper & Row, New York (1964). Kirsch, Jonathan. God Against the Gods. Kreeft, Peter. Catholic Christianity. Ignatius Press (2001) ISBN 0-89870-798-6 Letham, Robert. The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship. P & R Publishing (2005). ISBN 0875520006. Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth & Helwys (2003). ISBN 1573123994. McLaughlin, R. Emmet, Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540, New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). ISBN 0-300-03367-2. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004). Marber, Peter. Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles. FT Press (2003). ISBN 0130654809 Marthaler, Berard. Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press (1994). ISBN 0809134950 Mathison, Keith. The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001). McClintock, John, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper &Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889) McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991. McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology. McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990). IBSN 0198229283. Meconi, David Vincent. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity", in: Journal of Early Christian Studies. Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455. Norman, Edward. The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California (2007) ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6 Olson, Roger E., The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957. Orlandis, Jose, A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers (1993) ISBN 1851821252 Ott, Ludwig. Grundriß der Dogmatik. Herder, Freiburg (1965). Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. Yale University Press (2003). ISBN 0300093896. Putnam, Robert D. Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society. Oxford University Press (2002). Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999). Robinson, George. Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals. New York: Pocket Books (2000). Schama, Simon . A History of Britain. Hyperion (2000). ISBN 0-7868-6675-6. Servetus, Michael. Restoration of Christianity. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007). Simon, Edith. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books (1966). ISBN 0662278208. Smith, J.Z. (1998). Spitz, Lewis. The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003). ISBN 0570033209. Sproul, R.C. Knowing Scripture. Spurgeon, Charles. A Defense of Calvinism. Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. The Study of Anglicanism. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). ISBN 080063151X. Talbott, Thomas. Three Pictures of God in Western Theology" (1995). Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000. Cambridge University Press (2003). White, Howard A. The History of the Church. Woodhead, Linda. An Introduction to Christianity. Further reading External links A number of introductory articles on Christianity. An overview of Christianity. 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1,458 | Marañón_River | Valley of the Marañón between Chachapoyas (Leymebamba) and Celendín Map of the Amazon Basin with the Marañón River highlighted The Marañón River () rises about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a northwesterly direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5 degrees 36' southern latitude; then it makes a great bend to the northeast, and cuts through the inland Andes, until at the Pongo de Manseriche it flows through the plains. After its confluence with Río Ucayali, the Marañón is given the name of the Amazon River. Barred by reefs, and full of rapids and impetuous currents, the Marañón has never become a commercial avenue. At the point where it makes its great bend the river meets the Chinchipe, which originates in southern Ecuador. Just downriver from this, the mountains close in on either side of the Marañón, forming narrow gorges or ping-pongs for a length of 56 km (35 miles), where, besides numerous whirlpools, there are no less than 35 rapids, the series concluding with three cataracts just before reaching the river Imasa or Chunchunga, near the mouth of which Charles Marie de La Condamine embarked in the 18th century to descend the Amazon. In this region the general level of the country begins to decrease in elevation, with only a few mountain spurs, which from time to time push as far as the river and form small-scale ping-pongs. The Aguaruna people live on the river in this area. The final ping-pong on the Marañón, the Pongo de Manseriche, is 5 km (3 miles) long, just below the mouth of the Rio Santiago, and between it and the old abandoned missionary station of Borja. According to Captain Carbajal, who descended the Pongo de Manseriche in the little steamer "Napo," in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 600 m (2000 ft) deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 30 m (100 ft), the precipices "seeming to close in at the top." Through this canyon the Marañón leaps along, at times, at the rate of 20 km/h (12 miles an hour). After passing the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo), the cerros, or hills, gradually disappear, and for a distance of about 30 km (20 miles) the river is full of islands, and there is nothing visible from its low banks but an immense forest-covered plain known as the selva baja ("low jungle") or Peruvian Amazonia, home to indigenous peoples such as the Urarina of the Chambira Basin, the Candoshi, and the Cocama-Cocamilla peoples. The Marañón river serves also as a frame for one of the most important novels of the Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría: La serpiente de oro (1935). , | Marañón_River |@lemmatized valley:2 marañón:9 chachapoyas:1 leymebamba:1 celendín:1 map:1 amazon:3 basin:2 river:9 highlight:1 rise:1 km:5 northeast:2 lima:1 peru:1 flow:2 deeply:1 erode:1 andean:1 northwesterly:1 direction:1 along:2 eastern:1 base:1 cordillera:1 andes:3 far:2 degree:1 southern:2 latitude:1 make:2 great:2 bend:2 cut:1 inland:1 pongo:4 de:6 manseriche:3 plain:2 confluence:1 río:1 ucayali:1 give:1 name:1 bar:1 reef:1 full:2 rapid:2 impetuous:1 current:1 never:1 become:1 commercial:1 avenue:1 point:1 meet:1 chinchipe:1 originate:1 ecuador:1 downriver:1 mountain:2 close:2 either:1 side:1 form:2 narrow:2 gorge:1 ping:3 pong:3 length:1 mile:4 besides:1 numerous:1 whirlpool:1 less:1 series:1 conclude:1 three:1 cataract:1 reach:1 imasa:1 chunchunga:1 near:1 mouth:2 charles:1 marie:1 la:2 condamine:1 embark:1 century:1 descend:2 region:1 general:1 level:1 country:1 begin:1 decrease:1 elevation:1 spur:1 time:3 push:1 small:1 scale:1 aguaruna:1 people:3 live:1 area:1 final:1 long:1 rio:1 santiago:1 old:1 abandon:1 missionary:1 station:1 borja:1 accord:1 captain:1 carbajal:1 little:1 steamer:1 napo:1 vast:1 rent:1 ft:2 deep:1 place:1 width:1 precipice:1 seem:1 top:1 canyon:1 leap:1 rate:1 h:1 hour:1 pass:1 huaracayo:1 guaracayo:1 cerros:1 hill:1 gradually:1 disappear:1 distance:1 island:1 nothing:1 visible:1 low:2 bank:1 immense:1 forest:1 covered:1 know:1 selva:1 baja:1 jungle:1 peruvian:2 amazonia:1 home:1 indigenous:1 urarina:1 chambira:1 candoshi:1 cocama:1 cocamilla:1 serve:1 also:1 frame:1 one:1 important:1 novel:1 writer:1 ciro:1 alegría:1 serpiente:1 oro:1 |@bigram amazon_basin:1 lima_peru:1 ping_pong:3 la_condamine:1 |
1,459 | Bioleaching | Bioleaching is the extraction of specific metals from their ores through the use of bacteria. This is much cleaner than the tradtitional heap leaching using cyanide. Flotation technique cleaner than heap leaching Bioleaching is one of several applications within biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to recover copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, and cobalt. The process The extraction of gold from its ore can involve numerous ferrous and sulfur oxidizing bacteria, including Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans (formerly known as Thiobacillus). For example, bacteria catalyse the breakdown of the mineral arsenopyrite (FeAsS) by oxidising the sulfur and metal (in this case arsenic ions) to higher oxidation states whilst reducing dioxygen by H2 and Fe3+. This allows the soluble products to dissolve. FeAsS(s) → Fe2+(aq) + As3+(aq) + S6+(aq) This process actually occurs at the cell membrane of the bacteria. The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria to reduce oxygen molecules to water. In stage 2, bacteria oxidise Fe2+ to Fe3+ (whilst reducing O2). Fe2+ → Fe3+ They then oxidise the metal to a higher positive oxidation state. With the electrons gained, they reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+ to continue the cycle. M3+ → M5+ The gold is now separated from the ore and in solution. The process for copper is very similar. The mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu2+ ions being left. Extraction from mixture Copper (Cu2+) ions are removed from the solution by ligand exchange solvent extraction which leaves other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups each possessing a lone pair. The ligand is dissolved in an organic solvent such as kerosene and shaken with the solution producing this reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2LH(organic) → CuL2(organic) + 2H+(aq) The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to 2 molecules of the ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to polar water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution. Because the initial reaction is reversible, it is determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution. Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: an electric current is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions. Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there. The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron: Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) → Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq) The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons). Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to charcoal. Bioleaching with fungi Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different strata, as with electronic scrap, catalytic converters, and fly ash from municipal waste incineration. Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (Aspergillus Niger, Penicillium simplicissimum) were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%.Aspergillus Niger can produce some organic acids such as citric acid. So it can be used for bioleaching sulfides . Compared with other extraction techniques Traditional extractions involve many expensive steps such as roasting and smelting, which require sufficient concentrations of elements in ores and are environmentally unfriendly. Low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they simply ignore the waste which surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These microorganisms actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the ions out of the solution after the bacteria have finished. Some advantages associated with bioleaching are: economical: bioleaching is generally simpler and therefore cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants. environmental: The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled. Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching are: economical: the bacterial leaching process is very slow compared to smelting. This brings in less profit as well as introducing a significant delay in cash flow for new plants. environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and H+ ions which have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming "Yellow Boy" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a biosafety failure. Currently it is more economical to smelt copper ore rather than to use bioleaching, since the concentration of copper in its ore is generally quite high. The profit obtained from the speed and yield of smelting justifies its cost. However, the concentration of gold in its ore is generally very low. The lower cost of bacterial leaching in this case outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal. Biocatalytic processes The physiology and energetic manipulation of metal leaching organisms are extremely significant, especially for gold, copper,uranium leaching and recovery of metals such as arsenic, silver, and mercury.Organisms that thrive in extreme environments such as those described above, are of interest in the production of highly stable enzymes and in the development of certain innovative bioprocesses. One area of environmental/biotechnological research would be the realization of the biocatalytic potential of these extremophilic microbes, which thrive at very high (boiling) temperatures, high pressures, highly saline or acidic environments. An area of interest would be the development of environmentally relevant (bio)technology based on microbial degradation of the recalcitrant pollutants. This calls for characterization of single microbes and mixed cultures that can survive amidst high concentrations of the pollutants.Essential evaluation of microbial physiology in conjunction with industrially relevant molecular bioprocess design is required for development of these system which can aid as great learning/research tools in arenas of enzyme or cell processing applications along with mining, waste-water treatment, bioremediation. Understanding of these "hyperthermophilic anaerobes" that encompass a widely metabolic variety can be utilized for novel applications such as high-temperature 'anaerobic digestors',aiding the conversion of the waste to useful products, molecular engineering of enzymes etc. See also BHP Billiton Talvivaara References Further reading Bioleaching, BioMineWiki BHP Billiton - Bactech T. A. Fowler and F. K. Crundwell - 'Leaching of zinc sulfide with Thiobacillus ferrooxidans' BioHeap - Bioleaching process developed by Pacific Ore Ltd Brandl H. (2001) Microbial leaching of metals. In: Rehm H.J. (ed.) Biotechnology, Vol. 10. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 191-224 Bioleaching microbes (bacteria, archea, fungi, lichens), BioMinewiki Bioleaching reactions, BioMineWiki | Bioleaching |@lemmatized bioleaching:14 extraction:8 specific:1 metal:10 ore:8 use:7 bacteria:11 much:1 clean:2 tradtitional:1 heap:2 leach:2 cyanide:2 flotation:1 technique:2 one:2 several:3 application:3 within:1 biohydrometallurgy:1 method:2 recover:1 copper:17 zinc:3 lead:2 arsenic:4 antimony:1 nickel:1 molybdenum:1 gold:8 cobalt:1 process:12 involve:3 numerous:1 ferrous:1 sulfur:3 oxidize:1 include:1 acidithiobacillus:2 ferrooxidans:2 thiooxidans:1 formerly:1 know:1 thiobacillus:2 example:1 catalyse:1 breakdown:1 mineral:3 arsenopyrite:1 feass:2 oxidise:5 case:3 ion:11 high:7 oxidation:2 state:2 whilst:2 reduce:5 dioxygen:1 allow:1 soluble:1 product:2 dissolve:5 aq:7 actually:2 occur:2 cell:3 membrane:1 electron:6 pass:3 biochemical:1 produce:5 energy:2 oxygen:2 molecule:4 water:5 stage:2 positive:1 gain:2 continue:1 cycle:1 separate:3 solution:11 similar:1 chalcopyrite:1 follow:1 two:2 far:2 leave:4 mixture:2 remove:3 ligand:5 exchange:1 solvent:2 bond:2 large:1 consist:1 number:1 small:1 group:1 possess:1 lone:1 pair:1 organic:4 kerosene:2 shake:1 reaction:3 donate:1 complex:3 central:1 atom:1 charge:2 longer:1 attract:2 polar:1 easily:2 initial:1 reversible:1 determine:1 ph:2 add:1 concentrated:1 acid:5 reverse:1 equation:1 go:1 back:1 aqueous:1 electro:1 win:1 increase:1 purity:1 electric:1 current:1 resulting:1 negative:1 cathode:1 collect:2 also:2 concentrate:1 displace:1 fe:2 scrap:2 iron:4 cu:2 lose:2 take:3 agent:2 accept:1 trace:1 precious:1 may:1 original:1 treat:1 sodium:1 presence:1 free:1 adsorb:1 surface:2 charcoal:1 fungi:4 specie:1 grow:2 many:2 different:1 stratum:1 electronic:1 catalytic:1 converter:1 fly:1 ash:1 municipal:1 waste:4 incineration:1 experiment:1 show:1 fungal:1 strain:1 aspergillus:2 niger:2 penicillium:1 simplicissimum:1 able:1 mobilize:1 sn:1 al:1 ni:1 pb:1 zn:1 citric:1 sulfide:2 compare:2 traditional:3 expensive:2 step:1 roast:1 smelting:2 require:2 sufficient:1 concentration:5 element:2 environmentally:3 unfriendly:1 low:3 problem:1 simply:2 ignore:1 surround:2 attain:1 yield:2 microorganism:1 break:1 constituent:1 company:2 finish:1 advantage:1 associate:2 economical:3 generally:3 simple:1 therefore:1 cheap:1 operate:2 maintain:1 since:5 specialist:1 need:1 chemical:2 plant:2 environmental:4 friendly:1 translate:1 profit:3 necessary:1 limiting:1 dioxide:1 emission:1 le:1 landscape:1 damage:2 naturally:1 mine:3 area:3 relatively:1 untouched:1 breed:1 condition:1 cultivate:1 recycle:1 disadvantage:1 bacterial:2 leaching:6 slow:1 smelt:3 bring:1 less:1 well:1 introduce:1 significant:2 delay:1 cash:1 flow:1 new:1 toxic:1 sometimes:1 sulfuric:1 h:3 form:2 leak:2 ground:1 turn:1 acidic:2 cause:1 heavy:1 drainage:1 rise:1 result:1 dilution:1 fresh:1 precipitate:1 yellow:1 boy:1 pollution:1 reason:1 setup:1 must:1 carefully:1 plan:1 biosafety:1 failure:1 currently:1 rather:1 quite:1 obtain:1 speed:1 justifies:1 cost:2 however:1 outweigh:1 time:1 extract:1 biocatalytic:2 physiology:2 energetic:1 manipulation:1 organism:2 extremely:1 especially:1 uranium:1 recovery:1 silver:1 mercury:1 thrive:2 extreme:1 environment:2 describe:1 interest:2 production:1 highly:2 stable:1 enzyme:3 development:3 certain:1 innovative:1 bioprocesses:1 biotechnological:1 research:2 would:2 realization:1 potential:1 extremophilic:1 microbe:3 boil:1 temperature:2 pressure:1 saline:1 relevant:2 bio:1 technology:1 base:1 microbial:3 degradation:1 recalcitrant:1 pollutant:2 call:1 characterization:1 single:1 mixed:1 culture:1 survive:1 amidst:1 essential:1 evaluation:1 conjunction:1 industrially:1 molecular:2 bioprocess:1 design:1 system:1 aid:2 great:1 learn:1 tool:1 arena:1 processing:1 along:1 mining:1 treatment:1 bioremediation:1 understanding:1 hyperthermophilic:1 anaerobes:1 encompass:1 widely:1 metabolic:1 variety:1 utilize:1 novel:1 anaerobic:1 digestors:1 conversion:1 useful:1 engineering:1 etc:1 see:1 bhp:2 billiton:2 talvivaara:1 reference:1 read:1 biominewiki:3 bactech:1 fowler:1 f:1 k:1 crundwell:1 bioheap:1 develop:1 pacific:1 ltd:1 brandl:1 rehm:1 j:1 ed:1 biotechnology:1 vol:1 wiley:1 vch:1 weinheim:1 pp:1 archea:1 lichens:1 |@bigram copper_zinc:1 aq_aq:2 solvent_extraction:1 lone_pair:1 organic_solvent:1 aqueous_solution:1 precious_metal:1 sodium_cyanide:1 catalytic_converter:1 citric_acid:1 environmentally_friendly:1 sulfur_dioxide:1 dioxide_emission:1 sulfuric_acid:1 zinc_sulfide:1 wiley_vch:1 vch_weinheim:1 microbe_bacteria:1 |
1,460 | Economy_of_Nauru | Economic Overview Revenues of this tiny island have traditionally come from exports of phosphate rock. Primary phosphate reserves were exhausted, and mining ceased, but in 2006-07, mining of a deeper layer of "secondary phosphate" began. It is hoped that this economic activity might lift Nauru from the bottom rung of global GDP per capita. The only other major source of government revenue is sale of fishing rights in Nauru's territorial waters. Though for a time phosphates gave Nauruans one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, few other resources exist with most necessities being imported, including some fresh water from Australia. The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. In anticipation of the exhaustion of Nauru's phosphate deposits, substantial amounts of phosphate income were invested in trust funds to help cushion the transition and provide for Nauru's economic future. The government borrowed heavily from the trusts to finance fiscal deficits. To cut costs, the government froze wages, reduced over-staffed public service departments, and closed some overseas consulates. In recent years Nauru encouraged the registration of offshore banks and corporations. Tens of billions of dollars were channeled through their accounts, until international pressure saw Nauru crack down on money laundering. Few comprehensive statistics on the Nauru economy exist, with estimates of Nauru's GDP varying widely. Aid flows, chiefly from Australia, Taiwan and New Zealand, keep the Nauruan economy afloat. Economic Performance In the years after independence in 1968, Nauru possessed the highest GDP per capita in the world due to its rich phosphate deposits. In anticipation of the exhaustion of its phosphate deposits, substantial amounts of the income from phosphates were invested in trust funds aimed to help cushion the transition and provide for Nauru’s economic future. However, because of heavy spending from the trust funds, including some wasteful foreign investment activities, the government is now facing virtual bankruptcy. To cut costs the government has called for a freeze on wages, a reduction of over-staffed public service departments, privatization of numerous government agencies, and closure of some overseas consulates. Economic uncertainty caused by financial mismanagement and corruption, combined with shortages of basic goods, has resulted in some domestic unrest. In 2004 Nauru was faced with chaos amid political strife and the collapse of the island’s telecommunications system. Moreover, the deterioration of housing and hospitals has continued. Few comprehensive statistics on the Nauru economy exist, with estimates of Nauru's GDP varying widely. According to the U.S. State Department, Nauru’s GDP volume was US$1 million in 2004. Nauru receives about US$20 million foreign aid a year from Australia. CountryWatch - Login Page Balance of Payments Phosphate is Nauru’s only product for export. In 2004 income from phosphate export was US$640,000, with Australia, New Zealand and Japan serving as the country's major export markets. Nauru needs to import almost all basic and capital goods, including food, water, fuel, and manufactured goods, with Australia and New Zealand as its major import sources. In 2004 Nauru’s imports totaled about US$19.8 million. Regional Situation Currently, Nauru is heavily dependent on Australia as its major source of financial support. In 2001 Nauru signed an agreement with Australia to accommodate asylum seekers (mostly from Iraq and Afghanistan) on the island, in return for millions of dollars in aid. This agreement, referred to as the "Pacific Solution", came to an end in 2007, prompting Nauruan concerns about the future of the island's revenue. "Nauru 'hit' by detention centre closure", The Age, February 7, 2008 Australia has also sent financial experts to Nauru to help the tiny nation overcome its economic problems. However, serious questions remain about the long-term viability of Nauru’s economy, with uncertainties about the rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates. In 2008, talks began between Australia and Nauru regarding the future of the former's economic development aid to the latter. Nauruan Foreign and Finance Minister Dr Kieren Keke stated that his country did not want aid handouts. One possible solution currently being explored would be for Australia to assist Nauru in setting up a "boat repair industry" for regional fishing vessels "Nauru suggests boat repair industry", Saipan Tribune, March 4, 2008 . Taxation There is no tax on income in Nauru. Taxes include the Airport Departure tax and the bed tax at the Meneñ Hotel. The 2007-08 Budget saw the increase of existing excises on cigarettes and duty on imports. A tax on sugary foods was also introduced, chiefly to help combat Nauru's diabetes epidemic. CountryWatch - Login Page Economic statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - US$60 million (2001 est.) GDP per capita: purchasing power parity - US$5,000 (2001 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): -3.6% (1993) Budget: revenues: US$23.4 million; expenditures: US$64.8 million (1995/96) External debt: US$33.3 million Economic aid - receives around US$2.25 million from Australia (1996/97 est.) Currency: Australian dollar The fiscal year runs from July 1 to June 30. Employment Labour force are mainly employed in mining phosphates, public administration by the NPC, education and transport Unemployment rate is close to 90%. CIA - The World Factbook - Nauru In February 2008, foreign affairs minister Dr. Kieren Keke stated: "We have got a major unemployment crisis in front of us." Nauru 'hit' by detention centre closure - Breaking News - World - Breaking News Main industries are phosphate mining, offshore banking, coconut products Electricity production (fossil fuels) and consumption are around 30 GWh (2000) Agriculture is not a major employer, coconuts are the main produce Trade Exports - valued at US$25.3 million (1991), mainly phosphates, main partners are New Zealand, Australia, South Korea, US (2000) Imports - valued at US$21.1 million (1991), mainly food, fuel, manufactures, building materials, machinery, main partners are Australia, USA, UK, Indonesia, India (2000) See also Nauru Nauru Phosphate Corporation (N.P.C.) Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust Tourism in Nauru References External links "Nauru seeks to regain lost fortunes", Nick Squires, BBC, March 15, 2008 "Nauru's riches to rags decline", Dan Nolan, Al Jazeera, March 17, 2008 | Economy_of_Nauru |@lemmatized economic:10 overview:1 revenue:4 tiny:2 island:4 traditionally:1 come:2 export:5 phosphate:17 rock:1 primary:1 reserve:1 exhaust:1 mining:4 cease:1 deep:1 layer:1 secondary:1 begin:2 hop:1 activity:2 might:1 lift:1 nauru:36 bottom:1 rung:1 global:1 gdp:7 per:4 caput:4 major:6 source:3 government:6 sale:1 fish:1 right:1 territorial:1 water:3 though:1 time:1 give:1 nauruan:4 one:2 high:2 income:7 world:4 resource:1 exist:4 necessity:1 import:6 include:4 fresh:1 australia:13 rehabilitation:2 mined:2 land:2 replacement:2 serious:2 long:2 term:2 problem:2 anticipation:2 exhaustion:2 deposit:3 substantial:2 amount:2 invest:2 trust:5 fund:3 help:4 cushion:2 transition:2 provide:2 future:4 borrow:1 heavily:2 finance:2 fiscal:2 deficit:1 cut:2 cost:2 froze:1 wage:2 reduce:1 staffed:2 public:3 service:2 department:3 close:2 overseas:2 consulate:2 recent:1 year:4 encourage:1 registration:1 offshore:2 bank:1 corporation:2 ten:1 billion:1 dollar:3 channel:1 account:1 international:1 pressure:1 saw:2 crack:1 money:1 laundering:1 comprehensive:2 statistic:3 economy:4 estimate:2 vary:2 widely:2 aid:6 flow:1 chiefly:2 taiwan:1 new:4 zealand:4 keep:1 afloat:1 performance:1 independence:1 possess:1 due:1 rich:2 aim:1 however:2 heavy:1 spending:1 wasteful:1 foreign:4 investment:1 face:2 virtual:1 bankruptcy:1 call:1 freeze:1 reduction:1 privatization:1 numerous:1 agency:1 closure:3 uncertainty:2 cause:1 financial:3 mismanagement:1 corruption:1 combine:1 shortage:1 basic:2 good:3 result:1 domestic:1 unrest:1 chaos:1 amid:1 political:1 strife:1 collapse:1 telecommunication:1 system:1 moreover:1 deterioration:1 housing:1 hospital:1 continue:1 accord:1 u:15 state:3 volume:1 million:11 receives:1 countrywatch:2 login:2 page:2 balance:1 payment:1 product:2 japan:1 serving:1 country:2 market:1 need:1 almost:1 capital:1 food:3 fuel:3 manufacture:2 total:1 regional:2 situation:1 currently:2 dependent:1 support:1 sign:1 agreement:2 accommodate:1 asylum:1 seeker:1 mostly:1 iraq:1 afghanistan:1 return:1 refer:1 pacific:1 solution:2 end:1 prompt:1 concern:1 hit:2 detention:2 centre:2 age:1 february:2 also:3 send:1 expert:1 nation:1 overcome:1 question:1 remain:1 viability:1 talk:1 regard:1 former:1 development:1 latter:1 minister:2 dr:2 kieren:2 keke:2 want:1 handout:1 possible:1 explore:1 would:1 assist:1 set:1 boat:2 repair:2 industry:3 fishing:1 vessel:1 suggests:1 saipan:1 tribune:1 march:3 taxation:1 tax:5 airport:1 departure:1 bed:1 meneñ:1 hotel:1 budget:2 increase:1 excise:1 cigarette:1 duty:1 sugary:1 introduce:1 combat:1 diabetes:1 epidemic:1 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 est:3 inflation:1 rate:2 consumer:1 price:1 expenditure:1 external:2 debt:1 receive:1 around:2 currency:1 australian:1 run:1 july:1 june:1 employment:1 labour:1 force:1 mainly:3 employ:1 administration:1 npc:1 education:1 transport:1 unemployment:2 cia:1 factbook:1 affair:1 get:1 crisis:1 front:1 break:2 news:2 main:4 banking:1 coconut:2 electricity:1 production:1 fossil:1 consumption:1 gwh:1 agriculture:1 employer:1 produce:1 trade:1 value:2 phosphates:1 partner:2 south:1 korea:1 building:1 material:1 machinery:1 usa:1 uk:1 indonesia:1 india:1 see:1 n:1 p:1 c:1 royalty:1 tourism:1 reference:1 link:1 seek:1 regain:1 lost:1 fortune:1 nick:1 squire:1 bbc:1 rag:1 decline:1 dan:1 nolan:1 al:1 jazeera:1 |@bigram per_caput:4 nauru_phosphate:3 fiscal_deficit:1 billion_dollar:1 money_laundering:1 mismanagement_corruption:1 balance_payment:1 asylum_seeker:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 caput_purchasing:1 unemployment_rate:1 foreign_affair:1 phosphate_mining:1 offshore_banking:1 fossil_fuel:1 gwh_agriculture:1 external_link:1 regain_lost:1 al_jazeera:1 |
1,461 | Marquis_de_Sade | Donatien Alphonse François de Sade, Marquis de Sade (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814) () was a French aristocrat, revolutionary and novelist. His novels were philosophical and sadomasochistic, exploring such controversial subjects as rape, bestiality and necrophilia. He was a proponent of extreme freedom (or at least licentiousness), unrestrained by morality, religion or law, with the pursuit of personal pleasure being the highest principle. Sade was incarcerated in various prisons and in an insane asylum for about 32 years of his life; eleven years in Paris (10 of which were spent in the Bastille) a month in Conciergerie, two years in a fortress, a year in Madelonnettes, three years in Bicêtre, a year in Sainte-Pélagie, and 13 years in the Charenton insane asylum. Much of his writing was done during his imprisonment. The term "sadism" () is derived from his name. Life Early life and education The castle above Lacoste. The Marquis de Sade was born in the Condé palace, Paris, to Comte Jean-Baptiste François Joseph de Sade and Marie-Eléonore de Maillé de Carman, cousin and lady-in-waiting to the princess of Condé. He was educated by an uncle, the abbé de Sade. Later, he attended Jesuit lycée, then pursued a military career, becoming Colonel of a Dragoon regiment, and fighting in the Seven Years' War. In 1763, on returning from war, he courted a rich magistrate's daughter, but her father rejected his suit, and, instead, arranged a marriage to his elder daughter, Renée-Pélagie de Montreuil; that marriage engendered two sons and a daughter. In 1766, he had a private theatre built in his castle at Lacoste in Provence. In January 1767, his father died. Jean-Baptiste François Joseph de Sade, de Sade's father. Title and heirs The de Sade men alternated using the marquis (marquess) and comte (count) titles. His grandfather, Gaspard François de Sade, was the first to use marquis; Vie du Marquis de Sade by Gilbert Lêly, 1961 occasionally, he was the Marquis de Sade, but is documentarily identified as the Marquis de Mazan. The de Sade family were Noblesse d'épée, of the oldest, Frank-descended nobility, so, assuming a noble title without a King's grant, was customarily de rigueur. Alternating title usage indicates that titular hierarchy (below duc et pair) was notional; theoretically, the marquis title was granted to noblemen owning several countships, but its use by men of dubious lineage caused its disrepute. At Court, precedence was by seniority and royal favour, not title. There is father-and-son correspondence, wherein father addresses son as marquis. Twentieth-century descendant, the Comte Xavier de Sade, was the first to defend the family name and be interested in the Marquis's controversial work. Until 1948, Comte Xavier had known little of his ancestor because the Marquis de Sade's works went unpublished and unread in France until the 1960s. Thus, when he found a trunk containing journals, letters, manuscripts, and legal documents, he granted access to biographer Gilbert Lêly; the works were published from 1948 to the 1960s. The Comte Xavier and his descendants own the copyrights and the family name, a peculiar legal manoeuver because the Marquis de Sade died and his copyrights expired two centuries earlier. To avoid association with the Marquis de Sade, descendants have refused the Marquis title, despite all aristocratic titles being dormant since 1848. Bibliographically, the de Sade family have some original manuscripts, others are in universities and libraries, or were destroyed in the eighteenth century. Moreover, the Comte Xavier de Sade founded a winery, honouring the Marquis de Sade, vinting champagne and claret, introduced to market in the late 1980s. Before Comte Xavier, most descendants were against using any of the Marquis's names, yet he named a son Donatien. Scandals and imprisonment Portrait of the elder Sade Sade lived a scandalous libertine existence and repeatedly procured young prostitutes as well as employees of both sexes in his castle in Lacoste. He was also accused of blasphemy, a serious offense at that time. His behavior included an affair with his wife's sister, Anne-Prospère, who had come to live at the castle. One of Sade's first major scandals occurred on Easter Sunday in 1768, in which he procured the sexual services of a woman, Rose Keller whether she was a prostitute or not is widely disputed. He was accused of taking her to his chateau at Arcueil, imprisoning her there and sexually and physically abusing her. She escaped by climbing out of a second-floor window and running away. It was at this time that la Présidente, Sade's mother-in-law, obtained a lettre de cachet from the king, excluding Sade from the jurisdiction of the courts. The lettre de cachet would later prove disastrous for the marquis. Beginning in 1763, Sade lived mainly in or near Paris. Several prostitutes there complained about mistreatment by him and he was put under surveillance by the police who made detailed reports of his escapades. After several short imprisonments he was exiled to his chateau at Lacoste in 1768. Timeline of Sade's life by Neil Schaeffer. Retrieved September 12, 2006. An episode in Marseille, in 1772, involved the non-lethal poisoning of prostitutes with the supposed aphrodisiac Spanish fly and sodomy with his manservant Latour. That year the two men were sentenced to death in absentia for sodomy and said poisoning. They fled to Italy, Sade took his wife's sister with him. His mother-in-law never forgave him for the affair and obtained a lettre de cachet for his arrest (a royal order of arrest and imprisonment, without stated cause or access to the courts). Sade and Latour were caught and imprisoned at the Fortress of Miolans, in late 1772, but escaped four months later. Sade later hid at Lacoste where he rejoined his wife who became an accomplice in his subsequent endeavors. He kept a group of young employees at Lacoste, most of whom complained about sexual mistreatment and quickly left his service. Sade was forced to flee to Italy once again. It was during this time he wrote Voyage d'Italie, which, along with his earlier travel writings, has never been translated into English. In 1776 he returned to Lacoste, again hired several servant girls, most of whom fled. In 1777 the father of one of those employees came to Lacoste, to claim her, and attempted to shoot the Marquis at point-blank range. Fortunately for Sade, the gun misfired. Later that year, Sade was tricked into visiting his supposedly ill mother, who in fact had recently died, in Paris. He was arrested there and imprisoned in the Château de Vincennes. He successfully appealed his death sentence in 1778 but remained imprisoned under the lettre de cachet. He escaped but was soon recaptured. He resumed writing and met fellow prisoner Comte de Mirabeau who also wrote erotic works. Despite sharing this in common, the two came to dislike each other immensely. In 1784 Vincennes was closed and Sade was transferred to the Bastille. On July 2, 1789 he reportedly shouted out from his cell, to the crowd outside, "They are killing the prisoners here!" causing somewhat of a riot. Two days later he was transferred to the insane asylum at Charenton near Paris. (The storming of the Bastille, marking the start of the French Revolution, occurred on July 14.) He had been working on his magnum opus Les 120 Journées de Sodome (The 120 Days of Sodom). To his despair he believed that the manuscript was lost during his transferral; but he continued to write. He was released from Charenton in 1790 after the new Constituent Assembly abolished the instrument of lettre de cachet. His wife obtained a divorce soon after. Return to freedom, delegate to the National Convention and imprisonment During Sade's time of freedom, beginning in 1790, he published several of his books anonymously. He met Marie-Constance Quesnet, a former actress, and mother of a six year old son, who had been abandoned by her husband. Constance and Sade would stay together for the rest of his life. Sade was by this time extremely obese. He initially ingratiated himself with the new political situation after the revolution, supported the Republic, called himself "Citizen Sade" and managed to obtain several official positions despite his aristocratic background. Due to the damage done to his estate in Lacoste which was sacked in 1789 by an angry mob, he moved to Paris. In 1790 he was elected to the National Convention where he represented the far left. He was a member of the Piques section, a section notorious for its radical views. He wrote several political pamphlets, in which he called for the implementation of direct vote. However there is much to suggest that he suffered abuse from his fellow revolutionaries due to his aristocratic background. Matters were not helped by the desertion of his son, a second lieutenant and the aide-du-camp to an important colonel the Marquis de Toulengeon, in May 1792. De Sade was forced to disavow his son's desertion in order to save his neck. Later that year his name was entered - whether by error or willful malice - on the list of émigrés of the Bouches-du-Rhône department. Appalled by the Reign of Terror in 1793, he wrote an admiring eulogy for Jean-Paul Marat to secure his position. Then he resigned his posts, was accused of "moderatism" and imprisoned for over a year. He barely escaped the guillotine, probably due to an administrative error. This experience presumably confirmed his life-long detestation of state tyranny and especially of the death penalty. He was released in 1794, after the overthrow and execution of Maximilien Robespierre had effectively ended the Reign of Terror. In 1796, now all but destitute, he had to sell his ruined castle in Lacoste. The ruins of the castle were acquired in the 1990s by fashion designer Pierre Cardin who now holds regular theater festivals there. Imprisonment for his writings and death The first page of Sade's Justine, one of the works for which he was imprisoned. In 1801 Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of Justine and Juliette. Sade was arrested at his publisher's office and imprisoned without trial; first in the Sainte-Pélagie prison and, following allegations that he had tried to seduce young fellow prisoners there, in the harsh fortress of Bicêtre. After intervention by his family, he was declared insane in 1803 and transferred once more to the asylum at Charenton. His ex-wife and children had agreed to pay his pension there. Constance was allowed to live with him at Charenton. The benign director of the institution, Abbé de Coulmier, allowed and encouraged him to stage several of his plays, with the inmates as actors, to be viewed by the Parisian public. Coulmier's novel approaches to psychotherapy attracted much opposition. In 1809 new police orders put Sade into solitary confinement and deprived him of pens and paper, though Coulmier succeeded in ameliorating this harsh treatment. In 1813, the government ordered Coulmier to suspend all theatrical performances. Sade began an affair with 13-year-old Madeleine Leclerc, daughter of an employee at Charenton. This affair lasted some 4 years, until Sade's death in 1814. He had left instructions in his will forbidding that his body be opened upon any pretext whatsoever, and that it remain untouched for 48 hours in the chamber which he died, and then placed in a coffin and buried on his property located in Malmaison near Epernon. His skull was later removed from the grave for phrenological examination. His son had all his remaining unpublished manuscripts burned, including the immense multi-volume work Les Journées de Florbelle. Appraisal and criticism Numerous writers and artists, especially those concerned with sexuality, have been both repelled and fascinated by de Sade. The contemporary rival pornographer Rétif de la Bretonne published an Anti-Justine in 1793. Simone de Beauvoir (in her essay Must we burn Sade?, published in Les Temps modernes, December 1951 and January 1952) and other writers have attempted to locate traces of a radical philosophy of freedom in Sade's writings, preceding modern existentialism by some 150 years. He has also been seen as a precursor of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis in his focus on sexuality as a motive force. The surrealists admired him as one of their forerunners, and Guillaume Apollinaire famously called him "the freest spirit that has yet existed". Pierre Klossowski, in his 1947 book Sade Mon Prochain ("Sade My Neighbor"), analyzes Sade's philosophy as a precursor of nihilism, negating both Christian values and the materialism of the Enlightenment. One of the essays in Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno's Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) is titled "Juliette or Enlightenment and Morality" and interprets the ruthless and calculating behavior of Juliette as the embodiment of the philosophy of enlightenment. Similarly, psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan posited in his 1966 essay "Kant avec Sade" that de Sade's ethics was the complementary completion of the categorical imperative originally formulated by Immanuel Kant. In his 1988 Political Theory and Modernity, William E. Connolly analyzes Sade's Philosophy in the Bedroom as an argument against trend of earlier political philosophers, notably Rousseau and Hobbes, and their attempts to reconcile nature, reason and virtue as basis of ordered society. In The Sadeian Woman: And the Ideology of Pornography (1979), Angela Carter provides a feminist reading of Sade, seeing him as a "moral pornographer" who creates spaces for women. Similarly, Susan Sontag defended both Sade and Georges Bataille's Histoire de l'oeil (Story of the Eye) in her essay, "The Pornographic Imagination" (1967) on the basis their works were transgressive texts, and argued that neither should be censored. By contrast, Andrea Dworkin saw Sade as the exemplary woman-hating pornographer, supporting her theory that pornography inevitably leads to violence against women. One chapter of her book Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1979) is devoted to an analysis of Sade. Susie Bright claims that Dworkin's first novel Ice and Fire, which is rife with violence and abuse, can be seen as a modern re-telling of Sade's Juliette. Andrea Dworkin has Died, from Susie Bright's Journal, 11 April 2005. Retrieved 23 November 2006 Cultural depictions Depiction of the Marquis de Sade by H. Biberstein in L'Œuvre du marquis de Sade, Guillaume Appolinaire (Edit.), Bibliothèque des Curieux, Paris, 1912 There have been many and varied references to the Marquis de Sade in popular culture, including fictional works, biographies and more minor references. The namesake of the psychological and subcultural term sadism, his name is used variously to evoke sexual violence, licentiousness and freedom of speech. Phillips, John, 2005, The Marquis De Sade: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192804693. In modern culture his works are simultaneously viewed as masterful analyses of how power and economics work, and as erotica. Guins, Raiford, and Cruz, Omayra Zaragoza, 2005, Popular Culture: A Reader, Sage Publications, ISBN 0761974725. Sade's sexually explicit works were a medium for the articulation of the corrupt and hypocritical values of the elite in his society, which caused him to become imprisoned. He thus became a symbol of the artist's struggle with the censor. Sade's use of pornographic devices to create provocative works that subvert the prevailing moral values of his time inspired many other artists in a variety of media. The cruelties depicted in his works gave rise to the concept of sadism. Sade's works have to this day been kept alive by artists and intellectuals because they espouse a philosophy of extreme individualism that became reality in the economic liberalism of the following centuries. MacNair, Brian, 2002, Striptease Culture: Sex, Media and the Democratization of Desire, Routledge, ISBN 0415237335. In the late twentieth century, there was a resurgence of interest in Sade; leading French intellectuals like Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault published studies of the philosopher, and interest in Sade among scholars and artists continued. In the realm of visual arts, many surrealist artists had interest in the Marquis. Sade was celebrated in surrealist periodicals, and feted by figures such as Guillaume Apollinaire, Paul Éluard and Maurice Heine; Man Ray admired Sade because he and other surrealists viewed him as an ideal of freedom. The first Manifesto of Surrealism (1924) announced that "Sade is surrealist in sadism", and extracts of the original draft of Justine were published in Le Surréalisme au service de la révolution. Bate, David, 2004, Photography and Surrealism: Sexuality, Colonialism and Social Dissent, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 1860643795. In literature, Sade is referenced in several stories by science fiction writer Robert Bloch, while Polish science fiction author Stanislaw Lem wrote an essay analyzing the game theory arguments appearing in Sade's Justine. The writer Georges Bataille applied Sade's methods of writing about sexual transgression to shock and provoke readers. Sade's life and works have been the subject of numerous fictional plays, films, pornographic or erotic drawings, etchings and more. These include Peter Weiss's play Marat/Sade, a fantasia extrapolating from the fact that Sade directed plays performed by his fellow inmates at the Charenton asylum. Dancyger, Ken, 2002, The Technique of Film and Video Editing: History, Theory, and Practice, Focal Press, ISBN 024080225X. Yukio Mishima, Barry Yzereef, and Doug Wright also wrote plays about Sade; Weiss's and Wright's plays have been made into films. His work is referenced on film at least as early as Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's L'Age d'or (1930), the final segment of which provides a coda to Sade's 120 Days of Sodom, with the four debauched noblemen emerging from their mountain retreat. Pier Paolo Pasolini filmed Salo, or the 120 Days of Sodom (1975), updating Sade's novel to the brief Salo Republic; Benoit Jacquot's Sade and Philip Kaufman's Quills (from the play of the same name by Doug Wright) both hit cinemas in 2000. Quills, inspired by de Sade's imprisonment and battles with the censorship in his society, portrays Sade as a literary freedom fighter who is a martyr to the cause of free expression. Raengo, Alessandra, and Stam, Robert, 2005, Literature and Film: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Film Adaptation, Blackwell, ISBN 0631230556. Recently, Glam/Grunge band Glitoris, included a song titled "Storming the Bastille" on their debut album. The song takes a comical view on De Sade's life, portraying him as a seductive hedonist. Bibliography See also BDSM Fetish fashion Foreplay Leopold von Sacher-Masoch Sexual fetishism Quills References Further reading Pour Sade. (2006) by Norbert Sclippa Marquis de Sade: his life and works. (1899) by Iwan Bloch Sade Mon Prochain. (1947) by Pierre Klossowski Lautréamont and Sade. (1949) by Maurice Blanchot The Marquis de Sade, a biography. (1961) by Gilbert Lély Philosopher of Evil: The Life and Works of the Marquis de Sade. (1962) by Walter Drummond The life and ideas of the Marquis de Sade. (1963) by Geoffrey Gorer Sade, Fourier, Loyola. (1971) by Roland Barthes De Sade: A Critical Biography. (1978) by Ronald Hayman The Sadeian Woman: An Exercise in Cultural History. (1979) by Angela Carter The Marquis de Sade: the man, his works, and his critics: an annotated bibliography. (1986) by Colette Verger Michael Sade, his ethics and rhetoric. (1989) collection of essays, edited by Colette Verger Michael Marquis de Sade: A Biography. (1991) by Maurice Lever The philosophy of the Marquis de Sade. (1995) by Timo Airaksinen Dark Eros: The Imagination of Sadism. (1996) by Thomas Moore (spiritual writer) Sade contre l'Être suprême. (1996) by Philippe Sollers A Fall from Grace (1998) by Chris Barron Sade: A Biographical Essay (1998) by Laurence Louis Bongie An Erotic Beyond: Sade. (1998) by Octavio Paz The Marquis de Sade: a life. (1999) by Neil Schaeffer At Home With the Marquis de Sade: A Life. (1999) by Francine du Plessix Gray Sade: from materialism to pornography. (2002) by Caroline Warman Marquis de Sade: the genius of passion. (2003) by Ronald Hayman Marquis de Sade: A Very Short Introduction (2005) by John Phillips External links Norbert Sclippa Œuvres du Marquis de Sade | Marquis_de_Sade |@lemmatized donatien:2 alphonse:1 françois:4 de:62 sade:105 marquis:36 june:1 december:2 french:3 aristocrat:1 revolutionary:2 novelist:1 novel:4 philosophical:1 sadomasochistic:1 explore:1 controversial:2 subject:2 rape:1 bestiality:1 necrophilia:1 proponent:1 extreme:2 freedom:7 least:2 licentiousness:2 unrestrained:1 morality:2 religion:1 law:3 pursuit:1 personal:1 pleasure:1 high:1 principle:1 incarcerate:1 various:1 prison:2 insane:4 asylum:5 year:16 life:13 eleven:1 paris:7 spend:1 bastille:4 month:2 conciergerie:1 two:6 fortress:3 madelonnettes:1 three:1 bicêtre:2 sainte:2 pélagie:3 charenton:7 much:3 writing:4 imprisonment:7 term:2 sadism:5 derive:1 name:8 early:4 education:1 castle:6 lacoste:10 bear:1 condé:2 palace:1 comte:8 jean:3 baptiste:2 joseph:2 marie:2 eléonore:1 maillé:1 carman:1 cousin:1 lady:1 wait:1 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1,462 | Auschwitz_concentration_camp | "Auschwitz" redirects here. For the town, see Oświęcim. Distinguish from Austerlitz. Auschwitz-Birkenau () was the largest of Nazi Germany's concentration camps and extermination camps, established in Nazi German occupied Poland. The camp took its German name from the nearby Polish town of Oświęcim. Birkenau, the German translation of pol. Brzezinka (birch tree), refers to a small village nearby, mostly destroyed by the Germans. Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Oświęcim was annexed by Nazi Germany and renamed Auschwitz, the town's German name. Up to then, there had been no special significance attached to the name; for example, "Duke of Auschwitz" was for centuries one of the minor titles held by the Habsburg Emperors (see Francis II), which at the time was completly innocuous and unimportant. The camp commandant, R. Höß, also Hoess, testified at the Nuremberg Trials that up to 3 million people had died at Auschwitz. The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum has revised this figure to 1.1 million, Brian Harmon, John Drobnicki, Historical sources and the Auschwitz death toll estimates, The Nizkor Project Piper, Franciszek & Meyer, Fritjof. "Die Zahl der Opfer von Auschwitz. Neue Erkentnisse durch neue Archivfunde", Osteuropa, 52, Jg., 5/2002, pp. 631-641, (review article). about 90 percent of whom were Jews from almost every country in Europe. Piper, Franciszek Piper. "The Number of Victims" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 62. Most victims were killed in Auschwitz II's gas chambers using Zyklon B; other deaths were caused by systematic starvation, forced labor, lack of disease control, individual executions, and purported "medical experiments". In 1947, in remembrance of the victims, Poland founded a museum at the site of the first two camps. By 1994, some 22 million visitors—700,000 annually—had passed through the iron gate crowned with the motto "Arbeit macht frei". The anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz by Soviet troops on January 27, 1945 is celebrated on International Holocaust Remembrance Day, Holocaust Memorial Day in the United Kingdom, and other similar memorial days in various countries. Camps |The gates to Auschwitz I The three main camps were Auschwitz I, II, and III. Auschwitz I, the original concentration camp, served as the administrative center for the whole complex, and was the site of the deaths of roughly 70,000 people, mostly ethnic Poles and Soviet prisoners of war. Auschwitz II (Birkenau) was an extermination camp or Vernichtungslager, and was the site of the deaths of at least 960,000 Jews, 75,000 Poles, and some 19,000 Roma (Gypsies). Birkenau was the largest of all the Nazi extermination camps. Auschwitz III ( Monowitz (Monowice)) served as a labor camp for the Buna-Werke factory of the IG Farben concern. In November 2008, blueprints were discovered in a Berlin apartment that suggest a major expansion of the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp was planned, although the authenticity of the documents has not been independently confirmed. There were also around 40 satellite camps, some of them tens of kilometers from the main camps, with prisoner populations ranging from several dozen to several thousand. Gutman, Yisrael. "Auschwitz—An Overview" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 17. See list of subcamps of Auschwitz for others. Like all German concentration camps, the Auschwitz camps were operated by the Nazi party's paramilitary arm, the SS. The commandants of the camp were the SS-Obersturmbannführers Rudolf Höß until the summer of 1943, and later Arthur Liebehenschel and Richard Baer. Höß provided a detailed description of the camp's workings during his interrogations after the war and in his autobiography. He was hanged on April 16, 1947 in front of the entrance to the crematorium of Auschwitz I. Auschwitz I Auschwitz I patch with the letter "P": required wear for Polish inmates Auschwitz I was the original camp, and it served as the administrative center for the whole complex. The site for the camp was chosen on January 25, 1940 by the Nazis, |"worldwar-2.net timeline/holocaust/1940"| . On April 27, 1940, Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler signed the order that initates construction of Auschwitz Concentration Camp in Poland, |"worldwar-2.net timeline/holocaust/1940"| . On May 5, 1940 Rudolf Hoess was chosen as the first commandant of Auschwitz Concentration Camp, |"worldwar-2.net timeline/holocaust/1940"| . On June 15, 1940 the Nazis open Auschwitz Concentration Camp, officially to provide 100,000 labour force for I.G. Farben Factory, |"worldwar-2.net timeline/holocaust/1940"| . The camp was initially used for interning Polish intellectuals and resistance movement members, then also for Soviet Prisoners of War. Common German criminals, "anti-social elements" and 48 German homosexuals were also imprisoned there. Jews were sent to the camp as well, beginning with the very first shipment (from Tarnów). At any time, the camp held between 13,000 and 16,000 inmates; in 1942 the number reached 20,000. The entrance to Auschwitz I was—and still is—marked with the sign “Arbeit Macht Frei”, or “work makes (one) free”. The camp's prisoners who left the camp during the day for construction or farm labor were made to march through the gate to the sounds of an orchestra. Contrary to what is depicted in several films, the majority of the Jews were imprisoned in the Auschwitz II camp, and did not pass under this sign. The SS selected some prisoners, often German criminals, as specially privileged supervisors of the other inmates (so-called: kapo). Although involved in numerous atrocities, only two were ever prosecuted for their individual behavior; many had "little choice about their actions". The various classes of prisoners were distinguishable by special marks on their clothes; Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War were generally treated the worst. All inmates had to work in the associated arms factories, except on Sundays, which were reserved for cleaning and showering and upon which there were no work assignments. Interior of the gas chamber of Auschwitz I The harsh work requirements, combined with poor nutrition and hygiene, led to high death rates among the prisoners. Block 11 of Auschwitz (the original standing cells and such were block 13) was the "prison within the prison", where violators of the numerous rules were punished. Some prisoners were made to spend the nights in "standing-cells". These cells were about , and four men would be placed in them; they could do nothing but stand, and were forced during the day to work with the other prisoners. In the basement were located the "starvation cells"; prisoners incarcerated here were given neither food nor water until they were dead. Maximilian Kolbe Interior of the crematorium of Auschwitz I. This facility was much smaller than those of Auschwitz II. In the basement were the "dark cells"; these cells had only a very tiny window, and a solid door. Prisoners placed in these cells would gradually suffocate as they used up all of the oxygen in the cell; sometimes the would light a candle in the cell to use up the oxygen more quickly. Many were subjected to hanging with their hands behind their backs, thus dislocating their shoulder joints for hours, even days. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 26 The execution yard is between blocks 10 and 11. In this area, prisoners who were thought to merit individual execution received it. Some were shot against a reinforced wall which was reconstructed after the war http://www.johndclare.net/Nazi_Germany3_Auschwitz.htm ; others suffered a more lingering death by being suspended from hooks set in two wooden posts, which also still exist. On September 3, 1941, deputy camp commandant SS-Hauptsturmführer Fritzsch experimented on 600 Russian POWs and 250 ill Polish inmates by cramming them into the basement of Block 11 and gassing them with Zyklon B, a highly lethal cyanide based pesticide. :: Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau w Oświęcimiu EN:: This paved the way for the use of Zyklon B as an instrument for extermination at Auschwitz, and a gas chamber and crematorium were constructed by converting a bunker. This gas chamber operated from 1941 to 1942, during which time some 60,000 people were killed therein; it was then converted into an air-raid shelter for the use of the SS. This gas chamber still exists, together with the associated crematorium, which was reconstructed after the war using the original components, which remained on-site. Auschwitz II (Birkenau) Roll call in front of the camp kitchen; SS photograph, 1944 Construction on Auschwitz II (Birkenau) began in October 1941 to ease congestion at the main camp. It was designed to hold several categories of prisoners, and to function as an extermination camp in the context of Himmler's preparations for the Final Solution of the Jewish Question, the extermination of the Jews.<ref name=Gutman16>Gutman, Yisrael. "Auschwitz—An Overview in Gutman, Yisrael and Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press 1998, p. 16.</ref> The Nazis had committed themselves to the Final Solution no later than January 1942, the date of the Wannsee Conference. The first gas chamber at Birkenau was "The Little Red House", a brick cottage that was converted into a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the walls. It was operational by March 1942. A second brick cottage, "The Little White House", was similarly converted some weeks later. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 96-97, 101 By July 1942, the SS were conducting the infamous "selections", in which incoming Jews were divided into those deemed able to work, who were then admitted to the camp, and those who weren't, who were immediately gassed. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 100 In early 1943, the Nazis decided to increase greatly the gassing capacity of Birkenau. Crematorium II, originally designed as a mortuary, with morgues in the basement and ground-level furnaces, was converted into a killing factory by placing a gas-tight door on the morgues and adding vents for Zyklon B and ventilation equipment to remove the gas. It came online in March. Crematorium III was built using the same design. Crematoria IV and V, designed from the start as gassing centers, were also constructed that spring. By June 1943 all four crematoria were up. Most victims were killed during a period afterwards. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 168-169 The camp was staffed partly by prisoners, some of whom were selected to be kapos (orderlies, most of whom were convicts) and sonderkommandos (workers at the crematoria). The kapos were responsible for keeping order in the barrack huts; the sonderkommando prepared new arrivals for gassing (ordering them to remove their clothing and surrender their personal possessions) and transferred corpses from the gas chambers to the furnaces, having first pulled out any gold that the victims might have had in their teeth. Members of these groups were killed periodically. The kapos and sonderkommandos were supervised by members of the SS; altogether 6,000 SS members worked at Auschwitz. Command of the women's camp, which was separated from the men's area by the incoming railway line, was held in turn by Johanna Langefeld, Maria Mandel, and Elisabeth Volkenrath. Many people know the Birkenau camp simply as "Auschwitz"; it was larger than Auschwitz I, and more people passed through its gates than did those of Auschwitz I. It was the site of imprisonment of hundreds of thousands, and of the killing of over one million people, mainly Jews but also large numbers of Poles, and Gypsies, mostly through gassing. Selection process "Selection" on the unloading ramp at Birkenau, May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant assignment to a work detail; to the left, the gas chambers. This image shows the arrival of Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia, many of them from the Berehov ghetto; the image was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the SS. The main entrance is visible in the background. Courtesy of Yad Vashem. The Auschwitz Album, Yad Vashem The warehouse(s) in Auschwitz nicknamed "Canada," where goods stolen from Jewish deportees were stored before being sent to Germany or used by the SS Prisoners were transported from all over German-occupied Europe by rail, arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau in daily convoys. Arrivals at the complex were separated into two main groups - those marked for immediate extermination, and those to be registered as prisoners. The first group, about three-quarters of the total, went to the gas chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau within a few hours; they included all children, all women with children, all the elderly, and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be fully fit. SS personnel told the victims that they were to take a shower and undergo delousing. The victims would undress in an outer chamber and walk into the gas chamber, which was disguised as a shower facility, complete with dummy shower heads. After the doors were shut, SS men would dump in the cyanide pellets via (depending on which crematorium) holes in the roof or windows on the side. In the Auschwitz Birkenau camp more than 20,000 people could be gassed and cremated each day. At Birkenau, the Nazis used a cyanide gas produced from Zyklon B pellets, which were manufactured by two companies who had acquired licensing rights to the patent held by IG Farben. The two companies were Tesch & Stabenow, of Hamburg, who supplied two tons of the crystals each month, and Degesch, of Dessau, who produced three-quarters of a ton. The bills of lading were produced at Nuremberg. Nuremberg Trial Documentation Those deemed fit to work were used as slave labor at industrial factories for such companies as IG Farben and Krupp. At the Auschwitz complex 405,000 prisoners were recorded as slaves between 1940 and 1945. Of these about 340,000 perished through executions, beatings, starvation, and sickness. Sonderkommandos yanked gold teeth from the corpses of gas chamber victims; the gold was melted down and sent back to the Third Reich. The belongings of the arrivals, both those gassed and those admitted to the camp, were seized by the SS. They were sorted in an area of the camp called "Canada". Many of the SS at the camp enriched themselves by pilfering the confiscated property of the Jews. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 172-175 The name "Canada" was very cynically chosen. In Poland it was used as an expression used when viewing, for example, a valuable and fine gift. The expression came from the time when Polish emigrants were sending gifts home from Canada. Timeline of genocide Bunk beds in the Auschwitz II. There were as many as four inmates per bunk. There could be as many as a thousand inmates per barrack like the one pictured. Auschwitz-Birkenau claimed more victims than any other German Nazi extermination camp despite coming into use after all the others. In 1941, 1.1 million Jews were murdered, largely by mass shootings in the occupied territories. In 1942, 2.7 million Jews were murdered, many in Chelmno, Sobibor, Belzec, and Treblinka, the extermination camps built in occupied Poland specifically to destroy Poland's three million Jews. Only 200,000 were killed at Auschwitz. In 1943, some 500,000 Jews were killed, half of whom were killed in Auschwitz. With the destruction of Poland's Jews mostly complete, the other four camps were closed by the end of 1943. Auschwitz alone continued to operate, both as a giant slave labor complex and an extermination facility dedicated to the genocide of Jews from the rest of Nazi-occupied Europe. Dwork, Deborah, and Robert Jan van Pelt. Auschwitz: 1270 to the Present. 1997, Norton Paperback edition, ISBN 039331684x, p. 336-337 A can of Zyklon B gas granules and original signed documents detailing ordering of such gas as "materials for Jewish resettlement" on display at Auschwitz I The busiest time for Auschwitz as an extermination camp was from April to June 1944, when it was the center for the massacre of Hungary's Jews. Hungary was an ally of Germany during the war but had resisted turning over its Jews to the Germans until Germany sent troops to occupy Hungary in March 1944. In 56 days from April until the end of June 1944, 436,000 Hungarian Jews, half of the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz and to their deaths. Jews continued to arrive from other parts of Nazi Europe as well. The incoming volume was so great that the SS at Auschwitz resorted to burning corpses in open-air pits as well as the crematoria. The total of over 400,000 Jews gassed during the Hungarian Action in early 1944 represented some two-thirds of all the 600,000 Jews exterminated in that year and a third of all the Jews killed at Auschwitz in the two and a half years that it operated as an extermination camp. Dwork, Deborah, and Robert Jan van Pelt. Auschwitz: 1270 to the Present. 1997, Norton Paperback edition, ISBN 039331684x, p. 337-343 Auschwitz III The surrounding work camps, of which there were approximately forty, were closely connected to German industry and were associated with arms factories, foundries and mines. The largest work camp was Auschwitz III Monowitz, named after the Polish village of Monowice. Starting operations in May 1942, it was associated with the synthetic rubber and liquid fuel plant Buna-Werke owned by IG Farben. 11,000 slave laborers worked at Monowitz. Seven thousand inmates worked at various chemical plants. Eight thousand worked in mines. Approximately 40,000 prisoners worked in slave labor camps at Auschwitz or nearby, Dwork, Deborah, and Robert Jan van Pelt. Auschwitz: 1270 to the Present. 1997, Norton Paperback edition, ISBN 039331684x, p. 10 under appalling conditions. In regular intervals, doctors from Auschwitz II would visit the work camps and select the weak and sick for the gas chambers of Birkenau. The largest subcamps were built at Trzebinia, Blechhammer and Althammer. Female subcamps were constructed at Budy, Pławy, Zabrze, Gleiwitz I, II, III, Rajsko and at Lichtenwerden (now Světlá). Medical experiments at Auschwitz Block 10 - Medical experimentation block in Auschwitz Nazi doctors at Auschwitz performed a wide variety of "experiments" on helpless prisoners. SS doctors tested the efficacy of X-rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners. Prof. Dr. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women's uteruses in an effort to glue them shut. Bayer, then a subsidiary of IG Farben, bought prisoners to use as guinea pigs for testing new drugs. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 178-179 The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele, who was also known as the “Angel of Death”. Particularly interested in "research" on identical twins, Mengele performed cruel experiments on them, such as inducing diseases in one twin of a pair and killing the other when the first died to perform comparative autopsies. He also took a special interest in dwarves, injecting twins, dwarves and other prisoners with gangrene to "study" the effects. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 180-182 Allies' knowledge of the camp Picture of Birkenau taken by an American surveillance plane, Aug 25. 1944. Information regarding Auschwitz was available to the Allies during years 1940–1943 by accurate and frequent reports of Polish Army Captain Witold Pilecki. Pilecki was the only known person to volunteer http://www.pilecki.ipn.gov.pl/portal/rp/867/7081/Rotmistrz_Witold_Pilecki.html to be imprisoned at Auschwitz concentration camp, spending 945 days at Auschwitz not only actively gathering evidence of genocide and supplying it to the British in London by Polish resistance movement but also organizing resistance structures at the camp.Auschwitz camp photos of Pilecki (1941)His first report was smuggled outside in November 1940. He eventually escaped on April 27, 1943, but even his personal report of mass killings was dismissed as exaggeration by the Allies, as were his previous ones. This changed with receipt of the very detailed report of two prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler who escaped on April 7, 1944 which finally convinced most Allied leaders of the truth about Auschwitz in the middle of 1944. See Vrba-Wetzler report Detailed air reconnaissance photographs of the camp were taken accidentally during 1944 by aircraft seeking to photograph nearby military-industrial targets, but no effort was made to analyze them. In fact, it was not until the 1970s that these photographs of Auschwitz were looked at carefully. Auschwitz - some more, @ hubpages.com Starting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi Weissmandl in May 1944, there was a growing campaign to persuade the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it. At one point Winston Churchill ordered that such a plan be prepared, but he was told that bombing the camp would most likely kill prisoners without disrupting the killing operation, and that bombing the railway lines was not technically feasible. Later several nearby military targets were bombed. One bomb accidentally fell into the camp and killed some prisoners. The debate over what could have been done, or what should have been attempted even if success was unlikely, has continued heatedly ever since. Resistance Birkenau revolt Nazi extermination camps in occupied Poland (marked with black and white skulls) By 1943 resistance organizations had developed in the camp. These organizations helped a few prisoners escape; these escapees took with them news of exterminations, such as the killing of hundreds of thousands of Jews transported from Hungary between May and July 1944. On October 7, 1944, the Jewish Sonderkommandos (those inmates kept separate from the main camp and put to work in the gas chambers and crematoria) of Birkenau Kommando III staged an uprising. They attacked the with makeshift weapons: stones, axes, hammers, other work tools and homemade grenades. They caught the SS guards by surprise, overpowered them and blew up the Crematorium IV, using explosives smuggled in from a weapons factory by female inmates. At this stage they were joined by the Birkenau Kommando I of the Crematorium II, which also overpowered their guards and broke out of the compound. Hundreds of prisoners escaped, but were all soon captured and, along with an additional group who participated in the revolt, executed. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 256-257 There were also plans for a general uprising in Auschwitz, coordinated with an Allied air raid and a Polish resistance (Armia Krajowa, Home Army) attack from the outside. Adam Cyra, Ochotnik do Auschwitz - Witold Pilecki 1901-1948, Oświęcim 2000. ISBN 83-912000-3-5 That plan was authored by Polish resistance fighter, Witold Pilecki, who organized in Auschwitz an underground Union of Military Organization - (Związek Organizacji Wojskowej, ZOW). Pilecki and ZOW hoped that the Allies would drop arms or troops into the camp (most likely the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade, based in Britain), and that the Home Army would organize an assault on the camp from outside. By 1943, however, he realized that the Allies had no such plans. Meanwhile, the Gestapo redoubled its efforts to ferret out ZOW members, succeeding in killing many of them. Pilecki decided to break out of the camp, with the hope of personally convincing Home Army leaders that a rescue attempt was a valid option. He escaped on the night of April 26–April 27, 1943 but his plan was not accepted by the Home Army as the Allies considered his reports about the Holocaust exaggerated. Individual escape attempts Rudolf Vrba during the war About 700 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps during the years of their operation, of which about 300 were successful. A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others. If someone did manage to escape, the SS would pick ten random people from the prisoner's block and starve them to death. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 141 Since the concentration camps were designed to degrade prisoners beneath human dignity, maintaining the will to survive was seen in itself as an act of rebellion. Primo Levi was taught this lesson by his fellow prisoner and friend Steinlauf: "[that] precisely because the camp was a great machine to reduce us to beasts, we must not become beasts; that even in this place one can survive, and therefore one must want to survive, to tell the story, to bear witness; and that, if we want to survive, then it's important that we strive to preserve at least the skeleton, the scaffolding, the external shape of civilization." Primo Levi, If This Is a Man, 1947 In 1943, the 'Kampfgruppe Auschwitz' was organised with the aim to send out as much information about what was happening in Auschwitz as possible. They buried notes in the ground in the hope a liberator would find them and smuggled out photos of the crematoria and gas chambers. In June 1944, Mala Zimetbaum tried to escape together with her Polish lover, Edek Galinski. They also wanted to smuggle out deportation lists Zimetbaum had been able to copy due to her translator job in the office of the "Lagerleitung". They both were arrested on July 6 near the Slovakian frontier and sentenced to death; Galinski managed to kill himself before being executed, while Zimetbaum, having failed to commit suicide, died finally after being tortured by the SS. Evacuation and liberation The last selection took place on October 30, 1944. The next month, Heinrich Himmler ordered the crematoria destroyed before the Red Army reached the camp. The gas chambers of Birkenau were blown up by the SS in January 1945 in an attempt to hide the German crimes from the advancing Soviet troops. On January 20, the SS command sent orders to murder all the prisoners remaining in the camp, but in the chaos of the Nazi retreat the order was never carried out. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 260 On January 17, 1945 Nazi personnel started to evacuate the facility; nearly 60,000 prisoners, most of those remaining, were forced on a death march to the camp toward Wodzisław Śląski (German: Loslau). Some 20,000 Auschwitz prisoners made it to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany, where they were liberated by the British in April 1945. Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. 2005, Public Affairs, ISBN 158648303X, p. 265 Those too weak or sick to walk were left behind; about 7,500 prisoners were liberated by the 322nd Rifle Division of the Red Army on January 27, 1945. Among the artifacts of automated murder found by the Russians were 348,820 men's suits and 836,255 women's garments. Death toll Children and an old woman on the way to the death barracks of Auschwitz-Birkenau The exact number of victims at Auschwitz is impossible to fix with certainty. Since the Nazis destroyed a number of records, immediate efforts to count the dead depended on the testimony of witnesses and the defendants on trial at Nuremberg. While under interrogation Rudolf Hoess, commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp from 1940 to 1943, Wikipedia:Rudolf Hoess said that Adolf Eichmann told him that two and a half million Jews had been killed in gas chambers and about half a million died "naturally". Commandant of Auschwitz: Rudolf Höß. ISBN 1 84212 024 7, Appendix One, page 193 Later he wrote "I regard two and a half million far too high. Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities". Commandant of Auschwitz: Rudolf Höß. ISBN 1 84212 024 7, Appendix One, page 194 Communist Polish and Soviet authorities maintained a figure "between 2.5 and 4 million". The figure "4,000,000" was used on the original Auschwitz memorial plaques. The plaques did not specify the ethnicities of victims. In 1983 French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use German data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz, arriving at 1.613 million dead, including 1.44 million Jews and 146,000 Catholic Poles. Wellers, Georges. Essai de determination du nombre de morts au camp d'Auschwitz (attempt to determine the number of dead at the Auschwitz camp), Le Monde Juif, Oct-Dec 1983, pp. 127-159. A larger study started later by Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate 960,000 Jewish deaths and 140,000-150,000 ethnic Polish victims, along with 23,000 Roma and Sinti (Gypsies). Piper, Franciszek. "The Number of Victims", in Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Washington D.C and Bloomington: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Indiana University Press, 1994, pp. 68-72. This number has met with "significant, though not complete" agreement among scholars. Cesarani, David and Kavanaugh, Sarah. Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies, Routledge, 2004, p. 357. ISBN 0415275121, 9780415275125 According to Harmon and Drobnicki, estimates range from 800,000 to five million people. More recent and better researched estimates are on the lower end. List of estimates in millions: 0.8-0.9, Reitlinger, Gerald. The Final Solution: The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939-1945. South Brunswick: T. Yoseloff, 1968, p. 500. 1, Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1961, p. 572. 1-2.5, Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1974. p. 855. 1.1 Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Against the Jews. New York: Bantam Books, 1979, p. 191. Piper, Franciszek. "The Number of Victims" in Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Washington D.C. and Bloomington: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Indiana University Press, 1994, pp. 68-72. Sofsky, Wolfgang. The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp. Trans. William Templer. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997, p. 43 in Galleys. 1.1-1.5, Sweibocka, Teresa. Auschwitz: A History in Photographs. Bloomington and Warsaw: Indiana University Press and Ksiazka I Wiedza, 1993, pp. 287-288. 1.13, Höss, Rudolf. Death Dealer: The Memoirs of the SS Kommandant of Auschwitz. ed. by Steven J. Palusky, trans. by Andrew Pollinger. Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1992, p. 391. 1.2-2.5, Weiss, A. "Categories of Camps, Their character and Role in the Execution of the Final Solution of the Jewish Question," in The Nazi Concentration Camps, Jerusalem: Yad Veshem, 1984, pp. 132. 1.5-3.5, Bauer, Yehuda. A History of the Holocaust. New York: F. Watts. 1982. p. 215. 1.6, Bauer, Yehuda. "Danger of Distortion, Poles and Jews alike are supplying those who deny the Holocaust with the best possible arguments," Jerusalem Post, September 30, 1989. Wellers, Georges. "Essai de determination du nombre de morts au camp d'Auschwitz" Le Monde Juif, October-December 1983, pp. 127-159. 2, Billig, Joseph. Les camps de concentration dans l'economie du Reich hitlerien. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1973. pp. 101-102. 2.3, Polaikov, Leon. Harvest of Hate Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1956, p. 202. 2.5, "Auschwitz." The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, 1980. Kamenetksy, Ihor. Secret Nazi Plans for Eastern Europe. New Haven: College and University Press, 1961, p. 174. 2.5-4, "Brestrafung der Verbrecher von Auschwitz," in Auschwitz: Geschichte und Wirklichkeit des Vernichtungslagers. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowolt, 1980, p. 211. Czech, D. "Konzentrationslager Auschwitz: Abriss der Geschichte," in Auschwitz: Geschichte und Wirklichkeit des Konzentrationslagers. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowolt, 1980, p. 42. Dunin-Wasowicz, Krzysztof. Resistance in the Nazi concentration camps, 1933-1945. Warsaw: PWN-Polish Scientific Publishers, 1982, p. 44. Obozy hitlerowskie na ziemiach polskich 1939-1945: informator encyklopedyczny. Warsaw: Panst. Wydaw. Naukowe DSP, 1979, p. 369. 2.8-4, Madajczyk, Czeslaw. Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce; okupacja Polski, 1939-1945. Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydawn Naukowe, 1970, pp. 293-94. 3 (only Polish victims), Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. New York: Pergamon Press, 1988. over 3, Lane, Arthur Bliss. Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1948, p. 39 3.5, Bauer, Yehuda. "Foreword," in Müller, Filip. Eyewitness Auschwitz. New York: Stein and Day, 1979, p. xi. 3.5-4.5, Kogon, Eugen. Der SS Staat. Berlin, 1974, p. 157. 4-5. Friedman, Filip. This Was Oswiecim: The Story of a Murder Camp. Translated from the Yiddish original by Joseph Leftwich. London: The United Jewish Relief Appeal, 1946, p. 14. For many years, a memorial plaque placed at the camp by the Soviet authorities stated that 4 million people had been murdered at Auschwitz. The government of the People's Republic of Poland also supported this figure. In the west, this figure was accepted, but some historians had their doubts. After the collapse of the Communist government in 1989, the plaque was removed and the official death toll given as 1.1 million. Holocaust deniers have attempted to use this change as propaganda, in the words of the Nizkor Project: After the war Ruins at Birkenau, with brick chimneys belonging to wooden barracks being prominent, 2002 After the war the camp served until 1947 as an NKVD and MBP prison camp. The Buna Werke were taken over by the Polish government and became the foundation for the region's chemical industry. The Polish government then decided to restore Auschwitz I and turn it into a museum honouring the victims of Nazism; Auschwitz II, where buildings (many of which were prefabricated wood structures) were prone to decay, was preserved but not restored. Today, the Auschwitz I museum site combines elements from several periods into a single complex: for example the gas chamber at Auschwitz I (which had been converted into an air-raid shelter for the ) was restored and the fence was moved (because of building being done after the war but before the establishment of the museum). However, in most cases the departure from the historical truth is minor, and is clearly labelled. The museum contains very large numbers of men's, women's and children's shoes taken from their victims; also suitcases, which the deportees were encouraged to bring with them, and many household utensils. One display case, some long, is wholly filled with human hair which the Nazis gathered from the people before and after they were killed. A recent view of the Birkenau camp Auschwitz II and the remains of the gas chambers there are also open to the public. The Auschwitz concentration camp is part of the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The ashes of the victims of the SS were scattered between the huts, and the entire area is seen as a grave site. Most of the buildings of Auschwitz I are still standing. Many of them are now used as museums. The public entrance area (with bookshop, etc.) is outside the perimeter fence in what was the camp admission building, where new prisoners were registered and given their uniforms, etc. Entrance to French section of Birkenau, in 2006. A guard tower and two information boards for visitors can be seen on the left. Most of the buildings of Birkenau were burnt down by the Germans as the Russians came near, and much of the resulting brick rubble was removed in 1945 by the area's returning Polish population to restore damaged farm buildings. By the site of its gas chambers and incinerators are piles of broken bricks which were thrown aside in the search for re-usable intact ones. Today, the entrance building and some of the southern brick-built barracks survive; but of the almost three hundred wooden barracks, only nineteen remain: eighteen near the entrance building and one, on its own, further away. All that survives of the others are chimneys, remnants of a largely ineffective means of heating. Many of these wooden buildings were constructed from prefabricated sections made by a company that intended them to be used as stables; inside, numerous metal rings for the tethering of horses can still be seen. At the far end of Birkenau are memorial plaques in many languages including Romani. In 1979, the newly elected Polish Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass on the grounds of Auschwitz II to some 500,000 people. After the pope had announced that Edith Stein would be beatified, some Catholics erected a cross near bunker 2 of Auschwitz II where she had been gassed. A short while later, a Star of David appeared at the site, leading to a proliferation of religious symbols there; eventually they were removed. Carmelite nuns opened a convent near Auschwitz I in 1984. After some Jewish groups called for the removal of the convent, representatives of the Catholic Church agreed in 1987. One year later the Carmelites erected the 8 metre (26 ft) tall cross from the 1979 mass near their site, just outside block 11 and barely visible from within the camp. This led to protests by Jewish groups, who said that mostly Jews were killed at Auschwitz and demanded that religious symbols be kept away from the site. Some Catholics have argued that the people killed in Auschwitz I (as opposed to Auschwitz II) were mainly Polish Catholics (including at least one Catholic saint, Maximilian Kolbe). The Catholic Church told the Carmelites to move by 1989, but they stayed on until 1993, leaving the large cross behind. In 1998, after further calls to remove the cross, some 300 smaller crosses were erected by local activists near the large one, leading to further protests and heated exchanges. Following an agreement between the Polish Catholic Church and the Polish government, the smaller crosses were removed in 1999 but the large papal one remains. See Auschwitz cross for more details. Latrines for prisoners of Birkenau In 1999, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chretien caused controversy in relation to his arrangements to visit Auschwitz. He visited the camp with representatives of Canada's Jewish community, of Polish background and otherwise, but excluded non-Jewish members of a Polish-Canadian group that accompanied him on his visit to Poland. These persons were identified as "leaders of Canada's Polish community". Chretien justified the exclusion by saying that the non-Jewish Polish-Canadians were invited to join his business mission to Poland "because he normally includes ethnic groups on trade missions". The business mission commenced one day after Chretien's visit to Auschwitz. The Canadian Polish Congress, which apparently has no Jewish members, said that it was offended and insulted by the refusal of Prime Minister Chretien to include it in the visit to Auschwitz. Approximately two weeks prior to the Auschwitz visit by the Prime Minister, The Canadian Polish Congress had requested to be included in the visit, after having learned that Chretien was inviting publicly identified "Canadian Jewish leaders", of Polish background and otherwise. Geoffrey York, "Auschwitz fallout". The Globe and Mail (Toronto), January 26, 1999: A8. In 1996, Germany made January 27, the day of the liberation of Auschwitz, the official day for the commemoration of the victims of 'National Socialism'. Countries who have also adopted similar memorial days include Denmark (Auschwitz Day), Italy (Memorial Day) and Poland ((Memorial Day for the Victims of Nazism). Gallows in Auschwitz I where camp commandant Rudolf Höß was executed on April 16, 1947 The European Parliament marked the anniversary of the camp's liberation in 2005 with a minute of silence and the passage of this resolution: The site of Auschwitz-Birkenau has undergone a major change since the fall of the Berlin Wall. During the Communist era, "foreign visitors were often shocked by the presentations", which glorified the role of the Soviet Army, according to the European Jewish Congress. European Jewish Congress - Poland Wants to Change the Name of Auschwitz to Better Reflect German Role Recently the Polish media, and the foreign ministry of Poland, have voiced objections to the use of the expression "Polish death camp" in relation to Auschwitz, as they feel that phrase might misleadingly suggest that Poles (rather than Germans) perpetrated the Holocaust. Most media outlets now show awareness of the offence this may cause, and try to avoid using such expressions (or issue an apology after using them). See, for example, this 2005 note in The Guardian On April 1, 2006, a Polish Culture Ministry spokesman said that the government requested that UNESCO change the name from "Auschwitz Concentration Camp" to "Former Nazi German Concentration Camp Auschwitz-Birkenau" to emphasize that the camp was run by German Nazis and not by Poles. On June 28, 2007 the United Nations World Heritage Committee officially announced that the new name is Auschwitz Birkenau. German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945). UNESCO World Heritage Committee. (2007-06-28). World Heritage Committee approves Auschwitz name change". Press release. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Lilley, Ray. (2007-06-28). "UNESCO committee renames Auschwitz." Associated Press. Guardian Unlimited. The Polish film directors Andrzej Munk and Andrzej Wajda were both given permission to film in Auschwitz for the films Pasażerka and Landscape After the Battle, respectively. The television miniseries War and Remembrance also shot the Holocaust scenes in Auschwitz. However, permission was denied to Steven Spielberg for Schindler's List. Subsequently, a "mirror" camp was constructed outside the infamous archway for the scene where the train arrives carrying the women Schindler was trying to save. In February 2006, Poland refused to grant visas to Iranian researchers who were planning to visit Auschwitz. Poland to Bar Iranian Team from Auschwitz, Payvand, February 18, 2006 Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Meller said his country should stop Iran from investigating the scale of the Holocaust, which Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has dismissed as false. Iranian leader: Holocaust a 'myth' CNN, December 14, 2005 In Poland, denying the Holocaust by propagating "public and contradicting facts" is a crime punished by a sentence of up to 3 years in prison (article 55 of Act of December 18, 1998 on the Institute of National Remembrance - Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation text of the Act (English)). Its remnants are located in Poland approximately west of Kraków and south of Warsaw. Auschwitz timeline Auschwitz I in winter, showing electrified perimeter fence Eyeglasses of victims January 25, 1940 The Germans decide to construct a concentration camp near Oświęcim (Auschwitz). May 20, 1940 The first concentration camp prisoners – 30 recidivist criminals from Sachsenhausen – arrive at Auschwitz concentration camp. June 14, 1940. First mass transport, consisting of 728 Polish political prisoners from Tarnow. March 1, 1941 Reichsführer SS and Chief of German Police Heinrich Himmler inspects Oświęcim (Auschwitz). Because nearby factories use prisoners for forced labor, Himmler is concerned about the prisoner capacity of the camp. On this visit, he orders both the expansion of Auschwitz I camp facilities to hold 30,000 prisoners and the building of a camp near Birkenau for an expected influx of 100,000 Soviet prisoners of war. Himmler also orders that the camp supply 10,000 prisoners for forced labor to construct an IG Farben factory complex at Dwory, about a mile away. Himmler will make additional visits to Auschwitz in 1942, when he will witness the killing of prisoners in the gas chambers. September 3, 1941 The first gassings of prisoners occur in Auschwitz I. The SS tests Zyklon B gas by killing 600 Soviet prisoners of war and 250 other ill or weak prisoners. Testing takes place in a makeshift gas chamber in the cellar of Block 11 in Auschwitz I. The success of these experiments will lead to the adoption of Zyklon B as the killing agent for the yet-to-be-constructed Auschwitz-Birkenau killing center. January 25, 1942 SS chief Heinrich Himmler informs Richard Gluecks, the Inspector of Concentration Camps, that 100,000 Jewish men and 50,000 Jewish women would be deported from Germany to Auschwitz as forced laborers. February 15, 1942 The first transport of Jews from Bytom (Beuthen) in German-annexed Upper Silesia arrives in Auschwitz I. The SS camp authorities kill all those on the transport immediately upon arrival with Zyklon B gas. December 31, 1942 German SS and police authorities deported approximately 175,000 Jews to Auschwitz in 1942. January 1, 1943 – March 31, 1943 German SS and police authorities deport approximately 105,000 Jews to Auschwitz. January 29, 1943 The Reich Central Office for Security orders all designated Roma (Gypsies) residing in Germany, Austria, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia to be deported to Auschwitz. February 26, 1943 The first transport of Roma (Gypsies) from Germany arrives at Auschwitz. The SS authorities house them in Section B-IIe of Auschwitz-Birkenau, which becomes known as the "Gypsy family camp." By the end of 1943 more than 18,000 Roma (Gypsies) will have been incarcerated in the so-called family camp and as many as 23,000 Gypsies deported to the Auschwitz camp complex. March 13, 1943 Out of a transport of 2,000 Jews from the Kraków Ghetto, 1,492 are gassed in the basement gas chamber of Crematorium II at Birkenau in the evening. This operation tests the gas chamber's ventilation and air extraction equipment installed by J.A. Topf engineer Heinrich Messing, who declared it operational earlier that day. Pressac, Jean-Claude and Van Pelt, Robert-Jan "The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 232. March 22, 1943 Crematorium IV is handed over to the Auschwitz authorities. Pressac, Jean-Claude and Van Pelt, Robert-Jan "The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 234. March 31, 1943 Crematorium II is handed over to the Auschwitz authorities. April 1, 1943 - March 1944 German SS and police authorities deport approximately 160,000 Jews to Auschwitz. April 4, 1943 Crematorium V is handed over to the Auschwitz authorities. June 24, 1943 Crematorium III is handed over to the Auschwitz authorities. Pressac, Jean-Claude and Van Pelt, Robert-Jan "The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 236. May 2, 1944 The first two transports of Hungarian Jews arrive in Auschwitz. July 7, 1944 The deportation of Hungarian Jews is halted by order of Regent Miklos Horthy. August 2, 1944 SS camp authorities murder the last residents – just under 3,000 – of the so-called Gypsy family camp in Auschwitz-Birkenau. The SS murders an estimated total of 20,000 Roma (Gypsies) in the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. September 3, 1944 Anne Frank is transported to Auschwitz. April 1944 - November 1944 SS and Police authorities deport more than 585,000 Jews to Auschwitz. October 7, 1944 Members of the Jewish prisoner "special detachment" (Sonderkommando) that was forced to remove bodies from the gas chambers and operate the crematoria stage an uprising. They successfully blow up Crematorium IV and kill several guards. Women prisoners had smuggled gunpowder out of nearby factories to members of the Sonderkommando. The SS quickly suppresses the revolt and kills all the Sonderkommando members. On January 6, 1945, just weeks before Soviet forces liberate the camp, the SS will also hang four women who smuggled gunpowder into the camp. October 30, 1944 The last selections take place on the arrival ramp at Birkenau. 1,689 people from a transport from Terezin are sent to the gas chambers. Karny, Miroslav. "The Vrba and Wetzler Report" in Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1994; this edition 1998, p. 563. November 25, 1944 As Soviet forces continue to approach, SS chief Heinrich Himmler orders the destruction of the Auschwitz-Birkenau gas chambers and crematoria. During this SS attempt to destroy the evidence of mass killings, prisoners will be forced to dismantle and dynamite the structures. January 12, 1945 A Soviet offensive breaches the German defenses on the Vistula; Soviet troops take Warsaw and advance rapidly on Kraków and Oświęcim. January 18 - 27, 1945 As Soviet units approach, the SS evacuates to the west the prisoners of the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. Tens of thousands of prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to the cities of Wodzisław and Gliwice in the western part of Upper Silesia. During the march, SS guards shoot anyone who cannot continue. In Wodzisław and Gliwice, the prisoners will be put on unheated freight trains and deported to concentration camps in Germany, particularly to Flossenburg, Sachsenhausen, Gross-Rosen, Buchenwald, and Dachau, and to Mauthausen in Austria. In all, nearly 60,000 prisoners are forced on death marches from the Auschwitz camp system. As many as 15,000 die during the forced marches. Thousands more were killed in the days before the evacuation. January 27, 1945 Soviet troops enter the Auschwitz camp complex and liberate approximately 7,000 prisoners remaining in the camp. During the existence of Auschwitz, the SS camp authorities killed nearly one million Jews from across Europe. Other victims included approximately 74,000 Poles, approximately 21,000 Roma (Gypsies), and approximately 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war. April 17, 1946 The Polish government decides to close down and dismantle the prison camp and build a mausoleum for the German camp. April 16, 1947 Execution of Rudolf Höß. The next day a group of last 206 prisoners of Oświęcim transferred to Central Labour Camp Jaworzno, a former subcamp of Auschwitz. See also Arbeitslager Neu-Dachs (Jaworzno) Auschwitz Album - a collection of pictures taken at Auschwitz during its operation. Auschwitz Trial Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials Höcker Album International Auschwitz Committee List of inmates and victims of Auschwitz List of Nazi-German concentration camps Oświęcim Synagogue Przyszowice massacre Survivor syndrome Notes Further reading Dlugoborski, Waclaw, and Franciszek Piper, eds. Auschwitz, 1940-1945: Central Issues in the History of the Camp Five Vols. Oświęcim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2000. ISBN 8-385047875 Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum, eds. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994 ISBN 0253326842 Rees, Laurence Auschwitz: A New History New York: Public Affairs, 2005 ISBN 1-58648-303-X Gilbert, Martin Auschwitz and the Allies New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981 Photographs, maps. ISBN 0-03-057058-1 Boyne, John The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas Great Britain: David Fickling Books, 2006 ISBN 0-385-75106-0 Muller, Filip Eyewitness Auschwitz: Three Years in the Gas Chambers Ivan R Dee Inc, 1999 ISBN 1-56663-271-4 Nyisli, Miklos Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eye-witness Account Mayflower, 1977 ASIN B000QIZILC Levi, Primo Survival in Auschwitz: The Nazi Assault on Humanity (1986) 1993 (current edition includes "A conversation with Primo Levi by Philip Roth" New York: Collier Books ISBN 0-020-2919222 van Pelt, Robert Jan. The Case for Auschwitz: Evidence from the Irving Trial. Indiana University Press, 2002. ISBN 0253340160 Adam Cyra, Ochotnik do Auschwitz - Witold Pilecki 1901-1948, Oświęcim 2000. ISBN 83-912000-3-5 External links www.druhasvetovavalka.cz - Pages show pictures and videos of the day taken at places connected with the World War II Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum (in English, Polish, and German) – Official website Auschwitz: The Final Stop Categorized material on the camp from Yad VaShem] (accessed 02/03/08) A Virtual Tour of Auschwitz/Birkenau Annotated images of the camp (accessed 02/14/08) Interactive image map of Birkenau Auschwitz Jewish Center situated in the town of Oświęcim Auschwitz-Birkenau and city Oswiecim (in Polish) Data and summary facts Video footage from a 2003 visit to Auschwitz-Birkenau Selected Photos from the Auschwitz Album with commentary by Oliver Lustig Liberation of Auschwitz - 60th Anniversary United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Holocaust Encyclopedia - Auschwitz United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Cybrary of the Holocaust Holocaust education site Anna Heilman Anna Heilman is the last living survivor of the plot to blow up Crematorium IV at Auschwitz-Birkenau. Her Holocaust experiences are discussed in her novel Never Far Away: The Auschwitz Chronicle of Anna Heilman Auschwitz-Birkenau 2005 Photographs and commentary marking the 60th anniversary of the camp's liberation Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau Detailed Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau by Alan Jacobs Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau Interactive Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau Auschwitz, Then and Now Photo/Art Exhibit Paintings by survivor Jan Komski – click and see an actual photo taken in the same place depicted in the painting Auschwitz: A Visitor's Introduction Auschwitz: The Nazis and the 'Final Solution' A comprehensive BBC documentary about the creation, evolution and aftermath of the Auschwitz camp The Simon Wiesenthal Center An international Jewish human rights organization dedicated to preserving the memory of the Holocaust Photos of Auschwitz 2003 Photos taken by Laura Carboni while participating in the annual multi-faith Bearing Witness retreat. Auschwitz and Birkenau at Google Maps CBC Digital Archives - Life after Auschwitz Panoramic photo gallery of Auschwitz-Birkenau C.A.N.D.L.E.S museum (Children of Auschwitz Nazi Deadly Lab Experiments Survivors) Terre Haute, IN. Founded by Mengele Twin, Eva Korr D. A. Brugiono and R. G. Poirier, The Holocaust Revisited: A Retrospective Analysis of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Complex. CIA report on WWII aerial photographs (1978, declassified in 2000), The Holocaust: Crimes, Heros, and Villains Photos of Auschwitz - Birkenau JewishKrakow.net A guide to Kazimierz, Krakow's Jewish Quarter. Also includes a section on Auschwitz complete with picture gallery and travel information. 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1,463 | Harold_Holt | Harold Edward Holt, CH (5 August 1908 17 December 1967) was an Australian politician who became the 17th Prime Minister of Australia in 1966. His term as Prime Minister dramatically ended in December of the following year when he disappeared while swimming at Cheviot Beach near Portsea, Victoria, and was presumed drowned. Holt spent 32 years in Parliament, including many years as a senior Cabinet Minister, but was Prime Minister for only 22 months. This necessarily limited his personal and political impact, especially when compared to his immediate predecessor Robert Menzies, who was Prime Minister for a total of 18 years. Today, Holt is mainly remembered for his controversial role in expanding Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, for his famous "All the way with LBJ" quote, and for the sensational circumstances of his death. In the opinion of his biographer Tom Frame, these have tended to obscure the many achievements of Holt's long and distinguished political career. Holt as Minister for Immigration (1949-1956), displayed a more flexible and caring attitude that resulted in the relaxation of the White Australia policy. Holt was Prime Minister when the 1967 referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians and in favour of Aborigines being included in the national census. Early life Harold Holt in the 1930s Harold Holt was the elder of two children of Thomas and Olive (Williams) Holt. He was born in the Sydney suburb of Stanmore on 5 August 1908. He and his brother Cliff (Clifford Thomas Holt, b. 1910) spent their early life in Sydney and attended three different schools in Sydney and Adelaide between 1913 and 1919. Harold Holt had two daughters, Isabella Holt and Rachel Holt. Isabella married Yianni Spyrakis and had three children together. In 1921 Thomas Holt enrolled his sons at the prestigious Wesley College in Melbourne, where the future Prime Minister Robert Menzies had been a star pupil. By this time Thomas Holt had left teaching and moved into theatrical and artist management in partnership with the noted entrepreneur Hugh D. Macintosh, owner of the Tivoli theatre circuit. For several years in the early 1930s he was based in London. Harold Holt's parents divorced in 1918. His mother died in 1924, when he was sixteen, and he did not attend her funeral. A lack of parental affection, his parents' divorce and his mother's early death instilled deep feelings of loneliness and insecurity in the young Holt. This drove him to seek approval and acclaim through personal endeavour and career achievement, and fuelled his eagerness to please others and his need to be liked. A formative event was his singing performance at his school's annual Speech Night in December 1926 — none of his family were present, and the sense of loneliness he felt that night remained with him throughout his life. Holt won a scholarship to Queen's College at the University of Melbourne and began his law degree in 1927. He excelled in many areas of university life — he won College 'Blues' for cricket and Australian rules football, as well as the College Oratory and Essay Prize. He was a member of the Melbourne Inter-University Debating team and the United Australia Organization 'A' Grade debating team, and was president of both the Sports and Social Club and the Law Students' Society. While at university, Holt met Zara Kate Dickens, and they soon became lovers, but split up in 1934 and Zara travelled overseas. In London she met Captain James Fell, a British Army officer, and they married later in March 1935. Her first son Nicholas was born in 1937, followed by twin boys Sam and Andrew, born in 1939. By this time, however, she had renewed her relationship with Holt and her marriage to Fell ended soon after the twins' birth. Tom Frame's biography reveals that Holt was the twins' biological father. Zara and Fell subsequently divorced and she eventually married Holt in 1946. He adopted the three boys. Although they remained married until Holt's death in 1967, Zara's memoirs confirmed longstanding rumours that Holt had a number of extramarital affairs. Holt graduated as a Bachelor of Laws in 1930. He was admitted to the Victorian Bar in November 1932 and served his articles with the Melbourne firm of Fink, Best & Miller, but the Depression meant that he was unable to find work as a barrister. His father (then based in London) wanted him to further his studies in England, but the worsening economy also made this impossible. Early political career Holt was drawn to politics in the early 1930s and joined the Prahran branch of the United Australia Party (UAP) in around 1933. In 1934 he unsuccessfully contested the federal seat of Yarra for the UAP, running against James Scullin. In March 1935, he unsuccessfully contested the Victorian state seat of Clifton Hill. Holt stood again for Fawkner in 1935 and this time social connections enabled him to gain preselection as the UAP candidate and he was elected to the House of Representatives in a by-election on 17 August 1935, becoming, at age 27, one of Australia's youngest-ever MPs. From this point on Holt dedicated himself single-mindedly to a career in politics, and he reportedly had few outside interests, apart from his well-known passion for sport and the sea. He was a 'workaholic', typically working up to 16 hours a day and subsisting on 4–5 hours sleep each night. In 1939, Holt's mentor Robert Menzies became Prime Minister after the sudden death of the incumbent Joseph Lyons and the short-term caretaker ministry of Sir Earle Page. Holt's energy, dedication and ability earned him rapid promotion and in April 1939 he was appointed Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Supply and Development. In October 1939 he became Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research, and during November-December 1939 he was Acting Minister for Air and Civil Aviation. In May 1940, without resigning his seat, Holt joined the Second Australian Imperial Force as a gunner, but a few months later three Cabinet ministers and several of Australia's top military staff were killed in an air crash in Canberra. Menzies recalled Holt from the army, appointing him Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Trade and Customs, and his recall earned him the ironic nickname "Gunner Holt." In October 1940 Holt was elevated to Cabinet, becoming Minister for Labour and National Service, and one of his most significant achievements in this portfolio was the introduction of the Child Endowment Act, passed in April 1941. In August 1941, a front-bench revolt forced Menzies to resign as Prime Minister. He was replaced by the Country Party leader Arthur Fadden. Holt was among those who withdrew their support, although he never revealed his reasons for doing so. In October 1941, the UAP was ousted by a no-confidence vote, the ALP leader John Curtin was invited to form a new government, and Menzies resigned as UAP leader. By 1944 the UAP had effectively disintegrated and in 1945 Menzies formally established a new political party, the Liberal Party of Australia, and forged an enduring coalition with the Country Party. Holt was one of the first members to join the Liberal Party's Prahran branch. Ministerial career in the 1950s After eight years in opposition, the Coalition won the federal election of December 1949 and Menzies began his record second term as Prime Minister. Holt was appointed to the prestigious positions of Minister for Labour and National Service (1949-1958; he had previously served in this portfolio 1940-41) and Minister for Immigration (1949-1956), by which time he was being touted in the press as a "certain successor to Menzies and a potential Prime Minister". In Immigration, Holt continued and expanded the massive immigration program initiated by his ALP predecessor, Arthur Calwell, and he displayed a more flexible and caring attitude than Calwell, who was a strong advocate of the White Australia policy. Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and he has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation. Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak, and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions the combination of strong economic growth and Holt's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically, from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958. Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government, the courts, employers and trade unions. He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk, President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions, and Jim Healy, leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation and he gained a reputation for tolerance, restraint and a willingness to compromise, although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen, Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism. Holt's personal profile and political standing grew through the 1950s. He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations, he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1953, and in 1954 he was named one of Australia's six best-dressed men. In 1956 he was elected Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and became Leader of the House, and from this point on he was generally acknowledged as Menzies' heir apparent. In December 1958, following the retirement of Arthur Fadden, Holt was appointed Treasurer. He delivered his first Budget in August 1959 and his achievements included major reforms to the banking system (originated by Fadden) including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia and the planning and preparation for the introduction of decimal currency. However, in November 1960, Holt brought down a mini-budget in an attempt to slow consumption, control inflation and reduce the deficit, but it triggered the worst credit squeeze since 1945. The economy was driven into recession the stock market slumped, private investment, housing activity and motor vehicle sales fell, unemployment rose to almost 2 percent (the highest rate since the Depression) and several major companies collapsed. Holt's blunder nearly derailed his own career, and it brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election, which they won with a precarious one-seat majority (the seat, Moreton, was won by Jim Killen). Holt was roundly criticised, his public profile was damaged, and he later described 1960-61 as "my most difficult year in public life". But Holt's political stock, like the economy, soon recovered. He continued as federal Treasurer until January 1966, when Menzies finally retired as Prime Minister and Holt was elected leader, thus becoming Prime Minister. By this time he had been an MP for almost thirty-one years the longest wait of any non-caretaker Australian Prime Minister. Holt as Prime Minister Holt was sworn in as Prime Minister on Australia Day, 26 January 1966. His original Cabinet included: John McEwen (CP) Deputy Prime Minister, leader of the Country Party, Minister for Trade and Industry William McMahon (LP), Treasurer Paul Hasluck (LP), Minister for External Affairs Allen Fairhall (LP), Minister for Defence Charles Adermann (CP) Minister for Primary Industry Charles Barnes (CP), Minister for Territories David Fairbairn (LP), Minister for National Development Senator John Gorton (LP), Minister for Works and Minister in Charge of Commonwealth Activities in Education and Research Senator Denham Henty (LP), Minister for Supply Alan Hulme (LP), Postmaster-General Les Bury (LP), Minister for Labour Malcolm Fraser (LP), Minister for the Army Holt's term in office covered almost exactly the tumultuous calendar years of 1966-67. His short tenure meant that he had limited personal and political impact as Prime Minister, and he is mainly remembered for the dramatic circumstances of his disappearance and presumed death. This has tended to obscure the major events and political trends of his term in office, especially his role in maintaining and expanding Australia's military commitment to the Vietnam War. Holt's tenure fell during one of the hottest periods of the Cold War era, and his government faced some unenviable foreign policy challenges. Global political, commercial and military alignments were rapidly reconfigured as the Soviets and the USA vied for world domination in diverse theatres of conflict. Australia's ties with the UK dwindled rapidly as Britain closed its foreign bases, disengaged from its former territories East of Suez and began courting the EEC, a move that saw American investment in Australia skyrocket and Australia's onetime enemy Japan take over from the UK as Australia's major trading partner. Strategically, the period was dominated by Lyndon Johnson's fateful decision to escalate the war in South East Asia. Australia's involvement in Vietnam increased significantly under Holt, with Australian troops fighting and dying in sometimes desperate battles like Long Tan. Growing community unrest about the draft, the rising tide of casualties and social debate about the rectitide of the war fuelled the first significant stirrings of organised domestic opposition, such as the influential community anti-conscription organisation Save Our Sons. There was considerable anxiety about the volatile situation in Indonesia, which saw Sukarno deposed by Army heavyweight Colonel Suharto, while the Chinese Communist Party launched the cataclysmic Cultural Revolution. The precarious international situation reached a crisis point in June 1967 when the Six Day War flared in the Middle East and six days later China tested its first H-bomb. As the Space Race gathered momentum, the continuing turmoil of decolonisation visited wars, coups, famine, armed uprisings and violent repression on countries across South and Central America, Africa and Asia. The transfer of power from Menzies to Holt in February 1966 was smooth and unproblematic, and at the federal election later that year the electorate overwhelmingly endorsed Holt, re-electing the Holt-McEwen Coalition government with 56% of the two party preferred vote. As of 2007, this stands as the greatest winning margin at a federal election in Australian political history. Behind the scenes, however, Menzies' retirement had left a power vacuum in the party, and internal divisions soon emerged. Menzies' domination of the party, and the fact that Holt's succession had been established for many years, meant that a secure second rank of leadership had not developed. Holt's disappearance at the end of 1967 forced the party to choose a "wild card" successor from the Senate after the leading contender, deputy Liberal leader William McMahon, was unexpectedly eliminated from the contest by their Coalition partners, the Country Party. The political historian James Jupp says that, in domestic policy, Holt identified with the reformist wing of Victorian Liberalism. One of his most notable achievements was to initiate the process of breaking down the racist White Australia policy, by ending the distinction between Asian and European migrants and by permitting skilled Asians to settle with their families. He also established the Australian Council for the Arts (later the Australia Council), which began the tradition of federal government support for Australian arts and artists, an initiative that was considerably expanded by Holt's successor John Gorton. In the area of constitutional reform, undoubtedly the most significant event of Holt's time as Prime Minister was the 1967 referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians and to include them in the Commonwealth census. In economics, Holt's tenure began with the phasing in of Australia's new system of decimal currency, launched on 14 February 1966 and was marked by a major realignment of commercial and military ties away from the UK and towards the USA and Asia. Although all the preparatory work for the decimal changeover had been done while Menzies was Prime Minister, Holt had particular responsibility as Treasurer for currency matters, and he was centrally involved in both the decision to change and its implementation. In 1967 his administration made the historic decision not to depreciate the Australian dollar in line with Britain's depreciation of the pound sterling, a custom that Australia had previously always followed, but this decision created increasing dissent within the Coalition, particularly from Country Party leader John McEwen, who saw the move as a threat to Australia's balance of payments and feared that it would lead to increased production costs for primary industry. In terms of party politics, one of the most significant features of Holt's brief tenure as PM is that his unexpected death triggered the beginning of an unprecedented period of turmoil within the Liberal Party and a rapid decline in the Coalition's electoral fortunes. For twenty-two years, from its founding in 1944 to his retirement in 1966, the Liberal Party had had only one leader – Robert Menzies. After his retirement, the party had three leaders in six years and in December 1972 the Coalition's hold on power was ended by a resounding electoral loss to the ALP under Gough Whitlam. Holt and Vietnam Prime Minister Harold Holt with US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara at The Pentagon in July 1966. Prime Minister Harold Holt with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson at the White House in October 1966. During Holt's term in office, the Vietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue. The Holt government significantly increased its military involvement in the conflict and Holt was a strong advocate of U.S. policy in the region. Holt also forged a close relationship with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson — he visited Washington in mid-1966 and Johnson visited Australia in October that year, the first time a serving American president had visited Australia. Whilst Holt stated that his friendship with Johnson was reflected in the strong relationship between Australia and the USA, former Australian diplomat and foreign affairs expert Alan Renouf was more cynical in his assessment of the situation. In the chapter on Vietnam in The Frightened Country, his 1979 book on Australian foreign policy, Renouf bluntly suggests that Holt was in effect "seduced" by Johnson, and he notes that the Holt government was criticized for not doing enough and was repeatedly pressured by the Johnson administration to increase its troop commitment in Vietnam. On taking office, Holt declared that Australia had no intention of increasing its commitment to the war, but a month later, in March 1966, he announced that Australia would treble its troop commitment to 4,500, including 1,500 National Service conscripts, creating a single independent Australian task force based at Nui Dat. Two months later, in May, Holt announced the death of the first National Service conscript in Vietnam, Private Errol Wayne Noack, aged 21. Just before his disappearance, Holt approved a further increase in troop numbers, committing a third battalion to the conflict — a decision that was subsequently reversed by his successor, John Gorton. On a visit to the USA in late June, 1966, Holt gave a speech in Washington in the presence of President Johnson. Reported in The Australian on 1 July 1966, Holt's speech concluded with a remark which has come to be seen as encapsulating his unquestioning support for Johnson, for America's Vietnam policy and for continued Australian military involvement in the conflict: "You have in us not merely an understanding friend but one staunch in the belief of the need for our presence in Vietnam. "We are not there because of our friendship, we are there because, like you, we believe it is right to be there and, like you, we shall stay there as long as it seems necessary to achieve the purposes of the South Vietnamese Government and the purposes that we join in formulating and progressing together. "And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ." Following his visit to Washington, Holt went on to London and in a speech there given on 7 July he was sharply critical of the UK, France and other U.S. allies that had refused to commit troops to the Vietnam conflict. On 20 October 1966, President Johnson arrived in Australia at Holt's invitation for a three-day state visit, the first to Australia by a serving U.S. President. The tour marked the first major anti-war demonstrations staged in Australia. In Sydney, protesters lay down in front of the car carrying Johnson and the Premier of New South Wales, Robert Askin (prompting Askin's notorious order to "Run over the bastards"). In Melbourne, a crowd estimated at 750,000 turned out to welcome Johnson, although a vocal anti-war contingent demonstrated against the visit by throwing paint bombs at Johnson's car and chanting "LBJ, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?". In December, Australia signed an agreement with the United States that would allow the U.S. to establish a communications facility at Pine Gap in the Northern Territory. On 20 December 1966, Holt announced that Australia's military force in Vietnam was to be increased again to 6,300 troops, plus an additional twelve tanks, two minesweepers and eight bombers. 1966 general election Holt fought his first and only general election as Prime Minister on 26 November 1966, focusing his campaign on the issue of Vietnam and the supposed Communist threat in Asia. Labor leader Arthur Calwell bitterly opposed Australia's part in the war and promised that Australian troops would be brought home if Labor won office, and opposition to overseas service by Australian conscripts had long been part of ALP policy. Holt faced real electoral challenges. Although domestic opposition to the war was beginning to build, Australia's involvement in Vietnam still enjoyed majority popular support. The Coalition scored a stunning victory over the ALP, winning many former ALP seats and sweeping back into power with (at the time) the largest parliamentary majority since Federation. The Liberal Party increased its numbers from 52 to 61, and the Country Party from 20 to 21, with Labor dropping from 51 to 41 seats, and one Independent. Among the new members elected was future federal Treasurer Phillip Lynch. 1967 In early 1967, Arthur Calwell retired as ALP leader and Gough Whitlam succeeded him. Whitlam proved a far more effective opponent, both in the media and in parliament, and Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground, with Whitlam repeatedly besting Holt in Parliament. By this time the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge. Throughout his reign as Liberal leader, Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but, once he was gone, dissension began to surface. Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt's weak leadership. Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticized within the party in the months before his death, that he was perceived as being "vague, imprecise and evasive" and "nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness". Holt during a visit to US president Lyndon B. Johnson 1 June 1967 Holt's popularity and political standing was damaged by his mishandling of a series of controversies during 1967. In April, the new ABC current affairs program This Day Tonight ran a story which was critical of the government's decision not to reappoint the ABC Chairman Sir James Darling; Holt responded rashly, questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist Mike Willesee (whose father Don Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister) and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the Australian Journalists' Association. In May, increasing pressure in the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a second inquiry into the 1964 sinking of HMAS Voyager to be held on 16 May. The debate included the maiden speech by NSW Liberal MP Edward St John QC, who used the opportunity to criticize the government's attitude to new evidence about the disaster. An enraged Holt interrupted St John's speech - defying parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence - and this blunder seriously undermined his support in the Liberal Party and further embarrassed the government. A few days later, Holt announced a new Royal Commission into the disaster. In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft, which came to a head when John Gorton (Government Leader in the Senate) tabled documents which showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter. Support for his leadership was further eroded by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air Peter Howson in order to defuse the scandal, fuelling criticism within the party that Holt was weak and lacked Menzies' ruthlessness. In November the government suffered a serious setback in the Senate elections, winning just 43.3 per cent of the vote against Labor's 47 per cent; the Liberals also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor. Within the party (Alan Reid says) the reversal was blamed on Holt's mishandling of the VIP planes scandal. In December, days before Holt disappeared, the Chief Government Whip Dudley Erwin decided to meet with Holt and confront him about growing unrest in the party. According to Alan Reid, Erwin had no concerns about policy his anxiety was entirely focussed on Holt's leadership style, his parliamentary performance and his public image. The notes Erwin made for his planned meeting with Holt (which he evidently provided to Reid) indicate that he and others were worried that Holt was too susceptible to traps set for him by the ALP over issues like the VIP jets scandal, and that he had repeatedly let himself become the target of Opposition "harassment" instead of letting his ministers take the heat on controversial issues. Disappearance On the morning of Sunday 17 December 1967, Holt, friends Christopher Anderson, Jan Lee and George Illson and his two bodyguards drove down from Melbourne to see the British lone yachtsman Alec Rose sail through Port Phillip Heads in his boat Lively Lady to complete this leg of his solo circumnavigation of the globe, which started and ended in England. Around noon, the party drove to one of Holt's favourite swimming and snorkeling spots, Cheviot Beach on Point Nepean near Portsea, on the eastern arm of Port Phillip Bay. Holt decided to go swimming, although the surf was heavy and Cheviot Beach was notorious for its strong currents and dangerous rip tides. Ignoring his friends' pleas not to go in, Holt plunged into the surf and quickly disappeared from view. Fearing the worst, his friends raised the alert. Within a short time the beach and the water off shore was being searched by a large contingent of police, Royal Australian Navy divers, Royal Australian Air Force helicopters, Army personnel from nearby Point Nepean and local volunteers. This quickly escalated into one of the largest search operations in Australian history, Harold Holt: GNT History, ABC, 22/9/2003 but no trace of Holt could be found. Two days later, on 19 December 1967, the government made an official announcement that Holt was presumed dead, with a police spokesperson famously stating "The search has come to a dead halt" ("halt" is usually pronounced like "Holt" in Australia). The Governor-General Lord Casey sent for the Country Party leader and Coalition Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen, and he was sworn in as caretaker Prime Minister while the Liberals elected a new leader. Holt was a strong swimmer and an experienced skindiver, with what Tom Frame describes as "incredible powers of endurance underwater". However, his health was evidently far from perfect at the time of his death — he had collapsed in Parliament earlier in the year, apparently suffering from a "vitamin deficiency", and this raised fears among some senior Liberals that he might have a heart condition. In September 1967 Holt had suffered a recurrence of an old shoulder injury, which reportedly caused him agonising pain for which he was prescribed strong painkillers. He ignored recent advice from his doctor not to play tennis or swim until the shoulder healed. Tom Frame also records that Holt had already got into trouble twice while skindiving earlier in 1967. On the first occasion, while snorkeling at Portsea in May, he got into severe difficulties due to a leaking snorkel and had to be pulled from the water by friends, gasping for breath, blue in the face and vomiting seawater. Memorial service A memorial service held at St Paul's Anglican Cathedral in Melbourne on 22 December, was attended by a number of international dignitaries including President Johnson and Charles, Prince of Wales. Among the many Asian leaders was Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, President of South Vietnam and Park Chung-hee, President of South Korea. It was also one of the first events to be transmitted from Australia to other countries via satellite. Speculation There were many rumours surrounding Holt's death, such as that he had committed suicide or faked his own death in order to run away with his mistress. The mystery became the subject of numerous urban myths in Australia, including outlandish but persistent stories that he had been kidnapped by a Chinese submarine, or that he had been abducted by a UFO. In 1983, British journalist Anthony Grey published a controversial book in which he claimed that Holt had been an agent for the People's Republic of China and that he had been picked up by a Chinese submarine off Portsea and taken to China. Grey, Anthony. The Prime Minister Was a Spy (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1983) Journalist Ray Martin made a documentary, Who Killed Harold Holt?, screened in November 2007 which suggested that Holt might have committed suicide. The Bulletin magazine featured a story supporting the suicide theory. In support of the view, The Bulletin quoted fellow cabinet minister Doug Anthony who spoke about Holt's depression shortly before his death. The suggestion of suicide was rejected by Holt's son Sam, by his biographer Tom Frame and by former prime minister and Cabinet colleague at the time, Malcolm Fraser. On 23 October 2008, ABC Television broadcast a one-hour docu-drama The Prime Minister is Missing, starring 1960s pop idol Normie Rowe as Holt. This covered much of the same ground as Martin's documentary, but rejected Martin's suggestion that Holt committed suicide, stating that he was a vocal 'life affirmer'. The documentary also noted that Holt was suffering a shoulder injury and had been advised by his physician not to play tennis or swim, advice that was ignored on both counts. The same doctor had prescribed morphine for the injured shoulder, and the documentary suggested that the effect of the drug might have impaired Holt's judgement in entering the dangerous surf. ABC TV: "The Prime Minister is Missing" Enquiries into Holt's disappearance No official federal government enquiry was conducted, on the grounds that it would have been a waste of time and money. Neither was an inquest held at the time because Victorian law did not provide any mechanism for reporting presumed or suspected deaths to the Victorian Coroner. However, the Commonwealth and Victoria Police compiled a 108-page report into the disappearance, including statements from all eye witnesses and details of the search operation. Report by the Commonwealth and Victoria Police on Disappearance of the Prime Minister The Right Honourable Harold Holt, C.H. M.P. Cheviot Beach, Portsea, Victoria, Sunday 17 December 1967, National Archives of Australia The law in Victoria was changed in 1985, and in 2003 the Victoria Police Missing Persons Unit formally reopened 161 pre-1985 cases where drowning was suspected but no body was found. Holt's son Nicholas Holt said that after 37 years there were few surviving witnesses and no new evidence would be presented. On 2 September 2005, the Coroner's finding was that Holt had drowned in accidental circumstances on 17 December 1967. Leadership crisis Holt's disappearance triggered a leadership crisis in the Liberal Party which briefly raised the possibility of a split in the Coalition. On the morning of 18 December, Country Party leader John McEwen publicly declared that neither he nor his Country Party colleagues would serve in a Coalition if the deputy Liberal leader William McMahon were elected as Liberal leader. McEwen refused to give his reasons, saying only that McMahon knew what they were. In the interim, on 19 December McEwen was sworn in as Prime Minister on the understanding that his commission would continue only until such time as the Liberals could elect a new leader. With McMahon unexpectedly eliminated from the contest, Senator John Gorton was elected Liberal leader on 9 January 1968, and was sworn in as Prime Minister on 10 January, replacing McEwen. In 1968, the year after Holt's death, his widow Zara Holt was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, becoming Dame Zara Holt DBE. She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, Jeff Bate and was then known as Dame Zara Bate. Memorials Bust of Harold Holt by sculptor Victor Greenhalgh located in the Prime Minister's Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens In 1968 the newly commissioned United States Navy Knox class destroyer escort USS Harold E. Holt (FF-1074) was named in his honour. She was launched by Holt's widow Dame Zara at the Todd Shipyards in Los Angeles on 3 May 1969, and was the first American warship to bear the name of a foreign leader. In 1969 a plaque commemorating Holt was bolted to the seafloor off Cheviot Beach after a memorial ceremony. It bears the inscription: Other memorials include: the suburb of Holt, Australian Capital Territory the Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt the Division of Holt, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives in Victoria a sundial and garden in the Fitzroy Gardens, Melbourne a wing for boarders at Wesley College, Melbourne the Harold Holt Fisheries Reserves - five protected areas in southern Port Phillip, located at Swan Bay, Point Lonsdale, Mud Islands, Point Nepean and Pope’s Eye (The Annulus). Holt is most famously commemorated by the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre, History of the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre a swimming pool complex in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Iris. The complex was already under construction at the time of Holt's disappearance, and since he was Malvern's local member it was named in his memory, although the irony of commemorating him with a swimming pool has been the source of wry amusement to some Australians (and numerous callers to the swimming pool!). Bryson, Bill. In a Sunburned Country (Broadway Books, New York, 2000) ISBN 0-7679-0385-4 By way of a folk memorial, he is recalled in the Australian vernacular expression "do a Harold Holt" (or "do the Harry"), rhyming slang for "do a bolt" meaning "to disappear suddenly and without explanation", although this is usually employed in the context of disappearance from a social gathering rather than a case of presumed death. Belinsky, Natalya. Australian Slang Accessed 7 January 2008 Popular culture Bill Bryson dedicates a chapter of his book Down Under (published in the US as In a Sunburned Country) to Holt's disappearance. See also First Holt Ministry Second Holt Ministry Death in absentia List of people who have mysteriously disappeared Notes References and further reading External links Harold Holt Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia Harold Holt and LBJ -You Tube Video Documentary | Harold_Holt |@lemmatized harold:19 edward:2 holt:150 ch:1 august:5 december:17 australian:30 politician:1 become:13 prime:33 minister:61 australia:41 term:7 dramatically:2 end:6 following:1 year:17 disappear:5 swim:4 cheviot:5 beach:6 near:2 portsea:5 victoria:7 presume:4 drowned:1 spent:1 parliament:5 include:12 many:8 senior:2 cabinet:7 month:5 necessarily:1 limit:2 personal:4 political:13 impact:2 especially:2 compare:1 immediate:1 predecessor:2 robert:6 menzies:18 total:1 today:2 mainly:2 remember:2 controversial:4 role:2 expand:4 involvement:5 vietnam:15 war:13 famous:1 way:3 lbj:5 quote:2 sensational:1 circumstance:3 death:16 opinion:1 biographer:2 tom:5 frame:5 tend:2 obscure:2 achievement:5 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1,464 | Mason_Remey | Charles Mason Remey Charles Mason Remey (May 15 1874 - February 4 1974) was a prominent and controversial American Bahá'í who was appointed in 1951 a Hand of the Cause, and president of the International Bahá'í Council. He was the architect for the Bahá'í Houses of Worship in Uganda and Australia, and Shoghi Effendi approved his design of the unbuilt House of Worship in Haifa, Israel. When Shoghi Effendi died in 1957, he died without explicitly appointing a successor Guardian, and Remey was among the nine Hands of the Cause elected as an interim authority until the election of the first Universal House of Justice in 1963. However, in 1960 Remey declared himself to be the successor of Shoghi Effendi, and expected the allegiance of the world's Bahá'ís. Subsequently, he and his followers were declared Covenant breakers by the Hands. They reasoned that he lacked a formal appointment from Shoghi Effendi, and that the office was confined to male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh, the Aghsan. Almost the whole Bahá'í world rejected his claim, but he gained the support of a small but widespread group of Bahá'ís. His claim resulted in the largest schism in the history of the Bahá'í Faith, with a few groups still holding the belief that Remey was the successor of Shoghi Effendi. Various dated references show membership at less than a hundred each in two of the surviving groups. Early life Born in Burlington, Iowa, on May 15 1874, Mason was the eldest son of Rear Admiral George Collier Remey and Mary Josephine Mason Remey, the daughter of Charles Mason, the first Chief Justice of Iowa. John Hopkins University Library Special Collections. See 'Biographical Note' . Retrieved September 7, 2008. Remey’s parents raised him in the Episcopal Church. Remey, 1960 p. 2 Remey trained as an architect at Cornell University (1893-1896), and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, France (1896-1903) where he first learned of the Bahá'í Faith. As a Bahá'í With a background in architecture, Remey was asked to design the Australian and Ugandan Bahá'í House of Worship which still stand today and are the mother temples for Australasia and Africa respectively. Upon the request of Shoghi Effendi, he also provided designs for a Bahá'í House of Worship in Tehran, for Haifa, and the Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá, however only the Haifa temple was approved before the death of Shoghi Effendi, and none have so far been built. Remey traveled extensively to promote the Bahá'í Faith during the ministry of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Shoghi Effendi recorded that Remey and his Bahá'í companion, Howard Struven, were the first Bahá'ís to circle the globe teaching the religion. A prolific writer, Remey wrote numerous published and personal articles promoting the Bahá'í Faith, including `Abdu'l-Bahá – The Center of the Covenant and the five volume A Comprehensive History of the Bahá'í Movement (1927), The Bahá'í Revelation and Reconstruction (1919), Constructive Principles of The Bahá'í Movement (1917), and The Bahá'í Movement: A Series of Nineteen Papers (1912) are a few of the titles of the many works Remey produced while `Abdu'l-Bahá was still alive. Remey's life was recorded in his diaries, and in 1940 he provided copies and selected writings to several public libraries. Included in most of the collections were the letters `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote to him. Summary and details of the collection of Remey's diaries at John Hopkins University Library. . Retrieved September 6th, 2008 According to Juliet Thompson's diary, `Abdu'l-Bahá suggested that she marry Remey, and in 1909 asked her how she felt about it, reportedly requesting of her: “Give my greatest love to Mr. Remey and say: You are very dear to me. You are so dear to me that I think of you day and night. You are my real son. Therefore I have an idea for you. I hope it may come to pass...He told me He loved Mason Remey so much,” Thompson writes, “and He loved me so much that he wished us to marry. That was the meaning of His message to Mason. He said it would be a perfect union and good for the Cause. Then he asked me how I felt about it.” They did not marry, although Thompson anguished over her decision, which she felt would cause ‘Abdu’l-Baha disappointment. In 1932 he married Gertrude Heim Klemm Mason (1887-1933), who subsequently died a year later. Summary and details of the collection of Remey's diaries at John Hopkins University Library. . Retrieved September 6th, 2008 Under Shoghi Effendi Remey lived for some time in Washington, D.C., in the 1930s and 1940s. In 1950 Remey moved his residence from Washington, D.C., to Haifa, Israel, at the request of Shoghi Effendi. In January 1951, Shoghi Effendi issued a proclamation announcing the formation of the International Bahá'í Council (IBC), representing the first international Bahá'í body. The council was intended to be a forerunner to the Universal House of Justice, the supreme ruling body of the Bahá'í Faith. Remey was appointed president of the council in March, with Amelia Collins as vice-president, then in December of 1951 Remey was appointed a Hand of the Cause. After Shoghi Effendi When Shoghi Effendi died in 1957, Remey and the other Hands of the Cause met in a private Conclave at Bahjí in Haifa, and determined that he hadn't appointed a successor. They decided that the situation of the Guardian having died without being able to appoint a successor was a situation not dealt with in the texts that define the Bahá'í administration, and that it would need to be reviewed and adjudicated upon by the Universal House of Justice, which hadn't been elected yet. Remey signed a unanimous declaration of the Hands that Shoghi Effendi had died "without having appointed his successor". For the document, see the Unanimous Proclamation of the 27 Hands of the Cause of God Three years later, in 1960, Remey made a written announcement that his appointment as president of the international council represented an appointment by Shoghi Effendi as Guardian, because the appointed council was a precursor to the elected Universal House of Justice, which has the Guardian as its president. He also attempted to usurp the control of the Faith which the Hands had themselves assumed at the passing of Shoghi Effendi stating: It is from and through the Guardianship that infallibility is vested and that the Hands of the Faith receive their orders...I now command the Hands of the Faith to stop all of their preparations for 1963, and furthermore I command all believers both as individual Bahá'ís and as assemblies of Bahá'ís to immediately cease cooperating with and giving support to this fallacious program for 1963. He claimed to believe that the Guardianship was an institution intended to endure forever, and that he was the 2nd Guardian by virtue of his appointment to the IBC. Almost the whole Bahá'í world rejected his claim, although he gained the support of a small but widespread group of Bahá'ís. One of the most notable exceptions to accept his claim was that of the entire French National Spiritual Assembly, led by Joel Marangella, who elected to support Remey, and was consequently disbanded by the Hands. The remaining 26 Hands of the Cause unanimously expelled him from the community. Remey himself declared that being the Guardian gave him the exclusive right to declare who was or wasn't a Covenant-breaker, and that those who opposed him and followed the Hands of the Cause were Covenant-breakers. Under the Hereditary Guardianship Among the Bahá'ís who accepted Mason Remey as the second Guardian, several further divisions have occurred based on opinions of legitimacy and the proper succession of authority. Most of his long-term followers were Americans, who distinguished themselves as "Bahá'ís Under the Hereditary Guardianship". In his later years Remey made confused and contradictory appointments for a successor, which resulted in further divisions among his followers dividing among several claimants to leadership. When Remey died his followers split into rival factions with each believing in a different Guardian. Donald Harvey (d.1991), was appointed by Remey as "Third Guardian" in 1967. Joel Marangella was president of Remey's "Second International Bahá'í Council" claimed in 1969 to have been secretly appointed by Remey as Guardian several years earlier, whose followers are now known as Orthodox Bahá'ís. Another of Remey's followers, Leland Jensen (d. 1996), who made a several religious claims of his own, formed a sect known as the Bahá'ís Under the Provisions of the Covenant following Remey's death; he believed that Remey was the adopted son of Abdu'l-Baha, and that Remey's adopted son Joseph Pepe was the third Guardian. note 6 All those that accept Mason Remey as the second Guardian do not accept the Universal House of Justice established in 1963. Death On February 4th, 1974, Mason Remey died at the age of 99. John Hopkins University Library Special Collections. See 'Biographical Note' . Retrieved September 7, 2008. Notes References External links Biography of Charles Mason Remy - by Brent Matthieu Mason Remey and Those Who Followed Him - published by the Universal House of Justice Passing the Test of God - BUPC's views of Mason Remey's Life, Contributions, and Beliefs | Mason_Remey |@lemmatized charles:4 mason:14 remey:44 may:3 february:2 prominent:1 controversial:1 american:2 bahá:39 í:22 appoint:9 hand:13 cause:9 president:6 international:5 council:7 architect:2 house:10 worship:4 uganda:1 australia:1 shoghi:16 effendi:16 approve:2 design:3 unbuilt:1 haifa:5 israel:2 die:8 without:3 explicitly:1 successor:7 guardian:12 among:4 nine:1 elect:4 interim:1 authority:2 election:1 first:5 universal:6 justice:7 however:2 declare:4 expect:1 allegiance:1 world:3 ís:10 subsequently:2 follower:6 covenant:5 breaker:3 reason:1 lack:1 formal:1 appointment:5 office:1 confine:1 male:1 descendant:1 u:2 lláh:1 aghsan:1 almost:2 whole:2 reject:2 claim:7 gain:2 support:4 small:2 widespread:2 group:4 result:2 large:1 schism:1 history:2 faith:8 still:3 hold:1 belief:2 various:1 dated:1 reference:2 show:1 membership:1 less:1 hundred:1 two:1 survive:1 early:1 life:3 bear:1 burlington:1 iowa:2 eldest:1 son:4 rear:1 admiral:1 george:1 collier:1 mary:1 josephine:1 daughter:1 chief:1 john:4 hopkins:4 university:5 library:5 special:2 collection:5 see:3 biographical:2 note:4 retrieve:4 september:4 parent:1 raise:1 episcopal:1 church:1 p:1 train:1 cornell:1 école:1 de:1 beau:1 art:1 paris:1 france:1 learn:1 background:1 architecture:1 ask:3 australian:1 ugandan:1 stand:1 today:1 mother:1 temple:2 australasia:1 africa:1 respectively:1 upon:2 request:3 also:2 provide:2 tehran:1 shrine:1 abdu:8 l:8 death:3 none:1 far:1 build:1 travel:1 extensively:1 promote:2 ministry:1 record:2 companion:1 howard:1 struven:1 circle:1 globe:1 teach:1 religion:1 prolific:1 writer:1 write:3 numerous:1 publish:2 personal:1 article:1 include:2 center:1 five:1 volume:1 comprehensive:1 movement:3 revelation:1 reconstruction:1 constructive:1 principle:1 series:1 nineteen:1 paper:1 title:1 many:1 work:1 produce:1 alive:1 diary:4 copy:1 select:1 writing:1 several:5 public:1 letter:1 summary:2 detail:2 accord:1 juliet:1 thompson:3 suggest:1 marry:4 felt:3 reportedly:1 give:3 great:1 love:3 mr:1 say:2 dear:2 think:1 day:1 night:1 real:1 therefore:1 idea:1 hope:1 come:1 pass:2 tell:1 much:2 writes:1 wish:1 meaning:1 message:1 would:3 perfect:1 union:1 good:1 although:2 anguish:1 decision:1 baha:2 disappointment:1 gertrude:1 heim:1 klemm:1 year:4 later:2 live:1 time:1 washington:2 c:2 move:1 residence:1 january:1 issue:1 proclamation:2 announce:1 formation:1 ibc:2 represent:2 body:2 intend:2 forerunner:1 supreme:1 ruling:1 march:1 amelia:1 collins:1 vice:1 december:1 meet:1 private:1 conclave:1 bahjí:1 determine:1 decide:1 situation:2 able:1 deal:1 text:1 define:1 administration:1 need:1 review:1 adjudicate:1 yet:1 sign:1 unanimous:2 declaration:1 document:1 god:2 three:1 make:3 announcement:1 appointed:1 precursor:1 attempt:1 usurp:1 control:1 assume:1 passing:1 stating:1 guardianship:4 infallibility:1 vested:1 receive:1 order:1 command:2 stop:1 preparation:1 furthermore:1 believer:1 individual:1 assembly:2 immediately:1 cease:1 cooperate:1 fallacious:1 program:1 believe:2 institution:1 endure:1 forever:1 virtue:1 one:1 notable:1 exception:1 accept:4 entire:1 french:1 national:1 spiritual:1 lead:1 joel:2 marangella:2 consequently:1 disband:1 remain:1 unanimously:1 expel:1 community:1 exclusive:1 right:1 oppose:1 follow:3 hereditary:2 second:3 division:2 occur:1 base:1 opinion:1 legitimacy:1 proper:1 succession:1 long:1 term:1 distinguish:1 late:1 confused:1 contradictory:1 divide:1 claimant:1 leadership:1 split:1 rival:1 faction:1 believing:1 different:1 donald:1 harvey:1 third:2 secretly:1 earlier:1 whose:1 know:2 orthodox:1 another:1 leland:1 jensen:1 religious:1 form:1 sect:1 provision:1 adopted:1 adopt:1 joseph:1 pepe:1 establish:1 age:1 external:1 link:1 biography:1 remy:1 brent:1 matthieu:1 test:1 bupc:1 view:1 contribution:1 |@bigram mason_remey:9 bahá_í:22 shoghi_effendi:16 haifa_israel:2 bahá_ís:10 covenant_breaker:3 u_lláh:1 í_faith:5 burlington_iowa:1 eldest_son:1 rear_admiral:1 abdu_l:8 vice_president:1 adopted_son:1 external_link:1 |
1,465 | Mainframe_computer | An IBM 704 mainframe Mainframes (often colloquially referred to as Big Iron ) are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, ERP, and financial transaction processing. The term probably had originated from the early mainframes, as they were housed in enormous, room-sized metal boxes or frames. Later the term was used to distinguish high-end commercial machines from less powerful units. Today in practice, the term usually refers to computers compatible with the IBM System/360 line, first introduced in 1965. (IBM System z10 is the latest incarnation.) Otherwise, large systems that are not based on the System/360 but are used for similar tasks are usually referred to as servers or even supercomputers. However, "server", "supercomputer" and "mainframe" are not synonymous (see client-server). Some non-System/360-compatible systems derived from or compatible with older (pre-Web) server technology may also be considered mainframes. These include the Burroughs large systems, the UNIVAC 1100/2200 series systems, and the pre-System/360 IBM 700/7000 series. Most large-scale computer system architectures were firmly established in the 1960s and most large computers were based on architecture established during that era up until the advent of Web servers in the 1990s. (Interestingly, the first Web server running anywhere outside Switzerland ran on an IBM mainframe at Stanford University as early as 1990. See History of the World Wide Web for details.) There were several minicomputer operating systems and architectures that arose in the 1970s and 1980s, but minicomputers are generally not considered mainframes. (UNIX arose as a minicomputer operating system; Unix has scaled up over the years to acquire some mainframe characteristics.) Many defining characteristics of "mainframe" were established in the 1960s, but those characteristics continue to expand and evolve to the present day. Description Modern mainframe computers have abilities not so much defined by their single task computational speed (usually defined as MIPS — Millions of Instructions Per Second) as by their redundant internal engineering and resulting high reliability and security, extensive input-output facilities, strict backward compatibility with older software, and high utilization rates to support massive throughput. These machines often run for years without interruption, with repairs and hardware upgrades taking place during normal operation. Software upgrades are only non-disruptive when Parallel Sysplex is in place, with true workload sharing, so one system can take over another's application, while it is being refreshed. More recently, there are several IBM mainframe installations that have delivered over a decade of continuous business service as of 2007, with hardware upgrades not interrupting service. Mainframes are defined by high availability, one of the main reasons for their longevity, because they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic. The term Reliability, Availability and Serviceability (RAS) is a defining characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning (and implementation) is required to exploit these features. In the 1960s, most mainframes had no interactive interface. They accepted sets of punch cards, paper tape, and/or magnetic tape and operated solely in batch mode to support back office functions, such as customer billing. Teletype devices were also common, at least for system operators. By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user interfaces and operated as timesharing computers, supporting hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously along with batch processing. Users gained access through specialized terminals or, later, from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. Many mainframes supported graphical terminals (and terminal emulation) by the 1980s (if not earlier). Nowadays most mainframes have partially or entirely phased out classic terminal access for end-users in favor of Web user interfaces. Developers and operational staff typically continue to use terminals or terminal emulators. Historically, mainframes acquired their name in part because of their substantial size, and because of requirements for specialized heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), and electrical power. Those requirements ended by the mid-1990s with CMOS mainframe designs replacing the older bipolar technology. In a major reversal, IBM now touts its newer mainframes' ability to reduce data center energy costs for power and cooling, and the reduced physical space requirements compared to server farms. Characteristics Nearly all mainframes have the ability to run (or host) multiple operating systems, and thereby operate not as a single computer but as a number of virtual machines. In this role, a single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of smaller servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, though not to the same degree or level of sophistication. Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity non disruptively and granularly, again to a level of sophistication not found on most servers. Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, offer three levels of virtualization: logical partitions (LPARs, via the PR/SM facility), virtual machines (via the z/VM operating system), and through its operating systems (notably z/OS with its key-protected address spaces and sophisticated goal-oriented workload scheduling, but also Linux, OpenSolaris and Java). This virtualization is so thorough, so well established, and so reliable that most IBM mainframe customers run no more than two machines : one in their primary data center, and one in their backup data center—fully active, partially active, or on standby—in case there is a catastrophe affecting the first building. All test, development, training, and production workload for all applications and all databases can run on a single machine, except for extremely large demands where the capacity of one machine might be limiting. Such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing. Since the mid-1960s, mainframe designs have included several subsidiary computers (called channels or peripheral processors) which manage the I/O devices, leaving the CPU free to deal only with high-speed memory. It is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files. Giga-record or tera-record files are not unusual. Compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it much faster. While some other server families also offload certain I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing, they do not do so to the same degree and levels of sophistication. Mainframe return on investment (ROI), like any other computing platform, is dependent on its ability to scale, support mixed workloads, reduce labor costs, deliver uninterrupted service for critical business applications, and several other risk-adjusted cost factors. Some argue that the modern mainframe is not cost-effective. Hewlett-Packard and Dell unsurprisingly take that view at least at times, and so do some independent analysts. Sun Microsystems also takes that view, but beginning in 2007 promoted a partnership with IBM which largely focused on IBM support for Solaris on its System x and BladeCenter products (and therefore unrelated to mainframes), but also included positive comments for the company's OpenSolaris operating system being ported to IBM mainframes as part of increasing the Solaris community. Some analysts (such as Gartner) claim that the modern mainframe often has unique value and superior cost-effectiveness, especially for large scale enterprise computing. In fact, Hewlett-Packard also continues to manufacture its own mainframe (arguably), the NonStop system originally created by Tandem. Logical partitioning is now found in many UNIX-based servers, and many vendors are promoting virtualization technologies, in many ways validating the mainframe's design accomplishments while blurring the differences between the different approaches to enterprise computing. Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing. For example, z900, z990, System z9, and System z10 servers effectively execute result-oriented instructions twice, compare results, arbitrate between any differences (through instruction retry and failure isolation), then shift workloads "in flight" to functioning processors, including spares, without any impact to operating systems, applications, or users. This hardware-level feature, also found in HP's NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, because both processors take their "steps" (i.e. instructions) together. Not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing. Market IBM mainframes dominate the mainframe market at well over 90% market share. Unisys manufactures ClearPath mainframes, based on earlier Sperry and Burroughs product lines. In 2002, Hitachi co-developed the zSeries z800 with IBM to share expenses, but subsequently the two companies have not collaborated on new Hitachi models. Hewlett-Packard sells its unique NonStop systems, which it acquired with Tandem Computers and which some analysts classify as mainframes. Groupe Bull's DPS, Fujitsu (formerly Siemens) BS2000, and Fujitsu-ICL VME mainframes are still available in Europe. Fujitsu, Hitachi, and NEC (the "JCMs") still maintain nominal mainframe hardware businesses in their home Japanese market, although they have been slow to introduce new hardware models in recent years. The amount of vendor investment in mainframe development varies with marketshare. Unisys, HP, Groupe Bull, Fujitsu, Hitachi, and NEC now rely primarily on commodity Intel CPUs rather than custom processors in order to reduce their development expenses, and they have also cut back their mainframe software development. (However, Unisys still maintains its own unique CMOS processor design development for certain high-end ClearPath models but contracts chip manufacturing to IBM.) In stark contrast, IBM continues to pursue a different business strategy of mainframe investment and growth. IBM has its own large research and development organization designing new, homegrown CPUs, including mainframe processors such as 2008's 4.4 GHz quad-core z10 mainframe microprocessor. IBM is rapidly expanding its software business, including its mainframe software portfolio, to seek additional revenue and profits. IDC and Gartner server marketshare measurements show IBM System z mainframes continuing their long-running marketshare gains among high-end servers of all types, and IBM continues to report increasing mainframe revenues even while steadily reducing prices. History Several manufacturers produced mainframe computers from the late 1950s through the 1970s. The group of manufacturers was first known as "IBM and the Seven Dwarfs": IBM, Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data, Honeywell, General Electric and RCA. Later, shrinking, it was referred to as IBM and the BUNCH. IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 series and, later, the development of the 360 series mainframes. The latter architecture has continued to evolve into their current zSeries/z9 mainframes which, along with the then Burroughs and now Unisys MCP-based mainframes, are among the few mainframe architectures still extant that can trace their roots to this early period. That said, while they can still run 24-bit System/360 code, the 64-bit zSeries and System z9 CMOS servers have nothing physically in common with the older systems. Notable manufacturers outside the USA were Siemens and Telefunken in Germany, ICL in the United Kingdom, and Fujitsu, Hitachi, Oki, and NEC in Japan. The Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries manufactured close copies of IBM mainframes during the Cold War; the Strela is an example of an independently designed Soviet computer. Shrinking demand and tough competition caused a shakeout in the market in the early 1980s — RCA sold out to UNIVAC and GE also left; Honeywell was bought out by Bull; UNIVAC became a division of Sperry, which later merged with Burroughs to form Unisys Corporation in 1986. In 1991, AT&T briefly owned NCR. During the same period, companies found that servers based on microcomputer designs could be deployed at a fraction of the acquisition price and offer local users much greater control over their own systems given the IT policies and practices at that time. Terminals used for interacting with mainframe systems were gradually replaced by personal computers. Consequently, demand plummeted and new mainframe installations were restricted mainly to financial services and government. In the early 1990s, there was a rough consensus among industry analysts that the mainframe was a dying market as mainframe platforms were increasingly replaced by personal computer networks. Infoworld's Stuart Alsop famously predicted that the last mainframe would be unplugged in 1996. That trend started to turn around in the late 1990s as corporations found new uses for their existing mainframes and as the price of data networking collapsed in most parts of the world, encouraging trends toward more centralized computing. The growth of e-business also dramatically increased the number of back-end transactions processed by mainframe software as well as the size and throughput of databases. Batch processing, such as billing, became even more important (and larger) with the growth of e-business, and mainframes are particularly adept at large scale batch computing. Another factor currently increasing mainframe use is the development of the Linux operating system, which arrived on IBM mainframe systems in 1999 and is typically run in scores or hundreds virtual machines on a single mainframe. Linux allows users to take advantage of open source software combined with mainframe hardware RAS. Rapid expansion and development in emerging markets, particularly China, is also spurring major mainframe investments to solve exceptionally difficult computing problems, e.g. providing unified, extremely high volume online transaction processing databases for 1 billion consumers across multiple industries (banking, insurance, credit reporting, government services, etc.) All the largest Chinese banks now use IBM mainframes. Also, in late 2000 IBM introduced 64-bit z/Architecture and reinvigorated its mainframe software organization, developing hundreds of new mainframe software products in subsequent years. IBM also acquired numerous software companies with leadership in specific market segments, such as Cognos, and quickly introduced those software products to the mainframe. IBM has also been steadily reducing prices, taking advantage of increasing economies of scale and spurring additional demand. IBM's quarterly and annual reports in the 2000s reported increasing mainframe revenues and even faster increasing mainframe capacity shipments, with only a few brief interruptions prior to new model introductions. According to IDC, IT labor costs continued to rise in the 2000s, putting significant and increasing pressure on corporate budgets, and encouraging a shift toward the more labor-efficient centralized computing model, particularly mainframes. (IBM also focused on labor-saving product improvements.) In an ultimate irony, IBM credibly promotes its mainframes as the most space- and energy-efficient servers, just as many businesses are reaching data center expansion limits. Differences to supercomputers The distinction between supercomputers and mainframes is not a hard and fast one, but supercomputers generally are used for problems which are limited by calculation speed, while mainframes are used for problems which are limited by input/output and reliability and for solving multiple business problems concurrently (mixed workload). The differences and similarities are as follows: Both types of systems offer parallel processing. Supercomputers typically expose it to the programmer in complex manners, while mainframes typically use it to run multiple tasks. One result of this difference is that adding processors to a mainframe often speeds up the entire workload transparently. Supercomputers are optimized for complicated computations that take place largely in memory, while mainframes are optimized for comparatively simple computations involving huge amounts of external data. For example, weather forecasting is suited to supercomputers, and insurance business or payroll processing applications are more suited to mainframes. Supercomputers are often purpose-built for one or a very few specific institutional tasks (e.g. simulation and modeling). Mainframes typically handle a wider variety of tasks (e.g. data processing, warehousing). Consequently, most supercomputers can be one-off designs, whereas mainframes typically form part of a manufacturer's standard model lineup. Mainframes tend to have numerous ancillary service processors assisting their main central processors (for cryptographic support, I/O handling, monitoring, memory handling, etc.) so that the actual "processor count" is much higher than would otherwise be obvious. Supercomputer design tends not to include as many service processors since they don't appreciably add to raw number-crunching power. This distinction is perhaps blurring over time as Moore's Law constraints encourage more specialization in server components. Mainframes are exceptionally adept at batch processing, such as billing, owing to their heritage, decades of increasing customer expectations for batch improvements, and throughput-centric design. Supercomputers generally perform quite poorly in batch processing. There has been some blurring of the term "mainframe," with some PC and server vendors referring to their systems as "mainframes" or "mainframe-like." This is not widely accepted and the market generally recognizes that mainframes are genuinely and demonstrably different. Statistics An IBM zSeries 800 (foreground, left). 90% of IBM's mainframes have CICS transaction processing software installed. Other software staples include the IMS and DB2 databases, and WebSphere MQ and WebSphere Application Server middleware. , IBM claimed over 200 new (21st century) mainframe customers — customers that had never previously owned a mainframe. Most mainframes run continuously at over 70% busy. A 90% figure is typical, and modern mainframes tolerate sustained periods of 100% CPU utilization, queuing work according to business priorities without disrupting ongoing execution. Mainframes have a historical reputation for being "expensive," but the modern reality is much different. As of late 2006, it is possible to buy and configure a complete IBM mainframe system (with software, storage, and support), under standard commercial use terms, for about $50,000 (U.S.). The price of z/OS starts at about $1,500 (U.S.) per year, including 24x7 telephone and Web support. In the unlikely event a mainframe needs repair, it is typically repaired without interruption to running applications. Also, memory, storage and processor modules of chips can be added or hot swapped without interrupting applications. It is not unusual for a mainframe to be continuously switched on for months or years at a stretch. Speed and performance The CPU speed of mainframes has historically been measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS). MIPS have been used as an oversimplified comparative rating of the speed and capacity of mainframes. The smallest System z9 IBM mainframes today run at about 26 MIPS and the largest System z10 at about 30,657 MIPS — a 1 to 1179 performance capacity ratio. IBM's Parallel Sysplex technology can join up to 32 of these systems, making them behave like a single, logical computing facility of as much as about 981,024 MIPS. The 981,024 MIPS figure assumes 32 maximally configured System z10 Enterprise Class (i.e. Model 764) machines with all 64 central processors on each machine allocated to a single z/OS 1.9 (or higher) LPAR. A total of 32 such LPARs results in the cited MIPS figure (32 multiplied by 30,657). This figure is approximate and is current as of late March, 2008. The MIPS measurement has long been known to be misleading and has often been parodied as "Meaningless Indicator of Processor Speed." The complex CPU architectures of modern mainframes have reduced the relevance of MIPS ratings to the actual number of instructions executed. Likewise, the modern "balanced performance" system designs focus both on CPU power and on I/O capacity, and virtualization capabilities make comparative measurements even more difficult. See benchmark (computing) for a brief discussion of the difficulties in benchmarking such systems. IBM has long published a set of LSPR (Large System Performance Reference) ratio tables for mainframes that take into account different types of workloads and are a more representative measurement of several categories of mainframe workloads. However, these comparisons are not available for non-IBM systems and cannot be directly used for cross-platform comparisons. It takes a fair amount of work (and maybe guesswork) for users to determine what type of workload they have and then apply only the LSPR values most relevant to them. Also, IBM cannot measure all workloads on all possible configurations, so some estimates are inaccurate. See also Computer types References External links IBM eServer zSeries mainframe servers Univac 9400, a mainframe from the 1960s, still in use in a German computer museum Lectures in the History of Computing: Mainframes | Mainframe_computer |@lemmatized ibm:43 mainframe:112 often:6 colloquially:1 refer:4 big:1 iron:1 computer:18 use:15 mainly:2 large:13 organization:3 critical:2 application:11 typically:9 bulk:1 data:10 processing:13 census:1 industry:3 consumer:2 statistic:2 erp:1 financial:3 transaction:5 term:6 probably:1 originate:1 early:7 house:1 enormous:1 room:1 sized:1 metal:1 box:1 frame:1 later:5 distinguish:1 high:11 end:6 commercial:2 machine:10 less:1 powerful:1 unit:1 today:2 practice:2 usually:3 refers:1 compatible:3 system:49 line:2 first:4 introduce:4 late:6 incarnation:1 otherwise:2 base:6 similar:1 task:5 server:22 even:6 supercomputer:11 however:3 synonymous:1 see:4 client:1 non:4 derive:1 old:4 pre:2 web:6 technology:4 may:1 also:20 consider:2 include:9 burroughs:5 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1,466 | Bible | The Bible is Part of :Category:Judaism (see The Hebrew Bible below) Part of a series on Christianity (see The New Testament below) The Holy Bible is the central religious text of Judaism and Christianity. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible Dictionary.com The exact composition of the Bible is dependent on the religious traditions of specific denominations. Modern Judaism generally recognizes a single set of canonical books known as the Tanakh, or Hebrew or Jewish Bible. See: McDonald and Sanders's The Canon Debate, 2002. It comprises three parts: the Torah ("Teaching", also known as the Pentateuch or "Five Books of Moses"), the Prophets, and the Writings. It was primarily written in Hebrew with some small portions in Aramaic. The Christian Bible includes the same books as the Tanakh (referred to in this context as the Old Testament), but usually in a different order, together with twenty-seven specifically Christian books collectively known as the New Testament. Those were originally written in Greek. Among some traditions, the Bible includes books that were not accepted in other traditions, often referred to as apocryphal. Eastern Orthodox Churches use all of the books that were incorporated into the Septuagint, to which they add the earliest Greek translation of the Deuterocanonicals; Including Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom, Ben Sira, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, Additions to Daniel, 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees. See: Books of the Septuagint. Roman Catholics include seven of these books in their canon; and many Protestant Bibles follow the modern Jewish canon, excluding the additional books. Some editions of the Christian Bible have a separate Biblical apocrypha section for books not considered canonical. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible Online Etymology Dictionary entry for word "Bible". is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase biblia sacra ("holy book" - "In the Latin of the Middle Ages, the neuter plural for Biblia (gen. bibliorum) gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae, in which singular form the word has passed into the languages of the Western world."). http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02543a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia. This stemmed from the Greek term (ta biblia ta hagia), "the holy books", which derived from βιβλίον (biblion), Biblion, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus. "paper" or "scroll," the ordinary word for "book", which was originally a diminutive of βύβλος (byblos, "Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase Ta biblia ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus," "From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible" by Mark Hamilton on PBS's site From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians. and would have referred to the Septuagint. Dictionary.com etymology of the word "Bible". The Online Etymology Dictionary states, "The Christian scripture was referred to in Greek as Ta Biblia as early as c.223." Tanakh The Tanakh (Hebrew: ) consists of 24 books. Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah ("Teaching/Law" also known as the Pentateuch), Nevi'im ("Prophets"), and Ketuvim ("Writings," or Hagiographa), and is used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others . (See Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture). Torah The Torah, or "Instruction," is also known as the "Five Books" of Moses, thus Chumash from Hebrew meaning "fivesome," and Pentateuch from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases." The Torah comprises the following five books: 1. Genesis, Ge—Bereshit (בראשית) 2. Exodus, Ex—Shemot (שמות) 3. Leviticus, Le—Vayikra (ויקרא) 4. Numbers, Nu—Bamidbar (במדבר) 5. Deuteronomy, Dt—Devarim (דברים) The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text. The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people. The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of , eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses. The Torah contains the commandments, of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate amongst Jewish scholars, if this was written down completely in one moment, or if it was spread out during the 40 years in the wandering in the desert). These commandments provide the basis for Halakha (Jewish religious law). Tradition states that the number of these is equal to 613 Mitzvot or 613 commandments. There is some dispute as to how to divide these up (mainly between the Ramban and Rambam). The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each Sabbath. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of Sukkot, which is called Simchat Torah. Nevi'im The Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, warned the kings and the Children of Israel about the punishment of God. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The Book of Jonah is read on Yom Kippur. According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books. The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books: 6. Joshua, Js—Yehoshua (יהושע) 7. Judges, Jg—Shoftim (שופטים) 8. Samuel, includes First and Second, 1Sa–2Sa—Shemuel (שמואל) 9. Kings, includes First and Second, 1Ki–2Ki—Melakhim (מלכים) 10. Isaiah, Is—Yeshayahu (ישעיהו) 11. Jeremiah, Je—Yirmiyahu (ירמיהו) 12. Ezekiel, Ez—Yekhezkel (יחזקאל) 13. Twelve, includes all Minor Prophets—Tre Asar (תרי עשר) a. Hosea, Ho—Hoshea (הושע) b. Joel, Jl—Yoel (יואל) c. Amos, Am—Amos (עמוס) d. Obadiah, Ob—Ovadyah (עבדיה) e. Jonah, Jh—Yonah (יונה) f. Micah, Mi—Mikhah (מיכה) g. Nahum, Na—Nahum (נחום) h. Habakkuk, Hb—Havakuk (חבקוק) i. Zephaniah, Zp—Tsefanya (צפניה) j. Haggai, Hg—Khagay (חגי) k. Zechariah, Zc—Zekharyah (זכריה) l. Malachi, Ml—Malakhi (מלאכי) Ketuvim The Ketuvim, or "Writings" or "Scriptures," may have been written during or after the Babylonian Exile but no one can be sure. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of Psalms are attributed to David; King Solomon is believed to have written Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs at the prime of his life, and Ecclesiastes at old age; and the prophet Jeremiah is thought to have written Lamentations. The Book of Ruth is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of King David. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on Passover; the Book of Ruth on Shavuot; Lamentations on the Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot; and the Book of Esther on Purim. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. The Ketuvim comprise the following eleven books: 14. Psalms, Ps—Tehillim (תהלים) 15. Proverbs, Pr—Mishlei (משלי) 16. Job, Jb—Iyyov (איוב) 17. Song of Songs, So—Shir ha-Shirim (שיר השירים) 18. Ruth, Ru—Rut (רות) 19. Lamentations, La—Eikhah (איכה), also called Kinot (קינות) 20. Ecclesiastes, Ec—Kohelet (קהלת) 21. Esther, Es—Ester (אסתר) 22. Daniel, Dn—Daniel (דניאל) 23. Ezra, Ea, includes Nehemiah, Ne—Ezra (עזרא), includes Nehemiah (נחמיה) 24. Chronicles, includes First and Second, 1Ch–2Ch—Divrei ha-Yamim (דברי הימים), also called Divrei (דברי) Hebrew Bible translations and editions The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. Some time in the 2nd or 3rd century BC, the Torah was translated into Koine Greek, and over the next century, other books were translated (or composed) as well. This translation became known as the Septuagint The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, chapter by Sundberg, page 72, adds further detail: "However, it was not until the time of Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) that the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the Latin term septuaginta. [70 rather than 72] In his City of God 18.42, while repeating the story of Aristeas with typical embellishments, Augustine adds the remark, "It is their translation that it has now become traditional to call the Septuagint" ...[Latin omitted]... Augustine thus indicates that this name for the Greek translation of the scriptures was a recent development. But he offers no clue as to which of the possible antecedents led to this development: , Josephus [Antiquities 12.57, 12.86], or an elision. ...this name Septuagint appears to have been a fourth- to fifth-century development." and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians.<ref name="Jobes and Silva"> Karen Jobes and Moises Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint ISBN 1-84227-061-3, (Paternoster Press, 2001). - The current standard for Introductory works on the Septuagint.</ref> It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts. Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004. From the 800s to the 1400s, Jewish scholars today known as Masoretes compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels—their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea scrolls, and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages. Menachem Cohen, The Idea of the Sanctity of the Biblical Text and the Science of Textual Criticism in HaMikrah V'anachnu, ed. Uriel Simon, HaMachon L'Yahadut U'Machshava Bat-Z'mananu and Dvir, Tel-Aviv, 1979. Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts. Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as targums, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition. The Oral Torah According to some Jews during the Hellenistic period, such as the Sadducees only a minimal oral tradition of interpreting the words of the Torah existed, which did not extend into extended biblical interpretation. According to the Pharisees, however, God revealed both a Written Torah and an Oral Torah to Moses, the Oral Torah consisting of both stories and legal traditions. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah is essential for understanding the Written Torah literally (as it includes neither vowels nor punctuation) and exegetically. The Oral Torah has different facets, principally Halacha (laws), the Aggadah (stories), and the Kabbalah (esoteric knowledge). Major portions of the Oral Law have been committed to writing, notably the Mishnah; the Tosefta; Midrash, such as Midrash Rabbah, the Sifre, the Sifra, and the Mechilta; and both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds as well. Orthodox Judaism continues to accept the Oral Torah in its totality. Masorti and Conservative Judaism state that the Oral Tradition is to some degree divinely inspired, but disregard its legal elements in varying degrees. Reform Judaism also gives some credence to the Talmud containing the legal elements of the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God. Reconstructionist Judaism denies any connection of the Torah, Written or Oral, with God. The article Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses the Jewish understanding of the Bible, including bible commentaries from the ancient Targums to classical Rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day Jewish bible commentaries. Christian Bible The Christian Bible consists of the Hebrew scriptures, which have been called the Old Testament, and some later writings known as the New Testament. Some groups within Christianity include additional books as part one or both of these sections of their sacred writings most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books. Different versions of the English Christian Bible include the KJV, the NKJV, the NIV, and the TNIV. To see a complete list, see List of English Bible translations. In Judaism, the term Christian Bible is commonly used to identify only those books like the New Testament which have been added by Christians to the Masoretic Text, and excludes any reference to an Old Testament. Accuracy of Torah Text. Old Testament The Old Testament is the collection of books written prior to the life of Jesus but accepted by Christians as scripture. Broadly speaking, it is the same as the Hebrew Bible, however it divides and orders them differently, and varies from Judaism in interpretation and emphasis, see for example Isaiah 7:14. Several Christian denominations also incorporate additional books into their canons of the Old Testament. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Peshitta, and the English King James Version. Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books The Septuagint (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the Ptolemies) was generally abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages from St. Jerome's Bible (the Vulgate) to the present day. In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts e.g. those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e. deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Evangelicals and those of the Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until around the 1820s. However, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes the following books: Tobit Judith 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom of Solomon Sirach also called Ecclesiasticus Baruch Greek Additions to Esther Greek Additions to Daniel In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following: 3 Maccabees 1 Esdras i.e. Greek Ezra paraphrase Prayer of Manasseh Psalm 151 as part of the Psalter Some other Eastern Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically: 2 Esdras i.e. Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles Odes The Syriac Orthodox Church also has: The Apocalypse of Baruch 2 Baruch The Letter of Baruch The Ethiopian Orthodox Church also has some others such as: Jubilees Enoch The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically, but not to establish doctrine. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix. There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha. New Testament The Bible as used by the majority of Christians includes the Rabbinic Hebrew Scripture and the New Testament, which relates the life and teachings of Jesus, the letters of the Apostle Paul and other disciples to the early church and the Book of Revelation. The New Testament is a collection of 27 books, of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). Jesus is its central figure. The New Testament was written primarily in Koine Greek in the early Christian period, though a minority argue for Aramaic primacy. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical scripture. These books can be grouped into: The Gospels Synoptic Gospels Gospel According to Matthew, Mt Gospel According to Mark, Mk Gospel According to Luke, Lk Gospel According to John, Jn Acts of the Apostles, Ac (continues Luke) Pauline Epistles Epistle to the Romans, Ro First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1Co Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 2Co Epistle to the Galatians, Ga Epistle to the Ephesians, Ep Epistle to the Philippians, Pp Epistle to the Colossians, Cl First Epistle to the Thessalonians, 1Th Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 2Th Pastoral Epistles First Epistle to Timothy, 1Ti Second Epistle to Timothy, 2Ti Epistle to Titus, Tt Epistle to Philemon, Pm Epistle to the Hebrews, He General Epistles, also called Jewish Epistles Epistle of James, Jm First Epistle of Peter, 1Pe Second Epistle of Peter, 2Pe First Epistle of John, 1Jn Second Epistle of John, 2Jn Third Epistle of John, 3Jn Epistle of Jude, Jd Revelation, or the Apocalypse Re The order of these books varies according to Church tradition. The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Protestant tradition, the Lutheran tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition. Original language The books of the New Testament were written in Koine Greek, the language of the earliest extant manuscripts, even though some authors often included translations from Hebrew and Aramaic texts. Certainly the Pauline Epistles were written in Greek for Greek-speaking audiences. See Greek primacy. Some scholars believe that some books of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually translations of a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See Aramaic primacy. Historic editions When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions. The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts. There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate). In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, pp. 414-415, for the entire paragraph. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion. The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all"). The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible and the English King James Bible. The discovery of older manuscripts, which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Attempts to reconstruct the original text are called critical editions. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts. Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. Metzger, Bruce R. Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Paleography (Oxford University Press, 1981) cf. Papyrus 52. Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament. Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternate spelling, alternate word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was accidentally omitted (or perhaps even censored), or was added from a marginal gloss. Fortunately, major variants tend to be easier to correct. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts. Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). However for reasons of tradition, especially the doctrine of the inerrancy of the King James Bible, some modern scholars prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these scholars, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Christian theology While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most Christian denominations teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message. There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by C. S. Lewis, is as follows: A Summary of the Bible by Lewis, CS: Believer's Web. At some point in the past, humanity chose to depart from God's will and began to sin. Because no one is free from sin, people cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand. God called Abraham and his progeny to be the means for saving all of humanity. To this end, He gave the Law to Moses. The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and repentance, yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force. Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation. By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God. Many Christians, Muslims, and Jews regard the Bible as inspired by God yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. Many others, who identify themselves as Bible-believing Christians, regard both the New and Old Testament as the undiluted Word of God, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans. Still others hold the Biblical infallibility perspective, that the Bible is free from error in spiritual but not scientific matters. Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity, Philo of Alexandria, De vita Moysis 3.23. Josephus, Contra Apion 1.8. and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings, the most explicit being : "All scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness." In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record." Most evangelical biblical scholars for example, see associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. However, some adherents to the King James Only view attribute inerrancy to a particular translation. Canonization The word "canon" etymologically means cane or reed. In early Christianity "canon" referred to a list of books approved for public reading. Books not on the list were referred to as "apocryphal" — meaning they were for private reading only. Under Latin usage from the fourth century on, canon came to stand for a closed and authoritative list in the sense of rule or norm. Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7. Hebrew Bible The New Testament refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the law, the prophets, and the writings. refers to the "law of Moses" (Pentateuch), the "prophets" which include certain historical books in addition to the books now called "prophets," and the psalms (the "writings" designated by its most prominent collection). The Hebrew Bible probably was canonized in these three stages: the law canonized before the Exile, the prophets by the time of the Syrian persecution of the Jews, and the writings shortly after AD 70 (the fall of Jerusalem). About that time, early Christian writings began being accepted by Christians as "scripture." These events, taken together, may have caused the Jews to close their "canon." They listed their own recognized Scriptures and also excluded both Christian and Jewish writings considered by them to be "apocryphal." In this canon the thirty-nine books found in the Old Testament of today's Christian Bibles were grouped together as twenty-two books, equaling the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. This canon of Jewish scripture is attested to by Philo, Josephus, the New Testament (, ), and the Talmud. The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in which may be rendered "All Scripture is inspired of God" or "Every God-inspired Scripture is profitable for teaching." Both translations consider inspiration as a fact. Old and New Testaments The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the fourth century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39-to-46-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in AD 393. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the Council of Trent (1545–63). Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council." During the Protestant Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists than what was currently in use. Though not without debate, see Antilegomena, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included in the Jewish canon, fell out of favor. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the biblical canon which were in the Septuagint. It should also be noted, that Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the Acts of Peter, as apocryphal. Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is only synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, not the Catholic, which contains the Hebrew Scriptures and additional texts. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon. Qumran Bible The Bible used at Qumran excluded Esther but included Tobit. Otherwise, it seems to have been basically the same as the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, albeit with many textual variants. Ethiopian Orthodox canon The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than for most other Christian groups. The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order. The Marcionite Bible Marcion, an early Christian heretic, and his followers, had a Bible that excluded the Old Testament. It consisted of an edited Gospel of Luke (excluding what Marcion considered Jewish additions), and the Epistles of Paul (excluding Titus, the two epistles to Timothy, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and passages rejected as Jewish additions). Paula Fredriksen, Augustine and the Jews, ISBN 978-0-385-50270-2 (2008), pp. 67-68, 391. Bible versions and translations Bible versions are discussed below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page. The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version by itself, there are words which are traditionally read differently from written (sometimes one word is written and another is read), because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations. The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint or (LXX). In addition they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ge'ez and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament. The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible. Pope Damasus I assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the Council of Rome in AD 382. He commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible and in 1546 at the Council of Trent was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin rite. Bible translations for many languages have been made through the various influences of Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestant, etc especially since the Protestant Reformation. The Bible has seen a notably large number of English language translations. As of March 2008, translations of the full Bible are available for 438 languages, translations of one of the two testaments in 1,168 additional languages, and portions of the text exist in 848 additional languages. This means that partial or full translations of the Bible exist in a total of 2,454 languages. The work of Bible translation continues, including by Christian organisations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators (wycliffe.net), New Tribes Missions (ntm.org) and the Bible Societies (biblesociety.org). Of the world's 6,900 languages, 2,400 have some or all of the Bible, 1,600 (spoken by more than a billion people) have translation underway, and some 2,500 (spoken by 270 million people) are judged as needing translation to begin. http://www.vision2025.org www.vision2025.org Characteristics of early Bible texts See also: Chapters and verses of the Bible The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (as noted below) Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. http://www.stpaulsirvine.org/images/papyruslg.gif The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text. Differences in Bible translations As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, have idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is an on going critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the English language Catholic translation, the New American Bible, as well as the Protestant translations of the Christian Bible, translations like the King James Version, the New Revised Standard Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as fairly literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word to word translation, the text becomes easier to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require. One translation of the Bible, the New World Translation, used mainly by Jehovah's Witnesses, is seen as controversial by some because of the renderings of key verses. However, this Bible also takes a "word for word" translation stance. The NWT translates the New Testament Kyrios, "Lord," as "Jehovah." However, it does not do so consistently, and avoids this translation when "Lord" unambiguously refers to Jesus. Philippians 2:11 is translated as "Jesus Christ is Lord" instead of "Jesus Christ is Jehovah." Inclusive language Traditionally, English masculine pronouns have been used interchangeably to refer to the male gender and to all people. For instance, "All men are mortal" implies that all people are subject to death. English language readers and hearers have had to interpret masculine pronouns (and such words as "man" and "mankind") based on context. Further, both Hebrew and Greek, like some of the Latin-origin languages, use the male gender of nouns and pronouns to refer to groups that contain both sexes. This creates some difficulty in determining whether a noun or pronoun should be translated using terms that refer to men only, or generically to men and women inclusively. Context sometimes, but not always, helps determine whether to decode them in a gender-insensitive or gender-specific way. Some newer translations of the Bible use gender inclusive language when a passage refers to all of humanity. Chapters and verses See Tanakh for the Jewish textual tradition. The Hebrew Masoretic text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the Talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashiyot, which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashiyot is usually thematic. The parashiyot are not numbered. In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line. Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called Kephalaia. It is not identical to the present chapters. The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters has no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. See Spanish Inquisition. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text. The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study. Stephen Langton is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in 1205. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible). Chapters and Verses. The Examiner. Biblical criticism Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance. Higher criticism The traditional view of the Mosaic authorship of the Torah came under sporadic criticism from medieval scholars including Isaac ibn Yashush, Abraham ibn Ezra, Bonfils of Damascus and bishop Tostatus of Avila, who pointed to passages such as the description of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy as evidence that some portions, at least, could not have been written by Moses. In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence and became the first scholar to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, demonstrating that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses…." Despite determined opposition from the Church, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars. Documentary hypothesis Scholars intrigued by the hypothesis that Moses had not written the Pentateuch considered other authors. Independent but nearly simultaneous proposals by H. B. Witter, Jean Astruc, and Johann Gottfried Eichhorn separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components, both dating from after the time of Moses. Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources. The four documents were given working titles: J (or Yahwist), E (Elohist), P (Priestly), and D (Deuteronomist), each was discernible by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative. Subsequent scholars, notably Eduard Reuss, Karl Heinrich Graf and Wilhelm Vatke, turned their attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion, suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in the time of Moses. These were synthesized by Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), who suggested a historical framework for the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as the Pentateuch. This hypothesis was challenged by William Henry Green in his The Mosaic Origins of the Pentateuchal Codes (available online). Nonetheless, according to contemporary Torah scholar Richard Elliott Friedman, Wellhausen's model of the documentary hypothesis continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits with those of Wellhausen's model." Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who Wrote the Bible?," HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 (2nd edition). The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of biblical studies not only because it claims that the Torah was written by different people at different times—generally long after the events it describes— Joel Rosenberg, 1984 "The Bible: Biblical Narrative" in Barry Holtz, ed Back to the Sources New York: Summit Books p. 36; Nahum Sarna, 1986 Understanding Genesis New York:Schocken Books pp. xxi-xxiii. but it also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes, but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read Hamlet to learn about seventeenth-century England, but will not read it to learn about seventh-century Denmark). Modern developments The critical analysis of authorship now encompasses every book of the Bible. In some cases the traditional view on authorship has been overturned; in others, additional support, at least in part has been found. The development of the hypothesis has not stopped with Wellhausen. Wellhausen's hypothesis, for example, proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P, containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic Second Temple period (i.e., after 515 BC); Wellhausen adopted the idea of a post-Exilic date for P from Eduard Reuss. but the contemporary view is that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the First Temple period (i.e., prior to 587 BC). Although the bulk of all four documents date from before 587 BC, the strand of D known as Dtr2 dates from the following Exilic period. The documentary hypothesis has more recently been refined by later scholars such as Martin Noth (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a unified history from the hand of a single editor), Harold Bloom, Frank Moore Cross and Richard Elliot Friedman. The documentary hypothesis, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen, has been controversial since its formulation. The direction of this criticism is to question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable—the J document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of disappearing. Although biblical archaeology has confirmed the existence of many people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible, many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events—as well as upon non-Hebrew mythology—as primary source material (see The Bible and history). For these scholars, the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors and compilers. The relevance of these ideas to contemporary religious life is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide. Theological responses Judaism The claim that the Torah—"the Five Books of Moses"—were not written by Moses, but by many authors long after Moses was said to have lived, directly challenged Jewish orthodoxy. For most, this claim implies that the Torah itself—especially its account of God's revelation at Mt. Sinai—is not historically reliable. Although many Orthodox scholars have rejected this "Higher Criticism", most Conservative and virtually all Reform Jewish scholars have accepted it. Consequently, there has been considerable debate among Jewish scholars as to the nature of revelation and the divine nature of the Torah. Conservative Jewish philosopher Elliot Dorff has categorized five distinct major Jewish positions in these debates within Conservative Judaism in the 20th century: Elliot Dorff 1978 Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendants New York: United Synagogue Youth pp. 114-115. Orthodox (characterized by Eliezer Berkovitz and Norman Lamm): "Verbal Revelation: The Torah, including both the Written and Oral Traditions, consists of the exact words of God. He gave it all as one piece at Sinai."* Conservative I (characterized by Isaac Lesser, Alexander Kohut, Abraham Joshua Heschel, and David Novak): "Continuous Revelation:God dictated His will at Sinai and other times. It was written down by human beings, however, and hence the diverse traditions in the Bible." Conservative II (characterized by Ben Zion Bokser, Robert Gordis, Max Routtenberg and Emil Fackenheim): "Continuous Revelation: Human beings wrote the Torah, but they were divinely inspired." Conservative III (characterized by Louis Jacobs, Seymour Seigel, Jacob B. Agus, David Lieber and Elliot Dorff): "Continuous Revelation: The Torah is the human record of the concounter between God and the People Israel at Sinai. Since it was written by human beings, it contains some laws and ideas which we find repugnant today." Conservative IV/Reconstructionist (characterized by Mordecai Kaplan, Ira Eisenstein and Harold Schulweis): "No Revelation: Human beings wrote the Torah. No claim for divinity of the product." In addition to the 5 categories described by Elliott, other positions have been adopted: Traditional Rabbi David Weiss HaLivni, the founder of the Union for Traditional Judaism, adapted a position he describes as chatu yisrael ("Israel sinned"), that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai but it subsequently became corrupted and lost, and Ezra restored it by redacting it from multiple manuscripts reflecting disparate traditions. Under this view, the Torah is the best available record of the Divine will, has prophetic commendation, and is binding on the Jewish people, but is not necessarily entirely free of disparaties. Rabbi David Weiss HaLivni, Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses. Westview Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8133-3347-2. Reform (characterized by the Movement's 1937 Guiding Principles): "Progressive revelation: The Torah is God's will written by human beings. As time goes on, we get to understand his will better and better (="progressive revelation"). Reconstructionist Reconstructionist Judaism generally adapts the textual critical approach in toto and regards the Torah as either inspired rather than revealed, or an entirely human product rather than the product of an external God. Christianity In 1943, Pope Pius XII's encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu gave the Vatican's imprimatur to textual criticism. Higher criticism has been received in different ways in different denominations. The Church of Sweden has adopted higher criticism to a fairly high degree, and included it as part of its theological education. The page on the Swedish version of Wikipedia Other denominations such as the Livets Ord movement and parts of the Pentecostal church has been more skeptic towards it. Prominent figures in the resistance towards textual criticism are the pastor Ulf Ekman (founder of the Livets Ord church) as well as Seth Erlandsson, who has been working with the alternative Swedish translation of the Bible called Folkbibeln (which is not based on "higher criticism", only "textual criticism", as opposed to the official Swedish translation called Bibel 2000). Archaeological and historical research Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to, and sheds light upon, the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. It is also used to help clarify the consistency between historical evidence and scripture. There are a wide range of interpretations of the existing Biblical archaeology. One broad division includes Biblical maximalism that generally take the view that most of the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible is essentially based on history although presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered the opposite of Biblical Minimalism which is strictly secular and does not allow any consideration of the Bible as documentary evidence or as a framework of history. One example of the dispute involves Biblical accounts of Israelite bondage in Egypt, wandering in the desert, and conquest the Land of Israel in a military campaign, the accounts of the land being passed on to the 12 tribes of Israel, and David's and Solomon's conquests, and other key elements described in the Biblical narratives as occurring in the 10th century BC or before. So far, there is a lack of archaeological evidence to independently support this, which has led some archaeologists, such as Israel Finkelstein, Neil Silberman, and William Dever to believe that these events never happened, and that the ancestors of the Hebrews and the Jews are either nomads who have become sedentary, or people from the plains of Canaan, who fled to the highlands to escape the control of the cities. Others disagree sharply. Another example involves the story of Noah's Ark. Biblical literalists support a theory of a worldwide flood as described in the story and are looking for archaeological evidence in the region of the mountains of Ararat in north-east Turkey where Genesis says Noah's Ark came to rest. Mainstream scientists (and many Christians and Jews) discount a literal interpretation of the Ark story, on the basis of geology and other sciences. Did Noah really build an ark?, BBC. According to recent theories, linguistic as well as archaeological, the global structure of the texts in the Hebrew Bible were compiled during the reign of King Josiah in the 7th century BC. Even though the components are derived from more ancient writings, the final form of the books is believed to have been set somewhere between the 1st century BC and the 4th century AD. See also Biblical scholarship and analysis Dating the Bible Textual criticism Historical criticism Documentary hypothesis Synoptic problem Biblical manuscripts Internal consistency and the Bible Mosaic authorship Authorship of the Johannine works Authorship of the Pauline epistles Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Apocrypha Dead sea scrolls Nag hammadi library Biblical archaeology Perspectives on the Bible Bibliolatry Calvin's view of Scripture Jewish Biblical exegesis Islamic view of the Bible Biblical narratives and the Qur'an Criticism of the Bible Gnosticism and the New Testament Good news (Christianity), concerning the content of the Bible's message about Jesus Christianity and Judaism Biblical law in Christianity Bible prophecy Biblical inerrancy New Testament view on Jesus' life Ten Commandments Parsha Ritual Decalogue Jewish messianism Summary of Christian eschatological differences Bibliomancy is the use of random readings from a book for divination. When practiced in Jewish and Christian cultures, the Bible is often used. Bible conspiracy theory Bible code The Skeptic's Annotated Bible Interpretation Biblical literalism Biblical hermeneutics Midrash Pardes (Jewish exegesis) History and the Bible The Bible and history Bible chronology Hebrew Bible: Timeline History of the English Bible Code of Hammurabi Study Bible List of burial places of biblical figures List of artifacts significant to the Bible Biblical topics Alcohol Circumcision Crime and punishment Ethics Homosexuality Murder Slavery Women Bible societies See Bible society for a list. Commentaries See Biblical exegesis. Religious texts List of Religious texts Notes References and further reading Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3. Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2. Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Guide to the Bible. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X. Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from? Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8. Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0. . Geisler, Norman (editor). Inerrancy. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0. Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2 Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning. New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4 Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0 Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995. Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007. Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1. McDonald, Lee M. and Sanders, James A., eds. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (January 1, 2002). 662p. ISBN 1565635175 ISBN 978-1565635173 Riches, John. The Bible: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0 Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation. Galilee Trade (January 15, 2008). 224p. ISBN 0385524315 ISBN 978-0385524315 Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175–83. The Brick Testament http://www.thebricktestament.com/ Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv. "Book of Ezekiel," p. 580 and "prophecy," p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986. 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1,467 | Event_(probability_theory) | In probability theory, an event is a set of outcomes (a subset of the sample space) to which a probability is assigned. Typically, when the sample space is finite, any subset of the sample space is an event (i.e. all elements of the power set of the sample space are defined as events). However, this approach does not work well in cases where the sample space is infinite, most notably when the outcome is a real number. So, when defining a probability space it is possible, and often necessary, to exclude certain subsets of the sample space from being events (see §2, below). A simple example If we assemble a deck of 52 playing cards and no jokers, and draw a single card from the deck, then the sample space is a 52-element set, as each individual card is a possible outcome. An event, however, is any subset of the sample space, including any single-element set (an elementary event, of which there are 52, representing the 52 possible cards drawn from the deck), the empty set (an impossible event, defined to have probability zero) and the sample space itself (the entire set of 52 cards), which is defined to have probability one. Other events are proper subsets of the sample space that contain multiple elements. So, for example, potential events include: A Venn diagram of an event. B is the sample space and A is an event.By the ratio of their areas, the probability of A is approximately 0.4. "Red and black at the same time without being a joker" (0 elements), "The 5 of Hearts" (1 element), "A King" (4 elements), "A Face card" (12 elements), "A Spade" (13 elements), "A Face card or a red suit" (32 elements), "A card" (52 elements). Since all events are sets, they are usually written as sets (e.g. {1, 2, 3}), and represented graphically using Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are particularly useful for representing events because the probability of the event can be identified with the ratio of the area of the event and the area of the sample space. (Indeed, each of the axioms of probability, and the definition of conditional probability can be represented in this fashion.) Events in probability spaces Defining all subsets of the sample space as events works well when there are only finitely many outcomes, but gives rise to problems when the sample space is infinite. For many standard probability distributions, such as the normal distribution the sample space is the set of real numbers or some subset of the real numbers. Attempts to define probabilities for all subsets of the real numbers run into difficulties when one considers 'badly-behaved' sets, such as those which are nonmeasurable. Hence, it is necessary to restrict attention to a more limited family of subsets. For the standard tools of probability theory, such as joint and conditional probabilities, to work, it is necessary to use a σ-algebra, that is, a family closed under countable unions and intersections. The most natural choice is the Borel measurable set derived from unions and intersections of intervals. However, the larger class of Lebesgue measurable sets proves more useful in practice. In the general measure-theoretic description of probability spaces, an event may be defined as an element of a selected σ-algebra of subsets of the sample space. Under this definition, any subset of the sample space that is not an element of the σ-algebra is not an event, and does not have a probability. With a reasonable specification of the probability space, however, all events of interest will be elements of the σ-algebra. A note on notation Even though events are subsets of some sample space Ω, they are often written as propositional formulas involving random variables. For example, if X is a real-valued random variable defined on the sample space Ω, the event can be written more conveniently as, simply, This is especially common in formulas for a probability, such as See also Probability Complementary event Intrinsic random event | Event_(probability_theory) |@lemmatized probability:19 theory:2 event:24 set:12 outcome:4 subset:12 sample:19 space:23 assign:1 typically:1 finite:1 e:2 element:14 power:1 define:8 however:4 approach:1 work:3 well:2 case:1 infinite:2 notably:1 real:5 number:4 possible:3 often:2 necessary:3 exclude:1 certain:1 see:2 simple:1 example:3 assemble:1 deck:3 playing:1 card:8 joker:2 draw:2 single:2 individual:1 include:2 elementary:1 represent:4 empty:1 impossible:1 zero:1 entire:1 one:2 proper:1 contain:1 multiple:1 potential:1 venn:3 diagram:3 b:1 ratio:2 area:3 approximately:1 red:2 black:1 time:1 without:1 heart:1 king:1 face:2 spade:1 suit:1 since:1 usually:1 write:3 g:1 graphically:1 use:2 particularly:1 useful:2 identify:1 indeed:1 axiom:1 definition:2 conditional:2 fashion:1 finitely:1 many:2 give:1 rise:1 problem:1 standard:2 distribution:2 normal:1 attempt:1 run:1 difficulty:1 considers:1 badly:1 behave:1 nonmeasurable:1 hence:1 restrict:1 attention:1 limited:1 family:2 tool:1 joint:1 σ:4 algebra:4 close:1 countable:1 union:2 intersection:2 natural:1 choice:1 borel:1 measurable:2 derive:1 interval:1 large:1 class:1 lebesgue:1 prove:1 practice:1 general:1 measure:1 theoretic:1 description:1 may:1 select:1 reasonable:1 specification:1 interest:1 note:1 notation:1 even:1 though:1 ω:2 propositional:1 formula:2 involve:1 random:3 variable:2 x:1 value:1 conveniently:1 simply:1 especially:1 common:1 also:1 complementary:1 intrinsic:1 |@bigram venn_diagram:3 conditional_probability:2 probability_distribution:1 σ_algebra:4 borel_measurable:1 lebesgue_measurable:1 random_variable:2 |
1,468 | Gymnastics | Gymnastics is a sport involving performance of exercises requiring physical strength, flexibility, agility, coordination, balance and grace. Artistic gymnastics is the best known and most popular of the gymnastics sports governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). Artistic Gymnastics, typically involves the women's events of uneven parallel bars, balance beam, floor exercise, and vault. Men's events include floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel bars, and high bar. Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks, that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills. Other forms of gymnastics are rhythmic gymnastics, various trampolining sports, and aerobic and acrobatic gymnastics. Etymology The word derives from the Greek γυμναστική (gymnastike), fem. of γυμναστικός (gymnastikos), "fond of athletic exercises" Gymnastikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus , from γυμνάσια (gymnasia), "exercise" Gymnasia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus and that from γυμνός (gymnos), "naked" Gymnos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus , because athletes exercised and competed in the nude. History 1908 Summer Olympics in London: Display of the British women's gymnastics team To the Ancient Greeks, physical fitness was paramount, and all Greek cities had a gymnasium, a courtyard for jumping, running, and wrestling. As the Roman Empire ascended, Greek gymnastics gave way to military training. The Romans, for example, introduced the wooden horse. In 393 AD the Emperor Theodosius abolished the Olympic Games, which by then had become corrupt, and gymnastics, along with other sports, declined. Later, Christianity, with its medieval belief in the base nature of the human body, had a deleterious effect on gymnastics. For centuries, gymnastics was all but forgotten. In the sixteenth century, Girolamo Mercuriale from Forlì (Italy) wrote De Arte Gymnastica, where he brought his studies of the attitudes of the ancients toward diet, exercise and hygiene, and the use of natural methods for the cure of disease. With its explanations concerning the principles of physical therapy, De Arte Gymnastica is considered the first book on sports medicine. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, two pioneer physical educators – Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–1839) and Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) – created exercises for boys and young men on apparatus they designed that ultimately led to what is considered modern gymnastics. In particular, Jahn crafted early models of the horizontal bar, the parallel bars (from a horizontal ladder with the rungs removed), and the vaulting horse. The International Federation of Gymnastics was founded in Liege in 1881 http://www.fig-gymnastics.com/vsite/vcontent/page/custom/0,8510,5187-188424-205646-44680-282887-custom-item,00.html . By the end of the nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first "modern" Olympic Games in 1896. However, from then on until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric gymnastics that would seem strange to today's audiences: synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, horizontal ladder, etc. During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events, and the first women's Olympic competition – primitive, for it involved only synchronized calisthenics – was held at the 1928 Games in Amsterdam. By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 10) had been agreed upon. At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues to inspire. The new medium of television helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia Comaneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada. She was coached by the famous Romanian, Bela Karolyi. According to Sports Illustrated, Comaneci scored four of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor exercise. Even with Nadia's perfect scores, however, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviets. Nevertheless, Comaneci became an Olympic icon. In 2006, a new points system was put into play. Instead of being marked 1 to 10, the gymnast's start value depends on the difficulty rating of the exercise routine. Also, the deductions became higher: before the new point system developed, the deduction for a fall was 0.5, then it was changed to 0.8, and is now 1.0. The motivation for a new point system was to decrease the chance of gymnasts getting a perfect score. The sport can include children as young as three years old and sometimes younger doing kindergym and children's gymnastics, recreational gymnasts of all ages, competitive gymnasts at varying levels of skill, as well as world class athletes. Forms Artistic gymnastics Artistic gymnastics is usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics. Each group does different events; Men compete on Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault, Parallel Bars, and High Bar, while women compete on Vault, Uneven Bars, Beam, and Floor Exercise. In some countries, women at one time competed on the rings, high bar, and parallel bars (for example, in the 1950s in the USSR). Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhausting and push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance and awareness to the limit. Traditionally, at the international level, competitions on the various apparatus consisted of two different performance categories: compulsory and optional. For the compulsory event, each gymnast performing on a specific apparatus executed the same required routine. At the optional level, the gymnast performed routines that he or she choreographed. Nowadays, each country may use compulsory and optional routines at their discretion in the training of young gymnasts. Women's events Piked Tsukahara vault. Vault In the vaulting events gymnasts: sprint down a 25 meter (about 82 feet) runway, jump onto a beatboard (a kind of springboard), (run/ take-off segment), land momentarily, generally inverted on the hands, on the vaulting horse or vaulting table, (pre flight segment), then spring or block off of this platform to a two footed landing (post flight segment). The post flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos or somersaults, and or twisting movements. In 2001, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue or table. The new apparatus is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse—approximately 1m in length and 1m in width—gives gymnasts a larger blocking surface, and is therefore safer than the old vaulting horse. With the addition of this new, safer vaulting table, gymnasts are attempting more difficult and dangerous vaults. Gymnast on uneven bars. Uneven Bars On the uneven bars (also known as asymmetric bars, UK), the gymnast navigates two horizontal bars set at different heights. The width and height may be adjusted. Gymnasts perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves,that may pass over, under, and between the two bars. Movements may pass through the handstand. Gymnasts often mount the Uneven Bars using a beatboard (springboard). Daniele Hypólito at the 2007 Pan Am Games on Beam. Balance Beam The gymnast performs a choreographed routine from 60 to 80 seconds in length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, somersaults, turns and dance elements on a padded sprung beam. Apparatus norms set by the International Gymnastics Federation (used for Olympic and most elite competitions) specify the beam must be 125 cm (4' 1") high, 500 cm (16' 5") long, and 10 cm (4") wide. The event requires in particular, balance, flexibility and strength. Gymnast doing a stag ring leap on floor exercise. FloorThe floor event occurs on a carpeted 12m × 12m square, usually consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs or foam blocks generally called a "sprung" floor. This provides a firm surface that will respond with force when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve extra height and a softer landing than would be possible on a regular floor. Female gymnasts perform a choreographed exercise 70 to 90 seconds long. In levels 7 and up, they can choose an accompanying music piece, which must be instrumental and cannot include vocals. In the United States, the other levels must perform a routine that is choreographed for them by USAG and these routines come with music. The routines of a female gymnast consist of tumbling passes, series of jumps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns. A gymnast usually performs three or four tumbling passes that include three or more skills or "tricks". Elite gymnasts can have up to six or seven tumbling passes. At the compulsory levels (1-6) gymnasts are judged on a scale of 10, but as they reach the higher levels, particularly levels 9 and 10, the gymnasts' start-values may vary depending upon a number of different factors such as skill level and skill combinations. Also, every skill has a letter grade describing its difficulty. At level nine, to reach a start value of ten, the gymnast has to acquire bonus points, which she can achieve by connecting two or more skills of a certain high level of difficulty. Compulsory levels of gymnastics have choreographed routines, and all women competing at that level do the same routines. In the United States, compulsory levels go from 1–6; most gymnasts start at levels 1–4. In optional level competitions, however, all routines are different and have different floor music. Optional levels in the U.S. include levels 7–10 (elite). The Olympics, and college level gymnastics are also optional. In the Olympics, gymnasts are considered elite level gymnasts, which is higher level than the U.S. level 10. Men's events Floor Exercise Male gymnasts also perform on a 12m. by 12m. spring floor. A series of tumbling passes are performed to demonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance. The gymnast must also show strength skills, including circles, scales, and press handstands. Men's floor routines usually have four passes that will total between 60–70 seconds and are performed without music, unlike the women's event. Rules require that gymnasts touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine. A boy on the pommel horse Pommel Horse A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work. Single leg skills are generally found in the form of scissors, an element often done on the pommels. Double leg work however, is the main staple of this event. The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus. To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning (moores and spindles) or by straddling their legs (Flares). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse, or landing after a handstand. Still Rings Still Rings is arguably the most physically demanding event. The rings are suspended on wire cable from a point 5.75 meters off the floor, and adjusted in height so the gymnast has room to hang freely and swing. He must perform a routine demonstrating balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts may include two or three. A routine should have a dismount equal in difficulty to the difficulty of the routine as a whole. Vault Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a maximum of 25 meters in length, before hurdling onto a spring board. The body position is maintained while "punching" (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates to a standing position. In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults. Parallel Bars Men perform on two bars slightly further than a shoulder's width apart and usually 1.75m high while executing a series of swings, balances, and releases that require great strength and coordination. High Bar A 2.4cm thick steel bar raised 2.5m above the landing area is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he performs giants (revolutions around the bar), release skills, twists, and changes of direction. By using all of the momentum from giants and then releasing at the proper point, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back salto. Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a grip on the bar. As with the women, male gymnasts are also judged on all of their events, for their execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation skills. Rhythmic gymnastics At present, only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics (although there is a new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in Japan, see Men's rhythmic gymnastics). The sport involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus—ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope—on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points; the score for Artistry (choreography and music) are averaged with the score for Difficulty of the moves and then added to the score for Execution. Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique, Code of Points - Rhythmic Gymnastics 2009-2012 Trampolining and Tumbling Double Mini-trampoline competitor Trampolining and tumbling consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini and power tumbling. Since 2000 individual trampoline has been included in the Olympic Games. Individual routines in trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points. Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves. In high level competitions, there are two preliminary routines, one which has only two moves scored for difficulty and one where the athlete is free to perform any routine. This is followed by a final routine which is optional. Some competitions restart the score from zero for the finals, other add the final score to the preliminary results. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity as well as the form and difficulty of the moves. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up, two moves are performed for preliminaries and two more for finals. Moves cannot be repeated and the scores are marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. In power tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling track. Scoring is similar to trampolining. Display gymnastics General gymnastics enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance groups of 6 to more than 150 athletes. They perform synchronized, choreographed routines. Troupes may be all one gender or mixed. There are no age divisions in general gymnastics. The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial World Gymnaestrada which was first held in 1939. Aerobic gymnastics Aerobic gymnastics (formally Sport Aerobics) involves the performance of routines by individuals, pairs, trios or groups up to 6 people, emphasizing strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic or balance skills. Routines are performed on a small floor area and generally last 60-90 seconds. Acrobatic Gymnastics Acrobatic gymnastics (formerly Sports Acrobatics), often referred to as acrobatics, "acro" sports or simply sports acro, is a group gymnastic discipline for both men and women. Acrobats in groups of two, three and four perform routines with the heads, hands and feet of their partners. They may pick their own music, but lyrics or Disney music are not allowed. Performers must compete in preparatory grades A and B, then move on to grades 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5; by 3, 4 and 5 two routines are required, one for balances and another for tempos. TeamGym TeamGym originates from Scandinavia and this particular type of Gymnastics has been a major event for over 20 years. A team in this sport can have from six to 12 members, either all male, all female or a mixed squad. The team shows three disciplines, Trampette, Tumbling and Floor. In every run of Tumbling and Trampette only six gymnasts compete. They stream their abilities (meaning that one gymnast goes after one another very quickly) The best move is the one performed last. Both are performed to music. Floor All members of the Team take part here. It is a mixture of Dance, flexibility and skill. The routine has to be skillfully choreographed and the judges look out for changes in shape. There needs to be at least two spins, two balances and two section elements. These section elememts are bodywaves for womens' teams, power elements for mens' teams and lifts for mixed teams. The Floor is performed to music. Trampette Here a trampette is used. There are two components of this; Vault and the Trampette on its own. There has to be three runs in total. At least one of these runs has to be a vault run. Another run has to include all the gymnasts doing the same move. This is generally the first run. This is also performed to music. Tumbling Again, here there are three runs (rounds) involved. One of which has to include all six gymnasts doing a forwards series. Another run also has to include the gymnasts completing the same move. Each series must have at least three different acrobatic elements. Former apparatus & events Rope Climb Generally, competitors climbed either a 6m (6.1m = 20 ft in USA) or an 8m (7.6m = 25 ft in USA), 38mm (1.5") diameter natural fiber rope for speed, starting from a seated position on the floor and using only the hands and arms. Kicking the legs in a kind of "stride" was normally permitted. Flying Rings Flying Rings was an event similar to Still Rings, but with the performer executing a series of stunts while swinging. It was a gymnastic event sanctioned by both the NCAA and the AAU until the early 1960s. Cautions Gymnastics is considered to be a dangerous sport, due in part to the height of the apparatus, the speed of the exercises and the impact on competitors' joints, bones and muscles. In several cases, competitors have suffered serious, lasting injuries and paralysis after severe gymnastics-related accidents. For instance, in 1998, at the Goodwill Games, world-class Chinese artistic gymnast Sang Lan was paralyzed after falling on vault. Artistic gymnastics injuries have been the subject of several international medical studies, and results have indicated that more than half of all elite-level participants may eventually develop chronic injuries. In the United States, injury rates range from a high 56% for high school gymnasts to 23% for club gymnasts. However, the rates for participants in recreational or lower-level gymnastics are lower than that of high-level competitors. Conditioning, secure training environments with appropriate landing surfaces, and knowledgeable coaching can also lessen the frequency or occurrence of injuries. Popular Culture Film Stick It Gymkata Peaceful Warrior Perfect Body American Anthem Little Girls in Pretty Boxes See also Acro dance Gymnasium (ancient Greece) List of gymnasts List of gymnastics terms NCAA Men's Gymnastics championship NCAA Women's Gymnastics championship Turners World Gymnastics Championships Majorettes Cheerleading References External links FM Gymnastics—a list of techniques and free animated comic tutorials for floor gymnastics. Gymnastics Coaching—Resources for the gymnastics coach. iClassPro—Class management software for gymnastics facilities. Gymnastics Software Directory—List of top gymnastics software solutions. | Gymnastics |@lemmatized gymnastics:57 sport:14 involve:10 performance:7 exercise:20 require:6 physical:4 strength:9 flexibility:6 agility:1 coordination:2 balance:11 grace:1 artistic:6 best:2 know:3 popular:3 govern:1 fédération:2 internationale:2 de:4 gymnastique:2 fig:2 typically:1 woman:17 event:21 uneven:7 parallel:6 bar:24 beam:7 floor:23 vault:18 men:15 include:16 pommel:6 horse:13 still:5 ring:11 high:15 evolve:1 use:11 ancient:4 greek:8 skill:19 mount:2 dismount:4 circus:1 form:4 rhythmic:6 various:2 trampolining:5 aerobic:4 acrobatic:8 etymology:1 word:1 derive:1 γυμναστική:1 gymnastike:1 fem:1 γυμναστικός:1 gymnastikos:2 fond:1 athletic:1 henry:3 george:3 liddell:3 robert:3 scott:3 english:3 lexicon:3 perseus:3 γυμνάσια:1 gymnasia:1 gymnasium:3 γυμνός:1 gymnos:2 naked:1 athlete:4 compete:8 nude:1 history:1 summer:2 olympics:4 london:1 display:2 british:1 team:8 fitness:2 paramount:1 city:1 courtyard:1 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1,469 | Frost_(rapper) | Arturo Molina Jr. (born May 17, 1965), better known as Frost (Originally Kid Frost), is a Mexican American hip hop artist. Music career Molina was born and raised in East Los Angeles, California and occasionally lived with his family in military bases in Guam and Germany. He began his rap music career in 1982 as Kid Frost as a tribute to his rival, Ice-T, whom he often battled in the music industry. He soon became a breakdancer for Uncle Jamms Army. In the late 1988s, Kid Frost moved to Virgin Records. Virgin released his first and biggest hit, "La Raza". His debut album, Hispanic Causing Panic was released in 1990 featuring A.L.T.. He also established a Latin rap supergroup called Latin Alliance, which released their only album, Latin Alliance, in 1991. His second album, East Side Story was released in 1992, which featured MC Eiht, A.L.T. and Ganxta Ridd from the Boo-Yaa TRIBE. In 1995, Frost dropped the "Kid" from his nickname and signed with Ruthless Records, Eazy E's label (distributed by Relativity). Smile Now Die Later was released that year. Above The Law were featured as guest rappers, alongside A.L.T., O. Genius and Kokane. Rick James also appeared on Frost's version of "Mary Jane". His second album for Ruthless, When Hell.A.Freezes Over, was released in 1997. Ice T, Scoop, O. Genius and Domino also appeared as guest rappers. In 1999, Frost moved to a small independent label called Celeb-entertainment records. His first album for Celeb-entertainment titled This Was Then This Is Now Vol. I was released in 1999. Kurupt, King T, Baby Bash, Jay Tee, Jayo Felony, Xzibit, B-Legit, and Cameosis were featured on the CD. That Was Then This Is Now Vol. II was released in 2000. Frank V., Clika One, Jay Tee, Baby Bash and other guest rappers were also featured on the CD. 2002's Still Up In This Shit!, released by Hit-A-Lick / Koch Records, featured more Latin rap style and G-Funk tracks as well as a hidden bonus rock track titled "Cannabis". Mellow Man Ace, Daz Dillinger, Baby Bash, A.L.T., Nino Brown, Don Cisco and other guest rappers appeared, and one track featured the group Tierra. Somethin' 4 The Ridaz was released in 2003 on 40 Ounce Records and featured various hip hop artist from Texas. In 2005 Welcome To Frost Angeles was released on Thump Records, which was produced almost entirely by Frost and his son, Scoop De'Ville. Only the Intro is produced by Binky Womack, and Philly Blunt co-produced one track. Guest rappers included Cameosis, Genovese and Jay Tee. Frost again signed to Low Profile Records and released his album Till The Wheels Fall Off in 2006. It had various guest appearances which included Baby Bash, Scoop De'Ville and Mr. Sancho. Frost also performed music for films including "Bite the Bullet (Theme from Gunmen)" in the 1993 film Gunmen and "Tears Of A Mother" in the film No Mothers Crying, No Babies Dying, which featured Ice T. Frost is also an accomplished actor appearing in several films, as well as doing voice roles for fictional characters such as T-Bone Mendez from Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and contributing his song "La Raza". He was named Vice President of the Music Division of Goldmark Industries on August 30, 2006. Frost also appeared in a cameo role in Snoop Dogg's "Vato" music video, as well as B-Real that same year. Discography Album InformationHispanic Causing Panic Released: July 10 1990 Chart positions: #67 US, #45 R&B/Hip-Hop Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "La Raza" East Side Story Released: April 21 1992 Chart positions: #73 S, #54 Top Hip Hop/R&B Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "No Sunshine", "Thin Line"Smile Now, Die Later Released: October 24, 1995 Chart positions: #119 US, #36 Top R&B/Hip-Hop Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "East Side Rendezvous", "La Familia", "La Raza II" When Hell.A. Freezes Over Released: July 1, 1997 Chart positions: #154 US, #64 Top R&B/Hip-Hop Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "What's Your Name (Time of the Season)"That Was Then, This Is Now, Vol. 1 Released: August 31, 1999 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Latin Kings", "Diamonds and Pearls", "Feria"That Was Then, This Is Now, Vol. 2 Released: September 26, 2000 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "West Coast Lowrider" Still Up In This Shit Released: April 23, 2002 Chart positions: #183 US, #30 Top R&B/Hip-Hop Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Everybody Knows" Somethin' 4 the Riderz Released: March 11, 2003 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: Welcome to Frost Angeles Released: May 17, 2005 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Welcome to Frost Angeles" Till the Wheels Fall Off Released: September 26, 2006 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Till the Wheels Fall Off", "Eastside Rendevouz"Blunts N Ballerz Released: January 30, 2007 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Got Bud", "All Nighters" Compilations Album InformationFrost's Greatest Joints Released: February 27, 2001 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "La Raza II", "La Familia" Raza Radio Released: May 21, 2002 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: N/AGreatest Joints Dos Released: October 14, 2003 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: N/AThe Best of Frost: The Remix Album Released: October 31, 2006 Chart: N/A Label: Low Profile Records Latin Alliance Album InformationLatin Alliance Released: 1991 Chart positions: N/A Last RIAA certification: N/A Singles: "Lowrider (On the Boulevard)" Singles Year Title Chart positions Album U.S. Hot 100 U.S. R&B/Hip-Hop U.S. Rap Hot Latin Tracks 1990 "La Raza" #42 #59 #14 #33 Hispanic Causing Panic 1992 "No Sunshine" - #79 #40 - East Side Story 1992 "Thin Line" - #82 #45 - East Side Story 1995 "East Side Rendezvous" #73 #74 #23 - Smile Now, Die Later 1996 "La Raza II" #72 #70 #45 - Smile Now, Die Later 1996 "La Familia" #77 - #39 - Smile Now, Die Later 1997 "What's Your Name (Time Of The Season)" - - #32 - When Hell .A. Freezes Over References External links Interview with Kid Frost & Dave Storrs & Biography on westcoastpioneers Kid Frost The Raza | Frost_(rapper) |@lemmatized arturo:1 molina:2 jr:1 born:1 may:3 well:4 know:2 frost:18 originally:1 kid:6 mexican:1 american:1 hip:8 hop:8 artist:2 music:6 career:2 bear:1 raise:1 east:7 los:1 angeles:4 california:1 occasionally:1 live:1 family:1 military:1 base:1 guam:1 germany:1 begin:1 rap:4 tribute:1 rival:1 ice:3 often:1 battle:1 industry:2 soon:1 become:1 breakdancer:1 uncle:1 jamms:1 army:1 late:1 move:2 virgin:2 record:8 release:28 first:2 big:1 hit:2 la:10 raza:9 debut:1 album:11 hispanic:2 cause:2 panic:3 feature:9 l:4 also:7 establish:1 latin:7 supergroup:1 call:2 alliance:4 second:2 side:6 story:4 mc:1 eiht:1 ganxta:1 ridd:1 boo:1 yaa:1 tribe:1 drop:1 nickname:1 sign:2 ruthless:2 eazy:1 e:1 label:3 distribute:1 relativity:1 smile:5 die:6 later:5 year:3 law:1 guest:6 rapper:5 alongside:1 genius:2 kokane:1 rick:1 james:1 appear:5 version:1 mary:1 jane:1 hell:3 freeze:3 scoop:3 domino:1 small:1 independent:1 celeb:2 entertainment:2 title:3 vol:4 kurupt:1 king:2 baby:5 bash:4 jay:3 tee:3 jayo:1 felony:1 xzibit:1 b:8 legit:1 cameosis:2 cd:2 ii:4 frank:1 v:1 clika:1 one:3 still:2 shit:2 lick:1 koch:1 style:1 g:1 funk:1 track:5 hidden:1 bonus:1 rock:1 cannabis:1 mellow:1 man:1 ace:1 daz:1 dillinger:1 nino:1 brown:1 cisco:1 group:1 tierra:1 somethin:2 ridaz:1 ounce:1 various:2 texas:1 welcome:3 thump:1 produce:3 almost:1 entirely:1 son:1 de:2 ville:2 intro:1 binky:1 womack:1 philly:1 blunt:1 co:1 include:3 genovese:1 low:2 profile:2 till:3 wheel:3 fall:3 appearance:1 mr:1 sancho:1 perform:1 film:4 bite:1 bullet:1 theme:1 gunman:2 tear:1 mother:2 cry:1 accomplished:1 actor:1 several:1 voice:1 role:2 fictional:1 character:1 bone:1 mendez:1 grand:1 theft:1 auto:1 san:1 andreas:1 contribute:1 song:1 name:3 vice:1 president:1 division:1 goldmark:1 august:2 cameo:1 snoop:1 dogg:1 vato:1 video:1 real:1 discography:1 informationhispanic:1 causing:1 july:2 chart:17 position:16 u:7 r:6 last:15 riaa:15 certification:15 n:29 single:16 april:2 top:4 sunshine:2 thin:2 line:2 october:3 rendezvous:2 familia:3 time:2 season:2 diamond:1 pearl:1 feria:1 september:2 west:1 coast:1 lowrider:2 everybody:1 riderz:1 march:1 eastside:1 rendevouz:1 blunts:1 ballerz:1 january:1 get:1 bud:1 nighters:1 compilation:1 informationfrost:1 great:1 joint:2 february:1 radio:1 agreatest:1 athe:1 best:1 remix:1 informationlatin:1 boulevard:1 hot:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 dave:1 storrs:1 biography:1 westcoastpioneers:1 |@bigram kid_frost:5 hip_hop:8 los_angeles:1 la_raza:7 eazy_e:1 guest_rapper:5 baby_bash:4 grand_theft:1 theft_auto:1 san_andreas:1 vice_president:1 snoop_dogg:1 riaa_certification:15 la_familia:3 external_link:1 |
1,470 | National_Hockey_League | The National Hockey League (NHL) () is a professional ice hockey league composed of 30 teams in North America. It is the premier professional ice hockey league in the world, and one of the North American major professional sports leagues. The Stanley Cup, the oldest professional sports trophy in North America, is awarded annually to the league champion at the end of each season. The league was formed in 1917 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada from a predecessor organization, the National Hockey Association (NHA), founded in 1909. It started with four teams, and through a series of expansions, contractions and relocations, the league is now composed of 30 teams, 24 of which are based in the United States and six in Canada. After a labour dispute that led to the cancellation of the entire 2004–05 season, the league has staged a successful comeback, including revenue and profit growth. The NHL draws many highly skilled players from all over the world. Currently, the league has players from about 20 different countries. Canadians have historically constituted over half of the players in the NHL because both the sport and the league originated in Canada. In the past 25 years, the percentages of American and European players have increased because of the NHL's continued expansion into the United States, its high standard of play compared to other leagues, and the availability of highly skilled European players. European players taking more and more leadership roles, captaincies in NHL History + Total Stanley Cup ChampionshipsDefunct teams not included. Team Titles Montreal Canadiens 24* Toronto Maple Leafs 13 Detroit Red Wings 11 Boston Bruins 5 Edmonton Oilers 5 New York Islanders 4 New York Rangers 4 Chicago Blackhawks 3 New Jersey Devils 3 Colorado Avalanche 2 Philadelphia Flyers 2 Pittsburgh Penguins 2 Anaheim Ducks 1 Calgary Flames 1 Carolina Hurricanes 1 Dallas Stars 1 Tampa Bay Lightning 1 * - One championship pre-dates the Canadiens' entry into the NHL. After a series of disputes in the Canadian National Hockey Association (NHA) between Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts, and other owners, the owners of the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators, and Quebec Bulldogs met at the Windsor Hotel in Montreal to talk about the NHA's future. [McFarlane], pp.15–16 Their discussions eventually led to the creation of the National Hockey League on November 22, 1917. Three former NHA franchises, the Canadiens, Wanderers and Senators were founding members of the NHL, along with a new Toronto franchise. Because of the dispute, the Toronto team was given temporarily to the Toronto Arena Corp to operate, and is often referred to as the Arenas, though they operated without a nickname. Toronto Arena Hockey Club was founded in October 1918. see [Holzman] |Montreal Canadiens in 1942 Even though the league struggled to stay in business during its first decade, the NHL's teams were very successful on the ice; only once, in 1925, did a team from any other league win the Stanley Cup, and by 1926 the NHL was the only league competing for the Cup. [McFarlane], pp.5 The NHL then started a process of expansion: the Boston Bruins (the first U.S.-based NHL franchise) and Montreal Maroons entered the league in 1924–25; the New York Americans and the Pittsburgh Pirates entered in the 1925–26 season; and the New York Rangers, Chicago Black Hawks (now spelled Blackhawks), and Detroit Cougars (now known as the Red Wings) entered in the 1926–27 season, raising the number of teams in the NHL to ten. The Great Depression and the onset of World War II, took a toll on the league, and by 1942 the NHL was reduced to six teams. These six teams (the Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Maple Leafs, Detroit Red Wings, Chicago Black Hawks, Boston Bruins, and New York Rangers) are collectively known as the Original Six, and for the next quarter-century were the only teams in the National Hockey League. During this time the Norris family had influence over four of the teams as Detroit and Chicago were operated by members of the family, and Boston and New York had mortgages to the family. The media would nickname the league the "Norris House League." On January 18, 1958, a milestone in the NHL's history occurred, as the first black Canadian person ever to play in the NHL stepped onto the ice for the Boston Bruins, Fredericton, New Brunswick-born left wing Willie O'Ree. He would play in 45 games for the Bruins, in the 1957-58 and 1960-61 seasons, scoring six goals and ten assists in his NHL career. By the mid 1960s, the desire for a network television contract in the U.S., and concerns that the Western Hockey League was planning to declare itself a major league and challenge for the Stanley Cup, spurred the NHL to undertake its first expansion since the 1920s. Six new teams were added to the NHL roster in 1967, and were placed in their own newly-created division. Two teams each were added in California, Pennsylvania, and the Mississippi River valley. The teams were the Los Angeles Kings, Oakland Seals (later folded), Pittsburgh Penguins, Philadelphia Flyers, Minnesota North Stars (Dallas Stars since 1993), and St. Louis Blues. Three years later, the NHL added the Vancouver Canucks and Buffalo Sabres. In 1972, the World Hockey Association (WHA) was formed, the first potential rival to the NHL in decades. Although it was at first publicly dismissed as a threat by the NHL owners, the NHL decided to rush its own expansion plans in 1972 by adding the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames (which became the Calgary Flames in 1980) to forestall WHA franchises in newly constructed arenas in those markets, followed by the addition of the Kansas City Scouts (which became the Colorado Rockies in 1976 before becoming the New Jersey Devils in 1982) and Washington Capitals two years later. [McFarlane], pp.116–117,119 The two leagues fought for the rights of players and fans until the WHA folded in 1979 as part of an agreement whereby four of the remaining six WHA teams would enter the NHL as expansion teams: the Hartford Whalers (the Carolina Hurricanes since 1997), Québec Nordiques (the Colorado Avalanche since 1995), Edmonton Oilers, and Winnipeg Jets (the Phoenix Coyotes since 1996). [McFarlane], pp.166–167 With the expansion in 1974, the NHL was aligned into 2 conferences. These conferences, the Clarence Campbell (representing the west) and the Prince of Wales (representing the east) each had 2 divisions. The Campbell's divisions were the Lester Patrick and Conn Smythe; while the Wales' divisions were the Jack Adams and James Norris (The Norris and Patrick divisions switched conferences for the 1981-82 season). This changed in 1993 when the NHL was realigned into geographical conferences (East & West), divided into two divisions--three divisions since 1998-99. The Eastern Conference currently consists of the Atlantic, Southeast, and Northeast while the Western is made up of the Central, Northwest, and Pacific. Reasons for realignment include further expansion into the U.S. and efforts to expand the NHL's breadth of audience. After a period of stability in the 1980s, the NHL further expanded with nine new franchises in ten years. The San Jose Sharks entered in 1991; a season later the Ottawa Senators would return to the NHL along with the addition of the Tampa Bay Lightning. In 1993, the league added two additional teams, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Florida Panthers. Next came the Nashville Predators in 1998, the Atlanta Thrashers in 1999, and then the Minnesota Wild and the Columbus Blue Jackets in 2000, bringing the total to 30 teams. Labour issues There have been three league-wide work stoppages in NHL history, all happening between 1992 and 2005. The first was a strike by the National Hockey League Players Association in April 1992 which lasted for 10 days, but the strike was settled quickly and all affected games were rescheduled. A lockout at the start of the 1994–95 season forced the league to reduce the schedule from 84 games to just 48, with the teams playing only intra-conference games during the reduced season. The resulting collective bargaining agreement was set for renegotiation in 1998 and extended to September 15, 2004. With no new agreement in hand when the existing contract expired on September 15, 2004, league commissioner Gary Bettman announced a lockout of the players union and cessation of operations by the NHL head office. The lockout shut down the league for 310 days, the longest in sports history; the NHL was the first professional sports league to lose an entire season. The league vowed to install what it dubbed "cost certainty" for its teams, but the NHL Players Association countered that the move was little more than a euphemism for a salary cap, which the union initially said it would not accept. A new collective bargaining agreement was ratified in July 2005 with a term of six years with an option of extending the collective bargaining agreement for an additional year at the end of the term, allowing the NHL to resume as of the 2005–06 season. On October 6, 2005, the first post-lockout NHL season took to the ice with 15 games, and consequently all 30 teams. Of those 15 games, 11 were in front of sell-out crowds. The NHL received record attendance in the 2005–06 season. 20,854,169 fans, an average of 16,955 per game, was a 1.2% increase over the previous mark held in the 2001–02 season. Also, the Montreal Canadiens, Calgary Flames, Colorado Avalanche, Minnesota Wild, and the Vancouver Canucks sold out all of their home games; all six Canadian teams played to 98% capacity or better at every home game. 24 of the 30 clubs finished even or ahead of their 2003–04 mark. The Pittsburgh Penguins had the highest increase at 33%, mainly because of 18-year-old first overall draft pick Sidney Crosby. After losing a season to a labour dispute in 2005, attendance figures for League teams have returned to solid ground; but the League's TV audience has not because of ESPN's decision to drop the sport from its schedule. The NHL League's current agreement with NBC gives the sport a share of revenue from each game's advertising sales, rather than the usual lump sum paid up front for game rights. The NHL is estimated to earn annual revenue of around $2.27 billion. http://www1.ibisworld.com/pressrelease/pressrelease.aspx?prid=107 Super Bowl XLII versus the Economy Game Original NHL logo, used before 2005. A version of the logo features it in the likeness of a hockey puck. Los Angeles Kings' Mike Weaver battling for the puck against Calgary Flames' Daymond Langkow, December 21, 2005. Each National Hockey League regulation game is an ice hockey game played between two teams and is 60 minutes long. The game is composed of three 20-minute periods with an intermission of either 15½ or 17 minutes (if nationally televised) between periods. Television timeouts are taken at the first stoppage of play after 6, 10, and 14 minutes of elapsed time unless there is a power play or the first stoppage is the result of a goal. In these cases, the timeout will occur at the first stoppage after the penalty expires or the next stoppage after the goal, respectively. A new rule was introduced for the 2007-08 season that if the first stoppage of play is an icing, the TV timeout does not occur. This is to prevent players from getting a break despite not being allowed to change. At the end of the 60-minute regulation time, the team with the most goals wins the game. If a game is tied after regulation time, overtime ensues. During the regular season, overtime is a five-minute, four-player on four-player sudden-death period, in which the first team to score a goal wins the game. Until the 2005–06 season, if no team was able to score in the five-minute overtime, the game ended in a tie. Beginning in the 2005–06 season, if the game is still tied at the end of overtime, the game enters a shootout. Three players for each team in turn take a penalty shot. The team with the most goals during the three-round shootout wins the game. If the game is still tied after the three shootout rounds, the shootout continues but becomes sudden death. Whichever team ultimately wins the shootout is awarded a goal in the game score and thus awarded two points in the standings. The losing team in overtime or shootout is awarded only one. Shootout goals and saves are not tracked in hockey statistics; shootout statistics are tracked separately. Shootouts do not occur during the playoffs. In the playoffs, sudden-death 20-minute five-on-five periods are played until one team scores. While a game could theoretically continue forever, only four games have reached five overtime periods, two have reached six, and none have gone beyond six. There are no television timeouts during playoff overtime periods; the only break is to clean the loose ice at the first stoppage after the period is halfway finished. Hockey rink Diagram of an NHL hockey rink:1. penalty boxes2. team benches3. scorekeepers' area. National Hockey League games are played on an oblong hockey rink, similar to a rectangle with rounded corners, and surrounded by a wall. It measures 25.91 by 60.92 metres (85 by 200 ft) in the NHL, while international standards call for a rink measuring 29–30 metres by 60–61 metres (95.14–98.43 ft by 196.85–200.13 ft). The center line divides the ice in half, and is used to judge icing violations. There are two blue lines that divide the rink roughly into thirds, which divide the ice into two attacking and one neutral zone. Near the end of both ends of the rink, there is a thin red goal line spanning the width of the ice, which is used to judge goals and icing calls. Starting in the 2005–2006 season, after testing in the American Hockey League, a trapezoidal area behind each goal net has been introduced. The goaltender can only play the puck within that area or in front of the goal line; if the goaltender plays the puck behind the goal line and not in the trapezoidal area, a 2 minute minor penalty for delay of game is assessed by the referees. Rules Main articles: National Hockey League rules While the National Hockey League follows the general rules of ice hockey, it differs slightly from those used in international games organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) such as the Olympics. Infractions of the rules can lead to either the stoppage of play in the case of offside and icing calls, or a penalty call for more serious infractions. During the 2004–05 lockout, the league changed some of the rules regarding being offside. First, the league removed the "offside pass" or "two-line pass" rule, which required a stoppage in play if a pass originating from inside a team's defending zone was completed on the offensive side of the center line, unless the puck crossed the line before the player. Furthermore, the league reinstated the "tag-up offside" which allows an attacking player a chance to get back onside by returning to the neutral zone. The changes to the offside rule were one of several rule changes intended to increase overall scoring, which had been in decline since the expansion years of the mid-nineties. Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icings are called. In the NHL, a linesman stops play due to icing if a defending player (other than the goaltender) touches the puck before an attacking player is able to, in contrast to the IIHF rules where play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line. As a result of the rule changes following the 2004–05 lockout, when a team is guilty of icing the puck they are not allowed to make a line change before the following faceoff. The NHL and IIHF differ also in penalty rules. The NHL, in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games, calls major penalties which are more dangerous infractions of the rules, such as fighting, and have a duration of five minutes. This is in contrast to the IIHF rule, in which players who fight are ejected from the game. Usually a penalized team cannot replace a player that is penalized on the ice and is thus shorthanded for the duration of the penalty, but if the penalties are coincidental, for example when two players fight, both teams remain at full strength. Also, unlike minor penalties, major penalties must be served to their full completion, regardless of number of goals scored during the power play. The NHL and the NHLPA created a stringent anti-doping policy in the new CBA of September 2005. The policy provides for a 20-game penalty for a first positive test, 60 games for a second positive test, and a third offence resulting in a permanent ban. Teams The National Hockey League originated in 1917 with four teams, and through a sequence of team expansions, reductions, and relocations currently consists of 30 teams, 24 of which are based in the United States and six in Canada. The Montreal Canadiens are the most successful franchise with 24 Stanley Cup championships (23 as an NHL team, 1 as an NHA team); in the four major North American professional sports leagues the Montreal Canadiens are only surpassed in the number of championships by the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball, who have two more. The next most successful franchise is the Toronto Maple Leafs with 13 Stanley Cup championships, but they have not won one since 1967. The Detroit Red Wings, with 11 Stanley Cup championships, is the most successful American franchise. The longest streak of winning the Stanley Cup in consecutive years is five, held by the Montreal Canadiens from 1955–56 to 1959–60; the New York Islanders (1980–1983) and the Montreal Canadiens (1976–1979) have four-year championship streaks. The 1977 edition of the Montreal Canadiens, the second of four straight Stanley Cup champions, was named by ESPN as the second greatest sports team of all-time. Of all the major leagues in North America, the NHL is the only league to field teams that play in two countries' capital cities, Ottawa and Washington, DC. The current league organization divides the teams into two conferences. Each conference has three divisions, and each division has five teams. The current organization has roots in the 1998–99 season where a league realignment added two divisions to bring the total number of divisions to six; the current team alignment began with the 2000–2001 season when the Minnesota Wild and the Columbus Blue Jackets joined the league as expansion teams. Division Team City/Area Arena Founded Joined Head Coach Eastern Conference Atlantic New Jersey Devils Newark, NJ Prudential Center 1974* Brent Sutter New York Islanders Uniondale, NY Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum 1972 Scott Gordon New York Rangers New York City, NY Madison Square Garden 1926 John Tortorella Philadelphia Flyers Philadelphia, PA Wachovia Center 1967 John Stevens Pittsburgh Penguins Pittsburgh, PA Mellon Arena 1967 Dan Bylsma Northeast Boston Bruins Boston, MA TD Banknorth Garden 1924 Claude Julien Buffalo Sabres Buffalo, NY HSBC Arena 1970 Lindy Ruff Montreal Canadiens Montreal, QC Bell Centre 1909 1917 Bob Gainey Ottawa Senators Ottawa, ON Scotiabank Place 1992 Cory Clouston Toronto Maple Leafs Toronto, ON Air Canada Centre 1917 Ron WilsonSoutheast Atlanta Thrashers Atlanta, GA Philips Arena 1999 John Anderson Carolina Hurricanes Raleigh, NC RBC Center 1972 1979* Paul Maurice Florida Panthers Sunrise, FL BankAtlantic Center 1993 Peter DeBoer Tampa Bay Lightning Tampa, FL St. Pete Times Forum 1992 Rick Tocchet Washington Capitals Washington, D.C. Verizon Center 1974 Bruce Boudreau Western Conference Central Chicago Blackhawks Chicago, IL United Center 1926 Joel Quenneville Columbus Blue Jackets Columbus, OH Nationwide Arena 2000 Ken Hitchcock Detroit Red Wings Detroit, MI Joe Louis Arena 1926 Mike Babcock Nashville Predators Nashville, TN Sommet Center 1998 Barry Trotz St. Louis Blues St. Louis, MO Scottrade Center 1967 Andy Murray Northwest Calgary Flames Calgary, AB Pengrowth Saddledome 1972* Vacant Colorado Avalanche Denver, CO Pepsi Center 1972 1979* Tony Granato Edmonton Oilers Edmonton, AB Rexall Place 1972 1979 Pat Quinn Minnesota Wild St. Paul, MN Xcel Energy Center 2000 Vacant Vancouver Canucks Vancouver, BC General Motors Place 1970 Alain Vigneault Pacific Anaheim Ducks Anaheim, CA Honda Center 1993 Randy Carlyle Dallas Stars Dallas, TX American Airlines Center 1967* Dave Tippett Los Angeles Kings Los Angeles, CA Staples Center 1967 Terry Murray Phoenix Coyotes Glendale, AZ Jobing.com Arena 1972 1979* Wayne Gretzky San Jose Sharks San Jose, CA HP Pavilion at San Jose 1991 Todd McLellan Notes An asterisk (*) denotes a franchise move. See the respective team articles for more information. The Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers, Quebec Nordiques, and Winnipeg Jets all joined the NHL in 1979 as part of the NHL-WHA merger. Season structure Stanley Cup, on display at the Hockey Hall of Fame, is awarded to the league champion. The National Hockey League season is divided into an exhibition season (September), a regular season (from the first week in October through early to mid April) and a postseason (the Stanley Cup playoffs). During the regular season, clubs play each other in a predefined schedule. The Stanley Cup playoffs, which goes from April to the beginning of June, is an elimination tournament where two teams play against each other to win a best-of-seven series in order to advance to the next round. The final remaining team is crowned the Stanley Cup champion. Beginning in 2007, the NHL regular season has begun in Europe while teams not involved complete their exhibition schedule. The 2008–2009 season began with the Pittsburgh Penguins facing off against the Ottawa Senators in Stockholm, Sweden and the New York Rangers taking on the Tampa Bay Lightning in Prague, Czech Republic. In the regular season, each team plays 82 games; 41 games at home and 41 on the road. Each team plays 24 games in its division (6 against each divisional opponent), and 40 games against non-divisional intra-conference opponents. That is, 4 games against each team in its conference, but not in its own division. Each team plays every team in the other conference at least once (one game each against 12 teams and two games against the remaining 3 teams). Prior to the 2008-2009 season, teams played 32 games within their division (8 games against each team in the division) and 10 inter-conference games (1 game against each team in two of the three divisions in the opposite conference). The two divisions from the opposite conference which each team plays against were rotated every year, much like interleague play in Major League Baseball. As with the current system, each team played 4 games against the other 10 teams in its conference, but not in its own division. Points are awarded for each game, where two points are awarded for a win, one point for losing in overtime or a shootout, and zero points for a loss in regulation. Among major professional sports leagues, the NHL is the only one to award a team points for losing in overtime. At the end of the regular season, the team that finishes with the most points in each division is crowned the division champion. The league's overall leader is awarded the Presidents' Trophy. The three division champions along with the five other teams in each conference with the next highest number of points, for a total of 8 teams in each conference, qualify for the playoffs. The division winners are seeded one through three (even if a non-division winner has a higher point total), and the next five teams with the best records in the conference are seeded four through eight. The Stanley Cup playoffs is an elimination tournament, where two teams battle to win a best-of-seven series in order to advance to the next round. The first round of the playoffs, or conference quarterfinals, consists of the first seed playing the eighth seed, the second playing the seventh, third playing the sixth, and the fourth playing the fifth. In the second round, or conference semifinals, the NHL re-seeds the teams, with the top remaining conference seed playing against the lowest remaining seed, and the other two remaining conference teams pairing off. In the third round, the conference finals, the two remaining teams in each conference play each other, with the conference champions proceeding to the Stanley Cup Finals. In each round the higher-ranked team is said to be the team with the home-ice advantage. Four of the seven games are played at this team's home venue — the first and second, and, when necessary, the fifth and seventh games — with the other games played at the lower-ranked team's home venue. In the Stanley Cup Finals, the team with the most points during the regular season is given home-ice advantage, regardless of where each team ranks in their own conference. Trophies and awards Hart Memorial Trophy on display at the Hockey Hall of Fame The Hockey Hall of Fame in downtown Toronto Wayne Gretzky in a New York Rangers uniform in 1997. The National Hockey League presents a number of trophies each year. The most prestigious team award is the Stanley Cup, which is awarded to the league champion at the end of the Stanley Cup playoffs. The team that has the most points in the regular season is awarded the Presidents' Trophy. There are also numerous trophies that are awarded to players based on their statistics during the regular season; they include, among others, the Art Ross Trophy for the league scoring champion (goals and assists), the Maurice 'Rocket' Richard Trophy for the goal-scoring leader, and the William M. Jennings Trophy for the goalkeeper(s) for the team with the fewest goals against them. For the 2008–09 season these statistics-based trophies will be awarded to Evgeni Malkin of the Pittsburgh Penguins, Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals, and, dually, Tim Thomas and Manny Fernandez of the Boston Bruins respectively. The other player trophies are voted on by the Professional Hockey Writers' Association or the team general managers. The most prestigious individual award is the Hart Memorial Trophy which is awarded annually to the Most Valuable Player; the voting is conducted by members of the Professional Hockey Writers Association to judge the player who is the most valuable to his team during the regular season. The Vezina Trophy is awarded annually to the person deemed the best goalkeeper as voted on by the general managers of the teams in the NHL. The James Norris Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the National Hockey League's top defenceman, the Calder Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the top rookie, and the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy is awarded to the player deemed to combine the highest degree of skill and sportsmanship; all three of these awards are voted on by members of the Professional Hockey Writers Association. In addition to the regular season awards, the Conn Smythe Trophy is awarded annually to the most valuable player during the NHL's Stanley Cup playoffs. Furthermore, the top coach in the league wins the Jack Adams Award as selected by a poll of the National Hockey League Broadcasters Association. The National Hockey League publishes the names of the top three vote getters for all awards, and then names the award winner during the NHL Awards Ceremony. One interesting aspect for the trophies in the NHL is that the same trophy is reused every year for each of its awards. The Stanley Cup, much like its CFL counterpart, is unique in this aspect, as opposed to the Vince Lombardi Trophy, Larry O'Brien Trophy, and Commissioner's Trophy, who have new ones made every year for that year's champion. Despite only one trophy being used, the names of the teams winning and the players are engraved every year on the Stanley Cup. The same can also be said for the other trophies reissued every year. Players, coaches, officials, and team builders who have had notable careers are eligible to be voted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. Players cannot enter until three years have passed since their last professional game, the shortest such time period of any major sport. One unique consequence has been Hall of Fame members (specifically, Gordie Howe, Guy Lafleur, and Mario Lemieux) coming out of retirement to play once more. In the past, however, if a player was deemed significant enough, the pending period would be waived; only ten individuals have been honoured in this manner. In 1999, Wayne Gretzky became the last player to have the three-year restriction waived, and after Gretzky's induction, the NHL declared that he would be the last to have the waiting period omitted. Notable active players The reigning Hart Trophy winner (given to the league's most valuable player) is Alexander Ovechkin. The top five point scoring forwards in the 2008–09 season were Evgeni Malkin, Alexander Ovechkin, Sidney Crosby, Pavel Datsyuk and Zack Parise. The top goal scorer was Alexander Ovechkin with 56, followed by Jeff Carter (46) and Zack Parise (45). The top four scoring defencemen were Mike Green, Andrei Markov, Nicklas Lidstrom, and Scott Niedermayer. The top goaltenders (by wins) were Miikka Kiprusoff (45), Evgeni Nabokov (41), Cam Ward (39), Henrik Lundqvist (38), Niklas Backstrom (37). Origin of players In addition to Canadian and American born and trained players, who have historically composed a large majority of NHL rosters, the NHL also draws players from an expanding pool of other nations where organized and professional hockey is played. Since the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, restrictions on the movement of hockey players from this region have lessened and there has been a large influx of European players into the NHL. Many of the league's top players today, come from European countries such as: Alexander Ovechkin, Ilya Kovalchuk, Pavel Datsyuk, and Evgeni Malkin. European players were drafted and signed by NHL teams in an effort to bring in more "skilled offensive players". Although recently there has been a decline in European players as more American players enter the league. The addition of European players changed the style of play in the NHL and European style hockey has been integrated in to the NHL game. Conversely Canadian coaches and the Canadian style of play have been embraced by many European countries. Because of the continued success of Canadian teams in world tournaments many other countries are trying to model their development programs after Hockey Canada's. In Winter Olympic years, the league voluntarily suspends its season so that NHL players can play in the Winter Olympics, representing their native countries (though this practice may end after the 2010 Winter Olympics, which will be held in an NHL city, Vancouver). Currently the NHL has players from 18 different countries, with the majority (52.0 percent during the 2007–08 NHL season) coming from Canada. The following table shows the origins of every player who played an NHL regular season game in the given year. Country Players(02–03) % Players(03–04) % Players(05–06) % Players(06–07) % Players(07–08) % Players(08–09) % Austria 1 0.1 3 0.3 3 0.3 2 0.2 2 0.2 3 0.3 Bahamas 1 0.1 Belarus 2 0.2 2 0.2 3 0.3 2 0.2 3 0.3 3 0.3 Brazil 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Brunei 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Canada 488 55.1 548 54.3 517 53.8 495 52.7 489 52.0 509 52.3 Croatia 1 0.1 Czech Republic 73 7.4 74 7.3 65 6.8 65 6.9 59 6.3 57 5.9 Denmark 1 0.1 2 0.2 4 0.4 England 2 0.2 2 0.2 1 0.1 Finland 38 3.9 38 3.8 39 4.1 42 4.5 40 4.3 42 4.3 France 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Germany 6 0.6 6 0.6 8 0.8 8 0.8 9 1.0 9 0.9 Indonesia 1 0.1 1 0.1 Italy 1 0.1 Japan 1 0.1 Kazakhstan 2 0.2 3 0.3 6 0.6 4 0.4 3 0.3 2 0.2 Latvia 5 0.5 4 0.4 3 0.3 4 0.4 3 0.3 5 0.5 Lithuania 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 1 0.1 1 0.1 Northern Ireland 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Norway 1 0.1 2 0.2 1 0.1 2 0.2 2 0.2 1 0.1 Poland 2 0.2 2 0.2 3 0.3 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Russia 57 5.8 57 5.6 40 4.2 35 3.7 30 3.2 32 3.3 Slovakia 35 3.6 37 3.7 31 3.2 25 2.7 23 2.4 18 1.8 Slovenia 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 South Africa 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 South Korea 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 Sweden 58 5.9 52 5.1 45 4.7 49 5.2 52 5.5 53 5.4 Switzerland 2 0.2 3 0.3 4 0.4 5 0.5 6 0.6 5 0.5 Ukraine 8 0.8 8 0.8 8 0.8 9 1.0 5 0.5 4 0.4 United States 140 14.3 160 15.8 177 18.4 182 19.3 203 21.6 216 22.2 Total 980 100.0 1010 100.0 961 100.0 942 100.0 941 100.0 974 100.0 Television and radio Canada In Canada, National Hockey League games are aired nationally by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and The Sports Network (TSN). Regional games are broadcast by a number of networks including Rogers Sportsnet (RSN). French language games are broadcast by the Réseau des sports (RDS) and Réseau Info-Sports (RIS), but no longer on Radio-Canada (the French-language counterpart of the CBC), a change which has caused controversy in French Canada. The program Hockey Night in Canada, usually aired on Saturday nights on CBC, is a long-standing Canadian tradition dating to 1952, and even prior to that on radio since the 1920s. United States In the United States NHL games are aired nationally by Versus (previously the "Outdoor Life Network" and "OLN"), and by NBC. NBC replaced the previous over-the-air network, ABC, and has a revenue-sharing agreement with the NHL. Versus replaced ESPN as the cable network; Comcast, which owns Versus, offered a two-year $120 million agreement, while ESPN offered a revenue sharing agreement. Versus had about 20 million fewer subscribers than ESPN when the NHL started on Versus, but Comcast switched Versus from a digital tier to basic cable to make NHL games available to more cable subscribers. For Versus the NHL coverage was a good addition as Versus' ratings grew by about 275% when it showed an NHL game. The 2007 Stanley Cup Finals were the lowest rated in the United States in history. As a whole, the television ratings on NBC were down 20% from the 2006 series ESPN - Ratings for Stanley Cup finals down 20 percent - NHL , with Game 3's coverage on NBC garnering a mere 1.1 rating ESPN - Game 3 equals NBC's lowest rating ever for prime-time program - NHL (approximately 1,205,600 households), making it the lowest rated prime-time broadcast in the network's history. However, coverage in Canada on CBC pulled in 2,608,000, 2,378,000, and 2,553,000 (for Games 1, 2, and 3 respectively), slightly higher than their numbers for the first three games in 2006. Comparatively, in 1994, when the New York Rangers were involved, Game 7 of the Stanley Cup finals posted a rating of 6.9. Although 2007 saw low Stanley Cup Finals ratings, the 2008 series between Detroit and Pittsburgh drew one of the highest Stanley Cup ratings ever with strong 4.4 as the high overnight rating. XM Satellite Radio is the official satellite radio broadcaster of the NHL, as of July 1, 2007. Between September 2005 and June 2007, the NHL's broadcasting rights were shared with both XM and Sirius Satellite Radio and were broadcast on just Sirius before the NHL lockout. XM used to broadcast more than 80% of NHL games, including all the play-offs and finals. Starting with the 2007–08 season, XM broadcasts every game. Outside of North America Outside of North America, NHL games are broadcast across Europe on ESPN America which takes feeds from Versus, FSN, TSN and CBC (including Hockey Night in Canada), and MSG. Games can also be seen in the UK on Five, on Fox Sports in Australia, on SKY Sport in Italy and on Viasat Sport in Russia. Popularity The NHL is considered one of the four major professional sports leagues in the North America, along with Major League Baseball, the National Football League, and the National Basketball Association. Hockey has the smallest total fan base of the four leagues, the smallest revenue from television, and the least sponsorship. However the league is very prominent in Canada, where hockey is the most popular of these four major sports. While the NHL does not hold one of the largest fan bases in North America, it does hold one of the most affluent fan bases. Champions of the Turnstiles Studies by the Sports Marketing Group conducted from 1998 to 2004 show that the NHL's fan base is much more affluent than that of the PGA Tour. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19910221&slug=1267313 See also List of defunct NHL teams Index of Professional Sports teams in the United States and Canada List of TV markets and major sports teams Major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada Heritage Classic NHL Winter Classic Notes Footnotes References External links Official website NHL Player's Association (NHLPA) NHL Officials Association website NHL on YouTube NHL on Facebook Maps to NHL arenas be-x-old:Нацыянальная хакейная ліга | National_Hockey_League |@lemmatized national:19 hockey:46 league:73 nhl:91 professional:15 ice:19 compose:4 team:97 north:10 america:8 premier:1 world:5 one:19 american:9 major:15 sport:23 stanley:26 cup:27 old:3 trophy:26 award:29 annually:6 champion:11 end:10 season:43 form:2 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1,471 | Brabham | Portal Formula One portal Motor Racing Developments Ltd., commonly known as Brabham (), was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team. Founded in 1960 by two Australians, driver Jack Brabham and designer Ron Tauranac, the team won four drivers' and two constructors' world championships in its 30-year Formula One history. As of 2009, Jack Brabham's 1966 drivers' championship remains the only victory by a car bearing the driver's own name. Brabham was the world's largest manufacturer of customer open wheel racing cars in the 1960s, and had built more than 500 cars by 1970. During this period, teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three and competed in the Indianapolis 500. In the 1970s and 1980s, Brabham introduced innovations such as the controversial but successful 'fan car', in-race refuelling, carbon brakes, and hydropneumatic suspension. The team won two more Formula One drivers' championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet, and became the first to win a drivers' championship with a turbocharged car. British businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s, and later became responsible for administrating the commercial aspects of Formula One. Ecclestone sold the team in 1988. Its last owner was the Middlebridge Group, a Japanese engineering firm. Midway through the 1992 season, the team collapsed financially as Middlebridge was unable to make repayments against loans provided by Landhurst Leasing. The case was investigated by the UK Serious Fraud Office. Origins Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a 'Brabham' car. The Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac, who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia. Brabham was the more successful driver and went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career. There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team and by 1958 had progressed with them to Formula One, the highest category of open wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motor sport's world governing body. 'FIA' has been used throughout this article to refer to the motor sports governing body. Until 1978 motor sport was governed directly by the Commission Sportive Internationale (CSI) and from 1978 by the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA), both subsidiary bodies of the FIA. In 1992 the FIA subsumed FISA and its governing role. In 1959 and 1960 Brabham won the Formula One world drivers' championship driving Cooper's revolutionary mid-engined cars. Despite their lead in putting the engine behind the driver, the Coopers and their Chief Designer Owen Maddock were resistant to developing their cars. Brabham pushed for further advances, and played a significant role in developing Cooper's highly successful 1960 T53 ‘lowline’ car, with input from his friend Tauranac. Lawrence (1999) pp. 18, 22 Brabham had consulted Tauranac by letter on technical matters since arriving in the UK. He used a gear cluster designed by Tauranac for several years and Tauranac also advised on the suspension geometry of the Cooper T53 'lowline' car. Brabham was sure he could do better than Cooper, and in late 1959 he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him, initially producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, but with the long-term aim of designing racing cars. Lawrence (1999) p. 22-4 Jack had already tried to buy Cooper in association with fellow-driver Roy Salvadori Brabham describes Tauranac as "absolutely the only bloke I'd have gone into partnership with". To meet that aim, Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (MRD), deliberately avoiding the use of either man’s name. The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer racing cars; As Cooper were still Brabham's employers, Tauranac produced the first MRD car, for the entry level Formula Junior class, in secrecy. Unveiled in the summer of 1961, the 'MRD' was soon renamed. Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that "[the] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials — written phonetically, 'em air day' — sounded perilously like the French word... merde." Scarlett (May 2006) p. 43. Although compare pronunciation with the related verb emmerder. This is the story as recalled by both Ron Tauranac and Brabham mechanic Michael Scarlett. The British journalist Alan Brinton has also been credited with pointing out this unfortunate fact to Brabham. See Drackett (1985) p. 21. The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for 'Brabham Tauranac'. Drackett (1985) pp. 18, 21 The first prototype FJunior car therefore became the BT1 and its production version the BT2. By the 1961 Formula One season, the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper, where Brabham had a poor season, scoring only four points. Having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961, Brabham left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments. Lawrence (1999) p. 31 Brabham, Nye (2004) pp. 14, 145-9 Brabham's and Tauranac's (Lawrence 1999 p. 32) accounts differ on whether the BRO was formed for the purpose of F1, or was already in existence. Racing history - Formula One Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961–1970) The 'Brabham Racing Organisation' entered the 'works' cars until 1968 Motor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae, so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season. The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the year fielding customer Lotus chassis, in which Brabham took two points finishes, before the turquoise-liveried Brabham BT3 car made its debut at the 1962 German Grand Prix. It retired with a throttle problem after nine of the fifteen laps, but went on to take a pair of fourth places at the end of the season. Henry (1985) pp. 21–22. Brabham bought a new spaceframe Lotus 24, but had to use a 1961-vintage Lotus 21 in the early races after a workshop fire. Team Lotus reserved the monocoque Lotus 25 for their own use that season. The Brabham BT3, the first Brabham Formula One design. From the 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia's racing colours of green and gold. Brabham, Nye (2004) p.147 Jack Brabham took the team's first win at the non-championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963. Henry (1985) p.28 Gurney took the marque's first two wins in the world championship, at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix. Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the 1964 season. Henry (1985) pp. 35–41 The 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins. Brabham finished third or fourth in the constructors' championship for three years running, but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions. Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Ron Tauranac. Tauranac says (Lawrence (1999) p.48) that he feels a third mechanic would have reduced the reliability problems. Lawrence himself notes (Lawrence (1999) p.71) that 'If only Jack had been prepared to spend a little more money, the results could have been so much better'. Hodges (1990) p.32 notes 'Economy was a watchword. (...) It was this attitude, perhaps, which cost [Brabham] some races'. The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce. Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off the shelf parts. Lawrence (1999) pp.51–52 Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving (of Vincent Motorcycle fame) was the project engineer responsible for producing an outstanding engine in such a short space of time. However, few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, Unique p. 43 The team was the only one not contracted by John Frankenheimer for the shooting of the film Grand Prix at world championship races that year. but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season. At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Jack Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name. Only his former team mate, Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement. It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran. Jack Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver (as of 2007) to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (cf Surtees, Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive). In 1967, the title went to Brabham's team mate, New Zealander Denny Hulme. Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Jack Brabham's desire to try new parts first. Lawrence (1999) p.92 Hulme, Tauranac and Frank Hallam, Repco-Brabham's chief engineer, all shared this view. The Brabham team took the constructors' world championship in both years. Fearnley (May 2006) pp. 34–40 For 1968 Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme, who had left to join McLaren. Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford's new Cosworth DFV, but it proved very unreliable. Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult. The car was fast — Rindt set pole position twice during the season — but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year with only ten points. Fearnley (May 2006) p. 41 Brabham BT33 Technically conservative Brabham did not produce a monocoque car until 1970. Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season, Rindt left to join Lotus. His replacement, Jacky Ickx, had a strong second half to the season, winning in Germany and Canada, after Jack Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident. Henry p.85 Ickx finished second in the drivers' championship, with 37 points to Jackie Stewart's 63. Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top three finishes, but did not finish half the races. The team were second in the constructors' championship, aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad. Henry (1985) pp.79–80 Jack Brabham intended to retire at the end of the 1969 season and sold his share in the team to Tauranac. However, Rindt's late decision to remain with Lotus meant that Brabham drove for another year. Lawrence (1999) p.109 & Brabham, Nye (2004) pp.230–231 He was therefore technically a team employee in his final season. He took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year, although mechanical failures blunted his challenge. Henry (1985) p.93 Aided by number two driver Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the constructors' championship. Ron Tauranac (1971) Brabham BT34. Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the unique 'lobster claw'.Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season. Tauranac designed the unusual ‘lobster claw’ BT34, featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill. Although Hill, no longer a front-runner since his 1969 accident, took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone, Henry (1985) pp. 114–17 the team scored only seven championship points. Tauranac, an engineer at heart, started to feel his Formula One budget of around £100,000 was a gamble he could not afford to take on his own and began to look around for an experienced business partner. Lawrence (1999) p. 113 He sold the company for £100,000 at the end of 1971 to British businessman Bernie Ecclestone, Jochen Rindt's former manager and erstwhile owner of the Connaught team. Tauranac stayed on to design the cars and run the factory. Lawrence (1999) p. 116 Bernie Ecclestone (1972–1987) The Brabham BT44 on display in 2003. The car was used in the and seasons. Tauranac left Brabham early in the 1972 season after Ecclestone changed the way the company was organised without consulting him. Ecclestone has since said "In retrospect, the relationship was never going to work", noting that "[Tauranac and I] both take the view: 'Please be reasonable, do it my way'". Lawrence. pp.116–118 The highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models, were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix. For the 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer. The young South African produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the drivers' championship. Ecclestone also hired Herbie Blash to run the Brabham F2 program. By 1973 Blash was the Brabham F1 team manager, working with Ecclestone and Murray for the next 15 years, during which time Brabham scored 22 victories and Nelson Piquet won the 1981 and 1983 Drivers' World Championships. In the 1974 season, Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham's first since 1970. The team finished a close fifth in the constructors' championship, fielding the much more competitive BT44s. After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title. The year started well, with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo. However, as the season progressed, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races. Gill (ed.) (1976) p. 103 Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while Carlos Reutemann had five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix, and finished third in the drivers' championship. The team likewise ranked third in the constructors' table at the end of the year. While rival teams Lotus and McLaren relied on the Cosworth DFV engine from the late 1960s to the early 1980s, Ecclestone sought a competitive advantage by investigating other options. Despite the success of Murray’s Cosworth-powered cars, Ecclestone signed a deal with Italian motor manufacturer Alfa Romeo to use their large and powerful flat-12 engine from the 1976 season. The engines were free, but they rendered the new BT45s, now in red Martini Racing livery, unreliable and overweight. Henry (1985) pp. 159–161 The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again. Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari. Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977. The team lost Carlos Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident. Henry (1985) pp. 164, 167 For the 1978 season, Murray’s BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa engines. Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda, whose US$1 million salary was met with sponsorship from the Italian dairy products company Parmalat. 1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 ‘wing car’, which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial 'B' or 'fan car' version. The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season, the team's first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet. Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective carbon-carbon braking system — a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976. However, unexpected movement of the car's aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable. The team dropped to eighth in the constructors' table by the end of the season. Henry (1985) p.191 Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being "like having a holiday". Henry (1985) pp. 213, 215 The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the 1979 Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later explaining that he "was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles". Henry (1985) p. 216 The Brabham BT49 competed over four seasons, winning one championship. The team used the BT49 over four seasons. In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took 3rd in the constructors' championship with Piquet second in the Drivers Championship. This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team's demise in 1992. With a better understanding of ground effect, the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce. Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray, Roebuck (1986) p.114 took the drivers' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating. The team finished second in the Constructors Championship, behind the Williams team. Renault had introduced turbocharged engines to Formula One in 1977. Brabham had tested a BMW 4-cylinder M12 turbocharged engine in the summer of 1981. For the 1982 season the team designed a new car, the BT50, around the BMW engine which, like the Repco engine sixteen years previously, was based on a road car engine block, the BMW M10. Brabham continued to run the Cosworth-powered BT49D in the early part of the season while reliability and driveability issues with the BMW units were resolved. The relationship came close to ending, with the German manufacturer insisting that Brabham use their engine. The turbo car took its first win at the 1982 Canadian Grand Prix. In the Constructors Championship, the team finished fifth, the drivers Riccardo Patrese, who scored the last win of the Brabham-Ford combination in the 1982 Monaco Grand Prix, 10th and World Champion Piquet a mere 11th in the Championship for Drivers. In the 1983 season, Piquet took the championship lead from Renault's Alain Prost at the last race of the year, the South African Grand Prix to become the first driver to win the Formula One drivers' world championship with a turbo-powered car. The team did not win the constructor's championship in either 1981 or 1983, despite Piquet's success. Riccardo Patrese was the only driver other than Piquet to win a race for Brabham in this period - the drivers in the second car contributed only a fraction of the team's points in each of these championship seasons. Patrese finished 9th in the Drivers Championship with 13 Points, dropping the team behind Ferrari and Renault to third in the Constructors Championship. Nelson Piquet and his BT54 were hampered by Pirelli tyres in . Piquet took the team’s last wins: two in 1984 with winning the 7th and 8th Race of that season, the 1984 Canadian Grand Prix and the 1984 Detroit Grand Prix and one in 1985 with winning the 1985 French Grand Prix before reluctantly leaving for the Williams team at the end of the season. After seven years and two world championships, he felt he was worth more than Ecclestone's salary offer for 1986. Piquet finished 5th in 1984 and a mere 8th in 1985 in the respective Drivers Championships. The 1986 season was a disaster. Murray's radical long and low BT55, with its BMW M12 engine tilted over to improve its aerodynamics and lower its centre of gravity, scored only two points. BMW and Brabham disagree about whether the fault lay with the car or the engine. Driver Elio de Angelis became the Formula One team's first fatality when he died in a testing accident at the Paul Ricard circuit. Derek Warwick, who replaced de Angelis, was close to score two Points for fifth in the 1986 British Grand Prix, but a problem in the last lap dropped him out of the points. In August BMW, after considering running their own in-house team, announced their departure from Formula One at the end of the season. Murray, who had largely taken over the running of the team as Ecclestone became more involved with his role at the Formula One Constructors Association, felt that "the way the team had operated for 15 years broke down". He left Brabham in November to join McLaren. Lovell (2004) pp.161–164 Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season, but the German company would only supply the laydown engine. The upright units, around which Brabham had designed their new car, were sold for use by the Arrows team. Senior figures at Brabham, including Murray, have said that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team. 1987 was only slightly more successful than the previous year - Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them, including two third places at the 1987 Belgian Grand Prix and the 1987 Mexican Grand Prix. Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988. He sold MRD to Alfa Romeo for an unknown price. The team was then sold to Swiss financier Joachim Luhti and Blash left to run Ecclestone's FOCA Television company for a season. Joachim Luhti (1989) The Brabham team missed the 1988 season during the change of ownership. The new BT58, powered by an engine from Judd (originally another of Jack Brabham's companies), was produced for the 1989 Formula One season. Brabham, Nye (2004) p.254 Engine Developments, the company which builds Judd engines, was a company Jack Brabham set up in partnership with John Judd after his retirement from driving in 1970. Judd had previously worked for Brabham on the Repco project. Italian driver Stefano Modena drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle. The team finished in eighth place, and Modena took the team's last podium: a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix. The team also failed to make the grid sometimes: Brundle failed to prequalify at the 1989 Canadian Grand Prix and 1989 French Grand Prix. The team finished 9th in the Constructors' Championship. Middlebridge Racing (1989–1992) After Luhti's arrest on tax evasion charges in mid-1989, several parties disputed the ownership of the team. Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm that was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing, gained control of Brabham for the 1990 Formula One season. They paid for their purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing, Wright (1998) Case Studies - 'Landhurst duo took bribes for loans to Brabham' www.sfo.gov.uk but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons. Jack Brabham's youngest son, David, raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990, a disastrous year, with Modena's fifth place in the season opening, the 1990 United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish. The team finished ninth in the Constructors' Championship. Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell, scored only three points during the 1991 season. Due to poor results in the first half of 1991, they had to prequalify in the second half of the season, Blundell failed to do so in Japan. The team finished 10th in the Constructors Championship, behind another struggling British team, Lotus. In 1992, Damon Hill, the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion, debuted in the team after Giovanna Amati, the last woman to attempt to race in Formula One, was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise. Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team's final cars around Judd engines, except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars. In the 1992 season the cars (which were updated versions of the 1991 car) rarely qualified for races. Hill gave the team its final finish, at the Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line 11th and last, four laps behind the winner. After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed. Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into administration. The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case. Landhurst's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge. It was one of four teams to leave Formula One that year. (cf March Engineering, Fondmetal and Andrea Moda Formula). Although there was talk of reviving the team for the following year, its assets passed to Landhurst Leasing and were auctioned by the company's receivers in 1993. Baker (Oct 10, 1993) In 1993 the team's old factory was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports, who had been engine supplier to Brabham at the time of their demise, and Herbie Blash continued to run Activa Technology Limited, a Yamaha owned company focusing on composite component manufacture, supplying F1, rally and GT racing teams, as well as (through Blash's continued relationship with Gordon Murray) having significant involvement in both the McLaren F1 GTR car and the prototyping of the P8 McLaren Mercedes SLR. The old factory in Chessington was finally bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006. Carlin to enter GP2 in 2007 www.autosport.com Monday, 27 November 2006. Retrieved 8 December 2006 although the offices still serve as the UK base for Herbie Blash. Motor Racing Developments Several F1 teams used Brabhams (Piers Courage, FWRC, 1969) The Repco Brabham logo from the 1960s, illustrating the joint branding of the period. Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build customer formula racing cars Motor Racing Developments (MRD). Initially Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 percent of the shares. Tauranac was responsible for design and running the business, while Brabham was the test driver and arranged corporate deals like the Repco engine supply and the use of the MIRA wind tunnel. He also contributed ideas to the design process and often machined parts and helped build the cars. Tauranac referred to this as Brabham's trade - they had first met at the small machine shop Brabham ran in Sydney in the early 1950s. From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One. A separate company, Jack Brabham's Brabham Racing Organisation, ran the works entry. To confuse the relationship between the two companies further, MRD was renamed Brabham Racing Developments between 1962 and 1964. Henry (1985) p.24 Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, Fearnley (May 2006) p.39 although it did not pay for development parts. MRD often ran works cars in other formulae. Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement. Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category. Lawrence (1999) pp74–75 After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD, although the name on the official entry list sometimes varied in line with sponsorship deals. Despite only building its first car in 1961, by the mid-1960s, MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, Unique p.111 and by 1970 had built over 500 cars. Lawrence (1999) p.207 Other Formula One teams used Brabhams, Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful. The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season. The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966. Brabham had the reputation of providing customers with cars of a standard equal to those used by the works team, which worked ‘out of the box’. The company provided a high degree of support to its customers - including Jack Brabham helping customers set up their cars. During this period the cars were usually known as "Repco Brabhams", not because of the Repco engines used in Formula One between 1966 and 1968, but because of a smaller-scale sponsorship deal through which the Australian company had been providing parts to Jack Brabham since his Cooper days. Henry (1985) p.53 At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD. He retained the Brabham brand, as did subsequent owners. Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Bernie Ecclestone’s ownership, Ecclestone believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed. The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and Formula Three BT41 of 1973, Hodges (1990) p.39 although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976. Henry (1985) p.156 Henry claims Ecclestone did this to ensure the team would focus on its troublesome new Alfa Romeo powered BT45s. In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo. The Formula One team did not compete that year, but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype 'Procar' - a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon (the Alfa Romeo 164) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid mounted race engine, intended for a series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix. The car was designated the Brabham BT57. GrandPrix.com PEOPLE: ALLEN MCDONALD Racing history - other categories Brabham's last USAC race-winning car—the Brabham BT25 IndyCar of 1968. The Brabham BT18-Honda completely dominated Formula Two in 1966 Top drivers used Brabham F3 cars in their early careers. (James Hunt, 1969) Indycar Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid 1960s to the early 1970s. After an abortive project in 1962, Lawrence (1999) p.30 MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an Indycar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine. The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the Zink-Urschel Trackburner at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem. The car was entered again in 1966, taking a third place for Jim McElreath. From 1968 to 1970 Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2 litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One, with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969, before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970. Brabham, Nye (2004) p.240 The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian, finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II. Lawrence (1999) p.114 Although a Brabham car never won at Indianapolis, McElreath won four United States Automobile Club (USAC) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12. The Dean Van Lines Special in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car, by Andretti's crew chief Clint Brawner. Lawrence (1999) p.57 Brawner repaired BT12 after a crash in 1964. As part of the deal he was allowed to make a copy of the then still unusual mid-engined design. Revson took Brabham's final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969, using the Repco engine. Lawrence (1999) p.99 Formula Two In the 1960s and early 1970s, drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two. In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component. The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme. Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier. Unique p.117 Formula Three The first Formula Three Brabham, the BT9, won only four major races in 1964. The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design. 58 cars were sold, which won 42 major races. Further developments of the same concept, including wings by the end of the decade, were highly competitive up until 1971. The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac. Although 40 were ordered, it was less successful than its predecessors. The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham. Hodges (1998) pp. 34–39 Sports cars Tauranac did not enjoy designing sports cars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD's very successful single-seater business. Only 14 sports cars were built between 1961 and 1972, out of a total production of almost 600 chassis. Lawrence (1999) pp.205–207 The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. Lawrence (1999) p.55 The design was "stretched" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3 litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing. It was rapidly abandoned by MRD with engine reliability problems. Lawrence (1999) pp.84–85 Technical innovation The Brabham BT45 driven by José Carlos Pace. The 1978 BT46B ‘Fan car’ won its only race before being banned. Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962. Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD’s customers. Lawrence (1999) pp.44–45 His ‘old fashioned’ cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970. Nye (1986) p. 60. Brabham’s BT26As and Matra’s experimental four wheel drive MS84 of 1969 were the last spaceframe-chassised cars in F1. For 1970 the FIA mandated the use of 'bag tanks' for fuel, which were to be carried inside box structures. This effectively forced the team to design a monocoque structure. From 1968 Brabham's Indycars were monocoques for the same reason. Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone their designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed. Henry (1985) p. 39 The initial tests were carried out at the Motor Industry Research Association wind tunnel under the auspices of Malcolm Sayer, who had been responsible for the aerodynamics of the Jaguar D-type Le Mans winning car. The practice only became the norm in the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars. Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars’ tyres down harder on the ground and enable them to go round corners faster. At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham were the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect. Lawrence (1999) p.100 The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon's greater coefficient of friction. The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon pucks. The technology was not reliable at first. In 1976 Carlos Pace crashed at at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. Henry (1985) p. 163 By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads. Howard (June 2006) p.52 Interview with Gordon Murray and John Barnard on the early uses of Carbon Fibre in Formula One for brakes and chassis structure. By the late 1980s, carbon brakes were used by all competitors in almost all top level motor sports. Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid 1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus' development of a ground effect car in 1977. The Brabham BT46B 'Fan car' of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling. The car only raced once in the Formula One World Championship, Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix, before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA. Henry (1985) p.186–187 It is often claimed that the car was never banned, but rather withdrawn by Ecclestone. Ecclestone did agree to withdraw it after three races, but the FIA changed the regulations to render 'fan cars' in general, not the BT46B in particular, illegal before it could race again. Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham's aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques. Murray was reluctant to built the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis. The team did not follow McLaren's 1981 MP4/1 with their own fully composite chassis until the 'lowline' BT55 in 1986, Hodges (1998) p.43 the last team to do so. This technology is now used in all top level single seater racing cars. For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a 6 cm minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect. Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham were accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects. See Brabham BT49. Henry (1985) pp.223–225 At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow their drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team were able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race. In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than "get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning", but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic. Hamilton (ed.) (1983) pp.63–72 Pitstops: A split-second spectacle feature by Denis Jenkinson. Refuelling was banned for 1984, and did not reappear until the 1994 season, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One. Controversy The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver Jacques Lafitte was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham's management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against them by the sporting authorities. Henry (1985) p.225 From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests. This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon their new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months. Henry (1985) p.255 At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the drivers' championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102. The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit. Drackett (1985) p.133. Although "protested", as used by Drackett, implies a formal protest, he does not specify this, and Henry (1985) p.267 says 'no action was ever taken'. Championship results Results achieved by the 'works' Brabham team. Bold results indicate a championship win. Season Entrant Car Tyres Engine Drivers Constructors Championship 1962 Brabham Racing Organisation Lotus 21Brabham BT3 Coventry-Climax Jack Brabham 7th (9 points) 1963 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT3Brabham BT7Lotus 25 Coventry-Climax Jack BrabhamDan Gurney 3rd (28 points) 1964 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT7 Brabham BT11 Coventry-Climax Jack BrabhamDan Gurney 4th (33 points) 1965 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT7Brabham BT11 Coventry-Climax Jack BrabhamDan GurneyDenny HulmeGiancarlo Baghetti 3rd (27 pts) 1966 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT19Brabham BT20Brabham BT22 Repco Jack BrabhamDenny Hulme Champion (42 pts) 1967 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT19Brabham BT20Brabham BT24 Repco Jack BrabhamDenny Hulme Champion (37 pts) 1968 Brabham Racing Organisation Brabham BT24Brabham BT26 Repco Jack BrabhamJochen RindtDan Gurney 8th (10 pts) 1969 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT26/A Cosworth DFV Jack BrabhamJacky Ickx 2nd (51 pts) 1970 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33 Cosworth DFV Jack BrabhamRolf Stommelen 4th (35 pts) 1971 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33Brabham BT34 Cosworth DFV Graham HillTim SchenkenDave Charlton 9th (5 pts) 1972 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT33Brabham BT34Brabham BT37 Cosworth DFV Graham HillCarlos ReutemannWilson Fittipaldi 9th (7 pts) 1973 Motor Racing DevelopmentsCeramica Pagnossin Team MRD Brabham BT37Brabham BT42 Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannWilson FittipaldiAndrea de AdamichRolf StommelenJohn Watson 4th (49 pts) 1974 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT42Brabham BT44 Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannCarlos PaceRikky von OpelRichard RobartsTeddy Pilette 5th (35 pts) 1975 Martini Racing Brabham BT44B Cosworth DFV Carlos ReutemannCarlos Pace 2nd (54 pts) 1976 Martini Racing Brabham BT45 Alfa Romeo Carlos ReutemannCarlos PaceRolf StommelenLarry Perkins 9th (9 pts) 1977 Martini Racing Brabham BT45/B Alfa Romeo Carlos PaceJohn WatsonHans-Joachim StuckGiorgio Francia 5th (27 pts) 1978 Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT45CBrabham BT46/B/C Alfa Romeo Niki LaudaJohn WatsonNelson Piquet 3rd (53 pts) 1979 Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT46Brabham BT48Brabham BT49 Alfa RomeoCosworth DFV Niki LaudaNelson PiquetRicardo Zunino 8th (6 pts) 1980 Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49/B Cosworth DFV Nelson PiquetRicardo ZuninoHéctor Rebaque 3rd (55 pts) 1981 Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49/B/C Cosworth DFV Nelson PiquetHéctor RebaqueRicardo Zunino 2nd (61 pts) 1982 Parmalat Racing Team Brabham BT49DBrabham BT50 Cosworth DFVBMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetRiccardo Patrese 5th (41 pts) 1983 Fila Sport Brabham BT52/B BMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetRiccardo Patrese 3rd (72 pts) 1984 MRD International Brabham BT53 BMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetTeo FabiCorrado FabiManfred Winkelhock 4th (38 pts) 1985 Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT54 BMW M12/13 Nelson PiquetMarc SurerFrançois Hesnault 5th (26 pts) 1986 Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT54Brabham BT55 BMW M12/13/1 Elio de AngelisRiccardo PatreseDerek Warwick 9th (2 pts) 1987 Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT56 BMW M12/13/1 Riccardo PatreseAndrea de CesarisStefano Modena 8th(10 pts) 1989 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT58 Judd Martin BrundleStefano Modena 9th (8 pts) 1990 Motor Racing Developments Brabham BT58Brabham BT59 Judd Stefano ModenaDavid BrabhamGregor Foitek 10th (2 pts) 1991 Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT59YBrabham BT60Y Yamaha Martin BrundleMark Blundell 9th (3 pts) 1992 Motor Racing Developments Ltd Brabham BT60B Judd Eric van de PoeleGiovanna AmatiDamon Hill NC (0 pts) Notes References Books . Newspapers and Magazines Websites Also available in hardcopy. Published by HMSO July 1998. ISBN 0-10-551856-5 All race and championship results are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website. 1962 Season review. www.formula1.com. Retrieved 27 April 2006 External links www.forix.com Biography of Jack Brabham, with significant content on the early years of the Brabham team. www.nvo.com Picture gallery of historic Brabhams. www.motorracing-archive.com Summary history of Brabham 1961–1972, including significant race results and production numbers for all models. (Archived here). www.oldracingcars.com Complete race history of all Brabham F1 models from 1966 to 1982 and links to Brabham research projects on other models. www.f3history.co.uk History of Formula Three, including Brabham (under 'Manufacturers'). (Archived here) www.autocoursegpa.com Complete world championship Brabham team statistics | Brabham |@lemmatized portal:2 formula:76 one:63 motor:31 race:96 development:24 ltd:7 commonly:1 know:3 brabham:187 british:8 racing:10 car:110 manufacturer:7 team:114 found:2 two:25 australian:5 driver:41 jack:33 designer:4 ron:9 tauranac:35 win:47 four:11 constructor:20 world:20 championship:56 year:28 history:6 remain:4 victory:4 bear:2 name:5 large:4 customer:13 open:3 wheel:4 build:18 period:5 use:34 three:18 compete:7 indianapolis:5 introduce:7 innovation:3 controversial:2 successful:11 fan:7 refuelling:2 carbon:16 brake:8 hydropneumatic:4 suspension:5 brazilian:4 nelson:10 piquet:16 become:12 first:28 turbocharged:3 businessman:2 bernie:5 ecclestone:29 later:2 responsible:4 administrate:1 commercial:1 aspect:1 sell:10 last:15 owner:3 middlebridge:7 group:3 japanese:2 engineering:4 firm:4 midway:1 season:63 collapse:2 financially:1 unable:3 make:10 repayment:2 loan:4 provide:5 landhurst:6 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1,472 | Master_shot | A master shot is a film recording of an entire dramatized scene, from start to finish, from an angle that keeps all the players in view. It is often a long shot and can sometimes perform a double function as an establishing shot. Usually, the master shot is the first shot checked off during the shooting of a scene—it is the foundation of what is called camera coverage, other shots that reveal different aspects of the action, groupings of two or three of the actors at crucial moments, close-ups of individuals, insert shots of various props, and so on. Historically, the master shot was arguably the most important shot of any given scene. All shots in a given scene were somehow related to what was happening in the master shot. This is one reason why some of the films from the 1930s and 1940s are considered "stagey" by today's standards. By the 1960s and 1970s, the style of film shooting and editing shifted to include radical angles that conveyed more subjectivity and intimacy within the scenes (Ascher, 227). Today, the master shot is still an extremely important element of film production, but scenes are not built around the master shot in the same way that they were in the 1930s. Sources Ascher, Steven, and Edward Pincus. The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age. New York: Plume, 1999. | Master_shot |@lemmatized master:6 shot:13 film:4 recording:1 entire:1 dramatized:1 scene:6 start:1 finish:1 angle:2 keep:1 player:1 view:1 often:1 long:1 sometimes:1 perform:1 double:1 function:1 establish:1 usually:1 first:1 check:1 shooting:2 foundation:1 call:1 camera:1 coverage:1 reveal:1 different:1 aspect:1 action:1 grouping:1 two:1 three:1 actor:1 crucial:1 moment:1 close:1 ups:1 individual:1 insert:1 various:1 prop:1 historically:1 arguably:1 important:2 give:2 somehow:1 relate:1 happen:1 one:1 reason:1 consider:1 stagey:1 today:2 standard:1 style:1 edit:1 shift:1 include:1 radical:1 convey:1 subjectivity:1 intimacy:1 within:1 ascher:2 still:1 extremely:1 element:1 production:1 build:1 around:1 way:1 source:1 steven:1 edward:1 pincus:1 filmmaker:1 handbook:1 comprehensive:1 guide:1 digital:1 age:1 new:1 york:1 plume:1 |@bigram |
1,473 | List_of_former_sovereign_states | This page attempts to list the many extinct states, countries, nations, empires or territories that have ceased to exist as political entities, grouped geographically and by constitutional nature. Ancient and medieval states States and realms that disappeared in ancient history. Europe, North Africa and the Near East Ancient Adiabene http://www.khazaria.com/adiabene/lissner1.html Akkad http://history-world.org/sargon_the_great.htm Ammon http://www.lexicorient.com/e.o/ammon.htm Assyria http://www.aina.org/aol/peter/brief.htm Axumite Kingdom http://wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAFRCA/AXUM.HTM Babylonia http://history-world.org/babylonia.htm Carthage http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/97373/Carthage Chaldea http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/104666/Chaldea Edom http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179376/Edom Elam http://www.lexicorient.com/e.o/elam.htm Ancient Epirus http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/190156/Epirus Etruria http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/194570/Etruria Fatimid Caliphate http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/fatimid.htm Finnveden Kingdom of Fez or Wattasid http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/637692/Wattasids Egyptian Empire http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt Hellenic city-states (such as Athens http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40773/Athens , Sparta http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/558311/Sparta , Syracuse http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578823/Syracuse ) and their allied cities/colonies/territories. Hellenistic Empires (Ptolemaic http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482063/Ptolemaic-dynasty , Seleucid http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533278/Seleucid-kingdom , Antigonid http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/28043/Antigonid-dynasty ,etc.) Hittites http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/268123/Hittite Hurrians http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrian Illyria http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/283111/Illyrian Hebrew kingdoms of Israel http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296707/Israel and Judah http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/307146/Judah , and later kingdom of Judaea Kommagene Kush http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/147298/Kush Macedon http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia Media http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372125/Media Moab http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386718/Moabite Nabataean kingdom http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/401246/Nabataean Nekor Njudung The petty kingdoms of present-day Norway http://www.bt.no/lokalt/sf/article411128.ece http://www.arild-hauge.com/konger.htm Nubia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421485/Nubia Odrysian kingdom of Thrace http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/425285/Odrysian-kingdom Parthia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/444876/Parthia Pontus http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469824/Pontus Rome http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507905/ancient-Rome Roman Kingdom http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/688664/Rome Roman Republic http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/857952/Roman-Republic Roman Empire http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507739/Roman-Empire Scythia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/666263/Scythia Sumer http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573176/Sumer Tartessos http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583776/Tartessus Urartu http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/619349/Urartu Värend http://runeberg.org/display.pl?mode=facsimile&work=nfcf&page=0050 Yamkhad http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/651624/Yamkhad Troy http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/606871/Troy Medieval England Following the collapse of the Roman Empire there followed a period where the Romano-British political entity fragmented caused mainly by the Celtic system of dividing a realm between the sons of a king on his death. This situation was made worse after c.449 when Jutes and later Anglo-Saxons began colonising the eastern and southern seaboards and driving inland. Eventually the Romano-Britons (now known to the Anglo-Saxons as "Welsh") were assimilated or driven into the highlands of Cambria (Wales) or Caledonia (Scotland). Wales and Scotland will be considered separate from what once existed in England. Sub-Roman Brythonic kingdoms in England Dumnonia, a realm named after the Dumnonii in the southwest. http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainDumnonia.htm Bryneich, a kingdom in the modern day northeast of England. http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/northumb.html Ebrauc, a small kingdom centred on York. Calchfynedd, a kingdom in the Chiltern or Cheviot Hills. Elmet, a substantial kingdom near Leeds extinguished in 616. Rheged, another substantial kingdom, divided into north and south, in the northwest of modern England. http://www.britannia.com/bios/ebk/urienrd.html Pengwern, a significant kingdom in what is now Shropshire. http://www.answers.com/topic/pengwern Deira, a small kingdom comprising of the southern part of Northumbria. http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/northumb.html Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England Northumbria http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/420023/Northumbria , formed out of the kingdoms of Bernicia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/62530/Bernicia and Deira. Mercia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/375746/Mercia , which absorbed the smaller kingdoms of Lindsey http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/341927/Lindsey and Hwicce http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277906/Hwicce . East Anglia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/176495/East-Anglia . Kent http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/314968/Kent . Sussex http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/575659/Sussex , kingdom of the South Saxons. Wessex http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/639988/Wessex , kingdom of the West Saxons. Essex, kingdom of the East Saxons. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193192/Essex Haestingas, a Saxon tribe in part of Sussex. http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Haestingas Magonsaete, an Anglian tribe in the hills of Shropshire. Hwicce, an Anglian tribe in modern Gloucestershire and Worcestershire. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277906/Hwicce Middle Saxons, a Saxon tribe in modern Middlesex and Hertfordshire. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/381112/Middle-Anglia Suthrege, the Saxons of modern Surrey. http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-457-1/dissemination/pdf/vol01/vol01_13/01_13_296_297.pdf http://www.history-tourist.com/V2/england/surrey_C0028.html Hicca, a small Middle Angle tribe in modern Cambridgeshire. Wreoconsaete, an Anglian tribe in the hills of Shropshire. Gyre, a small Middle Angle tribe in modern Cambridgeshire. Witware, the Jutes http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308936/Jute of the Isle of Wight. Kingdom of England http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/700965/England Wales Sub-Roman and Medieval Brythonic kingdoms in Wales Wales experienced a similar history during this time, although the Welsh population successfully resisted the influx of Anglo-Saxon settlers into the British Isles. The country was home to a number of princedoms until England's ultimate conquest of the region in the later medieval period. Kingdom of Gwynedd, a kingdom that eventually became the core of the Principality of Wales Dyfed Deheubarth Powys Brycheiniog, became modern Brecknockshire Ceredigion Gwent Morgannwg, became modern Glamorgan Gwerthyrnion Meirionnydd, became modern Merionethshire Seisyllwg Rhufoniog Rhos Dogfeiling Dunoting Maelienydd Principality of Wales a feudal confederation of Welsh principalities and a vassal of England between 1267 and 1282. Scotland Sub-Roman Cumbric kingdoms in Scotland Valentia, an entity between Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall during the period following the departure of the Romans until c.450. Alt Clud (Strathclyde) Gododdin Manau Gododdin Pictish kingdoms in Scotland Cait — situated in modern Caithness and Sutherland — situated in modern Mar and Buchan Circinn — perhaps situated in modern Angus and the Mearns[37] Fib — the modern Fife, known to this day as 'the Kingdom of Fife' Fidach — location unknown Fotla — modern Atholl (Ath-Fotla)[38] Fortriu — cognate with the Verturiones of the Romans; recently shown to be centered around Moray Gaelic kingdoms in Scotland Dál Riata, the proto-state that became Scotland. (this kingdom spanned western Scotland and northeastern Ireland) Other Kingdom of Scotland Ireland Extinct kingdoms in Ireland Ireland during the early medieval period consisted of some two hundred tuathas or minor kingdoms, which were in turn vassals of the rulers of an over-kingdom, called a cóiced (usually translated as a portion, a fifth, or a province). The most prominent of these kingdoms were Aileach - later Tír Conaill and Tír Eógain Airgíalla Ulaid Mide Laighin Osraighe Munster - including Ormond, Desmond and Thomond Uí Maine Connacht Between the 8th and 12th centuries, various Ard Rí attempted unsuccessfully to impose their rule over all the kingdoms in Ireland. Among those whose efforts almost made this a reality were Flann Sinna, reigned 877-916); Niall Glúndub mac Áedo (916-919); Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig (1002-1014); Toirdhealbhach Ua Briain (1055-1086; and Toirdhealbhach Ua Conchobhair (1119-1156). The last of these kingdoms ceased to exist in the early 17th century. Further Irish kingdoms included: Aidhne Breifne Dál Fiatach Dál nAraidi Dál Riata (this kingdom spanned western Scotland and northeastern Ireland) Desmond Dublin Fir Manach Meath Moylurg Uí Failghe For further information see Irish kings. France Frankish Kingdom/Carolingian Empire (~419-843) West Francia which eventually developed into the Kingdom of France Central Francia Kingdom of Lotharingia (855-869) Duchy of Lorraine Duchy of Burgundy (880-1482), dynastic pivot – in personal union – of most of the Low Countries and much of eastern and northern France Duchy of Brittany (841 to 1532) Papal states of Avignon Peñíscola under antipope Benedict XIII Republic of St. Tropez (1470-1672) Duchy of Normandy - this state technically continues to exist as the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey, British crown dependencies not a part of the United Kingdom, while the rest was incorporated into France. Duchy of Bar Low Countries in the Low Countries (present Belgium and/or Netherlands, but not Luxembourg) Seventeen Provinces was transformed Batavian Republic Countship of Flanders Duchy of Gelre (roughly Guelders), another claimant to archducal rank Countship of Holland Duchy of Bouillon Countship of Namur Drenthe Prince-bishopric of Liège Duchy of Brabant, claiming the rank of archduchy as premier principality in the former duchy of Lower Lotharingia Countship of Hainaut (its personal union with Holland was not a state as such) Countship of Hoorn Breda Bergen op Zoom Arkel Thorn Montfoort Friesland (Frisia) Groningen Oostergo Westergo Gemert Woerden Prince-bishopric of Utrecht Countship of Zutphen Germany in historic and present-day Germany and neighbouring countries/regions East Francia Holy Roman Empire (843-1806) List of states in the Holy Roman Empire, nearly all of those (largely Kleinstaaterei) were merged into larger states, eventually into modern Germany, Austria, and other large modern states, remarkable exceptions including Liechtenstein and Luxembourg Pomerania ruled by the Dukes of Pomerania (1121-1637) Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights Spain and Portugal Iberian states Christian Hispania Crown of Aragon (-1479) Aragon (1035-1479) Ribagorza Sobrarbe Principality of Catalonia Countship of Barcelona Urgell Pallars Sobirà Pallars Jussà Empúries Kingdom of Valencia Kingdom of Majorca Kingdom of Asturias (716-913) afterwards Kingdom of León (913-1037, 1195-1230) Kingdom/County of Galicia Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal County of Portugal (Portucale, in old Portuguese) County of Coimbra Kingdom of Castile (11th century - 1479) Kingdom of Navarre Suebic Kingdom of Gallaecia Visigothic Hispania Vandalic and Alanic kingdoms in Iberia Moorish Al Andalus Caliphate of Cordoba, originally an emirate Taifa kingdoms, mainly emirates Albarracín Algeciras Almería Alpuente Badajoz Baeza Balearic Islands or Majorca Beja and Évora Carmona Constantina and Hornachuelos Cordova Ceuta Denia Granada Guadix and Baza Huelva Jaen Jérica Lisbon Lorca Malaga Menorca Mértola Molina Morón Murcia Murviedro and Sagunto Niebla Orihuela Purchena Ronda Saltés and Huelva Algarve Santarém Segorbe Segura Seville Silves Tavira Tejada Toledo Tortosa Valencia Zaragoza Italy in present Italy Post-Roman Kingdom of Italy Republic of Venice (727-1797) Republic of Genoa (~1000-1797) Carantania Duchy of Lucca Duchy of Modena and Reggio Duchy of Parma Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont Duchy (first Countship) of Savoy (1416-1714) Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (1043-1410, 1442-1500, 1735-1816) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816-1860) Tuscany Papal States — partially annexed by the kingdom of Italy in 1860, completely annexed in 1870 and many minor city states and feudal principalities Russia and Ukraine In and around present-day European Russia and Ukraine: Volga Bulgaria (660-1236) Novgorod Republic Golden Horde - in 1430s into Kazan Khanate, Crimean Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Siberia Khanate, Big Horde; Russia finally became independent Khazar Empire (652-1016) Kievan Rus (860 - 12th century) Trubczewsk - Originally a sub-principality under Novhorod-Siversky, Trubchevsk was independent sporadically throughout the Middle Ages, in 1164–1196, 1202–1211, 1212–1240, 1378–1399, and finally in 1462–1503. Grand Duchy of Lithuania (-1795) Balkan States Balkan states Republic of Ragusa/Dubrovnik (1358-1808) Medieval Croatian state (~800s-1102) Great Bulgaria (632-660) First Bulgarian Empire (681-1018) Second Bulgarian Empire (1186-1396) Bulgarian Khanate (681-864) Byzantine Empire (330-1453) Empire of Nicaea (1204-1261) Empire of Trebizond Despotate of Epirus Despotate of Morea European Crusader States (1098-1291) Latin Empire of Constantinople Kingdom of Thessalonica Principality of Achaea Duchy of Athens Duchy of the Archipelago Elsewhere Near East Sultanate of Rüm (1077-1307) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1080-1375) Asian Crusader States (1098-1291) Countship of Edessa Kingdom of Jerusalem Principality of Antioch Countship of Tripoli Kingdom of Cyprus Khwarezmian Empire (1077-1220) Mongol Empire established in 1206, split in 1260s, though some of its successor states lasted for a few centuries Crimean Khanate (1441-1783) Tibetan Empire (7th to the 11th century) Nanzhao (737-902) Kingdom of Dali (937-1253) Guge (ca. 900- ca. 1650) Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171) in North Africa Seljuk Empire Frisia lasted until the 1490s Timurid Empire Persia, Central Asia, and part of India Mughal Empire (1526-1857) in India Dzungar (1634-1757) South Asia Bactria Indo-Parthian Kingdom Indus Valley Civilisation (Harappa, Mohenjo Daro in present Pakistan) South Asia Magadha Kushan Empire Chola Empire which spread to Malaya, Indonesia, Ceylon Pandyan Kingdom which spread to Ceylon Chera dynasty Pallavas Mughal Empire Vardhan Empire China Shang Dynasty Zhou Dynasty Warring States Chu Cai Cao Chen Lu Song Yue Wu Jin Han Zheng Wei Zhao Qi Yan Qin Qin Dynasty Han Dynasty Three Kingdoms Eastern Wu Cao Wei Shu Han Jin Dynasty Sixteen Kingdoms Cheng Han Former Liang Former Qin Former Yan Han Zhao Later Liang Later Qin Later Yan Later Zhao Northern Liang Northern Yan Southern Liang Southern Yan Western Liang Western Qin Xia Southern and Northern Dynasties Liu Song Northern Wei Southern Qi Eastern Wei Liang Dynasty Western Wei Chen Northern Qi Northern Zhou Sui Dynasty Tang Dynasty Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Later Liang Dynasty Later Tang Dynasty Later Jin Dynasty Later Han Dynasty Later Zhou Dynasty Wu Wuyue Min Chu Southern Han Former Shu Later Shu Jingnan Southern Tang Northern Han Song Dynasty Yuan Dynasty Ming Dynasty Qing Dynasty The many Chinese states had an influence on surrounding regions; from the Song Dynasty period alone, this includes: Liao Dynasty (Khitan ethnicity) Western Xia (Tangut ethnicity) Jin Dynasty (Jurchen ethnicity) A number of now-extinct states formed under Chinese influence along the Silk Road in the Tarim Basin, including: Karasahr Khotan Kucha Yarkand Korea The early history of Korea was as complex as that of neighbouring China. A number of Korean states existed on the peninsula and reached up into Manchuria before the formation of the modern state of Korea. These included: Gojoseon Jin Buyeo Goguryeo Baekje Silla Gaya Confederacy Unified Silla Balhae Taebong Hubaekje Goryeo Japan Republic of Ezo Ryukyu Kingdom Philippines Sultanate of Maguindanao Kingdom of Tondo Kingdom of Maynila Kingdom of Namayan Vietnam The country of Vietnam in the past was very different to the modern day. The first Vietnamese kingdom occupied only present-day northern Vietnam. In the 10th century, Vietnam began to push to the south for the next 1000 years which was called Nam Tiến (southward expansion) in Vietnamese. It conquered other kingdoms and was split by civil war. All the kingdoms that united to form Vietnam are: Annam (Chinese Province) Annam (French colony) Âu Lạc Champa Amaravati (Champa) Kauthara Panduranga (Champa) Vijaya (Champa) Cochinchina Funan Kampuchea Krom Nam Việt North Vietnam Sedang South Vietnam Tonkin Vạn Xuân Văn Lang Cambodia/Laos/Thailand Khmer Empire Chenla Shambhupura Óc Eo Langkasuka Sukhothai kingdom Tambralinga Patani Kingdom Lanna Dvaravati Raktamaritika Hariphunchai Burma Singhanavati Malaya/Indonesia Pasai Gangga Negara Pan Pan Tarumanagara Sultanate of Aceh Sultanate of Demak Majapahit Mataram Kingdom Sunda Kingdom Melayu Kingdom Singhasari Kediri (historical kingdom) Malacca Sultanate Pala Empire Singhasari Srivijaya Johor Sultanate Federation of Malaya Kingdom of Pajang Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo - Sulu is now included in the Philippines, while North Borneo is now the Malaysian State of Sabah Pre-Columbian America The Americas have historically been home to a number of indigenous states, civilizations and societies of great complexity. Those indigenous states which were still in existence by the time of the first permanent European colonizations from the late fifteenth century onwards were soon substantively destroyed and/or absorbed. The list below includes both those which had ceased to exist before this European arrival, and those which ceased to independently function as a result of this impact. Ancient Pueblo Peoples (Anasazi) Aztec Empire Cahokia Carib Chachapoya Chimú Ciboney Huari (Wari) Inca civilization Tiwanaku Maya civilization Moche (Mochica) Nazca (Ica-Nazca) Olmec Selk’nam Taino Timucuan Teotihuacan Empire Tlaxcala Toltecs Tahuantinsuyu (the Inca Empire) In addition, there were a wide variety of pre-Inca cultures, few of which developed into organised states. Oceania Tu'i Tonga Empire Kingdom of Hawaii (Island) Kingdom of Maui Kingdom of Molokai Kingdom of Oahu Kingdom of Kauai See List of Indigenous Australian group names Modern states States and territories grouped by geographical location Europe In and around what is now Finno-Scandinavia, unions were personal, not unitary Grand Duchy of Finland in personal union with imperial Russia Finnish Democratic Republic Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic in southern Finland Kingdom of Finland Kingdom of Iceland Kalmar Union - (the three Scandinavian kingdoms; dissolved) Union of Denmark-Norway - (dissolved) Union of Sweden and Norway - (dissolved) In and around what is now France French First Republic (1792-1804) First French Empire (1804-1815) French Second Republic (1848-1852) Second French Empire (1852-1870) French Third Republic (1870-1940) Vichy France (1940-1944) French Fourth Republic (1946-1958) Corsican Republic (1755-1769) Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794-1796) County of Foix Republic of Goust Free States of Menton and Roquebrune (1848-1860) In and around what is now Germany Holy Roman Empire (843-1806) - not a state Confederation of the Rhine (1806-1813) - not a state German Confederation (1815-1866) - not a state North German Federation (1867-1871) German Empire (1871-1945) German Empire as Deutsches Kaiserreich (1871-1918) German Empire as Weimar Republic (1919-1933) German Empire as Nazi Germany (Third Reich 1933-1945) Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), Bundesrepublik Deutschland (BRD) (also called West Germany 1949-1990) succeeded the German Empire in 1949, expanded in 1957 and 1990 German Democratic Republic (1949-1990) (also called GDR, DDR, East Germany or Eastern Germany), its states acceded to Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 Alsace-Lorraine (1918) Alsace Soviet Republic (1918) Anhalt (Duchy 1863-1918) Anhalt-Bernburg (Duchy 1803-1863, inherited by the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau) Anhalt-Dessau (Duchy 1807-1863) Anhalt-Köthen (Duchy 1807-1847, inherited by the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau) Baden (Grand Duchy - 1806-1918) Bavaria (Kingdom - 1806-1918) Bavarian Soviet Republic Bremen (Free city until today) Brunswick Frankfurt (Free city 1815-1866) Hamburg (Free city until today) Kingdom of Hanover (1814-1866) Hesse-Darmstadt Hesse-Homburg Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) (Electorate, 1803-1807, 1813-1866) Hohenzollern-Hechingen Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Holstein Lauenburg Lippe Lübeck (Free city 1226-1937) Mecklenburg-Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz Nassau Oldenburg Prussia (1525-1947) Duchy of Prussia (1525-1618) Brandenburg-Prussia (1618-1701) Kingdom of Prussia (1701-1918) Reuss Saxe-Altenburg Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Saxe-Gotha Saxe-Hildburghausen Saxe-Meiningen Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Saxony (Kingdom - 1806-1918) Schaumburg-Lippe Schleswig Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Waldeck Württemberg (Kingdom - 1806-1918) Historical states of Italy Cisalpine Republic (1797-1802) Cispadane Republic (1796-1797) Republic of Cospaia (1440-1826) Sovereign Principality of Elba (1814-1815) Kingdom of Etruria (1801-1807) Italian Republic (Napoleonic) (1802-1805) Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic) (1805-1814) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815-1866) Duchy of Lucca (1815-1847) Duchy of Mantua (1273-1707) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (15th century-19th century) Duchy of Milan (1395-1797) Duchy of Modena (1452-1796, 1815-1859) Kingdom of Naples (1285-1816) Duchy of Parma (1545-1859) Papal States (752-1870) Roman Republic (19th century) (1849) Kingdom of Sardinia (1324-1861) Kingdom of Tavolara (1836-1886, 1899-1934?) Republic of Tavolara (1886-1899) Transpadane Republic (1796-1797) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1569-1801, 1815-1859) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1815-1860) Free Territory of Trieste (1947-1954) Republic of Venice (697-1797) In and around what is now the British Isles Kingdom of England (927-1707) Kingdom of Scotland (843-1707) Lordship of Ireland (1171-1541) Kingdom of Ireland (1541-1801) Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (1649-1660) United Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1800) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801-1922) In and around what is now The Netherlands: Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581-1795) (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën) Independence from Spain after Eighty Years' War in 1581, conquered by Napoleon 1795. Batavian Republic (1795-1806) (Bataafse Republiek) France's vassal state. Kingdom of Holland (1806-1810) (Koninkrijk Holland/Royaume d'Hollande) Ruled by Louis Bonaparte, annexed by France 1810. In and around what is now Poland Grand Duchy of Lithuania (13th century-1795) Kingdom of Lithuania (1251-1263, 1918) Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795) Lemko-Rusyn Republic (1918-1920) Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815) Free City of Danzig (1807-1815) (1920-1939) Galician Soviet Socialist Republic Republic of Krakow (1815-1846) Duchy of Courland (1561-1795) Republic of Perloja (1918-1923) In and around present Russia: Russian Empire Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, including the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which became post-communist republics; Soviet Republic of Naissaar on an Estonian Baltic island For the hundreds of feudal states of various size (mainly Kleinstaaterei) and nature that were part of the non-centralised Holy Roman Empire (mainly in Germany, Austria, Benelux countries and various neighbouring regions), see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire In other former Comecon countries Hungarian Soviet Republic Slovak Soviet Republic Kingdom of Yugoslavia (formerly Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes), not to be confused with Communist Yugoslavia. Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, gradually dismembered In and around what is now Spain and Portugal Couto Mixto Lazistan Former part of Georgia, now part of Turkey Asia In Afghanistan Durrani Empire (1747-1823) Kingdom of Iraq Ottoman Empire (c.1281-1923) Persian Soviet Socialist Republic in Gilan (Iran) Republic of Ararat Republic of Mahabad In Arab countries: Alawite State in coastal Syria People's Democratic Republic of Yemen Jabal el Druze (state) Sikkim Mysore In the Far East Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi Province Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897) Korean Empire (1897-1910) Republic of Ezo Republic of Formosa Hunan Soviet in a continental Chinese province Manchukuo Mongolian People's Republic Ryukyu Kingdom Tuva In Southeast Asia Pattani kingdom Kingdom of Sarawak Sultanate of Johore Sultanate of Maguindanao Sultanate of Malacca Sultanate of Mataram Sultanate of Rajah Buayan Sultanate of Sulu North Vietnam South Vietnam Northern America Note: This list includes only nations which formerly existed within the current United States and Canada; for nations in present-day Mexico and Central America, see above at Pre-Columbian America and below at Middle America. Name Location Origin Fate Notes Indigenous peoples of the Americas The whole of North America Native Americans in the United States and the First Nations of Canada had established varying levels of governmental organization before contact with Europeans; in many cases, these were equivalent to contemporary European levels of government organization. All the native peoples were eventually incorporated into the United States and Canada, but many retain various levels of self-government and autonomy within those two nations. Cahokia Illinois, Missouri The population of the town at Cahokia exploded circa 1050 AD, indicating the establishment of a large "chiefdom" The population of Cahokia dispersed in the 14th Century, indicating the decline of the Cahokia chiefdom Other political bodies existed in the Mississippian culture; the Mississippian culture article has a list of Known Mississippian Chiefdoms Huron Confederacy Central Ontario Confederacy of five Iroquoian tribes and several smaller groups. Controlled trade in corn and furs in the upper Great Lakes area and sporadically through the Ottawa and St. Lawrence River valleys.The Hurons were dispersed by the Iroquois in 1649. Many fled to the northern Lake Michigan region and Quebec, while a large group joined the Iroquois. Iroquois Confederacy Upstate New York and surrounding areas. Formed before European contact; arguably as early as 31 August 1142, though also likely sometime in the 15th to the 17th Century The Treaty of Canandaigua, signed in 1794, established relations between the United States government and the Iroquois; the treaty is still in force, though the Confederacy is no longer effectively an independent nation. Cherokee Nation Originally in the southeastern United States, primarily Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Part of the nation (and its government structures) ended up in present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee nation was unified from an interrelated society of city-states in the early 18th century under the "Emperor" Moytoy The Cherokee Nation and several smaller nations which broke off are still federally recognized tribal entities, somewhat autonomous within the United States, but having similar powers to states. Vermont Republic State of Vermont Organized by Ethan Allen and others in 1777 from territory claimed by New York and New Hampshire. Admitted as a state to the United States of America in 1791 Originally known as Republic of New Connecticut, it had the first written national constitution in North America. State of Franklin Easternmost Tennessee Seceded from North Carolina 23 August 1784 Voluntarily re-incorporated into North Carolina in 1788 Applied for admission to the United States as a separate state. Whether Franklin considered itself independent of the United States is unclear. State of Muskogee Western Florida, near Tallahassee Creek and Seminole Indians under English adventurer William Augustus Bowles declared independence in 1799. Annexed by Spain in 1803. West Florida Gulf Coast of the United States, parts of present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. Rebelled and declared independence on 3 September 1810. The Republic lasted only 90 days. Formal reannexation was complete by 10 December 1810. Applied for admission to the United States as a separate state, but the U.S. refused to recognize it as such. Republic of Indian Stream Pittsburg, New Hampshire Formed 9 July 1832 in territory claimed by both the United States and Great Britain, where the treaty description of the border was unclear. Voted to annex to the United States in 1835, Britain relinquished claim in January 1836, and U.S. jurisdiction was acknowledged around May 1836. Republic of Texas Texas and some surrounding territory. Seceded from Mexico in 1836. Voluntarily annexed to the United States of America and admitted as a state in 1845. Annexation to the U.S. triggered the Mexican-American War Republic of the Rio Grande Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas withdrew from Mexico on 17 January1840 General Canales, commander of the forces of the Republic of the Rio Grande, accepted a command in the Mexican Army on 6 November 1840. The Republic of the Rio Grande claimed territory north to the Nueces River and the upper Medina River, territory also claimed by the Republic of Texas California Republic California American settlers declared independence from Mexico in June 1846. Claimed by U.S. Navy for the United States of America in July 1846, and admitted as a state in 1850. Alta California Southern California After U.S. occupation of Los Angeles in 1846, the Californios revolted and defeated an American force on 30 September 1846, and organized a government and an army. Signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo accepting American sovereignty over California on 2 February 1848. By November 1846, the Californios had gained back control of all the territory south of San Francisco, leaving America in control of just San Diego and Monterey. Californios Confederate States of America Southeastern United States of America, from Texas to Virginia. Seceded from United States of America in 1861. Reintegrated into United States of America in 1865. South Carolina was the first state to secede. Republic of Manitoba Manitoba Founded in June 1867 by Thomas Spence at the town of Portage la Prairie in Rupert's Land By late spring 1868, the Republic had been informed by the Colonial Office in London that its government had no power. The Province of Manitoba was organized within Canada on 12 May 1870 Dominion of Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador A former Crown Colony which had rejected confederation with Canada in 1869, the Dominion of Newfoundland was established on 26 September 1907. Newfoundland entered into confederation with Canada on 31 March 1949, becoming a province. In 1934, Newfoundland voluntarily gave up self-government and reverted to direct control from London. Middle America Name Location Origin Fate Notes Indigenous peoples of the Americas The whole of Middle America, esp., Mexico and Central America Olmec nation In and around Veracruz and Tabasco Arose approximately 1200 BC Decline through approximately 400 BC First people to use zero Toltec kingdom/empire Central Mexico sometime after 750 Destroyed by Chichimeca ("barbarian") invasions around 12th Century Aztec Empire Central Mexico 1325, founded Tenochtitlan 1521, conquered by Hernán Cortés Tlaxcala nation Tlaxcala, Mexico unknown Absorbed by Spanish conquest into New Spain Never conquered by Aztec Empire, assisted Hernán Cortés in his campaign against the Aztecs. Zapotec kingdom Oaxaca and surrounding areas unknown Submitted to Spain in 1551 Maya civilization Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize Political structures formed by about 250 AD Last Mayan kingdom conquered on 13 March 1697 Mayan political structures tended to center around the person of the king; even when one king conquered another, the result was usually a tributary arrangement, and the identity of the conquered kingdom persisted. Republic of the Rio Grande Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas Withdrew from Mexico on 17 January1840 General Canales, commander of the forces of the Republic of the Rio Grande, accepted a command in the Mexican Army on 6 November 1840. The Republic of the Rio Grande claimed territory north to the Nueces River and the upper Medina River, territory also claimed by the Republic of Texas Republic of Yucatán Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico (The states of Campeche and Quintana Roo were later separated from the state of Yucatán. Declared independence 1840 and 1845, due to dislike of centralization of Mexican government. Resolved differences with central government and rejoined Mexico in December 1843. Rejoined Mexico to obtain assistance against Mayans in the Caste War of Yucatan, treaty signed 17 August 1848 Republic of Yucatán declared neutrality in Mexican-American War United Provinces of Central America Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica Formed in aftermath of independence from Spain in 1823 Confederation dissolved civil war in 1840 Attempts were made to reunite in 1842-44, 1852, the 1880s, 1896-98 and 1921-22 Chan Santa Cruz Quintana Roo Formed during the Caste War of Yucatan, named about 1850 The eponymous capital was conquered by Mexico on 5 May 1901, though low-level fighting persisted for another 10 years. Withdrawal of British recognition and end of trade with Belize in 1893 led to eventual reconquest by Mexico South America Name Location Origin Fate Notes Republic of Acre present-day state of Acre, Brazil Created 1899 declaring independence from Bolivia Annexed by Brazil in the Treaty of Petrópolis. Three attempts at independence in 1899, 1900, and 1903 Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia present-day Patagonia and Araucanía Region in Chile and Argentina Created 1860 by the French lawyer Orelie-Antoine de Tounens who was appointed king by indigenous Mapuches. It never controlled its vast territory and was an unrecognized state. Lost the last portion of land under its control in 1862 to Chile. Kingdom of Chimor Incorporated into the Inca Empire in the 1470s Confederation of the Equator States of Pernambuco and others in the northeast of Brazil Incorporated into the Brazilian Empire in November 1824 Gran Colombia present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama Created 1819 during wars for independence from Spain Broke apart in 1830, formally dissolved in 1831. Successor states were Colombia, which included present-day Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador Its official name was República de Colombia: there never was a state called "Greater Colombia" or "Gran Colombia"; this is an addition by later historians in order to distinguish it from the present-day Republic of Colombia. Although the literal translation is "Great Colombia", historians have traditionally chosen to translate it as "Greater Colombia". Inca Empire large parts of modern Ecuador, Peru, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and north-central Chile, and southern Colombia. Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Juliana Republic present-day Santa Catarina state of Brazil Created as a separatist state from the Empire of Brazil in July 24 1836 Dissolved as a result of the War of the Farrapos in November 15 1839 Liga Federal present-day Uruguay and the Mesopotamia region of Argentina Peru-Bolivian Confederation Approximately present-day Peru and Bolivia, plus some of northern Chile and other territories. Created 1836 through union of Republic of North Peru, Republic of South Peru, and Bolivia Dissolved as a result of the War of the Confederation, 1839 Riograndense Republic present-day Rio Grande do Sul state of Brazil Created as a separatist state from the Empire of Brazil in 1836 Dissolved as a result of the War of the Farrapos in 1845 Pre-colonial Africa See also: List of Great Lakes kingdoms and East African City-States Ashanti Kingdom fell to the United Kingdom in 1900 Aro Confederacy fell to the United Kingdom in 1902 Barbary States in North Africa Basutoland - 1868, to the United Kingdom Benin, fell in 1897 to the United Kingdom Buganda became Uganda Bunyoro made a British protectorate in 1897 Burundi fell to Germany in 1899 Dahomey conquered by France in 1894 Fante Confederacy, 1874, to the United Kingdom Fulani Empire - annexed by France and the United Kingdom in 1903 Gao Ghana, (9th to 13th centuries, fell to Almoravids) Almoravids (1040-1147) Almohads (1125-1272) Beiruk (1767-1916) Great Zimbabwe Kanem-Borno Mali Merina Monomotapa Pemba, Tanzania Rwanda 1894 to Germany Songhai Toro Zanzibar Zululand States and territories grouped by type Former colonies, possessions, protectorates and territories These were all colonies, most of which were renamed after their independence. Afars and Issas - French territory between 1967 and 1977, called French Somaliland before that. Became independent as Djibouti. Basutoland - Since 1868 a British protectorate, later colony (governed from South Africa). Became independent as Lesotho in 1966. Bechuanaland - Since 1884 a British protectorate, later colony (governed from South Africa). Became independent as Botswana in 1966. Belgian Congo - Belgian colony from 1908 until 1960, when the it became independent as the Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo. British America - British interests in North America (now generally parts of the USA and Canada) until 1783 when Britain accepted the USA as independent British East Africa - British territory. Became Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. Had own currency (British East African Shilling) British Guiana - became Guyana in 1966 British Honduras - became Belize in 1981 British India - became India and Pakistan in 1948 British North America - Some British interests in North America after the territory of the 13 former colonies became recognized as a new independent country, the USA, in 1783 (note: the colonies in question were, at the time of independence, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; the land of the nominally newly independent territory included a number of Native American nations; also, entities that were already no longer colonies before independence included East Jersey, West Jersey, New Netherlands, New Sweden, and Plymouth Colony.) Congo Free State - Name of the state owned from 1884 by King Léopold II of Belgium, later mostly annexed by his country in 1908, then known as Belgian Congo. Dahomey - This African kingdom was acquired by France. In 1904, it was made part of the French West African federation. It became independent in 1960, changing its name in 1975 to Benin. Danish West Indies - Danish colony, sold in 1917 to the United States. Now known as the United States Virgin Islands. Dutch Guiana - became Suriname French Equatorial Africa - A French federation of colonies, formed in 1910, containing the colonies of Gabon, Middle Congo, Chad and Ubangi-Shari. Each of these states became independent in 1960 (Ubangi-Shari as the Central African Republic). French Indochina - French territory until 1949. Became independent as Cambodia, Laos and Việt Nam. French Somaliland - became Afars and Issas then independent Djibouti French Sudan - A French colony, part of the French West African federation since 1904. In 1959 it formed the independent Mali Federation together with Senegal, which fell apart in 1960, after which the country was renamed Mali. French West Africa - dissolved into Mali, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), Niger, Guinea, Dahomey, Mauritania. German East Africa - became Tanganyika, now part of Tanzania German New Guinea - protectorate from 1884 until conquered by Australia in 1914, now part of Papua New Guinea. German South-West Africa - A German colony from 1884 to 1915, after which it became South African held territory until 1990, when the country became independent as Namibia. Gold Coast - A British colony since 1874, it became independent as Ghana in 1957. Hong Kong - colony of the United Kingdom, sovereignty transferred to the People's Republic of China on July 1, 1997, as a "Special Administrative Region". Indian princely states: over 550 principalities which were protectorates of the British crown were merged with the successor states of British India in the years after independence in 1947. Italian East Africa - Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland together with occupied Ethiopia. Italian North Africa - became Libya Macao - colony of Portugal, sovereignty transferred to the People's Republic of China on December 20, 1999, as a "Special Administrative Region". Middle Congo - A French colony, previously named French Congo, became independent as the Republic of the Congo in 1960. Minorca - British colony returned to Spain Netherlands East Indies - A collection of Dutch colonies, officially since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, up to 1799 controlled by the Dutch East India Company but occupied and administered by the British in an interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars under the authority of the Kew Letters. Became independent as Indonesia in 1949. Netherlands Guiana - became Suriname Netherlands New Guinea - adjacent to the Netherlands East Indies until 1949, became part of Indonesia in 1963 as Irian Jaya. New France was conquered by the United Kingdom; various parts of it later became part of Canada and the United States. New Granada - A Spanish colony made up by present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela (which then included Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago). It was established in 1717 and dissolved in 1810 when Venezuela declared its independence. New Hebrides - An Anglo-French condominium until 1980. Became independent as Vanuatu. New Netherlands - A Dutch colony in the present-day United States, mainly in and around the state of New York. It was conquered by England in 1664. New Spain Northern Rhodesia - became Zambia in 1964. Nyasaland - British protectorate, previously called British Central Africa, it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. It became part of a federation with Rhodesia in 1953, and became independent as Malawi in 1964. Orange River Sovereignty - became the Orange Free State in 1854. Oubangui-Chari, also spelled Ubangi-Shari - part of French Equatorial Africa (above), became Central African Republic Panama Canal Zone - US administered until 1979. Became part of Panama. Commonwealth of the Philippines - a territory of the USA, which became independent in 1946 as the Republic of the Philippines. Portuguese East Africa - became Mozambique Portuguese Guinea - became Guinea-Bissau Portuguese India (including Goa) - became part of India Portuguese Timor - The eastern side of the island of Timor was a Portuguese colony until 1975, when independence was declared as East Timor. Indonesian troops seized the country, but the country was finally declared independent in 2002. Portuguese West Africa - became Angola Rhodesia - name for Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) while unilaterally claiming independence, 1965-1979. Rio Muni - Former Spanish colony, then part of territory of Spanish Guinea until 1968. Became independent as Equatorial Guinea. Ruanda-Urundi - UN Trusteeship (Belgian) until 1962. Became independent as Burundi and Rwanda. Kingdom of Sarawak - Independent 1842, became a British protectorate 1888-1946. Protectorate of South Arabia - Federation until 1967, consisting of British colony of Aden and numerous protectorates. Became independent as People's Republic of Yemen (from 1970 People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) known as 'South Yemen'. South-West Africa - In 1915, South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa, which it held under mandate until 1922, after which they remained ruling the territory until its independence in 1990 as Namibia (since 1994 also including Walvisbaai). Southern Rhodesia - British colony, unilaterally declared itself independent as Rhodesia in 1965, renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia 1979, then gained international recognition as Zimbabwe 1980. Spanish East Indies - Spanish colony in the Philippines and in Micronesia until 1898. After the Spanish-American War, portions were ceded to the United States while the rest were sold to Germany. Spanish Guinea - became Equatorial Guinea. Consisted of two former colonies of Rio Muni and Fernando Po. Spanish Sahara - now generally known as Western Sahara, but claimed by and divided between Morocco and Mauritania in 1976, later entirely by Morocco. The issues of sovereignty and international recognition have yet to be resolved. The Straits Settlements - British colony until 1946. Singapore became independent, the rest united with the Federated Malay States and the five Unfederated Malay States to form Malayan Union. Tanganyika - British territory until 1961. From then independent until 1964, when it became part of Tanzania. The colonies of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Upper Canada and Lower Canada (later, the Province of Canada), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland, plus the territory of Rupert's Land, spent much time reorganizing themselves into various patterns; they all eventually became part of Canada. Various concessions. Dismembered countries These states are now dissolved into a number of states, none of which retain the old name. Austria-Hungary - This double monarchy was formed in 1867 from the Habsburg empire, having an Austrian and a Hungarian part. In 1918, the empire was split into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia (itself later dismembered), Poland and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929; itself later dismembered). Also the Lemko-Rusyn Republic, ceded to Poland. British India was partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947. The secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971 brought a third country into existence. Federal Republic of Central America also incorrectly known in English as United States of Central America-- independent 1823; fell apart into separate states in civil war 1838-1840. Czechoslovakia - State created from parts of Austria-Hungary, which dissolved after World War I. During 1939 - 1945 was dismembered into Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and Slovak State. In 1993 the country voluntarily split into two parts, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Greater Colombia - Simón Bolívar forged this state from parts of the Spanish Empire. It split into Venezuela, New Granada and Ecuador. In 1863 New Granada changed its name to Colombia and Panama split from it in 1903. Mali Federation - In 1959 formed by Senegal and French Sudan, both parts of French West Africa, as an independent nation. It fell apart in 1960 into Senegal and Mali. Peru-Bolivian Confederacy - A union formed in 1836 by Peru and Bolivia and which lasted until 1839. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (or The Commonwealth of the Two Nations) partitioned in 1772, 1793 and 1795 in three rounds among Russia, Prussia and Austria. These lands are further distributed today among Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Senegambia - Loose confederation between African countries of Senegal and Gambia that existed from 1982 to 1989 Serbia and Montenegro - Loose state union of the two remaining republics of the former Yugoslavia that was founded in 2003. Both countries became independent following the May 2006 referendum which decided in favor of the secession of Montenegro. Soviet Union, more formally known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (or USSR). Formed in 1922. Dissolved 1991-1992 into its constituent republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. United Arab Republic - A union formed by Egypt and Syria in 1958 was dissolved in 1961, though Egypt used the name until 1971. United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 - 1830) (Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden/Royaume-Uni des Pays-Bas) created during the Congress of Vienna in 1815, dissolved to Belgium (revolted 1830), Luxembourg (left 1835, but the personal union with the King as Grand Duke ceased to exist since 1890) and Netherlands. United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815 - 1822) (Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves/Royaume-Uni de Portugal, Brésil et des Algarves) created in 1815 when Brazil was upgraded to the rank of Kingdom, once the Portuguese royal family was living in Rio de Janeiro since 1809. This Country was dissolved in 1822 when Brazil became independent. West Indies Federation - Federal state created by the United Kingdom in 1958 which encompassed most of its possessions in the Caribbean. The federation collapsed after Jamaica voted to separate. Tu'i Tonga-Lost states such as Samoa, Fiji, etc to foreign European powers. Yugoslavia - State created from parts of Austria-Hungary and Kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro in 1918. Re-created after World War II dissolved in 1991 The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples . (Slovenia and Croatia have declared independence in June 1991, Macedonia in September 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina in April 1992. In 1992 Serbia and Montenegro have founded a new country, FR Yugoslavia, that was later, in 2003, renamed into Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia and Montenegro itself was dismembered into its constituent republics of Serbia and Montenegro in June, 2006. Renamed countries These country names have been replaced. Only major and/or famous cases are listed, there are thousands of relatively obscure former names. Abyssinia was a name formerly used for most of Ethiopia Dahomey was a name formerly used for Benin until 1975 Burma - Renamed Myanmar in 1989. The United States and some other nations do not recognize the ruling military junta of Myanmar and hence do not accept the legitimacy of the name change, continuing to use the name Burma in official communications. Central African Empire - temporary phase (1976 - 1979) in the existence of the Central African Republic. Ceylon - English name of Sri Lanka until 1972. Always known as "Sri Lanka" in the native Sinhalese Language. Empire of China - temporary phase (1915 - 1916) in the existence of the Republic of China. Éire - took another description in 1949. Irish Free State - renamed Éire in 1937. Ivory Coast - requested to be known as its untranslated name of Côte d'Ivoire in 1985 (Many languages keep on using their own translations of the name: Spanish - Costa de Marfil, Portuguese Costa do Marfim, German "Elfenbeinküste") Democratic Kampuchea - Name of Cambodia from 1980 to 1989, before reverting to the original (1949 to 1975) name. Dominion of India existed between 1947 and 1950. It became a republic in 1950 and took the name "Union of India". Khmer Republic - Name of Cambodia from 1975 to 1980. New Connecticut - Briefly, in 1777, the name of what became the Vermont Republic. Persia - Name of Iran in the west until 1935. Locally it has always been called Iran. Mesopotamia - Name of Iraq until 1930. Siam - Name of Thailand until 1939. Transjordan - Renamed to Jordan in 1946. Trucial States - Became United Arab Emirates in 1971. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland renamed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927 (26 of Ireland's 32 counties left the UK in 1922). Upper Volta - Name of Burkina Faso until 1984. Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes renamed into Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia renamed into Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. Zaire - Name of Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1971 to 1997. Nominally independent homelands of South Africa Four of the homelands, or bantustans, for black South Africans, were granted nominal independence from South Africa. Not recognised by other nations, these puppet states were re-incorporated in 1994. Bophuthatswana - Declared independent in 1977, reincorporated in 1994. Ciskei - Declared independent in 1981, reincorporated in 1994. Transkei - Declared independent in 1976, reincorporated in 1994. Venda - Declared independent in 1979, reincorporated in 1994. Secessionist states These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve it in fact or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country. Republic of Acre - Declared independence from Bolivia in 1899. Annexed by Brazil in 1903. Biafra - Declared its independence from Nigeria in 1967. Defeated and reincorporated in 1970. California - declared independence from Mexico in June 1846, claimed by U.S. Navy for United States in July 1846. California - Mexico's commander in California, Pío Pico, abandoned the Californios, Mexicans living in California, who organized an army to defend themselves from the United States. The Californios defeated an American force in Los Angeles on September 30, 1846, and signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo accepting American sovereignty over California on February 2, 1848. Carpatho-Ukraine - declared independence from Czechoslovakia in 1939, but was annexed by Hungary within a few days. Cartagena Canton - the haven city of Cartagena, Spain seceded from the First Spanish Republic in 1873. Chechnya - Virtually independent from Russia from 1996 as Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, however the country was recognized only by Taliban. After terrorist attacks in 1999 the republic was returned to Russia's control in the Second Chechen War. Confederate States of America - Declared its independence from the United States in 1861, reincorporated, 1861-1865. Corsican Republic - Seceded from Genoa in 1755, annexed by France in 1769. Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794-1796) Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) Crimea, declared independence from Ukraine in 1992 but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine. Cruzob, achieved independence from Mexico in 1856, but was reannexed in 1901. Ezo - declared independence from Japan in 1868 after the defeat of the forces of the Tokugawa shogunate during the Boshin War until it was reincorporated into Japan in 1869 Republic of Formosa - Lasted from May to October 1895 after the island was ceded by China to Japan and the local gentry and officials declared a tributary republic in a failed attempt to avert Japanese annexation. Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Katagalugan - Declared independence in 1902 after the failure of the First Philippine Republic Katanga - Declared its independence of the newly formed Republic of the Congo in 1960, was incorporated again in 1963. Manitoba - short-lived republic led by Thomas Spence, declared after the Hudson's Bay Company gave up Rupert's Land and before the government of Canada took control (1867). República Filipina - Declared its independence in 1898 but was occupied by the United States in 1902. Succeeded by the Republic of the Philippines in 1946. Red River Rebellion - provisional government in Rupert's Land, led by Louis Riel in (1869–1870). Republic of the Rio Grande ('Republic of Texas') declared independence in 1840, brought back into Mexico by force less than a year later, encompassed the land of the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and parts of the USA state of Texas. Republic of Texas - Gained its independence from Mexico in 1836. Annexed by the United States in 1845. Principality of Trinidad - Declared independence in 1893, claimed by United Kingdom in 1895, but incorporated by Brazil. Republic of Prekmurje (1919) Ukrainian People's Republic - declared independence after the Russian Revolution of 1917, but fell to the Soviet Union in 1920. Annexed countries These nations, once separate, are now part of another country. (At present cases of voluntary accession are included) Republic of Alsace-Lorraine - Formed after the collapse of the German Empire at the end of World War I, 11 days later it was occupied by and incorporated in France. British Somaliland - became part of Somalia, but has since asserted its independence as the Somaliland republic. Regency of Carnaro in 1919 and Free State of Fiume 1920-1924, two short-lived states in the port city of Fiume/Rijeka proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Following World War I, the city was disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia, and eventually captured by Italy in 1921. The city passed to Yugoslavia after World War II and is now in Croatia. Chan Santa Cruz Maya state in eastern Yucatan peninsula, recognized as independent nation by British Empire in 1850s; now part of Mexico. Cospaia - A tiny republic which lasted for centuries before being divided between Tuscany and the Papal States in 1826. Couto Mixto - A tiny border territory that finally became part of Spain. Crete - autonomous under Ottoman suzerainty in 1898, unilaterally declared union with Greece in 1908, which was recognized in 1913. Eastern Rumelia - province of the Ottoman Empire unified with Bulgaria in 1885 German Democratic Republic - Joined the Federal Republic of Germany (formerly known as 'West Germany') in 1990, but not as a whole, divided in newly created Bundesländer. Far Eastern Republic - puppet of the RSFSR. Franceville - Independent in 1889, later governed by France and Britain as part of the New Hebrides; now part of Vanuatu. Republic of Hatay The Kingdom of Hawaii was unified in 1810 under Kamehameha I, and was recognized by the United States as an independent nation from 1826 until January 17, 1893. Following the overthrow of the monarchy it existed as the independent Republic of Hawaii until annexation by the United States in 1898. Became the Territory, and then the State, of Hawaii. Indian Princely States Republic of Indian Stream - 1832-1835, now part of U.S. Italian Somaliland - Became part of Somalia. Kalat - Became part of Pakistan. Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic - annexed by Russia, upon the collapse of the Soviet Union became the autonomous Republic of Karelia. Manchukuo - Japanese puppet state in Manchuria from 1931 until 1945. Reincorporated into China in 1945. Free States of Menton and Roquebrune - Seceded from Monaco in 1848, under nominal protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia, then annexed by France in 1861. Moldavia - Now divided among Romania, Moldova and Ukraine. Moresnet - A tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of Belgium. Natalia Republic was quickly made into a British colony Newfoundland- Existed as an autonomous colony of the United Kingdom from 1855 to 1907, then a sovereign dominion until 1934 when it reverted to a crown colony. It joined in Confederation with Canada in 1949. Orange Free State - This country was independent from 1854 to 1900, when it was incorporated into South Africa. It was one of two Boer republics, along with the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic). Islands of Refreshment - The islands of Tristan da Cunha were settled in 1810 and declared independence in 1811. Annexed by the United Kingdom in 1815. Ryukyu Kingdom - conquered by Japan's Satsuma Domain in 1609; formally annexed in 1879, following the Meiji Restoration. Kingdom of Sikkim merged with India in 1975. State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs - created in 1918 and joined Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after existing for just one month. South Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) and North Yemen (Yemen Arab Republic) in 1990 united to form Yemen Islamic Republic of Tatarstan - Annexed by the Russian Federation in 1994. Tavolara - Never formally annexed, but occupied by an Italian military base ca. 1962. Republic of Texas - Annexed by United States in 1846. Tibet - A unified Tibetan empire was created in the 8th century, and fell apart a century later. Mongol conquests in the 13th century made Tibet part of a Mongol-ruled Chinese empire, and four centuries later the Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty further incorporated Tibet into China. http://www.fpif.org/pdf/vol5/09iftibet.pdf In 1914, the 13th Dalai Lama signed a treaty granting Chinese suzerainty over both "Inner Tibet" and "Outer Tibet" establishing direct rule over the former and leaving the latter autonomous. By the Simla Convention (1914) and its appendix Tibet identified itself as "under the suzerainty of China.....[forming] part of Chinese territory"[Article 2, Note 2]. Full text Subordination to China was reaffirmed in 1934. Goldstein, Melvyn, "A History of Modern Tibet", pp239-241 India Office Records, IOR/L/PS/12/4175 Chinese sovereignty was confirmed by both Beijing and the Tibetans in 1951. Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV, interview, 25 July 1981. Goldstein, pp812-813 The region is still claimed by the Republic of China. Transvaal Republic (South African Republic) - Independent country before becoming part of the British Empire during the Second Boer War in 1902 and is currently part of South Africa. It was one of two Boer republics, the other was the Orange Free State. Transylvania - Semi-independent before becoming part of Austria-Hungary. Became part of Romania after World War I. Tuva (also known as Tannu Tuva) - now part of Russia after the dissolution of the USSR Vermont Republic - Republic of Vermont existed from 1777 until 1791, when Vermont became the 14th state of the United States. Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) - conquered by the North Vietnam in 1975, which then ruled the South through the Vietcong, or Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. North and South were merged in 1976 to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Wallachia - United with Moldavia to form Romania in 1859. Republic of Yucatán became part of Mexico Zanzibar - Zanzibar merged in 1964 with Tanganyika to become Tanzania. Zanzibar was not annexed, but joined through a free referendum. See also List of countries List of historical national capitals Former countries in Europe after 1815 List of largest empires List of longest-lasting empires List of micronations References Harding, Les. Dead Countries of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Aden to Zululand. Scarecrow Press, 1998. 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1,474 | Indian_removal | Indian Removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to remove Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. The Indian Removal Act, part of a United States government policy known as Indian removal, was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson (D) on May 26, 1830. Overview Since the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, America's policy had been to allow Native Americans to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became assimilated or "civilized." His original plan was for Natives to give up their own cultures, religions, and lifestyles in favor of western European culture, and a sedentary agricultural lifestyle. Jefferson's expectation was that by assimilating them into an agricultural lifestyle, that they would become economically dependent on trade with white Americans, and would thereby be willing to give up land that they would otherwise not part with, in exchange for trade goods. In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote: To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands.... In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us a citizens or the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation. There was a long history of Native American land being purchased, usually by treaty and sometimes under coercion. In the early 19th century the notion of "land exchange" developed and began to be incorporated into land cession treaties. Native Americans would relinquish land in the east in exchange for equal or comparable land west of the Mississippi River. This idea was proposed as early as 1803, by Jefferson, but was not used in actual treaties until 1817, when the Cherokee agreed to cede two large tracts of land in the east for one of equal size in present-day Arkansas. Many other treaties of this nature quickly followed. The process culminated in the idea of exchanging all Native American land in the east for land in the west, which became law with the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Prucha (1994), pp. 146-165. In 1830, some of the "Five Civilized Tribes" — the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee — were still living east of the Mississippi, while others had already moved to the Native American Territory. They were called "civilized" because many tribesmen had adopted various aspects of European-American culture, including Christianity. The Cherokees had a system of writing their own language, developed by Sequoyah, and published a newspaper in Cherokee and English. In spite of this acculturation and acceptance of the law, the position of the tribes was not secure. Many white settlers and land speculators simply desired the land that was occupied by the tribes. Others believed that the presence of the tribes was a threat to peace and security, based on previous wars waged between the United States and Native Americans, some of whom had been armed by enemies of the United States, such as Great Britain and Spain. Routes of southern removals. Accordingly, governments of the various U.S. states desired that all tribal lands within their boundaries be placed under state jurisdiction. In 1830, Georgia passed a law which prohibited whites from living on Native American territory after March 31, 1831 without a license from the state. This law was written to justify removing white missionaries who were helping the Native Americans resist removal. Missionary organizer Jeremiah Evarts urged the Cherokee Nation to take their case to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Marshall court ruled that while Native American tribes were sovereign nations (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 1831), state laws had no force on tribal lands (Worcester v. Georgia, 1832). President Andrew Jackson is often quoted as having responded to the court by defiantly proclaiming, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably did not say this, although he was criticized (then and since) for making no effort to protect the tribes from state governments. Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars, page 257. Andrew Jackson and other candidates of the new Democratic Party had made Native American Removal a major goal in the campaign of 1828. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act and President Jackson signed it into law. The Removal Act provided for the government to negotiate removal treaties with the various tribes. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with the Choctaw was the first such removal treaty implemented; while around 7,000 Choctaws ultimately stayed in Mississippi, about 14,000 moved along the Red River. Other treaties, like the dubious Treaty of New Echota with the Cherokee, followed, resulting in the Trail of Tears. As a result, the five tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory in modern-day Oklahoma and parts of Kansas. Some Native Americans eluded removal, while those who lived on individually owned land (rather than tribal domains) were not subject to removal. Those who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups including the Eastern Band Cherokee, based in North Carolina. In 1835, the Seminoles refused to leave Florida, leading to the Second Seminole War. The most important leader in the war was Osceola, who led the Seminoles in their fight against removal. While based in the Everglades of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in many battles. In 1837, Osceola was seized by deceit upon the orders of U.S. General T.S. Jesup when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osceola#Captured_by_deceit http://community-2.webtv.net/The-Johnz/BIOGRAPHYONTHE/ . He died in prison. The Seminoles continued to fight. Some traveled deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. The Second Seminole War ended in 1842. Southern Removals: Nation Population east of the Mississippi before removal treaty Removal treaty(year signed) Years of major emigration Total number emigrated or forcibly removed Number stayed in Southeast Deaths during removal Deaths from warfareChoctaw19,554 Foreman, p. 47 n.10 (1830 census). + 6000 black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) 1831-183612,5007,000 Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844-49; Foreman, pp. 103-4. 2,000-4,000+ (Cholera)n/aCreek22,700 + 900 black slaves Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census). Cusseta (1832)1834-183719,600 Remini, p. 272. ?3,500 (disease after removal) Russell Thornton, "Demography of the Trail of Tears", p.85. ? (Second Creek War)Chickasaw 4,914 + 1,156 black slavesPontotoc Creek (1832)1837-1847over 4,000hundredsa few from diseasen/aCherokee21,500 + 2,000 black slavesNew Echota (1835) 1836-183820,000 + 2,000 slaves1,0002,000-8,000n/aSeminole5,000 + fugitive slavesPayne's Landing (1832)1832-18422,833 Prucha, p. 233. 250-500 Low figure from Prucha, p. 233; high from Wallace, p. 101. 700 (Second Seminole War) Many figures have been rounded. Native American Removal in the North Tribes north in the Old Northwest were far smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, and so the treaty and emigration process was more piecemeal. Bands of Shawnees, Ottawas, Potawatomis, Sauks, and Foxes signed treaties and relocated to the Native American Territory. In 1832, a Sauk chief named Black Hawk led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois. In the Black Hawk War, the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his army.... See also Native Americans in the United States Potawatomi Trail of Death Timeline of Cherokee removal Trail of Tears - the marches of the Five Civilized Tribes to Oklahoma. Manifest Destiny Notes References Anderson, William L., ed. Cherokee Removal: Before and After. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8203-1482-X. Ehle, John. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday, 1988. ISBN 0-385-23953-X. Foreman, Grant. Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. ISBN 0-8061-1172-0. Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8032-3668-9. Prucha, Francis Paul. American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly. University of California Press, 1994. ISBN 0-520-20895-1. Remini, Robert V. Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0-670-91025-2. Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era. Originally published Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1975. Republished Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8061-4332-1 (2002 edition). Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8061-2074-6. Wallace, Anthony F.C. The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. ISBN 0-8090-1552-8 (paperback); ISBN 0-8090-6631-9 (hardback). Zinn, Howard. "A People’s History of the United States: American Beginnings to Reconstruction". Vol. 1. New York: New, 2003. ISBN 978-1-56584-724-8. External links PBS article on Indian Removal Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents. Indian Removal from Digital History by S. 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1,475 | Mithraic_mysteries | Double-faced Mithraic relief. Rome, second to third century CE. Louvre Museum. Top: Mithras killing the bull, being looked over by the Sun god and the Moon goddess. Bottom: Mithras banqueting with the Sun god. The Mithraic Mysteries or Mysteries of Mithras (also Mithraism) was a mystery religion which became popular among the military in the Roman Empire, from the 1st to 4th centuries AD. It is best attested in the cities of Rome and Ostia and in the Roman provinces of Mauretania, Britain, and in the provinces along the Rhine and Danube frontier. Rituals and worship Mithraism was an initiatory order, passed from initiate to initiate, like the Eleusinian Mysteries. It was not based on a body of scripture, and hence very little written documentary evidence survives. Soldiers and the lower nobility appeared to be the most plentiful followers of Mithraism. Until recently, women were generally thought not to have been allowed to join, but it has now been suggested that "women were involved with Mithraic groups in at least some locations of the empire." , at p. 121. Recently revealed discrepancies such as these suggest that Mithraic beliefs were (contrary to the older supposition) not internally consistent and monolithic,cf. , p. 85-87. but rather, varied from location to location. No Mithraic scripture or first-hand account of its highly secret rituals survives, with the possible exception of a liturgy recorded in a 4th century papyrus, thought to be an atypical representation of the cult at best. Meyer, Marvin W. (1976) The "Mithras Liturgy". Current knowledge of the mysteries is almost entirely limited to what can be deduced from the iconography in the mithraea that have survived. The mithraeum A mithraeum found in the ruins of Ostia Antica, Italy. Religious practice was centered on the mithraeum (Latin, from Greek mithraion), either an adapted natural cave or cavern or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural cave. When possible, the mithraeum was constructed within or below an existing building. The site of a mithraeum may also be identified by its separate entrance or vestibule, its "cave", called the spelaeum or spelunca, with raised benches along the side walls for the ritual meal, and its sanctuary at the far end, often in a recess, before which the pedestal-like altar stood. Many mithraea that follow this basic plan are scattered over much of the Empire's former area, particularly where the legions were stationed along the frontiers (such as Britain). Others may be recognized by their characteristic layout, even though converted as crypts beneath Christian churches. From the structure of the mithraea it is possible to surmise that worshippers would have gathered for a common meal along the reclining couches lining the walls. Most temples could hold only thirty or forty individuals. The mithraeum itself was arranged as an "image of the universe". It is noticed by some researchers that this movement, especially in the context of mithraic iconography (see below), seems to stem from the neoplatonic concept that the "running" of the sun from solstice to solstice is a parallel for the movement of the soul through the universe, from pre-existence, into the body, and then beyond the physical body into an afterlife. Mithraic ranks The members of a mithraeum were divided into seven ranks. All members were expected to progress through the first four ranks, while only a few would go on to the three higher ranks. The first four ranks represent spiritual progress—the new initiate became a Corax, while the Leo was an adept—the other three have been specialized offices. The seven ranks were: Corax (raven) Nymphus (bridegroom) Miles (soldier) Leo (lion) Perses (Persian) Heliodromus (sun-courier) Pater (father) The titles of the first four ranks suggest the possibility that advancement through the ranks was based on introspection and spiritual growth. Tauroctony of Mithras at the British Museum London Tauroctony of Mithras at the Brukenthal National Museum The tauroctony In every Mithraic temple, the place of honor was occupied by a tauroctony, a representation of Mithras killing a sacred bull which was associated with spring. Mithras is depicted as an energetic young man, wearing a Phrygian cap, a short tunic that flares at the hem, pants and a cloak which furls out behind him. Mithras grasps the bull so as to force it into submission, with his knee on its back and one hand forcing back its head while he stabs it in the neck with a short sword. The figure of Mithras is usually shown at a diagonal angle and with the face turned forward. The representations occur as both reliefs, and as three-dimensional sculpture; however the three dimensional images have a strongly frontal aspect. A serpent and a dog seem to drink from the bull's open wound which is sometimes depicted as spilling grain rather than blood, and a scorpion (usually interpreted as a sign for autumn) attacks the bull's testicles, sapping the bull's strength. Sometimes, a raven or crow is also present, and sometimes also a goblet and small lion. Cautes and Cautopates, the celestial twins of light and darkness, are torch-bearers, standing on either side with their legs crossed, Cautes with his brand pointing up and Cautopates with his turned down. Above Mithras, the symbols for Sol and Luna are present in the starry night sky. The Platonic writer Porphyry, recorded, in the 3rd century CE that the cave-like temple Mithraims depicted "an image of the cosmos" or "great cave" of the sky. This interpretation was supported by research by K. B. Stark in 1869, with astronomical support by Roger Beck (1984 and 1988) and David Ulansey (1989). Detail of sculpture (left) showing scorpion attacking the bull's testicles It has been proposed by David Ulansey that, rather than being derived from Iranian animal sacrifice scene with Iranian precedents, the tauroctony is a symbolic representation of the constellations. (1991 revised edition) The bull is thus interpreted as representing the constellation Taurus, the snake the constellation Hydra, the dog Canis Major or Minor, the crow or raven Corvus, the goblet Crater, the lion Leo, and the wheat-blood for the star Spica, the name of which means "spike of wheat". Ulansey suggests that the two torch-bearers represent the two equinoxes, and that their crossed legs represent the two intersection points of the zodiac and the celestial equator that define the equinoxes. Ulansey argues that the tauroctony is an astronomical code symbolizing the precession of the equinoxes: the movement of the cosmic sphere, discovered by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, which caused the spring equinox to move out of the constellation of Taurus (thus ending the "Age of the Bull"). Mithras is associated by Michael Speidel with the constellation of Orion Michael P. Speidel, Mithras-Orion: Greek Hero and Roman Army God, Brill Academic Publishers (August 1997), ISBN 109004060553 because of the proximity to Taurus, and the consistent nature of the depiction of the figure as having wide shoulders, a garment flared at the hem, and narrowed at the waist with a belt, thus taking on the form of the constellation. Ulansey, on the other hand, argues that Mithras was equated with Perseus, whose constellation is directly above that of the Taurus in the sky – the same position occupied by Mithras in the tauroctony. Cumont hypothesized that this imagery was a Greco-Roman representation of an event in Zoroastrian cosmogony, in which Angra Mainyu (not Mithra) slays the primordial creature Gayomaretan (which in Zoroastrian tradition is represented as a bull). Other iconography lleft|Mytra riding bull Depictions show Mithras (or who is thought to represent Mithras) wearing a cape, that in some examples, has the starry sky as its inside lining. (See image below) A bronze image of Mithras emerging from an egg-shaped zodiac ring was found associated with a mithraeum along Hadrian's Wall (now at the University of Newcastle). An inscription from the city of Rome suggests that Mithras may have been seen as the Orphic creator-god Phanes who emerged from the world egg at the beginning of time, bringing the universe into existence. This view is reinforced by a bas-relief at the Estense Museum in Modena, Italy, which shows Phanes coming from an egg, surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac, in an image very similar to that at Newcastle. Reliefs on a cup found in Mainz , appear to depict a Mithraic initiation. On the cup, the initiate is depicted as led into a location where a Pater (see Mithraic ranks) would be seated in the guise of Mithras with a drawn bow. Accompanying the initiate is a mystagogue, who explains the symbolism and theology to the initiate. The Rite is thought to re-enact what has come to be called the 'Water Miracle', in which Mithras fires a bolt into a rock, and from the rock now spouts water. History and development Mithras and the Bull: This fresco from the mithraeum at Marino, Italy (third century) shows the tauroctony and the celestial lining of Mithras' cape. (See above) In antiquity, texts refer to "the mysteries of Mithras", and to its adherents, as "the mysteries of the Persians." This latter epithet is significant, not only for whether the Mithraists considered the object of their devotion a Persian divinity (i.e. Mithra), but for whether the devotees considered their religion to have been founded by Zoroaster. It is not possible to state with certainty when "the mysteries of Mithras" developed. Clauss asserts "the mysteries" were not practiced until the 1st century A.D. Mithraism reached the apogee of its popularity around the 3rd through 4th centuries, when it was particularly popular among the soldiers of the Roman Empire. Mithraism disappeared from overt practice after the Theodosian decree of 391 banned all pagan rites, and it apparently became extinct thereafter. Although scholars are in agreement with the classical sources that state that the Romans borrowed the name of Mithras from Avestan Mithra, pp. 52–61. the origins of the Roman religion itself remain unclear and there is yet no scholarly consensus concerning this issue (for a summary of the various theories, see history, below). Further compounding the problem is the non-academic understanding of what "Persian" means, which, in a classical context is not a specific reference to the Iranian province Pars, but to the Persian (i.e. Achaemenid) Empire and speakers of Iranian languages in general. Origin theories Cumont's hypothesis 'Mithras' was little more than a name until the massive documentation of Franz Cumont's Texts and Illustrated Monuments Relating to the Mysteries of Mithra was published in 1894–1900, with the first English translation in 1903. Cumont's hypothesis, as the author summarizes it in the first 32 pages of his book, was that the Roman religion was a development of a Zoroastrian cult of Mithra (which Cumont supposes is a development from an Indo-Iranian one of *mitra), that through state sponsorship and syncretic influences was disseminated throughout the Near- and Middle East, ultimately being absorbed by the Greeks, and through them eventually by the Romans. Cumont's theory was a hit in its day, particularly since it was addressed to a general, non-academic readership that was at the time fascinated by the orient and its hitherto (relatively) uncharted culture. This was the age when great steps were being taken in Egyptology and Indology, preceded as it was by Max Müller's "Sacred Books of the East" series that for the first time demonstrated that civilization did not begin and end with Rome and Greece, or even with Assyria and Babylon, which until then were widely considered to be the cradle of humanity. Cumont's book was a product of its time, and influenced generations of academics such that the effect of Cumont's syncretism theories are felt even a century later. Cumont's ideas, though in many respects valid, had however one serious problem with respect to the author's theory on the origins of Mithraism: If the Roman religion was an outgrowth of an Iranian one, there would have to be evidence of Mithraic-like practices attested in Greater Iran. However, that is not the case: No mithraea have been found there, and the Mithraic myth of the tauroctony does not conclusively match the Zoroastrian legend of the slaying of Gayomart, in which Mithra does not play any role at all. The historians of antiquity, otherwise expansive in their descriptions of Iranian religious practices, hardly mention Mithra at all (one notable exception is Herodotus i.131, which associates Mithra with other divinities of the morning star). Further, no distinct religion of Mithra or *mitra had ever (and has not since) been established. As Boyce put it, "no satisfactory evidence has yet been adduced to show that, before Zoroaster, the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians, or that among them Mithra - or any other divinity - ever enjoyed a separate cult of his or her own outside either their ancient or their Zoroastrian pantheons." pp. 243,n.18 It should however be noted that while it is "generally agreed that Cumont's master narrative of east-west transfer is unsustainable," a syncretic Zoroastrian (whatever that might have entailed at the time) influence is a viable supposition. , p. 4.}} This does not however imply that the religion practiced by the Romans was the same as that practiced elsewhere; syncretism was a feature of Roman religion, and the syncretic religion known as the Mysteries of Mithras is a product of Roman culture itself. "Apart from the name of the god himself, in other words, Mithraism seems to have developed largely in and is, therefore, best understood from the context of Roman culture." in , p. xiv. Other theories Other theories propose that Mithraism originated in Asia Minor, which though once within the sphere of Zoroastrian influence, by the second century BC were more influenced by Hellenism than by Zoroastrianism. It was there, at Pergamum on the Aegean Sea, in the second century B.C., that Greek sculptors started to produce the highly standardized bas-relief imagery of Mithra Tauroctonos "Mithra the bull-slayer." The Greek biographer Plutarch (46 - 127) was convinced that the pirates of Cilicia, the coastal province in the southeast of Anatolia, were the origin of the Mithraic rituals that were being practiced in the Rome of his day: "They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithras continue to this day, being originally instituted by them." (Life of Pompey 24) Beck suggests a connection through the Hellenistic kingdoms (as Cumont had already intimated) was quite possible: "Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god, Helios, which was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I, king of the small, but prosperous "buffer" state of Commagene, in the mid first century B.C." Ulansey argues that the Mithraic mysteries began in the Greco-Roman world as a religious response to the discovery by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus of the astronomical phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes-- a discovery that amounted to discovering that the entire cosmos was moving in a hitherto unknown way. This new cosmic motion, he suggests, was seen by the founders of Mithraism as indicating the existence of a powerful new god capable of shifting the cosmic spheres and thereby controlling the universe. Another possible connection between a Mithra and Mithras, though one not proposed by Cumont, is from a Manichean context. According to Sundermann, the Manicheans adopted the name Mithra to designate one of their own deities. Sundermann determined that the Zoroastrian Mithra, which in Middle Persian is Mihr, is not a variant of the Parthian and Sogdian Mytr or Mytrg; though a homonym of Mithra, those names denote Maitreya. In Parthian and Sogdian however Mihr was taken as the sun and consequently identified as the Third Messenger. This Third Messenger was the helper and redeemer of mankind, and identified with another Zoroastrian divinity Narisaf. Citing Boyce, Boyce, Mary. (1962) On Mithra in the Manichaean Pantheon. In Sundermann remarks, "It was among the Parthian Manicheans that Mithra as a sun god surpassed the importance of Narisaf as the common Iranian image of the Third Messenger; among the Parthians the dominance of Mithra was such that his identification with the Third Messenger led to cultic emphasis on the Mithraic traits in the Manichaean god." Some commentators , p 120. surmise that the Mithraists worshipped Mithras as the mediator between Man and the supreme God of the upper and nether world. Other commentators, inspired by James Frazer's theories, have additionally labeled Mithraism as a mystery religion with a life-death-rebirth deity, comparable to Isis, or Persephone/Demeter, the cult of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The early period Mithraism began to attract attention in Rome around the end of the first century. Statius mentions the typical Mithraic relief in his Thebaid (Book i. 719,720), around 80 A.D. The earliest material evidence for the Roman worship of Mithras dates from that period, in a record of Roman soldiers who came from the military garrison at Carnuntum in the Roman province of Upper Pannonia (near the Danube River in modern Austria, near the Hungarian border). Other legionaries fought the Parthians and were involved in the suppression of the revolts in Jerusalem from 60 A.D. to about 70 A.D. When they returned home, they made Mithraic dedications, probably in the year 71 or 72. By the year 200, Mithraism had spread widely through the army, and also among traders and slaves. During festivals all initiates were equals, including slaves. The German frontiers have yielded most of the archaeological evidence of its prosperity: small cult objects connected with Mithras turn up in archaeological digs from Romania to Hadrian's Wall. Expansion throughout the empire Sol Invictus on the reverse of this coin by usurper Victorinus. Mithras (as well as Elagabalus and Sol) was at times referred to as Sol Invictus. By the third century, Mithraism was officially sanctioned by the Roman emperors. "As Mithraism passed as a Phrygian cult it began to share in the official recognition which Phrygian worship had long enjoyed in Rome." According to the fourth century Historia Augusta, Commodus participated in its mysteries: Sacra Mithriaca homicidio vero polluit, cum illic aliquid ad speciem timoris vel dici vel fingi soleat "He desecrated the rites of Mithras with actual murder, although it was customary in them merely to say or pretend something that would produce an impression of terror". pp. IX.6. Concentrations of Mithraic temples are found on the outskirts of the Roman empire: along Hadrian's wall in northern England three mithraea have been identified, at Housesteads, Carrawburgh and Rudchester. The discoveries are in the University of Newcastle's Museum of Antiquities, where a mithraeum has been recreated. Recent excavations in London have uncovered the remains of a Mithraic temple near to the center of the once walled Roman settlement, on the bank of the Walbrook stream. Mithraea have also been found in Poetovio (today Ptuj) in Pannonia, along the Danube and Rhine river frontier, in the province of Dacia (where in 2003 a temple was found in Alba-Iulia) and as far afield as Numidia in North Africa. As would be expected, Mithraic ruins are also found in the port city of Ostia, and in Rome the capital, where as many as seven hundred mithraea may have existed (a dozen have been identified). Its importance at Rome may be judged from the abundance of monumental remains (despite centuries of attempts to destroy all "pagan" artifacts by Christians): more than 75 pieces of sculpture, 100 Mithraic inscriptions, and ruins of temples and shrines in all parts of the city and its suburbs. A well-preserved late second-century mithraeum, with its altar and built-in stone benches, originally built beneath a Roman house (as was a common practice, the religion being a "secret" one), survives in the crypt over which has been built the Basilica of San Clemente, Rome. Decline and demise There is very little information about the decline of the religion. The edict of Theodosius I in 394 made "paganism" (belief in or practice of any religion other than Christianity) illegal. Official recognition of Mithras in the army stopped at this time, but we have no information on what other effect the edict had on Mithraism. Mithraism may have survived in certain remote cantons of the Alps and Vosges into the fifth century. pp. 206. Places of interest Sites of interest relating to the Mystery of Mithras include: Austria: Carnuntum had at least five mithrea, one of which has been reconstructed and is on display in the archeological park at the excavation site. Cult sites have also been found in other parts of Austria. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Jajce Mithraeum Croatia: The towns of Sisak and Cavtat. England: The museum at the University of Newcastle displays findings from the three sites along Hadrian's Wall (including the Carrawburgh mithraeum and Rudchester mithraeum) and recreates the now exposed mithraeum at Carrawburgh England: The London Mithraeum was discovered in 1954 in Walbrook, London. It was moved and is now on Queen Victoria Street, with findings in the Museum of London. France: Sarrebourg Germany: The museum of Dieburg displays finds from a mithraeum, including ceramics used in the service. Germany: The museum of Hanau displays a reconstruction of a mithraeum. Hungary: Fertorakos mithraeum. Reconstructed using substantial original remains at Fertőrákos in Hungary. Italy: The Basilica of San Clemente in Rome has a preserved mithraeum with the altarpiece still intact in the excavations under the modern church. Italy: The Castra Peregrinorum mithraeum in Rome, under the basilica of Santo Stefano Rotondo was excavated in the 20th century. Italy: Ostia Antica, the port of Rome, where the remains of 17 mithraea have been found so far; one of them is substantial. Slovenia: The museum of Ptuj and town Hajdina near Ptuj with five excavated mithraea. Switzerland: The city of Martigny (ancient Octodurus), in the Alps, displays a reconstructed Mithraeum United States: The Cincinnati Art Museum displays a relief from a mithraeum in Rome depicting Mithras slaying a bull. Google Earth: Map of Mithraea See also: Notable mithraea Mithraism and Christianity Christianity was similar to Mithraism in many respects for instance the Ecclesiastical calendar retains numerous remnants of pre-Christian festivals, notably Christmas, which blends elements including both the feast of the Saturnalia and the birthday of Mithra. Evaluation of the relationship of early Christianity with Mithraism has traditionally been based on the polemical testimonies of the 2nd century Church fathers, such as Justin's accusations that the Mithraists were diabolically imitating the Christians. Martin (1989), p. 2. This led to a picture of rivalry between the two religions, which Ernest Renan set forth in his 1882 The Origins of Christianity by saying "if the growth of Christianity had been arrested by some mortal malady, the world would have been Mithraic," Renan (1882), p. 579. However, Renan's conclusions have been criticised by Christian apologists. Edwin M. Yamauchi comments on Renan's work which, "published nearly 150 years ago, has no value as a source. He [Renan] knew very little about Mithraism...” Edwin M. Yamauch cited in The Case for the Real Jesus, p.175 Martin (1989) characterizes the rivalry between 3rd century Mithraism and Christianity in Rome as primarily one for real estate in the public areas of urban Rome. Martin (1989), p. 4f. Iconographical similarities with Christian art in late antiquity Although Judaism has a rich narrative imagery from which much of biblical history painting in the history of Christian art draws its imagery, Judaism did not give a precedent for pictorial or visual representation in painting or sculpture from which the Early Christians could base the form of its visual imagery. Yet, while some early Christian scenes do make use of the figures from pagan imagery their content is based in most part on the biblical narrative. However, according to one Franz Cumont, after the triumph of the church over paganism, artists continued to make use of stock images originally devised for Mithras in order to depict the new and unfamiliar stories of the bible. The way in which Mithras was depicted shooting arrows at rocks causing fountains to spring up was adapted to represent the biblical story of Moses striking Mount Horeb with his staff to release drinking water, according to Cumont. Likewise the Heavens, the Earth, the Ocean, the Sun, the Moon, the Planets, signs of the Zodiac, the Winds, the Seasons, and the Elements appear on sarcophagi, mosaics, and miniatures in the fourth to fifth centuries using the same sort of iconography used for Mithras earlier. The "strangehold of the workshop" meant that the first Christian artworks were heavily based on pagan art, and "a few alterations in costume and attitude transformed a pagan scene into a Christian picture". pp. 227–8. M. J. Vermaseren claimed that the scene of Mithras ascending into the heavens was similarly incorporated into Christian art: after Mithras had accomplished a series of miraculous deeds, he ascended into the heavens in a chariot, which in various depictions is drawn by horses being controlled by Helios-Sol, the pagan sun god. In other depictions a chariot of fire belonging to Helios is led into the water, surrounded by the god Oceanus and sea nymphs. Vermaseren argues that Christian portrayals on sarcophagi of the soul’s ascension into heaven, though ostensibly referencing the biblical scene of Elijah being led into heaven by fiery chariots and horses, were in fact inspired by representations of Mithras' ascent into the heavens in Helios’ chariot. The sun god, Vermaseren claims, provided inspiration for the flames on Elijah’s chariot and the Jordan River is personified by a figure resembling the god Oceanus. pp. 104–6. A. Deman suggests that rather than attempting to find individual references from Mithraic art in Christian iconography, as Cumont does with the sun and moon, for instance, it is better to look for larger patterns of comparison: "with this method, pure coincidences can no longer be used and so the recognition of Mithras as the privileged pagan inspirer of medieval Christian iconography is forced upon us." For example Deman compares what he calls the "creative sacrifice" of Mithras with the creative sacrifice of Christ. In representations of both iconographic scenes the vernal sacrifice is central to the image, with sun and the moon symmetrically arranged above. Beneath the sacrifice two other figures are symmetrically arranged. In mithraic scenes these are Cautes and Cautopates, and in the Christian scenes, which date from the 4th century onwards, the figures are typically Mary and John. In other Christian instances however, these two attendants are other figures, and carry a raised and lowered object reminiscent of the raised and lowered torches of Cautes and Cautopates. Such figures may be two Roman soldiers armed with lances, or Longinus holding a spear and Stephaton offering Jesus vinegar from a sponge. In some instances the clothes of these figures resemble those of Cautes and Cautopates in the earlier Mithraic depictions. Deman also compares the twelve apostles shown in Christian crucifixion scenes with the twelve signs of the zodiac common in Mithraic scenes, as well as identifying a cross-legged posture commonly found in figures in both sets of iconography. pp. 510–7. Other similarities with Christianity Some authors have drawn parallels between the circumstances of Mithras' and Jesus' birth: Joseph Campbell described it as a virgin birth Many suggest that the virgin birth parallel is very weak as Mithra was not thought of as virgin born in the most ancient myths; rather, he arose spontaneously from a rock in a cave. Professor Edwin Yamauchi cited in Reinventing Jesus Daniel Wallace, p. 242 , pp. 260–61. This theory is in contradiction to the traditional understanding of Mithras' birth. In Mithraic Studies it stated that Mithras was born as an adult from solid rock, "wearing his Phrygian cap, issues forth from the rocky mass. As yet only his bare torso is visible. In each hand he raises aloft a lighted torch and, as an unusual detail, red flames shoot out all around him from the petra genetrix." Mithraic Studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. Manchester U. Press, 1975, p. 173 David Ulansey speculates that this was a belief derived from the Perseus' myths which held he was born from an underground cavern. Ulansey, David. The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World. New York: Oxford U. Press, 1989 Martin A. Larson, as well as Franz Cumont asserted that Mithras was said to have been born on December 25, or the winter solstice. Martin A. Larson, The Story of Christian Origins (1977), p.470. References A statue of the tauroctony (of unknown date) in the Vatican Museum. Further reading Yamauchi, Edwin Persia and the Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1996) Nash, Ronald The Gospel and the Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought? (2003) Edwin M. Yamauchi, “Tammuz and the Bible,” Journal of Biblical Literature 84 (1965), 283 – 90. Legge, Francis. Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity (1915) Beck, Roger "The Mysteries of Mithras: A New Account of Their Genesis," Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 88, 1998 (1998) , pp. 115–128. Ulansey, David, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World, Oxford University Press, 1989. Walter Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Harvard University Press, 1987. Hinnells, John (ed.), Proceedings of The First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Manchester University Press (1975). A. Rehn, The Relation Between Mithraism and Christianity, University of Chicago, Divinity School (1921). H Salahi, Mithraism and Its Similarities to Christianity, California State University, (1979). RN Wells, A Study of Mithraism and of Its Effects on Christianity, Duke University (1946). KP Robinson-Campos, Mithraism and Christianity: Myths and Origins, University of New Mexico (2006). DR Morse, Mithraism and Christianity: How Are They Related, Journal of Religion and Psychical Research (1999) E Winter, Mithraism and Christianity in Late Antiquity - Ethnicity and culture in Late Antiquity, London/Swansea, 2000 JJ Hoffmann, Mithraism and Early Christianity, Northwestern University (1923) MS Whitman, Similarities in the Content and Practices of Early Christianity and the Mithra Cult, University of Idaho, (1933). R Beck, The Mysteries of Mithras: A New Account of Their Genesis, The Journal of Roman Studies (1998). Luther H. Martin, Roman Mithraism and Christianity, Numen (1989). Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra. Weidenfeld and Nicholson (2002) Malloch, D.K, Christ and the Taurobolium - Lord Mithras in the genesis of Christianity, Lochan Press, 2006 External links Cumont's The Mysteries Of Mithra is now in the public domain: site 1, site 2 L'Ecole Initiative: Alison Griffith, 1996. "Mithraism" A brief overview with bibliography. References to Mithras in classical works David Ulansey's article "The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras" from Biblical Archaeology Review, summarizing his book The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries (Oxford Univ. Press, 1989) The mithraeum at Carrawburgh (University of Newcastle Mithras website) The mithraeum at Riegel, Baden-Wurtemburg: plan and photos (French). 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1,476 | Minnesota_Twins | The Minnesota Twins are an American professional baseball team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and play in the Central Division of Major League Baseball's American League. The team is named after the Twin Cities area of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. They have played in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome since 1982 and in 2010 will move into a new ballpark, Target Field. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Washington, D.C. in as the Washington Senators. In 1905 the team changed its official name to the Washington Nationals. The name "Nationals" would appear on the uniforms for only 2 seasons, and would then be replaced with the "W" logo for the next 52 years. The media often shortened the nickname to "Nats". Many fans and newspapers (especially out-of-town papers) persisted in using the "Senators" nickname. Over time, "Nationals" faded as a nickname, and "Senators" became dominant. Baseball guides would list the club's nickname as "Nationals or Senators", acknowledging the dual-nickname situation. The team name was officially changed to Washington Senators around the time that long-time team president Clark Griffith died and his son Calvin took over the team. It was not until that the word "Senators" first appeared on team shirts. "Nats" continued to be used by space-saving headline writers, even for the 1961 expansion team, which was never officially known as "Nationals". In , Major League Baseball granted the city of Minneapolis an expansion team. Calvin Griffith requested that he be allowed to move his team to Minneapolis and instead grant Washington the expansion team. MLB granted his request, and the team moved to Bloomington, Minnesota after the 1960 season, setting up shop in Metropolitan Stadium, while Washington fielded a brand new "Washington Senators" that would also end up moving - to Arlington, Texas to become the Texas Rangers prior to the 1972 season. Through the 2008 season, the Senators/Twins have won 3 World Series Championships (1924, 1987 and 1991) and have fielded 16 American League Batting Champions. Team history Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960 For a time, from 1911 to 1933, the Washington Senators were one of the more successful franchises in major-league baseball. The team's rosters included Hall of Famers Goose Goslin, Sam Rice, Joe Cronin, Bucky Harris, Heinie Manush and one of the greatest pitchers of all time, Walter Johnson. In the 1924 World Series, the Senators defeated the New York Giants in seven games. The following season, they repeated as American League champions the next year but ultimately lost the 1925 World Series to the Pittsburgh Pirates. After Walter Johnson’s retirement in 1927, he was hired as manager of the Senators. After enduring a few losing seasons, the team returned to contention during the 1930 season. In the 1933 season, Senator's owner Clark Griffith returned to the formula that worked for him nine years before, and 26-year-old shortstop Joe Cronin became player-manager. The Senators posted a 99–53 record and cruised to the pennant seven games ahead of the New York Yankees, but in the 1933 World Series the New York Giants exacted their revenge on the Senators, winning in five games. Following the loss, the Senators sank all the way to seventh place in 1934 as attendance began to fall. Despite the return of Harris as manager in 1935–42 and 1950–54, Washington remained mostly a losing ball club for the next 25 years, contending for the pennant only during World War II. Washington came to be known as "first in war, first in peace, and last in the American League". In 1954, the Senators signed future Hall of Famer Harmon Killebrew. By 1959, he was the Senators’ regular third baseman, leading the league with 42 home runs and earning a starting spot on the American League All-Star team. After Griffith's death in 1955, his nephew and adopted son Calvin took over the team presidency. He sold Griffith Stadium to the city of Washington and leased it back, leading to speculation that the team was planning to move, as the Boston Braves, St. Louis Browns and Philadelphia Athletics had all done in the early 1950s. By 1957, after an early flirtation with San Francisco, Griffith began courting Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, a prolonged process that resulted in his rejecting the Twin Cities' first offer before agreeing to relocate. The American League opposed the move at first, but in a deal was reached: The Senators would move and would be replaced with an expansion Senators team for . Thus, the old Washington Senators became the Minnesota Twins. Washington's Bucky Harris scores on his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 of the 1924 World Series. Minnesota Twins: 1961 to present The name "Twins" was derived from the popular name of the region, the Twin Cities. The NBA's Minneapolis Lakers had re-located to Los Angeles in 1960 due to poor attendance which was perceived to have been caused in part by the reluctance of fans in St. Paul to support the team. Griffith was determined not to alienate fans in either city by naming the team after one city or the other, so the team became known as the Minnesota Twins. However, the original "Twin Cities Twins" TC logo was kept. The cap logo was abandoned in 1987 when the Twins adopted their current uniforms. The Twins were eagerly greeted in Minnesota when they arrived in 1961. They brought a nucleus of talented players: Killebrew, Bob Allison, Camilo Pascual, Zoilo Versalles, Jim Kaat, Earl Battey, and Lenny Green. The Twins won 91 games in 1962, the most by the franchise since 1933. The Twins won 102 games and the American League pennant in 1965, but were defeated in the 1965 World Series by the Los Angeles Dodgers in seven games. Heading into the final weekend of the 1967 season, the Twins, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, and Detroit Tigers all had a shot at clinching the American League championship. The Red Sox won both games and clinched their first pennant since 1946, finishing with a 92–70 record. The Twins and Tigers both finished a game behind, at 91–71, while the White Sox were three games out, at 89–73. In 1969, new manager Billy Martin pushed aggressive base running, with Rod Carew stealing home seven times; Rod Carew Baseball Hall of Fame the Twins won the American League West, but lost to the Orioles in the first American League Championship Series. After a pennant win in 1970, the team entered an eight-year dry spell, finishing around the .500 mark. Killebrew departed after 1974. Owner Calvin Griffith faced financial difficulty with the start of free agency. Because of this, Lyman Bostock and Larry Hisle left as free agents after the 1977 season and prompted the trade of Rod Carew after the 1978 season. In the early 1980s, the Twins moved into the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, which they shared with the Minnesota Vikings, while the team continued to struggle. In 1984, Griffith sold the Twins to Carl Pohlad. The Twins' new home hosted the 1985 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. After several losing seasons, the teams led by Kent Hrbek, Bert Blyleven, and rising star Kirby Puckett combined to return the team to the World Series, defeating the Detroit Tigers in the ALCS. Tom Kelly led the team to World Series victories in 1987 and 1991. In the latter, the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves, 4–3, to win the 1991 World Series, which is considered by many to be the greatest of all time. 1991 World Series had it all By Jim Caple ESPN.com Game 6 is widely considered to be one of the greatest World Series games ever played. 1991 was considered to be the first season that any team that ended in last place the previous year advanced to the World Series. After a division championship in 1992, the Twins fell into an extended slump, posting a losing record each year for the next eight years: 71–91 in 1993, 50–63 in 1994, 56–88 in 1995, 78–84 in 1996, 68–94 in 1997, 70–92 in 1998, 63–97 in 1999 and 69–93 in 2000. From to a long sequence of retirements and injuries hurt the team badly, and Tom Kelly spent the remainder of his managerial career attempting to rebuild the Twins. In 1997, owner Carl Pohlad almost sold the Twins to North Carolina businessman Don Beaver, who would have moved the team to the Piedmont Triad area. From 2001 to 2006, the Twins compiled the longest streak of consecutive winning seasons since moving to Minnesota. Threatened with closure by league contraction in 2002, the team battled back to reach the American League Championship Series before being eliminated 4–1 by that year's eventual World Series champion Anaheim Angels. In 2006, the Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season without ever having had sole possession of first place earlier, but lost to the Athletics in the ALCS. In 2007, Ozzie Guillén introduced a new nickname, calling the Twins "little Piranhas". In response, the Twins sometimes played an animated sequence of piranhas munching under that caption, in situations where the Twins were scoring runs via "small ball". In 2008, the Twins finished the 162 game season tied with the Chicago White Sox, who won a rained out game against the Detroit Tigers to face the Twins in Chicago in a 1 game playoff to reach the ALDS. The Twins lost the game and missed the playoffs. Beginning with the 2009 season, sites for tiebreaker games will be determined by the regular season head-to-head record between the teams involved. Had this rule been in place for the 2008 season, the Twins-White Sox tiebreaker would have been played at the Metrodome. 2009 season Contraction and the future Over the past 10 years, the Twins have argued that the lack of a modern baseball-dedicated ballpark has stood in the way of producing a top-notch, competitive team, despite the fact that their current stadium, the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, played a crucial role in their championship seasons of 1987 and 1991. The quirks of the facility, such as the turf floor and the white roof, gave the Twins a home-field advantage; the team won every one of their home games in their two World Series victories. Regardless, the Metrodome has often been considered inadequate mainly because of its relatively low income producing power; in the 1990s and early 2000s the Twins were often rumored to be moving to such places as New Jersey, Las Vegas, Portland, Oregon, the Raleigh–Durham area, and others in search of a more financially competitive market. The team was nearly contracted (disbanded) in 2002, a move which would have eliminated the Twins and the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals) franchises. The Twins survived largely due to a court decision which forced them to play out their lease on the Metrodome. In October 2005, the Twins went back to state court asking for a ruling that they have no long-term lease with the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission, the owner of the Metrodome where the Twins currently play. In February 2006, the court did rule favorably on the Twins motion. Thus, the Twins were not obligated to play in the Metrodome after the 2006 season. This removed one of the roadblocks that prevented contraction prior to the 2002 season and cleared the way for the Twins to either be relocated or disbanded prior to the 2007 season if a new deal was not reached. Target Field Twins ownership wished to move from the Metrodome to a site behind the Target Center, claiming that the Metrodome generates too little revenue for the Twins to be competitive. On May 21, 2006, the Twins' new stadium, which would later be named Target Field, received the approval of the Minnesota House of Representatives and Senate on the second-to-last day of the 2006 legislative session. The bill moved on to Governor Tim Pawlenty, who signed it during a special pre-game ceremony at the Metrodome on May 26, 2006. On January 5, 2009, owner Carl Pohlad passed away at the age of 93. Pohlad's three sons inherited the team, with Jim Pohlad assuming control of day-to-day operations and acting as principal owner. The Pohlad family has invested significant sums of their own money into construction of Target Field, and is expected to retain ownership of the team. The Twins' future stadium is being built in a former parking lot at the north end of downtown Minneapolis within walking distance of the Target Center. On September 15, 2008 the Twins announced that they had sold naming rights to the Target Corporation and that the stadium would be known as Target Field. The Hiawatha Light Rail line will be extended to the ballpark area; preliminary plans call for a seating capacity of 40,000 seats and 72 suites. There will not be a retractable roof on the stadium due to cost; this has received some objections due to potentially harsh game conditions in early April (similar to other northern pro baseball teams such as the White Sox, Cubs, Tigers, Indians, Red Sox, etc.) and the potential risk of resulting lost revenue. The concourses of the stadium will be wider than those in the Metrodome and will be heated. With the new ballpark bill, a provision was signed into law that allows the state of Minnesota the right of first refusal to buy the team if it is ever sold, and requires that the name, colors, World Series' trophies and history of the team remain in Minnesota if the Twins are ever moved out of state (a reaction to the loss of the Minnesota North Stars to Dallas in 1993). Current roster Minnesota Twins all-time roster: A complete list of players who played in at least one game for the Twins franchise. Minor league affiliates AAA: Rochester Red Wings, International League AA: New Britain Rock Cats, Eastern League Advanced A: Fort Myers Miracle, Florida State League A: Beloit Snappers, Midwest League Rookie: Elizabethton Twins, Appalachian League Rookie: GCL Twins, Gulf Coast League Baseball Hall of Famers Washington Senators Stan Coveleski Joe Cronin Ed Delahanty Rick Ferrell Lefty Gomez Goose Goslin Clark Griffith Bucky Harris Walter Johnson Heinie Manush Sam Rice Al Simmons George Sisler Tris Speaker Early Wynn Minnesota Twins Rod Carew Steve Carlton Harmon Killebrew Paul Molitor Kirby Puckett Dave Winfield Affiliation according to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Names in Bold Inducted as Senators or Twins Molitor and Winfield, St. Paul natives and University of Minnesota graduates, came to the team late in their careers and were warmly received as "hometown heroes," but were elected to the Hall on the basis of their tenures with other teams. Both swatted their 3,000th hit with the Twins. Cronin, Goslin, Griffith, Harris, Johnson, Killebrew and Wynn are listed on the Washington Hall of Stars display at Robert F. Kennedy Stadium. So are Ossie Bluege, George Case, Joe Judge, George Selkirk, Roy Sievers, Cecil Travis, Mickey Vernon and Eddie Yost. Twins Hall of Fame Class of 2000AffiliationYears w/ TwinsHarmon Killebrew First Baseman 1961-74Rod Carew Second Baseman 1967-78Tony Oliva Outfielder 1962-76Kent Hrbek First Baseman 1981-94Kirby Puckett Outfielder 1984-95Calvin Griffith President and Owner 1961-83Class of 2001AffiliationYears w/ TwinsHerb Carneal Radio Broadcaster 1962-2007Jim Kaat Left-handed Pitcher 1961-73Class of 2002AffiliationYears w/ TwinsBert Blyleven Right-handed Pitcher 1970-76, 1985-88Tom Kelly Manager 1986-2001Class of 2003AffiliationYears w/ TwinsBob Allison Outfielder 1961-70Bob Casey Public Address Announcer 1961-2004Class of 2004AffiliationYears w/ TwinsEarl Battey Catcher 1961-67Class of 2005AffiliationYears w/ TwinsFrank Viola Left-handed Pitcher 1982-89Carl Pohlad Owner 1984-2009Class of 2006AffiliationYears w/ TwinsZoilo Versalles Shortstop 1961-67Class of 2007AffiliationYears w/ TwinsGary Gaetti Third Baseman 1981-90Jim Rantz Director of Minor Leagues 1986-PresentClass of 2008AffiliationYears w/ TwinsRick Aguilera Right-handed Pitcher 1989-95, 1996-99Class of 2009 AffiliationYears w/ TwinsBrad Radke Right-handed Pitcher 1995–2006George Brophy Front office executive 1961-85 Retired numbers wide|Metrodome banners The Metrodome's upper deck in center and right fields is partly covered by a curtain containing banners of various titles won, and retired numbers. There is no acknowledgment of the Twins prior championships in Washington, and several Senators Hall of Famers such as Walter Johnson played in the days prior to numbers being used on uniforms. Killebrew did play seven seasons as a Senator, including two full seasons as a regular prior to the move to Minnesota in 1961. '''HarmonKillebrew OF-1B-3B: 1954-60 (WAS)OF-1B-3B: 1961-74 (MIN) '''TonyOliva OF: 1962-76 (MIN)Coach: 1976-78 (MIN)Coach: 1985-91 (MIN) '''KentHrbek 1B: 1981-94 (MIN) '''RodCarew 1B-2B: 1967-78 (MIN) '''KirbyPuckett OF: 1984-95 (MIN) '''JackieRobinson Retired by Baseball Radio & Television As of 2007, the Twins' new flagship radio station is KSTP, 1500 kHz AM. It replaces WCCO, which held broadcast rights for the Twins since the team moved to Minneapolis in 1961. The original radio voices of the Twins in 1961 were Ray Scott, Halsey Hall and Bob Wolff. After the first season, Herb Carneal replaced Woolf. Twins TV and radio games were originally sponsored by the Hamm's Brewing Company. In 2006, John Gordon, Herb Carneal, Dan "The Dazzle Man" Gladden, and Jack Morris provided radio commentary. The television rights are held by Fox Sports North with Dick Bremer as the play-by-play announcer and former Twin Bert Blyleven as color analyst. They are sometimes joined by Ron Coomer and Roy Smalley. Blyleven was suspended by the team briefly in for inadvertently saying obscene words on a live telecast; he did not realize the broadcast was live and assumed a second take of the segment could be taped. Fox Sports North also produces Sunday game telecasts on WFTC, "My 29" in the Twin Cities. A few of these Sunday games may air nationally on TBS. Some Twins games may also air on FOX or ESPN. On April 1, 2007, Herb Carneal, the radio voice of the Twins for all but one year of their existence, died in his home in Minnetonka, Minnesota after a long battle with a list of illnesses. Carneal is currently in the Hall of Fame. Bob Casey was the Twins first public-address announcer starting in 1961 and going until his death in 2005. He was well known for his unique delivery and his signature announcements of "NOOO Smoking in the Metrodome, either go outside or quit!", "Centerfielder, #34, KIRRBYYYYYYY PUCKETTTTTT!!!" and asking fans not to 'throw anything or anybody' onto the field. Ballpark gimmick: Homer Hanky (1987, 1988, 1991, 1992, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006). The party atmosphere of the Twins clubhouse after a win is well-known, the team's players unwinding with loud rock music (usually the choice of the winning pitcher) and video games. The club has several well-known, harmless hazing rituals, such as requiring the most junior relief pitcher on the team to carry water and snacks to the bullpen in a brightly-colored small child's backpack (Barbie in 2005, SpongeBob Squarepants in 2006, Hello Kitty in 2007), and many of its players, both past and present, are notorious pranksters - the infamous Bert Blyleven even earning the nickname "The Frying Dutchman" for his ability to pull the "hotfoot" - which entails crawling under the bench in the dugout and lighting a teammate's shoelaces on fire. References Further reading See also Baseball Hall of Fame List of Minnesota Twins seasons Minnesota Twins award winners and league leaders Minnesota Twins team records List of Minnesota Twins broadcasters List of Minnesota Twins managers External links Major League Baseball World Series Championship Navigation Boxes | Minnesota_Twins |@lemmatized minnesota:24 twin:74 american:13 professional:1 baseball:14 team:47 base:2 minneapolis:8 play:14 central:1 division:3 major:5 league:28 name:11 city:9 area:4 st:5 paul:5 hubert:3 h:3 humphrey:3 metrodome:15 since:5 move:17 new:14 ballpark:5 target:8 field:10 one:9 eight:3 charter:1 franchise:5 club:4 found:1 washington:18 c:1 senator:25 change:2 official:1 national:8 would:11 appear:2 uniform:3 season:28 replace:4 w:11 logo:3 next:4 year:12 medium:1 often:3 shorten:1 nickname:7 nats:2 many:3 fan:4 newspaper:1 especially:1 town:1 paper:1 persist:1 use:3 time:8 fade:1 become:5 dominant:1 guide:1 list:7 acknowledge:1 dual:1 situation:2 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1,477 | Organic_compound | Methane is one of the simplest organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of compounds such as carbonates, simple oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon, are considered inorganic. The division between "organic" and "inorganic" carbon compounds while "useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry...is somewhat arbitrary". Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds. Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. History The name "organic" is historical, dating back to the 19th century, when it was believed that organic compounds could only be synthesized in living organisms through vis vitalis - the "life-force". The theory that organic compounds were fundamentally different from those that were "inorganic", that is, not synthesized through a life-force, came under question in 1824 when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a known compound made by living organisms, from cyanogen. A more famous experiment of 1828 involved the synthesis of urea by Wöhler in the Wöhler synthesis. Urea was well-known as an "organic" compound by definition of its known occurrence only in the urine of living organisms, but Wöhler produced urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate,without the action of a living organism. Notably, neither oxalic acid nor urea itself, the two historical prototypical organic compounds made by Wöhler, contain a C-H bond, even though this criterion has sometimes been used as a chemical definition of organic compounds. This may serve to illustrate the residual imperfect match which still exists between historical and attempted chemical definitions of terms. However, the kinds of carbon compounds that are still traditionally considered inorganic are those that were considered inorganic before Wöhler's time; that is, those which came from "inorganic" (i.e., lifeless) sources such as certain carbonate minerals. Spencer L. Seager, Michael R. Slabaugh. Chemistry for Today: general, organic, and biochemistry. Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2004, p. 342. ISBN 053439969X However, the mineral "coal," which is derived from plants, is usually considered to be organic under this loose historical definition (as would other so-called fossil fuels). Such a definition, however, would not include the mineral diamond. Classification See Organic chemistry#Classification of organic substances Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways. One major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. They may also be distinguished by the presence of additional atoms of further elements, so-called heteroatoms. Organometallic compounds constitute a further subsection, characterized by covalent bonds between organic carbon and a metal. There is also a large number of inorganic carbon compounds to distinguish from organic compounds. Another distinction, based upon the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers. Natural compounds Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are still extracted from natural sources because they would be far too expensive to be produced artificially. Examples include most sugars, some alkaloids and terpenoids, certain nutrients such as vitamin B12, and in general, those natural products with large or stereoisometrically complicated molecules which are present in reasonable concentrations in living organisms. Further compounds of prime importance in biochemistry are antigens, carbohydrates, enzymes, hormones, lipids and fatty acids, neurotransmitters, nucleic acids, proteins, peptides and amino acids, vitamins and fats and oils. Synthetic compounds Compounds that are prepared by reaction of other compounds are referred to as "synthetic". They may be either compounds that already are found in plants or animals, or those that do not occur naturally. Many polymers, including all plastics, are organic compounds. Nomenclature The IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds slightly differs from the CAS nomenclature. Databases The CAS database is the most comprehensive repository for data on organic compounds. The search tool SciFinder is offered . The Beilstein database contains information on 9.8 million substances, covers the scientific literature from 1771 to the present, and is today accessible via CrossFire. Structures and a large diversity of physical and chemical properties is available for each substance, with reference to original literature. PubChem contains 18.4 million entries on compounds and especially covers the field of medicinal chemistry. There is a great number of more specialized databases for diverse branches of organic chemistry. Structure determination ''See Structure determination Today, the main tools are proton and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. See also Organometallic compounds Inorganic carbon compounds List of organic compounds | List of chemical compounds Inorganic compounds References | Organic_compound |@lemmatized methane:1 one:2 simple:2 organic:25 compound:35 member:1 large:4 class:1 chemical:5 whose:1 molecule:3 contain:4 carbon:9 historical:5 reason:1 discuss:1 type:1 carbonate:2 oxide:1 cyanide:1 well:2 allotrope:1 consider:4 inorganic:10 division:1 useful:1 organize:1 vast:1 subject:1 chemistry:6 somewhat:1 arbitrary:1 science:1 concern:1 aspect:1 synthesis:3 methodology:1 preparation:1 history:1 name:1 date:1 back:1 century:1 believe:1 could:1 synthesize:3 living:4 organism:5 vi:1 vitalis:1 life:2 force:2 theory:1 fundamentally:1 different:1 come:2 question:1 friedrich:1 wöhler:6 oxalic:2 acid:5 know:3 make:2 live:1 cyanogen:1 famous:1 experiment:1 involve:1 urea:4 definition:5 occurrence:1 urine:1 produce:3 salt:1 potassium:1 cyanate:1 ammonium:1 sulfate:1 without:1 action:1 notably:1 neither:1 two:1 prototypical:1 c:1 h:1 bond:2 even:1 though:1 criterion:1 sometimes:1 use:1 may:4 serve:1 illustrate:1 residual:1 imperfect:1 match:1 still:3 exist:1 attempted:1 term:1 however:3 kind:1 traditionally:1 time:1 e:1 lifeless:1 source:2 certain:2 mineral:3 spencer:1 l:1 seager:1 michael:1 r:1 slabaugh:1 today:3 general:2 biochemistry:2 thomson:1 brook:1 cole:1 p:1 isbn:1 coal:1 derive:1 plant:3 usually:1 loose:1 would:3 call:2 fossil:1 fuel:1 include:3 diamond:1 classification:2 see:3 substance:3 classify:1 variety:1 way:1 major:1 distinction:2 natural:5 synthetic:3 also:3 distinguish:2 presence:1 additional:1 atom:1 element:1 heteroatoms:1 organometallic:2 constitute:1 subsection:1 characterize:1 covalent:1 metal:1 number:2 another:1 base:1 upon:1 size:1 distinguishes:1 small:1 polymer:2 refer:2 animal:2 many:2 extract:1 far:1 expensive:1 artificially:1 example:1 sugar:1 alkaloid:1 terpenoids:1 nutrient:1 vitamin:2 product:1 stereoisometrically:1 complicate:1 present:2 reasonable:1 concentration:1 prime:1 importance:1 antigen:1 carbohydrate:1 enzyme:1 hormone:1 lipid:1 fatty:1 neurotransmitter:1 nucleic:1 protein:1 peptide:1 amino:1 fat:1 oil:1 prepare:1 reaction:1 either:1 already:1 find:1 occur:1 naturally:1 plastic:1 nomenclature:3 iupac:1 slightly:1 differs:1 ca:2 databases:1 database:3 comprehensive:1 repository:1 data:1 search:1 tool:2 scifinder:1 offer:1 beilstein:1 information:1 million:2 cover:2 scientific:1 literature:2 accessible:1 via:1 crossfire:1 structure:3 diversity:1 physical:1 property:1 available:1 reference:2 original:1 pubchem:1 entry:1 especially:1 field:1 medicinal:1 great:1 specialized:1 diverse:1 branch:1 determination:2 main:1 proton:1 nmr:1 spectroscopy:1 x:1 ray:1 crystallography:1 list:2 |@bigram organic_compound:15 allotrope_carbon:1 organic_inorganic:1 organic_chemistry:3 friedrich_wöhler:1 oxalic_acid:2 synthesis_urea:2 wöhler_synthesis:1 ammonium_sulfate:1 brook_cole:1 fossil_fuel:1 organometallic_compound:2 covalent_bond:1 fatty_acid:1 nucleic_acid:1 amino_acid:1 nomenclature_iupac:1 iupac_nomenclature:1 nmr_spectroscopy:1 ray_crystallography:1 inorganic_compound:1 |
1,478 | Decibel | The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of a physical quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a specified or implied reference level. Since it expresses a ratio of two quantities with the same unit, it is a dimensionless unit. A decibel is one tenth of a bel, a seldom-used unit. The decibel is useful for a wide variety of measurements in science and engineering (specifically, acoustics and electronics) and other disciplines. It confers a number of advantages, such as the ability to conveniently represent very large or small numbers, a logarithmic scaling that roughly corresponds to the human perception of, for example, sound and light, and the ability to carry out multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtraction. The decibel symbol is often qualified with a suffix, which indicates which reference quantity or frequency weighting function has been used. For example, "dBm" indicates that the reference quantity is one milliwatt, while "dBu" is referenced to 0.775 volts RMS. The definitions of the decibel and bel use base-10 logarithms. For a similar unit using natural logarithms to base e, see neper. History The decibel originates from methods used to quantify reductions in audio levels in telephone circuits. These losses were originally measured in units of Miles of Standard Cable (MSC), where 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over a 1 mile (approximately 1.6 km) length of standard telephone cable at a frequency of 5000 radians per second (796.4 Hz) and roughly matched the smallest attenuation detectable to an average listener. Standard telephone cable was defined as "a cable having uniformly distributed resistances of 88 ohms per loop mile and uniformly distributed shunt capacitance of .054 microfarad per mile" (approximately 19 gauge). The transmission unit or TU was devised by engineers of the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1920s to replace the MSC. 1 TU was defined as the ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of measured power to reference power. Sound system engineering, p. 35, Carolyn Davis, 1997 The definitions were conveniently such that 1 TU approximately equalled 1 MSC (specifically, 1.056 TU = 1 MSC). "Transmission Circuits for Telephonic Communication", Bell Labs, 1925 Eventually, international standards bodies adopted the base-10 logarithm of the power ratio as a standard unit, which was named the "bel" in honor of the Bell System's founder and telecommunications pioneer Alexander Graham Bell. The bel was a factor of ten larger than the TU, such that 1 TU equalled 1 decibel. 100 Years of Telephone Switching, p. 276, Robert J. Chapuis, Amos E. Joel, 2003 In many situations, the bel proved inconveniently large, so the decibel has become more common. In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considered a recommendation for the decibel's inclusion in the SI system, but decided not to adopt the decibel as an SI unit. Consultative Committee for Units, Meeting minutes, Section 3 Definitions Power When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a ratio can be expressed in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to the reference level. Thus, if L represents the ratio of a power value P1 to another power value P0, then LdB represents that ratio expressed in decibels and is calculated using the formula: Naturally, P1 and P0 must have the same dimension (that is, must measure the same type of quantity), and must as necessary be converted to the same units before calculating the ratio of their numerical values: however, the choice of scale for this common unit is irrelevant, as it changes both quantities by the same factor, and thus cancels in the ratio (the ratio of two quantities is scale-invariant). Note that if P1 = P0 in the above equation, then LdB = 0. If P1 is greater than P0 then LdB is positive; if P1 is less than P0 then LdB is negative. Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P1 in terms of P0 and LdB: . Since a bel is equal to ten decibels, the corresponding formulae for measurement in bels (LB) are . Amplitude, voltage and current When referring to measurements of amplitude it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of A1 (measured amplitude) and A0 (reference amplitude). This is because in most applications power is proportional to the square of amplitude. Thus the following definition is used: This formula is sometimes called the 20 log rule, and similarly the formula for ratios of powers is the 10 log rule, and similarly for other factors. The factor of 20 is explained as: 10 is because it is in decibels (10ths of bels), and 2 is because it is a ratio of powers (squares of amplitudes): the product is 20. Note also that no constant factor is needed for the power (one can take power to be the square of amplitude, whatever the units), since any constant cancels in the ratio: the ratio of two quantities or their squares are scale-invariant. The formula may be rearranged to give Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current when the impedance is held constant. Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the equation: where V1 is the voltage being measured, V0 is a specified reference voltage, and GdB is the power gain expressed in decibels. A similar formula holds for current. Examples Note that all of these examples yield dimensionless answers in dB because they are relative ratios expressed in decibels. To calculate the ratio of 1 kW (one kilowatt, or 1000 watts) to 1 W in decibels, use the formula To calculate the ratio of 1 mW (one milliwatt) to 10 W in decibels, use the formula To find the power ratio corresponding to a 3 dB change in level, use the formula A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 is a 10 dB change. A change in power ratio by a factor of two is approximately a 3 dB change. (More precisely, the factor is 103/10, or 1.9953, about 0.24% different from exactly 2.) Similarly, an increase of 3 dB implies an increase in voltage by a factor of approximately √2, or about 1.41, an increase of 6 dB corresponds to approximately four times the power and twice the voltage, and so on. (In exact terms the power ratio is 106/10, or about 3.9811, a relative error of about 0.5%.) Merits The use of the decibel has a number of merits: The decibel's logarithmic nature means that a very large range of ratios can be represented by a convenient number, in a similar manner to scientific notation. This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity. (See Bode Plot and half logarithm graph.) The mathematical properties of logarithms mean that the overall decibel gain of a multi-component system (such as consecutive amplifiers) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components, rather than needing to multiply amplification factors. Essentially this is because log(A × B × C × ...) = log(A) + log(B) + log(C) + ... The human perception of, for example, sound or light, is, roughly speaking, such that a doubling of actual intensity causes perceived intensity to always increase by the same amount, irrespective of the original level. The decibel's logarithmic scale, in which a doubling of power or intensity always causes an increase of approximately 3 dB, corresponds to this perception. Uses Acoustics The decibel is commonly used in acoustics to quantify sound levels relative to some 0 dB reference. The reference level is typically set at the threshold of perception of an average human and there are common comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound pressure. As with other decibel figures, normally the ratio expressed is a power ratio (rather than a pressure ratio). A reason for using the decibel is that the ear is capable of detecting a very large range of sound pressures. The ratio of the sound pressure that causes permanent damage from short exposure to the limit that (undamaged) ears can hear is above a million. Because the power in a sound wave is proportional to the square of the pressure, the ratio of the maximum power to the minimum power is above one (short scale) trillion. To deal with such a range, logarithmic units are useful: the log of a trillion is 12, so this ratio represents a difference of 120 dB. Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all the frequencies of sound within the entire spectrum, noise levels at maximum human sensitivity — for example, the higher harmonics of middle A (between 2 and 4 kHz) — are factored more heavily into sound descriptions using a process called frequency weighting. Electronics In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (gains), in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels are used to account for the gains and losses of a signal from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, wave guides, coax, fiber optics, etc.) using a link budget. The decibel unit can also be combined with a suffix to create an absolute unit of electric power. For example, it can be combined with "m" for "milliwatt" to produce the "dBm". Zero dBm is the power level corresponding to a power of one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW). In professional audio, a popular unit is the dBu (see below for all the units). The "u" stands for "unloaded", and was probably chosen to be similar to lowercase "v", as dBv was the older name for the same thing. It was changed to avoid confusion with dBV. This unit (dBu) is an RMS measurement of voltage which uses as its reference 0.775 VRMS. Chosen for historical reasons, it is the voltage level which delivers 1 mW of power in a 600 ohm resistor, which used to be the standard reference impedance in almost all professional low-impedance audio circuits. The bel is used to represent noise power levels in hard drive specifications. It shares the same symbol (B) as the byte. Optics In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each electronic component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link loss may be quickly calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities. In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B. In astronomy, the apparent magnitude measures the brightness of a star logarithmically, since, just as the ear responds logarithmically to acoustic power, the eye responds logarithmically to brightness; however astronomical magnitudes reverse the sign with respect to the bel, so that the brightest stars have the lowest magnitudes, and the magnitude increases for fainter stars. Video and digital imaging In connection with digital and video image sensors, decibels generally represent ratios of video voltages or digitized light levels, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the represented optical power is directly proportional to the voltage or level, not to its square. Thus, a camera signal-to-noise ratio of 60 dB represents a power ratio of 1000:1 between signal power and noise power, not 1,000,000:1. Common reference levels and corresponding units "Absolute" and "relative" decibel measurements Although decibel measurements are always relative to a reference level, if the numerical value of that reference is explicitly and exactly stated, then the decibel measurement is called an "absolute" measurement, in the sense that the exact value of the measured quantity can be recovered using the formula given earlier. For example, since dBm indicates power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt, 0 dBm means no change from 1 mW. Thus, 0 dBm is the power level corresponding to a power of exactly 1 mW. 3 dBm means 3 dB greater than 0 dBm. Thus, 3 dBm is the power level corresponding to 103/10 × 1 mW, or approximately 2 mW. −6 dBm means 6 dB less than 0 dBm. Thus, −6 dBm is the power level corresponding to 10−6/10 × 1 mW, or approximately 250 μW (0.25 mW). If the numerical value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as in the dB gain of an amplifier, then the decibel measurement is purely relative. The practice of attaching a suffix to the basic dB unit, forming compound units such as dBm, dBu, dBA, etc, is not permitted by SI. Taylor 1995, SP811 However, outside of documents adhering to SI units, the practice is very common as illustrated by the following examples. Absolute measurements Electric power dBm or dBmW dB(1 mW) — power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt. XdBm = XdBW + 30. dBW dB(1 W) — similar to dBm, except the reference level is 1 watt. 0 dBW = +30 dBm; −30 dBW = 0 dBm; XdBW = XdBm − 30. Voltage Since the decibel is defined with respect to power, not amplitude, conversions of voltage ratios to decibels must square the amplitude, as discussed above. A schematic showing the relationship between dBu (the voltage source) and dBm (the power dissipated as heat by the 600 Ω resistor) dBV dB(1 VRMS) — voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance. Analog Devices : Virtual Design Center : Interactive Design Tools : Utilities : VRMS / dBm / dBu / dBV calculator dBu or dBv dB(0.775 VRMS) — voltage relative to 0.775 volts. Originally dBv, it was changed to dBu to avoid confusion with dBV. What is the difference between dBv, dBu, dBV, dBm, dB SPL, and plain old dB? Why not just use regular voltage and power measurements? - rec.audio.pro Audio Professional FAQ The "v" comes from "volt", while "u" comes from "unloaded". dBu can be used regardless of impedance, but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dBm (1 mW). Reference voltage dBmV dB(1 mVRMS) — voltage relative to 1 millivolt, regardless of impedance. Widely used in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal at the receiver terminals is about 0 dBmV. Cable TV uses 75 Ω coaxial cable, so 0 dBmV corresponds to −78.75 dBW (-48.75 dBm) or ~13 nW. dBμV or dBuV dB(1 μVRMS) — voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television and aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBμV = 0 dBmV. Acoustics This usage is probably the most common in colloquial speech and a layperson referring to "decibels" in general is most likely to be referring to sound pressure level as referenced to human hearing: dB(SPL) dB (Sound Pressure Level) — for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 micropascals (μPa) = 2×10−5 Pa, the quietest sound a human can hear. This is roughly the sound of a mosquito flying 3 metres away. This is often abbreviated to just "dB", which gives some the erroneous notion that "dB" is an absolute unit by itself. For sound in water and other liquids, a reference pressure of 1 μPa is used.Morfey, C. L. (2001). Dictionary of Acoustics. Academic Press, San Diego. dB SIL dB Sound Intensity Level — relative to 10−12 W/m2, which is roughly the threshold of human hearing in air. dB SWL dB Sound Power Level — relative to 10−12 W. dB(A), dB(B), and dB(C) These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to noise and noisome effects on humans and animals, and are in widespread use in the industry with regard to noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dBA or dBA. According to ANSI standards, the preferred usage is to write LA = x dB. Nevertheless, the units dBA and dB(A) are still commonly used as a shorthand for A-weighted measurements. Compare dBc, used in telecommunications. dB HL or dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss. The reference level varies with frequency according to a Minimum audibility curve as defined in ANSI and other standards, such that the resulting audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as 'normal' hearing. dB Q is sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise weighting Radar dBZ dB(Z) - energy of reflectivity (weather radar), or the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver. Values above 15-20 dBZ usually indicate falling precipitation. dBsm dBsm - decibel (referenced to one)square meter, measure of reflected energy from a target compared to the RCS of a smooth perfectly conducting sphere at least several wavelengths in size with a cross-sectional area of 1 square meter. "Stealth" aircraft and insects have negative values of dBsm, large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values. Radio power, energy, and field strength dBc dBc — power relative to the power of the main carrier frequency; typically used to describe spurs, noise, channel crosstalk, and intermodal signals which may interfere with the carrier. Compare dB(C), used in acoustics. dBJ dB(J) — energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dBJ. dBm dB(mW) — power relative to 1 milliwatt. When used in audio work the milliwatt is referenced to a 600 ohm load, with the resultant voltage being 0.775 volts. When used in the 2-way radio field, the dB is referenced to a 50 ohm load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts. There are times when spec sheets may show the voltage & power level e.g. -120 dBm = 0.224 microvolts. dBμV/m or dBuV/m dB(μV/m) — electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter. dBf dB(fW) — power relative to 1 femtowatt. dBW dB(W) — power relative to 1 watt. dBk dB(kW) — power relative to 1 kilowatt. Antenna measurements dBi dB(isotropic) — the forward gain of an antenna compared with the hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise. dBd dB(dipole) — the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave dipole antenna. 0dBd = 2.15dBi dBiC dB(isometric circular) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to a circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between dBiC and dBi, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization. dBq dB(quarterwave) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to a quarter wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material. 0dBq = -0.85dBi Other measurements dBFS or dBfs dB(full scale) — the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. In digital systems, 0 dBFS (peak) would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing. Measured peak values are always negative or zero, since they are less than the maximum. Measured rms values are ambiguous, and depend on whether you are using a sine or square wave's rms value as the reference. dB-Hz dB(hertz) — bandwidth relative to 1 Hz. E.g., 20 dB-Hz corresponds to a bandwidth of 100 Hz. Commonly used in link budget calculations. dBov or dBO dB(overload) — the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Similar to dBFS, but also applicable to analog systems. dBr dB(relative) — simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance. dBrn dB above reference noise. See also dBrnC. dBc dB relative to carrier — in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband peak power, compared with the carrier power. Compare dBC, used in acoustics. See also Cent in music dB drag racing Equal-loudness contour ITU-R 468 noise weighting Neper Noise (environmental) Richter magnitude scale Signal noise Weighting filter — discussion of dBA Footnotes References External links What is a decibel? With sound files and animations Conversion of dBu to volts, dBV to volts, and volts to dBu, and dBV Working with decibels - a tutorial Conversion of sound level units: dBSPL or dBA to sound pressure p and sound intensity J Conversion of voltage V to dB, dBu, dBV, and dBm OSHA Regulations on Occupational Noise Exposure Vpeak, VRMS, Power, dBm, dBu, dBV online converter at Analog Devices Use of the decibel with respect to aerials and aerial systems | Decibel |@lemmatized decibel:45 db:64 logarithmic:5 unit:27 measurement:20 express:9 magnitude:6 physical:1 quantity:12 usually:5 power:62 intensity:7 relative:28 specify:1 imply:1 reference:28 level:32 since:8 ratio:37 two:4 dimensionless:2 one:11 tenth:1 bel:10 seldom:1 use:48 useful:2 wide:1 variety:1 science:1 engineering:2 specifically:2 acoustic:8 electronics:3 discipline:1 confer:1 number:5 advantage:2 ability:2 conveniently:2 represent:10 large:6 small:2 scaling:1 roughly:5 correspond:10 human:10 perception:4 example:10 sound:23 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1,479 | Maeshowe | Maeshowe Maeshowe Entrance Maeshowe (or Maes Howe) is a Neolithic chambered cairn and passage grave situated on mainland Orkney, Scotland. The monuments around Maeshowe, including Skara Brae, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. It gives its name to the Maeshowe type of chambered cairn, which is limited to Orkney Ritchie 1981, p. 22 . However, Maeshowe is very similar to the famous Newgrange tomb in Ireland, suggesting a linkage between the two cultures Laing 1974, p. 42 . Maeshowe is a magnificent example of Neolithic craftsmanship and is, in the words of the distinguished archaeologist Stuart Pigott: a superlative monument that by its originality of execution is lifted out of its class into a unique position. Pigott 1954 . Maeshowe appears as a grassy mound rising from a flat plain near the south-east end of the Loch of Harray. Maeshowe is one of the largest tombs in Orkney; the mound encasing the tomb is in diameter and rises to a height of Childe 1952, p. 18 . Surrounding the mound, at a distance of to is a ditch up to wide. The grass mound hides a complex of passages and chambers built of carefully crafted slabs of flagstone weighing up to 30 tons. Lost Worlds: "The Pagans (of Britain)" History Channel series with contributions from historian Prof. Ronald Hutton, Archeologists Erika Guttmann and Martin Carruthers It is aligned so that the rear wall of its central chamber held up by a bracketed wall, Dargie 2007, p. 12. is illuminated on the winter solstice Hedges 1984, p. 160 . A similar display occurs in Newgrange. This entrance passage is long and leads to the central chamber measuring Childe 1952, pp.18-19 . The current height of the chamber is , this reflects the height to which the original stonework is preserved and capped by a modern corbelled roof. The original roof may have risen to a height of or more Ritchie 1995, p. 59 . The entrance passage is only about high, requiring visitors to stoop or crawl into the central chamber. That chamber is constructed largely of flat slabs of stone, many of which traverse nearly the entire length of the walls. In each corner lie huge angled buttresses that rise to the vaulting. At a height of about , the walls construction changes from the use of flat to overlappng slabs creating a beehive-shaped vault Castleden 1987, pp. 176-177 . The "modern" opening of the tomb was by James Farrer, an antiquarian and the Member of Parliament for Durham, in July of 1861 Ritchie 1995, p. 9 . Farrer, like many antiquarians of the day, was not noted for his careful excavation of sites. John Hedges describes him as possessing "a rapacious appetite for excavation matched only by his crude techniques, lack of inspiration, and general inability to publish." Hedges 1984, p. 22 Farrer and his workmen broke through the roof of the entrance passage and found it filled with debris. He then turned his attention to the top of the mound, broke through and, over a period of a few days, emptied the main chamber of material that had filled it completely. He and his workmen discovered the famous runic inscriptions carved on the walls, proof that Norsemen had broken into the tomb at least six centuries earlier Ritchie 1995, p. 10 . As described in the Orkneyinga Saga, Maeshowe was looted by the famous Vikings Earl Harald Maddadarson and Ragnvald, Earl of Møre "Maeshowe's runes - Viking graffiti" Orkneyjar. Retrieved 30 October 2008. in about the 12th century. The more than thirty runic inscriptions on the walls of the chamber represent the largest single collection of such carvings in the world. Maeshowe soon after opening in 1861 Estimates of the amount of effort required to build Maeshowe vary; a commonly suggested number is 39,000 man-hours Hedges 1984, p. 113 Castleden 1987, p. 212 , although Colin Renfrew calculated that at least 100,000 hours would be required Renfrew 1979, p. 212-214 . Dating of the construction of Maeshowe is difficult but dates derived from burials in similar tombs cluster around 3000 BC. Since Maeshowe is the largest and most sophisticated example of the Maeshowe "type" of tomb, archaeologists have suggested that it's the last of its class- built around 2800 BC Ritchie 1981, p. 29 . The people who built Maeshowe were users of grooved ware Renfrew 1985, p. 7 , a distinctive type of pottery that spread throughout the British Isles from about 3000 BC. The land around Maeshowe at its construction probably looked much as it does today- treeless with grasses representative of Pollen Assemblage Zone MNH-I reflecting "mixed agricultural practices, probably with a pastoral bias- there is a substantial amount of ribwort pollen, but also that of cereals." Davidson & Jones 1985, pp. 27 . A Neolithic "low road" connects Maeshowe with the magnificiently preserved village of Skara Brae, passing near the Standing Stones of Stenness and the Ring of Brodgar Castleden 1987, p. 117 . Low roads connect Neolithic ceremonial sites throughout Britain. Some archeologists believe that Maeshowe was originally surrounded by a large stone circle. Lost Worlds: The Pagans (of Britain) History Channel series with contributions from historian Prof. Ronald Hutton, Archeologists Erika Guttmann and Martin Carruthers The complex including Maeshowe, the Ring of Brodgar, the Standing Stones of Stenness, Skara Brae, as well as other tombs and standing stones represents a concentration of Neolithic sites that is rivalled in Britain only by the complexes associated with Stonehenge and Avebury Castleden 1987, p. 93 . Chambered tombs of the Maeshowe "type" are characterized by a long, low entrance passageway leading to a square or rectangular chamber from which there is access to a number of side cells. Although there are disagreements as to the attribution of tombs to tomb types, there are only seven definitely known Maeshowe type tombs Hedges 1984, p. 80 . On Mainland, there are, in addition to Maeshowe; the tombs of Cuween, Wideford Hill, and Quanterness. The tomb of Quoyness is found on Sanday, while Vinquoy Hill is located on Eday. Finally, there is an unnamed tomb on the Holm of Papa Westray. Anna Ritchie reports that there are three more Maeshowe type tombs in Orkney but she doesn't name or locate them Ritchie 1995, p. 47 . Toponymy The origin of the name Maeshowe is uncertain. While the second element is certainly from the Old Norse haugr usually meaning a mound, there have been several different theories postulated for the first element, maes. Cross Sections of Maeshowe These include: Celtic origins. The Welsh word 'Maes' meaning 'field' or 'area of activity'; it is typical for 'maes' to be followed by an adjective, such as 'fair field', 'Maes teg'. 'Maeshowe' might then mean 'the burial mound field', or 'the area around the cairn'. Due to the rarity of surviving pre-Norse elements in Orcadian placenames, this theory does not enjoy much support. A personal name. 'Maeshowe' could simply be a corruption of 'Tormis' Howe', meaning it was the burial mound of someone called Tormis. Some other cairns in the area do seem to be named after individuals, and 'Tormiston' is immediately adjacent to the tomb. Old Norse for 'The Maiden's Tomb'? This would be meyjarhaugr or maerhaugr. Old Norse for 'The Great Tomb'? This would be mestrhaugr. Interestingly, Maeshowe is called Orkahaugr in the Orkneyinga Saga. The first element of that name, orka, signifies power or greatness. World Heritage status ‘The Heart of Neolithic Orkney’ was inscribed as a World Heritage site in December 1999. In addition to Maeshowe, the site includes Skara Brae, the Standing Stones of Stenness, the Ring of Brodgar and other nearby sites. It is managed by Historic Scotland, whose 'Statement of Significance' for the site begins: The monuments at the heart of Neolithic Orkney and Skara Brae proclaim the triumphs of the human spirit in early ages and isolated places. They were approximately contemporary with the mastabas of the archaic period of Egypt (first and second dynasties), the brick temples of Sumeria, and the first cities of the Harappa culture in India, and a century or two earlier than the Golden Age of China. Unusually fine for their early date, and with a remarkably rich survival of evidence, these sites stand as a visible symbol of the achievements of early peoples away from the traditional centres of civilisation...Maes Howe is a masterpiece of Neolithic peoples. It is an exceptionally early architectural accomplishment. With its almost classical strength and simplicity it is a unique survival from 5000 years ago. It is an expression of genius within a group of people whose other tombs were claustrophobic chambers in smaller mounds. "The Heart of Neolithic Orkney". Historic Scotland. Retrieved on 5 September 2007 Footnotes References See also Newgrange, another winter-solstice-aligned passage tomb Ring of Brodgar Skara Brae Standing Stones of Stenness The Stone Lud Heart of Neolithic Orkney List of megalithic sites List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country External links Orkneyjar Winter Solstice Webcam Research around the reappearance of the sun | Maeshowe |@lemmatized maeshowe:31 entrance:5 maes:6 howe:3 neolithic:10 chamber:12 cairn:4 passage:6 grave:1 situate:1 mainland:2 orkney:8 scotland:3 monument:3 around:6 include:4 skara:6 brae:6 designate:1 unesco:1 world:6 heritage:3 site:11 give:1 name:6 type:7 chambered:1 limit:1 ritchie:7 p:18 however:1 similar:3 famous:3 newgrange:3 tomb:21 ireland:1 suggest:2 linkage:1 two:2 culture:2 laing:1 magnificent:1 example:2 craftsmanship:1 word:2 distinguish:1 archaeologist:2 stuart:1 pigott:2 superlative:1 originality:1 execution:1 lift:1 class:2 unique:2 position:1 appear:1 grassy:1 mound:9 rise:4 flat:3 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1,480 | Erie_Canal | The Erie Canal is a man-made waterway in New York that runs about 363 miles from Albany on the Hudson River to Buffalo at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. First proposed in 1808, it was under construction from 1817 to 1832. It was the first transportation system between the eastern seaboard (New York City) and the western interior (Great Lakes) of the United States that did not require Portage, was faster than carts pulled by draft animals, and cut transport costs by about 95%. The canal fostered a population surge in western New York state, opened regions further west to settlement, and helped New York City become the chief U.S. port. It was expanded between 1834 and 1862. In 1918, the original canal was replaced by the larger New York State Barge Canal. Today, it is part of the New York State Canal System. Mainly used by recreational watercraft in the recent past, the canal saw an upsurge in commercial traffic in 2008. 1853 Map of New York canals including the Erie Canal Proposal and logistics The Mohawk Valley, running east and west, cuts a natural pathway between the Catskills to the south and the Adirondacks to the north. The extraordinary success of the Bridgewater Canal in Britain, completed in 1761, led to a frenzy of canal building in England. The idea of a canal or artificially improved waterway to tie the east coast to the new western settlements was in the air: Cadwallader Colden first proposed using the Mohawk Valley in 1724. George Washington led a serious effort to turn the Potomac River into a navigable link to the west, sinking substantial energy and capital into the Patowmack Canal from 1785 until his death fourteen years later. Christopher Colles, who was familiar with the Bridgewater Canal, surveyed the Mohawk valley and made a presentation to the New York state legislature in 1784 proposing a canal from Lake Ontario. The proposal drew attention and some action, but ultimately came to nothing. Gouverneur Morris and Elkanah Watson were other early proponents of a canal along the Mohawk. Their efforts led to creation of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, which took the first actual steps to improve navigation on the Mohawk. But the company proved that private financing was inadequate. In 1798, the Niagara Canal Company was incorporated. The advocate who finally got the canal built was entrepreneur Jesse Hawley. He envisioned growing huge quantities of grain in the Western New York plains, then largely unsettled, for sale on the Eastern Seaboard. But he went bankrupt trying to ship it to the coast. While in Canandaigua debtors' prison, he started pressing for the construction of a canal along the Mohawk Valley. He had strong support from Joseph Ellicott, agent for the Holland Land Company in Batavia. Ellicott realized that a canal would add immense value to the land he was selling in the western part of the state. Ellicott later became the first canal commissioner. The Mohawk River, a tributary of the Hudson, runs in a glacial meltwater channel across the Appalachians in New York state, separating them into the Catskills and Adirondacks. The Mohawk Valley was the only cut across the Appalachians north of Alabama, and led almost directly from the Hudson River on the east to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie on the west. From there, much of the interior and many settlements would be accessible on the lakes. Profile of the original canal The problem was that the land rises about from the Hudson to Lake Erie. Locks at the time could handle up to , so at least 50 locks would be required along the canal. Such a canal would cost a fortune even today; in 1800 the expense was barely imaginable. President Jefferson called it "a little short of madness" and rejected it. Nevertheless, Hawley managed to interest New York Governor DeWitt Clinton. There was much opposition, and the project was scorned as "Clinton's Folly," or "Clinton's Ditch." But in 1817 Clinton got the legislature to appropriate $7 million for construction. The original canal was long, from Albany on the Hudson to Buffalo on Lake Erie. The channel was a cut wide and deep, with removed soil piled on the downhill side to form a walkway called the towpath. Canal boats, up to in draft, were pulled by horses and mules on the towpath. There was only one towpath, generally on the north side of the ditch. When canal boats met, the boat with right-of-way steered to the towpath side of the canal. The other boat steered toward the berm or heelpath side of the canal. The driver or "hoggee" (pronounced HO-gee) of the privileged boat brought his team to the canalside edge of the towpath while the hoggee of the other boat moved to the outside of the towpath and stopped his team. His towline would go slack, fall into the water and sink to the bottom while his boat continued on by momentum. The privileged boat's team would step over the other boat's towline, and then their boat would pass over the sunken towline without stopping. Once clear, the other boat's team would continue on its way. The sides of the cut were lined with stone set in clay, and the bottom was also lined with clay. The stonework required hundreds of German masons, who later built many of New York's famous buildings. Construction Stonework of Erie Canal lock (abandoned due to route change), Durhamville, New York Construction began July 4, 1817, at Rome, New York. The first , from Rome to Utica, opened in 1819. At that rate the canal would not be finished for 30 years. The main problems were felling trees to clear a path through virgin forest, and moving excavated soil, both of which took longer than expected. But the builders solved these problems. To fell a tree, they threw rope over the top branches and winched it down. They pulled out the stumps with an innovative stump puller. A pair of huge wheels were set loose on an axle. A large wheel, barely smaller than the others was fixed to the center of the axle. A chain was wrapped around the axle and hooked to the stump. A rope was wrapped around the center wheel and hooked to a team of oxen. The mechanical advantage obtained ripped the stumps out of the soil. Soil to be moved was shoveled into large wheelbarrows that were dumped into mule-pulled carts. A three-man team with mules could now build a mile in a year, meaning that the problem now was finding enough labor. The men who planned and oversaw construction were novices, both as surveyors and as engineers. There were no civil engineers in the United States. James Geddes and Benjamin Wright, who laid out the route, were judges whose experience in surveying was in settling boundary disputes; Geddes had only used a surveying instrument for a few hours. Canvass White was a 27-year-old amateur engineer who talked Clinton into letting him go to Britain at his own expense to study the canal system there. Nathan Roberts was a mathematics teacher and land speculator. Yet these men "carried the Erie Canal up the Niagara escarpment at Lockport, maneuvered it onto a towering embankment to cross over Irondequoit creek, spanned the Genesee River on an awesome aqueduct, and carved a route for it out of the solid rock between Little Falls and Schenectady—and all of those venturesome designs worked precisely as planned." (Bernstein, p. 381) Many of the laborers working on the canal were the Irish who had recently come to the United States as a group of about 5,000 from Northern Ireland, most of whom were Protestants and wealthy enough to pay for this caravan. Original five step lock structure crossing the Niagara Escarpment at Lockport, now without gates and used as a cascade for excess water. A modern wide single-step lock is to the left, replacing another identical and original five-step lock. Construction continued at an increased rate as new workers arrived. But when the canal reached Montezuma Marsh (at the outlet of Cayuga Lake west of Syracuse), over 1,000 workers died of swamp fever and construction stopped. Work continued on the downhill side towards the Hudson, and when the marsh froze in winter, the crews worked to complete the section across the swamps. The middle section from Utica to Salina (Syracuse) was completed in 1820 and traffic on that section started up immediately. The eastern section, from Brockport to Albany, opened on September 10, 1823 to great fanfare. The Champlain Canal, a north-south route from Watervliet on the Hudson to Lake Champlain, opened on the same date. In 1824, before the canal was completed, a detailed Pocket Guide for the Tourist and Traveler, Along the Line of the Canals, and the Interior Commerce of the State of New York, was published for the benefit of travelers and land speculators — possibly America's first tour guide. After Montezuma Marsh, the next obstacle was crossing the Niagara Escarpment, an wall of hard dolomitic limestone, to rise to the level of Lake Erie. The route followed the channel of a creek that had cut a ravine steeply down the escarpment, with two sets of five locks in a series, giving rise to the community of Lockport. These lift-locks had a total lift of , exiting into a deeply cut channel. The final leg had to be cut through another limestone layer, the Onondaga ridge. Much of that section was blasted with black powder. The inexperience of the crews often led to accidents, and sometimes rocks falling on nearby homes. The modern single lock at the Niagara Escarpment Two villages competed to be the terminus: Black Rock, on the Niagara River, and Buffalo, at the eastern tip of Lake Erie. Buffalo expended great energy to widen and deepen Buffalo Creek to make it navigable and to create a harbor at its mouth. Buffalo won over Black Rock, and grew into a large city, encompassing its former competitor. Work was completed on October 26, 1825. The event was marked by a statewide "Grand Celebration," culminating in successive cannon shots along the length of the canal and the Hudson, a 90-minute cannonade from Buffalo to New York City. A flotilla of boats, led by Governor Dewitt Clinton aboard the Seneca Chief, sailed from Buffalo to New York City in ten days. Clinton then ceremonially poured Lake Erie water into New York Harbor to mark the "Wedding of the Waters." On its return trip, the Seneca Chief brought a keg of Atlantic Ocean water back to Buffalo to be poured into Lake Erie by Buffalo's Judge Samuel Wilkeson, who would later become mayor. The route Aqueduct over the Mohawk at Rexford The canal began on the west side of the Hudson River at Albany, and ran north to Troy, where the Champlain Canal branched off. At Cohoes it turned west along the south shore of the Mohawk River, crossing to the north side at Crescent and again to the south at Rexford Flats. The canal continued west near the south shore of the Mohawk River all the way to Rome, where the Mohawk turns north. At Rome, the canal continued west parallel to Wood Creek, which flows from Oneida Lake, and turned southwest and west cross-country to avoid the lake. From Canastota west it ran roughly along the north (lower) edge of the Onondaga Escarpment, passing through Syracuse and Rochester. At Lockport the canal turned southwest to rise to the top of the Niagara Escarpment, using the ravine of Eighteenmile Creek. The canal continued south-southwest to Pendleton, where it turned west and southwest, mainly using the channel of Tonawanda Creek. From Tonawanda south toward Buffalo, it ran just east of the Niagara River, where it reached its "Western Terminus" at Little Buffalo Creek (later it became the Commercial Slip), which discharged into the Buffalo River just above its confluence with Lake Erie. With Buffalo's recent re-watering of the Commercial Slip, a water route from the eastern terminus at Albany to the western terminus at Buffalo is once again open. The Erie made use of the favorable conditions of New York's unique topography providing that area with the only break in the Appalachians range and thus allowing for east-west navigation from the coast to the Great Lakes. http://www.history.rochester.edu/canal/bib/whitford/1906/Chap01.html The canal system thus gave New York State a competitive advantage, helped New York City develop as an international trade center, and allowed Buffalo to grow from just 200 settlers in 1820 to more than 18,000 people by 1840. The port of New York became essentially the Atlantic home port for all of the Midwest. It was because of this vital and critical connection that New York State would become known as the great Empire State. Enlargements and improvements Problems developed but were quickly solved. Leaks developed along the entire length of the canal, but these were sealed with a newly invented cement that hardened under water (hydraulic cement). Erosion on the clay bottom proved to be a problem and the speed was limited to 4 mph (6 km/h). Derelict aqueduct over Nine Mile Creek north of Camillus, New York, built in 1841 and abandoned c. 1918, one of 32 aqueducts on the Erie Canal. The original design planned for an annual tonnage of 1.5 million tons (1.36 million tonnes), but this was exceeded immediately. An ambitious program to improve the canal began in 1834. During this massive series of construction projects, known as the First Enlargement, the canal was widened to and deepened to . Locks were widened and/or rebuilt in new locations, and many new aqueducts were constructed. The canal was also straightened and slightly re-routed in some stretches, resulting in the abandonment of short segments of the original 1825 canal. The First Enlargement was completed in 1862, with further minor enlargements in later decades. Today, the reconfiguration of the canal created during the First Enlargement is commonly referred to as the Improved Erie Canal or the Old Erie Canal, to distinguish it from the canal's modern-day course. Existing remains of the 1825 canal abandoned during the Enlargement are sometimes referred to today as Clinton's Ditch (which was also the popular nickname for the entire Erie Canal project during its original 1817-1825 construction). Upstream view of the downstream lock (Lock 32, Pittsford, NY) showing gushing water. Additional feeder canals soon extended the Erie Canal into a system. These included the Cayuga-Seneca Canal south to the Finger Lakes, the Oswego Canal from Three Rivers north to Lake Ontario at Oswego, and the Champlain Canal from Troy north to Lake Champlain. From 1833 to 1877, the short Crooked Lake Canal connected Keuka Lake and Seneca Lake. The Chemung Canal connected the south end of Seneca Lake to Elmira in 1833, and was an important route for Pennsylvania coal and timber into the canal system. The Chenango Canal in 1836 connected the Erie Canal at Utica to Binghamton and caused a business boom in the Chenango River valley. The Chenango and Chemung canals linked the Erie with the Susquehanna River system. The Black River Canal connected the Black River to the Erie Canal at Rome and remained in operation until the 1920s. The Genesee Valley Canal was run along the Genesee River to connect with the Allegheny River at Olean, but the Allegheny section which would have connected to the Ohio and Mississippi was never built. The Genesee Valley Canal was later abandoned and became the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad. In 1903, the New York state legislature authorized construction of the New York State Barge Canal as the "Improvement of the Erie, the Oswego, the Champlain, and the Cayuga and Seneca Canals". In 1905, construction of the Barge Canal began, which was completed in 1918, at a cost of $96.7 million. Freight traffic reached a total of 5.2 million tons by 1951, before declining in the face of combined rail and truck competition. Competition As the canal brought travelers to New York City, it took business away from other ports such as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Baltimore, Maryland. Those cities and their states chartered projects to compete with the Erie Canal. In Pennsylvania, the Main Line of Public Works was a combined canal and railroad running west from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh on the Ohio River, opened in 1834. In Maryland, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ran west to Wheeling, West Virginia, also on the Ohio River, and was completed in 1853. Map of the "Water Level Routes" of the New York Central Railroad (purple), West Shore Railroad (red) and Erie Canal (blue) Competition also came from inside New York state. The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad opened in 1831, providing a bypass to the slowest part of the canal between Albany and Schenectady. Other railroads were soon chartered and built to continue the line west to Buffalo, and in 1842 a continuous line (which later became the New York Central Railroad and its Auburn Road in 1853) was open the whole way to Buffalo. As the railroad served the same general route as the canal, but provided for faster travel, passengers soon switched to it. However as late as 1852, the canal carried thirteen times more freight tonnage than all the railroads in New York state, combined; it continued to compete well with the railroads through 1882, when tolls were abolished. The New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway was completed in 1884, as a route running closely parallel to both the canal and the New York Central Railroad. However, it went bankrupt and was acquired the next year by the New York Central. Impact The Erie Canal made an immense contribution to the wealth and importance of New York City, Buffalo, and New York State. Its impact went much further, increasing trade throughout the nation by opening eastern and overseas markets to Midwestern farm products and by enabling migration to the West. New ethnic Irish communities formed in some towns along its route after completion, as Irish immigrants were a large portion of labor force involved in its construction. Earth extracted from the canal was transported to the New York city area and used as landfill in New York and New Jersey. A plaque honoring the canal's construction is located in Battery Park in southern Manhattan Packet dock in Syracuse c. 1905 Because so many immigrants traveled on the canal, many genealogists would like to find copies of canal passenger lists. Unfortunately, apart from the years 1827-1829, canal boat operators were not required to record or report passenger names to the government, which, in this case, was the State of New York. Those 1827-1829 passenger lists survive today in the New York State Archives. However, there may be many untapped sources of traveler information. For example, after the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon), Joseph Smith, Jr. left Palmyra, New York for Ohio in 1831, his mother Lucy Mack Smith shortly thereafter led hundreds of followers westward on the Erie Canal, passing through Buffalo, and eventually settling in Salt Lake City and many towns along the way. Mormon records may list many such travelers. The Canal also helped bind the still-new nation closer to Britain and Europe. British repeal of the Corn Law resulted in a huge increase in exports of Midwestern wheat to Britain. Trade between the US and Canada also increased as a result of the Corn Law and a reciprocity (free-trade) agreement signed in 1854; much of this trade flowed along the Erie. Its success also prompted imitation: a rash of canal-building followed. Also, the many technical hurdles that had to be overcome made heroes of those whose innovations made the canal possible. This led to an increased public esteem for practical education. Many notable authors wrote about the canal, including Herman Melville, Frances Trollope, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mark Twain, Samuel Hopkins Adams and the Marquis de Lafayette, and many tales and songs were written about life on the canal. The popular song Low Bridge by Thomas S. Allen was written in 1905 to memorialize the canal's early heyday, when barges were pulled by mules rather than engines. Chicago, among other Great Lakes cities, recognized the commercial importance of the canal to its economy, and two West Loop streets are named Canal and Clinton (for canal proponent DeWitt Clinton). Concern that erosion caused by logging in the Adirondacks could silt up the canal contributed to the creation of another New York National Historic Landmark, the Adirondack Park, in 1885. 20th century The modern Erie Canal has 34 locks, which are painted with the blue and gold colors of the New York State Canal System's parent authority, the Thruway Authority. In 1918, the Canal was replaced by the larger New York State Barge Canal. The new canal replaced much of the original route, leaving many abandoned sections (most notably between Syracuse and Rome). New digging and flood control technologies allowed engineers to canalize rivers that the original canal sought to avoid, such as the Mohawk, Seneca and Clyde Rivers, and Oneida Lake. In sections which did not consist of canalized rivers (particularly between Rochester and Buffalo), the original Erie Canal channel was enlarged to wide and deep. The expansion allowed barges up to 2,000 tons to use the Canal. This expensive project was politically unpopular in parts of the state not served by the canal, and failed to save it from becoming obsolete. The new alignment began on the Hudson River at the border between Cohoes and Waterford, where it ran northwest with five locks, running into the Mohawk east of Crescent. While the old Canal ran next to the Mohawk all the way to Rome, the new canal ran through the river, straightened or widened where necessary. At Ilion the new canal left the river for good, but continued to run on a new alignment parallel to both the river and the old canal to Rome. From Rome, the new route continued almost due west, merging with Fish Creek just east of its entry into Oneida Lake. From Oneida Lake, the new canal ran west along the Oneida River, with cutoffs to shorten the route. At Three Rivers the Oneida River turns northwest, and was deepened for the Oswego Canal to Lake Ontario. The new Erie Canal turned south there along the Seneca River, which turns west near Syracuse and continues west to a point in the Montezuma Marsh (). There the Cayuga and Seneca Canal continued south with the Seneca River, and the new Erie Canal again ran parallel to the old Canal along the bottom of the Niagara Escarpment, in some places running along the Clyde River, and in some places replacing the old Canal. At Pittsford, southeast of Rochester, the Canal turned west to run around the south side of Rochester, rather than through downtown. The Canal currently crosses the Genesee River at the Genesee Valley Park (), then rejoins the old path near North Gates. From there it was again roughly an upgrade to the original canal, running west to Lockport. This reach of 64.2 miles from Henrietta to Lockport is called "the 60-mile level" since there are no locks and the water level rises only two feet over the entire segment. Diversions from and to adjacent natural streams along the way are used to maintain the canal's level. It then runs southwest to Tonawanda, where the new alignment discharges into the Niagara River, which is navigable upstream to the New York Barge Canal's Black Rock Lock and thence to the Canal's original "Western Terminus" at Buffalo's Inner Harbor. The growth of highways and railroads, and the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway caused commercial traffic on the canal to decline dramatically during the second half of the 20th century. The New York State Canal System In 1992, the New York State Barge Canal was renamed the New York State Canal System (including the Erie, Cayuga-Seneca, Oswego, and Champlain Canals) and placed under the newly created New York State Canal Corporation, a subsidiary of the New York State Thruway Authority. The Canal System is operated using money generated by Thruway tolls. 21st century A commercial tour boat locks through Baldwinsville's Lock 24 on the Erie Canal. Since the 1990s, the Canal system has been used primarily by recreational traffic, although a small but growing amount of cargo traffic still uses it. Today, the Erie Canal Corridor covers of navigable water from Lake Champlain to the Capital Region and west to Buffalo. The area has a population of 2.7 millut 75% of Central and Western New York's population lives within of the Erie Canal. The Erie Canal is open to small craft and some larger vessels from May through November each year. During winter, water is drained from parts of the canal for maintenance. The Champlain Canal, Lake Champlain, and the Chambly Canal and Richelieu River in Canada form the Lakes to Locks Passage, making a tourist attraction of the former waterway linking eastern Canada to the Erie Canal. In 2006, recreational boating fees were eliminated to attract more visitors. Travel on the Canal's middle section (particularly in the Mohawk Valley) was severely hampered by flooding in late June and early July 2006. Flood damage to the canal and its facilities was estimated as at least $15 million. There were some 42 commercial shipments on the canal in 2008, compared to 15 such shipments in 2007 and more than 33,000 shipments in 1885, the canal's peak year. According to the New York Times, the new growth in commercial traffic is due to the rising cost of diesel fuel. Canal barges can carry a ton of cargo 514 miles on one gallon of diesel fuel, while a gallon allows a train to haul the same amount of cargo 202 miles and a truck 59 miles. Canal barges can carry loads up to 3,000 tons and are used to transport objects that would be too large for road or rail shipment. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/03/nyregion/03erie.html Hints of Comeback for Nation’s First Superhighway The system is served by several commercial towing companies. http://www.nyscanals.gov/corporation/commercial-shipping.html Commercial Shipping on the New York State Canal system The old Erie Canal The Old Erie Canal and its towpath at Kirkville, New York, within Old Erie Canal State Historic Park Erie Canal Aqueduct crossing the Genesee River in Rochester, New York. Broad Street now runs atop it. A proposed rewatering project of the Erie Canal Aqueduct to connect to a round lock on the Genesee River is under review. This revitilization project will also facilitate boats. On the Erie Canal Aqueduct looking west below Broad Street, downtown Rochester Another view looking west, Erie Canal Aqueduct, downtown Rochester, NY. This is the south side of the Aqueduct. The Aqueduct is divided by the concrete support for the Broad Street Bridge above. Buffalo's Erie Canal Commercial SlipSpring 2008 Sections of the old Erie Canal abandoned after 1918 are owned by New York state or have been ceded to or purchased by counties or municipalities. Many stretches of the old canal have been filled in to create roads such as Erie Boulevard in Syracuse and Broad Street and the Rochester Subway in Rochester. A 36-mile (58km) stretch of the old canal is preserved by New York State at Old Erie Canal State Historic Park, and in 1960 the Schoharie Crossing State Historic Site, a section of the canal in Montgomery County, was one of the first sites recognized as a National Historic Landmark. National Park Service, National Historic Landmarks Survey, New York, retrieved May 30, 2007. Some municipalities have preserved sections as town or county canal parks, or have plans to do so. Camillus Erie Canal Park preserves a stretch and plans to restore Nine Mile Creek Aqueduct, built in 1841 as part of the First Enlargement of the canal. In Camillus Park and some communities, the old canal has refilled with overgrowth and debris. Proposals have been made to rehydrate the old canal through downtown Rochester or Syracuse as a tourist attraction. In Syracuse, the location of the old canal is represented by a reflecting pool in downtown's Clinton Square and the downtown hosts a canal barge and weigh lock structure, now dry. Buffalo's Commercial Slip is the recently restored and re-watered segment of the canal which formed its "Western Terminus". The Erie Canal acts as a tourism destination for tourists from all over the world. There is even an Erie Canal Cruise company in Herkimer that operates from mid-May until mid-October with daily cruises. The cruise goes through the history of the canal and also takes passengers through Lock 18. In 2004, the administration of New York Governor George Pataki was criticized when officials of New York State Canal Corporation attempted to sell private development rights to large stretches of the Old Erie Canal to a single developer for US$30,000, far less than the land was worth on the open market. After an investigation by the Syracuse Post-Standard newspaper, the Pataki administration nullified the deal. The creation of a unified, statewide Erie Canal historic trail or greenway to attract tourism has been an elusive goal since it was first proposed in the 1990s. However, many communities along the old Erie Canal have made progress in establishing parks, improving towpaths and raising funds for restoration of old canal structures such as locks and aqueducts. Biking, hiking, snowmobiling, cross-country skiing, horseback riding, canoeing and fishing are among activities promoted. The towpath is a good choice for an easy multi-day bicycle vacation. Many towns along the way have B&Bs, motels and campsites. The website of Parks and Trails New York Canalway Corridor has information on the canal, and sells a guidebook (latest edition 2007) with waterproof trail maps and information on nearby places to eat, sleep or visit spots of historical interest. http://www.ptny.org/canalway/index.shtml Records of the planning, design, construction and administration of the Erie Canal are vast and can be found in the New York State Archives. However, genealogists will be disappointed to learn that except for two years (1827-1829) the State of New York did not require canal boat operators to maintain or submit passenger lists. New York State Archives. However, research at libraries, churches and town halls of the ultimate destinations of canal travelers may yield passenger information. "Guide to Canal Records." www.archives.nysed.gov Parks and museums on the old Erie Canal include (East to West): Schoharie Crossing State Historic Site at Fort Hunter Erie Canal Village near Rome Chittenango Landing Canal Boat Museum near Chittenango Old Erie Canal State Historic Park in Dewitt Erie Canal Museum in downtown Syracuse Camillus Erie Canal Park in Camillus Jordan Canal Park in Jordan, town of Elbridge Centerport Aqueduct Park near Weedsport Lock Berlin Park near Clyde Macedon Aqueduct Park near Palmyra Old Erie Canal Lock 60 Park in Macedon Perinton Park in Perinton near Fairport Genesee Valley Park near the city of Rochester Niagara Escarpment five flight locks at Lockport Buffalo's Commercial Slip at the Canal's "Western Terminus" See also: Erie Canal Society of New York State Parks and Trails New York Canalway Corridor A plan for a Buffalo-Erie Canal Foundation Museum and Database Locks The following list of locks is provided for the current canal, from east to west: Note: There is no Lock 1 or Lock 31 on the Erie Canal. The place of "Lock 1" on the passage from the lower Hudson to Lake Erie is taken by the Federal Lock, located just north of Troy, NY, and is not part of the Erie Canal System proper. Lock #LocationElevation (upstream / west)Elevation (downstream / east)LiftDistance to Next Lock (upstream / west) 2 Waterford E3, 3 Waterford E4, 4 Waterford E5, 5 Waterford E6, 6 Waterford E7, 7 Niskayuna E8, 8 Glenville E9, 9 Rotterdam E10, 10 Cranesville E11, 11 Amsterdam E12, 12 Tribes Hill E13, 13 Randall E14, 14 Canajoharie E15, data unavailable 15 Fort Plain E16, data unavailable 16 Mindenville E17, data unavailable 17 Little Falls E18, data unavailable 18 Jacksonburg E19, data unavailable 19 Frankfort E20, data unavailable 20 Careys Corners E21, data unavailable 21 Rome E22, data unavailable 22 Rome E23, data unavailable 23 Brewerton E24, data unavailable 24 Baldwinsville E25, 25 Mays Point E26, 26 Clyde E27, 27 Lyons E28A, 28A Lyons E28B, 28B Newark E29, 29 Palmyra E30, 30 Macedon E32, 32 Pittsford E33, 33 Henrietta E34/35, 34 Lockport Between Locks 33 and 34 the canal rises 2 feet E35, 35 Lockport Black Rock Lock in Niagara River, 36* Buffalo Commercial Slip at Buffalo River, Note: The Black Rock Lock is in the New York State Barge Canal, and allows passage beside the Niagara River to the Erie Canal's "Western Terminus" at the Commercial Slip. Upstream and downstream water levels, as well as Black Rock Lock's lift, vary with the naturally fluctuating levels of Lake Erie and the Niagara River. Although a portion of the Erie Canal through Buffalo has been filled in, travel by water is still possible, from the Commercial Slip, through Buffalo's Inner Harbor and the Black Rock Lock, to Tonawanda, NY, Lockport, and eastward to Albany. See also List of canals in New York List of canals in the United States Boatman Alfred Barrett Canal Street (Buffalo) Low Bridge (song) Ohio and Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio River (and thus the Mississippi) References Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a Great Nation, by Peter L. Bernstein, New York : W.W. Norton, 2005, ISBN 0-393-05233-8. The Artificial River: The Erie Canal and the Paradox of Progress, 1817-1862, by Carol Sheriff, New York : Hill and Wang, 1996, ISBN 0-8090-2753-4. Bridge Height Tables Footnotes External links Guide to Canal Records in the New York State Archives "The Story of the New York State Canals: Governor Dewitt Clinton's Dream" by Roy Finch, 1925 Information and Boater's Guide to the New York State Canal Canalway Trail The Erie Canal New York State Canals Official Site The Opening of the Erie Canal - An Online Canal Society of New York State Exhibition] Digging Clinton's Ditch: The Impact of the Erie Canal on America 1807-1860 Multimedia A Glimpse at Clinton's Ditch, 1819-1820 by Richard F. Palmer Photos of historic Erie Canal Structures Photos of historic Erie Canal Locks Photos of some Erie Canal aqueducts New York Canal Times (Newspaper) Tonawandas Canal Fest Erie Canal Flood Photos, June 2006 Maps of Buffalo's Erie Canal District then and now Approximate route of the Erie Canal on Google Maps | Erie_Canal |@lemmatized erie:83 canal:225 man:2 make:10 waterway:3 new:95 york:76 run:22 mile:10 albany:7 hudson:12 river:44 buffalo:34 lake:38 complete:10 navigable:5 water:16 route:17 atlantic:3 ocean:2 great:8 first:14 propose:4 construction:15 transportation:1 system:15 eastern:7 seaboard:2 city:13 western:13 interior:3 united:4 state:49 require:5 portage:1 faster:1 cart:2 pull:4 draft:2 animal:1 cut:8 transport:3 cost:4 foster:1 population:3 surge:1 open:11 region:2 far:3 west:34 settlement:3 help:3 become:9 chief:3 u:3 port:4 expand:1 original:13 replace:5 large:9 barge:12 today:6 part:7 mainly:2 use:14 recreational:3 watercraft:1 recent:2 past:1 saw:1 upsurge:1 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fairport:1 flight:1 see:2 society:2 foundation:1 database:1 following:1 current:1 note:2 federal:1 proper:1 locationelevation:1 elevation:1 liftdistance:1 niskayuna:1 glenville:1 rotterdam:1 cranesville:1 amsterdam:1 tribe:1 hill:2 randall:1 canajoharie:1 data:10 unavailable:10 mindenville:1 jacksonburg:1 frankfort:1 careys:1 corner:1 brewerton:1 lyon:2 newark:1 beside:1 vary:1 naturally:1 fluctuating:1 eastward:1 boatman:1 alfred:1 barrett:1 reference:1 making:1 peter:1 l:1 w:2 norton:1 isbn:2 artificial:1 paradox:1 carol:1 sheriff:1 wang:1 height:1 table:1 footnote:1 external:1 story:1 dream:1 roy:1 finch:1 boater:1 online:1 exhibition:1 dig:1 multimedia:1 glimpse:1 richard:1 f:1 palmer:1 photo:4 tonawandas:1 fest:1 district:1 approximate:1 google:1 |@bigram erie_canal:65 lake_erie:12 atlantic_ocean:2 eastern_seaboard:2 barge_canal:7 mohawk_valley:6 debtor_prison:1 glacial_meltwater:1 dewitt_clinton:4 horse_mule:1 niagara_escarpment:7 genesee_river:5 cayuga_lake:1 champlain_canal:5 lake_champlain:4 widen_deepen:2 oneida_lake:4 http_www:4 hydraulic_cement:1 mph_km:1 susquehanna_river:1 genesee_valley:5 philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 baltimore_maryland:1 jesus_christ:1 joseph_smith:1 shortly_thereafter:1 repeal_corn:1 herman_melville:1 nathaniel_hawthorne:1 harriet_beecher:1 beecher_stowe:1 mark_twain:1 historic_landmark:3 lawrence_seaway:1 tourist_attraction:2 severely_hamper:1 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 canal_aqueduct:5 rochester_ny:1 buffalo_erie:3 horseback_riding:1 waterford_waterford:4 lyon_lyon:1 upstream_downstream:1 w_norton:1 hill_wang:1 external_link:1 |
1,481 | DNA_ligase | In molecular biology, DNA ligase is a special type of ligase () that can link together two DNA strands that have double-strand break (a break in both complementary strands of DNA). The alternative, a single-strand break, is fixed by a different type of DNA ligase using the complementary strand as a template but still requires DNA ligase to create the final phosphodiester bond to fully repair the DNA. DNA ligase has applications in both DNA repair and DNA replication (see Mammalian ligases). In addition, DNA ligase has extensive use in molecular biology laboratories for Genetic recombination experiments (see Applications in molecular biology research). Ligase mechanism The mechanism of DNA ligase is to form two covalent phosphodiester bonds between 3' hydroxyl ends of one nucleotide with the 5' phosphate end of another. ATP is required for the ligase reaction. A pictorial example of how a ligase works (with sticky ends): Ligase will also work with blunt ends, although higher enzyme concentrations and different reaction conditions are required. Mammalian ligases In mammals, there are four specific types of ligase. DNA ligase I: ligates Okazaki fragments during lagging strand DNA replication and some recombinant fragments. DNA ligase II: alternatively spliced form of DNA ligase III found in non-dividing cells. DNA ligase III: complexes with DNA repair protein XRCC1 to aid in sealing base excision mutations and recombinant fragments. DNA ligase IV: complexes with XRCC4. It catalyzes the final step in the non-homologous end joining DNA double-strand break repair pathway. It is also required for V(D)J recombination, the process which generates diversity in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci during immune system development. Some forms of DNA ligase present in bacteria (usually larger) may require NAD to act as a co-factor whereas other forms of DNA ligases (usually present in E.Coli, and usually smaller) may required ATP to react. Also, a number of other structures present in the DNA ligase are the AMP and lysine which are both important in the ligation process since they create an intermidiate enzyme. Applications in molecular biology research DNA ligases have become an indispensable tool in modern molecular biology research for generating recombinant DNA sequences. For example, DNA ligases are used with restriction enzymes to insert DNA fragments, often genes, into plasmids. One vital, and often tricky, aspect to performing successful recombination experiments involving ligase is controlling the optimal temperature. Most experiments use T4 DNA Ligase (isolated from bacteriophage T4) which is most active at 25°C. However in order to perform successful ligations, the optimal enzyme temperature needs to be balanced with the melting temperature Tm (also the annealing temperature) of the DNA fragments being ligated. If the ambient temperature exceeds Tm, homologous pairing of the sticky ends will not occur because the high temperature disrupts hydrogen bonding. The shorter the DNA fragments, the lower the Tm. Thus for sticky ends (overlaps) less than ten base pairs long, ligation experiments are performed at very low temperatures (~4-8°C) for a long period of time (often overnight). The common commercially available DNA ligases were originally discovered in bacteriophage T4, E. coli and other bacteria. See also DNA end Lagging strand DNA replication Okazaki fragment DNA Polymerase External links DNA Ligase: PDB molecule of the month Davidson College General Information on Ligase OpenWetWare DNA Ligation Protocol | DNA_ligase |@lemmatized molecular:5 biology:5 dna:35 ligase:23 special:1 type:3 link:2 together:1 two:2 strand:8 double:2 break:4 complementary:2 alternative:1 single:1 fix:1 different:2 use:4 template:1 still:1 require:6 create:2 final:2 phosphodiester:2 bond:3 fully:1 repair:4 application:3 replication:3 see:3 mammalian:2 ligases:6 addition:1 extensive:1 laboratory:1 genetic:1 recombination:3 experiment:4 research:3 mechanism:2 form:4 covalent:1 hydroxyl:1 end:8 one:2 nucleotide:1 phosphate:1 another:1 atp:2 reaction:2 pictorial:1 example:2 work:2 sticky:3 also:5 blunt:1 although:1 high:2 enzyme:4 concentration:1 condition:1 mammal:1 four:1 specific:1 ligates:1 okazaki:2 fragment:7 lag:2 recombinant:3 ii:1 alternatively:1 splice:1 iii:2 find:1 non:2 divide:1 cell:2 complex:2 protein:1 aid:1 seal:1 base:2 excision:1 mutation:1 iv:1 catalyze:1 step:1 homologous:2 join:1 pathway:1 v:1 j:1 process:2 generate:2 diversity:1 immunoglobulin:1 receptor:1 locus:1 immune:1 system:1 development:1 present:3 bacteria:2 usually:3 large:1 may:2 nad:1 act:1 co:1 factor:1 whereas:1 e:2 coli:2 small:1 react:1 number:1 structure:1 amp:1 lysine:1 important:1 ligation:4 since:1 intermidiate:1 become:1 indispensable:1 tool:1 modern:1 sequence:1 restriction:1 insert:1 often:3 gene:1 plasmid:1 vital:1 tricky:1 aspect:1 perform:3 successful:2 involve:1 control:1 optimal:2 temperature:7 isolate:1 bacteriophage:2 active:1 c:2 however:1 order:1 need:1 balance:1 melting:1 tm:3 annealing:1 ligate:1 ambient:1 exceed:1 pairing:1 occur:1 disrupts:1 hydrogen:1 short:1 low:2 thus:1 overlap:1 less:1 ten:1 pair:1 long:2 period:1 time:1 overnight:1 common:1 commercially:1 available:1 originally:1 discover:1 polymerase:1 external:1 pdb:1 molecule:1 month:1 davidson:1 college:1 general:1 information:1 openwetware:1 protocol:1 |@bigram molecular_biology:5 dna_ligase:15 complementary_strand:2 strand_dna:3 phosphodiester_bond:2 dna_replication:3 genetic_recombination:1 dna_ligases:4 e_coli:2 recombinant_dna:1 ambient_temperature:1 hydrogen_bond:1 coli_bacteria:1 dna_polymerase:1 external_link:1 |
1,482 | Digital_television | Digital television (DTV) is the sending and receiving of moving images and sound by discrete (digital) signals, in contrast to the analog signals used by analog TV. Timeline The first country to make a wholesale switch to digital over-the-air (terrestrial) broadcasting was Luxembourg, in 2006. Since then, the Netherlands, Finland, Andorra, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium (Flanders) and Germany and have followed suit. In the United States, where most full-power television stations are already broadcasting both an analog and a digital signal, the FCC has set June 12, 2009 as the date on which all analog transmissions will cease and over-the-air broadcasts will be solely digital. Senate OKs delay of digital TV transition By special dispensation, some analog TV signals ceased, as previously scheduled, on February 17, 2009. Across Nation, Some TV Stations Go Digital Tonight In Japan, the switch to digital is scheduled to happen July 24, 2011. In Canada, it is scheduled to happen August 31, 2011. China is scheduled to switch in 2015. In the United Kingdom, the digital switchover has different times for each part of the country; however, the whole of the UK will be digital by 2012. Brazil switched to digital on December 2, 2007 in major cities and it is estimated it will take seven years for complete signal expansion over all of the Brazilian territory. In Malaysia, the Malaysian Communications & Multimedia Commission (MCMC) will call for tender bids in the third quarter of 2009 for the UHF 470–742 megahertz spectrum which will pave the way for the country to move into the digital television era. The awarding of the spectrum will see the winner having to build a single digital terrestrial transmission/TV broadcast (DTTB) infrastructure for all broadcasters to ride on to transmit their TV programs. The winner will be announced at the end of 2009 or early 2010 and has to commence digital roll-out soon after the award where the analog switch-off is planned for 2015. While the majority of the viewers of over-the-air broadcasting in the USA watch full-power stations (which number about 1800), there are three other categories of TV stations in the USA: low-power stations, Class A stations, and TV translator stations. There is presently no deadline for these stations, about 7100 in number, to convert to digital broadcasting. Technical information Digital terrestrial television broadcasting systems by country Formats and bandwidth Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by the combination of size, aspect ratio (height to width ratio) and interlacing. With terrestrial broadcasting in the USA, the range of formats can be coarsely divided into two categories: HDTV and SDTV. It should be noted that these terms by themselves are not very precise, and many subtle intermediate cases exist. High-definition television (HDTV), one of several different formats that can be transmitted over DTV, uses one of two formats: 1280 × 720 pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated 720p) or 1920 × 1080 pixels in interlace mode (1080i). Each of these utilizes a 16:9 aspect ratio. (Some televisions are capable of receiving an HD resolution of 1920 × 1080 at a 60 Hz progressive scan frame rate — known as 1080p60, but this standard is not currently used for transmission.) HDTV cannot be transmitted over current analog channels. Standard definition TV (SDTV), by comparison, may use one of several different formats taking the form of various aspect ratios depending on the technology used in the country of broadcast. For 4:3 aspect-ratio broadcasts, the 640 × 480 format is used in NTSC countries, while 720 × 576 (rescaled to 768 × 576) is used in PAL countries. For 16:9 broadcasts, the 704 × 480 (rescaled to 848 × 480) format is used in NTSC countries, while 720 × 576 (rescaled to 1024 × 576) is used in PAL countries. However, broadcasters may choose to reduce these resolutions to save bandwidth (e.g., many DVB-T channels in the United Kingdom use a horizontal resolution of 544 or 704 pixels per line). Latest snapshots - Freeview/DTT bitrates (Mendip transmitter, UK) This is done through the use of interlacing, in which the effective vertical resolution is halved to 288 lines. Each commercial terrestrial DTV channel in North America is permitted to be broadcast at a data rate up to 19 megabits per second, or 2.375 megabytes per second. However, the broadcaster does not need to use this entire bandwidth for just one broadcast channel. Instead the broadcast can be subdivided across several video subchannels (aka feeds) of varying quality and compression rates, including non-video datacasting services that allow one-way high-bandwidth streaming of data to computers. A broadcaster may opt to use a standard-definition digital signal instead of an HDTV signal, because current convention allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple subchannels (similar to what most FM stations offer with HD Radio), providing multiple feeds of entirely different programming on the same channel. This ability to provide either a single HDTV feed or multiple lower-resolution feeds is often referred to as distributing one's "bit budget" or multicasting. This can sometimes be arranged automatically, using a statistical multiplexer (or "stat-mux"). With some implementations, image resolution may be less directly limited by bandwidth; for example in DVB-T, broadcasters can choose from several different modulation schemes, giving them the option to reduce the transmission bitrate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers. Michael Bisk was instrumental in developing dual multiplexed RISC processors coupled with ultrafast 128-bit A/D converters for enhanced bandwidth LCD monitor reception. This is presently under prototype in the EU. Reception There are a number of different ways to receive digital television. One of the oldest means of receiving DTV (and TV in general) is using an antenna (known as an aerial in some countries). This way is known as Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT). With DTT, viewers are limited to whatever channels the antenna picks up. Signal quality will also vary. Other ways have been devised to receive digital television. Among the most familiar to people are digital cable and digital satellite. In some countries where transmissions of TV signals are normally achieved by microwaves, digital MMDS is used. Other standards, such as DMB and DVB-H, have been devised to allow handheld devices such as mobile phones to receive TV signals. Another way is IPTV, that is receiving TV via Internet Protocol, relying on DSL or optical cable line. Finally, an alternative way is to receive digital TV signals via the open Internet. For example, there is a lot of P2P Internet Television software that can be used to watch TV on your computer. Some signals carry encryption and specify use conditions (such as "may not be recorded" or "may not be viewed on displays larger than 1 m in diagonal measure") backed up with the force of law under the WIPO Copyright Treaty and national legislation implementing it, such as the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Access to encrypted channels can be controlled by a removable smart card, for example via the Common Interface (DVB-CI) standard for Europe and via Point Of Deployment (POD) for IS or named differently CableCard. Protection parameters for terrestrial DTV broadcasting Digital television signals must not interfere with each other, and they must also coexist with analog television until it is phased out. The following table gives allowable signal-to-noise and signal-to-interference ratios for various interference scenarios. This table is a crucial regulatory tool for controlling the placement and power levels of stations. Digital TV is more tolerant of interference than analog TV, and this is the reason fewer channels are needed to carry an all-digital set of television stations. System Parameters(protection ratios) Canada [13] USA [5] EBU [9, 12]ITU-mode M3 Japan & Brazil [36, 37] ISDB-T (6 MHz, 64QAM, R=2/3), Analog TV (M/NTSC). C/N for AWGN Channel +19.5 dB(16.5 dB The Canadian parameter, C/(N+I) of noise plus co-channel DTV interface should be 16.5 dB. ) +15.19 dB +19.3 dB +19.2 dB Co-Channel DTV into Analog TV +33.8 dB +34.44 dB +34 ~ 37 dB +38 dB Co-Channel Analog TV into DTV +7.2 dB +1.81 dB +4 dB +4 dB Co-Channel DTV into DTV +19.5 dB(16.5 dB) +15.27 dB +19 dB +19 dB Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV −16 dB −17.43 dB −5 ~ −11 dB Depending on analog TV systems used. −6 dB Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV −12 dB −11.95 dB −1 ~ −10 −5 dB Lower Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV −48 dB −47.33 dB −34 ~ −37 dB −35 dB Upper Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV −49 dB −48.71 dB −38 ~ −36 dB −37 dB Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV −27 dB −28 dB −30 dB −28 dB Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV −27 dB −26 dB −30 dB −29 dB Interaction Interaction happens between the TV watcher and the DTV system. It can be understood in different ways, depending on which part of the DTV system is concerned. It can also be an interaction with the STB only (to tune to another TV channel or to browse the EPG). Modern DTV systems are able to provide interaction between the end-user and the broadcaster through the use of a return path. With the exceptions of coaxial and fiber optic cable, which can be bidirectional, a dialup modem, Internet connection, or other method is typically used for the return path with unidirectional networks such as satellite or antenna broadcast. In addition to not needing a separate return path, cable also has the advantage of a communication channel localized to a neighborhood rather than a city (terrestrial) or an even larger area (satellite). This provides enough customizable bandwidth to allow true video on demand. Advantages to conversion DTV has several advantages over analog TV, the most significant being that digital channels take up less bandwidth (and the bandwidth needs are continuously variable, at a corresponding cost in image quality depending on the level of compression). This means that digital broadcasters can provide more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity. DTV also permits special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel), electronic program guides and additional languages, spoken or subtitled. The sale of non-television services may provide an additional revenue source. Digital signals react differently to interference than analog signals. For example, common problems with analog television include ghosting of images, noise from weak signals, and many other potential problems which, whilst degrading the quality of the image, don't necessarily degrade watchability. Digitized signals don't suffer from ghosting or noise because DTV Tuners and converter boxes receive numeric information by the antenna. The decoder only needs enough information to put the picture together. The only way it fails is when the decoder does not receive enough information from the antenna - there is too much interference in the signal for the decoder to read the number and produce the picture. This will render a digital signal unwatchable with much less interference than an analog signal, even in urban areas. Effect on existing analog technology The analog switch-off ruling, which so far has met with little opposition from consumers or manufacturers, would render all non-digital televisions obsolete on the switch-off date unless connected to an external off-the-air tuner, analog or digital cable, or a satellite system. An external converter box can be added to non-digital televisions to lengthen their useful lifespan. Several of these devices have already been shown and, while few were initially available, they are becoming more available by the day. In the United States, a government-sponsored coupon is available to offset the cost of an external converter box. Once connected to the converter unit, operation of non-digital units is achievable and, in most cases, rich in new features (in comparison to previous analog reception operation). At present, analog switchoff is scheduled for June 12, 2009 in the United States, August 31, 2011 in Canada, July 24, 2011 in Japan and 2012 in the United Kingdom, October 14, 2009 in some regions of North-Italy. Some existing analog equipment will be less functional with the use of a converter box. For example, television remote controls will no longer be effective at changing channels, because that function will instead be handled by the converter box. Similarly, video recorders for analog signals (including tape-based VCRs, DVD recorders and hard-drive DVRs) will not be able to automatically select channels, limiting their ability to automatically record programs via a timer or based on downloaded program information. VCRs with DTV tuners do exist, so the VCR does not have to rely on the converter box to do the channel switching. Older handheld televisions, which rely primarily on over-the-air signals and battery operation, will be rendered impractical since most converter boxes are not portable nor powered with batteries and many portable televisions do not have the proper connectors to allow the use of a converter box. The additional power consumption of the converter limits portability for the few converter models (such as the Artec T3A or Winegard RCDT09A) which can operate from bulky external battery packs. Portable radios that are currently able to listen to frequency-modulated broadcast television audio would lose this ability. A new TV containing only an ATSC tuner would be impractical, as this could prevent older devices such as VCRs and video game consoles with analog-only output from connecting to the TV. Connection would require an analog to digital converter box, which is the opposite of what is currently being sold. Such a box would be prohibitive in cost and also likely introduce additional delay into the video signal. Analog inputs suitable for connection to VCRs have therefore been retained on all current digital-capable TVs. Environmental issues The adoption of a broadcast standard incompatible with existing analog receivers has created the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded during digital television transition. An estimated 99 million unused analog TV receivers are currently in storage in the US alone Unloading that old TV not quite so simple, Lee Bergquist, Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel, January 23, 2009 and, while some obsolete receivers are being retrofitted with converters, many more are simply dumped in landfills North Tonawanda: council discusses future TV disposal, Neale Gulley, Tonawanda News, January 27, 2009 where they represent a source of toxic metals such as lead as well as lesser amounts of materials such as barium, cadmium and chromium. Old Toxic TVs Cause Problems, USA TODAY, January 27, 2009 While the glass in some cathode ray tubes may contain up to eight pounds (3.6 kg) of lead, Campaigners highlight 'toxic TVs', Maggie Shiels, BBC News, 9 January 2009 which can have long-term negative effects on the environment if dumped as landfill, the glass envelope can be recycled at suitably-equipped facilities. What To Do With Your Old TV's, Mike Webster, WCSH-TV, January 28, 2009 Other portions of the receiver may be subject to disposal as hazardous material. Local restrictions on disposal of these materials vary widely; in some cases second-hand stores have refused to accept working colour television receivers for resale due to the increasing costs of disposing of unsold TV's. Those thrift stores which are still accepting donated TV's have reported significant increases in good-condition working used television receivers abandoned by viewers who often expect them not to work after digital transition. Many people throwing out perfectly good TVs over digital confusion, Daniel Vasquez, Sun-Sentinel, Florida, January 19, 2009 In Michigan, one recycler has estimated that as many as one household in four will dispose of or recycle a TV set in the next year. Trashing the tube: Digital conversion may spark glut of toxic waste, Jennifer Chambers, Detroit News, January 23, 2009 The digital television transition, migration to high-definition television receivers and the replacement of CRT's with flatscreens are all factors in the increasing number of discarded analog CRT-based television receivers. Technical limitations Compression artifacts and allocated bandwidth DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bandwidth and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2. When a compressed digital image is compared with the original program source, some hard-to-compress image sequences may have digital distortion or degradation. For example: quantization noise, incorrect color, blockiness, a blurred, shimmering haze. Due to the Discrete Cosine Transform compression used, the quantization noise is not uniformly distributed but tends to appear more near sharp edges (especially text and drawn lines as in cel animation), making it more noticeable than uniform Gaussian noise of comparable peak magnitude. Due to the motion-predictive temporal-differential encoding used, the quantization noise is increased in scenes with a lot of motion, especially motion that is fast, random, and/or complex (with many independent parts of the image moving differently.) (This is because the motion makes the encoding less efficient, so to compensate more data needs to be discarded by using coarser quantization.) In addition to pixellated noise near edges in the image, the quantization noise may also appear as banding in smooth shaded and gradient areas. Because of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant. However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human visual system to help mask these flaws, e.g. by allowing more artifacts during fast motion where the eye cannot track and resolve them as easily and, conversely, minimizing artifacts in still backgrounds that may be closely examined in a scene (since time allows). Broadcasters attempt to balance their desires to show high quality pictures and to generate revenue by using a fixed bandwidth allocation for more services. The fact that the video entertainment industry is highly competitive and the observation that most viewers don't seem highly concerned about image quality tend to ensure that the quality of broadcast DTV pictures is substantially less than the optimal quality the system can technically support. DVD Video, which also uses the MPEG-2 codec, has these same types of flaws. The same is true of the Dish Network (ECHOStar) DBS system, where the compression of standard-definition channels is heavy and artifacts are more noticeable. Buffering and preload delay Unlike analog televisions, digital televisions have a significant delay when changing channels, making "channel surfing" more difficult. Different devices need different amounts of preload time to begin showing the broadcast stream, resulting in an audio echo effect when two televisions in adjacent rooms of a house are tuned to the same channel. This effect is especially problematic if two TVs are in the same room, such as in a bar or a cafeteria. Effects of poor reception In weak signal areas (left) analog images become grainy, while digital (right) stay the same, until they break up, freeze, or disappear. Changes in signal reception from factors such as degrading antenna connections or changing weather conditions may gradually reduce the quality of analog TV. The nature of digital TV results in a perfect picture initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up noise or losing signal. Some equipment will show a picture even with significant damage, while other devices may go directly from perfect to no picture at all (and thus not show even a slightly damaged picture), or lock up, with audio dropping out and a freeze-frame displayed. This latter effect is known as the digital cliff or cliff effect. For remote locations, distant channels that as analog signals were previously usable in a snowy and degraded state may as digital signals be perfect or may become completely unavailable. In areas where transmitting antennas are located on mountains, viewers who are too close to the transmitter may find reception difficult or impossible because the strongest part of the broadcast signal passes above them. The use of higher frequencies will add to these problems, especially in cases where a clear line-of-sight from the receiving antenna to the transmitter is not available. Many intermittent signal fading conditions, such as the rapid-fade effect caused by reflections of UHF television signals from passing aircraft, will not produce intermittently-snowy video, but potential intermittent loss of the entire signal, which most receivers will display as a frozen ("paused") image or a black screen for the duration of the signal loss. Multi-path interference is a much more significant problem for DTV than for analog TV and affects reception, particularly when using simple antennas such as rabbit ears. This is perceived as "ghosting" in the analog domain, but this same problem manifests itself in a much more insidious way with DTV. (What was "ghosting" in analog becomes intersymbol interference (ISI), which causes data corruption, in digital TV. Beyond a certain point, corrupt data is as good as no data.) IEEE engineers recommend using an attic or outdoor antenna for DTV, if possible, rather than an indoor antenna, because reflections and other interactions of the signal with objects (including bodies) in the room will increase multipath interference. Unlike the problems of the preceding paragraph, multi-path can be worse for DTV under high signal conditions. It is perceived by the viewer as a spotty loss of audio or picture freezing and pixelation as people move about in the vicinity of the antenna and is often worse in wet weather due to increased reflection or re-polarization of the DTV signal arriving from multiple paths. In extreme cases the signal is lost completely. The cure is to employ a directional antenna outdoors, aligned with the transmitting location. Dynamic multipath interference, in which the delay and magnitude of reflections are rapidly changing, is particularly problematic for digital reception. While this just produces moving and changing ghost images for analog TV, it can render a digital signal impossible to decode. The 8VSB-based standards in use in North American ATSC broadcasts are particularly vulnerable to problems from dynamic multipath; this has the potential to severely limit mobile or portable use of digital television receivers. Solving the problem might require that different standards be adopted for mobile use. Limitations The greatest DTV detail level currently available is 1080i, which is a 1920 × 1080 interlaced widescreen format. Interlacing is done to reduce the image bandwidth to one-half of full-frame quality, which gives better frame update speed for quick-changing scenes such as sports, but at the same time reduces the overall image quality and introduces image flickering and "crawling scanlines" because of the alternating field refresh. Full-frame progressive-scan 1920 × 1080 (1080p) is part of the ATSC specification “MPEG-2 Video System Characteristics, with Amendment No. 1”, www.atsc.org , but is rarely if ever used by broadcasters due to the increased bandwidth requirements compared to transmitting 720p/1080i video. High frame-rate 1080p may become an option in the near future, as a result of recent technology advances such as H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video coding, allowing more detail to be sent via the same channel bandwidth allocations that are used now. The limitations of interlacing can be partially overcome through the use of advanced image processors in the consumer display device, such as the use of Faroudja DCDi and using internal frame buffers to eliminate scanline crawling. Conversion World map of digital television transition progress.Legend: As of late 2007, six countries had completed the process of turning off analog terrestrial broadcasting. Many other countries had plans to do so or were in the process of a staged conversion. IEEE in Jamaica also decided to switch over at the same time as the US. See also ATSC Standards ATSC tuner Broadcast television systems Digital radio including digital television broadcasting Digital television transition Digital terrestrial television in Australia Digital terrestrial television in Ireland Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom DMB-T/H, China's digital television standard DVB-T, Digital Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial DTV transition in the United States Electronic Programme Guide Gigaset High-definition television Interactive television ISDB, Japan's digital television standard LinuxTV List of digital television deployments by country Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) and Zapper North American broadcast television frequencies Personal video recorder Redesign project SBTVD, Brazil's digital television standard Set-top box (STB) System-on-a-chip TS file format References External links DVB Project - including data on digital TV deployments worldwide The FCC's U.S. consumer-oriented DTV website Information on the UK digital tv and radio changeover A wiki created by students at Carnegie Mellon University Digital TV Consumer test reports - UK Government-funded website to support Digital Switchover Video network graphics (bitmap or vector) ? 14 Steps to Digital Television (DTV) Conversion How to build a HDTV Antenna....CHEAP! 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1,483 | Macron | A macron, from Greek (makrón) meaning "long", is a diacritic placed over or under a vowel, originally used to mark a long (i.e., heavy) syllable in Græco-Roman metrics, but now also indicates that the vowel is long. (The opposite is a breve ˘, used to indicate originally a short syllable and now also a short vowel.) Distinctions between long and short vowels are usually phonemic. In the International Phonetic Alphabet the macron is used to indicate mid tone; the sign for a long vowel is a modified triangular colon. Syllable weight In Græco-Roman metrics and in the description of the metrics of other literatures, the macron was introduced and is still widely used to mark a long (i.e., heavy) syllable. Even the best and relatively recent classical Greek and Latin dictionaries P.G.W. Glare (ed.), Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford at the Clarendon Press 1990), p. xxiii: Vowel quantities. Normally only long vowels in a metrically indeterminate position are marked. are still only concerned with indicating the length (i.e., weight) of syllables; that is why most still do not indicate the length of vowels in syllables that are otherwise metrically determined. Though many ancient Roman and Greek textbooks employ the macron, it was not used in ancient Rome or Greece. The macron is to make reading a word easier. Vowel length The following languages or transliteration systems use the macron to mark long vowels: Slavicists use the macron to indicate a non-tonic long vowel, or a non-tonic syllabic liquid, such as on l, lj, m, n, nj, and r. Languages with this feature include standard and jargon varieties of Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian Годечкият Говор от Михаил Виденов,Издателство на българската академия на науките,София, 1978, p. 19: ...характерни за всички селища от годечкия говор....Подобни случай са характерни и за книжовния език-Ст.Стойков, Увод във фонетиката на българския език , стр. 151.. . Transcriptions of Arabic typically use macrons to indicate long vowels — ا (alif when pronounced as /aː/), و (waw, when pronounced as /uː/), and ي (ya', when pronounced as /iː/). Thus the Arabic word ثلاثة (three) is transliterated ṯalāṯah. Some modern dictionaries of classical Greek and Latin, where the macron is sometimes used in conjunction with the breve. However, many such dictionaries still have ambiguities in their treatment and distinction of long vowels or heavy syllables. The Hepburn romanization system of Japanese. Examples: kōtsū () "traffic" as opposed to kotsu () "bone" or "knack" (fig.) Latvian. "Ā", "ē", "ī", "ū" are separate letters that sort in alphabetical order immediately after "a", "e", "i", "u" respectively. Lithuanian. "Ū" is a separate letter but given the same position in collation as the unaccented "u". It marks a long vowel; other long vowels are indicated with an ogonek (which used to indicate nasalization, but no longer does): "ą", "ę", "į", "ų", "o" being always long in Lithuanian except for some recent loanwords. For the long counterpart of "i", "y" is used. Transcriptions of Nahuatl (spoken in Mexico). Since Nahuatl (Nāhuatl) (Aztecs' language) did not have a writing system. When Spanish conquistadors arrived, they wrote the language with their own alphabet without distinguishing long vowels. Over a century later, in 1645, Horacio Carochi defined macrons to mark long vowels ā, ē, ī and ō, and short vowels with grave (`) accents. This is rare nowadays since many people write Nahuatl without any orthographic sign and with the letters /k/, /s/ and /w/, not present in the original alphabet. Some projects prefer macron-based writing, as in Nahuatl Wikipedia. Modern transcriptions of Old English. Latin transliteration of Pali and Sanskrit. Polynesian languages: Hawaiian. The macron is called kahakō, and it indicates vowel length, which changes meaning and the placement of stress. Māori. Early writing in Māori did not distinguish vowel length. Some — notably the late Professor Bruce Biggs Yearbook of the Academy Council - 2000, Royal Society of New Zealand — have advocated that double vowels be written to mark long vowel sounds (e.g., Maaori), but he was more concerned that they be marked at all than with the method. The Māori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri o te Reo Māori) advocates that macrons be used to designate long vowels. The use of the macron is widespread in modern Māori, although sometimes the diaeresis mark is used instead (eg. "Mäori" instead of "Māori") if the macron is not available for technical reasons. The Māori words for macron are pōtae "hat", or tohuto. Tongan. Called the toloi, its usage is similar to that in Māori, including its substitution by a diaeresis. Tone The following languages or alphabets use the macron to mark tones: In the International Phonetic Alphabet, a macron over a vowel indicates a mid-level tone. In Pinyin, macrons are used over a, e, i, o, u, ü (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, ǖ) to indicate the first tone of Mandarin Chinese. The alternative to macron is the number 1 after the syllable, e.g. tā = ta1. Cantonese Yale Romanization uses the macron to represent the high level tone, as in yāt gāan chāan tēng. Other uses In French comic books that are hand-lettered all in capitals, the macron sometimes replaces the circumflex. In some German handwriting the a macron is used to distinguish u from n or instead of the umlaut. In some Finnish and Swedish comic books that are hand-lettered or in handwriting the macron is used instead of ä or ö, sometimes known colloquially as a "lazy man's umlaut". In some Portuguese handwriting, the macron is used instead of the tilde. In modernized Hepburn romanization of Japanese, an n with macron represents a syllabic n. In older handwriting such as the German Kurrentschrift, the macron over an a-e-i-o-u or ä-ö-ü stood for an n, or over an m or an n meant that the letter was doubled. This continued into print in English in the sixteenth century. Over a u at the end of a word, the macron indicated um as a form of scribal abbreviation. In Russian handwriting, a lowercase Т looks like a lowercase m, and a macron is often used to distinguish it from Ш, which looks like a lowercase w. Some writers also underline the letter ш to further reduce ambiguity. In music, the tenuto marking resembles the macron. In Kokota, ḡ is used for the normal /g/ sound, g without macron the voiced velar fricative /ɣ/; an n with macron (n̄) represents the velar nasal /ŋ/, n without macron the normal /n/ sound. Non-diacritical usage In medical prescriptions and other handwritten notes, macrons mean: over c, with, abbreviating the Latin word cum; over p, after, abbreviating post; over q, every, abbreviating quisque (inflected forms: quoque/quaque); over s, without, abbreviating sine; over x, except, formed by analogy, and not specifically from any Latin. In mathematics and statistics the macron is often used to indicate a mean (e.g., as the average value of ). In mathematics it may also denote the conjugate of a complex number, so that if , then In mathematics and physics it may denote that something is a vector, so that , although boldface and arrows commonly are also used. Technical notes +Pre-composed characters Upper Case Lower Case Character HTML Code Unicode Character HTML Code Unicode Ā Ā U+0100 ā ā U+0101 Ē Ē U+0112 ē ē U+0113 Ī Ī U+012A ī ī U+012B Ō Ō U+014C ō ō U+014D Ū Ū U+016A ū ū U+016B Ǖ Ǖ U+01D5 ǖ ǖ U+01D6 Ȳ U+0232 ȳ U+0233 In Unicode, "combining macron" is a combining diacritical mark with the code U+0304 (in HTML, ̄ or ̄). This is different from the "macron" at U+00AF ¯, from the "modifier letter macron" at U+02C9 ˉ and from the combining overline at U+0305 ̅. There are several precomposed characters; their HTML/Unicode numbers are as in the table to the right. In LaTeX a macron is created with the command "\=", for example: M\=aori. The row before the last is the letter Uu with diaeresis (Ü ü) and macron, used in pinyin. The final row is the letter Yy with macron, used sometimes in teaching Old English and Latin. See also Overbar Diacritics Combining macron below Vinculum References External links Diacritics Project — All you need to design a font with correct accents He Kupu o te Rā Information about typing macrons, macron support in email packages, and TXTing macrons. | Macron |@lemmatized macron:45 greek:4 makrón:1 meaning:2 long:19 diacritic:3 place:1 vowel:24 originally:2 use:26 mark:12 e:9 heavy:3 syllable:8 græco:2 roman:3 metric:3 also:6 indicate:14 opposite:1 breve:2 short:4 distinction:2 usually:1 phonemic:1 international:2 phonetic:2 alphabet:5 mid:2 tone:6 sign:2 modified:1 triangular:1 colon:1 weight:2 description:1 literature:1 introduce:1 still:4 widely:1 even:1 best:1 relatively:1 recent:2 classical:2 latin:7 dictionary:4 p:4 g:6 w:3 glare:1 ed:1 oxford:2 clarendon:1 press:1 xxiii:1 quantity:1 normally:1 metrically:2 indeterminate:1 position:2 concerned:2 length:5 otherwise:1 determine:1 though:1 many:3 ancient:2 textbook:1 employ:1 rome:1 greece:1 make:1 read:1 word:5 easier:1 following:2 language:6 transliteration:2 system:3 slavicists:1 non:3 tonic:2 syllabic:2 liquid:1 l:1 lj:1 n:10 nj:1 r:1 languages:1 feature:1 include:2 standard:1 jargon:1 variety:1 serbian:1 croatian:1 macedonian:1 czech:1 slovak:1 bulgarian:1 годечкият:1 говор:2 от:2 михаил:1 виденов:1 издателство:1 на:3 българската:1 академия:1 науките:1 софия:1 характерни:2 за:2 всички:1 селища:1 годечкия:1 подобни:1 случай:1 са:1 и:1 книжовния:1 език:2 ст:1 стойков:1 увод:1 във:1 фонетиката:1 българския:1 стр:1 transcription:3 arabic:2 typically:1 ا:1 alif:1 pronounce:3 aː:1 و:1 waw:1 uː:1 ي:1 ya:1 iː:1 thus:1 ثلاثة:1 three:1 transliterate:1 ṯalāṯah:1 modern:3 sometimes:5 conjunction:1 however:1 ambiguity:2 treatment:1 hepburn:2 romanization:3 japanese:2 example:2 kōtsū:1 traffic:1 oppose:1 kotsu:1 bone:1 knack:1 fig:1 latvian:1 ā:7 ē:7 ī:7 ū:7 separate:2 letter:10 sort:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 immediately:1 u:24 respectively:1 lithuanian:2 give:1 collation:1 unaccented:1 ogonek:1 nasalization:1 longer:1 ą:1 ę:1 į:1 ų:1 always:1 except:2 loanword:1 counterpart:1 nahuatl:4 speak:1 mexico:1 since:2 nāhuatl:1 aztecs:1 writing:3 spanish:1 conquistador:1 arrive:1 write:3 without:5 distinguish:4 century:2 later:1 horacio:1 carochi:1 define:1 ō:6 grave:1 accent:2 rare:1 nowadays:1 people:1 orthographic:1 k:1 present:1 original:1 project:2 prefer:1 base:1 wikipedia:1 old:3 english:3 pali:1 sanskrit:1 polynesian:1 hawaiian:1 call:2 kahakō:1 change:1 placement:1 stress:1 māori:8 early:1 notably:1 late:1 professor:1 bruce:1 biggs:1 yearbook:1 academy:1 council:1 royal:1 society:1 new:1 zealand:1 advocate:2 double:2 sound:3 maaori:1 method:1 commission:1 te:3 taura:1 whiri:1 reo:1 designate:1 widespread:1 although:2 diaeresis:3 instead:5 eg:1 mäori:1 available:1 technical:2 reason:1 pōtae:1 hat:1 tohuto:1 tongan:1 toloi:1 usage:2 similar:1 substitution:1 level:2 pinyin:2 ü:4 ǖ:5 first:1 mandarin:1 chinese:1 alternative:1 number:3 tā:1 cantonese:1 yale:1 represent:3 high:1 yāt:1 gāan:1 chāan:1 tēng:1 us:1 french:1 comic:2 book:2 hand:2 capital:1 replace:1 circumflex:1 german:2 handwrite:2 umlaut:2 finnish:1 swedish:1 ä:2 ö:2 know:1 colloquially:1 lazy:1 man:1 portuguese:1 handwriting:3 tilde:1 modernized:1 kurrentschrift:1 stand:1 meant:1 continue:1 print:1 sixteenth:1 end:1 um:1 form:3 scribal:1 abbreviation:1 russian:1 lowercase:3 т:1 look:2 like:2 often:2 ш:2 writer:1 underline:1 reduce:1 music:1 tenuto:1 resemble:1 kokota:1 ḡ:1 normal:2 voiced:1 velar:2 fricative:1 ɣ:1 nasal:1 ŋ:1 diacritical:2 medical:1 prescription:1 handwritten:1 note:2 mean:2 c:1 abbreviate:4 cum:1 post:1 q:1 every:1 quisque:1 inflected:1 quoque:1 quaque:1 sine:1 x:1 analogy:1 specifically:1 mathematics:3 statistic:1 average:1 value:1 may:2 denote:2 conjugate:1 complex:1 physic:1 something:1 vector:1 boldface:1 arrows:1 commonly:1 pre:1 composed:1 character:4 upper:1 case:2 lower:1 html:4 code:3 unicode:4 ȳ:2 combine:4 different:1 modifier:1 ˉ:1 overline:1 several:1 precomposed:1 table:1 right:1 latex:1 create:1 command:1 aori:1 row:2 last:1 uu:1 final:1 yy:1 teach:1 see:1 overbar:1 vinculum:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 need:1 design:1 font:1 correct:1 kupu:1 rā:1 information:1 type:1 support:1 email:1 package:1 txting:1 |@bigram phonetic_alphabet:2 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 czech_slovak:1 hepburn_romanization:2 ā_ē:3 ē_ī:3 ī_ū:1 alphabetical_order:1 spanish_conquistador:1 vowel_ā:1 ī_ō:2 grave_accent:1 pali_sanskrit:1 ä_ö:2 ö_ü:1 voiced_velar:1 velar_fricative:1 velar_nasal:1 diacritical_mark:1 external_link:1 |
1,484 | Gamma_World | Gamma World is a science fantasy role-playing game, originally designed by James M. Ward and Gary Jaquet, and first published by TSR in 1978. It was the first role-playing game in the post-apocalyptic subgenre, and borrowed heavily from James M. Ward's earlier product, Metamorphosis Alpha. Setting Gamma World takes place in the mid-25th century, more than a century after nuclear war decimated human civilization. The game's designers took inspiration from the post-apocalyptic novels and movies of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s; the first edition rules cite Brian Aldiss's Hothouse, Andre Norton's Star Man's Son (also published as Daybreak - 2250 A.D.), Sterling E. Lanier's Hiero's Journey, and Ralph Bakshi's Wizards. The war that destroyed civilization in Gamma World is only vaguely described in most editions of the game, and what details are provided change from version to version. (The first two editions place the final war in the years AD 2309-2322, and ascribe the final annihilation to a terrorist group called "The Apocalypse" and the ensuing retaliation by surviving factions.) All editions, however, agree that the war destroyed all government and society beyond a village scale, plunging the world into a Dark Age, where readily available technology is at best quasi-medieval (in the first edition, the crossbow is described as "the ultimate weapon" for most Gamma World societies). The post-apocalyptic inhabitants of Earth now refer to their planet as "Gamma World" (or "Gamma Terra" in later editions). Gamma World is a chaotic, dangerous environment that little resembles pre-apocalyptic Earth. The weapons unleashed during the final war were strong enough to alter coastlines, level cities, and leave large areas of land lethally radioactive. These future weapons bathed the surviving life of Earth in unspecified forms of radiation and biochemical agents, producing widespread, permanent mutations among humans, animals, and plants. As a result, fantastic mutations such as multiple limbs, super strength, and psychic powers are relatively common. (Random tables of such improbable mutations are a hallmark of every edition of Gamma World.) Many animals and plants are sentient, semi-civilized species competing with surviving humans. Both humans and non-humans have lost most knowledge of the pre-war humans, whom Gamma World's inhabitants refer to as "the Ancients". The only group with significant knowledge of the Ancients are isolated robots and other artificial intelligences that survived the war—though these machines tend to be damaged, in ill-repair, or insanely hostile to organic beings. Gamma World player characters include unmutated humans (referred to as "Pure Strain Humans" in most editions), mutated humans, sentient animals or plants, and androids. Characters explore Ancient ruins and strange post-apocalyptic societies to gain knowledge of the Ancients and social status for themselves. Common adventure themes involve protecting fragile post-apocalypse societies, retrieving Ancient "artifacts" (science fiction gadgetry such as power armor, laser pistols, and anti-grav sleds), or mere survival against the multifarious dangers of the future (such as gun-toting mutant rabbits, rampaging ancient death machines, or other Gamma Worlders bent on mayhem). A recurrent source of conflict on Gamma World is the rivalry among the "Cryptic Alliances", semi-secret societies whose ideological agendas—usually verging on monomania—often bring them into conflict with the rest of the Gamma World. For example, the Pure Strain Human "Knights of Genetic Purity" seek to exterminate all mutants, while the all-mutant "Iron Society" wants to eliminate unmutated humans. Other rivalries involve attitudes towards Ancient technology, with some Alliances (such as "The Restorationists") seeking to rebuild Ancient society, while others (such as "The Seekers") want to destroy remaining artifacts. System Throughout the game's many editions, Gamma World has almost always remained strongly influenced by Dungeons & Dragons and other role-playing games of the time. Player characters in both games, for instance, have six Attributes rated on a scale of 3 to 18, randomly generated by rolling six-sided dice. Four of those abilities (Charisma, Constitution, Dexterity, and Intelligence) have the same name and functions in both games, and the Physical Strength and Mental Strength attributes in Gamma World closely parallel Strength and Wisdom in D&D. Character generation is mostly random, and features one of the game's most distinctive mechanics, the mutation tables. Players who choose to play mutants roll dice to randomly determine their characters' mutations. All versions of Gamma World eschew a realistic portrayal of genetic mutation, instead giving characters fantastic abilities (often resembling comic book superpowers) such as electrical generation, infravision, quills, sonic attacks, multiple limbs, dual brains, total body carapaces, precognition, planar travel, weather manipulation, telepathy, and "life leeching". Characters in all versions of Gamma World earn experience points during their adventures, which cause the character's Rank (in some editions, Level) to increase. Unlike D&D, however, the first two editions of Gamma World do not use a concept of character class, and increases in Rank do not affect the character's skills or combat abilities. In fact, in the first three editions of the game, character rank is primarily a measure of the character's social prestige. The game mechanics used for resolving character actions, on the other hand, greatly varied between Gamma World editions. The first two editions, like the early editions of D&D, depend heavily on matrix-based mechanics, where two factors (one representing the actor or attacker, and one representing the opponent) are cross-referenced on a chart. For some actions, such as attacks, the number located on the matrix represents a number the acting player must roll. For other actions (such as determining the result of radiation exposure), the matrix result indicates a non-negotiable result. Gamma Worlds first two editions had a variety of specialized matrices for different situations (again, closely resembling D&D). The third edition rules replace specialized matrices with the Action Control Table (ACT), a single, color-coded chart that allowed players to determine whether a character action succeeded, and the degree of success, with a single roll. (The ACT concept is drawn from the Marvel Super Heroes game published by TSR shortly before development of Gamma World's third edition.) The ACT requires the referee to cross-reference the difficulty of a character action with the ability score used to complete that action, determining which column of the ACT is used for that action. The character's player then rolls percentile dice; the result is compared to appropriate column, determining a degree of success or failure and eliminating the need for second result roll (e.g. the damage roll that many games require after a successful combat action). Gamma World's fourth edition abandoned the Action Control Table in favor of mechanics derived from the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition rules, although some mechanics presage Alternity and the 3rd edition D&D rules. (For example, Gamma Worlds 4th edition inverted the Armor Class (AC) scale its predecessors inherited, so that higher AC numbers indicate better armor.) AD&D-borrowed concepts such as character classes and Attribute Checks were also prominent in the 4th edition. The fifth and sixth versions of Gamma World take the game's tendency of mimicking other games to its logical end, adopting the rules systems of other games wholesale: The fifth edition of the game uses the Alternity rules, while the sixth edition uses the d20 Modern rules. Both of those systems, not coincidentally, use game mechanics inspired by D&D, giving Gamma World characters six ability scores, and measuring character development through increases in character class level. History Gamma World originated with Mutant, a game proposal from an unidentified TSR staffer in the late 1970s. TSR editor Tim Kask turned over the incomplete notes for Mutant to James M. Ward and Gary Jaquet, who drew upon Ward's existing rules for Metamorphosis Alpha to develop Gamma World (Anon 1982). First Edition (1978) The original Gamma World boxed set (containing a 56-page rulebook, a map of a devastated North America, and dice) was released in 1978. TSR went on to publish three accessories for the 1st edition of the game: GW1, Legion of Gold by Gary Gygax, Luke Gygax, and Paul Reiche III (ISBN 0-935696-61-X) GW2, Famine in Far-Go by Michael Price (ISBN 0-935696-88-1) Gamma World Referee's Screen (ISBN 0-935696-78-4) Grenadier Miniatures also supported the game, with a line of licensed miniatures. At least one other TSR product was announced -- Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega, an adaptation of Metamorphosis Alpha's campaign setting to Gamma World's rules (Anon 1981). Work on the adaptation was halted when a 2nd edition of Gamma World was announced. This was later released as Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega using the Amazing Engine Rules. Second Edition (1983) The second edition Gamma World boxed set (with rules designed by Ward, Jaquet, and David James Ritchie) was released in 1983. Four accessories were released for this version: GW3, The Cleansing War of Garik Blackhand by Michael Price & Garry Spiegle (ISBN 0-88038-015-2) GW4, The Mind Masters by Phil Taterczynski" (ISBN 0-88038-029-2) GWAC1, Gamma World Referee's Screen and Mini Module" (ISBN 0935696784 GWAC2, Gamma World Character Sheets (ISBN 0-88038-139-6) TSR also produced four packs of Gamma World miniatures. TSR started production on a third adventure module, which was to be assigned the identification code GW5. This module was not published (Williams 1989). However, in 2007 a very professional fan produced work of GW5 was published on the internet. It was based around the only information available for the never released TSR module - that of the working title "Rapture of the Deep". Third Edition (1985) The 3rd edition of Gamma World was another boxed set, credited to James M. Ward and published in September 1985. It introduced the Action Control Table, a color-coded table use to resolve nearly all actions in the game. (Color-coded tables were something of a trend at TSR in mid-1980s. After 1984's Marvel Super-Heroes proved the viability of the concept, TSR revised Gamma World, Star Frontiers, and Top Secret to use similar tables.) Unfortunately for TSR, this version of the rules became notorious for the number of editorial mistakes, including cross-references to rules that didn't appear in the boxed set. The errors were serious enough that TSR published a Gamma World Rules Supplement containing the "missing" rules. The Rules Supplement was sent to gamers who requested it by mail, and included in reprintings of the boxed set (Ward and Johnson 1986). The five modules TSR published for Gamma World's 3rd edition introduced the setting's first multi-module metaplot, which involved rebuilding an Ancient space shuttle: GW6, Alpha Factor by Kim Eastland (ISBN 0-88038-294-5) GW7, Beta Principle by Bruce Nesmith (ISBN 0-88038-404-2) GW8, Gamma Base by Kim Eastland (ISBN 0-88038-405-0) GW9, Delta Fragment by Kim Eastland (ISBN 0-88038-406-9) GW10, Epsilon Cyborgs by Kim Eastland (ISBN 0-88038-477-8) TSR dropped the 3rd edition of Gamma World from its product line before the multi-module storyline could be completed. A clever fan of the game published an acclaimed conclusion to the module series (by closely following Kim Eastland's original storyline) under the title "GW11 Omega Project" in 2003. Despite its editorial issues, the 3rd edition rules were well-received enough to win the 1986/1987 Gamer's Choice Award for "Best Science-Fiction Roleplaying Game" (Rabe 1987). Fourth Edition (1992) The 4th edition of Gamma World (ISBN 1-56076-401-5) was a 192-page softcover book, written by Bruce Nesmith and James M. Ward, published in May 1992 by TSR. This version of the game abandoned the 3rd edition's Action Control Table for mechanics resembling 2nd Edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons. TSR published five accessories for the 4th edition: GWA1, Treasures of the Ancients by Dale "Slade" Henson (ISBN 1560765771 GWA2, The Overlord of Bonparr by Jack A. Barker (ISBN 1-56076-599-2) GWQ1, Mutant Master by Bruce Nesmith (ISBN 1-56076-411-2) GWQ2, All Animals Are Equal by Dale "Slade" Henson (ISBN 1-56076-638-7) GWQ3, Home Before the Sky Falls by Tim Beach, Paul Riegel, Drew Bittner, and Kim Eastland (ISBN 1-56076-674-3) TSR's Gamma World development team announced at Gencon 1993 that no further products would be released for the 4th edition. They also announced that TSR had restarted development of Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega, but that the manuscript would be completed using the Amazing Engine rules. Fifth edition (2000) The 5th version of Gamma World was a supplement for the science-fiction game Alternity. (In a nod to Gamma Worlds reputation for being repeatedly revised, the book's back cover states "That's right, it's the return of the Gamma World".) The Gamma World Campaign Setting (ISBN 0-7869-1629-X) was a 192-page softcover book written by Andy Collins and Jeff Grubb, published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast (WOTC), only a month after WOTC announced its cancellation of the Alternity line. This version of Gamma World is unique as the only one not to have accessories or supplements. Omega World (2002) In September 2002, Omega World, a d20 System mini-game based on Gamma World and written by Jonathan Tweet, was published in Dungeon 94/Polyhedron 153. Tweet does not plan any expansions for the game, although it received a warm reception from Gamma World fans and players new to the concept alike. Sixth Edition (2003) In November 2002, Sword & Sorcery Studios (SSS) announced that it had licensed the Gamma World setting from WOTC in order to produce a sixth version of the game. SSS's version of the game, which reached the market in 2003, used the d20 Modern system, and mimicked D&Ds "three core book" model with three hardcover manuals:Gamma World Player's Handbook by Bruce Baugh, Ian Eller, Mikko Rautalahti, and Geoff Skellams (ISBN 1-58846-069-X)Gamma World Game Master's Guide by Bruce Baugh, Werner Hagen, Lizard, and Doug Oglesby (ISBN 1-58846-068-1)Gamma World Mutants and Machines by David Bolack, Gareth Hanrahan, Patrick O'Duffy, and Chuck Wendig (ISBN 1-58846-067-3) Sword & Sorcery Studios also published three paperback supplements for the d20 version of Gamma World:Gamma World Beyond the Horizon by Ellen Kiley (ISBN 1588469778)Gamma World Cryptic Alliances and Unknown Enemies by Owen K. C. Stephens, Alejandro Melchor, and Geoff Skellams (ISBN 1588469662 Gamma World Out of the Vaults by James Maliszewski, John R. Snead, and Ellen P. Kiley (ISBN 1-58846-022-3) This new version of the game presented a more sober and serious approach to the concept of a post-nuclear world, at odds with the more light-hearted and adventurous approach taken by previous editions; it was also the first edition of the game to include fantastical nanotechnology on a large scale. In August 2005, White Wolf announced that it was reverting the rights to publish Gamma World products back to Wizards of the Coast, putting the game out of print again. The Sword & Sorcery Studios products had received a poor critical reception, with longterm fans of the game complaining of poor editing, inconsistent rules, a sparse number of mutations compared with previous editions, and a failure to capture the whimsical, freewheeling atmosphere the line had been known for. Several critics and fans considered Tweet's Omega World to be a superior d20 System treatment of the Gamma World concept. Cultural legacy The primary and often unattributed legacy of Gamma World are the computer games Fallout and Wasteland. The factions of Fallout and the cleaner communities in Wasteland both can be attributed to influences from Gamma World. As the video game series Final Fantasy is inspired by D&D, SaGa series is inspired by Gamma World. Final Fantasy Legend features three classes of Human, Mutant (with the moves ESP and Leech Life), and shape changing Monsters that mirror the pure humans, mutants, and intelligent beasts of Gamma World. Character abilities and power are improved in various ways instead of a linear experience progression. Guns, lasers, grenades, and technological weapons are along side the swords and bows. Also the sequel Final Fantasy Legend II features robots which were add ons in the later additions of Gamma World. The plot lines to both games feature exploring worlds created in ancient times. Some editions of the Gamma World rulebook include details of an anti-mutant militant organization calling itself the Knights of Genetic Purity, which exists solely and explicitly to be a mustache-twirlingly evil enemy for players of the game to fight. The science-fiction television program Andromeda produced an episode in its second season entitled "Immaculate Perception" which featured a group called the Knights of Genetic Purity, and having them play exactly the same role in the general scheme of things. The game may also have contributed to the growth of "dark humor" in roleplaying games. The two most uttered last words of Gamma World were listed as first: "I wonder what this does," and second: "I know what this does". Printings/versions Gamma World First Edition First Printing The first printing of the first edition has a "lizard wizard" logo on the box and rulebook. 2nd and 3rd printings of the first edition game have a regular TSR wizard logo and they also state inside the manual which printing number they are. See alsoAfter The Bombd20 Apocalypsed20 FutureMetamorphosis AlphaRiftsRoad HogsTravellerTorgTwilight 2000References Anon 1981. 'RPGA Interview with... Jim Ward.' RPGA News, 3:6-12 (Winter 1981-82). Anon 1982. 'RPGA Interview with... "Jake" Jaquet.' Polyhedron, 4:6-10 (1982). GamingReport.com: S&S Studios To Publish Gamma World Campaign Setting For d20 Modern, retrieved June 16, 2006. Rabe, Jean 1987. 'Notes from HQ,' Polyhedron, 38:3,23 (1987). Stuff of Legends - Grenadier Models: Gamma World, retrieved June 16, 2006. Stuff of Legends - TSR: Gamma World, retrieved June 16, 2006. Sword & Sorcery Online: Arthaus Reverts Rights to RAVENLOFT and GAMMA WORLD to Wizards of the Coast, retrieved June 7, 2006. Tweet, Jonathan 2003. JoTW Game OW-FAQ, retrieved June 16, 2006. Ward, James and Harold Johnson 1986. 'Gamma III.' Dragon, 117:76-80 (Jan 1986). Williams, Skip 1989. 'Advice for All Mutants.' 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1,485 | Economy_of_Canada | Canada has the ninth largest economy in the world (measured in US dollars at market exchange rates), is one of the world's wealthiest nations, and a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Eight (G8). As with other developed nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, centred in Central Canada, with the automobile industry especially important. Canada has one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. List of countries by economic freedom Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, and pattern of production. As of October 2007, Canada's national unemployment rate of 5.9% is its lowest in 33 years. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 3.6% in Alberta to a high of 14.6% in Newfoundland and Labrador. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada had 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France. As of 2008, Canada’s total government debt burden is the lowest in the G8. International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 76% of exports and 65% of imports as of 2007. Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006. Economic sectors Canada has considerable natural resources spread across its varied regions. In British Columbia, the forestry industry is of great importance, while the oil industry is important in Alberta and Newfoundland and Labrador. Northern Ontario is home to a wide array of mines, while the fishing industry has long been central to the character of the Atlantic provinces, though it has recently been in steep decline. Canada has mineral resources of coal, copper, iron ore, and gold. These industries are increasingly becoming less important to the overall economy. Only some 4% of Canadians are employed in these fields, and they account for less than 6% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds and lead. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging industry. The relatively large reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes. Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992. Such industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more accommodating. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is the renewable resources that have raised some of the greatest concerns. After decades of escalating overexploitation the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, have in recent years moved to a more sustainable model. Energy Nodding donkey pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca Tar Sands give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia according to USGS. In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy. Environment Canada - Energy Consumption Canada vs. The OECD: An Environmental Comparison Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminum industry in Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia. Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is that while Western Canada is one of the world's richest sources of energy, the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario has fewer native sources of power. It is, however, cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power. In times of high oil prices this means that the majority of Canada's population suffers, while the West benefits. The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians. Agriculture A grain elevator in Alberta Canada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains. The Relative Position of Canada in the World Grain Market Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States but also to Europe and East Asia. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century. As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of "green box" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for, which is the WTO threshold. Consequently, Canada used only $848.2 million of its $4.3 billion subsidy allowance granted by the WTO. Canada's Domestic Agricultural Supports and the World Trade Organization Manufacturing The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not follow this pattern; manufacturing has always been secondary, though certainly not unimportant. Partly because of this, Canada did not suffer as greatly from the pains of deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s. Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighboring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as it exempts companies from the high health insurance costs they must pay in the United States. Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc.. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States. Deindustrialization in Canada has become a serious problem, especially in Ontario (which is very dependent on the automotive industry), with foreign businesses closing plants across the board. The economic crisis is only worsening the situation, with even more plants closing (Oshawa and Windsor, Ontario being especially hard hit). Service sector The Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing some three quarters of Canadians and accounting for over two thirds of GDP. CIA World Factbook - Canada The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a relatively small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years the rise of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States) and Future Shop (a subsidiary of the US based Best Buy), have led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs. The second largest portion of the service sector is the business services, employing only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto and Calgary (see Banking in Canada). The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the purview of the government. The health care industry has been rapidly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it. Canada has an important high tech industry, and also an entertainment industry creating content both for local and international consumption. Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada. Political issues Regional imbalances The Canadian economy differs greatly from region to region. Traditionally Central Canada has been the economic engine of Canada, home to more than half of its population and much of its industry. Recent years have seen rapid growth in Western Canada as trade with Asia has enriched British Columbia and oil wealth provided a major boost to Alberta and Saskatchewan. The four Atlantic provinces, though once the centre of economic activity, underwent a major decline in the late 19th century and have traditionally been significantly poorer than the rest of Canada, especially after the recent collapse of the fishing industry. Recent years have seen some significant moves towards diversification, especially as offshore oil and gas wealth have begun to flow into the region. Quebec has also traditionally been poorer than the Canadian average although by a lesser margin than the Atlantic provinces. In more recent years Newfoundland and Labrador have started to see a change in their economy, being called the "Celtic tiger of Canada," (in a comparison to the economic transformation in Ireland); it has also been called a "mini Alberta" because of new oil and gas exploration, although many young Newfoundlanders emigrate to Alberta for higher-paying jobs. Relations with the U.S. Canada and the United States share a deep and common trading relationship. Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30 year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth. The Daily, Friday, January 5, 2007. Labour Force Survey Disputes over trade tariffs, multi-lateral military action and controversial Canadian legislation such as same-sex marriage, disability rights, racism, immigration law, and legal medical marijuana have raised tensions and cooled relations between these two countries. Despite these differences, the United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. 81% of Canada's exports go to the United States, and 67% of Canada's imports are from the United States. Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments basis, by country or country grouping Trade with Canada makes up 23% of America's exports and 17% of its imports. FTD - Statistics - Trade Highlights - Top Trading Partners By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, FTD - Statistics - Country Data - U.S. Trade Balance with European Union and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. FTD - Statistics - Country Data - U.S. Trade Balance with South and Central America Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy. Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 406 million people of the three North American countries. The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector. The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its Northern neighbor. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S. At $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked and both countries share hydro power facilities on the Western borders. While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian Governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the Court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry. In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade. Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor; at the end of 1999, the stock of U.S. direct investment was estimated at $116.7 billion, or about 72% of total foreign direct investment in Canada. U.S. investment is primarily in Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance. Canada is the third-largest foreign investor in the United States. At the end of 1999, the stock of Canadian direct investment in the United States was estimated at $90.4 billion. Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services. Median household income comparison A quarterly report prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit on behalf of Barclays Wealth in 2007 estimated that there were 1,100,000 millionaires (USD) in Canada (page 7). Free Trade Agreements (source: DFAIT) Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, superseded by NAFTA, which includes Mexico) North American Free Trade Agreement (Signed 01-Jan-1994) Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Signed 01-Jan-1997) Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Signed 05-Jul-1997) Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Signed 01-Nov-2002) Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Signed 26-Jan-2008) Nations that have Free Trade Agreements with Canada are in dark blue, nations in negotiations are in cyan. Canada is green. Canada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs: Jordan South Korea Dominican Republic Singapore Andean Community (Negotiations have already concluded with Peru and Colombia) CARICOM (Caribbean Community) European Union http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20090427.wfreetrade0427/BNStory/National/home Canada is also involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks: Canada Central American Free Trade Agreement Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) See also Canadian and American economies compared Economic history of Canada Economy of Ontario Economy of Quebec Economy of Alberta History of the petroleum industry in Canada List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product External links OECD's Canada country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Canada Notes There is an apparent discrepancy between the factbook's 65.4% of GDP estimate for Canada's debt in 2006 , and the 30.2% trumpeted by the Canadian government at . Both numbers are correct. The reason is that the Canadian government uses the OECD's net financial liabilities, while the CIA World Factbook uses a different measure of financial liabilities. The OECD itself reports the gross number as 68%, and the net number as 30.2% . The net number places Canada as one of the least indebted G8 countries, while the gross number is less flattering. References Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992. Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. 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1,486 | Difference_engine | The Difference Engine was an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Both logarithmic and trigonometric functions can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful sets of numbers. History Closeup of the London Science Museum's difference engine showing some of the number wheels and the sector gears between columns. The sector gears on the left show the double-high teeth very clearly. The sector gears on the middle-right are facing the back side of the engine, but the single-high teeth are clearly visible. Notice how the wheels are mirrored, with counting up from left-to-right, or counting down from left-to-right. Also notice the metal tab between "6" and "7". That tab trips the carry lever in the back when "9" passes to "0" in the front during the add steps (Step 1 and Step 3). Per Georg Scheutz's third Difference engine J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army conceived the idea in a book published in 1786, but failed to find funding to progress this further. In 1822, Charles Babbage proposed the use of such a machine in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society on 14 June entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables". This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The British government initially financed the project, but withdrew funding when Babbage repeatedly asked for more money whilst making no apparent progress on building the machine. Babbage went on to design his much more general analytical engine but later produced an improved difference engine design (his "Difference Engine No. 2") between 1847 and 1849. Inspired by Babbage's difference engine plans, Per Georg Scheutz built several difference engines from 1855 onwards; one was sold to the British government in 1859. Martin Wiberg improved Scheutz's construction but used his device only for producing and publishing printed logarithmic tables. Based on Babbage's original plans, the London Science Museum constructed a working Difference Engine No. 2 from 1989 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth. In 2000, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design, which had to be corrected. Once completed, both the engine and its printer worked flawlessly, and still do. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th century technology, resolving a long-standing debate whether Babbage's design would actually have worked. (One of the reasons formerly advanced for the non-completion of Babbage's engines had been that engineering methods were insufficiently developed in the Victorian era.) In addition to funding the construction of the output mechanism for the Science Museum's Difference Engine No. 2, Nathan Myhrvold commissioned the construction of a second complete Difference Engine No. 2, which will be on exhibit at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California from 10 May 2008 through April 2009. Operation The difference engine consists of a number of columns, numbered from 1 to N. The machine is able to store one decimal number in each column. The machine can only add the value of a column n + 1 to column n to produce the new value of n. Column N can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration. The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns. Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation. Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of X. Each of the columns from 3 to N is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial. Timing In the Babbage design, one iteration i.e. one full set of addition and carry operations happens once for four rotations of the columns axes. Odd and even columns alternatively perform the addition every two rotations. The sequence of operations for column is thus: Addition from column Carry propagation Addition to column Rest Steps Each iteration creates a new result, and is accomplished in four steps corresponding to four complete turns of the handle shown at the far right in the picture below. The four steps are: Step 1. All even numbered columns (2,4,6,8) are added to all odd numbered columns (1,3,5,7) simultaneously. An interior sweep arm turns each even column to cause whatever number is on each wheel to count down to zero. As a wheel turns to zero, it transfers its value to a sector gear located between the odd/even columns. These values are transferred to the odd column causing them to count up. Any odd column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. Step 2. Carry propagation is accomplished by a set of spiral arms in the back that poll the carry levers in a helical manner so that a carry at any level can increment the wheel above by one. That can create a carry, which is why the arms move in a spiral. At the same time, the sector gears are returned to their original position, which causes them to increment the even column wheels back to their original values. The sector gears are double-high on one side so they can be lifted to disengage from the odd column wheels while they still remain in contact with the even column wheels. Step 3. This is like Step 1, except it is odd columns (3,5,7) added to even columns (2,4,6), and column one has its values transferred by a sector gear to the print mechanism on the left end of the engine. Any even column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. Step 4. This is like Step 2, but for doing carries on even columns, and returning odd columns to their original values. Subtraction The engine represents negative numbers as ten's complements. Subtraction amounts to addition of a negative number. This works in exactly the same manner that modern computers perform subtraction, known as two's complement. Method of differences The London Science Museum's difference engine, built from Babbage's design. The design has the same precision on all columns, but when calculating converging polynomials, the precision on the higher-order columns could be lower. The Engine is not a replica (there never was one built during Babbage's lifetime); therefore this is the first one - the original. As the differential engine cannot do multiplication, it is unable to calculate the value of a polynomial. However, if the initial value of the polynomial (and of its finite differences) is calculated by some means for some value of X, the difference engine can calculate any number of nearby values, using the method generally known as the method of finite differences. The principle of a difference engine is Newton's method of divided differences. It may be illustrated with a small example. Consider the quadratic polynomial and suppose we want to tabulate the values p(0), p(0.1), p(0.2), p(0.3), p(0.4) etc. The table below is constructed as follows: the second column contains the values of the polynomial, the third column contains the differences of the two left neighbors in the second column, and the fourth column contains the differences of the two neighbors in the third column: xp(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 2diff1(x) = ( p(x+0.1) - p(x) )diff2(x) = ( diff1(x+0.1) - diff1(x) )0.002.00-0.280.040.101.72-0.240.040.201.48-0.200.040.301.28-0.160.401.12 Notice how the values in the fourth column are constant. This is no mere coincidence. In fact, if you start with any polynomial of degree n, the column number n + 1 will always be constant. This crucial fact makes the method work, as we will see next. We constructed this table from the left to the right, but now we can continue it from the right to the left down a diagonal in order to compute more values of our polynomial. To calculate p(0.5) we use the values from the lowest diagonal. We start with the third column constant value of 0.04 and copy it down the column. Then we continue the second column by adding 0.04 to -0.16 to get -0.12. Next we continue the first column by taking its previous value, 1.12 and adding the -0.12 from the second column. Thus p(0.5) is 1.12-0.12 = 1.0. In order to compute p(0.6), we iterate the same algorithm on the p(0.5) values: take 0.04 from the third column, add that from the second column's value -0.12 to get -0.08, then add that from the first column's value 1.0 to get 0.92, which is p(0.6). This process may be continued ad infinitum. The values of the polynomial are produced without ever having to multiply. A difference engine only needs to be able to add. From one loop to the next, it needs to store 2 numbers in our case (the last elements in the first and second columns); if we wanted to tabulate polynomials of degree n, we'd need enough storage to hold n numbers. Babbage's difference engine No. 2, finally built in 1991, could hold 8 numbers of 31 decimal digits each and could thus tabulate 7th degree polynomials to that precision. The best machines from Scheutz were able to store 4 numbers with 15 digits each. Initial values The initial values of columns can be calculated by first manually calculating N consecutive values of the function and by backtracking, i.e. calculating the required differences. Col gets the value of the function at the start of computation . Col is the difference between and ... If the function to be calculated is a polynomial function, expressed as the initial values can be calculated directly from the constant coefficients a0, a1,a2, ..., an without calculating any data points. The initial values are thus: Col = a0 Col = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... + an Col = 2a2 + 6a3 + 14a4 + 30a5 + ... Col = 6a3 + 36a4 + 150a5 + ... Col = 24a4 + 240a5 + ... Col = 120a5 + ... Use of derivatives Functions that are not polynomial functions but are infinitely differentiable can be expressed as power series, for example as a Taylor series. The initial values can be calculated to any degree of accuracy; if done correctly the engine will give exact results for first N steps. After that, the engine will only give an approximation of the function. The Taylor series expresses the function as a sum of its derivatives. For many functions the higher derivatives are trivial to obtain; the sine function at 0 has derivates of 0 or for all derivates. Setting 0 as the start of computation we get the simplified Maclaurin series The same method of calculating the initial values from the coefficients can be used as for polynomial functions. The polynomial constant coefficients will now have the value Curve fitting The problem with the methods described above is that errors will accumulate and the series will tend to diverge from the true function. A solution which guarantees an constant maximum error is to use curve fitting. A minimum of N values are calculated evenly spaced along the range of the desired calculations. Using a curve fitting technique like Gaussian reduction a N-1th degree polynomial interpolation of the function is found. With the optimized polynomial, the initial values can be calculated as above. References Further reading See also Per Georg Scheutz Martin Wiberg Charles Babbage Ada Lovelace Pinwheel calculator Allan Bromley Analytical engine J. H. Müller Antikythera mechanism External links The London Science Museum exhibition on the Difference Engine Meccano Difference Engine #1 Meccano Difference Engine #2 Difference Engine in Lego Difference Engine workings with animations Difference Engine No1 specimen piece at the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney | Difference_engine |@lemmatized difference:33 engine:37 automatic:1 mechanical:1 calculator:2 design:10 tabulate:4 polynomial:21 function:15 logarithmic:2 trigonometric:1 approximate:1 compute:4 many:2 useful:1 set:8 number:17 history:2 closeup:1 london:4 science:5 museum:7 show:3 wheel:8 sector:7 gear:7 column:47 left:3 double:2 high:7 teeth:2 clearly:2 middle:1 right:6 face:1 back:4 side:2 single:1 visible:1 notice:3 mirror:1 count:4 leave:4 also:3 metal:1 tab:2 trip:1 carry:10 lever:4 pass:3 front:1 add:9 step:13 per:3 georg:3 scheutz:5 third:5 j:2 h:2 müller:2 engineer:1 hessian:1 army:1 conceive:1 idea:1 book:1 publish:2 fail:1 find:2 funding:2 progress:2 charles:2 babbage:15 propose:1 use:10 machine:6 paper:1 royal:1 astronomical:2 society:1 june:1 entitle:1 note:1 application:1 machinery:1 computation:4 mathematical:1 table:4 decimal:3 system:1 power:2 crank:1 handle:2 british:2 government:2 initially:1 finance:1 project:1 withdraw:1 repeatedly:1 ask:1 money:1 whilst:1 make:2 apparent:1 build:4 go:1 much:1 general:1 analytical:2 later:1 produce:4 improved:1 inspire:1 plan:2 several:1 onwards:1 one:11 sell:1 martin:2 wiberg:2 improve:1 construction:3 device:1 print:3 base:1 original:6 construct:4 working:2 doron:1 swade:1 curator:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 birth:1 printer:3 originally:1 complete:4 conversion:1 drawing:2 suitable:1 engineering:2 manufacturer:1 reveal:1 minor:1 error:3 correct:1 work:4 flawlessly:1 still:2 tolerance:1 achievable:1 century:1 technology:1 resolve:1 long:1 stand:1 debate:1 whether:1 would:1 actually:1 reason:1 formerly:1 advance:1 non:1 completion:1 method:8 insufficiently:1 develop:1 victorian:1 era:1 addition:6 fund:1 output:1 mechanism:3 nathan:1 myhrvold:1 commission:1 second:7 exhibit:1 computer:2 mountain:1 view:1 california:1 may:3 april:1 operation:3 consist:1 n:14 able:3 store:4 value:41 new:2 constant:7 display:1 possibly:1 calculation:2 current:1 iteration:3 program:1 initial:9 start:5 derive:2 first:8 derivative:5 x:9 timing:1 e:2 full:1 happen:1 four:4 rotation:2 ax:1 odd:8 even:9 columns:3 alternatively:1 perform:2 every:1 two:4 sequence:1 thus:4 propagation:2 rest:1 create:2 result:2 accomplish:2 correspond:1 turn:3 far:2 picture:1 simultaneously:1 interior:1 sweep:1 arm:3 cause:3 whatever:1 zero:2 transfer:3 locate:1 activate:2 spiral:2 poll:1 helical:1 manner:2 level:1 increment:2 move:1 time:1 return:2 position:1 lift:1 disengage:1 remain:1 contact:1 like:3 except:1 end:1 subtraction:3 represent:1 negative:2 ten:1 complement:2 amount:1 exactly:1 modern:1 know:2 precision:3 calculate:15 converge:1 order:3 could:3 low:2 replica:1 never:1 built:1 lifetime:1 therefore:1 differential:1 cannot:1 multiplication:1 unable:1 however:1 finite:2 mean:1 nearby:1 generally:1 principle:1 newton:1 divided:1 illustrate:1 small:1 example:2 consider:1 quadratic:1 suppose:1 want:2 p:12 etc:1 follow:1 contain:3 neighbor:2 fourth:2 xp:1 mere:1 coincidence:1 fact:2 degree:5 always:1 crucial:1 see:2 next:3 continue:4 diagonal:2 copy:1 get:5 take:2 previous:1 iterate:1 algorithm:1 process:1 ad:1 infinitum:1 without:2 ever:1 multiply:1 need:3 loop:1 case:1 last:1 element:1 enough:1 storage:1 hold:2 finally:1 digit:2 best:1 manually:1 consecutive:1 backtrack:1 required:1 col:8 express:3 directly:1 coefficient:3 data:1 point:1 infinitely:1 differentiable:1 series:5 taylor:2 accuracy:1 correctly:1 give:2 exact:1 approximation:1 sum:1 trivial:1 obtain:1 sine:1 derivates:2 simplified:1 maclaurin:1 curve:3 fit:1 problem:1 describe:1 accumulate:1 tend:1 diverge:1 true:1 solution:1 guarantee:1 maximum:1 fitting:2 minimum:1 evenly:1 space:1 along:1 range:1 desired:1 technique:1 gaussian:1 reduction:1 interpolation:1 optimized:1 reference:1 read:1 ada:1 lovelace:1 pinwheel:1 allan:1 bromley:1 antikythera:1 external:1 link:1 exhibition:1 meccano:2 lego:1 animation:1 specimen:1 piece:1 powerhouse:1 sydney:1 |@bigram mechanical_calculator:1 trigonometric_function:1 charles_babbage:2 celebrate_anniversary:1 victorian_era:1 quadratic_polynomial:1 ad_infinitum:1 decimal_digit:1 col_col:5 infinitely_differentiable:1 curve_fitting:2 polynomial_interpolation:1 ada_lovelace:1 antikythera_mechanism:1 external_link:1 |
1,487 | Khuriya_Muriya_Islands | Map of the Khuriya Muriya Islands The Khuriya Muriya Islands or Kuria Muria Islands (; transliterated: or – in antiquity the islands were called the Zenobii Islands or Zenobiou Islands (; ) or Doliche (Greek: Δολίχη); Location: are an external territory in the Khuriya Muriya Bay (the classical Latin: Sinus Sachalites, Greek: Σαχαλίτης κόλπος) of the Arabian Sea 40 km off the southeastern coast of the sultanate of Oman, consisting of five islands, forming part of the Shalim and the Hallaniyat Islands Province of the Governorate of Dhofar, with a total area of 73 km², notably (from west to east): IslandArabianTransliterationAreakm²HeightmCoordinates Al-Hasikiyah جزيرة الحاسكية Ǧazīrat al-Ḥāsikiyya 2 155 Al-Sawdaالجزيرة السوداء al-Ǧazīra al-sawdāʾ 11 399 Al-Hallaniyahجزيرة الحلانية Ǧazīrat al-Ḥallāniyya 56 501 Qarzawit جرزعوت Ǧazīrat Ǧarzaʿūt 0.3 70 Al-Qibliyahالجزيرة القبلية Ǧazīra al-qibliyya 3 168 Khuriya Muriya Islandsجزر خوريا موريا Ǧuzur Ḥūriyā Mūriyā 73 501 The islands are mentioned by several early writers. Ptolemy (vi. 7. § 47) numbers them as seven small islands lying in the Sinus Sachalites, towards (from India) the entrance of the "Persian Gulf" (likely the modern Gulf of Aden). (Cf. Arrian Per. M. Eryth. p. 19.) In 1854 the hami (sultan) of Muscat (later Muscat and Oman, now Oman), ceded the islands to Britain and in 1868 they were attached to the Aden Settlement (in Yemen). As a British possession until 1967, they were first administered by the British Governor of Aden till 1953, next by the British High Commissioner there, and, from 1963, by the British Chief Political Resident of the Persian Gulf (based in Bahrain). On 30 November 1967, the British Ambassador to the United Nations, Lord Caradon announced that Britain had decided in accordance with the wishes of the local inhabitants that the islands would be returned to the Muscat and Oman sultanate instead of to South Yemen. The Times, December 1, 1967 Despite criticism from President Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi of the then newly established People's Republic of South Yemen, the transfer to Oman proceeded. The Times, December 1, 1967 See also Al-Hallaniyah References Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, (ISBN 0-691-03169-X), p. 4. External links 1911 Britannica WorldStatesmen - Oman Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Zenobii ins." Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Doliche" Nautical Information (Sailing Directions) | Khuriya_Muriya_Islands |@lemmatized map:1 khuriya:4 muriya:4 islands:3 island:9 kuria:1 muria:1 transliterate:1 antiquity:1 call:1 zenobii:2 zenobiou:1 doliche:2 greek:3 δολίχη:1 location:1 external:2 territory:1 bay:1 classical:3 latin:1 sinus:2 sachalites:2 σαχαλίτης:1 κόλπος:1 arabian:1 sea:1 km:1 southeastern:1 coast:1 sultanate:2 oman:6 consist:1 five:1 form:1 part:1 shalim:1 hallaniyat:1 province:1 governorate:1 dhofar:1 total:1 area:1 notably:1 west:1 east:1 al:11 hasikiyah:1 جزيرة:1 الحاسكية:1 ǧazīrat:3 ḥāsikiyya:1 sawdaالجزيرة:1 السوداء:1 ǧazīra:2 sawdāʾ:1 hallaniyahجزيرة:1 الحلانية:1 ḥallāniyya:1 qarzawit:1 جرزعوت:1 ǧarzaʿūt:1 qibliyahالجزيرة:1 القبلية:1 qibliyya:1 islandsجزر:1 خوريا:1 موريا:1 ǧuzur:1 ḥūriyā:1 mūriyā:1 mention:1 several:1 early:1 writer:1 ptolemy:1 vi:1 number:1 seven:1 small:1 lie:1 towards:1 india:1 entrance:1 persian:2 gulf:3 likely:1 modern:1 aden:3 cf:1 arrian:1 per:1 eryth:1 p:2 hami:1 sultan:1 muscat:3 late:1 cede:1 britain:2 attach:1 settlement:1 yemen:3 british:5 possession:1 first:1 administer:1 governor:1 till:1 next:1 high:1 commissioner:1 chief:1 political:1 resident:1 base:1 bahrain:1 november:1 ambassador:1 united:1 nation:1 lord:1 caradon:1 announce:1 decide:1 accordance:1 wish:1 local:1 inhabitant:1 would:1 return:1 instead:1 south:2 time:2 december:2 despite:1 criticism:1 president:1 qahtan:1 muhammad:1 shaabi:1 newly:1 establish:1 people:1 republic:1 transfer:1 proceed:1 see:1 also:1 hallaniyah:1 reference:1 richard:1 talbert:1 barrington:1 atlas:1 roman:1 world:1 isbn:1 x:1 link:1 britannica:1 worldstatesmen:1 hazlitt:2 gazetteer:2 ins:1 nautical:1 information:1 sail:1 direction:1 |@bigram persian_gulf:2 gulf_aden:1 sultan_muscat:1 muscat_oman:2 external_link:1 |
1,488 | Bone | Drawing of a human femur. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure they are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue, that gives it rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and about 300 in an infant. Functions Bones have ten main functions:Mechanical Protection — Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs. Shape — Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported. Movement — Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics. Sound transduction — Bones are important in the mechanical aspect of overshadowed hearing. Synthetic Blood production — The marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process called haematopoiesis.Metabolic Mineral storage — Bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus. Growth factor storage — Mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others. Fat Storage — The yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids Acid-base balance — Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts. Detoxification — Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion.Characteristics The primary tissue of bone, osseous tissue, is a relatively hard and lightweight composite material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the osseous tissue that gives bones their rigidity). It has relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile strength of 104-121 MPa, meaning it resists pushing forces well, but not pulling forces. While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. All bones consist of living and dead cells embedded in the mineralized organic matrix that makes up the osseous tissue. Structure Gross anatomy Individual bone structure A femur with a cortex of compact bone and medulla of trabecular bone Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but rather has some spaces between its hard elements. Compact bone or (Cortical bone) The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its minimal gaps and spaces. This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult skeleton. Compact bone may also be referred to as dense bone. Trabecular bone Filling the interior of the organ is the trabecular bone tissue (an open cell porous network also called cancellous or spongy bone) which is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass, but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone. Cellular structure There are several types of cells constituting the bone; Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells which descend from osteoprogenitor cells. They are located on the surface of osteoid seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. They robustly produce alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme that has a role in the mineralisation of bone, as well as many matrix proteins. Osteoblasts are the immature bone cells. Bone lining cells are essentially inactive osteoblasts. They cover all of the available bone surface and function as a barrier for certain ions. Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts which have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix which they themselves produce. The spaces which they occupy are known as lacunae. Osteocytes have many processes which reach out to meet osteoblasts and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication. Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. They have also been shown to act as mechano-sensory receptors—regulating the bone's response to stress and mechanical load. They are mature bone cells. Osteoclasts are the cells responsible for bone resorption (remodeling of bone to reduce its volume). Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship's lacunae or resorption pits. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of the bone surface. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate. Molecular structure Matrix The majority of bone is made of the bone matrix. It has inorganic and organic parts. Bone is formed by the hardening of this matrix entrapping the cells. When these cells become entrapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes. Inorganic The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form of hydroxyapatite. The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralised osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). Mineralisation involves osteoblasts secreting vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on. Organic The organic part of matrix is mainly composed of Type I collagen. This is synthesised intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported, forming fibrils. The organic part is also composed of various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. Factors present include glycosaminoglycans, osteocalcin, osteonectin, bone sialo protein, osteopontin and Cell Attachment Factor. One of the main things that distinguishes the matrix of a bone from that of another cell is that the matrix in bone is hard. Woven or lamellar Collagen fibres of woven bone Bone is first deposited as woven bone, in a disorganized structure with a high proportion of osteocytes in young and in healing injuries. Woven bone is weaker, with a small number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly. It is replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a low proportion of osteocytes. Lamellar bone is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). The fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces. After a break, woven bone quickly forms and is gradually replaced by slow-growing lamellar bone on pre-existing calcified hyaline cartilage through a process known as "bony substitution." Types There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much greater in length than width. They are comprised mostly of compact bone and lesser amounts of marrow, which is located within the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are those of the wrist, ankle and kneecap. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are the sesamoid bones. Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum. Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. The bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones. Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform. Formation The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two processes: Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull; the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. The steps in intramembranous ossification are: Development of ossification center Calcification Formation of trabeculae Development of periosteum Endochondral ossification Endochondrial ossification Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is formed from cartilage. The steps in endochondral ossification are: Development of cartilage model Growth of cartilage model Development of the primary ossification center Development of the secondary ossification center Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). Bone marrow Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow , but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow, or fatty marrow. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the marrow bones of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones. Remodeling Remodeling or bone turnover is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person's life. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via paracrine cell signalling, are referred to as bone remodeling units. Purpose The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress) but also to shape and sculpture the skeleton during growth. Calcium balance The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations. Repair Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. Netter, p. 187-189, A scholarly review of the subject. Paracrine cell signalling The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical factors which either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodelling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other. Osteoblast stimulation Osteoblasts can be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue. Bone building through increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorbtion of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorbtion of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin. Osteoclast inhibition The rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation. Disorders There are many disorders of the skeleton. One of the more prominent is osteoporosis. Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP). Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments. Other Other disorders of bone include: Bone fracture Osteomyelitis Osteosarcoma Osteogenesis imperfecta Osteochondritis Dissecans Bone Metastases Osteology The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve maceration - boiling fleshed bones to remove large particles, then hand-cleaning. Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can be made from endoskeletal or external bones such as antler or tusk. Alternatives to bony endoskeletons There are several evolutionary alternatives to mammilary bone; though they have some similar functions, they are not completely functionally analogous to bone. Exoskeletons offer support, protection and levers for movement similar to endoskeletal bone. Different types of exoskeletons include shells, carapaces (consisting of calcium compounds or silica) and chitinous exoskeletons. A true endoskeleton (that is, protective tissue derived from mesoderm) is also present in Echinoderms. Porifera (sponges) possess simple endoskeletons that consist of calcareous or siliceous spicules and a spongin fiber network. Exposed bone Bone penetrating the skin and being exposed to the outside can be both a natural process in some animals, and due to injury: A deer's antlers are composed of bone. Instead of teeth, the extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws. A compound fracture occurs when the edges of a broken bone puncture the skin. Though not strictly speaking exposed, a bird's beak is primarily bone covered in a layer of keratin over a vascular layer containing blood vessels and nerve endings. Terminology Several terms are used to refer to features and components of bones throughout the body: Bone featureDefinition articular process A projection that contacts an adjacent bone. articulation The region where adjacent bones contact each other—a joint. canal A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels. condyle A large, rounded articular process. crest A prominent ridge. eminence A relatively small projection or bump. epicondyle A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint. facet A small, flattened articular surface. foramen An opening through a bone. fossa A broad, shallow depressed area. fovea A small pit on the head of a bone. labyrinth A cavity within a bone. line A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as a ridge. malleolus One of two specific protuberances of bones in the ankle. meatus A short canal. process A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.) ramus An arm-like branch off the body of a bone. sinus A cavity within a cranial bone. spine A relatively long, thin projection or bump. suture Articulation between cranial bones. trochanter One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur. tubercle A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity. tuberosity A projection or bump with a roughened surface. Several terms are used to refer to specific features of long bones: Bone featureDefinition diaphysis The long, relatively straight main body of a long bone; region of primary ossification. Also known as the shaft. epiphysis The end regions of a long bone; regions of secondary ossification. epiphyseal plate Also known as the growth plate or physis. In a long bone it is a thin disc of hyaline cartilage that is positioned transversely between the epiphysis and metaphysis. In the long bones of humans, the epiphyseal plate disappears by twenty years of age. head The proximal articular end of the bone. metaphysis The region of a long bone lying between the epiphysis and diaphysis. neck The region of bone between the head and the shaft. See also List of bones of the human skeleton Terms for anatomical location Orthopaedics Footnotes References Netter, Frank H. (1987). Musculoskeletal system: anatomy, physiology, and metabolic disorders. New Jersey, Summit: Ciba-Geigy Corporation. ISBN 0914168886 External links Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling] [http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=400 A good basic overview of bone biology from the Science Creative Quarterly Bone Health at Got Bones? 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1,489 | Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States | States that border the Gulf of Mexico are shown in red The Gulf Coast region of the United States comprises the coasts of states which border the Gulf of Mexico. The states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida are known as the Gulf States. All Gulf States are located in the Southern region of the United States. Geography and climate The Gulf Coast is intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi. Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is (or was) marshland. The western portions of the Gulf Coast include many barrier islands and peninsulas, including the Padre Island and Galveston Island. These landforms protect numerous bays and inlets. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, consists primarily of marshland. Geographically it is technically part of the east coast of the US, though it is not popularly thought of as such. Because of its proximity to the subtropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf Coast area is vulnerable to hurricanes. Floods and severe thunderstorms also affect the region. Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur (they are much more frequent in the inland portions of those states). Earthquakes are extremely rare, but a surprise 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10, 2006, was felt from New Orleans to Tampa. Economic activities NOAA map of the 3,858 oil and gas platforms extant off the Gulf Coast in 2006. The Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds and nurseries for ocean life that drive the fishing and shrimping industries. The Port of South Louisiana (between New Orleans and Baton Rouge in Laplace) and the Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume. As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U.S. are on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, combined with easy access to shipping, have made the Gulf Coast the heart of the U.S. petrochemical industry. The coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms. Besides the above, the region features other important industries including aerospace and biomedical research, as well as older industries such as agriculture and — especially since the development of the Gulf Coast beginning in the 1920s and the increase in wealth throughout the United States — tourism. History The history of the Gulf Coast is an important part of United States history; as economically important as the Gulf Coast is to the United States today, it arguably once held an even greater position of prominence in the U.S. The first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish. The Louisiana Purchase and the Texas Revolution, and made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during first half of the 19th century. As the U.S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward, the Gulf Coast was a natural magnet in the South providing access to shipping lanes and both national and international commerce. The development of sugar and cotton production (enabled by slavery) allowed the South to prosper. By the mid 19th century, the South, including the Gulf, by some standards was populated by the nation's wealthiest people. The city of New Orleans in particular, being situated as a key to commerce on the Mississippi River and in the Gulf, had become the largest U.S. city not on the Atlantic seaboard and the fourth largest in the U.S. overall. Two major events were turning points in the earlier history of the Gulf Coast region. The first was the American Civil War, which caused severe damage to some economic sectors in the South, including the Gulf Coast. The second event was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900. At the end of the 19th century Galveston was, with New Orleans, one of the most developed cities in the region. The city had the third busiest port in the U.S. and its financial district was known as the "Wall Street of the Southwest." The storm mostly destroyed the city (which has never regained its former glory) and set back development in the region. Since these darker times the Gulf Coast has been hit with numerous other hurricanes. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast as a Category 4 hurricane. It was the most damaging storm in the history of the United States, causing upwards of $80 billion in damages, and leaving over 1,800 dead. Other than the hurricanes, the Gulf Coast has redeveloped dramatically over the course of the 20th century. The petrochemical industry, launched with the major discoveries of oil in Texas and spurred on by further discoveries in the Gulf waters, has been a vehicle for development in the central and western Gulf which has spawned development on a variety of fronts in these regions. Texas in particular has benefited tremendously from this industry over the course of the 20th century and economic diversification has made the state a magnet for population and home to more Fortune 500 companies than any other U.S. state. Florida has grown as well, driven to a great extent by its long established tourism industry but also by its position as a gateway to the Caribbean and Latin America. As of 2006, these two states are the second and fourth most populous states in the nation, respectively (see this article). Other areas of the Gulf Coast have benefited less, though economic development fueled by tourism has greatly increased property values along the coast, and is now a severe danger to the valuable but fragile ecosystems of the Gulf Coast. Metropolitan areas The following are the 10 largest metropolitan areas along the Gulf Coast of the United States. Rank Metropolitan Area Population State 1 Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown 5,628,101 Texas 2 Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater 2,587,967 Florida 3 New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner 1,319,589 Louisiana 4 Sarasota–Bradenton–Venice 651,862 Florida 5 Mobile–Daphne–Fairhope 588,246|| Alabama |- | 6 ||align=left | Lafayette–Acadiana || 538.470 Louisiana 7 Cape Coral–Fort Myers 514,295 Florida 8 Pensacola–Ferry Pass–Brent 437,135|| Florida |- | 9 ||align=left | Corpus Christi || 409,741 Texas 10 Gulfport–Biloxi–Pascagoula '''383,558 Mississippi See also Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission Geography of the United States List of U.S. ports Florida Panhandle Emerald Coast West Florida Mississippi Gulf Coast Notes | Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States |@lemmatized state:21 border:2 gulf:36 mexico:4 show:1 red:1 coast:33 region:8 united:9 comprise:1 texas:8 louisiana:7 mississippi:5 alabama:2 florida:8 know:2 locate:1 southern:1 geography:2 climate:1 intersect:1 numerous:3 river:2 large:4 much:2 land:2 along:5 marshland:3 western:2 portion:2 include:5 many:1 barrier:1 island:3 peninsula:1 padre:1 galveston:3 landforms:1 protect:1 bay:1 inlet:1 central:2 part:4 eastern:1 consist:1 primarily:2 geographically:1 technically:1 east:1 u:10 though:2 popularly:1 thought:1 proximity:1 subtropical:1 water:2 area:5 vulnerable:1 hurricane:6 flood:1 severe:3 thunderstorm:1 also:3 affect:1 tornado:1 infrequent:1 occur:1 frequent:1 inland:1 earthquake:2 extremely:1 rare:1 surprise:1 september:1 felt:1 new:5 orleans:5 tampa:2 economic:5 activity:2 noaa:1 map:1 oil:4 gas:2 platform:2 extant:1 major:3 center:1 provide:2 breed:1 ground:1 nursery:1 ocean:1 life:1 drive:2 fishing:1 shrimp:1 industry:7 port:6 south:5 baton:1 rouge:1 laplace:1 houston:2 two:3 ten:2 busy:3 world:1 cargo:1 volume:1 seven:1 top:1 discovery:3 deposit:1 offshore:1 combine:1 easy:1 access:2 shipping:1 make:3 heart:1 petrochemical:2 contain:1 nearly:1 besides:1 feature:1 important:3 aerospace:1 biomedical:1 research:1 well:2 old:1 agriculture:1 especially:1 since:2 development:6 beginning:1 increase:2 wealth:1 throughout:1 tourism:3 history:5 economically:1 today:1 arguably:1 hold:1 even:1 great:2 position:2 prominence:1 first:3 european:1 settle:1 french:1 spanish:1 purchase:1 revolution:1 half:1 century:5 population:3 continue:1 expand:1 frontier:1 westward:1 natural:1 magnet:2 ship:1 lane:1 national:1 international:1 commerce:2 sugar:2 cotton:1 production:1 enable:1 slavery:1 allow:1 prosper:1 mid:1 standard:1 populate:1 nation:2 wealthy:1 people:1 city:5 particular:2 situate:1 key:1 become:1 atlantic:1 seaboard:1 fourth:2 overall:1 event:2 turn:1 point:1 early:1 american:1 civil:1 war:1 cause:2 damage:2 sector:1 second:2 end:1 one:1 developed:1 third:1 financial:1 district:1 wall:1 street:1 southwest:1 storm:2 mostly:1 destroy:1 never:1 regain:1 former:1 glory:1 set:1 back:1 darker:1 time:1 hit:1 katrina:1 strike:1 category:1 damaging:1 upwards:1 billion:1 leave:3 dead:1 redevelop:1 dramatically:1 course:2 launch:1 spur:1 vehicle:1 spawn:1 variety:1 front:1 benefit:2 tremendously:1 diversification:1 home:1 fortune:1 company:1 grow:1 extent:1 long:1 establish:1 gateway:1 caribbean:1 latin:1 america:1 populous:1 respectively:1 see:2 article:1 less:1 fuel:1 greatly:1 property:1 value:1 danger:1 valuable:1 fragile:1 ecosystem:1 metropolitan:3 following:1 rank:1 baytown:1 st:1 petersburg:1 clearwater:1 metairie:1 kenner:1 sarasota:1 bradenton:1 venice:1 mobile:1 daphne:1 fairhope:1 align:2 lafayette:1 acadiana:1 cape:1 coral:1 fort:1 myers:1 pensacola:1 ferry:1 pas:1 brent:1 corpus:1 christi:1 gulfport:1 biloxi:1 pascagoula:1 marine:1 fishery:1 commission:1 list:1 panhandle:1 emerald:1 west:1 note:1 |@bigram gulf_mexico:4 vulnerable_hurricane:1 severe_thunderstorm:1 baton_rouge:1 petrochemical_industry:2 hurricane_katrina:1 st_petersburg:1 fort_myers:1 corpus_christi:1 christi_texas:1 florida_panhandle:1 |
1,490 | Feces | Horse feces (foreground), Horse (background) Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. Etymology The word faeces is the plural of the Latin word fæx meaning "dregs". There is no singular form in the English language, making it a plurale tantum. There are many colloquial terms for feces, of which some are considered profanity (such as shit and crap) while others (such as poo, poop, plop, big jobs, jobbies, number twos, dookie, doody, and turds) are not. Terms such as dung, scat, spoor and droppings are normally used to refer to animal feces. Stool is a common term normally used in reference to human feces, but can also be used for that of other species. (e.g. in medicine, to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition a stool sample is sometimes requested to be used for testing purposes.) Ecology Cassowaries disperse seeds via their feces. Earthworm feces aid in provision of minerals and plant nutrients in an accessible form After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of that material are expelled from its body as waste. Though it is lower in energy than the food it came from, feces may still contain a large amount of energy, often 50% of that of the original food. Biology (4th edition) N.A.Campbell (Benjamin Cummings NY, 1996) ISBN 0-8053-1957-3 This means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, which can sense odors from long distances. Some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a basic food, but also a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. This is known as coprophagia, and occurs in various animal species such as young elephants eating their mother's feces to gain essential gut flora, or by other animals such as monkeys. Feces are also important as a signal. Kestrels, for instance, are able to detect the feces of their prey (which reflect ultraviolet), allowing them to identify areas where there are large numbers of voles. Seeds may also be found in feces. Animals which eat fruit are known as frugivores. The advantage in having fruit for a plant is that animals will eat the fruit and unknowingly disperse the seed in doing so. This mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and are often subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the digestive system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant, but is even provided with its own fertilizer. Organisms which subsist on dead organic matter or detritus are known as detritivores, and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form which plants and other autotrophs may once again absorb. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle. To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces return to the area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea. Human feces In humans, defecation may occur (depending on the individual and the circumstances) from once every two or three days to several times a day. Hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet and health. Normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. Its brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, which comes from dead red blood cells. In newborn babies, fecal matter is initially yellow/green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone. In time, as the body starts expelling bilirubin from dead red blood cells, it acquires its familiar brown appearance, unless the baby is breast feeding, in which case it remains soft, pale yellowish, and not completely malodorous until the baby begins to eat significant amounts of other food. Throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces. A "green" stool is from rapid transit of feces through the intestines (or the consumption of certain blue or green food dyes in quantity), and "clay-like" appearance to the feces is the result of a lack of bilirubin. Bile overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious diarrhea can cause blood in one's stool. Black stools caused by blood usually indicate a problem in the intestines (the black is digested blood), whereas red streaks of blood in stool are usually caused by bleeding in the rectum or anus. Food may sometimes make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn and beans, mainly because of their high dietary fiber content. Beets may turn feces different hues of red. Artificial food coloring in some processed foods such as highly colorful packaged breakfast cereals can also cause unusual feces coloring if eaten in sufficient quantities. Laboratory examination of feces, usually termed as stool examination or stool test, is done for the sake of diagnosis, for example, to detect presence of parasites and/or their eggs (ova) or to detect disease spreading bacteria. Personal hygiene All cultures practice some form of personal cleansing after expelling feces. In Western society, the use of toilet paper is widespread. Other paper products were also historically used (before the advent of flush toilets). Several companies market toilet tissue or wipes for babies and campers. In some European countries, the use of a bidet for additional cleaning is common. In South Asia and South-east Asia, showers are provided for use in toilets. In Islam, washing is prescribed by ritual cleansing with water, of which washing of the anus is part of the ablutions. The "act" of passing toilet, in Islam, requires entering the toilet room with left foot first, ritual cleansing with water using the left hand, and stepping out with right foot first, Protection From Toilet Jinns? as toilet rooms are considered by Islam "houses of Satan". In many Muslim countries, piped water is supplied inside toilets for both bathing and washing in addition to flushing of fecal matter. Such toilets are also common in Greece, Spain and parts of Eastern Europe. In India, the anus is also washed with water using the left hand. As with all such practices, hand washing after use of the toilet has become a very important public health issue. In England, the Indian toilet was adapted as the WC or water closet and widely deployed in England during the reign of Queen Victoria. London was the stage for several instances of food poisoning resulting from workers handling food after using the toilet. Cleansing of the anus was an arbitrary practice left to personal choice and facility available. In Ancient Rome, a communal sponge was used, which was then rinsed in a bucket of salt water. In Japan, flat sticks were used in ancient times, being replaced by toilet paper as the country became more "Westernized". Toilets that include built-in bidets have now become widely popular in private homes; these can be very sophisticated appliances, allowing users to adjust the temperature, direction and force of water jets, and offering warm air to dry the anus and surrounding regions. The toilet automatically flushes when the buttocks leave the seat. Bristol Stool Scale Consistency and shape of stools may be classified medically according to the Bristol Stool Scale. Pica, a disorder where non-food items are eaten, can cause unusual stool. Intestinal parasites and their ova (eggs) can sometimes be visible to the naked eye. Odor The molecule hydrogen sulfide contributes to the smell of feces. The distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols (sulfur-containing compounds), as well as the inorganic gas hydrogen sulfide. These are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods with spices may result in the spices being undigested and adding to the odor of feces. The perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consumption or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Of course, human perception of the odor is a subjective matter; an animal that eats feces may be attracted to its odor. Vegetarian diets produce feces with less odor from the standpoint of human perception than diets containing large amounts of meat, in both human beings and animals; for example, the odor of feces produced by carnivores such as lions or tigers tends to be much stronger than that of feces produced by herbivores such as horses or cows. Pets Pets can be trained to use litter boxes or wait to be let out via several methods, such as crate training for dogs. Several companies market carpet cleaning products aimed at pet owners. However pet feces can be cleaned with just dishwashing detergent or liquid soap. Uses Human feces may be used as fertilizer (See also: Humanure) in the form of biosolids (treated sewage sludge). The feces of animals is often used as fertilizer; see manure and guano. Some animal feces, especially those of the camel, bison and cow, is used as fuel when dried out. Animal dung, besides being used as fuel, is occasionally used as a cement to make adobe mudbrick huts or even in throwing sports such as cow pat throwing or camel dung throwing contests. Kopi Luwak (pronounced ˈkopi ˈluwak), or Civet coffee, is coffee made from coffee berries which have been eaten by and passed through the digestive tract of the Asian Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). See also Fewmets for the use of faeces in Venery, or Hunting in the Middle Ages Animal feces The feces of non-human animals often have special names. For example: Non-human animals generally – As bulk material – dung Individually – droppings Cattle – Bulk material – cow dung Individual droppings – cow pats, meadow muffins etc. Figuratively – bullshit Deer (and formerly other quarry animals) – fewmets. Wild carnivores – scat. Otter – spraint. Birds (individual) – droppings (also include urine as white crystals of uric acid). Seabirds or bats (large accumulations) – guano. Herbivorous insects, such as caterpillars and leaf beetles – frass. Earthworms, lugworms etc – worm casts (feces extruded at ground surface). Feces when used as fertilizer (usually mixed with animal bedding and urine) – manure. See also Ecological sanitation Everyone Poops Night soil Toilet Toilet paper Anal cleansing Cow dung Manure Coprophilous fungi Bibliography References Further reading External links A FAQ site on feces Free reference linking feces and illness Liver biochemistry MedFriendly's Article on Feces | Feces |@lemmatized horse:3 feces:47 foreground:1 background:1 faeces:3 fæces:1 see:5 spell:1 difference:1 waste:2 product:3 animal:18 digestive:3 tract:2 expel:4 anus:6 cloaca:1 defecation:2 etymology:1 word:2 plural:1 latin:1 fæx:1 mean:2 dreg:1 singular:1 form:5 english:1 language:1 make:4 plurale:1 tantum:1 many:4 colloquial:1 term:4 consider:2 profanity:1 shit:1 crap:1 others:2 poo:1 poop:1 plop:1 big:1 job:1 jobbies:1 number:2 two:2 dookie:1 doody:1 turd:1 dung:7 scat:2 spoor:1 droppings:4 normally:3 use:23 refer:1 stool:12 common:4 reference:3 human:14 also:12 specie:2 e:1 g:1 medicine:1 diagnose:1 presence:3 absence:1 medical:1 condition:1 sample:1 sometimes:3 request:1 test:2 purpose:1 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1,491 | Boston_Herald | The Boston Herald is a daily newspaper that serves Boston, Massachusetts, United States and its surrounding area. It was started in 1846 and is one of the oldest daily newspapers in the USA. It has been awarded four Pulitzer Prizes in its history, the last being in 1954. History The Herald's history can be traced back through two lineages, the Daily Advertiser and the old Boston Herald, and two media moguls, William Randolph Hearst and Rupert Murdoch. The old Herald headquarters at 255 Washington Street (built 1878) The Original Boston Herald The original Boston Herald was founded in 1846 by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French & Company. The paper was published as a single two-sided sheet, selling for one cent. Its first editor, William O. Eaton, just 22 years old, said "The Herald will be independent in politics and religion; liberal, industrious, enterprising, critically concerned with literacy and dramatic matters, and diligent in its mission to report and analyze the news, local and global." In 1847 the Boston Herald absorbed the Boston American Eagle and the Boston Daily Times. The Boston Herald and Boston Journal In October 1917, John H. Higgins, the publisher and treasurer of the Boston Herald New York Times "James H. Higgins, Retired Publisher; Also Was Treasurer of Boston Herald for 10 Years After Merger With Traveler DIES AT CENTRAL VALLEY In 1917 He Bought The Boston Journal and Consolidated It With The Herald". The New York Times, page 13, August 1,, 1938. bought out its next door neighbor The Boston Journal and created The Boston Herald and Boston Journal New York Times "Boston Papers Merged.; Herald Absorbs The Journal and Will Use the Joint Title". The New York Times, page 12, October 6, 1917. The Boston Traveler Even earlier than the Herald, the weekly American Traveler was founded in 1825 as a bulletin for stagecoach listings. The Boston American In 1904, William Randolph Hearst began publishing his own newspaper in Boston called The American. Hearst ultimately ended up purchasing the Daily Advertiser in 1917. By 1938, the Daily Advertiser had changed to the Daily Record, and The American had become the Sunday Advertiser. A third paper owned by Hearst, called the Afternoon Record, which had been renamed the Evening American, merged in 1961 with the Daily Record to form the Record American. The Sunday Advertiser and Record American would ultimately be merged in 1972 into The Boston Herald Traveler a line of newspapers that stretched back to the old Boston Herald. The Boston Herald-Traveler In 1946, Herald-Traveler Corporation acquired Boston radio station WHDH. Two years later, WHDH-FM was licensed, and on November 26, 1957, WHDH-TV made its début as an ABC affiliate on channel 5. In 1961, WHDH-TV's affiliation switched to CBS. Herald-Traveler Corp. operated for years under temporary authority from the Federal Communications Commission stemming from controversy over luncheon meetings the newspaper's chief executive had with an FCC commissioner during the original licensing process (Some Boston broadcast historians accuse the Boston Globe of being covertly behind the proceeding. The Herald Traveler was Republican in sympathies, and the Globe then had a firm policy of not endorsing political candidates.) The FCC ordered comparative hearings, and in 1969 a competing applicant, Boston Broadcasters, Inc. was granted a construction permit to replace WHDH-TV on channel 5. Herald-Traveler Corp. fought the decision in court -- by this time, revenues from channel 5 were all but keeping the newspaper afloat -- but its final appeal ran out in 1972, and on March 19 WHDH-TV was forced to surrender channel 5 to the new WCVB-TV. The Boston Herald-Traveler and Record American Without a television station to subsidize the newspaper, the Herald Traveler was no longer able to remain in business, and the newspaper was sold to Hearst Corporation, which published the rival all-day newspaper, the Record American. The two papers were merged to become an all-day paper called the Boston Herald-Traveler and Record American in the morning and Record-American and Boston Herald Traveler in the afternoon. The afternoon edition was soon dropped and the unwieldy name shortened to Boston Herald American, with the Sunday edition called the Sunday Herald Advertiser. The Herald American was printed in broadsheet format, and failed to target a particular readership; where the Record-American had been a typical city tabloid, the Herald-Traveler was a Republican paper. Murdoch purchases The Herald American The Herald American converted to tabloid format in September 1981, but Hearst faced steep declines in circulation and advertising. The company announced it would close the Herald American -- making Boston a one-newspaper town -- on December 3, 1982. When the deadline came, Australian media baron Rupert Murdoch was negotiating to buy the paper and save it. He closed on the deal after 30 hours of talks with Hearst and newspaper unions -- and five hours after Hearst had sent out notices to newsroom employees telling them they were terminated. The newspaper announced its own survival the next day with a full-page headline: "You Bet We're Alive!" "Purcell Toasts 25th Anniversary of Herald's Survival". NEPA Bulletin (Boston, Mass.), December 2007, page 11. The Boston Herald once again Murdoch changed the paper's name back to the Boston Herald. The Herald continued to grow over the ensuing decades, expanding its coverage and increasing its circulation until the early 21st century, when circulation and advertising revenue dropped -- part of a phenomenon affecting almost all American newspapers in an expanding age of free media. Independent ownership In February 1994, Murdoch's News Corporation was forced to sell the paper, in order that its subsidiary Fox Television Stations could legally consummate its purchase of Fox affiliate WFXT (Channel 25). Patrick J. Purcell, who was the publisher of the Boston Herald and a former News Corporation executive, purchased the Herald and established it as an independent newspaper. Several years later, Purcell would give the Herald a suburban presence it never had by purchasing the money-losing Community Newspaper Company from Fidelity Investments. Although the companies merged under the banner of Herald Media, Inc., the suburban papers maintained their distinct editorial and marketing identity. After years of operating profits at Community Newspaper and losses at the Herald, Purcell in 2006 sold the suburban chain to newspaper conglomerate Liberty Group Publishing of Illinois, which soon after changed its name to GateHouse Media. The deal, which also saw GateHouse acquiring The Patriot Ledger and The Enterprise in south suburban Quincy and Brockton, netted $225 million for Purcell, who vowed to use the funds to clear the Herald's debt and reinvest in the tabloid. Bailey, Steve, and Robert Gavin. m/ "Herald's Owner to Sell Suburban Papers". The Boston Globe, May 6, 2006. Awards The Heralds four Pulitzer Prizes for editorial writing, in 1924, 1927, 1949 and 1954, are among the most awarded to a single newspaper in the category. In 1957 Harry Trask was a young staff photographer at the Traveler when he was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for his photo sequence of the sinking of the SS Andrea Doria in July 1956. Herald photographer Stanley Forman received two Pulitzer Prizes consecutively in 1976 and 1977, the first being a dramatic shot of a young child falling in mid-air from her mother's arms on the upper stories of a burning apartment building to the waiting arms of firefighters below, and the latter being of Ted Landsmark, an African American city official, being beaten with an American flag during Boston's school busing crisis. In 2006 the Herald won two SABEW awards from The Society of American Business Editors and Writers for its breaking news coverage of the takeover of local company Gillette Co. and for overall excellence. Boston Herald staff, "Herald named `best in business'". Boston Herald, Finance page 31, April 5, 2006. Columnists Howie Carr writes extensively on local politics and is a conservative radio talk show host and frequent TV commentator. Margery Eagan and Peter Gelzinis are longtime metro columnists, as is Joe Fitzgerald, who was formerly a sports columnist. Michael Graham is an op-ed columnist for the Boston Herald. Gerry Callahan is a sports columnist and talk show host for WEEI. Steve Buckley is a longtime sports columnist and frequent co-host on WEEI. Dave Wedge is a political columnist, longtime reporter and frequent TV and radio commentator. Jessica Heslam covers the media. Joe Sciacca is the paper's deputy managing editor. Sciacca is a former political reporter and columnist who is a regular panelist on "Beat the Press" on the WGBH TV show Greater Boston, which is hosted by Emily Rooney. Kevin Convey is the tabloid's new editor-in-chief, taking over in December 2006 for Ken Chandler, the former editor of the New York Post, who left the Herald to form his own media consulting firm. Laurel Sweet is an award-winning reporter who covers courts and crime. Lauren Beckham Falcone covers pop culture, style and all things feature-y for the Boston Herald. F. Mark Modzelewski is a Herald blogger and occasional columnist who covers the region's technology scene. He's also the Managing Director of Bang Ventures. Boston Herald in Education Program The Boston Herald in Education Program provides teachers throughout Massachusetts with classroom newspapers and educational materials at no cost. Teachers use the newspapers in the classroom along with frameworks-compatible teacher guides and in-paper educational series. Each day, the Boston Herald distributes approximately 10,000 newspapers to participating classrooms in over 184 communities throughout Massachusetts. Boston Herald in Education October 2007, the In Education program partnered with the Massachusetts Literacy Foundation and Got Books? to support school communities and place fundraising book donation containers at schools across the state in order to help raise money for schools and supplement costs of the newspaper program. http://www.bostonheraldineducation.com/documents/got_books_letter.pdf References Sterling Quinlan, The Hundred Million Dollar Lunch (Chicago, J.P. O'Hara, 1974), ISBN 0-87955-310-3. Further reading External links [http://www.bostonherald.com/ The Boston Herald'''s website] [http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/11/08/heralds_circulation_declines/ Heralds circulation declines] Company History See also The Boston Daily Advertiser The Boston Journal The Boston Evening Transcript The Boston Globe The Boston Post'' | Boston_Herald |@lemmatized boston:55 herald:60 daily:9 newspaper:22 serve:1 massachusetts:4 united:1 state:2 surrounding:1 area:1 start:1 one:3 old:5 usa:1 award:5 four:2 pulitzer:4 prize:4 history:4 last:1 trace:1 back:3 two:7 lineage:1 advertiser:7 medium:7 mogul:1 william:3 randolph:2 hearst:8 rupert:2 murdoch:5 headquarters:1 washington:1 street:1 built:1 original:3 found:2 group:2 printer:1 jointly:1 name:5 john:2 french:1 company:6 paper:13 publish:3 single:2 side:1 sheet:1 sell:5 cent:1 first:2 editor:5 eaton:1 year:6 say:1 independent:3 politics:2 religion:1 liberal:1 industrious:1 enterprising:1 critically:1 concern:1 literacy:2 dramatic:2 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1,492 | Petroleum | Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit. "rock oil") or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid found in rock formations in the Earth consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. The term "petroleum" was first used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola. translated 1955 Composition The proportion of hydrocarbons in the mixture is highly variable and ranges from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils and bitumens. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows: + Composition by weight Element Percent rangeCarbon 83 to 87%Hydrogen 10 to 14%Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%Oxygen 0.1 to 1.5%Sulfur 0.5 to 6%Metals less than 1000 ppm Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil. + Composition by weight Hydrocarbon Average RangeParaffins 30% 15 to 60%Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%Asphaltics 6% remainder Most of the world's oils are non-conventional. Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow. Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called non-conventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil. Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline (petrol), both important "primary energy" sources. IEA Key World Energy Statistics 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. "Crude oil is made into different fuels" The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16% not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known reserves of petroleum are typically estimated at around 190 km3 (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, EIA reserves estimates or 595 km3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. CERA report on total world oil Consumption is currently around per day, or 4.9 km3 per year. Because the energy return over energy invested (EROEI) ratio of oil is constantly falling (due to physical phenomena such as residual oil saturation, and the economic factor of rising marginal extraction costs), recoverable oil reserves are significantly less than total oil in place. At current consumption levels, and assuming that oil will be consumed only from reservoirs, known recoverable reserves would be gone around 2039, potentially leading to a global energy crisis. However, there are factors which may extend or reduce this estimate, including the rapidly increasing demand for petroleum in China, India, and other developing nations; new discoveries; energy conservation and use of alternative energy sources; and new economically viable exploitation of non-conventional oil sources. Chemistry Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum, lines are single bonds, black spheres are carbon, white spheres are hydrogen Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity. The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture. The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline (petrol), the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel and kerosene (primary component of many types of jet fuel), and the ones from hexadecane upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquified petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, Butane (C4H10), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because butane's high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation. The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points. The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnHn. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic. These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically: Heat of Combustion of Fuels The amount of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf . Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog. Formation Geologists view crude oil and natural gas as the product of compression and heating of ancient organic materials (i.e. kerogen) over geological time. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis, in a variety of mostly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure. Petroleum Study Today's oil formed from the preserved remains of prehistoric zooplankton and algae, which had settled to a sea or lake bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions (the remains of prehistoric terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal). Over geological time the organic matter mixed with mud, and was buried under heavy layers of sediment resulting in high levels of heat and pressure (known as diagenesis). This caused the organic matter to chemically change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window" Oil Is Mastery —below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of thermal cracking. Although this temperature range is found at different depths below the surface throughout the world, a typical depth for the oil window is 4–6 km. Sometimes, oil which is formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at much shallower depths than where it was formed. The Athabasca Oil Sands is one example of this. Abiogenic origin A number of geologists in Russia adhere to the abiogenic petroleum origin hypothesis and maintain that hydrocarbons of purely inorganic origin exist within Earth's interior. Astronomer Thomas Gold championed the theory in the Western world by supporting the work done by Nikolai Kudryavtsev in the 1950s. It is currently supported primarily by Kenney and Krayushkin. Kenney et al., Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural Petroleum, Energia 2001 The abiogenic origin hypothesis lacks scientific support. Extensive research into the chemical structure of kerogen has identified bacterial cells as the primary source of oil. The abiogenic origin hypothesis fails to explain the presence of these markers in kerogen and oil, as well as failing to explain how inorganic origin could be achieved at temperatures and pressures sufficient to convert kerogen to graphite. It has not been successfully used in uncovering oil deposits by geologists, as the hypothesis lacks any mechanism for determining where the process may occur. Crude Oil Crude oil reservoirs Hydrocarbon trap. Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil; a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in; and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping. The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries. Non-conventional oil reservoirs Oil-eating bacteria biodegrades oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands. On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not really shales and do not really contain oil, but are usually relatively hard rocks called marls containing a waxy substance called kerogen. The kerogen trapped in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantityes of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits. Classification A sample of medium heavy crude oil The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and by its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur. The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories. Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are: West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil Brent Blend, comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in the Shetlands. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark Dubai-Oman, used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil) Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil) The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at the Shetlands, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk. Petroleum industry NYMEX Light Sweet Crude prices 1994 to Mar 2008 2005 to Nov 2008 The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia, up to a high of 53% for the Middle East. Other geographic regions’ consumption patterns are as follows: South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km³) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of developed nations. In fact, 24% of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone. The production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represent the single largest industry in terms of dollar value on earth. In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, the Western States Petroleum Association (WSPA) is responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This is non-profit trade association that was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States. History Ignacy Łukasiewicz - creator of the process of refining of kerosene from crude oil. Oil derrick in Okemah, Oklahoma, 1922 Oil field in California, 1938. Petroleum, in one form or another, is not a recent discovery. More than four thousand years ago, according to Herodotus and confirmed by Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was employed in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. Oil was exploited in the Roman province of Dacia, now in Romania, where it was called picula. The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE or earlier. They had depths of up to about and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. ASTM timeline of oil The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as burning water in Japan in the 7th century. In his book Dream Pool Essays written in 1088, the polymathic scientist and statesman Shen Kuo of the Song Dynasty coined the word 石油 (Shíyóu, literally "rock oil") for petroleum, which remains the term used in contemporary Chinese. The first streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Petroleum was distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, producing chemicals such as kerosene in the alembic (al-ambiq), and which was mainly used for kerosene lamps. Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", Saudi Aramco World, January-February 1995, pp. 20-7 Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century. It has also been present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură. Istoria Romaniei, Vol II, p. 300, 1960 The earliest mention of petroleum in the Americas occurs in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad Pitch Lake in 1595; whilst thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of New York was published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada. A Russian traveller, Peter Kalm, in his work on America published in 1748 showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsylvania. In 1710 or 1711 (sources vary) the Russian-born Swiss physician and Greek teacher Eyrini d’Eyrinis (also spelled as Eirini d'Eirinis) discovered asphaltum at Val-de-Travers, (Neuchâtel). He established a bitumen mine de la Presta there in 1719 that operated until 1986. (broken link) Muséum d’histoire naturelle, Geneva. accessed 2007-10-26 Le bitume et la mine de la Presta (Suisse), Jacques Lapaire, Mineraux et Fossiles No 315 "Asphaltum" Stoddart's Encyclopaedia Americana (1883) pages 344–345 Eirinis' paper, entitled "Dissertation sur la mine d'asphalte contenant la manière dont se doivent régler Messieurs les associés pour son exploitation, le profit du Roy, & celui de la Société, & ce qui sera dû à Mr d'Erinis à qui elle apartient 'per Ligium feudum' " is held at the BPU Neuchâtel - Fonds d'étude [Ne V] catalogue Oil sands were mined from 1745 in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn, Alsace under the direction of Louis Pierre Ancillon de la Sablonnière, by special appointment of Louis XV. History of Pechelbronn oil The Pechelbronn oil field was active until 1970, and was the birth place of companies like Antar and Schlumberger. The first modern refinery was built there in 1857. The modern history of petroleum began in 1846 with the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner. Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available "rock oil" ("petr-oleum") seeps in 1852 and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in Galicia(Poland/Ukraine) in the following year. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a science professor at Yale University in New Haven, was the first to fractionate petroleum by distillation. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world, and Meerzoeff built the first Russian refinery in the mature oil fields at Baku in 1861. At that time Baku produced about 90% of the world's oil. The first commercial oil well in Romania was drilled in 1857, and the world's first oil refinery opened at Ploiesti, Romania being the first country in the world with a crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics, namely 275 tonnes The History Of Romanian Oil Industry PBS: World Events . The first oil well in North America was in Oil Springs, Ontario, Canada in 1858, dug by James Miller Williams. The US petroleum industry began with Edwin Drake's drilling of a oil well in 1859, on Oil Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania, for the Seneca Oil Company (originally yielding , by the end of the year output was at the rate of ). See also the Pennsylvanian oil rush The industry grew through the 1800s, driven by the demand for kerosene and oil lamps. It became a major national concern in the early part of the 20th century; the introduction of the internal combustion engine provided a demand that has largely sustained the industry to this day. Early "local" finds like those in Pennsylvania and Ontario were quickly outpaced by demand, leading to "oil booms" in Texas, Oklahoma, and California. Early production of crude petroleum in the United States: 1859: 1869: 1879: 1889: 1899: 1906: By 1910, significant oil fields had been discovered in Canada (specifically, in the province of Alberta), the Dutch East Indies (1885, in Sumatra), Persia (1908, in Masjed Soleiman), (1863, in Zorritos District) Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico, and were being developed at an industrial level. During World War II, oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed. Even until the mid-1950s, coal was still the world's foremost fuel, but oil quickly took over. Following the 1973 energy crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, there was significant media coverage of oil supply levels. This brought to light the concern that oil is a limited resource that will eventually run out, at least as an economically viable energy source. At the time, the most common and popular predictions were quite dire. However, a period of increased production and reduced demand caused an oil glut in the 1980s. Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities. Access to it was a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including World War II. Hanson Baldwin, 1959, “Oil Strategy in World War II", American Petroleum Institute Quarterly – Centennial Issue, pages 10-11. American Petroleum Institute. The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States. InfoPlease About 80% of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5% coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia (12.5%), UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. However, with high oil prices, (above $100/barrel) Venezuela has larger reserves than Saudi Arabia due to crude reserves derived from bitumen. Price of petroleum After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism. First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing received wide acceptance and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade. The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI , and Dubai/Oman. Uses The chemical structure of petroleum is heterogeneous (composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths). Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes, to be used for a variety of purposes. See Petroleum products. A traffic jam on a typical American freeway, the Santa Monica Freeway in Los Angeles. Fuels The most common distillations of petroleum are fuels. Fuels include: Ethane and other short-chain alkanes Diesel fuel (petrodiesel) Fuel oils Gasoline (Petrol) Jet fuel Kerosene Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Other derivatives Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products: Alkenes (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required). Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. Sulfur or Sulfuric acid. These are a useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor oleum, a byproduct of sulfur removal from fuels. Bulk tar. Asphalt Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel. Paraffin wax Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production. Petroleum by country Consumption statistics Consumption Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption). This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2006 in thousand barrels (bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (m3) per day: U.S. Energy Information Administration. Excel file RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls from web page http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm (direct link: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls) "Table Posted: November 7, 2008" From DSW-Datareport 2006 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung") One cubic metre of oil is equivalent to 6.28981077 barrels of oil Consuming Nation 2006(1000 bbl/day)(1000 m3/day)population in millionsbbl/year per capitaUnited States 1 304China 1369Japan 2 128Russia 1 142Germany 2 82India 2 1201Canada 32 Brazil 187South Korea 2 49 IndexMundi. South Korea Population - Demographics. "48,846,823" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 27 Sources vary: 24,600,000 from ; while IndexMundi listed a July 2006 estimate of 27,019,73: Mexico 1 107France 2 61 IndexMundi. France Population - Demographics. "60,876,136" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11 United Kingdom 1 61 IndexMundi. United Kingdom Population - Demographics. "60,609,153" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11 Italy 2 58 IndexMundi. Italy Population - Demographics. "58,133,509" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11 Iran (OPEC) 68 IndexMundi. Iran Population - Demographics. "68,688,433" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11 Source: US Energy Information Administration 1 peak production of oil already passed in this state 2 This country is not a major oil producer Production Oil producing countries Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 1960-2006, including Soviet Union http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec11_10.pdf In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product. #Producing Nation103bbl/d (2006)103bbl/d (2007)1Saudi Arabia (OPEC)10,66510,2342Russia 19,6779,8763United States 18,3318,4814Iran (OPEC)4,1484,0435China3,8453,9016Mexico 13,7073,5017Canada 23,2883,3588United Arab Emirates (OPEC)2,9452,9489Venezuela (OPEC) 12,8032,66710Kuwait (OPEC)2,6752,61311Norway 12,7862,56512Nigeria (OPEC)2,4432,35213Brazil2,1662,27914Algeria (OPEC)2,1222,17315Iraq (OPEC) 32,0082,09416Libya (OPEC)1,8091,84517Angola (OPEC)1,4351,76918United Kingdom1,6891,69019Kazakhstan1,3881,44520Qatar (OPEC)1,1411,13621Indonesia1,1021,04422India85488123Azerbaijan64885024Argentina80279125Oman74371426Malaysia72970327Egypt66766428Australia55259529Colombia54454330Ecuador (OPEC)53651231Sudan38046632Syria44944633Equatorial Guinea38640034Yemen37736135Vietnam36235236Thailand33434937Denmark34431438Congo24725039Gabon23724440South Africa204199 Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration 1 Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state <small>2 Although Canadian conventional oil production is declining, total oil production is increasing as oil sands production grows. If oil sands are included, it has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia. 3 Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998 Export See also: Fossil fuel exporters Oil exports by country In order of net exports in 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m³/d: #Exporting Nation (2006) (103bbl/d)(103m3/d)1Saudi Arabia (OPEC)8,6511,3762Russia 16,5651,0443Norway 12,5424044Iran (OPEC)2,5194015United Arab Emirates (OPEC)2,5154006Venezuela (OPEC) 12,2033507Kuwait (OPEC)2,1503428Nigeria (OPEC)2,1463419Algeria (OPEC) 11,84729710Mexico 11,67626611Libya (OPEC) 11,52524212Iraq (OPEC)1,43822913Angola (OPEC)1,36321714Kazakhstan 1,11417715Canada 21,071170 Source: US Energy Information Administration 1 peak production already passed in this state 2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2.5 MMbbl/d in August 2007. . Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately . See also: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Import Oil imports by country In order of net imports in 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m³/d: #Importing Nation (2006)(103bbl/day)(103m3/day)1United States 112,2201,9432Japan5,0978103China 23,4385474Germany2,4833955South Korea2,1503426France1,8933017India1,6872688Italy1,5582489Spain1,55524710Republic of China (Taiwan)94215011Netherlands93614912Singapore78712513Thailand6069614Turkey5769215Belgium54687 Source: US Energy Information Administration 1 peak production of oil already passed in this state 2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing Non-producing consumers Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption. #Consuming Nation(bbl/day)(m³/day)1Japan5,578,000886,8312Germany2,677,000425,6093South Korea2,061,000327,6734France2,060,000327,5145Italy1,874,000297,9426Spain1,537,000244,3637Netherlands946,700150,513 Source : CIA World Factbook Environmental effects Diesel fuel spill on a road The presence of oil has significant social and environmental impacts, from accidents and routine activities such as seismic exploration, drilling, and generation of polluting wastes not produced by other alternative energies. Extraction Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, although Dr. John Hunt of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70% of the reserves in the world are associated with visible macroseepages, and many oil fields are found due to natural seeps. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marine environment. Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio Extraction may involve dredging, which stirs up the seabed, killing the sea plants that marine creatures need to survive. But at the same time, offshore oil platforms also form micro-habitats for marine creatures. Oil spills Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Galapagos Islands, France and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily. Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower (picture). The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the Torrey Canyon wreck produced poor results; Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill. Pumping of the Erika cargo Whales James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling. How Capitalism Saved the Whales by James S. Robbins, The Freeman, August, 1992. Alternatives to petroleum In the United States in 2007 about 70% of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. gasoline, diesel, jet fuel), 24% by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5% for residential and commercial uses, and 2% for electricity production. "U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007". Energy Information Administration Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity. needtitleUN Energy Program Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels Alternative propulsion refers to both: Alternative fuels used in standard or modified internal combustion engines (i.e. biofuels or combustion hydrogen). propulsion systems not based on internal combustion, such as those based on electricity (for example, all-electric or hybrid vehicles), compressed air, or fuel cells (i.e. hydrogen fuel cells). Currently, cars can be classified into the following groups: Internal combustion engine cars, which use only petroleum and biofuels (e.g. biodiesel and biobutanol). Advanced technology cars such as hybrid vehicles which use petroleum and/or biofuels, albeit far more efficiently. Amory B. Lovins, E. Kyle Datta, Odd-Even Bustnes, Jonathan G. Koomey, Nathan J. Glasgow. "Winning the oil endgame" Rocky Mountain Institute Plug-in hybrids, that can store and use externally produced electricity in addition to petroleum. Petroleum free cars, such as electric cars, hydrogen vehicles. Alternatives to using oil in industry Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as plastic production. Bioprocessing Seattle Times (2003) Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity. Renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind power, micro hydro, biomass and biofuels might someday be used to replace some of these generators, but today the primary alternatives remain large scale hydroelectricity, nuclear and coal-fired generation. Future of petroleum production The future of petroleum as a fuel remains somewhat controversial. USA Today news reported in 2004 that there were 40 years of petroleum left in the ground. Some argue that because the total amount of petroleum is finite, the dire predictions of the 1970s have merely been postponed. Others claim that technology will continue to allow for the production of cheap hydrocarbons and that the earth has vast sources of unconventional petroleum reserves in the form of tar sands, bitumen fields and oil shale that will allow for petroleum use to continue in the future, with both the Canadian tar sands and United States oil shale deposits representing potential reserves matching existing liquid petroleum deposits worldwide. Hubbert peak theory The Hubbert peak theory (also known as peak oil) posits that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. It also suggests a method to calculate the timing of this peak, based on past production rates, the observed peak of past discovery rates, and proven oil reserves. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980. In 1956, M. King Hubbert correctly predicted US oil production would peak around 1971. When this occurred and the US began losing its excess production capacity, OPEC gained the ability to manipulate oil prices, leading to the 1973 and 1979 oil crises. Since then, most other countries have also peaked. China has confirmed that two of its largest producing regions are in decline, and Mexico's national oil company, Pemex, has announced that Cantarell Field, one of the world's largest offshore fields, was expected to peak in 2006, and then decline 14% per annum. Controversy surrounds predictions of the timing of the global peak, as these predictions are dependent on the past production and discovery data used in the calculation as well as how unconventional reserves are considered. Supergiant fields have been discovered in the past decade, such as Azadegan, Carioca/Sugar Loaf, Tupi, Jupiter, Ferdows/Mounds/Zagheh, Tahe, Jidong Nanpu/Bohai Bay, West Kamchatka, and Kashagan, as well as tremendous reservoir growth from places like the Bakken and massive syncrude operations in Venezuela and Canada. NCPA - Policy Backgrounder 159 - Are We Running Out of Oil? However, while past understanding of total oil reserves changed with newer scientific understanding of petroleum geology, current estimates of total oil reserves have been in general agreement since the 1960s. Further, predictions regarding the timing of the peak are highly dependent on the past production and discovery data used in the calculation. It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of transparency in accounting of global oil reserves. New study raises doubts about Saudi oil reserves Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995-2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off. Writers covering the petroleum industry Brian Black Colin J. Campbell Kenneth S. Deffeyes Thomas Gold David Goodstein Daniel Yergin Derrick Jensen See also Barrel of oil equivalent Gas oil ratio List of oil fields List of petroleum companies Oil burden Oil reserves Petroleum geology Thermal depolymerization References External links U.S. Energy Information Administration U.S. Department of Energy EIA - World supply and consumption Who are the major players supplying the world oil market? American Petroleum Institute - the trade association of the US oil industry. 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1,493 | Ephrem_the_Syrian | Ephrem the Syrian (Syriac: ܐܦܪܝܡ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ, ; Greek: ; ; ca. 306 – 373) was a Syrian deacon, prolific Syriac-language hymnographer and theologian of the 4th century. He is venerated by Christians throughout the world, and especially among Syriac Christians, as a saint. Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns, poems and homilies in verse, as well as prose biblical commentaries. These were works of practical theology for the edification of the Church in troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of pseudepigraphous works in his name. Ephrem's works witness to an early form of Christianity in which western ideas take little part. He has been called the most significant of all of the fathers of the Syriac-speaking church tradition. Parry (1999), p. 180 Life Newly excavated Church of Saint Jacob in Nisibis, where Ephrem taught and ministered. Ephrem was born around the year 306 in the city of Nisibis (the modern Turkish town of Nusaybin, on the border with Syria, which had come into Roman hands only in 298). Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later hagiographers wrote that his father was a pagan priest. Numerous languages were spoken in the Nisibis of Ephrem's day, mostly dialects of Aramaic. The Christian community used the Syriac dialect. The culture included pagan religions, Judaism and early Christian sects. Jacob, the first bishop of Nisibis, was appointed in 308, and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community. Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the First Council of Nicea in 325. Ephrem was baptized as a youth, and almost certainly became a son of the covenant, an unusual form of Syrian proto-monasticism. Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac , a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians). He was ordained as a deacon either at his baptism or later. Parry (1999), pp. 180-181 He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office. In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a 'herdsman' (, ‘allānâ), to his bishop as the 'shepherd' (, rā‘yâ) and his community as a 'fold' (, dayrâ). Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the School of Nisibis, which in later centuries was the centre of learning of the Church of the East. In 337 Emperor Constantine I, who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died. Seizing on this opportunity, Shapur II began a series of attacks into Roman North Mesopotamia. Nisibis was besieged in 338, 346 and 350. During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers. In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis. The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground. Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn which portrayed Nisibis as being like Noah's Ark, floating to safety on the flood. One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the baptistery of Nisibis. The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in 359. In that year Shapur attacked again. The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported. Constantius II was unable to respond; the campaign of Julian ended with his death in battle. His army elected Jovian as the new emperor, and to rescue his army he was forced to surrender Nisibis to Persia, and permit the expulsion of the entire Christian population. Ephrem with the others went first to Amida (Diyarbakır), eventually settling in Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa) in 363. Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church, and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the School of Edessa. Edessa had always been at the heart of the Syriac-speaking world and the city was full of rival philosophies and religions. Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called 'Palutians' in Edessa, after a former bishop. Arians, Marcionites, Manichees, Bardaisanites and various Gnostic sects proclaimed themselves as the true church. In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy. A later Syriac writer, Jacob of Serugh, wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa. After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims. The most reliable date for his death is 9 June 373. Writings The interior of the Church of Saint Jacob in Nisibis. Over four hundred hymns composed by Ephrem still exist. Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt. The church historian Sozomen credits Ephrem with having written over three million lines. Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early Rabbinic Judaism, he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism. The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (, madrāšê). These hymns are full of rich, poetic imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies. The madrāšê are written in stanzas of syllabic verse, and employ over fifty different metrical schemes. Each madrāšâ had its qālâ (), a traditional tune identified by its opening line. All of these qālê are now lost. It seems that Bardaisan and Mani composed madrāšê, and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims. The madrāšê are gathered into various hymn cycles. Each group has a title — Carmina Nisibena, On Faith, On Paradise, On Virginity, Against Heresies — but some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the Carmina Nisibena is about Nisibis). Each madrāšâ usually had a refrain (, ), which was repeated after each stanza. Later writers have suggested that the madrāšê were sung by all women choirs with an accompanying lyre. Particularly influential were his Hymns Against Heresies. Mourachian, Mark. "Hymns Against Heresies: Comments on St. Ephrem the Syrian". Sophia 37:2, (Winter 2007), pp. 30-31. Ephrem used these to warn his flock of the heresies which threatened to divide the early church. He lamented that the faithful were "tossed to and fro and carried around with every wind of doctrine, by the cunning of men, by their craftiness and deceitful wiles." Eph 4:14, as quoted in Mourachian (2007) He devised hymns laden with doctrinal details to inoculate right-thinking Christians against heresies such as docetism. The Hymns Against Hereies employ colourful metaphors to describe the Incarnation of Christ as a fully human and divine. Ephrem asserts that Christ's unity of humanity and divinity represents peace, perfection and salvation; in contrast, docetism and other heresies sought to divide or reduce Christ's nature, and in doing so would rend and devalue Christ's followers with their false teachings. Ephrem also wrote verse homilies (, mêmrê). These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê. The mêmrê are written in a heptosyllabic couplets (pairs of lines of seven syllables each). The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work. He wrote biblical commentaries on the Diatessaron (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), on Genesis and Exodus, and on the Acts of the Apostles and Pauline Epistles. He also wrote refutations against Bardaisan, Mani, Marcion and others. Ephrem wrote exclusively in the Syriac language, but translations of his writings exist in Armenian, Coptic, Georgian, Greek and other languages. Some of his works are only extant in translation (particularly in Armenian). Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship. However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals. The most complete, critical text of authentic Ephrem was compiled between 1955 and 1979 by Dom Edmund Beck OSB as part of the Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium. "Greek Ephrem" Ephrem's artful meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church. This occurred to the extent that there is a huge corpus of Ephrem pseudepigraphy and legendary hagiography. Some of these compositions are in verse, often a version of Ephrem's heptosyllabic couplets. Most of these works are considerably later compositions in Greek. Students of Ephrem often refer to this corpus as having a single, imaginary author called "Greek Ephrem" or Ephraem Graecus (as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian). This is not to say that all texts ascribed to Ephrem in Greek are by others, but many are. Although Greek compositions are the main source of pseudepigraphal material, there are also works in Latin, Slavonic and Arabic. There has been very little critical examination of these works, and many are still treasured by churches as authentic. The best known of these writings is the Prayer of Saint Ephrem which is recited at every service during Great Lent and other fasting periods in Eastern Christianity. Veneration as a saint Icon of St. Ephrem (right) together with St. George (top) and St. John Damascene. Icon of St. Ephrem. Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate. One of the earlier 'modifications' is the statement that Ephrem's father was a pagan priest of Abnil or Abizal. However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents. This legend may be anti-pagan polemic or reflect his father's status prior to converting to Christianity. The second legend attached to Ephrem is that he was a monk. In Ephrem's day, monasticism was in its infancy in Egypt. He seems to have been a part of the members of the covenant, a close-knit, urban community of Christians that had 'covenanted' themselves to service and refrained from sexual activity. Some of the Syriac terms that Ephrem used to describe his community were later used to describe monastic communities, but the assertion that he was monk is anachronistic. Later hagiographers often painted a picture of Ephrem as an extreme ascetic, but the internal evidence of his authentic writings show him to have had a very active role, both within his church community and through witness to those outside of it. Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in Eastern Christianity. In the Eastern Orthodox scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted Monk). His feast day is celebrated on 28 January and on the Saturday of the Venerable Fathers (Cheesefare Saturday), which is the Saturday before the beginnin of Great Lent. Ephrem is popularly believed to have taken legendary journeys. In one of these he visits Basil of Caesarea. This links the Syrian Ephrem with the Cappadocian Fathers, and is an important theological bridge between the spiritual view of the two, who held much in common. Ephrem is also supposed to have visited Saint Pishoy in the monasteries of Scetes in Egypt. As with the legendary visit with Basil, this visit is a theological bridge between the origins of monasticism and its spread throughout the church. On 5 October 1920, Pope Benedict XV proclaimed Ephrem a Doctor of the Church. This proclamation was made before critical editions of Ephrem's authentic writings were available. The most popular title for Ephrem is Harp of the Spirit (Syriac: , ). He is also referred to as the Deacon of Edessa, the Sun of the Syrians and a Pillar of the Church. Today, Saint Ephrem presents an engaging model of Asian Christianity, which might prove a valuable source of theological insight for Christian communities that wish to break out of the European cultural mold. Ephrem also shows that poetry is not only a valid vehicle for theology, but is in many ways superior to philosophical discourse for the purpose of doing theology. He also encourages a way of reading the Bible that is rooted more in faith than in critical analysis. Ephrem displays a deep sense of the interconnectedness of all created things, which could develop his role in the church into that of a 'saint of ecology'. There are modern studies into Ephrem's view of women that see him as a champion of women in the church. Other studies have focused on the importance of 'healing' imagery in Ephrem. Ephrem, then, confronts the contemporary church as an orthodox saint engaged in a theology that is at once non-western, poetic, ecological, feminist, and healing. His feast day of 9 June conforms to his date of death. For 48 years (1920-1969) it was on 18 June. Quotations "The greatest poet of the patristic age and, perhaps, the only theologian-poet to rank beside Dante." — Robert Murray. "The boldness of our love is pleasing to you, O Lord, just as it pleased you that we should steal from your bounty." — Ephrem the Syrian, "Hymns on Faith" 16:5. "You (Jesus) alone and your Mother are more beautiful than any others, for there is no blemish in you nor any stains upon your Mother. Who of my children can compare in beauty to these?" — Ephraim the Syrian, Nisibene Hymns 27:8; ca. 361 AD. See also Arameans Syriac language Syriac Christianity Hymn List of Syriacs Christian mystics Prayer of Saint Ephrem Syrian Monastery in Scetes, Egypt Notes References Bou Mansour, Tanios (1988). La pensée symbolique de saint Ephrem le Syrien. Bibliothèque de l'Université Saint Esprit XVI. Kaslik, Lebanon. Brock, Sebastian P (1985). The luminous eye: the spiritual world vision of Saint Ephrem. Cistercian Publications. ISBN 0-87907-624-0. Brock, Sebastian (trans) (1990). Hymns on paradise: St. Ephrem the Syrian. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, New York. ISBN 0-88141-076-4. den Biesen, Kees (2002). Bibliography of Ephrem the Syrian. Self-published, Giove in Umbria. ([email protected]) den Biesen, Kees (2006). Simple and Bold: Ephrem's Art of Symbolic Thought. Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey. ISBN 1-59333-397-8. Griffith, Sidney H (1997). Faith adoring the mystery: reading the Bible with St. Ephraem the Syrian. Marquette University Press, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ISBN 0-87462-577-7. Matthews, Jr., Edward G. and Joseph P. Amar (trans), Kathleen McVey (ed) (1994). Saint Ephrem the Syrian: selected prose works. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0091-1. McVey, Kathleen E (trans) (1989). Ephrem the Syrian: hymns. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3093-9. Mourachian, Mark. "Hymns Against Heresies: Comments on St. Ephrem the Syrian". Sophia, 17, No. 2, Winter 2007. ISSN 0194-7958. External links Margonitho: Mor Ephrem the Syrian Anastasis article Hugoye: Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 1 Hugoye: Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 2 Catholic Encyclopedia: Saint Ephraem Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911: "Ephraem Syrus" St. Ephraem 'Faith Adoring the Mystery' Benedict XVI on St. Ephrem and his role in history | Ephrem_the_Syrian |@lemmatized ephrem:76 syrian:19 syriac:17 ܐܦܪܝܡ:1 ܣܘܪܝܝܐ:1 greek:8 ca:2 deacon:3 prolific:1 language:5 hymnographer:1 theologian:2 century:3 venerate:2 christian:15 throughout:3 world:3 especially:1 among:1 saint:17 write:14 wide:1 variety:1 hymn:20 poem:1 homily:2 verse:4 well:1 prose:3 biblical:4 commentary:3 work:12 practical:1 theology:4 edification:1 church:20 troubled:1 time:1 popular:3 death:5 author:2 hundred:2 pseudepigraphous:1 name:1 witness:2 early:6 form:2 christianity:7 western:2 idea:1 take:2 little:2 part:8 call:3 significant:1 father:7 speaking:2 tradition:3 parry:2 p:3 life:2 newly:1 excavate:1 jacob:7 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1,494 | Collective_trauma | A collective trauma is a traumatic psychological effect shared by a group of people of any size, up to and including an entire society. Traumatic events witnessed by an entire society can stir up collective sentiment, often resulting in a shift in that society's culture and mass actions. Well known collective traumas include: The John F. Kennedy assassination in the United States, the Estonia disaster in Sweden, the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States and various others. Collective traumas have been shown to play a key role in group identity formation (see: Law of Common Fate). During World War II, a US submarine, the USS Puffer (SS-268), came under several hours of depth charge attack by a Japanese surface vessel until the ship became convinced the submarine had somehow escaped. Psychological studies later showed that crewmen transferred to the submarine after the event were never accepted as part of the team. Later, US naval policy was changed so that after events of such psychological trauma, the crew would be dispersed to new assignments. Examples of contemporary collective traumas include: 9/11 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake Hurricane Katrina | Collective_trauma |@lemmatized collective:5 trauma:5 traumatic:2 psychological:3 effect:1 share:1 group:2 people:1 size:1 include:3 entire:2 society:3 event:3 witness:1 stir:1 sentiment:1 often:1 result:1 shift:1 culture:1 mass:1 action:1 well:1 know:1 john:1 f:1 kennedy:1 assassination:1 united:2 state:2 estonia:1 disaster:1 sweden:1 september:1 attack:2 various:1 others:1 show:2 play:1 key:1 role:1 identity:1 formation:1 see:1 law:1 common:1 fate:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 u:2 submarine:3 uss:1 puffer:1 ss:1 come:1 several:1 hour:1 depth:1 charge:1 japanese:1 surface:1 vessel:1 ship:1 become:1 convince:1 somehow:1 escape:1 study:1 later:2 crewman:1 transfer:1 never:1 accept:1 part:1 team:1 naval:1 policy:1 change:1 crew:1 would:1 disperse:1 new:1 assignment:1 example:1 contemporary:1 indian:1 ocean:1 earthquake:1 hurricane:1 katrina:1 |@bigram kennedy_assassination:1 submarine_uss:1 psychological_trauma:1 hurricane_katrina:1 |
1,495 | Israeli_settlement | Map of Israeli settlements (magenta) in the West Bank. Israeli settlements are communities inhabited by Israelis in territory that was captured during the 1967 Six-Day War. Such settlements currently exist in the West Bank, which is partially under Israeli military administration "Israel, the homeland of the Jews, was established in Palestine in 1948. The Palestine Liberation Organization, under Yasir Arafat, is committed to establishing a Palestinian state, which would include territory on the West Bank and Gaza Strip now occupied by Israel." Palestine, The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. 2002. "Though Israeli forces withdrew from Nablus and parts of Ramallah on Sunday, traversing war-torn West Bank territory still under occupation makes for a difficult trip to school." Taylor, Catherine. "Palestinian schools hit hard by conflict", Christian Science Monitor, April 23, 2002. "Though under partial occupation, Palestinian society is one of the more democratic Arab societies today." Mohammed, Mima. "Palestinian Awareness Month aims to educate Stanford students", Stanford Daily, April 20, 2006. "The IDF would continue with its occupation of the West Bank and incursions in the Gaza Strip." "Chronological Review of Events Relating to the Question of Palestine", Monthly Media Monitoring Review, UNISPAL, Division for Palestinian Rights, March 2003. and partially under the control of the Palestinian National Authority, and in the Golan Heights, which are under Israeli civilian administration. International bodies, including the United Nations Security Council, the International Court of Justice, the European Union, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch and some legal scholars have characterized the settlements as a violation of international law. Israel, the Anti-Defamation League, and other legal scholars disagree with this assessment. (See Legal background) The term sometimes includes communities in territory that was captured in 1967, but has since been under Israeli civil law, administration and jurisdiction in East Jerusalem, which is incorporated within the municipal borders of Jerusalem, though annexation under the Jerusalem Law is not recognized by the international community; BBC NEWS | In Depth | Israel and the Palestinians | issues | Jerusalem: Crucible of the conflict B'Tselem - East Jerusalem and The Golan Heights, where military rule was revoked in 1981 and has since been under Israeli civil law, administration and jurisdiction under the Golan Heights Law. An additional eighteen settlements formerly existed in the Sinai Peninsula, twenty-one in the Gaza Strip and four in the northern West Bank. They were abandoned as part of Israeli withdrawals from these areas in 1982 (Sinai) and 2005. Israeli policies toward these settlements have ranged from active promotion to removal by force, and their continued existence and expansion since the 1970s is one of the most contentious issues in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Terminology In Hebrew, the common term for the Israeli settlements outside the Green Line is hitnakhluyot (Hebrew: התנחלויות; singular התנחלות/hitnakhlut, hitnakhalut). This term, 'evoking Biblical injunctions and promises to "inherit" the land through settlement', was introduced when the Likud party came to power, replacing the earlier emotionally neutral word hityashvut. Concomitantly, the terms Occupied Territory and West Bank, where settlement was to take place, were forbidden in news reports Ian Lustick, 'The Riddle of Nationalism:The Dialectic of Religion and Nationalism in the Middle East', Logos Vol.1, No-3, Summer 2002 pp.18-44 pp.38-9. Hitnakhluyot is widely used in the media and in public, although some think it has acquired a derogatory connotation in recent years. Settlers are called mitnakhalim (Hebrew: מתנחלים; singular - מתנחל/mitnakhel). The settlers and their sympathizers, as well as most official Israeli references use the term yishuvim (יישובים; singular - יישוב/yishuv) for settlements and mityashvim (מתיישבים; singular - מתיישב/mityashev) for settlers. These terms also refer to settlements inside Israel proper. Furthermore, the term "settler" is often associated with the primarily Religious Zionist movement, and other settler populations (such as the Haredi residents of Betar Illit and Modi'in Illit) do not associate themselves with it. In Arabic, settlements are called mustawtanaat (Arabic: المستوطنات), and settlers are mustawtineen (مستوطنين). Mustamaraat (مستعمرات) is another term used among Palestinians translates literally as colonies; from the Palestinian point of view, most settlers are foreigners to Palestine. Judea and Samaria is the official Israeli government term adopted in 1967 for the district covering the West Bank. "Judea" and "Samaria" are also the terms preferred by annexationists. Historical timeline The cease-fire agreement following the 1967 Six-Day War left Israel in control of a number of areas captured during hostilities. From Jordan, Israel gained control of the entire western bank of the Jordan River, including parts of Jerusalem previously controlled by Jordan - East Jerusalem, and the West Bank. From Egypt, Israel gained control of the entire Sinai peninsula up to the Suez Canal, and the Gaza strip. From Syria, Israel gained control of most of the Golan Heights, since 1981, administered under the Golan Heights Law. Original Israeli policy at that time was to deny any Jewish settlement of these areas or even Jewish resettlement of specific locations where Jews had resided up until the 1948 Arab-Israeli War (see: List of villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war). Many attempts were made by Gush Emunim to establish outposts or resettle former Jewish areas, and initially the Israeli government forcibly disbanded these settlements. However, in the absence of peace talks to determine the future of these and other occupied territories, Israel ceased the enforcement of the original ban on settlement. In 1967, the municipal borders of Jerusalem were extended to include all of the Old City as well as other areas. Residents within the new municipal borders were offered the choice between citizenship (subject to a few restrictions) and permanent residency (if they wished to retain their Jordanian passports). This annexation has not been recognized by any foreign country. The Sinai, Gaza Strip, and West Bank were put under Israeli military occupation. Residents were not offered citizenship or residency, though they typically had de facto work permits within Israel and freedom of travel there. In 1978, Israel forcibly evacuated its citizens from the Sinai and demolished their homes when the area was returned to Egypt pursuant to the Camp David Accords. The last Israeli community in the area, Yamit, was evacuated in early 1982. In 1980, the Knesset asserted Jerusalem's status as the nation's "eternal and indivisible capital" by passing the Jerusalem Law. In 1981, Israel extended its law to the Golan Heights, passing the Golan Heights Law, which granted permanent residency, ID cards, and Israeli citizenship to the residents, but did not formally annex the territory. In August 2005, all settlements in the Gaza Strip and four in the northern West Bank (or northern Samaria) "In 2004 the Israeli Government and Parliament approved the evacuation of the Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip and four settlements from northern Samaria." Nurit Kliot, "Resettlement of Refugees in Finland and Cyprus: A Comparative Analysis and Possible Lessons for Israel", in Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski. Population Resettlement in International Conflicts: A Comparative Study, Lexington Books, 2007, p. 57. "Instead, he chose total disengagement from Gaza and the dismantlement of four settlements in northern Samaria." Zvi Shtauber, Yiftah Shapir. The Middle East Strategic Balance 2005-2006, Sussex Academic Press, 2007, p. 123. "Prior to forming his new coalition with the Labor Party, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon strong-armed members of his Likud cabinet to support Labor's idea of unilateral withdrawal from Gaza and four settlements in northern Samaria." Getz, Leonard. "Likudniks Against Sharon: Rebels or Loyalists?", The Jewish Exponent, 01-13-2005. "Understandably so: in the end, the Gaza withdrawal took all of six days while the pullout from four settlements in northern Samaria was accomplished in a single day." Zelnick, Robert. Israel's Unilaterialism: Beyond Gaza, Hoover Press, 2006, p. 157. "The four West Bank settlements that Israel is evacuating are all located in the biblical Land of Israel — territory that observant Jews believe was promised to the Jewish people in the Old Testament. The area of the West Bank, known as northern Samaria, was inhabited by the tribe of Menashe, one of the 10 tribes of Israel that were forced into exile." "Biblical significance of West Bank settlements", International Herald Tribune, August 23, 2005. "Others not only support comprehensive talks but call for abandonment of Israel’s plan to disengage from Gaza and four settlements in northern Samaria." Sofaer, Abraham D. "Disengagement First", Hoover Digest 2005 No. 1, Hoover Institution. "In August 2005, Israel vacated the Jewish settlements in the Gaza Strip--mainly in Gush Katif--as well as four settlements in northern Samaria." Inbari, Motti. "Fundamentalism in crisis - the response of the Gush Emunim rabbinical authorities to the theological dilemmas raised by Israel's Disengagement plan", Journal of Church and State, Autumn, 2007. were forcibly evacuated as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan. In 2007 Israel decided to build 300 more Israeli homes in the Har Homa settlement in Shepherd's Field near Bethlehem, a move that has been condemned by both the United States and the European Union. In early 2008, Israel promised to engage in settlement expansion in the West Bank. US Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice, stated that such expansion should stop and was inconsistent with 'road map' obligations. Settlement types and locations Upper L: 3 are outside barrierTop L of center: part of Israel's unilateral disengagementWhole right: Jordan ValleyL: W. Samaria bloc to Kedumim Center: hills around Nablus/ShechemLower L: W. Samaria bloc to Ariel Lower middle: E. Trans-Samaria Hwy outside barrier The Jewish population in the areas held since 1967 live in a wide variety of centers: Self-contained towns and small cities with a stable population in the tens of thousands, infrastructure, and all other features of permanence, e.g. Beitar Illit (a city of close to 45,000 residents), Ma'ale Adummim, Modi'in Illit, Ariel. Jewish neighborhoods adjacent to Arab neighborhoods in the same city, e.g. Hebron, or the Muslim Quarter. Neighborhoods, where both Jews and Arabs live together, e.g. Jerusalem. Suburbs to other population centers, especially Jerusalem (e.g. Gilo), and the Sharon area (e.g. Karnei Shomron). Settlement blocs, e.g. Gush Etzion, the vicinity of Ariel, the Shechem/Nablus area. For further discussion see Americans for Peace Now report on Settlement Blocs, May 9, 2008, http://peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=4900 Frontier villages, such as those parallel to the Jordan River. Residential outposts, consisting of campers, trailers, and even tents; these are often referred to as "wildcat" outposts. Most of these settlements are the results of recent construction, but some are based on Jewish communities that were forced to leave or abandoned in 1948 or earlier. Newly constructed developments are largely on hilltops, at some distance from Arab communities, which are typically found in valleys. See Americans for Peace Now report on outposts, Jan 9, 2008, http://peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=4402 Upper left: Modiin blocUpper middle: Mountain ridge settlements outside barrierRight: Jordan ValleyL above center: Latrun salientCenter: Jerusalem envelope, Ma'ale Adummim at rightLower L of center: Etzion blocLower center: Judean DesertLower right: Dead Sea Settlements on sites of former Jewish communities A few of the settlements were established on sites that had been inhabited by Jews during the British Mandate of Palestine. partial listing only Jerusalem – Jewish presence since biblical times, various surrounding communities and neighborhoods, including Kfar Shiloah, also known as Silwan - settled by Yemeni Jews in 1884, Jewish residents evacuated in 1938, settled again in 2004 Gush Etzion Four communities - established between 1927 and 1947, destroyed 1948, reestablished beginning 1967 See Americans for Peace Now reports on Gush Etzion settlement, http://peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=3216 and http://www.peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=1709 Hebron - Jewish presence since biblical times, forced out in 1929 (because of Hebron massacre), some families return to the ruins in 1931 but the British evacuated them again to "prevent another massacre"; resettled in 1967 See Americans for Peace Now reports on Hebron settlements, http://www.peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=3635 and http://www.peacenow.org/policy.asp?rid=&cid=1636 Kfar Darom - established in 1946, evacuated in 1948, resettled in 1970, evacuated in 2005 as part of the withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. Kalia and Beit HaArava - The former was built in 1934 as a kibbutz for potash mining. The latter was built in 1943 as an agricultural community. Both were abandoned in 1948, and subsequently destroyed by Jordanian forces. Resettled after the Six Day War. Gaza City had a small Jewish community that was evacuated following riots in 1929. After the Six Day War, Jewish communities were built elsewhere on the Gaza Strip, but not in Gaza City. Population Except for areas that were effectively annexed to Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, Israeli citizens and others can only move to areas captured in 1967 with the permission of the Israeli government. According to various statistics, Israel Central Bureau of Statistics: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies: Foundation for Middle East Peace: . the demographics can be estimated as follows: Jewish population 1948 1966 1972 1983 1993 2004 2006 West Bank (excluding Jerusalem) 480 (see Gush Etzion) 0 1,182 22,800 111,600 234,487 282,400 . Gaza Strip 30 (see Kfar Darom) 0 700 1 900 4,800 7,826 0 Golan Heights 0 0 77 6,800 12,600 17,265 18,105 East Jerusalem 2300 (see Jewish Quarter, Atarot, Neve Yaakov) 0 8,649 76,095 152,800 181,587 184,057 2 Total 2,810 0 10,608 1 106,595 281,800 441,165 484,562 1 including Sinai 2 2005 data In addition to internal migration, in large though declining numbers, the settlements absorb annually about 1000 new immigrants from outside Israel. In the '90s, the annual settler population growth was more than three times the annual population growth in Israel. Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991 - 2003, Foundation for Middle East Peace. In the '00s, the large settler population growth continues. Settler Population Growth East and West of the Barrier, Foundation for Middle East Peace. The Israeli government has implemented a consistent and systematic policy intended to encourage Jewish citizens to migrate to the West Bank. One of the tools used to this end is to grant financial benefits and incentives to citizens. Encouragement of migration to the settlements, B'Tselem. Debate on the settlements Palestinians argue that the policy of settlements constitutes an effort to pre-empt or even sabotage a peace treaty that includes Palestinian sovereignty, and claim that the settlements are built on land that belongs to Palestinians. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Israel confirms settlement growth BBC NEWS | Middle East | Gaza diary: Hakeem Abu Samra Israelis supportive of settlement respond that they are religiously justified in owning the land. Furthermore, the Israel Foreign Ministry asserts that some settlements are legitimate, as they took shape when there was no operative diplomatic arrangement, and thus they did not violate any agreement. Israeli Settlements and International Law, Israel Foreign Ministry website, 5/4/01, accessed 7/11/07. "Occupied Territories" to "Disputed Territories" by Dore Gold, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, January 16, 2002. Retrieved September 29, 2005. Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue, by Jeffrey Helmreich, Institute for Contemporary Affairs, jcpa.org, accessed 7/11/07. Based on this, they assert the following specific reasons for accepting settlements as legitimate: Prior to the signing of the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty, the eruption of the First Intifada in the late eighties, down to the signing of the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty in 1994, Israeli governments on the left and right argued that the settlements were of strategic and tactical importance. The location of the settlements was primarily chosen based on the threat of an attack by the bordering hostile countries of Jordan, Syria, and Egypt and possible routes of advance into Israeli population areas .These settlements were originally thought of as contributing to the peace and security of the state of Israel at a time when peace treaties had not been signed. Some supporters of the settlements still cite these reasons. Bush at Risk of Losing Closest Mideast Ally - washingtonpost.com BBC NEWS | Middle East | Israel 'to keep some settlements' Israel/Middle East (News & Politics): settlements "What Happened to Secure Borders for Israel? The U.S., Israel, and the Strategic Jordan Valley" by Dore Gold Many religious Jews assert the biblical Jewish connection to the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim to build is equal to the biblical Jewish connection to the other areas in Israel. Legal background Land ownership In November 2006 Peace Now acquired a report (which it claims was leaked from the Israeli Government's Civil Administration) that indicates that as much as 40 percent of the settlement land that Israel plans to retain in the West Bank is privately owned by Palestinians. Israeli Map Says West Bank Posts Sit on Arab Land - New York Times Peace Now further claims that this is a violation of Israeli law. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Settlements 'violate Israeli law' The Washington Post reported that "The 38-page report offers what appears to be a comprehensive argument against the Israeli government's contention that it avoids building on private land, drawing on the state's own data to make the case". West Bank Settlements Often Use Private Palestinian Land, Study Says - washingtonpost.com Peace Now published statistics and aerial maps for each individual settlement. http://www.peacenow.org.il/data/SIP_STORAGE/files/9/2569.pdf Peace Now : Settlements > Reports According to the spokesman of Israel’s Civil Administration, this report was based on a leaked map that indicated Palestinian claims rather than rights, and that Peace Now never contacted the Civil Administration to confirm the report. Camera: update: Peace Now Map Based on only Palestinian Claims A recent report by Peace Now, allegedly based on official data provided by the Civil Administration following a court struggle cites a lower figure of 32%, a figure rejected by the Civil Administration. דו"ח: 32% מההתנחלויות - על שטח פלשתיני פרטי - חדשות -הארץ In February 2008, The Civil Administration admitted that more than a third of West Bank settlements were built on private Palestinian land, originally seized by the IDF for 'security purposes'. Meron Rapoport, 'A third of settlements on land taken for 'security purposes' Ha'aretz,7/02/2008 The unauthorized seizure of private Palestinian land has been defined by the Civil Administration itself in a recent case as 'theft'. Meron Rapoport Court case reveals how settlers illegally grab West Bank lands Haaretz 17/03/2008 The Spiegel report, commissioned by the Israeli Defense Ministry, also details a large amount of land theft by Israeli settlements in the West Bank. The report reveals that some settlements deemed legal by Israel are in part, and sometimes in large part, effectively illegal outposts, and that large portions of veteran Israeli settlements, including Ofra, Elon Moreh and Beit El were built on private Palestinian land. February 1, 2009, Haaretz, "Stop the Deceit and Whitewashing", http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1060150.html Illegal seizure of land owned by Palestinians continues. For example, in 2007 for several months young settlers have been occupying a house belonging to an elderly Palestinian widow. The widow has turned to the Israeli government for redress; the Israeli police are present in the area for a half day every week and have evicted the settlers on several occasions, but they keep coming straight back and intend to stay. New York Times, 2007 December 7, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/08/world/middleeast/08westbank.html?hp According to the Israeli government, the majority of the land currently occupied by the new settlements was vacant or belonged to the state (from which it was leased) or bought fairly from the Palestinians. Former United States State Department Legal Advisor Stephen Schwebel, who later headed the International Court of Justice, wrote in 1970 regarding Israel's case: Where the prior holder of territory had seized that territory unlawfully, the state which subsequently takes that territory in the lawful exercise of self-defense has, against that prior holder, better title. From "Occupied Territories" to "Disputed Territories," by Dore Gold The recent use of the Absentee Property Law to "transfer, sell or lease any real estate property" in East Jerusalem owned by Palestinians who live elsewhere (usually in the West Bank) without compensation has been criticized both inside and outside of Israel. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Jerusalem land seizures 'illegal' Opponents of the settlements claim that "vacant" land had either belonged to Arabs who had fled or belonged collectively to an entire village, a practise that had developed under Ottoman rule. B'Tselem claims that the Israeli government used the absence of modern legal documents for the communal land as a legal basis for expropriating it. Legal status of the territories Although all areas in question were captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has treated them in three different ways: "East Jerusalem" - Jerusalem and its surroundings were envisioned as an international area under United Nations administration in the 1947 partition plan, which was accepted by Israel but rejected by all Arab nations. In 1948, Jordan captured and annexed the eastern half of Jerusalem, while Israel captured and annexed the west. Following the Six-Day War in 1967 Israel annexed the eastern part, together with several villages around it. The Israeli Golan Heights Law of 1981 applied Israel's "laws, jurisdiction and administration" in the Golan Heights, which were captured from Syria in 1967 . Israel has not stated that it has "annexed" the area. The Gaza Strip and West Bank, a section of the areas awarded by the UN to a prospective Arab state of Palestine, remained in Arab hands while the rest of that area was captured by Israel in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The former was administered by Egypt while the latter was annexed by Jordan. The annexation of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights Law have both been deemed illegal by the UN Security Council (resolutions 267 and 497 respectively), and have not been recognized by other states. Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt (removing all Israeli settlements and returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egyptian sovereignty), and Jordan (returning small sections to Jordanian sovereignty); there are currently no peace treaties governing Israel's borders related to the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights. Israel therefore asserts that the armistice lines (known as the Green Line) of 1949 have no other legal status. Palestinians object to this view as the Israel-Jordan peace treaty was not to alter the status of any territories coming under Israeli control during the hostilities of 1967 (article 3(2) of the Israel-Jordan peace treaty). Legal status of the settlements See also International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict Parties opposed to the legality of Israeli settlements According to the BBC, the "overwhelming view" of the international community is that the settlements are illegal based upon Article 49 of the Geneva Convention. International human rights groups Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have denounced the settlements as illegal, Israel/Occupied Territories: Removing unlawful Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories: Time to act Amnesty International, 2005. Israel: Expanding Settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territories Human Rights Watch . The European Union considers the settlements to be illegal EU Committee Report. Parties in favour of the legality of Israeli settlements Israel Anti-Defamation League Legal arguments The establishment and expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have been described as "having no legal validity" by the UN Security Council in resolutions 446, 452, 465 and 471. These resolutions were made under Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter which relates to the "Pacific Settlement of Disputes" between parties, and as such have no enforcement mechanisms and are generally considered to have no binding force under international law. No binding force under international law "Some analysts have pointed out that Security Council resolutions condemning or criticizing Israel have been passed under Chapter VI of the U.N. Charter, which are different from the Chapter VII resolutions against Iraq." Ayoob, Mohammad. "The war against Iraq: normative and strategic implications", in Robinson, Mary & Weiss, Thomas G. & Crahan, Margaret E. & Goering, John (eds). Wars on Terrorism and Iraq: human rights, unilateralism, and U.S. foreign policy, Routledge (UK), May 1, 2004, p. 164. "Additionally it may be noted that the Security Council cannot adopt binding decisions under Chapter VI of the Charter." De Hoogh, Andre. Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 1996, p. 371. "Council recommendations under Chapter VI are generally accepted as not being legally binding." Magliveras, Konstantinos D. Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 1999, p. 113. "Within the framework of Chapter VI the SC has at its disposal an 'escalation ladder' composed of several 'rungs' of wielding influence on the conflicting parties in order to move them toward a pacific solution... however, the pressure exerted by the Council in the context of this Chapter is restricted to non-binding recommendations." Neuhold, Hanspeter. "The United Nations System for the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes", in Cede, Franz & Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly. The United Nations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 2001, p. 66. "The responsibility of the Council with regard to international peace and security is specified in Chapters VI and VII. Chapter VI, entitled 'Pacific Settlements of Disputes', provides for action by the Council in case of international disputes or situations which do not (yet) post a threat to international peace and security. Herein its powers generally confined to making recommendations, the Council can generally not issue binding decisions under Chapter VI." Schweigman, David. The Authority of the Security Council Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 2001, p. 33. "Under Chapter VI, the Security Council may only make recommendations but not binding decisions on United Nations members". Wallace-Bruce, Nii Lante. The Settlement of International Disputes, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 1998, pp. 47-48. "First, it may issue non-binding resolutions under Chapter VI of the Charter expressing its opinion on the abuses and their resolution." Mertus, Julie. The United Nations And Human Rights: A Guide For A New Era, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0415343380, p. 120. "Under Chapter VI the Security Council can only make non-binding recommendations. However, if the Security Council determines that the continuance of the dispute constitutes a threat to the peace, or that the situation involves a breach of the peace or act of aggression it can take action under Chapter VII of the Charter. Chapter VII gives the Security Council the power to make decisions which are binding on member states, once it has determined the existence of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression." Hillier, Timothy, Taylor & Francis Group. Sourcebook on Public International Law, Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1843143801, 1998, p. 568. "Nor is the disenchanting performance due to the fact that under Chapter VI the SC may only address non-binding resolutions to the conflicting parties." Cede, Franz, and Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly. The United Nations: Law and Practice, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, ISBN 9041115633, p. 70. "This clause does not apply to decisions under Chapter VII (including the use of armed force), which are binding on all member states (unlike those adopted under Chapter VI which are of a non-binding nature)." Köchler, Hans. The Concept of Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of Modern Power, International Progress Organization, 2001, ISBN 3900704201, p. 21. "The impact of these flaws inherent to Resolution 731 (1992) was softened by the fact that it was a non-binding resolution in terms of Chapter VI of the Charter. Consequently Libya was not bound to give effect to it. However, the situation was different with respect to Resolution 748 of 31 March 1992, as it was adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter." De Wet, Erika, "The Security Council as a Law Maker: The Adopion of (Quasi)-Judicial Decisions", in Wolfrum, Rüdiger and Röben, Volker. Developments of International Law in Treaty Making, Springer, 2005, ISBN 3540252991, p. 203. "There are two limitations on the Security Council when it is acting under Chapter VI. Firstly, recommendations of the Council under Chapter VI are not binding on states." Werksman, Jacob. Greening International Institutions, Earthscan, 1996, ISBN 1853832448, p. 14. "Chapter VI exhorts members to settle such claims peacefully and submit them for mediation and arbitration to the United Nations. Chapter VI, however, is not binding - in other owrds, there is no power to compel states to submit their disputes for arbitration or mediation by the United Nations." Matthews, Ken. The Gulf Conflict and International Relations, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 041507519X, p. 130. "One final point must be noted in connection with Chapter VI, and that is that the powers of the Security Council are to make "recommendations." These are not binding on the states to whom they are addressed, for Article 25 relates only to "decisions." Philippe Sands, Pierre Klein, D. W. Bowett. Bowett's Law of International Institutions, Sweet & Maxwell, 2001, ISBN 042153690X, p. 46. "Article 2, para. 6, must be linked, first of all, to the use of these kinds of pressure that have no mandatory effect. Both the General Assembly and the Council have the power to make recommendations to the States, that is, resolutions that do not bind the States (see section 89)). Worthy of mention from this point of view are the provisions of Article 11, para. 2 ("The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security... and... may make recommendations with regard to any such question to the State or States concerned") and the various provisions of Chapter VI, particularly Article 33, para. 2, Article 36, and Article 37, para. 2, which give the Security Council the power to recommend settlement of disputes likely to endanger the peace." Conforti, Benedetto. The Law and Practice of the United Nations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005, ISBN 9004143084, p. 127. "...the primary authority of the Security Council is defined in terms of international peace and security. The Council's jurisdiction under Chapter VI—which give it recommendatory but not binding authority—is stated in very broad terms." Matheson, Michael J. Council UNbound: The Growth of UN Decision Making on Conflict and Postconflict Issues after the Cold War, US Institute of Peace Press, 2006, ISBN 1929223781, p. 42. "After much lobbying, the Council agreed on a resolution intended to "assist the parties to achieve a just, lasting and mutually acceptable political solution" that would provide for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara. But the preamble went on to specify that the Council was "acting under Chapter VI of the Charter of the United Nations." In short, this remained an exercise of good offices, not binding arbitration subject to enforcement." Jensen, Erik. Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1588263053, p. 112. "Thus decisions under Chapter VI, for example, to recommend terms of settlement are not binding, and even decisions under Article 40 of Chapter VII may not be." Political science quarterly, v. 90 (1975-76), Academy of Political Science, Columbia University, p. 147. "The UN distinguishes between two sorts of Security Council resolution. Those passed under Chapter Six deal with the peaceful resolution of disputes and entitle the council to make non-binding recommendations. Those under Chapter Seven give the council broad powers to take action, including warlike action, to deal with “threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression”. Such resolutions, binding on all UN members, were rare during the cold war. But they were used against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait. None of the resolutions relating to the Israeli-Arab conflict comes under Chapter Seven." Iraq, Israel and the United Nations: Double standards?, The Economist, October 10, 2002. "There are two sorts of security council resolution: those under 'chapter 6' are non-binding recommendations dealing with the peaceful resolution of disputes; those under 'chapter 7' give the council broad powers, including war, to deal with 'threats to the peace ... or acts of aggression'." Emmott, Bill. If Saddam steps out of line we must go straight to war, The Guardian, November 25, 2002. "...there is a difference between the Security Council resolutions that Israel breaches (nonbinding recommendations under Chapter 6) and those Iraq broke (enforcement actions under Chapter 7)." Kristof, Nicholas D. Calling the Kettle Black, The New York Times, February 25, 2004. "There is a hierarchy of resolutions... Chapter 6, under which all resolutions relating to the middle east have been issued, relates to the pacific resolution of disputes. Above that, there are the mandatory chapter 7 resolutions, which impose the clearest possible obligations, usually on a single state rather than on two or three states, which is what chapter 6 is there for. Chapter 7 imposes mandatory obligations on states that are completely out of line with international law and policy, and the United Nations has decided in its charter that the failure to meet those obligations may be met by the use of force." Straw, Jack. House of Commons debates, Hansard, Column 32, September 24, 2002. "There is another characteristic of these resolutions which deserves a mention, and that is that they are under chapter 7 of the United Nations charter. Chapter 7 has as its heading 'Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression'. This is the very serious chapter of United Nations rules, regulations, laws and principles, which the United Nations activates when they intend to do something about it. If the United Nations announces under chapter 7 that it intends to do something about a matter and it is not done, that will undermine the authority of the United Nations; that will render it ineffective. There are many other resolutions under other chapters. Resolution 242 gets a bit of a guernsey here every now and then. Resolution 242 is under chapter 6, not chapter 7. It does not carry the same mandate and authority that chapter 7 carries. Chapter 6 is the United Nations trying to put up resolutions which might help the process of peace and it states matters of principle that are important for the world to take into consideration. Resolution 242 says that Israel should withdraw from territories that it has occupied. It also says that Israel should withdraw to secure and recognised boundaries and that the one is dependent upon the other. Resolution 242 says that, but it is not a chapter 7 resolution." Beazley, Kim, Waiting for blow-back (speech delivered in Parliament on February 4, 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald, February 5, 2003. "There are several types of resolutions: Chapter 6 resolutions are decisions pursing the Pacific Settlement of Disputes, and put forward Council proposals on negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies, and other peaceful means. Chapter 7 resolutions are decisions for Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, involving use of force and sanctions, complete or partial interruption of economic relations, rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic radio and other means of communication and the severance of diplomatic relations. Resolutions passed under Chapter 7 of the Charter are binding on all UN members, who are required to give every assistance to any action taken by the Council, and refrain from giving any assistance to the country against which it is taking enforcement action." Iran dossier crosses the Atlantic: Where to from here? (Microsoft Word document), Greenpeace position paper on Iran. In 1971, however, a majority of the then International Court of Justice (ICJ) members asserted in the non-binding Namibia advisory opinion that all UN Security Council resolutions are legally binding. Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971 at paragraphs 87-116, especially 113: "It has been contended that Article 25 of the Charter applies only to enforcement measures adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter. It is not possible to find in the Charter any support for this view. Article 25 is not confined to decisions in regard to enforcement action but applies to "the decisions of the Security Council" adopted in accordance with the Charter. Moreover, that Article is placed, not in Chapter VII, but immediately after Article 24 in that part of the Charter which deals with the functions and powers of the Security Council. If Article 25 had reference solely to decisions of the Security Council concerning enforcement action under Articles 41 and 42 of the Charter, that is to say, if it were only such decisions which had binding effect, then Article 25 would be superfluous, since this effect is secured by Articles 48 and 49 of the Charter." This assertion by the ICJ has been countered by Erika De Wet and others. "The International Court of Justice took the position in the Namibia Advisory Opinion that Art. 25 of the Charter, according to which decisions of the Security Council have to be carried out, does not only apply in relation to chapter VII. Rather, the court is of the opinion that the language of a resolution should be carefully analyzed before a conclusion can be drawn as to its binding effect. The Court even seems to assume that Art. 25 may have given special powers to the Security Council. The Court speaks of "the powers under Art. 25". It is very doubtful, however, whether this position can be upheld. As Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice has pointed out in his dissenting opinion: "If, under the relevant chapter or article of the Charter, the decision is not binding, Article [69/70] 25 cannot make it so. If the effect of that Article were automatically to make al decisions of the Security Council binding, then the words 'in accordance with the present Charter' would be quite superfluous". In practice the Security Council does not act on the understanding that its decisions outside chapter VII are binding on the States concerned. Indeed, as the wording of chapter VI clearly shows, non-binding recommendations are the general rule here." Frowein, Jochen Abr. Völkerrecht - Menschenrechte - Verfassungsfragen Deutschlands und Europas, Springer, 2004, ISBN 3540230238, p. 58. De Wet argues that Chapter VI resolutions cannot be binding. Her reasoning, in part states:Allowing the Security Council to adopt binding measures under Chapter VI would undermine the structural division of competencies foreseen by Chapters VI and VII, respectively. The whole aim of separating these chapters is to distinguish between voluntary and binding measures. Whereas the pacific settlement of disputes provided by the former is underpinned by the consent of the parties, binding measures in terms of Chapter VII are characterised by the absence of such consent. A further indication of the non-binding nature of measures taken in terms of Chapter VI is the obligation on members of the Security Council who are parties to a dispute, to refrain from voting when resolutions under Chapter VI are adopted. No similar obligation exists with respect to binding resolutions adopted under Chapter VII... If one applies this reasoning to the Namibia opinion, the decisive point is that none of the Articles under Chapter VI facilitate the adoption of the type of binding measures that were adopted by the Security Council in Resolution 276(1970)... Resolution 260(1970) was indeed adopted in terms of Chapter VII, even though the ICJ went to some length to give the opposite impression. De Wet, Erika. The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council, Hart Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1841134228, pp. 39-40. Pieter H.F. Bekker has argued that this non-binding character of ICJ advisory opinions does not mean that are without legal effect, because the legal reasoning embodied in them reflects the Court's authoritative views on important issues of international law and, in arriving at them, the Court follows essentially the same rules and procedures that govern its binding judgments delivered in contentious cases submitted to it by sovereign states. In his view, an advisory opinion derives its status and authority from the fact that it is the official pronouncement of the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. The UN General Assembly Requests a World Court Advisory Opinion On Israel's Separation Barrier, Pieter H.F. Bekker, ASIL (American Society of International Law) Insights, December 2003. In practice the Security Council does not consider its decisions outside Chapter VII to be binding. The European Union considers the settlements to be illegal, EU Committee Report. and an April 21, 1978 opinion of the Legal Adviser of the Department of State to the United States Congress on the legal status of Israeli settlements concluded that "[w]hile Israel may undertake, in the occupied territories, actions necessary to meet its military needs and to provide for orderly government during the occupation, for the reasons indicated above the establishment of the civilian settlements in those territories is inconsistent with international law." http://www.fmep.org/documents/opinion_OLA_DOS4-21-78.html, accessed 2007-05-13 "Letter of the State Department Legal Advisor, Mr. Herbert J. Hansell, Concerning the Legality of Israeli Settlements in the Occupied Territories", cited in Progress report - The human rights dimensions of population transfer including the implantation of settler prepared by Mr. Awn Shawhat Al-Khasawneh. In 1967, Theodor Meron, legal council to the Israeli Foreign Ministry stated in a legal opinion to Adi Yafeh, the Political Secretary of the Prime Minister, "My conclusion is that civilian settlement in the administered territories contravenes the explicit provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention." Gorenberg, Gershom. "The Accidental Empire". New York: Times Books, Henry Holt and Company, 2006. p. 99. The legal opinion, forwarded to Levi Eshkol, was not made public at the time, and the Labor cabinet progressively sanctioned settlements anyway; this action paved the way for future settlement growth. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/secret-memo-shows-israel-knew-six-day-war-was-illegal-450410.html Secret memo shows Israel knew Six Day War was illegal Nevertheless, Israel considers its settlement policy to be consistent with international law, including the Fourth Geneva Convention, while recognizing that some of the smaller settlements have been constructed "illegally" in the sense of being in violation of Israeli law. Helmreich, Jeffrey. Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue, Jerusalem Issue Brief, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Vol. 2, No. 16, 19 January 2003. Disputed territories - Forgotten facts about the West Bank and Gaza strip, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 Feb 2003. Retrieved 29 Jan, 2008. In 1998 the Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs produced "The International Criminal Court Background Paper". 30th July 1998, Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs produced "The International Criminal Court Background Paper" http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1998/7/the%20international%20criminal%20court%20-%20background%20pape, accessed 2007-05-13 It concludesInternational law has long recognised that there are crimes of such severity they should be considered "international crimes". Such crimes have been established in treaties such as the Genocide Convention and the Geneva Conventions. .... The following are Israel's primary issues of concern [ie with the rules of the ICC]: - The inclusion of settlement activity as a "war crime" is a cynical attempt to abuse the Court for political ends. The implication that the transfer of civilian population to occupied territories can be classified as a crime equal in gravity to attacks on civilian population centres or mass murder is preposterous and has no basis in international law. International human rights groups Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have denounced the settlements as illegal, Israel/Occupied Territories: Removing unlawful Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories: Time to act Amnesty International, 2005. Israel: Expanding Settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territories Human Rights Watch, December 27, 2005 , though the Anti-Defamation League has argued that they are legal. How to Respond to Common Misstatements About Israel: Israeli Settlements, Anti-Defamation League website. URL accessed April 10, 2006. Some legal scholars FAQ on Israeli settlements, CBC News Online, February 26, 2004. URL accessed April 10, 2006. (including prominent international law expert Julius Stone, Pomerance, Michla. The Legality of the Iraq War: Beyond legal pacifism, The Review, April 2003. URL accessed April 11, 2006. International Law: Blaming Big Brother: Holding States Accountable for the Devastation of Terrorism, 56 Oklahoma Law Review 735, __ __. and Eugene Rostow, Dean of Yale Law School) and others, have also argued that the settlements are legal under international law, on a number of different grounds. Arguments based on the Fourth Geneva Convention There are two disputes regarding the Fourth Geneva Convention: whether the convention applies to the territories in question and whether the Convention forbids the establishment of Israeli settlements. Article 2 concerns the applicability of the Convention whereas article 49 concerns the legality of population transfers. In practice, Israel does not accept that the Fourth Geneva Convention applies de jure, but has stated that on humanitarian issues it will govern itself de facto by its provisions, without specifying which these are. Gerson, Allan. Israel, the West Bank, and International law, Routledge, Sept 28, 1978, ISBN 0-7146-3091-8, p. 82. Roberts, Adam, "Decline of Illusions: The Status of the Israeli-Occupied Territories over 21 Years" in International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Vol. 64, No. 3. (Summer, 1988), pp. 345-359., p. 350 Article 2 Article 2 extends the Convention to "all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties" and "all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party". Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949. Supporters of the legality of the settlements argue that the Convention itself does not apply, as the West Bank and Gaza Strip have never been part of a sovereign state since the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, therefore do not meet the definition of "the territory of a High Contracting Party". Lacey, Ian, ed. International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (pdf) - Extracts from Israel and Palestine - Assault on the Law of Nations by Julius Stone, Second Edition with additional material and commentary updated to 2003, AIJAC website. URL accessed April 10, 2006. Hollander, Ricki. Backgrounder: Jewish Settlements and the Media, Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America, October 5, 2001. URL accessed April 12, 2006. Dann, Moshe. Legality of the settlements, The Jerusalem Post, May 22, 2001. Einhorn, Talia. The Status of Palestine/Land of Israel and Its Settlement Under Public International Law, Nativ, Volume 1, 2003. URL accessed May 19, 2006. This argument was articulated in 1971 Slonim, S. (1998). Jerusalem in America's Foreign Policy, 1947-1997. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, ISBN 90-411-1255-3, p. 211. by Israeli Attorney-General Meir Shamgar Kretzmer, David (2002). The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-5337-5, p. 33. (who also created the legal framework of the Israeli military government in the administered territories Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed 20 April, 2006. ) and presented by Moshe Dayan in a speech before the 32nd session of the United Nations General Assembly in 1977. Kretzmer, 2002, p. 34. The International Court of Justice, in an advisory (i.e. non-binding) opinion to the UN General Assembly, argued that according to Article 2 of the Convention applies if “there exists an armed conflict” between “two contracting parties”, regardless of the territories status in international law prior to the armed attack. It also argued that "no territorial acquisition resulting from the threat or use of force shall be recognized as legal" according to customary international law (and defined by "Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations" (General Assembly Resolution 2625). Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, July 9 2004, paragraphs 95 and 87. On 15 July 1999 a conference of the High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention met at the United Nations headquarters in Geneva. It ruled that the Convention did apply in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem. United Nations (2002). Yearbook of the United Nations, 2000. United Nations Publications. ISBN 92-1-100857-3, p. 421; p. 437. Statement of the Conference of the High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention, Geneva, 15 July, 1999. (PDF) The Conference of High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention held in Geneva on December 5, 2001 called upon "the Occupying Power to fully and effectively respect the Fourth Geneva Convention in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and to refrain from perpetrating any violation of the Convention." The High Contracting Parties reaffirmed "the illegality of the settlements in the said territories and of the extension thereof." Implementation of the Fourth Geneva Convention in the occupied Palestinian territories: history of a multilateral process (1997-2001), International Review of the Red Cross, 2002 - No. 847. U.N. Security Council Resolution 446 refers directly to the Fourth Geneva Convention as the applicable international legal instrument, and specifically insists that Israel desist from transferring its own population into the territories or changing their demographic makeup. However, others have objected to the ruling of the conference, which they argue has amended history and been construed only for this specific situation (see excerpt below). Under Article 2, the Convention pertains only to “cases of…occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party” by another such party. The West Bank and Gaza Strip were never the territory of a High Contracting Party; the occupation after 1948 by Jordan and Egypt was illegal and neither country ever had lawful or recognized sovereignty. The last legal sovereignty over the territories was that of the League of Nations Palestine Mandate, which stipulated the right of the Jewish people to settle in the whole of the Mandated territory. According to Article 6 of the Mandate, “close settlement by Jews on the land, including State lands not required for public use” was to be encouraged. Article 25 allowed the League Council to temporarily postpone the Jewish right to settle in what is now Jordan, if conditions were not amenable. Article 80 of the U.N. Charter preserved this Jewish right to settlement by specifying that: nothing in the [United Nations] Charter shall be construed ... to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any states or peoples or the terms of existing international instruments. Backgrounder: Jewish Settlements and the Media According to barrister and human rights activist Stephen Bowen, Israel’s argument was rejected by the international community "because the Convention also states that it applies 'in all circumstances' (Article 1), and 'to all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict' (Article 2)." Bowen, Stephen (1997). Human Rights, Self-Determination and Political Change in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-0502-6, p. 29. Shamgar argues specifically against this point, stating:There is no rule of international law according to which the Fourth Convention applies in each and every armed conflict whatever the status of the parties.... The whole idea of the restriction of military government powers is based on the assumption that there has been a sovereign who was ousted and that he was a legitimate sovereign. Any other conception would lead to the conclusion, for example, that France should have acted in Alsace-Lorraine according to rule 42-56 of the Hague Rules of 1907, until the signing of a peace treaty. Article 49 Article 49 (1) insists that "Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive" and Article 49(6) insists that "The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies". According the commentary of Jean Pictet of the International Red Cross, this is intended to prevent the World War II practice of an occupying power transferring "portions of its own population to occupied territory for political and racial reasons or in order, as they claimed, to colonize those territories" which in turn "worsened the economic situation of the native population and endangered their separate existence as a race". Pictet, Jean (ed.) Commentary on the Fourth Geneva Convention. Supporters of the legality of the settlements argue that even if the Convention did apply, it should be read only in the context of World War II forcible migrations at the time. It is only intended to cover forcible transfers and to protect the local population from displacement. They point out Article 49(1) specifically covers "[i]ndividual or mass forcible transfers" whereas the Israelis who live in the settlements have moved there voluntarily, and argue that settlements are not intended to, nor have ever resulted in, the displacement of Palestinians from the area. Rostow, Eugene. Bricks and stones: settling for leverage; Palestinian autonomy, The New Republic, April 23, 1990. Israeli Settlements and International Law, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, 20 May 2001. URL accessed April 11, 2006. In addition, they state that the Geneva Convention only applies in the absence of an operative peace agreement and between two powers accepting the Convention. Since the Oslo Accords leave the issue of settlements to be negotiated later, proponents of this view argue that the Palestinians accepted the temporary presence of Israeli settlements pending further negotiation, and that there is no basis for declaring them illegal. Helmreich, Jeffrey. Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Jerusalem Issue Brief, Volume 2, Number 16, January 19, 2003. What is the background of Jewish settlements in Palestinian Arab areas?, Palestine Facts website, 2006. URL accessed April 12, 2006. Those who reject that view have a different reading of the article. They note that Pictet's commentary on Article 49(6) states "[t]he paragraph provides protected persons with a valuable safeguard. It should be noted, however, that in this paragraph the meaning of the words "transfer" and "deport" is rather different from that in which they are used in the other paragraphs of Article 49, since they do not refer to the movement of protected persons but to that of nationals of the occupying Power." David Kretzmer, Professor of International Law at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, has argued: As paragraph 1 of Article 49 refers expressly to forcible transfers, it seems fair to conclude that the term "transfer" in paragraph 6 means both forcible and nonforcible transfers. This conclusion would seem to flow from the object of the Fourth Geneva Convention, which is to protect civilians in the occupied territory, and not the population of the occupied power. From the point of view of the protected persons, whether the transfer of outsiders into their territory is forcible or not would seem to be irrelevant." Kretzmer, David. "The Advisory Opinion: The Light Treatment of International Humanitarian Law" in American Journal of International Law Vol.99 No. 1 (Jan., 2005), pp.88-102, p.91. US State Department Legal Advisor, Herbert J. Hansell, in a letter dated 1 April, 1978, has reached the same conclusion, noting that "[p]aragraph 1 of article 49 prohibits "forcible" transfers of protected persons out of the occupied territory; paragraph 6 is not so limited." </blockquote> He further argued that: The view has been advanced that a transfer is prohibited under paragraph 6 only to the extent that it involves the displacement of the local population. Although one respected authority, Lauterpacht, evidently took this view, it is otherwise unsupported in the literature, in the rules of international law or in the language and negotiating history of the Convention, and it seems clearly not correct. Displacement of protected persons is dealt with separately in the Convention and paragraph 6 would seem redundant if limited to cases of displacement. Another view of paragraph 6 is that it is directed against mass population transfers such as occurred in World War II for political, racial or colonization ends; but there is no apparent support or reason for limiting its application to such cases. The latter interpretation was adopted by the International Court of Justice in its 2004 advisory opinion Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, July 9 2004, paragraph 120. , and 150 countries supported a (non-binding) General Assembly resolution demanding Israel to "comply with its legal obligations as mentioned in the advisory opinion". Arguments based on UNSC Resolution 242 and the British Mandate Rostow and others further argue that UN Security Council Resolution 242 (which Rostow helped draft) mandates Israeli control of the territories, and that the original British Mandate of Palestine still applies, allowing Jewish settlement there. Rostow, Eugene. Resolved: are the settlements legal? Israeli West Bank policies, The New Republic, October 21, 1991. In Rostow's view The British Mandate recognized the right of the Jewish people to "close settlement" in the whole of the Mandated territory. It was provided that local conditions might require Great Britain to "postpone" or "withhold" Jewish settlement in what is now Jordan. This was done in 1922. But the Jewish right of settlement in Palestine west of the Jordan river, that is, in Israel, the West Bank, Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, was made unassailable. That right has never been terminated and cannot be terminated except by a recognized peace between Israel and its neighbors. And perhaps not even then, in view of Article 80 of the U.N. Charter, "the Palestine article," which provides that "nothing in the Charter shall be construed ... to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing international instruments...." According to Rostow "the Jewish right of settlement in the area is equivalent in every way to the right of the local population to live there". American Journal of International Law, 1990, volume 84, page 72 This right is based on Article 6 of the Mandate which states: "The Administration of Palestine, while ensuring that the rights and position of other sections of the population are not prejudiced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable conditions and shall encourage, in cooperation with the Jewish Agency referred to in Article 4, close settlement by Jews on the land, including State lands not required for public use". In addition, many Israeli settlements have been established on sites which were home to Jewish communities before 1948 such as Neve Yaakov, Gush Etzion, Hebron, Kalia, and Kfar Darom. Contrary to this view other legal scholars have argued that under Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties the only common sense interpretation of UNSC 242 is that Israel must withdraw from all of the territory captured in 1967, as any interpretation permitting the extension of sovereignty by conquest would violate the relevant governing principle of international law as emphasized in the preambular statement, i.e., "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war" as established through the abolition of the right of conquest by the League of Nations following World War I. Furthermore, it is argued that UNSC 242 has binding force under Article 25 of the UN Charter owing to its incorporation into UN Security Council Resolution 338 and that it is also binding on Israel and the PLO by agreement owing to its incorporation into the Oslo Accords. McHugo, John (2002). Resolution 242: A Legal Interpretation of the Right-Wing Israeli Interpretation of the Withdrawal Phrase With Reference to the Conflict Between Israel and the Palestinians. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 51, 851-882. Others argue that the Oslo Accords supersede UNSC 242 rather than making it binding. http://www.middle-east-info.org/gateway/unitednations/Israel%20and%20Iraq%20-%20UN%20Double%20Standards.pdf The Declaration of Principles in the accords only state that future negotiations will "lead to the implementation of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338." Oslo Accord Additionally, as the international community considered the status of Jerusalem to be unresolved, even after 1967, and did not deem any part of the city to be Israeli territory, including that part held since 1948, UNSC 242 did not settle territorial issues between Israel and Palestine left unresolved by the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Quigley, John (2002). Palestine: The Issue of Statehood (pp. 37-54). In Silverburg, Sanford R. (Ed.). Palestine and International Law: Essays on Politics and Economics. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1191-0, pp. 50-51. Indeed, Sir Elihu Lauterpacht and others have argued that, because of the disorder in Palestine at the time, the territorial framework of the 1947 Partition Plan did not come into effect in such a way as to ipso jure grant Israel sovereignty over the territory allocated to the Jewish state under that plan. Stone agrees with Lauterpacht's analysis, and his view that sovereignty was acquired through other means: Lauterpacht has offered a cogent legal analysis leading to the conclusion that sovereignty over Jerusalem has already vested in Israel. His view is that when the partition proposals were immediately rejected and aborted by Arab armed aggression, those proposals could not, both because of their inherent nature and because of the terms in which they were framed, operate as an effective legal re-disposition of the sovereign title. They might (he thinks) have been transformed by agreement of the parties concerned into a consensual root of title, but this never happened. And he points out that the idea that some kind of title remained in the United Nations is quite at odds, both with the absence of any evidence of vesting, and with complete United Nations silence on this aspect of the matter from 1950 to 1967?… In these circumstances, that writer is led to the view that there was, following the British withdrawal and the abortion of the partition proposals, a lapse or vacancy or vacuum of sovereignty. In this situation of sovereignty vacuum, he thinks, sovereignty could be forthwith acquired by any state that was in a position to assert effective and stable control without resort to unlawful means. Antonio Cassese disagrees with this analysis, arguing that whilst Israel's original occupation of West Jerusalem might have been carried out in an act of self-defense under Article 51 of the UN Charter, this did not confer legal title to the territory owing to the general prohibition in international law on the acquisition of sovereignty through military conquest. He further considers that "mere silence" could not constitute agreement by the United Nations to the acquisition of sovereignty by Israel or Jordan as a result of their de facto control of Jerusalem. Cassese concludes that "at least a tacit manifestation of consent through conclusive acts would have been necessary", whereas such relevant acts as did take place confirmed that no such consent to the transfer of sovereignty was given. Cassese, Antonio (1986). Considerations on the International Status of Jerusalem (pp. 13-40). In Kassim, A. F. The Palestine Yearbook of International Law 1986. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-0340-6. Arguments based on historical agreements Some have argued that Israel has a right to settle in areas agreed upon with Emir Faisal, the recognized political leader of the Arab world at the time. Faisal signed an agreement with Chaim Weizmann, the recognized leader of the modern Zionisim movement. The agreement, known as the Faisal-Weizmann Agreement, signed in January 1919, agreed conditional terms of borders between the Jewish state and the Arab states, which include the present day territories in dispute. Arguments based on the cause of the war It has been argued that Israel took control of the West Bank as a result of a defensive war. Former Israeli diplomat Dore Gold writes that: "The language of "occupation" has allowed Palestinian spokesmen to obfuscate this history. By repeatedly pointing to "occupation", they manage to reverse the causality of the conflict, especially in front of Western audiences. Thus, the current territorial dispute is allegedly the result of an Israeli decision "to occupy", rather than a result of a war imposed on Israel by a coalition of Arab states in 1967". He quotes Former State Department Legal Advisor Stephen Schwebel, who later headed the International Court of Justice in the Hague, and wrote in 1970 regarding Israel's case: Where the prior holder of territory had seized that territory unlawfully, the state which subsequently takes that territory in the lawful exercise of self-defense has, against that prior holder, better title. However, international law scholar John Quigley has noted that "...a state that uses force in self-defense may not retain territory it takes while repelling an attack. If Israel had acted in self-defense, that would not justify its retention of the Gaza Strip and West Bank. Under the UN Charter there can lawfully be no territorial gains from war, even by a state acting in self-defense. The response of other states to Israel's occupation shows a virtually unanimous opinion that even if Israel's action was defensive, its retention of the West Bank and Gaza Strip was not." Quigley, The Case for Palestine, 2005, p. 172 Arguments based on property rights and private ownership On January 30, 2009, the Associated Press reported that Israeli human rights group Yesh Din plans to use a classified Israeli Government database to prove that many West Bank Israeli settlements were built on land privately owned by Palestinian citizens without compensation. "Group: Settlement info implicates Israeli gov't", by Matti Friedman, Associated Press, January 30, 2009 Illegal Outposts See also: Sasson report In two cases decided shortly after independence (the Shimshon and Stampfer cases) the Israeli Supreme Court held that the fundamental rules of international law accepted as binding by all "civilized" nations were incorporated in the domestic legal system of Israel. The Nuremberg Military Tribunal had already determined that the articles annexed to the Hague IV Convention of 1907 were customary law, recognized by all civilized nations. see the "Place of customary international law" on pages 5-6 of International Law in Domestic Courts: Israel, by Dr. David Kretzmer and Chapter 2 "Application of International Law", in The Occupation of Justice, by David Kretzmer The Court determined in the 1979 Elon Moreh case that only the military commander of an area may requisition land according to article 52 of the Hague regulations. Military necessity had been an after-thought in the planning portions of the Elon Moreh settlement. That situation did not fulfill the precise strictures laid down in the articles of the Hague Convention, so the Court ruled the requisition order had been invalid and illegal. see page 349 of Israel Yearbook on Human Rights Volume 9, 1979, By Yoram Dinstein In subsequent cases, the Court has ruled that Article 43 of the Hague IV Convention is a mandatory planning consideration for approval of building projects on state lands in Judea and Samaria. see for example, the Ja'amait Ascan case on pages 68-69 of Kretzmer's The Occupation of Justice Pressured by America, the Sharon administration commissioned the Sasson report which found that the Israeli government had funded the creation of Jewish settler outposts in the West Bank that were illegal and in violation of stated government policy. According to the report, the Housing and Construction Ministry, the World Zionist Organization, the Education Ministry and the Defense Ministry cooperated to "systematically establish illegal settlement points", paying millions of dollars to create the infrastructure for scores of settlements. The summary of the Sasson Report Summary of the Sasson Report, available from the Prime Minister of Israel's Communications Office explains that local law requires the fulfillment of a number of basic conditions before establishing a settlement in the Judea, and Samaria. It lists four pre-conditions that must be fulfilled in each case. The second pre-condition regarding title to the land cites the precedent established in the Elon Moreh case. The third pre-condition is that a settlement can only be established according to a lawfully designed building scheme, which has the power to produce a building permit. The fourth pre-condition is that the bounds of jurisdiction of the settlement must be determined in advance by order of the Commander of the area. The Israeli Supreme Court has ruled that the fulfillment of the applicable Hague IV Convention criteria is a mandatory and integral part of satisfying those three pre-conditions of the local law. Sasson summed-up the situation by expaining:An unauthorized outpost is a settlement which does not fulfill at least one of the above mentioned conditions. And I must emphasize: an unauthorized outpost is not a “semi legal” outpost. Unauthorized is illegal. The report found “blatant violations of the law” by officials and state institutions. Many of the more than 100 outposts investigated added at state expense paved roads, permanent housing, power lines and other infrastructure. According to the report, some of the outposts were established on private lands owned by Palestinians with the help of Housing Ministry architects, the Housing Ministry funded many of the trailers used to start the outposts, and Defence Ministry officials allocated such private land to the quasi-official Jewish Agency. March 8, 2005, Financial Times of London, "Israeli Report Hits at Funding for Settlements, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/67ba9b06-8ff9-11d9-9a51-00000e2511c8,stream=FTSynd,s01=2.html?nclick_check=1 As part of the 2003 "Road map" for peace, Israel committed itself to remove about two dozen such settlements, an obligation it has yet to fulfill. In response to settler violence directed towards Israeli security forces, Israel declared it would no longer fund unauthourized outposts from November, 2008. Settlers claim the violence was sparked by the beating of a settler child, while border police spokesman Moshe Pinchi said he had no knowledge of the alleged beating and accused the settlers of "cynically" sending minors to attack the police. However there is evidence that support continues unabated for illegal outposts. At one unauthorized settlement, Eli there has been recent work on a new road that cuts through Palestinian territory. According to a report of the Israeli Environmental Protection Ministry, waste water management is "virtually nonexistent" in unauthourized Jewish settler outposts and some other settlements, thus raw sewage is contaminating the ground water in parts of the West Bank. Accoridng to the report, the main cause of the contaminated water is that raw waste water flows from Hebron, Ramallah, Nablus, Jenin and other villages, without proper treatment. The report blames Israeli settlements for pumping contaminated water into the sewars, not Palestinian villages. 70% of the Jewish communities east of the Green Line are connected to treatment facilities, so "illegal outposts" are the main source of the untreated water, according to the Israeli report. October 1, 2008, Maan News Agency, "Israel: ’Illegal outposts’ Contaminating West Bank Water Supplies" http://www.maannews.net/en/index.php?opr=ShowDetails&ID=32268 In May 2009, Defense Minister Ehud Barak said that over two dozen illegal outposts in the West Bank had been "declared as such by the Talia Sasson Commission", and would be dismantled. PM: No new West Bank settlements Settlements, Palestinians, and human rights Settlements (darker pink) and areas of the West Bank (lighter pink) where access by Palestinians is closed or restricted. Source: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, January 2006. Amnesty International argues that Israel's settlement policy is not only illegal, but is discriminatory and a violation of Palestinian human rights: 'As well as violating international humanitarian law per se, the implementation of Israel's settlement policy in the Occupied Territories violates fundamental human rights provisions, including the prohibition of discrimination. The seizure and appropriations of land for Israeli settlements, bypass roads and related infrastructure and discriminatory allocation of other vital resources, including water, have had a devastating impact on the fundamental rights of the local Palestinian population, including their rights to an adequate standard of living, housing, health, education, and work, and freedom of movement within the Occupied Territories." The Israeli human rights centre B'Tselem and other sources have indicated that the road blocks scattered inside the West Bank between Palestinian cities and villages which are designed to "protect the settlers" from Arab snipers firing on Israeli drivers, as well as Arab ambushes of Israelis, have had a significant impact on freedom of movement. While the road blocks are also said to protect Israelis within Israel, according to B'Tselem, the (siege) "imprisons entire populations within their communities or in a small geographic area and limits their access to other parts of the West Bank." In Hebron, where 500-600 settlers live among 167,000 Palestinians, B'Tselem argues that there have been "grave violations" of Palestinian human rights because of the "presence of the settlers within the city." The organization cites regular incidents of "almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city", curfews and restrictions of movement that are "among the harshest in the Occupied Territories", and violence and by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city's H2 sector. Human Rights Watch reports on physical violence against Palestinians by settlers, including, "frequent[ly] stoning and shooting at Palestinian cars. In many cases, settlers abuse Palestinians in front of Israeli soldiers or police with little interference from the authorities." B'Tselem also documents settler actions against Palestinians that include "blocking roadways, so as to impede Palestinian life and commerce. The settlers also shoot solar panels on roofs of buildings, torch automobiles, shatter windowpanes and windshields, destroy crops, uproot trees, abuse merchants and owners of stalls in the market. Some of these actions are intended to force Palestinians to leave their homes and farmland, and thereby enable the settlers to gain control of them." According to B'Tselem, more than fifty percent of the land of the West Bank has been expropriated from Palestinian owners "mainly to establish settlements and create reserves of land for the future expansion of the settlements". While the seized lands mainly benefit the settlements, the Palestinian public is prohibited from using them in any way. According to Meron Benvenisti,'the entire "settlement enterprise" has become a commercial real estate project, which conscripts Zionist rhetoric for profit'. Meron Benvenisti, ‘Who lost? The people of Israel,’ Haaretz 15/04/2008 A series of modern roads have been established by Israel throughout the West Bank which bypass Palestinian areas, some of which are closed to vehicles with Palestinian license-plates in varying degrees, can fluctuate based on arbitrary Israeli security concerns: some roads (mostly leading into Israel) are closed to all Palestinian traffic; many roads are closed to private traffic but allow public and commercial transportation; some roads are fully open to all Palestinian traffic and are shared completely with Israeli motorists. At the same time, Palestinian areas and roads are closed to vehicles with Israeli license-plates, though these roads are often of poorer quality, are less upkept and new roads are rarely built by Palestinians. Israel argues that such a system is needed for security reasons because of many incidents in which Israelis who entered Palestinians areas were endangered or killed, and that the restrictions generally reduce tension between the two populations. B'Tselem has described this system as nevertheless 'discriminatory': "Rather than use the main roads between the cities, most of the population is forced to use long and winding alternate routes. The regime has forced most Palestinians to leave their cars at home and travel by public transportation, in part because private cars are not allowed to cross some of the checkpoints." B'Tselem lists the effects of this separate roads regime, including: Wasted (additional) time to reach destinations, tardiness or inability to reach destinations, exhaustion, increased cost of travel, and increased wear and tear on vehicles resulting from travel on worn down or dirt roads. The recent construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier routed inside the green line to encompass a variety of settlements has also been cited as an infirengement on Palestinian human and land rights. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimates that 10% of the West Bank will fall on the Israeli side of the barrier. Violence Settlers have attacked Palestinians, unhindered by Israeli army and police units, in an incident described by the Israeli press and by Prime Minister Olmert as a "pogrom." BBC News, December 7, 2008, "Olmert Condemns Settler 'Pogrom'", http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7770384.stm In Hebron on the West Bank in December, 2008, a few dozen masked Jewish settlers attacked the house of an innocent Palestinian family numbering close to 20 people, all of them women and children save for three men. The women of the Palestinian family cried for help but their neighbors were too scared to approach the house, frightened of the Jewish security guards from Kiryat Arba who sealed off the home and who cursed the journalists documenting the attack. The masked settlers set fire to the house and shattered the windows with stones with the Palestinian family still inside, as hundreds of Jewish settlers witnessed the attack and offered suggestions to the attackers to harm the family more effectively. The Israeli army personnel nearby did not call for backup until after the house was destroyed. Haaretz, English edition online, December 5, 2008, "ANALYSIS / Hebron Settler Riots Were out and out Pogroms", http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1043795.html Another incident that sparked coverage in the New York Times was a violent settler protest at the Palestinian village of Funduk in November 2007, in which hundreds of settlers converged at the entrance of the village and rampaged. The protest occurred five days after a settler was killed in response to settlers' illegal seizure of Palestinian land without Israeli government response to Palestinian complaints of the land seizure. The settlers smashed the windows of houses and cars. According to Funduk villagers, Israeli soldiers and police accompanied the protesters but mostly stood aside while the settlers rampaged. "Young Israelis Resist Challenges to Settlements", New York Times, 2007-12-07 Settlers are particularly active during the Palestinian olive harvest season. Olive farmers and families are targeted by settlers while on their fields, and are assaulted or shot-at. Numerous organizations have documented serious abuses by settlers during this season, and many international and Israeli organizations organize campaigns to protect Palestinians on the fields during the harvest. Since the beginning of Second Intifada, 41 Palestinians were killed by Israeli civilians in the Palestinian territories, while 233 Israeli civilians were killed by Palestinians in the territories in the same period. (Note: according to B'Tselem, many of the Israeli civilians who were killed in the territories were not residents of the territories at the time, and as such would not be considered 'settlers'). The total number of Palestinians killed in the territories is over 3300 (though this number does not differentiate between Palestinian combatants and Palestinian civilians), while the total number of Israelis is 458. Diplomatic reactions, proposals, and criticisms Gush Katif was a block of 16 Israeli settlements in the southern Gaza Strip. Its 8,000 residents were forced to leave and had their homes demolished in August 2005 as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan. The settlements have on several occasions been a source of tension between Israel and the U.S. President Jimmy Carter insisted that the settlements were illegal and unwise tactically, but President Ronald Reagan stated that they were legal, though he considered them an obstacle to negotiations. In 1991 there was a clash between the Bush administration and Israel, where the U.S. delayed a subsidized loan in order to pressure Israel not to proceed with the establishment of settlements for instance in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem corridor. In 2005 the United States ambassador to Israel, Dan Kurtzer, expressed U.S. support "for the retention by Israel of major Israeli population centres [in the West Bank] as an outcome of negotiations", 'US will accept Israel settlements', BBC News Online, 25 March, 2005. reflecting President Bush's statement a year earlier that a permanent peace treaty would have to reflect "demographic realities" in the West Bank. 'UN Condemns Israeli settlements', BBC News Online, 14 April, 2005. Although the Oslo accords did not include any obligation on Israel's part to stop building in the "settlements", Palestinians argue that Israel has undermined the Oslo accords, and the peace process more generally, by continuing to expand the settlements after the signing of the Accords. Israel previously also had settlements in the Sinai Peninsula, but these were forcibly evacuated and destroyed as a result of the peace agreement with Egypt. Most Israeli and U.S. proposals for final agreement have also involved Israel being allowed to retain long established communities in the territories near Israel and in "East Jerusalem" (the majority of the settler population is near the "Green Line"), with Israel annexing the land on which the communities are located. This would result in a transfer of roughly 5% of the West Bank to Israel, with the Palestinians being compensated by the transfer of a similar share of Israeli territory (i.e. territory behind the "Green Line") to the Palestinian state. Palestinians complain that this would legitimize what they see as an illegitimate land grab, and that the land offered in exchange is situated in the southern desert, whereas the areas that Israel seeks to retain are among the West Bank's most fertile areas, including major aquifers. Israel, however, sees the current "Green Line" as unacceptable from a security standpoint - Israel would have at some points no more than 17 kilometers from the border to the sea. For more details, see Proposals for a Palestinian state. President George Bush has stated that he does not expect Israel to return entirely to pre-1967 borders, due to "new realities on the ground." Israel 'to keep some settlements', BBC, 4/12/05. One of the main compromise plans put forth by the Clinton Administration would have allowed Israel to keep some settlements in the West Bank, especially those which were in large blocs near the pre-1967 borders of Israel. in return, Palestinians would have received some concessions of land in other parts of the country. Review of Dennis Ross book, BY RAY HANANIA, hanania.com, 8/16/04, accessed 7/11/07. Both U.S. President Bill Clinton and U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair, who played notable roles in attempts at mediation, noted the need for some territorial and diplomatic compromise on this issue, based on the validity of some of the claims of both sides. Remarks by Pres. Clinton, 1/7/01. (Full transcript available at: cnn transcript) Tony Blair press conference, 4/17/04, incl. comments on compromising on settlements, UK Foreign office, accessed 7/12/07. (scroll down to question which begins with the phrase, "But Mr Sharon sees a final settlement...") Proposal of Palestinian citizenship for remaining settlers A number of proposals for the granting of Palestinian citizenship or residential permits to Jewish settlers in return for the removal of Israeli military installations from the West Bank have been fielded by such individuals Let them stay in Palestine as Arafat Arafat may allow Jewish settlers to stay in West Bank and Ibrahim Sarsur Arab MK: I would agree to grant settlers Palestinian citizenship , although, according to Yehoshua Magnes, the possibility that any such exchange of sovereignty over the Jewish settler population can occur without subsequent Arab reprisal violence is low Israel's Religious Right - Not a Monolith: "Second, a policy of retaining Jewish settlements under Palestinian control is likely to provoke more opposition than dissolving them; settlement is perceived as a half of the inseparable whole understood as the "Jewish presence in the land." Maintaining communities without Israeli sovereign control over them is the same as losing the land.36 Thus, transferring settlements to Palestinian control while allowing Jewish settlers to remain in them would also be perceived as jeopardizing Jewish lives and would be prohibited under the requirement to preserve human life. Therefore, it is better to dissolve the settlements than to maintain them under PA control" . Proposal of a second Jewish state Another proposal by hardline settlers, calling for the secession of settlers from Israel and the establishment of a "State of Judea" () within the territory of Jewish settlements, was originally fielded by Rabbi Meir Kahane, prior to his 1992 assassination, and Michael Ben-Horin The State of Judea, by Danny Rubinstein Judea, a second Jewish State , and has enjoyed considerable popularity among the pro-settler movement; such a movement holds the State of Israel as having shirked religious duties, and its incumbent position as a Light unto the Nations, in order to succor favor with the Western and Muslim worlds, and is thus to either be succeeded or joined by a second, more religiously-dedicated state. Dismantlement of settlements Background Given the dispute over the territories where the settlements were built, the issue of dismantling them has been considered. Arab parties to the conflict have demanded the dismantlement of the settlements as a condition for peace with Israel. As part of the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty, Israel was required to evacuate its settlers from the 18 Sinai settlements. The evacuation, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances, such as the evacuation of Yamit. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers might try to return to their homes after the evacuation. During the peace process with the Palestinians, the issue of dismantling the West Bank and Gaza Strip settlements has been raised. As part of the Disengagement Plan, Israel has evacuated the Gaza Strip and part of the West Bank, including all 21 settlements in Gaza and four in the West Bank, while retaining control over Gaza's borders, coastline, and airspace. Most of these settlements have existed since the early 80's, some are over 30 years old, and with a total population of more than 10,000, many of whom have yet to find permanent housing. There was significant opposition to the plan among parts of the Israeli public, and especially those living in the territories. American President George W. Bush has said that a permanent peace deal would have to reflect "demographic realities" in the West Bank regarding Israel's settlements. Within the former settlements, almost all buildings were demolished by Israel, with the exception of certain government and religious structures, which were completely emptied. Under an international arrangement, productive greenhouses were left to assist the Palestinian economy but these were destroyed within hours by Palestinians. Looters strip Gaza greenhouses, MSNBC.COM, Associated Press, Sept. 13, 2005. Following the withdrawal, many of the former synagogues were vandalized by Hamas supporters, as a symbol of victory against Israel. Some Israelis believe the settlements need not necessarily be dismantled and evacuated, even if Israel withdraws from the territory where they stand, as they can remain under Palestinian rule. These ideas have been expressed both by people from the left , who see this as a possible situation in a two-state solution, and by extreme right-wingers and settlers that, while objecting to any withdrawal, claim stronger links to the land than to the state of Israel. Recent events In January 2009, Israeli political activist group Peace Now stated that settlement construction rose by 60 percent from 2007 to 2008. Israeli Military Allows West Bank Settlements To Grow. By Allen Pizzey. CBS News. Published January 29, 2009. A classified Israel Defense Forces study allegedly leaked to the Israeli media that month reported that 3 out of every 4 settlement building projects did not have proper permits. Settlement data 'implicates Israel'. Aljazeera English. Published January 30, 2009. Israel-based Palestinian solidarity group Yesh Din argued that the report described Israelis "systematically violating international law and the property rights of Palestinian residents". The Israeli government has not commented on the authenticity of the report. The New York Times has published a Google Maps-based adaptation of the data. President Barack Obama and his special envoy to the Middle East, George Mitchell, both support taking down the settlements. In January 2009, Kadima Chairwoman Tzipi Livni vowed to dismantle them should her party win in the that month's election. Dead link Likud Chairman Benjamin Netanyahu planned to expand them, saying specifically that "I have no intention of building new settlements in the West Bank... But like all the governments there have been until now, I will have to meet the needs of natural growth in the population. I will not be able to choke the settlements." Netanyahu would let West Bank settlements expand. By Mark Levie. Yahoo! News. Published Jan. 26, 2009. Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister Avigdor Liberman supports both expanding legal settlements under Israeli law and unauthorized ones under Israeli law. After becoming the new Prime Minister in March 2009, Netanyahu started settlement expansion a few miles east of Jerusalem. The Daily Telegraph has accused construction of "making the creation of a viable Palestinian state even more difficult". Israel admits killing 189 children in Gaza campaign. By Dina Kraft and David Blair. The Daily Telegraph. Published 25 March 2009. Operation Price Tag Operation Price Tag is a coordinated tactic adapted by the Israeli settlers movement of attacking Palestinian property in retaliation for attempts by the Israeli government efforts to remove illegal West Bank outposts. Several hundred, mostly young Israeli settlers, are involved. Israeli security forces, the Israeli Defense Force, IDF, are poorly equipped to deal with the outbreak.<ref>"West Bank settlers' lawlessness, violence" article by Ori Nir in The Washington Times October 22, 2008 Wednesday</ref> The Israeli government has responded with a plan to increase law enforcement and cut off aid to illegal outposts. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/03/world/middleeast/03mideast.html "Israel Acts to Cut Off Funds to Illegal Settlements"] article by Isabel Kershner in The New York Times November 2, 2008 See also United States military and economic aid to Israel Beit HaShalom Chinese settlements in Tibet List of Jewish Settlements in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast Palestinian Land Law Sasson Report Sri Lankan settlement References Further reading The Humanitarian Impact on Palestinians of Israeli Settlements and Other Infrastructure in the West Bank, UN OCHA oPt. Bregman, Ahron Elusive Peace: How the Holy Land Defeated America''. Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue Backgrounder: The debate about settlements History, legal aspects Backgrounder: Jewish settlements and the Media Coverage, false assertions, facts Jewish Virtual Library: Myths about the settlements A compilation of facts on the settlements Analysis by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter 'The Wye River Memorandum and Israeli Settlements,” by Geoffrey Aronson Discusses the legal status of Israeli settlements under International Humanitarian Law The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories Occupation and Settlement: The Myth and Reality Jewish Communities in Yesha Jewish Settlements in "the Territories" Aren't the Problem by Chaim Herzog. "At Israeli Outpost, Showdown Looms for Settlers, Government" article by Gershom Gorenberg, January 27, 2006, Forward Online Ottoman Land Registration Law as a Contributing Factor in the Israeli-Arab Conflict by Rabbi Jon-Jay Tilsen BBC News : Settlements 'violate Israeli law' From occupied territories to disputed territories B'tselem - Land Expropriation and Settlements Israeli Confiscation and Settlement on Palestinian Land Peace Now - Settlements in Focus Text of the Fourth 1949 Geneva Convention | Israeli_settlement |@lemmatized map:8 israeli:146 settlement:210 magenta:1 west:72 bank:68 community:22 inhabit:3 territory:89 capture:10 six:10 day:13 war:32 currently:3 exist:7 partially:2 military:13 administration:17 israel:153 homeland:1 jew:9 establish:17 palestine:22 liberation:1 organization:6 yasir:1 arafat:3 commit:2 palestinian:104 state:80 would:27 include:30 gaza:35 strip:24 occupy:15 new:22 dictionary:1 cultural:1 literacy:1 third:4 edition:3 though:10 force:22 withdraw:4 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1,496 | Class_(set_theory) | In set theory and its applications throughout mathematics, a class is a collection of sets (or sometimes other mathematical objects) which can be unambiguously defined by a property that all its members share. The precise definition of "class" depends on foundational context. In work on ZF set theory, the notion of class is informal, whereas other set theories, such as NBG set theory, axiomatize the notion of "class". Every set is a class, no matter which foundation is chosen. A class that is not a set is (informally in Zermelo–Fraenkel) called a proper class, and a class that is a set is sometimes called a small class. For instance, the class of all ordinal numbers, and the class of all sets, are proper classes in many formal systems. Various important concepts in mathematics are commonly described with classes. Examples include large categories and the class-field of surreal numbers. In ZF set theory, classes exist only in the metalanguage, as equivalence classes of logical formulas. The axioms of ZF do not apply to classes. However, if an inaccessible cardinal κ is assumed, then the sets of smaller rank form a model of ZF (a Grothendieck universe), and its subsets can be thought of as "classes". Another approach is taken by the von Neumann-Bernays-Gödel axioms; classes are the basic objects in this theory, and a set is then defined to be a class that is an element of some other class. In other, less standard set theories, such as New Foundations or the theory of semisets, the concept of "proper class" still makes sense (not all classes are sets) but the criterion of sethood is not closed under subsets. For example, any set theory with a universal set has proper classes which are subclasses of sets. The paradoxes of naive set theory can be explained in terms of the inconsistent assumption that "all classes are sets". With a rigorous foundation, these paradoxes instead suggest proofs that certain classes are proper. For example, Russell's paradox suggests a proof that the class of all sets which do not contain themselves is proper, and the Burali-Forti paradox suggests that the class of all ordinal numbers is proper. One way to prove that a class is proper is to place it in bijection with the class of ordinals; see, for instance, the proof that there is no free complete lattice. The word "class" was sometimes used synonymously with "set". This usage dates from a historical period where classes and sets were not distinguished as they are in modern terminology. Many discussions of "classes" in the 19th century and earlier are really referring to sets, or perhaps to a more ambiguous concept. References | Class_(set_theory) |@lemmatized set:23 theory:10 application:1 throughout:1 mathematics:2 class:33 collection:1 sometimes:3 mathematical:1 object:2 unambiguously:1 define:2 property:1 member:1 share:1 precise:1 definition:1 depend:1 foundational:1 context:1 work:1 zf:4 notion:2 informal:1 whereas:1 nbg:1 axiomatize:1 every:1 matter:1 foundation:3 choose:1 informally:1 zermelo:1 fraenkel:1 call:2 proper:8 small:2 instance:2 ordinal:3 number:3 many:2 formal:1 system:1 various:1 important:1 concept:3 commonly:1 describe:1 example:3 include:1 large:1 category:1 field:1 surreal:1 exist:1 metalanguage:1 equivalence:1 logical:1 formula:1 axiom:2 apply:1 however:1 inaccessible:1 cardinal:1 κ:1 assume:1 rank:1 form:1 model:1 grothendieck:1 universe:1 subset:2 think:1 another:1 approach:1 take:1 von:1 neumann:1 bernays:1 gödel:1 basic:1 element:1 less:1 standard:1 new:1 semisets:1 still:1 make:1 sense:1 criterion:1 sethood:1 close:1 universal:1 subclass:1 paradox:4 naive:1 explain:1 term:1 inconsistent:1 assumption:1 rigorous:1 instead:1 suggest:3 proof:3 certain:1 russell:1 contain:1 burali:1 forti:1 one:1 way:1 prove:1 place:1 bijection:1 see:1 free:1 complete:1 lattice:1 word:1 use:1 synonymously:1 usage:1 date:1 historical:1 period:1 distinguish:1 modern:1 terminology:1 discussion:1 century:1 early:1 really:1 refer:1 perhaps:1 ambiguous:1 reference:1 |@bigram zermelo_fraenkel:1 inaccessible_cardinal:1 cardinal_κ:1 von_neumann:1 neumann_bernays:1 bernays_gödel:1 russell_paradox:1 burali_forti:1 forti_paradox:1 |
1,497 | Columbus,_Indiana | Columbus City Hall Columbus () is the county seat of Bartholomew County, Indiana, United States. The population was 39,059 at the 2000 census. The current mayor is Fred Armstrong. It is located approximately 40 miles (64 km) south of Indianapolis, on the east fork of the White River. It is the state's 20th largest city. It is also the principal city of the Columbus, Indiana, metropolitan statistical area which encompasses all of Bartholomew County. Not only is Columbus an international architectural showplace, but Columbus is also currently ranked eleventh in the U.S. on the list of safest cities per population. In 2006, Columbus won the highly competitive national contest "America in Bloom." In 2004 it was named as one of "The Ten Most Playful Towns" by Nick Jr. Family Magazine. The July 2005 edition of "GQ Magazine" named Columbus one of the "62 Reasons to Love Your Country." Columbus is the headquarters of the engine company Cummins Inc. History In 1820, the land which is now Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel. General Tipton built a log cabin on Mt. Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested, swampy valley. The town was known as Tiptonia, named in honor of General John Tipton. On 20 March, 1821, the town's name was changed to Columbus. General Tipton was very upset by the change of names, and he moved from Columbus. Later in life, General John Tipton became the Highway Commissioner for the State of Indiana, and was given the job of building a highway from Indianapolis, Indiana to Louisville, Kentucky. Upon reaching Columbus, he constructed the first bypass road ever built. Mauxferry Road detoured south around the west side of Columbus on its way to Seymour. Joseph McKinney was the first to plot the town of Columbus. No date of this plot was recorded by Mr. McKinney. For years, it was recorded in the local history books that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by General Tipton. However, a deed purporting to show a sale of the land was acquired by the Historic Columbus Indiana website in 2003 which indicated General Tipton actually sold the land. A ferry was established in order to avoid crossing both the Flat Rock and Driftwood rivers, which join only a short distance above the site of the ferry. This became a village of three or four log cabins and in 1821, the first store was added. In the same year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named after the famous Indian fighter, General Joseph Bartholomew. Columbus, Indiana was incorporated as a city on 28 June, 1864. In 1844, the first railroad in Indiana reached Columbus from Madison, Indiana. This was known as the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad caused the community to grow into one of the larger communities of the State of Indiana. By 1850, three more railroads came into the city. Columbus is host to the oldest theater in the State of Indiana: the Crump Theatre, which was built in 1889 by John Crump. Today, the building is a historical landmark and is also an all-ages venue where bands perform occasionally. Columbus is also host to the formerly oldest continually operated bookstore in the State of Indiana: Cummins Bookstore first began its operations in 1892 and ended in late 2007. The Irwin Union Bank building was built in 1954. It was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001 because of its architecture. The building consists of a one-story bank structure adjacent to a three-story office annex. A portion of the office annex was built along with the banking hall in 1954. The remaining, much larger portion, designed by Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo and Associates, was built in 1973. Eero Saarinen designed the bank building with its glazed hall to be set off against the blank background of its three-story brick annex. Two steel and glass vestibule connectors lead from the north side of this structure to the annex. The building was designed to distance the Irwin Union Bank from traditional banking architecture, which mostly echoed imposing, neoclassical style buildings of brick or stone. Tellers were behind iron bars and removed from their customers. Saarinen worked to develop a building that would welcome customers rather than intimidate them. Columbus has been home to many manufacturing companies, including Arvin Industries, now ArvinMeritor Industries. After merging with Meritor Automotive on July 10, 2000, the headquarters of ArvinMeritor Industries was moved to Troy, Michigan. Cummins Inc. is by far the region's largest employer, although ArvinMeritor is not far behind. In addition, the Infotech Park accounts for a sizable number of research jobs in Columbus proper. Other notable industries include architecture, a discipline for which Columbus is famous worldwide. The late J. Irwin Miller (then president and chairman of Cummins Engine Company launched the Cummins Foundation, a charitable program which helps subsidize a large number of architectural projects throughout the city by up-and-coming engineers and architects. Early in the 20th Century, Columbus was also home to a number of pioneering car manufacturers, including Reeves, which produced the unusual four-axle Octoauto and the twin rear axle Sextoauto, both around 1911. Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877-1925. (New York: Bonanza, 1950), p.122-4. Because Columbus is far enough away from Indianapolis, it benefits tremendously from nearby commuters who recognize Columbus as a major city in its own right. During the day, nearly 19,000 workers commute into the city from the surrounding townships and villages. In recent years, city officials have looked for ways to revitalize the city and return Columbus to the days when Miller's architectural innovation made it one of the most envied cities in the United States. Economic development, widespread beautification innovations, various tax incentives, and increased law enforcement have helped Columbus overcome what some considered a slump during the 1980s and 1990s. Architecture & Art 150 px | Fountain in front of the Commons-Courthouse Center Columbus is a city known for its architecture. J. Irwin Miller, Co-Founder of the Cummins Engine Company, a local concern manufacturing diesel engines, instituted a program in which Cummins would pay the architects' fee on any building if the client selected a firm from a list they compiled. The plan was initiated with public schools. It was so successful that Miller went on to defray the design costs of fire stations, public housing and other community structures. Columbus has come to have a high number of notable public buildings and sculptures designed by such individuals as Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Robert Venturi, Cesar Pelli, Richard Meier and others. Six of its buildings, built between 1942 and 1965, are National Historic Landmarks, and 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture. National Geographic Magazine once devoted an entire article to the town's architecture. The National Historical Landmarks are: Eero Saarinen's North Christian Church depicts an example of modern architecture in Columbus. First Baptist Church by Harry Weese First Christian Church by Eliel Saarinen, 1942; the first of the series Irwin Union Bank by Eero Saarinen, with landscape by Dan Kiley; and its addition by Kevin Roche Mabel McDowell School by John Carl Warnecke Miller House, 1957, the residence of J. Irwin Miller by Eero Saarinen, with landscape by Dan Kiley. North Christian Church (congregation founded in 1955), designed by Eero Saarinen in 1964. Other notable buildings include: Cleo Rogers Memorial Library, designed by I. M. Pei Columbus East High School, by Romaldo Giurgola St. Peter's Lutheran Church, by Gunnar Birkerts Lincoln Elementary School. Once visited by Lady Bird Johnson Otter Creek Golf Course, by Harry Weese Fire Station #4, by Robert Venturi Former The Republic Newspaper Building, by Myron Goldsmith/SOM Henry Moore's Large Arch Notable sculptures include: Large Arch Large Arch by Henry Moore , sculpture by Henry Moore Chaos I sculpture by Jean Tinguely Geography Columbus is located at (39.213998, -85.911056). The Driftwood and Flatrock Rivers join at Columbus to form the East Fork of the White River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 26.4 square miles (68.3 km²), of which, 26.0 square miles (67.2 km²) of it is land and 0.4 square miles (1.1 km²) of it (1.59%) is water. Demographics In 1900, 8,130 people lived in Columbus, Indiana; in 1910, 8,813; and in 1940, 11,738. As of the census of 2000, there were 39,059 people, 15,985 households, and 10,566 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,505.3 people per square mile (581.1/km²). There were 17,162 housing units at an average density of 661.4/sq mi (255.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 91.32% White, 2.71% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 3.23% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.39% from other races, and 1.19% from two or more races. 2.81% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Households There were 15,985 households out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% were non-families. 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.94. Ages In the city the population was spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males. Income The median income for a household in the city was $41,723, and the median income for a family was $52,296. Males had a median income of $40,367 versus $24,446 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,055. About 6.5% of families and 8.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over. Entertainment There is currently one mainstream movie theatre, Kerasotes Showplace 12, which shows new movies. In addition, the Yes! Cinema shows independent, older, and foreign films from its location downtown. The landmark Crump Theatre features occasional local performances such as comedy and aspiring local rock or punk bands. Famous natives & residents Jamie Hyneman: host of MythBusters (Born in Marshall, Michigan) Tony Stewart: USAC, NASCAR, Indianapolis 500 driver; multiple national championships; race track & race team owner Chuck Taylor: shoe designer & basketball player Scott McNealy: Chairman & co-founder of Sun Microsystems Clessie Cummins: Inventor, Mechanic, Salesman, Founder of engine manufacturer Cummins Inc. Bruce Tinsley: creator of Mallard Fillmore Mike Pence: a Republican who represents Indiana's 6th District in the United States Congress J. Irwin Miller: Industrialist Arthur W Graham III: Creator of 1st fully automatic electronic race timing & scoring system; long-time Indy 500 Executive Race Official Forest Lucas owner/creator of Lucas Oil Products; sponsor Indianapolis Colts Lucas Oil Stadium. Ryan Nerz: Author of Eat This Book Bob Paris: Best-selling author; award-winning public speaker and social change agent; former Mr. Universe Blair Kiel: NFL player Robert Garton: Longest serving member of the Indiana Senate Terry Richard Schmidt: NFL cornerback Quinn Lemley: Singer Herbert Wright: Producer Stephen Sprouse: Fashion Designer Lee H. Hamilton: Co-chair 9/11 Commission, Member of Congress Jill Tasker: Actor, Coach References Illustrated Historical Atlas Of Bartholomew County, Indiana, 1879 (reprinted by the Bartholomew County Historical Society, 1978) 2003 History Of Bartholomew County, Indiana, Volume II, copyright 2003, by the Bartholomew County Historical Society Further reading Columbus Indiana In Vintage Postcards, by Tamara Stone Iorio, copyright 2005 by Tamara Stone Iorio, published by Arcadia Publishing, ISBN 0-7385-3449-8 "Have you Seen my Town?" by Pamela Dinsmore "Images of America: Columbus" by Patricia Mote "I Discover Columbus" by William Marsh "The Diesel Odyssey of Clessie Cummins" by Lyle Cummins "The Engine that Could" by Jeffrey L. Cruikshank and David B. Sicilia "Columbus Indiana" by Balthazar Korab "A Look at Architecture: Columbus Indiana" by the Visitor's Center "People and Places in my Town, Columbus Indiana" by Sylvia Whorton References External links Columbus Area Visitors Center Columbus, Indiana at WTIU A History of Columbus Indiana Columbus Economic Development Board | Columbus,_Indiana |@lemmatized columbus:45 city:19 hall:3 county:9 seat:2 bartholomew:9 indiana:22 united:4 state:10 population:6 census:3 current:1 mayor:1 fred:1 armstrong:1 locate:2 approximately:1 mile:5 km:1 south:2 indianapolis:5 east:3 fork:2 white:4 river:5 large:8 also:5 principal:1 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:3 encompass:1 international:1 architectural:3 showplace:2 currently:2 rank:1 eleventh:1 u:1 list:2 safe:1 per:3 win:2 highly:1 competitive:1 national:7 contest:1 america:2 bloom:1 name:6 one:6 ten:1 playful:1 town:7 nick:1 jr:1 family:6 magazine:3 july:2 edition:1 gq:1 reason:1 love:1 country:1 headquarters:2 engine:6 company:4 cummins:11 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1,498 | Internet_Engineering_Task_Force | The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develops and promotes Internet standards, cooperating closely with the W3C and ISO/IEC standard bodies and dealing in particular with standards of the TCP/IP and Internet protocol suite. It is an open standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirements. All participants and leaders are volunteers, though their work is usually funded by their employers or sponsors; for instance, the current chairperson is funded by VeriSign and the U.S. government's National Security Agency. Organization The IETF is organized into a large number of working groups and informal discussion groups (BoF)s, each dealing with a specific topic. Each group is intended to complete work on that topic and then disband. Each working group has an appointed chair (or sometimes several co-chairs), along with a charter that describes its focus, and what and when it is expected to produce. The working groups are organized into areas by subject matter. Current areas include: Applications, General, Internet, Operations and Management, Real-time Applications and Infrastructure, Routing, Security, and Transport. Each area is overseen by an area director (AD), with most areas having two co-ADs. The ADs are responsible for appointing working group chairs. The area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF. The IETF is formally an activity under the umbrella of the Internet Society. The IETF is overseen by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), which oversees its external relationships, and relations with the RFC Editor. The IAB is also jointly responsible for the IETF Administrative Oversight Committee (IAOC), which oversees the IETF Administrative Support Activity (IASA), which provides logistical, etc support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations. History The first IETF meeting was on January 16, 1986, consisting of 21 U.S.-government-funded researchers. It was a continuation of the work of the earlier GADS Task Force. Initially, it met quarterly, but from 1991, it has been meeting 3 times a year. Representatives from non-governmental entities were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting, in October of that year. Since that time all IETF meetings have been open to the public. The majority of the IETF's work is done on mailing lists, and meeting attendance is not required for contributors. The initial meetings were very small, with fewer than 35 people in attendance at each of the first five meetings. The peak attendance in the first 13 meetings was only 120 attendees. This occurred at the 12th meeting held in January 1989. These meetings have grown in both participation and scope a great deal since the early 1990s; it had a peak attendance of almost 3000 at the December 2000 IETF held in San Diego, CA. Attendance declined with industry restructuring in the early 2000s, and is currently around 1200. During the early 1990s the IETF changed institutional form from an activity of the U.S. government to an independent, international activity associated with the Internet Society. Operations The IETF has at times been ascribed nearly magical abilities by the trade press, who assumed its mechanisms were responsible for the success of the Internet because it works on the Internet's core protocols. The reality that it is a group of engineers putting together specifications so that multiple vendors' products can operate across networks is considerably more mundane. The details of its operations have changed considerably as it has grown, but the basic mechanism remains publication of draft specifications, review and independent testing by participants, and republication. Interoperability is the chief test for IETF specifications becoming standards. Most of its specifications are focused on single protocols rather than tightly-interlocked systems. This has allowed its protocols to be used in many different systems, and its standards are routinely re-used by bodies which create full-fledged architectures (e.g. 3GPP IMS). Because it relies on volunteers and uses "rough consensus and running code" as its touchstone, results can be slow whenever the number of volunteers is either too small to make progress, or so large as to make consensus difficult, or when volunteers lack the necessary expertise. For protocols like SMTP, which is used to transport e-mail for a user community in the many hundreds of millions, there is also considerable resistance to any change that is not fully backwards compatible. Work within the IETF on ways to improve the speed of the standards-making process is ongoing but, because the number of volunteers with opinions on it is very great, consensus mechanisms on how to improve have been slow. Because the IETF does not have members (nor is it an organisation per se), the Internet Society provides the financial and legal framework for the activities of the IETF and its sister bodies (IAB, IRTF,...). Recently the IETF has set up an IETF Trust that manages the copyrighted materials produced by the IETF. IETF activities are funded by meeting fees, meeting sponsors and by the Internet Society via its organizational membership and the proceeds of the Public Interest Registry. IETF meetings vary greatly in where they are held. The list of past and future meeting locations can be found on the IETF meetings page. The IETF has strived to hold the meetings near where most of the IETF volunteers are located. For a long time, the goal was 3 meetings a year, with 2 in North America and 1 in either Europe or Asia (alternating between them every other year). The goal ratio is currently, across a two year period, to have 3 in North America, 2 in Europe and 1 in Asia. However, corporate sponsorship of the meetings is typically a more important factor and this schedule has not been kept strictly in order to decrease operational costs. IETF chairs The IETF Chair is selected by the NOMCOM process specified in RFC 3777 for a 2-year term, renewable. Before 1993, the IETF Chair was selected by the IAB. Mike Corrigan (1986) Phill Gross (1986–1994) Paul Mockapetris (1994–1996) Fred Baker (1996–2001) Harald Tveit Alvestrand (2001–2005) Brian Carpenter (2005–2007) Russ Housley (2007–) See also Request for Comments Internet standard Standardization IETF Working Group Internet Engineering Steering Group Internet Architecture Board Internet Research Task Force GADS Task Force References External links The official IETF site IETF Online Proceedings Early IETF Proceedings (note: large pdf files, one for each volume) Past Meetings of the IETF IETF Chairs The Tao of the IETF: details on how IETF is organized IAOC information MyIETF Personalized notification service on RFC's and drafts with full archive of old drafts etc. | Internet_Engineering_Task_Force |@lemmatized internet:17 engineering:3 task:5 force:5 ietf:40 develop:1 promote:1 standard:8 cooperate:1 closely:1 iso:1 iec:1 body:3 deal:3 particular:1 tcp:1 ip:1 protocol:5 suite:1 open:2 organization:2 formal:1 membership:3 requirement:1 participant:2 leader:1 volunteer:6 though:1 work:11 usually:1 fund:4 employer:1 sponsor:2 instance:1 current:2 chairperson:1 verisign:1 u:3 government:3 national:1 security:2 agency:1 organize:3 large:3 number:4 group:11 informal:1 discussion:1 bof:1 specific:1 topic:2 intend:1 complete:1 disband:1 appoint:2 chair:8 sometimes:1 several:1 co:2 along:1 charter:1 describe:1 focus:2 expect:1 produce:2 area:6 subject:1 matter:1 include:1 application:2 general:1 operation:4 management:1 real:1 time:5 infrastructure:1 rout:1 transport:2 overseen:2 director:2 ad:3 two:2 responsible:4 together:2 form:2 steer:2 iesg:1 overall:1 formally:1 activity:6 umbrella:1 society:4 architecture:3 board:2 iab:5 oversee:2 external:2 relationship:1 relation:2 rfc:3 editor:1 also:4 jointly:1 administrative:2 oversight:1 committee:1 iaoc:2 support:2 iasa:1 provide:2 logistical:1 etc:2 manage:2 research:2 irtf:2 cross:1 history:1 first:3 meeting:16 january:2 consist:1 researcher:1 continuation:1 early:5 gad:2 initially:1 meet:4 quarterly:1 year:6 representative:1 non:1 governmental:1 entity:1 invite:1 start:1 fourth:1 october:1 since:2 public:2 majority:1 mailing:1 list:2 attendance:5 require:1 contributor:1 initial:1 small:2 people:1 five:1 peak:2 attendee:1 occur:1 hold:4 grow:2 participation:1 scope:1 great:2 almost:1 december:1 san:1 diego:1 ca:1 decline:1 industry:1 restructuring:1 currently:2 around:1 change:3 institutional:1 independent:2 international:1 associate:1 ascribe:1 nearly:1 magical:1 ability:1 trade:1 press:1 assume:1 mechanism:3 success:1 core:1 reality:1 engineer:1 put:1 specification:4 multiple:1 vendor:1 product:1 operate:1 across:2 network:1 considerably:2 mundane:1 detail:2 basic:1 remain:1 publication:1 draft:3 review:1 testing:1 republication:1 interoperability:1 chief:1 test:1 become:1 single:1 rather:1 tightly:1 interlocked:1 system:2 allow:1 use:4 many:2 different:1 routinely:1 create:1 full:2 fledge:1 e:2 g:1 ims:1 rely:1 rough:1 consensus:3 run:1 code:1 touchstone:1 result:1 slow:2 whenever:1 either:2 make:3 progress:1 difficult:1 lack:1 necessary:1 expertise:1 like:1 smtp:1 mail:1 user:1 community:1 hundred:1 million:1 considerable:1 resistance:1 fully:1 backwards:1 compatible:1 within:1 way:1 improve:2 speed:1 process:2 ongoing:1 opinion:1 member:1 organisation:1 per:1 se:1 financial:1 legal:1 framework:1 sister:1 recently:1 set:1 trust:1 copyrighted:1 material:1 fee:1 via:1 organizational:1 proceeds:1 interest:1 registry:1 vary:1 greatly:1 past:2 future:1 location:1 find:1 page:1 strive:1 near:1 locate:1 long:1 goal:2 north:2 america:2 europe:2 asia:2 alternate:1 every:1 ratio:1 period:1 however:1 corporate:1 sponsorship:1 typically:1 important:1 factor:1 schedule:1 keep:1 strictly:1 order:1 decrease:1 operational:1 cost:1 select:2 nomcom:1 specify:1 term:1 renewable:1 mike:1 corrigan:1 phill:1 gross:1 paul:1 mockapetris:1 fred:1 baker:1 harald:1 tveit:1 alvestrand:1 brian:1 carpenter:1 rus:1 housley:1 see:1 request:1 comment:1 standardization:1 reference:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 online:1 proceeding:2 note:1 pdf:1 file:1 one:1 volume:1 tao:1 information:1 myietf:1 personalize:1 notification:1 service:1 archive:1 old:1 |@bigram iso_iec:1 tcp_ip:1 protocol_suite:1 ietf_chair:5 mailing_list:1 san_diego:1 full_fledge:1 backwards_compatible:1 per_se:1 corporate_sponsorship:1 external_link:1 |
1,499 | Dutch_hip_hop | Dutch hip hop or Nederhop is hip hop music created by musicians in the Netherlands. Early days In 1986, Dutch rap duo MC Miker G & DJ Sven (Lucien Witteveen and Sven van Veen) had a top 10 hit across Europe with "Holiday Rap", which sampled Madonna's "Holiday". Another 1980s group was the Osdorp Posse, who first started to record tracks in Dutch. In 1992, Osdorp Posse released their debut album Osdorp Stijl, which was the first-ever Dutch hip hop . They started out translating N.W.A songs to Dutch, though later wrote their own rhymes in Dutch. Their beats, created by producer Seda, have a familiar heavy sound and are similar to U.S. old-school hip hop. Frontman Def-P describes it as hardcore rap. In the 17 years of de Osdorp Posse's existence, the crew hasn't changed their style and are still making hardcore hip hop. Notable in the late 80s were All Star Fresh of King Bee topping charts with: "Back by dope demand" in early 1990 and Rudeboy of Urban Dance Squad who, at the time, were arguably more widely known in New York City than the Netherlands. Later days After the first Osdorp Posse demo cassette they toured around the Netherlands. In Deventer they found the first followers and the first Dutch language hip hop scene. The first hip hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid-Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen. These groups did concerts all over the Netherlands. Maasstraat became famous as the first group combining reggae with Dutch lyrics, inspiring acts like Postmen, for example. Another Dutch-language rapper is Extince, who in 1995 took Nederhop to a new commercial level. With two of his singles Spraakwater and Kaal of Kammen being major hits in the mid-1990s, Extince was the first Dutch rapper making the MegaCharts|Dutch charts.Other notable acts include Ali B|Ali B. (who has been featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with Marco Borsato on the song "Wat zou je doen?" for the charity War Child (charity)|War Child who achieved solo success with "Leipe mocro flavour". Together with his cousin Yes-R he made an international remix of "Ghetto" together with Akon.; the duo Lange Frans & Baas B with their patriotic but introspective "Het land van (song)|Het Land Van"; and Yes-R. Other notable groups are "Opgezwolle" (consisting of rapper Sticky Steez, rapper Frico Rico and DJ Delic) and Brainpower. There were two styles dominating the Dutch hip hop landscape: Extince, known for his easy flows, catchy songs and funky tunes, while hardcore performers like Westklan and Osdorp Posse found their own niche group of fans. In the mid 1990s The Postmen were topping the charts with their rap/reggae mix. Recently In the early 2000s the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, as did de Spookrijders. A combination of these two styles gave birth to de Spookrijders, a three man hip hop group founded in 1996. With MC's Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, de Spookrijders even gained respect from non-hip hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/DJ Cliff 'the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album'De Echte Shit. In 1999 de Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits Klokkenluiders and Ik ben de man. Both these songs appeared on the second album, Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam. After some personal argues among the three crewmembers, de Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing their and final third album Hee... Spookies!! Opgezwolle, a group from Zwolle latest album, "Eigen Wereld" (Own world) appeared in the 'Album Top 100' at number 4; the highest notation of a Dutch rap-album ever. In the mid 2000s Cilvaringz, Ali B and Raymzter have commercially been successful and Lange Frans & Baas B have had multiple #1 hits. In 2005, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig ("The youth of today") were successful with Watskeburt?! ("Wuzhappenin?!"). Rapper Jawat won the "Grote prijs van Nederland" 2006. Another Dutch hiphop Duo are Pete Philly and Perquisite who are already well known in the Netherlands and even in Japan. The most famous Dutch rapper outside the Netherlands is Salah Edin. His album 'Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie' won Best Album Award in 2007 and was fully produced by Dr.Dre's right hand man Focus... He also shot three of the most expensive music videos ever in the history of Dutch Hip Hop and through a management deal with Cilvaringz, performed in 34 countries worldwide. Genres in Dutch hip hop Gangsta Dutch gangsta hip hop doesn't have much different groups and the most known one is THC (Tuindorp Hustler Click), LSD (Lyricale Straat Dichters) Heinek'n, Kempi and Tuigcommissie. The beats are similar to that from the American beats and the lyrics are often about what they see and what happens to them in a world ruled by crime, albeit true or false. Commercial success The commercial success of Dutch hip hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes-R, Ali B, Lange Frans & Baas B and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip hop community Yes-R, Ali B and Lange Frans & Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 5-man group, having had success with hits such as "Stuk" (broken), and "Dat is Die Shit" (That's the shit), with other popular songs in the background such as "Non Stop" ft. Brainpower, "We Gaan Los" (we're going crazy {because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and "Wat Wil Je Doen" (Whut u gonna do?). Almere, Amersfoort, Amstelveen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Zwolle The Dutch hip hop scene is roughly divided by seven of the Netherlands' larger cities. Almere - Ali B, Darryl, Moccro's Amsterdam - Osdorp Posse, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, Raymzter, Brainpower, Opposites, D-Men, Lange Frans & Baas B, Negativ, Ali B and Yes-R Utrecht - Steen Zwolle - The Zwolle MCs are Blaxtar and his brother Typhoon and the MCs Phreako Rico and Sticky Steez from Opgezwolle with their Beatmaker & DJ Dippy Delic. Another important figure from Zwolle is Beatmaker & DJ Kubus. Rotterdam - DuvelDuvel, U-niq, Winne, Feis, Dion Amersfoort - Spacekees, Jiggy Djé, and Terilekst Amstelveen - Dynamic Duo Dutch oldskool The Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, Osdorp Posse, Extince and Brainpower. Osdorp Posse make to what they themselves call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N.W.A.. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution (not always negatively), police and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Brainpower's lyrics are most known to be party songs (his number 1 song "Dansplaat") and about love though he has a many lyrics that are more thought through, and quite cleverly put together. See also European hip hop External links Nederhop Video - Categorized video clips of Dutch-language rappers Nederhop Radio Rate and review music tracks and get recommendations from your friends. | Dutch_hip_hop |@lemmatized dutch:25 hip:18 hop:18 nederhop:4 music:3 create:2 musician:2 netherlands:8 early:3 day:2 rap:7 duo:4 mc:5 miker:1 g:1 dj:5 sven:2 lucien:1 witteveen:1 van:8 veen:1 top:4 hit:6 across:1 europe:1 holiday:2 sample:1 madonna:1 another:4 group:10 osdorp:11 posse:11 first:8 start:2 record:1 track:3 release:3 debut:2 album:9 stijl:1 ever:3 translate:1 n:3 w:2 song:8 though:2 later:1 write:1 rhyme:1 beat:5 producer:2 seda:1 familiar:1 heavy:1 sound:1 similar:2 u:3 old:1 school:1 frontman:1 def:1 p:1 describe:1 hardcore:4 year:1 de:11 existence:1 crew:1 change:1 style:3 still:1 make:5 notable:3 late:3 star:1 fresh:1 king:1 bee:1 chart:4 back:1 dope:1 demand:1 rudeboy:1 urban:1 dance:1 squad:1 time:1 arguably:1 widely:1 know:4 new:2 york:1 city:2 demo:1 cassette:1 tour:1 around:1 deventer:1 find:2 follower:1 language:3 scene:2 zuid:1 oost:1 maasstraat:2 mannen:1 concert:1 become:1 famous:2 combine:1 reggae:2 lyric:5 inspire:1 act:2 like:2 postman:2 example:1 rapper:8 extince:7 take:1 commercial:4 level:1 two:3 single:1 spraakwater:1 kaal:1 kammen:1 major:1 mid:3 megacharts:1 include:1 ali:7 b:12 feature:1 artist:3 significantly:1 marco:1 borsato:1 wat:2 zou:1 je:2 doen:2 charity:2 war:2 child:3 achieve:1 solo:1 success:4 leipe:1 mocro:1 flavour:1 together:3 cousin:1 yes:5 r:5 international:1 remix:1 ghetto:1 akon:1 lange:5 frans:5 baa:5 patriotic:1 introspective:1 het:2 land:2 opgezwolle:3 consist:1 sticky:2 steez:2 frico:1 rico:2 delic:2 brainpower:7 dominate:1 landscape:1 easy:1 flow:1 catchy:1 funky:2 tune:1 performer:1 westklan:1 niche:1 fan:2 mix:1 recently:1 front:1 band:1 relax:1 get:2 much:3 airplay:1 spookrijders:6 combination:1 give:1 birth:1 three:4 man:5 found:1 stefan:1 clyde:1 personal:2 life:2 amsterdam:4 black:1 even:2 gain:1 respect:2 non:2 people:1 admire:1 work:2 cliff:1 jazz:1 nille:1 echte:1 shit:3 twice:1 klokkenluiders:2 ik:1 ben:1 appear:2 second:1 argues:1 among:1 crewmembers:1 split:1 final:1 third:1 hee:1 spookies:1 zwolle:5 eigen:1 wereld:1 world:2 number:2 high:1 notation:1 cilvaringz:2 raymzter:2 commercially:1 successful:2 multiple:1 jeugd:3 tegenwoordig:3 youth:1 today:1 watskeburt:1 wuzhappenin:1 jawat:1 win:1 grote:1 prijs:1 nederland:2 hiphop:1 pete:1 philly:1 perquisite:1 already:1 well:1 japan:1 outside:1 salah:1 edin:1 grootste:1 nachtmerrie:1 best:1 award:1 fully:1 produce:1 dr:1 dre:1 right:1 hand:1 focus:1 also:2 shoot:1 expensive:1 video:3 history:1 management:1 deal:1 perform:1 country:1 worldwide:1 genre:1 gangsta:2 different:3 known:1 one:2 thc:1 tuindorp:1 hustler:1 click:1 lsd:1 lyricale:1 straat:1 dichters:1 heinek:1 kempi:2 tuigcommissie:1 american:1 often:1 see:2 happen:1 rule:1 crime:1 albeit:1 true:1 false:1 largely:1 large:2 part:1 community:1 sometimes:1 consider:1 fake:1 lot:1 tv:1 station:1 however:1 enjoy:1 great:1 bring:1 native:1 popular:2 partysquad:2 stuk:1 break:1 dat:1 die:1 background:1 stop:1 ft:1 gaan:1 los:1 go:1 crazy:1 highness:1 drunkenness:1 wil:1 whut:1 gonna:1 almere:2 amersfoort:2 amstelveen:2 rotterdam:2 utrecht:2 roughly:1 divide:1 seven:1 darryl:1 moccro:1 opposites:1 men:1 negativ:1 steen:1 blaxtar:1 brother:1 typhoon:1 phreako:1 beatmaker:2 dippy:1 important:1 figure:1 kubus:1 duvelduvel:1 niq:1 winne:1 feis:1 dion:1 spacekees:1 jiggy:1 djé:1 terilekst:1 dynamic:1 oldskool:2 exist:1 primary:1 call:1 use:3 common:1 racism:1 prostitution:1 always:1 negatively:1 police:1 social:1 subject:1 kind:1 completely:1 rapstyle:1 party:1 dansplaat:1 love:1 many:1 thought:1 quite:1 cleverly:1 put:1 european:1 external:1 link:1 categorize:1 clip:1 radio:1 rate:1 review:1 recommendation:1 friend:1 |@bigram hip_hop:18 osdorp_posse:10 hardcore_rap:2 hardcore_hip:1 lange_frans:5 frans_baa:5 de_spookrijders:5 commercially_successful:1 dr_dre:1 amsterdam_rotterdam:1 external_link:1 video_clip:1 |
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