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1,300 | Mechanical_engineering | Mechanical engineers design and build engines and power plants... ...structures and vehicles of all sizes... Mechanical Engineering is an engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. Mechanical engineering is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines. It requires a solid understanding of core concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and energy. Mechanical engineers use the core principles as well as other knowledge in the field to design and analyze motor vehicles, aircraft, heating and cooling systems, watercraft, manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, robotics, medical devices and more. Development ...and moving mechanisms, machines, and robots. Applications of mechanical engineering are found in the records of many ancient and medieval societies throughout the globe. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC) and Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition. In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020–1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any escapement could be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world's first known endless power-transmitting chain drive. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic golden age, there have been remarkable contributions from Muslims in the field of mechanical technology, Al Jaziri, who was one of them wrote his famous "Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices" in 1206 presented many mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as crank and cam shafts. During the early 19th century in England and Scotland, the development of machine tools led mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105842/engineering, accessed 06 May 2008 The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, thirty years after civil engineers formed the first such professional society. R. A. Buchanan. The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 42–60 In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). ASME history, accessed 06 May 2008. The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07, engineering, accessed 06 May 2008 The field of mechanical engineering is considered among the broadest of engineering disciplines. The work of mechanical engineering ranges from the depths of the ocean to outer space. Education Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal and North America, mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five years and result in a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng), or Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc) degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither BSc nor BTech programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is "Mechanical Engineer", and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In the U.S., most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities. The ABET web site lists 276 accredited mechanical engineering programs as of June 19, 2006. ABET searchable database of accredited engineering programs, Accessed June 19, 2006. Mechanical engineering programs in Canada are accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), Accredited engineering programs in Canada by the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers, Accessed April 18, 2007 and most other countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies. Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Management (MEng.Mgt or MEM), a Doctor of Philosophy in engineering (EngD, PhD) or an engineer's degree. The master's and engineer's degrees may or may not include research. The Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia. Types of post-graduate degrees offered at MIT - Accessed 19 June 2006. Coursework Standards set by each country's accreditation society are intended to provide for uniformity in fundamental subject material, promote competence among graduating engineers, and to maintain confidence in the engineering profession as a whole. Engineering programs in the U.S., for instance, are required by ABET to show that their students can "work professionally in both thermal and mechanical systems areas." 2008-2009 ABET Criteria, p.15. The specific courses required to graduate, however, may differ from program to program. Universities will often combine multiple subjects into a single class or split a subject into multiple classes, depending on the faculty available and the university's major area(s) of research. Fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering usually include: Statics and dynamics Strength of materials and Solid mechanics Instrumentation and Measurement Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, Energy conversion, and HVAC Fluid mechanics and Fluid dynamics Mechanism design (including Kinematics and Dynamics) Manufacturing technology or processes Hydraulics and Pneumatics Engineering design Mechatronics and control theory Drafting, CAD (usually including Solid modeling), and CAM University of Tulsa Required ME Courses - http://www.me.utulsa.edu/Undergraduate.html - Accessed 19 June 2006 Harvard Mechanical Engineering Page - Accessed 19 June 2006 Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, and physics. Most mechanical engineering programs include several semesters of calculus, as well as advanced mathematical concepts which may include differential equations and partial differential equations, linear and modern algebra, and differential geometry, among others. In addition to the core mechanical engineering curriculum, many mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs and classes, such as robotics, transport and logistics, cryogenics, fuel technology, automotive engineering, biomechanics, vibration, optics and others, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects. Mechanical Engineering courses, MIT. Accessed 14 June 2008. Most mechanical engineering programs also require varying amounts of research or community projects to gain practical problem-solving experience. Mechanical engineering students usually hold one or more internships while studying, though this is not typically mandated by the university. License Engineers may seek license by a state, provincial, or national government. The purpose of this process is to ensure that engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and knowledge of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level. Once certified, the engineer is given the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in the UK, Ireland, India and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (much of the European Union). Not all mechanical engineers choose to become licensed; those that do can be distinguished as Chartered or Professional Engineers by the post-nominal title P.E., P. Eng., or C.Eng., as in: John Doe, P.Eng. In the U.S., to become a licensed Professional Engineer, an engineer must pass the comprehensive FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam, work a given number of years as an Engineering Intern (EI) or Engineer-in-Training (EIT), and finally pass the "Principles and Practice" or PE (Practicing Engineer or Professional Engineer) exams. In the United States, the requirements and steps of this process are set forth by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES), a national non-profit representing all states. In the UK, current graduates require a BEng plus an appropriate masters degree or an integrated MEng degree plus a minimum of 4 years post graduate on the job competency development in order to become chartered through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. In most modern countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a Professional Engineer or a Chartered Engineer. "Only a licensed engineer, for instance, may prepare, sign, seal and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or to seal engineering work for public and private clients." This requirement can be written into state and provincial legislation, such as Quebec's Engineer Act. In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists; however, practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics independent of legislation that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. Salaries and workforce statistics The total number of engineers employed in the U.S. in 2004 was roughly 1.4 million. Of these, 226,000 were mechanical engineers (15.6%), second only to civil engineers in size at 237,000 (16.4%). The total number of mechanical engineering jobs in 2004 was projected to grow 9% to 17%, with average starting salaries being $50,236 with a bachelor's degree, $59,880 with a master's degree, and $68,299 with a doctorate degree. This places mechanical engineering at 8th of 14 among engineering bachelors degrees, 4th of 11 among masters degrees, and 6th of 7 among doctorate degrees in average annual salary. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Engineering. Accessed: 19 June 2006. The median annual income of mechanical engineers in the U.S. workforce is roughly $63,000. This number is highest when working for the government ($72,500), and lowest when doing general purpose machinery manufacturing in the private sector ($55,850). [http://www.worldwidelearn.com/online-education-guide/engineering/mechanical-engineering-major.htm - Website cites NACE and Dept. of Labor as sources, but was unable to verify. Accessed 19 June 2006. Canadian engineers make an average of $29.83 per hour with 4% unemployed. The average for all occupations is $18.07 per hour with 7% unemployed. Twelve percent of these engineers are self-employed, and since 1997 the proportion of female engineers has risen to 6%. Mechanical Engineers. jobfutures.ca, Accessed: June 30 2007. In the UK the average Mechanical Engineer with a CEng Status earns £55,000 a year. It is also recognized that Mechanical Engineers are very happy workers according to national statistics in 2006. Modern tools Many mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances. Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few. In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems. Subdisciplines The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical disciplines. Several of these subdisciplines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most common application of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines. Specialized subdisciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than undergraduate research. Several specialized subdisciplines are discussed at the end of this section. Mechanics Mohr's circle, a common tool to study stresses in a mechanical element Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon matter. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces (also called loads) or stresses. Subdisciplines of mechanics include Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads Dynamics (or kinetics), the study of how forces affect moving bodies Mechanics of materials, the study of how different materials deform under various types of stress Fluid mechanics, the study of how fluids react to forces Note: fluid mechanics can be further split into fluid statics and fluid dynamics, and is itself a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics. The application of fluid mechanics in engineering is called hydraulics and pneumatics. Continuum mechanics, a method of applying mechanics that assumes that objects are continuous (rather than discrete) Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of engineering. If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine, to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle (see HVAC), or to design the intake system for the engine. Kinematics Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion. The movement of a crane and the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematic systems. The crane is a type of open kinematic chain, while the piston is part of a closed four bar linkage. Mechanical engineers typically use kinematics in the design and analysis of mechanisms. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a desired range of motion. Mechatronics and robotics Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT-ER 4u, workbench CNC Mill and CNC Lathe Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer. Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot). Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to insure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications. Structural analysis Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail. Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for failure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure. Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause. Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM ASM International's site containing more than 20,000 searchable documents, including articles from the ASM Handbook series and Advanced Materials & Processes to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes. Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests. Thermodynamics and thermo-science Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system. Typically, engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels. Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat transfer, thermofluids, and energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and others. Drafting A CAD model of a mechanical double seal Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information. A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions. Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine. Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Frontiers of research Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems. Some technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below (see also exploratory engineering). Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Microns scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devcies are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS components will be the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications. Composites Composite cloth consisting of woven carbon fiber. Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide different physical characteristics than either material separately. Composite material research within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing (and, subsequently, finding applications for) stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to reduce weight, susceptibility to corrosion, and other undesirable factors. Carbon fiber reinforced composites, for instance, have been used in such diverse applications as spacecraft and fishing rods. Mechatronics Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, and software engineering. The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineering field is the study of automata from an engineering perspective and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid systems. Nanotechnology At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and molecular engineering—one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis. For now this goal remains within exploratory engineering. Finite Element Analysis This field is not new, as the basis of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) dates back to 1941. But evolution of computers has made FEM a viable option for analysis of structural problems. Many commercial codes such as ANSYS, Nastran and ABAQUS are widely used in industry for research and design of components. Other techniques such as Finite Difference Method (FDM) and Finite Volume Method (FVM) are employed to solve problems relating heat and mass transfer, fluid flows, fluid surface interaction etc. See also Building officials Building services engineering List of historic mechanical engineering landmarks List of mechanical engineering topics Related journals Mechanical engineering technology Fields of engineering Simple machine List of mechanical engineers List of inventors Patent Associations SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Pi Tau Sigma (Mechanical Engineering Honor Society) SWE (The Society of Women Engineers) ImechE (Institution of Mechanical Engineers) (British) Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) (British) Wikibooks Aeronautical Engineering Astronautical Engineering Automotive Engineering Elasticity Engineering Mechanics Solid Mechanics Engineering Thermodynamics Fluid Mechanics Engineering Acoustics Engineering Thermodynamics Heat Transfer Introduction to elasticity Microtechnology Nanotechnology Pro Engineer Strength of Materials Notes and References Further reading External links Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) - Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. 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1,301 | Cotangent_space | In differential geometry, one can attach to every point x of a smooth (or differentiable) manifold a vector space called the cotangent space at x. Typically, the cotangent space is defined as the dual space of the tangent space at x, although there are more direct definitions (see below). The elements of the cotangent space are called cotangent vectors or tangent covectors. Properties All cotangent spaces on a manifold have the same dimension, equal to the dimension of the manifold. All the cotangent spaces of a manifold can be "glued together" (i.e. unioned and endowed and with a topology) to form a new differentiable manifold of twice the dimension, the cotangent bundle of the manifold. The tangent space and the cotangent space at a point are both real vector spaces of the same dimension and therefore isomorphic to each other via many possible isomorphisms. The introduction of a Riemannian metric or a symplectic form gives rise to a natural isomorphism between the tangent space and the cotangent space at a point, associating to any tangent covector a canonical tangent vector. Formal definitions Definition as linear functionals Let M be a smooth manifold and let x be a point in M. Let TxM be the tangent space at x. Then the cotangent space at x is defined as the dual space of TxM: Tx*M = (TxM)* Concretely, elements of the cotangent space are linear functionals on TxM. That is, every element α ∈ Tx*M is a linear map α : TxM→R The elements of Tx*M are called cotangent vectors. Alternative definition In some cases, one might like to have a direct definition of the cotangent space without reference to the tangent space. Such a definition can be formulated in terms of equivalence classes of smooth functions on M. Informally, we will say that two smooth functions f and g are equivalent at a point x if they have the same first-order behavior near x. The cotangent space will then consist of all the possible first-order behaviors of a function near x. Let M be a smooth manifold and let x be a point in M. Let Ix be the ideal of all functions in C∞(M) vanishing at x, and let Ix2 be the set of functions of the form , where fi, gi ∈ Ix. Then Ix and Ix2 are real vector spaces and the cotangent space is defined as the quotient space Tx*M = Ix / Ix2. This formulation is analogous to the construction of the cotangent space to define the Zariski tangent space in algebraic geometry. The construction also generalizes to locally ringed spaces. The differential of a function Let M be a smooth manifold and let f ∈ C∞(M) be a smooth function. The differential of f at a point x is the map dfx(Xx) = Xx(f) where Xx is a tangent vector at x, thought of as a derivation. That is is the Lie derivative of f in the direction X, and one has df(X)=X(f). Equivalently, we can think of tangent vectors as tangents to curves, and write dfx(γ′(0)) = (f o γ)′(0) In either case, dfx is a linear map on TxM and hence it is a tangent covector at x. We can then define the differential map d : C∞(M) → Tx*M at a point x as the map which sends f to dfx. Properties of the differential map include: d is a linear map: d(af + bg) = a df + b dg for constants a and b, d(fg)x = f(x)dgx + g(x)dfx, The differential map provides the link between the two alternate definitions of the cotangent bundle given above. Given a function f ∈ Ix (a smooth function vanishing at x) we can form the linear functional dfx as above. Since the map d restricts to 0 on Ix2 (the reader should verify this), d descends to a map from Ix / Ix2 to the dual of the tangent space, (TxM)*. One can show that this map is an isomorphism, establishing the equivalence of the two definitions. The pullback of a smooth map Just as every differentiable map f : M → N between manifolds induces a linear map (called the pushforward or derivative) between the tangent spaces every such map induces a linear map (called the pullback) between the cotangent spaces, only this time in the reverse direction: The pullback is naturally defined as the dual (or transpose) of the pushforward. Unraveling the definition, this means the following: where θ ∈ Tf(x)*N and Xx ∈ TxM. Note carefully where everything lives. If we define tangent covectors in terms of equivalence classes of smooth maps vanishing at a point then the definition of the pullback is even more straightforward. Let g be a smooth function on N vanishing at f(x). Then the pullback of the covector determined by g (denoted dg) is given by That is, it is the equivalence class of functions on M vanishing at x determined by g o f. Exterior powers The kth exterior power of the cotangent space, denoted Λk(Tx*M), is another important object in differential geometry. Vectors in the kth exterior power, or more precisely sections of the kth exterior power of the cotangent bundle, are called differential k-forms. They can be thought of as alternating, multilinear maps on k tangent vectors. For this reason, tangent covectors are frequently called one-forms. 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1,302 | Helen_Keller | Helen Adams Keller (June 27, 1880 – June 1, 1968) was an American author, political activist and lecturer. She was the first deafblind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. The story of how Keller's teacher, Annie Sullivan, broke through the isolation imposed by a near complete lack of language, allowing the girl to blossom as she learned to communicate, has become known worldwide through the dramatic depictions of the play and film The Miracle Worker. A prolific author, Keller was well traveled and was outspoken in her opposition to war. She campaigned for women's suffrage, workers' rights, and socialism, as well as many other progressive causes. Early childhood and illness Keller with Anne Sullivan vacationing at Cape Cod in July 1888 Helen Adams Keller was born at an estate called Ivy Green Virtual tour of Ivy Green, Helen Keller's birthplace and by the age of 2 keller got sick with a trachoma and became blind and deafOfficial site of Ivy Green, Helen Keller's birthplace in Tuscumbia, Alabama, on June 27, 1880, to Captain Arthur H. Keller, a former officer of the Confederate Army, and Kate Adams Keller, a cousin of Robert E. Lee and daughter of Charles W. Adams, a former Confederate general. Charles W. Adams (1817 - 1878) - Find A Grave Memorial The Keller family originates from Germany. American Foundation for the Blind Helen Keller was not born blind and deaf; it was not until she was nineteen months old that she contracted an illness described by doctors as "an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain," which could possibly have been scarlet fever or meningitis. The illness did not last for a particularly long time, but it left her deaf and blind. At that time, her only communication partner was Martha Washington, the six-year-old daughter of the family cook, who was able to create a sign language with her; by the age of seven, she had over sixty home signs to communicate with her family. According to Soviet blind-deaf psychologist A. Meshcheryakov, Martha's friendship and teaching was crucial for Helen's later developments. Keller and Sullivan in 1898 In 1886, her mother, inspired by an account in Charles Dickens' American Notes of the successful education of another deaf and blind child, Laura Bridgman, dispatched young Helen, accompanied by her father, to seek out Dr. J. Julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice. He subsequently put them in touch with Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with deaf children at the time. Bell advised the couple to contact the Perkins Institute for the Blind, the school where Bridgman had been educated, which was then located in South Boston. Michael Anaganos, the school's director, asked former student Anne Sullivan, herself visually impaired and then only 20 years old, to become Keller's instructor.It was the beginning of a 49-year-long relationship, eventually evolving into governess and then eventual companion. Anne Sullivan arrived at Keller's house in March 1887, and immediately began to teach Helen to communicate by spelling words into her hand, beginning with d-o-l-l for the doll that she had brought Keller as a present. Keller's big breakthrough in communication came in April the same year, when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on the palm of her hand, while running cool water over her other hand, symbolized the idea of "water"; she then nearly exhausted Sullivan demanding the names of all the other familiar objects in her world. Sullivan taught her charge to speak using the Tadoma method of touching the lips and throat of others as they speak, combined with fingerspelling letters on the palm of the child's hand. Later Keller learned Braille and used it to read not only English but also French, German, Greek, and Latin. Formal education Starting in May, 1888, Keller attended the Perkins Institute for the Blind. In 1894, Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan moved to New York to attend the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf and Horace Mann School for the Deaf. In 1896, they returned to Massachusetts and Keller entered The Cambridge School for Young Ladies before gaining admittance, in 1900, to Radcliffe College. Her admirer, Mark Twain, had introduced her to Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers, who, with his wife, paid for her education. In 1904, at the age of 24, Keller graduated from Radcliffe, becoming the first deaf blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. Companions Anne Sullivan stayed as a companion to Helen Keller long after she taught her. Anne married John Macy in 1905, and her health started failing around 1914. Polly Thompson was hired to keep house. She was a young woman from Scotland who didn't have experience with deaf or blind people. She progressed to working as a secretary as well, and eventually became a constant companion to Keller. The Life of Helen Keller After Anne died in 1936, Keller and Thompson moved to Connecticut. They travelled worldwide raising funding for the blind. Thompson had a stroke in 1957 from which she never fully recovered, and died in 1960. Winnie Corbally, a nurse who was originally brought in to care for Polly Thompson in 1957, stayed on after Thompson's death and was Keller's companion for the rest of her life. Political activities Keller went on to become a world-famous speaker and author. She is remembered as an advocate for people with disabilities amid numerous other causes. She was a suffragist, a pacifist, a Wilson opposer, a radical Socialist, and a birth control supporter. In 1915, Helen Keller and George Kessler founded the Helen Keller International (HKI) organization. This organization is devoted to research in vision, health and nutrition. In 1920, she helped to found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). Keller and Sullivan traveled to over 39 countries, making several trips to Japan and becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Keller met every US President from Grover Cleveland to Lyndon B. Johnson and was friends with many famous figures, including Alexander Graham Bell, Charlie Chaplin, and Mark Twain. Keller was a member of the Socialist Party and actively campaigned and wrote in support of the working classes from 1909 to 1921. She supported Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs in each of his campaigns for the presidency. Keller and her friend Mark Twain were both considered radicals in the socio-political context present in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century, and as a consequence, their political views have been forgotten or glossed over in popular perception. Newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she expressed her socialist views now called attention to her disabilities. The editor of the Brooklyn Eagle wrote that her "mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development." Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views: Keller joined the Industrial Workers of the World (known as the IWW or the Wobblies) in 1912, saying that parliamentary socialism was "sinking in the political bog." She wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918. In Why I Became an IWW, "Why I Became an IWW" in Helen Keller Reference Archive from An interview written by Barbara Bindley published in the New York Tribune, January 16, 1916 Keller explained that her motivation for activism came in part from her concern about blindness and other disabilities: The last sentence refers to prostitution and syphilis, the latter a leading cause of blindness. Writings One of Keller's earliest pieces of writing, at the age of eleven, was The Frost King (1891). There were allegations that this story had been plagiarized from The Frost Fairies by Margaret Canby. An investigation into the matter revealed that Keller may have experienced a case of cryptomnesia, which was that she had Canby's story read to her but forgot about it, while the memory remained in her subconscious. At the age of 22, Keller published her autobiography, The Story of My Life (1903), with help from Sullivan and Sullivan's husband, John Macy. It includes words that Keller wrote and the story of her life up to age 21, and was written during her time in college. Keller wrote The World I Live In in 1908 giving readers an insight into how she felt about the world. Out of the Dark, a series of essays on Socialism, was published in 1913. Her spiritual autobiography, My Religion, was published in 1927 and re-issued as Light in my Darkness. It advocates the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg, the controversial mystic who gives a spiritual interpretation of the Last Judgment and second coming of Jesus Christ, and the movement named after him, Swedenborgianism. Keller wrote a total 12 published books and several articles. Akita dog When Keller visited Akita Prefecture in Japan in July 1937, she inquired about Hachikō, the famed Akita dog that had died in 1935. She told a Japanese person that she would like to have an Akita dog; one was given to her within a month, with the name of Kamikaze-go. When he died of canine distemper, his older brother, Kenzan-go, was presented to her as an official gift from the Japanese government in July 1938. Keller is credited with having introduced the Akita to the United States through these two dogs. By 1939 a breed standard had been established and dog shows had been held, but such activities stopped after World War II began. Keller wrote in the Akita Journal: Later life Keller suffered a series of strokes in 1961 and spent the last years of her life at her home. On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson awarded Helen Keller the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the United States' highest two civilian honors. Presidential Medal of Freedom, Helen Keller In 1965 she was elected to the National Women's Hall of Fame at the New York World's Fair. Keller devoted much of her later life to raise funds for the American Foundation for the Blind. She died in her sleep on June 1, 1968 at her home, Arcan Ridge, located in Easton, Connecticut. A service was held in her honor at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. and her ashes were placed there next to her constant companions, Anne Sullivan and Polly Thompson. Portrayals of Helen Keller Keller's life has been interpreted many times. She appeared in a silent film, Deliverance (1919), which told her story in a melodramatic, allegorical style. She was also the subject of the documentaries Helen Keller in Her Story, narrated by Katharine Cornell, and The Story of Helen Keller, part of the Famous Americans series produced by Hearst Entertainment. The Miracle Worker is a cycle of dramatic works ultimately derived from her autobiography, The Story of My Life. The various dramas each describe the relationship between Keller and Sullivan, depicting how the teacher led her from a state of almost feral wildness into education, activism, and intellectual celebrity. The common title of the cycle echoes Mark Twain's description of Sullivan as a "miracle worker." Its first realization was the 1957 Playhouse 90 teleplay of that title by William Gibson. He adapted it for a Broadway production in 1959 and an Oscar-winning feature film in 1962. It was remade for television in 1969 and 2000. In 1984, Helen Keller's life story was made into a TV movie called The Miracle Continues. This film that entailed the semi-sequel to The Miracle Worker recounts her college years and her early adult life. None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Keller's later life, although The Walt Disney Company version produced in 2000 states in the credits that she became an activist for social equality. The episode of Comedy Central's South Park which aired on November 22 2000, Helen Keller! The Musical, is about the protagonists of the series and their class producing a theatre version of the story The Miracle Worker. The Bollywood movie Black (2005) was largely based on Keller's story, from her childhood to her graduation. A documentary called Shining Soul: Helen Keller's Spiritual Life and Legacy was produced by the Swedenborg Foundation in the same year. The film focuses on the role played by Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment. On March 6, 2008, the New England Historic Genealogical Society announced that a staff member had discovered a rare 1888 photograph showing Helen and Anne, which, although previously published, had escaped widespread attention. Depicting Helen holding one of her many dolls, it is believed to be the earliest surviving photograph of Anne. Newly Discovered Photograph Features Never Before Seen Image Of Young Helen Keller, New England Genealogical Society, retrieved March 6, 2008 In 2008 Arcana Comics began publishing Helen Killer, a comic book by Andrew Kreisberg with art by Matthew Rice. In it, a college aged Keller is given a device which allows her to see and hear and which increases her physical abilities, at which point she is hired to protect the President of the United States. Posthumous honors Helen Keller as depicted on the Alabama state quarter In 1999, Keller was listed in Gallup's Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In 2003, Alabama honored its native daughter on its state quarter. A likeness of Helen Keller is featured on Alabama's quarter The Helen Keller Hospital in Sheffield, Alabama is dedicated to her. Helen Keller Hospital website There is a street named after Helen Keller in Getafe, Spain. References External links Works by Keller The Story of My Life with introduction to the text Politics Helen Keller Reference Archive (Marxists Internet Archive) "How I Became A Socialist", by Helen Keller, 1912-11-03 "Rethinking the Problematic Icon" Contrasts the iconic image of Keller as disabled saint with her real life in social and political activism. IMDb - Animated biography of Helen Keller on DVD Other 1925 interview in the Minneapolis Daily Star American Foundation for the Blind's Helen Keller collection Helen Keller Kids Museum Online Obituary in the New York Times The Helen Keller Services for the blind Helen Keller article, Encyclopedia of Alabama The Helen Keller International Award | Helen_Keller |@lemmatized helen:39 adam:5 keller:80 june:4 american:7 author:3 political:7 activist:2 lecturer:1 first:3 deafblind:1 person:3 earn:2 bachelor:2 art:3 degree:2 story:13 teacher:3 annie:1 sullivan:15 break:1 isolation:1 impose:1 near:1 complete:1 lack:1 language:2 allow:2 girl:1 blossom:1 learn:2 communicate:3 become:12 know:3 worldwide:2 dramatic:2 depiction:1 play:2 film:5 miracle:6 worker:7 prolific:1 well:3 traveled:1 outspoken:1 opposition:1 war:2 campaign:3 woman:3 suffrage:1 right:1 socialism:3 many:4 progressive:1 cause:3 early:5 childhood:2 illness:3 anne:10 vacation:1 cape:1 cod:1 july:3 bear:2 estate:1 call:4 ivy:3 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1,303 | Josephus | A Roman portrait bust said to be of Josephus Plagnieux, P. 'Les sculptures Romanes' Dossiers d'Archéologie (January 2001) pg 15 Josephus (AD 37 – c. 100), also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph, son of Matthias) and, after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus, Josephus refers to himself in his Greek works as Ἰώσηπος :Iōsēpos Matthiou pais (Josephus the son of Matthais). Although Josephus also spoke Aramaic and most probably also Hebrew, no extant sources record his name in these languages. However, his Hebrew/Aramaic name has gone down in Jewish history as יוסף בן מתתיהו (Yosef ben Matityahu) and thus he is commonly known in Israel today. was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 See also Jerusalem’s Model in the Late 2nd Temple Period . His works give an important insight into first-century Judaism. Josephus was an important apologist in the Roman world for the Jewish people and culture, particularly at a time of conflict and tension. He always remained, in his own eyes, a loyal and law-observant Jew. He went out of his way both to commend Judaism to educated Gentiles, and to insist on its compatibility with cultured Graeco-Roman thought. He constantly contended for the antiquity of Jewish culture, presenting its people as civilised, devout and philosophical. Eusebius reports that a statue of Josephus was erected in Rome. Ecclesiastical History 3.9.2 Josephus's two most important works are The Jewish War (c. 75) and Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94). Stephen L. Harris, Understanding the Bible, (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985). The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Rome (66–70). Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective. These works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of early Christianity. Stephen L. Harris, Understanding the Bible, (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985). The Galilee, site of Josephus' governorship, in late antiquity. Biography Josephus, who introduced himself in Greek as "Iosepos (Ιώσηπος), son of Matthias, an ethnic Jew, a priest from Jerusalem",<ref>Jewish War I.3</ref> fought the Romans in the First Jewish-Roman War of 66–73 as a Jewish military leader in Galilee. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat was taken under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands; the survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus, however, in circumstances that are somewhat unclear, Josephus found himself trapped in a cave with forty of his companions. The Romans asked him to surrender once they discovered where he was, but his companions refused to allow this. He therefore suggested a method of collective suicide: they draw lots and killed each other, one by one, counting to every third person. The sole survivor of this process was Josephus (this method as a mathematical problem is referred to as the Josephus problem, or Roman Roulette Cf. this example, Roman Roulette. ) Josephus and one of his soldiers then surrendered to the Roman forces invading Galilee in July 67 and became prisoners. The Roman forces were led by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors. In 69, Josephus was released (cf. War IV.622–629) and according to Josephus's own account, he appears to have played a role as a negotiator with the defenders during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty (hence he is often referred to as Flavius Josephus — see below). In addition to Roman citizenship he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea, and a decent, if not extravagant, pension. It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he only ever calls himself "Josephus", he appears to have taken the Roman praenomen Titus and nomen Flavius from his patrons. Attested by the third century Church theologian Origen (Comm. Matt. 10.17). This was standard practice for 'new' Roman citizens. Josephus's first wife perished, together with his parents, in Jerusalem during the siege and Vespasian arranged for him to marry a Jewish woman who had been captured. This woman left Josephus, and around 70, he married a Jewish woman from Alexandria by whom he had three male children. Only one, Flavius Hyrcanus, survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife and around 75, married his fourth wife, a Jewish woman from Crete, member of a distinguished family. This last marriage produced two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa. Josephus's life is beset with ambiguity. For his critics, he never satisfactorily explained his actions during the Jewish war — why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee in 67 with some of his compatriots, and why, after his capture, he accepted patronage from the Romans. Yet, none of his critics mentioned the fact that the two leaders of the Jewish zealots, Simon Bar-Giora and John of Giscala, at the moment of truth just before the fall of Jerusalem, declined to commit suicide and accepted Roman captivity. Historian E. Mary Smallwood wrote: (Josephus) was conceited, not only about his own learning but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by the Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefitted for the rest of his days from his change of side. Josephus, Flavius, The Jewish War, tr. G.A. Williamson, introduction by E. Mary Smallwood. New York, Penguin, 1981, p. 24 Josephus' credibility as a historian is questionable — his works are usually dismissed as Roman propaganda or as a personal or Jewish apologetic, aimed at rehabilitating his reputation in history. More recently, commentators have reassessed previously-held views of Josephus. As P.J. O'Rourke quipped: Reason dictates we should hate this man. But it's hard to get angry at Josephus. What, after all, did he do? A few soldiers were tricked into suicide. Some demoralizing claptrap was shouted at a beleaguered army. A wife was distressed... all of which pale by comparison to what the good men did. For it was the loyal, the idealistic and the brave who did the real damage. The devout and patriotic leaders of Jerusalem sacrificed tens of thousands of lives to the cause of freedom. Vespasian and Titus sacrificed tens of thousands of more to the cause of civil order. Even Agrippa II, the Roman client king of Judea who did all he could to prevent the war, ended by supervising the destruction of half a dozen of his cities and the sale of their inhabitants into slavery. How much better for everyone if all the principal figures of the region had been slithering filth like Josephus. O'Rourke 104. Significance to scholarship A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whiston's translation of his works The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish-Roman War and are also important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and post-Second-Temple Judaism. Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th century became focused on Josephus' relationship to the sect of the Pharisees. He was consistently portrayed as a member of the sect, but nevertheless viewed as a villainous traitor to his own nation — a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus. In the mid 20th century, this view was challenged by a new generation of scholars who formulated the modern concept of Josephus, still considering him a Pharisee but restoring his reputation in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. Scholarship post-1990 sought to move scholarly perceptions forward by demonstrating that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became part of the Temple Establishment as a matter of deference, and not willing association (cf. Steve Mason 1991). Josephus includes information about individuals, groups, customs and geographical places. His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great. He makes references to the Sadducees, Jewish High Priests of the time, Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius' census and the Zealots, and to such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James the brother of Jesus, and a disputed reference to Jesus. He is an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism (and, thus, the context of early Christianity). A careful reading of Josephus' writings allowed Ehud Netzer, an archaeologist from Hebrew University, to discover the location of Herod's Tomb, after a search of 35 years — above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened, desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium, 12 kilometers south of Jerusalem — exactly where it should have been, according to Josephus's writings. For many years, the works of Josephus were printed only in an imperfect Latin translation from the original Greek. It was only in 1544 that a version of the Greek text was made available, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius. The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge, appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout the 17th century. However, the 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston which achieved enormous popularity in the English speaking world (and which is currently available online for free download by Project Gutenberg). Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese, who made a detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain. This was the version used by H. St J. Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today. Works A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus translated by Thomas Lodge which originally appeared in 1602. (c. 75) War of the Jews, or The Jewish War, or Jewish Wars, or History of the Jewish War (commonly abbreviated JW, BJ or War) (date unknown) Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades (spurious; adaptation of "Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe" by Hippolytus of Rome) (c. 94) Antiquities of the Jews, or Jewish Antiquities, or Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology (frequently abbreviated AJ, AotJ or Ant. or Antiq.) (c. 97) Flavius Josephus Against Apion, or Against Apion, or Contra Apionem, or Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people (usually abbreviated CA) (c. 99) The Life of Flavius Josephus, or Autobiography of Flavius Josephus (abbreviated Life or Vita) The Jewish War His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians" – usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia – in his "paternal tongue" (War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language. He then wrote a seven-volume account in Greek known to us as the Jewish War (Latin Bellum Iudaicum). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the Empire and the uprising in Cyrene. Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus' own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (Life 13–17). Rome cannot have been an easy place for a Jew to live, in the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt. Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus' triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem. He would have experienced the popular presentation of the Jews as a bellicose and xenophobic people. It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War, and although this work has often been dismissed as pro-Roman propaganda (hardly a surprising view, given the source of his patronage), he claims to be writing to counter anti-Judean accounts. He disputes the claim that the Jews served a defeated God, and were naturally hostile to Roman civilization. Rather, he blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among the Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea, but these he represents as atypical: corrupt and incompetent administrators. Thus, according to Josephus, the traditional Jew was, should be, and can be, a loyal and peace-loving citizen. Jews can, and historically have, accepted Rome's hegemony precisely because their faith declares that God himself gives empires their power. Jewish Antiquities The next work by Josephus is his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian (between 1.9.93 and 14.3.94, cf. AJ X.267). He claims that interested persons have pressed him to give a fuller account of the Jewish culture and constitution. Here, in expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Beginning with the creation according to Genesis, he outlines Jewish history. Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who in turn taught the Greeks. Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy. The great figures of the biblical stories are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. There is again an autobiographical Appendix defending Josephus' own conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces. Against Apion Josephus' Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks. Some anti-Judean allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion, and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed. Literature about Josephus The Josephus Trilogy, a novel by Lion Feuchtwanger Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932 Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935 Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942 Flavius Josephus Eyewitness to Rome's first-century conquest of Judea, Mireille Hadas-lebel, Macmillan 1993, Simon and Schuster 2001 "The 2000 Year Old Middle East Policy Expert", a chapter from Give War A Chance by P. J. O'Rourke O'Rourke, P.J. Give War a Chance. Vintage, 1993. See also Josephus on Jesus Josippon Josephus problem — a mathematical problem named after Josephus. References The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged New Updated Edition Translated by William Whiston, A.M., Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8 (Hardcover). ISBN 1-56563-167-6 (Paperback). O'Rourke, P.J. Give War a Chance. Vintage, 1993. Per Bilde. Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome: his Life, his Works and their Importance. Sheffield, 1998. Shaye J.D. Cohen. Josephus in Galilee and Rome. His Vita and development as a historian. Columbia Studies in the Classical tradition 8 (1979 Leiden). Louis Feldman. "Flavius Josephus revisited. The man, his writings, and his significance." Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt 21.2 (1984). Steve Mason, Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees (1991 Leiden). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary'', 10 vols. in 12 (Leiden, 2000–). Footnotes External links Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Flavius Josephus The Jewish History Resource Center — Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Works of Flavius Josephus Translated by William Whiston The Works of Flavius Josephus Flavius Josephus, Judaea and Rome: A Question of Context PACE Josephus: text and resources in the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement at York University Flavius Josephus at livius.org Josephus Flavius at Jewish Virtual Library | Josephus |@lemmatized roman:30 portrait:1 bust:1 say:1 josephus:77 plagnieux:1 p:6 les:1 sculpture:1 romanes:1 dossier:1 archéologie:1 january:1 pg:1 ad:2 c:7 also:10 know:5 yosef:2 ben:2 matityahu:2 joseph:1 son:5 matthias:2 become:6 citizen:4 titus:6 flavius:24 refers:1 greek:12 work:18 ἰώσηπος:1 iōsēpos:1 matthiou:1 pais:1 matthais:1 although:3 speak:1 aramaic:3 probably:1 hebrew:4 extant:1 source:4 record:2 name:3 language:2 however:4 go:2 jewish:42 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1,304 | Nial | Nial (from "Nested Interactive Array Language") is a high-level array programming language developed from about 1981 by Mike Jenkins of Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Nial combines a functional programming notation for arrays based on Array Theory developed by Trenchard More with structured programming concepts for numeric, character and symbolic data. It is most often used for prototyping and artificial intelligence. In 1982, Jenkins formed a company Nial Systems Ltd to market the language and the Q'Nial implementation of Nial. As of 2006, the company website supports an Open Source project for the Q'Nial software with the binary and source available for download under the terms of an Artistic Licence. Nial Concepts Nial uses a generalized and expressive Array Theory in its Version 4, but sacrificed some of the generality of functional model, and modified the Array Theory in the Version 6. Only Version 6 is available now. Nial defines all its datatypes as nested rectangular arrays. ints, booleans, chars etc are considered as a solitary array or an array containing a single member. Arrays themselves can contain other arrays to form arbitrarily deep structures. Nial also provides Records. They are defined as non-homogenous array structure. Functions in Nial are called Operations. From Nial manual: "An operation is a functional object that is given an argument array and returns a result array. The process of executing an operation by giving it an argument value is called an operation call or an operation application." Application of Operations Nial like other APL derived languages allow the unification of binary operators and operations. Thus the below notations have the same meaning. Note: sum is same as + binary operation 2 + 3 2 sum 3 in array notation + [2,3] sum [2,3] strand notation + 2 3 sum 2 3 grouped notation + (2 3) sum (2 3) Nial also uses transformers which are higher order functions. They use the argument operation to construct a new modified operation. twice is transformer f (f f) twice rest [4, 5, 6, 7, 8] |6 7 8 Atlas An atlas in Nial is an operation made up of an array of component operations. When an atlas is applied to a value, each element of the atlas is applied in turn to the value to provide an end result. This is used to provide point free (without-variables) style of definitions. It is also used by the transformers. In the below examples 'inner [+,*]' the list '[+,*]' is an atlas. Examples Creating Arrays count 6 |1 2 3 4 5 6 Arrays can also be literal Arr := [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] |5 6 7 8 9 Shape gives the array dimensions and reshape can be used to reshape the dimensions. shape Arr |5 a := 2 3 reshape Arr # reshape is a binary operation with two arguments. It can also be written in infix as # a := reshape [[2,3], Arr] |5 6 7 |8 9 5 b := 3 2 reshape Arr |5 6 |7 8 |9 5 a inner[+,*] b |130 113 |148 145 Computing Average Definitions are of the form '<name> is <expression>' average is / [sum, tally] average Arr |7. Computing Factorial fact is recur [ 0 =, 1 first, pass, product, -1 +] fact 4 |24 Reversing an array rev is reshape [ shape, across [pass, pass, converse append ] ] rev [1, 2, 3, 4] |4 3 2 1 Generating Primes Contrast with APL primes is sublist [ each (2 = sum eachright (0 = mod) [pass,count]), pass ] rest count primes 10 |2 3 5 7 Explanation Checking the divisibility of A by B is_divisible is 0 = mod [A,B] Defining is_prime filter is_prime is 2 = sum eachright is_divisible [pass,count] Count generates an array [1..N] and pass is N (identity operation). eachright applies is_divisible(pass,element) in each element of count-generated array. Thus this transforms the count-generated array into an array where numbers that can divide N are replaced by '1' and others by '0'. Hence if the number N is prime, sum [transformed array] must be 2 (itself and 1). Now all that remains is to generate another array using count N, and filter all that are not prime. primes is sublist [each is_prime, pass] rest count QuickSort link joins together its argument arrays sublist [A,B] returns a list of items of B chosen according to the list of booleans given in A, selecting those items of B where the corresponding item of A is true. In a Fork [A,B,C] X the first A is a predicate, and if A(X) is true, then B(X) is returned else C(X) is returned. Pass is an identity operation for arrays. quicksort is fork [ >= [1 first,tally], pass, link [ quicksort sublist [ < [pass, first], pass ], sublist [ match [pass,first],pass ], quicksort sublist [ > [pass,first], pass ] ] ] Using it. quicksort [5, 8, 7, 4, 3] |3 4 5 7 8 External links Nial Systems homepage A description of Nial Q'Nial Open Source Project Array Theory | Nial |@lemmatized nial:18 nest:1 interactive:1 array:29 language:4 high:2 level:1 program:1 develop:2 mike:1 jenkins:2 queen:1 university:1 kingston:1 ontario:1 canada:1 combine:1 functional:3 programming:2 notation:5 base:1 theory:4 trenchard:1 structured:1 concept:2 numeric:1 character:1 symbolic:1 data:1 often:1 use:9 prototyping:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 form:3 company:2 system:2 ltd:1 market:1 q:3 implementation:1 website:1 support:1 open:2 source:3 project:2 software:1 binary:4 available:2 download:1 term:1 artistic:1 licence:1 generalized:1 expressive:1 version:3 sacrifice:1 generality:1 model:1 modify:1 defines:1 datatypes:1 nested:1 rectangular:1 ints:1 booleans:2 char:1 etc:1 consider:1 solitary:1 contain:2 single:1 member:1 arbitrarily:1 deep:1 structure:2 also:5 provide:3 record:1 define:2 non:1 homogenous:1 function:2 call:3 operation:15 manual:1 object:1 give:4 argument:5 return:4 result:2 process:1 execute:1 value:3 application:2 like:1 apl:2 derive:1 allow:1 unification:1 operator:1 thus:2 meaning:1 note:1 sum:9 strand:1 grouped:1 transformer:3 order:1 construct:1 new:1 modified:1 twice:2 f:3 rest:3 atlas:5 make:1 component:1 apply:2 element:3 turn:1 end:1 point:1 free:1 without:1 variable:1 style:1 definition:2 example:2 inner:2 list:3 create:1 count:9 literal:1 arr:6 shape:3 dimension:2 reshape:7 two:1 write:1 infix:1 b:9 computing:1 average:3 name:1 expression:1 tally:2 compute:1 factorial:1 fact:2 recur:1 first:6 pas:17 product:1 reverse:1 rev:2 across:1 converse:1 append:1 generate:3 prime:5 contrast:1 sublist:6 eachright:3 mod:2 prim:1 explanation:1 check:1 divisibility:1 filter:2 n:5 identity:2 applies:1 generated:2 transform:2 number:2 divide:1 replace:1 others:1 hence:1 must:1 remain:1 another:1 quicksort:5 link:3 join:1 together:1 item:3 choose:1 accord:1 select:1 corresponding:1 true:2 fork:2 c:2 x:4 predicate:1 else:1 match:1 external:1 homepage:1 description:1 |@bigram kingston_ontario:1 structured_programming:1 artificial_intelligence:1 external_link:1 |
1,305 | Digital_synthesizer | A digital synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds. Electronic keyboards make music through sound waves. The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with general-purpose computers, as part of academic research into sound generation. Early commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as additive synthesis and FM synthesis, becoming commercially available in the early 1980s. Other techniques, such as wavetable synthesis and physical modeling, only became possible with the advent of high-speed microprocessor and digital signal processing technology. One of the earliest commercial digital synthesizers was the Synclavier. Some digital synthesizers now exist in the form of "softsynth" software that synthesizes sound using conventional PC hardware, though they require careful programming and a fast CPU to get the same latency response as their dedicated equivalents. In order to reduce latency, some professional sound card manufacturers have developed specialized digital signal processing hardware. Dedicated digital synthesizers frequently have the advantage of onboard accessibility, with switchable front panel controls to peruse their functions, whereas software synthesizers trump their dedicated counterparts with their additional functionality, against the handicap of a mouse-driven control system. External links Psycle a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer and sequencer/tracker (open source and totally free) Buzz, a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer (gratis but proprietary) | Digital_synthesizer |@lemmatized digital:10 synthesizer:9 use:3 signal:3 processing:3 dsp:1 techniques:1 make:3 musical:1 sound:5 electronic:1 keyboard:1 music:1 wave:1 early:4 synthesis:4 experiment:1 general:1 purpose:1 computer:1 part:1 academic:1 research:1 generation:1 commercial:2 simple:1 hard:1 wired:1 circuitry:1 implement:1 technique:2 additive:1 fm:1 become:2 commercially:1 available:1 wavetable:1 physical:1 modeling:1 possible:1 advent:1 high:1 speed:1 microprocessor:1 technology:1 one:1 synclavier:1 exist:1 form:1 softsynth:1 software:4 synthesize:1 conventional:1 pc:1 hardware:2 though:1 require:1 careful:1 programming:1 fast:1 cpu:1 get:1 latency:2 response:1 dedicated:1 equivalent:1 order:1 reduce:1 professional:1 card:1 manufacturer:1 develop:1 specialized:1 dedicate:2 frequently:1 advantage:1 onboard:1 accessibility:1 switchable:1 front:1 panel:1 control:2 peruse:1 function:1 whereas:1 trump:1 counterpart:1 additional:1 functionality:1 handicap:1 mouse:1 drive:1 system:1 external:1 link:1 psycle:1 freely:2 downloadable:2 modular:2 sequencer:1 tracker:1 open:1 source:1 totally:1 free:1 buzz:1 gratis:1 proprietary:1 |@bigram signal_processing:3 processing_dsp:1 additive_synthesis:1 wavetable_synthesis:1 external_link:1 freely_downloadable:2 synthesizer_sequencer:1 |
1,306 | Cauchyâ%80%93Riemann_equations | In mathematics, the Cauchy–Riemann differential equations in complex analysis, named after Augustin Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann, consist of a system of two partial differential equations that provides a necessary and sufficient condition for a differentiable function to be holomorphic in an open set. This system of equations first appeared in the work of Jean le Rond d'Alembert . Later, Leonhard Euler connected this system to the analytic functions . then used these equations to construct his theory of functions. Riemann's dissertation on the theory of functions appeared in 1851. The Cauchy-Riemann equations on a pair of real-valued functions u(x,y) and v(x,y) are the two equations: (1a) and (1b) Typically the pair u and v are taken to be the real and imaginary parts of a complex-valued function f(x + iy) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y). Suppose that u and v are continuously differentiable on an open subset of C. Then f = u+iv is holomorphic if and only if the partial derivatives of u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations (1a) and (1b). Interpretation and reformulation The equations are one way of looking at the condition on a function to be differentiable (holomorphic) in the sense of complex analysis: in other words they encapsulate the notion of function of a complex variable by means of conventional differential calculus. In the theory there are several other major ways of looking at this notion, and the translation of the condition into other language is often needed. Conformal mappings Firstly, the Cauchy-Riemann equations may be written in complex form (2) In this form, the equations correspond structurally to the condition that the Jacobian matrix is of the form where and . A matrix of this form is the matrix representation of a complex number. Geometrically, such a matrix is always the composition of a rotation with a scaling, and in particular preserves angles. Consequently, a function satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations, with a nonzero derivative, preserves the angle between curves in the plane. That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are the conditions for a function to be conformal. Complex differentiability The Cauchy-Riemann equations are necessary and sufficient conditions for the complex differentiability (or holomorphicity) of a function . Specifically, suppose that is a function of a complex number z ∈ C. Then the complex derivative of ƒ at a point z0 is defined by provided this limit exists. If this limit exists, then it may be computed by taking the limit as h → 0 along the real axis or imaginary axis; in either case it should give the same result. Approaching along the real axis, one finds On the other hand, approaching along the imaginary axis, The equality of the derivative of ƒ taken along the two axes is which are the Cauchy-Riemann equations (2) at the point z0. Conversely, if ƒ : C → C is a function which is differentiable when regarded as a function on R2, then ƒ is complex differentiable if and only if the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold. Indeed, following , suppose ƒ is a complex function defined in an open set Ω ⊂ C. Then, writing z = x + i y for every z ∈ Ω, one can also regard Ω as an open subset of R2, and ƒ as a function of two real variables x and y, which maps Ω ⊂ R2 to C. We consider the Cauchy-Riemann equations at z = 0 assuming ƒ(z) = 0, just for notational simplicity – the proof is identical in general case. So assume ƒ is differentiable at 0, as a function of two real variables from Ω to C. This is equivalent to the existence of two complex numbers and (which are the partial derivatives of ƒ) such that where and as Since and , the above can be re-written as Using the two differential operators the above equality can be written as For real values of , we have and for purely imaginary we have hence has a limit at 0 (i.e., ƒ is complex differentiable at 0) if and only if . But this is exactly the Cauchy-Riemann equations, thus ƒ is analytic at 0 if and only if the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold at 0. Independence of the complex conjugate The above proof suggests another interpretation of the Cauchy-Riemann equations. The complex conjugate of z, denoted , is defined by for real x and y. The Cauchy-Riemann equations can then be written as a single equation (3) where the differential operator is defined by In this form, the Cauchy-Riemann equations can be interpreted as the statement that f is independent of the variable . As such, we can view analytic functions as true functions of one complex variable as opposed to complex functions of two real variables. Physical interpretation One interpretation of the Cauchy-Riemann equations does not involve complex variables directly. Suppose that u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations in an open subset of R2, and consider the vector field regarded as a (real) two-component vector. Then the first Cauchy-Riemann equation (1a) asserts that is irrotational: The second Cauchy-Riemann equation (1b) asserts that the vector field is solenoidal (or divergence-free): Owing respectively to Green's theorem and the divergence theorem, such a field is necessarily conserved and free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain. (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts in Cauchy's integral theorem.) In fluid dynamics, such a vector field is a potential flow . In magnetostatics, such vector fields model static magnetic fields on a region of the plane containing no current. In electrostatics, they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge. Other representations Other representations of the Cauchy-Riemann equations occasionally arise in other coordinate systems. If (1a) and (1b) hold for a continuously differentiable pair of functions u and v, then so do for any coordinate system such that the pair is orthonormal and positively oriented. As a consequence, in particular, in the system of coordinates given by the polar representation , the equations then take the form Combining these into one equation for ƒ gives Inhomogeneous equations The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equations consist of the two equations for a pair of unknown functions u(x,y) and v(x,y) of two real variables for some given functions α(x,y) and β(x,y) defined in an open subset of R2. These equations are usually combined into a single equation where f = u + iv and φ = (α + iβ)/2. If φ is Ck, then the inhomogeneous equation is explicitly solvable in any bounded domain D, provided φ is continuous on the closure of D. Indeed, by the Cauchy integral formula, for all ζ ∈ D. Generalizations Goursat's theorem and its generalizations Suppose that is a complex-valued function which is differentiable as a function . Then Goursat's theorem asserts that ƒ is analytic in an open complex domain Ω if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equation in the domain . In particular, continuous differentiability of ƒ need not be assumed . The hypotheses of Goursat's theorem can be weakened significantly. If is continuous in an open set Ω and the partial derivatives of ƒ with respect to x and y exist in Ω, and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations throughout Ω, then ƒ is holomorphic (and thus analytic). This result is the Looman–Menchoff theorem. The hypothesis that ƒ obey the Cauchy-Riemann equations throughout the domain Ω is essential. It is possible to construct a continuous function satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations at a point, but which is not analytic at the point (e.g., ƒ(z) = . Similarly, some additional assumption is needed besides the Cauchy-Riemann equations (such as continuity), as the following example illustrates which satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations everywhere, but fails to be continuous at z = 0. Nevertheless, if a function satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations in an open set in a weak sense, then the function is analytic. More precisely : If ƒ(z) is locally integrable in an open domain Ω ⊂ C, and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations weakly, then ƒ agrees almost everywhere with an analytic function in Ω. This is in fact a special case of a more general result on the regularity of solutions of hypoelliptic partial differential equations. Several variables There are Cauchy-Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of several complex variables. They form a significant overdetermined system of PDEs. As often formulated, the d-bar operator annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation where See also List of complex analysis topics Morera's theorem References . . . . . . . External links Cauchy-Riemann Equations Module by John H. 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1,307 | Bolsheviks | Bolshevik Party Meeting. Lenin is seen at right. |Boris Kustodiev's 1920 painting "Bolshevik" Bolsheviks, originally also Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Language, article "Большевистский" Bolshevists Dictionaries define the word "Bolshevist" both as a synonym to "Bolshevik" and as an adherent of Bolshevik policies. ( (singular) , derived from bolshe, "more") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction Derived from menshe ("less"). The split occurred at the Second Party Congress in 1903. at the Second Party Congress in 1903 and ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. After the split, the Bolshevik party was designated as RSDLP(b) (Russian: РСДРП(б)), where "b" stands for "Bolsheviks". Shortly after seizing power in November 1917 the party changed its name to the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (РКП(б)) and was generally known as the Communist Party after that point, however, it was not until 1952 that the party formally dropped the word "Bolshevik" from its name. (See Congress of the CPSU article for the timeline of name changes.) The Bolsheviks seized power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Soviet Union. Bolsheviks (or "Maximalist") were an organization of professional revolutionaries under a strict internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism and quasi-military discipline, who considered themselves as a vanguard of the revolutionary proletariat. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism. Leon Trotsky frequently used the terms "Bolshevism" and "Bolshevist" after his exile from the Soviet Union to differentiate between what he saw as true Leninism and the regime within the state and the party which arose under Stalin. However, "Bolshevism" today is commonly associated with the Stalinist regime which existed in the Soviet Union. The party was founded by Vladimir Lenin, who also led it in the October Revolution. History of the split In the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a small core of professional revolutionaries, leaving sympathizers outside the party, and instituting a system of centralized control known as the democratic centralist model. Julius Martov, until then a close friend and colleague of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March-May 1903, but it wasn't until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. See Israel Getzler. Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (first edition 1967), ISBN 0-521-52602-7 p.78 Although at first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts, e.g. Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, the differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable. Origins of the name The two factions were originally known as "hard" (Lenin's supporters) and "soft" (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to "Bolsheviks" and "Mensheviks", from the Russian "bolshinstvo" (majority) and "menshinstvo" (minority), based on the fact that Lenin's supporters narrowly defeated Martov's supporters on the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions. From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term "Maximalist" for "Bolshevik" and "Minimalist" for "Menshevik", which proved confusing since there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917. See Étienne Antonelli, Bolshevik Russia, A.A. Knopf, 1920, tr. by Charles A. Carroll, 307pp.: "the term "Maximalist" rather widely used as a translation for "Bolshevik" is historically false." (p.59) Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905) The two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–1904 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions converged and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they call the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organized a rival conference and the split was thus formalized. The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 revolution, and were a minority in the St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for the Soviets that were formed in 1917. ("The minority") (1906–1907) As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. With the Mensheviks ("The minority") striking an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority. However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Center, the de-facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the next, Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other. Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–1909) With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin and his supporters Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev argued for participating in the Duma while Lenin's deputy philosopher Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists ("otzovists" in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists" and was generally allied with the recallists. With a majority of Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909 he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empiriocriticism (1909), First published in Moscow in May 1909 by Zveno Publishers, available online assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. See Alan Woods. Bolshevism: The Road to Revolution, Wellred Publications, 1999, ISBN 1-900007-05-3 Part Three: The Period of Reaction available online In June 1909, Bogdanov was defeated at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organized by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary and expelled from the Bolshevik faction. English language excerpts from the resolution are quoted in A Documentary History of Communism in Russia, ed. Robert V. Daniels, UPNE, 1993, ISBN 0-87451-616-1 p.33 Final attempt at party unity (1910) With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from "conciliator" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin. Lenin was adamantly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda a party-financed 'central organ'. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations. Forming a separate party (1912) The factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organized a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, which they called RSDLP (Bolshevik). Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as a secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. Robert B. McKean, St. Petersburg Between the Revolutions: workers and revolutionaries, June 1907-February 1917, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1990, pp. 140-1. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913. Political philosophy The Bolsheviks believed in organizing the party in a strongly centralized hierarchy that sought to overthrow the Tsar and achieve power. Although the Bolsheviks were not completely monolithic, they were characterized by a rigid adherence to the leadership of the central committee, based on the notion of democratic centralism. The Mensheviks favored open party membership and espoused cooperation with the other socialist and some non-socialist groups in Russia. Bolsheviks generally refused to co-operate with liberal or radical parties (which they labeled "bourgeois") or even eventually other socialist organisations, although Lenin sometimes made tactical alliances. Left to right: Trotsky, Lenin, and Kamenev From Bolshevism to Communism In 1952 at XIX Party Congress Stalin declared: "There are no more Mensheviks. Why should we call ourselves Bolsheviks? We are not the majority, but the whole party." According to his suggestion, the Communist party was renamed as the Communist Party of Soviet Union. Since that time, the term Bolshevik has been regarded as obsolete, and relevant only to the pre-Revolutionary times and the Russian Civil War. Derogatory usage of "Bolshevik" During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as "Bolshie". The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "Commie", "Red" or "pinko" in the United States during the same period. However these days it is often used to describe a difficult or rebellious person e.g.:"Timothy, don't be so bolshie!" An alternative spelling is "bolshy". (Collins Mini Dictionary, 1998) See also Group of Democratic Centralism Old Bolshevik National Bolshevik Neo-Bolshevism Jewish Bolshevism Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name "Bolshevik" Bolshevik Tendency, International Bolshevik Tendency Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party India: Bolshevik Party of India India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik) Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party References External links Wall Street and the Bolshevic Revolution by Antony C. Sutton Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution, by Alan Woods Chronology of the Bolshevik Party World History Database Pathfinder Books, Communist bookstore online The Bolsheviks and Workers Control, by Maurice Brinton by Bertrand Russell, November 1920 Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik, by Cecilia Bobrovskaya be-x-old:Бальшавікі | Bolsheviks |@lemmatized bolshevik:64 party:47 meeting:5 lenin:20 see:6 right:3 boris:1 kustodiev:1 painting:1 originally:2 also:4 ushakov:1 explanatory:1 dictionary:3 russian:17 language:3 article:3 большевистский:1 bolshevists:1 define:1 word:2 bolshevist:2 synonym:1 adherent:1 policy:1 singular:1 derive:2 bolshe:1 faction:18 marxist:1 social:6 democratic:8 labour:3 rsdlp:7 split:10 apart:1 menshevik:14 menshe:1 le:1 occur:1 second:2 congress:12 ultimately:1 become:7 communist:7 soviet:10 union:7 designate:1 b:3 рсдрп:1 б:2 stand:1 shortly:1 seize:2 power:3 november:2 change:4 name:5 ркп:1 generally:3 know:6 point:1 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1,308 | Demographics_of_French_Guiana | Historical population Historical population 1790estimate 1839estimate 1857estimate 1891estimate 1946census 1954census 1961census 1967census 1974census 1982census 1990census 1999census 2006estimate 14,520 20,940 25,561 33,500 25,499 27,863 33,505 44,392 55,125 73,022 114,678 157,213 202,000 <small>Official figures from past censuses and INSEE estimates. Population growth rate 1946-1954 1954-1961 1961-1967 1967-1974 1974-1981 1981-1990 1990-1999 1999-2006 +1.1%/year +2.7%/year +4.8%/year +3.1%/year +3.9%/year +5.8%/year +3.6%/year +3.8%/year <small>Official figures from past censuses and INSEE estimates. CIA World Factbook data Population: 172,605 (July 2000 est.), 202,000 (January 2006 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 31% (male 27,116; female 25,902) 15-64 years: 64% (male 59,690; female 50,621) 65 years and over: 5% (male 4,694; female 4,582) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: 1.96% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 22.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: 11.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.18 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.02 male(s)/female total population: 1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 13.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76.1 years male: 72.77 years female: 79.6 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 3.21 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: French Guianese (singular and plural) adjective: French Guianese Ethnic groups: blacks or mulatto 66%, white or Europeans (mostly are French with a large Portuguese element) 12%, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian 12%, other 10% (including Hmong refugees from the former French Indochina who have been resettled in French Guiana). Religions: Christianity: Roman Catholicism, followed by Protestants and Eastern Orthodoxs, estimated total at 80%. The rest belong to other religions: Fast-growing Muslim community, and some adherents of Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism. Languages: French and Guianese Creole French Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83% male: 84% female: 82% (1982 est.) See also : French Guiana | Demographics_of_French_Guiana |@lemmatized historical:2 population:11 small:2 official:2 figure:2 past:2 census:2 insee:2 estimate:3 growth:2 rate:7 year:17 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 data:1 july:1 est:12 january:1 age:2 structure:1 male:10 female:10 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:5 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 french:8 guianese:3 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 black:1 mulatto:1 white:1 european:1 mostly:1 large:1 portuguese:1 element:1 east:1 indian:1 chinese:1 amerindian:1 include:1 hmong:1 refugee:1 former:1 indochina:1 resettle:1 guiana:2 religion:2 christianity:1 roman:1 catholicism:1 follow:1 protestant:1 eastern:1 orthodoxs:1 rest:1 belong:1 fast:1 grow:1 muslim:1 community:1 adherent:1 hinduism:1 buddhism:1 judaism:1 language:1 creole:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 french_guiana:2 roman_catholicism:1 hinduism_buddhism:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,309 | Bipolar_I_disorder | Bipolar I disorder is a mood disorder that is characterized by at least one manic or mixed episode. There may be episodes of hypomania or major depression as well. It is a sub-diagnosis of bipolar disorder, and conforms to the classic concept of manic-depressive illness. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria The essential feature of bipolar I disorder is a clinical course that is characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes. Often individuals have also had one or more major depressive episodes. Episodes of substance-induced mood disorder (due to the direct effects of a medication, or other somatic treatments for depression, a drug of abuse, or toxin exposure) or of mood disorder due to a general medical condition need to be excluded before a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder. In addition, the episodes are not better accounted for by schizoaffective disorder and are not superimposed on schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified. General diagnosis codes DSM-IV-TR Dx Code # Disorder Description 296.0x Bipolar I disorder Single manic episode 296.40 Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode hypomanic 296.4x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode manic 296.6x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode mixed 296.5x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode depressed 296.7 Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode unspecified Management Investigations Routine investigations including HIV test, Full blood count, Thyroid function tests, Liver function test, Urea and Creatinine & if patient on Lithium, Lithium level. Drug screen including Cannaboids. Treatment Bio-Psycho-Social Biological Mood Stabilizers 1) Lithium Carbonate - mainstay in the management of Bipolar, but it has a very narrow therapeutic safety. Thus requires monitoring. 2) Anticonvulsants such as Carbamazipine & Sodium Valproate. 3) Electro-convulsive therapy It should be emphasized that Anti-depressants should not be used in the treatment of Bipolar as it may precipitate a Manic episode. Psycho Patient Education - Information on the condition & the importance of compliance with medication. Behavior modification - Advice them on the adverse effects of their behavior during the manic phase such as unprotected sex and wild spending. ICD-10 diagnostic criteria Behavior Modification, when an individual is in the throws of mania, or within the depths of depression, Behavior Mod. has not been documented to assist in the healing of this particular, within the disabling, is evident in both Mania as well as a major depression episode. See also Bipolar disorder Bipolar II Detailed listing of DSM-IV-TR bipolar disorder diagnostics codes Borderline personality disorder List of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder Bipolar spectrum Seasonal affective disorder Oppositional defiance disorder Emotional dysregulation Creativity and bipolar disorder Bipolar disorders research Resources International Society for Bipolar Disorders External links Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, 1994 (DSM-IV). Bipolar Mothers The Symptoms of Bipolar I disorder as described by a sufferer of Bipolar I Advice for Bipolar Disorder Sufferers and Their Loved Ones. "Manic Depression: Voices of an Illness" and The Infinite Mind public radio series References American Psychiatric Association, 1400 K Street NW, Suite 1101, Washington, DC 20005-2403 USA. BipolarSupportAlliance.org United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics | Bipolar_I_disorder |@lemmatized bipolar:24 disorder:30 mood:4 characterize:2 least:1 one:4 manic:8 mixed:2 episode:15 may:2 hypomania:1 major:3 depression:5 well:3 sub:1 diagnosis:3 conforms:1 classic:1 concept:1 depressive:2 illness:2 dsm:4 iv:4 tr:3 diagnostic:3 criterion:2 essential:1 feature:1 clinical:1 course:1 occurrence:1 often:1 individual:2 also:2 substance:1 induced:1 due:2 direct:1 effect:2 medication:2 somatic:1 treatment:3 drug:2 abuse:1 toxin:1 exposure:1 general:2 medical:2 condition:2 need:1 exclude:1 addition:1 account:1 schizoaffective:1 superimpose:1 schizophrenia:1 schizophreniform:1 delusional:1 psychotic:1 otherwise:1 specify:1 code:3 dx:1 description:1 single:1 recent:5 hypomanic:1 mix:1 depress:1 unspecified:1 management:2 investigation:2 routine:1 include:2 hiv:1 test:3 full:1 blood:1 count:1 thyroid:1 function:2 liver:1 urea:1 creatinine:1 patient:2 lithium:3 level:1 screen:1 cannaboids:1 bio:1 psycho:2 social:1 biological:1 stabilizer:1 carbonate:1 mainstay:1 narrow:1 therapeutic:1 safety:1 thus:1 require:1 monitoring:1 anticonvulsant:1 carbamazipine:1 sodium:1 valproate:1 electro:1 convulsive:1 therapy:1 emphasize:1 anti:1 depressant:1 use:1 precipitate:1 education:1 information:1 importance:1 compliance:1 behavior:4 modification:2 advice:2 adverse:1 phase:1 unprotected:1 sex:1 wild:1 spending:1 icd:1 throw:1 mania:2 within:2 depth:1 mod:1 document:1 assist:1 healing:1 particular:1 disabling:1 evident:1 see:1 ii:1 detail:1 listing:1 diagnostics:1 borderline:1 personality:1 list:1 people:1 believe:1 affect:1 spectrum:1 seasonal:1 affective:1 oppositional:1 defiance:1 emotional:1 dysregulation:1 creativity:1 research:1 resource:1 international:1 society:1 external:1 link:1 statistical:1 manual:1 mental:1 fourth:1 edition:1 mother:1 symptom:1 describe:1 sufferer:2 loved:1 voice:1 infinite:1 mind:1 public:1 radio:1 series:1 reference:1 american:1 psychiatric:1 association:1 k:1 street:1 nw:1 suite:1 washington:1 dc:1 usa:1 bipolarsupportalliance:1 org:1 united:1 nation:1 principle:1 ethic:1 |@bigram bipolar_disorder:18 mood_disorder:3 diagnosis_bipolar:2 manic_depressive:1 depressive_illness:1 dsm_iv:4 diagnostic_criterion:2 manic_episode:3 depressive_episode:1 schizoaffective_disorder:1 delusional_disorder:1 disorder_psychotic:1 psychotic_disorder:1 mood_stabilizer:1 lithium_carbonate:1 sodium_valproate:1 anti_depressant:1 adverse_effect:1 borderline_personality:1 affective_disorder:1 external_link:1 diagnostic_statistical:1 mental_disorder:1 manic_depression:1 washington_dc:1 |
1,310 | Morse_code | Chart of the Morse code letters and numerals Morse code is a type of character encoding that transmits telegraphic information using rhythm. Morse code uses a standardized sequence of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a given message. The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, marks, or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs". The speed of Morse code is measured in words per minute (WPM) or characters per minute, while fixed-length data forms of telecommunication transmission are usually measured in baud or bps. Originally created for Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph in the early 1840s, Morse code was also extensively used for early radio communication beginning in the 1890s. For the first half of the twentieth century, the majority of high-speed international communication was conducted in Morse code, using telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits. However, the variable length of the Morse characters made it hard to adapt to automated circuits, so for most electronic communication it has been replaced by machine readable formats, such as Baudot code and ASCII. The most popular current use of Morse code is by amateur radio operators, although it is no longer a requirement for amateur licensing in many countries. In the professional field, pilots and air traffic controllers are usually familiar with Morse code and require a basic understanding. Navigational aids in the field of aviation, such as VORs and NDBs, constantly transmit their identity in Morse code. Morse code is designed to be read by humans without a decoding device, making it useful for sending automated digital data in voice channels. For emergency signaling, Morse code can be sent by way of improvised sources that can be easily "keyed" on and off, making Morse code one of the most versatile methods of telecommunication in existence. Development and history A typical "straight key." This U.S. model, known as the J-38, was manufactured in huge quantities during World War II, and remains in widespread use today. In a straight key, the signal is "on" when the knob is pressed, and "off" when it is released. Length and timing of the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the operator. Beginning in 1836, Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred Vail developed an electric telegraph, which sent pulses of electrical current to control an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph wire. The technology available at the time made it impossible to print characters in a readable form, so the inventors had to devise an alternate means of communication. In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone began operating electric telegraphs in England that also had electromagnets in the receivers; however, their systems used needle pointers that rotated to indicate the alphabetic characters being sent. In contrast, Morse's and Vail's initial telegraph, which first went into operation in 1844, made indentations on a paper tape when an electrical current was transmitted. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, the electromagnet retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked. The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to only transmit numerals, and use a dictionary to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. The shorter marks were called "dots", and the longer ones "dashes", and the letters most commonly used in the English language were assigned the shortest sequences. In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved into and out of position to mark the tape. Operators soon learned to translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, making it unnecessary to use the paper tape. When Morse code was adapted to radio, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long pulses. It was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page. ARRLWeb: ARRLWeb: Learn Morse Code (CW)! To reflect the sound of Morse code, practitioners began to vocalise a dot as "dit", and a dash as "dah". Morse code was an integral part of international aviation. Commercial and military pilots were required to be familiar with it, both for use with early communications systems and identification of navigational beacons which transmitted continuous three letter ID's in Morse code. As late as the 1990s, aeronautical charts listed the three letter ID of each airport in Morse and sectional charts still show the Morse signals for Vortac and NDB used for in flight navigation. Morse code was also used as an international standard for maritime communication until 1999, when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French navy ceased using Morse code in 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence." See also: 500 kHz Modern International Morse Code Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other electronic encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. After some minor changes, in 1865 it was standardised at the International Telegraphy congress in Paris (1865), and later made the norm by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as International Morse code. Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States, became known as American Morse code or "railroad code." American Morse is now very rarely used except in historical re-enactments. Aviation In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure the stations they are using are serviceable they all emit a short set of identification letters (usually a 2–5 letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example the Manchester VOR based at Manchester Airport is cut down to MCT, and Morse code MCT is broadcast on the radio frequency. If a station is unserviceable then it broadcasts TST (for TEST) and tells pilots that the station is unreliable. Amateur radio Vibroplex semiautomatic key (also called a "bug"). The paddle, when pressed to the right by the thumb, generates a series of dits, the length and timing of which are controlled by a sliding weight toward the rear of the unit. When pressed to the left by the knuckle of the index finger, the paddle generates a dah, the length of which is controlled by the operator. Multiple dahs require multiple presses. Left-handed operators use a key built as a mirror image of this one. International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, where it is used as the pattern to key a transmitter on and off in the radio communications mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave" or "CW". The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively, as voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003 the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 (WRC-03) made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional. IARUWeb: The International Amateur Radio Union Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements. ARRLWeb: Italy Joins No-Code Ranks as FCC Revives Morse Debate in the US Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at 5 words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 WPM level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5 WPM. Finally, effective February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements for all amateur licenses. While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, CW is permitted on all amateur bands—LF, MF, HF, UHF, and VHF, with one notable exception being the 60 meter band in the US. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only. Because Morse transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication. Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice communication, typically 100–150 Hz, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at a lower data rate. Morse code is received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted energy is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called "QRP operation", from the Q-code for "reduce power"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60 WPM. The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10 WPM. The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns and Q codes, plus a restricted standardized format for typical messages. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal), YL or XYL (abbreviation for Young Lady, or the wife of the operator, a Married Young Lady) or OM (Old Man) for the operator himself. This use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages. Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by many amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers (known as "bugs") and of fully-automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Computer software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals. Speed records A commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to generate high-speed Morse code, the timing of which is controlled by the electronic keyer. Manipulation of dual-lever paddles is similar to the Vibroplex, but pressing the right paddle generates a series of dahs, and squeezing the paddles produces dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. The actions are reversed for left-handed operators. Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM. International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, NC in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 WPM. In his online book on high speed sending, William Pierpont N0HFF notes some operators may have passed 100 WPM. By this time they are "hearing" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35 WPM in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. In a special RufzXP competition at the IARU High Speed Telegraphy World Championships seven competitors attempted to crack speed 1000 cpm. Under the supervision of official IARU RufzXP referees Mathias Kolpe (DL4MM) and Tomáš Mikeska (OK2BFN) and other spectators, Goran Hajoševic (YT7AW) and Fabian Kurz (DJ1YFK) failed to copy 49 out of 50 callsigns at CW speed 1000 cpm (200 wpm). Other uses As of 2009 commercial radiotelegraph licenses are still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. Designed for shipboard and coast station operators, they are awarded to applicants who pass written examinations on advanced radio theory and show 20 WPM code proficiency [this requirement is waived for "old" (20 WPM) Amateur Extra Class licensees]. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) have essentially made them obsolete. Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification. Military ships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence. Applications for the general public Representation of SOS-Morse code. An important application is signalling for help through SOS, "· · · — — — · · ·". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight and similar methods. Morse code as an assistive technology Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. In some cases this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("puff and sip" interface). People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or blind) can receive Morse through a skin buzzer. In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST, an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write was able to communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. Representation and timing International Morse code is composed of five elements: short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) — one unit long longer mark, dash or 'dah' (–) — three units long intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character) — one unit long short gap (between letters) — three units long medium gap (between words) — seven units long Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph. Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off) so it was an early form of a digital code. Strictly speaking it is not binary, as there are five fundamental elements (see quinary). However, this does not mean Morse code cannot be represented as a binary code. In an abstract sense, this is the function that telegraph operators perform when transmitting messages. Working from the above definitions and further defining a 'unit' as a bit, we can visualize any Morse code sequence as a combination of the following five elements: short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) — 1 longer mark, dash or 'dah' (–) — 111 intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character) — 0 short gap (between letters) — 000 medium gap (between words) — 0000000 Note that this method works only under the assumption that dits and dahs are always separated by gaps, and that gaps are always separated by dits and dahs. Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example using slightly longer or shorter dashes or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and receivers can recognize specific individuals by it alone. The speed of Morse code is measured in wpm or cpm, according to the Paris standard which defines the speed of Morse transmission as the timing needed to send the word "Paris" a given number of times per minute. The word Paris is used because it is representative for a typical text in the English language, and the choice was influenced by the fact that the decision was taken at the International Telegraph Conference in Paris 1865. Today the length of the reference word is 50 units (including 7 units of word spacing). At the Paris Conference the standard word spacing was specified to be only 5 units, making the total length of the reference word only 48 units, which may be seen in older literature. The 40 % difference of the two word spacing lengths does have an impact on the evaluation of the results of receiving speed competitions performed at various occasions. X WPM at 5 units word spacing is more difficult to copy than the same text sent at the same nominal speed with 7 units word spacing. Incidentally the word "Morse" is also 50 units. The time for one unit can be computed by the formula: T = 1200 / W or T = 6000 / C Where: T is the unit time in milliseconds, W is the speed in wpm, and C is the speed in cpm. Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase "MORSE CODE", in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where - represents dahs and · represents dits: -- --- ·-· ··· · -·-· --- -·· · M O R S E C O D E Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing "signal on", and . representing "signal off", each for the time length of exactly one dit: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789 M------ O---------- R------ S---- E C---------- O---------- D------ E ===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===.===...===.=.=...= ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ | dah dit | | symbol space letter space word space Morse code is often spoken or written with "dah" for dashes, "dit" for dots located at the end of a character, and "di" for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence: M O R S E C O D E -- --- ·-· ··· · (space) -·-· --- -·· · is verbally: Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit. Note that there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learnt, for both sending and receiving. Learning Morse Code People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method, named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB, are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each symbol for that speed. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give "thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset, but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered. Letters, numbers, punctuation Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code · — · — — — · · · · — — — — Period [.] · — · — · — Colon [:] — — — · · · — · · · — · — — · · — — — Comma [,] — — · · — — Semicolon [;] — · — · — · — · — · · — · · · · — · · · — — Question mark [?] · · — — · · Double dash [=] — · · · — — · · — — · · · — · · · · — Apostrophe ['] · — — — — · Plus [+] · — · — · · — · · — — · · · · · Exclamation mark [!] — · — · — — Hyphen, Minus [-] — · · · · — · · — · — — — — · · — — · · · · Slash [/], Fraction bar — · · — · Underscore [_] · · — — · — — — · · — — · — · — — — — · · · Parenthesis open [(] — · — — · Quotation mark ["] · — · · — · · · · · — — · — — — · · — — — · · Parenthesis closed [)] — · — — · — Dollar sign [$] · · · — · · — · · · — · — — — — — — — — — · Ampersand [&], Wait · — · · · At sign [@] · — — · — · There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW digraph (— · — · — —) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment). While Morse code translation software prefers this version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in Canada and the USA continue to prefer the older MN digraph (— — — ·) carried over from American landline telegraphy code. The &, $ and the _ signs are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code. The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX. The representation of the &-sign given above is also the Morse prosign for wait. On May 24, 2004—the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission—the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the @ ("commercial at" or "commat") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph (· — — · — ·). This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent "A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter "a" inside a swirl represented by a "C". The new character facilitates sending electronic mail addresses by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I. Prosigns Character(s) Code Character(s) Code Character(s) Code Wait · - · · · Error · · · · · · · · Understood · · · - · Invitation to transmit - · -End of work · · · - · -Starting Signal - · - · - Defined in the ITU recommendation. Non-English extensions to the Morse code Char. Code Char. Code Char. Code ä (also æ and ą) · — · —è (also ł) · — · · –ñ (also ń) — — · — —à (also å) · — — · —é (also đ and ę) · · — · ·ö (also ø and ó) — — — ·ç (also ĉ and ć) — · — · ·ĝ — — · — · ŝ · · · — · (also š) — — — —ĥ — · — — · (Obsolete)— — — — (New)þ ("Thorn") · — — · ·ð ("Eth") · · — — ·ĵ · — — — ·ü (also ŭ) · · — —ś · · · — · · ·ź — — · · — ·ż — — · · — Non-Latin extensions to Morse code See Other alphabets in Morse code. For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. For Korean, SKATS maps the hangul through Korean Morse code to the same codes in Morse code and back to their equivalents in the Roman alphabet. Alternative display of more common characters for the international code Some methods of teaching or learning morse code use the dichotomic search table below. A graphical representation of the dichotomic search table: the user branches left at every dot and right at every dash until the character is finished. T — M — — O — — — CH — — — — Ö — — — · G — — · Q — — · — Z — — · · N — · K — · — Y — · — — C — · — · D — · · X — · · — B — · · · E · A · — W · — — J · — — — P · — — · R · — · Ä · — · — L · — · · I · · U · · — Ü · · — — F · · — · S · · · V · · · — H · · · · Media See also Russian Morse code ACP-131 Chinese telegraph code Guglielmo Marconi High Speed Telegraphy Instructograph Morse Code Abbreviations Morse Code Mnemonics NATO phonetic alphabet Wabun Code References External links | Morse_code |@lemmatized chart:4 morse:100 code:108 letter:17 numeral:3 type:1 character:34 encode:2 transmit:11 telegraphic:1 information:2 use:52 rhythm:1 standardized:2 sequence:7 short:11 long:13 element:5 represent:9 punctuation:2 special:3 give:4 message:7 form:6 sound:4 mark:12 pulse:4 keying:1 commonly:5 know:5 dot:14 dash:15 dit:19 dahs:1 speed:23 measure:3 word:19 per:4 minute:4 wpm:16 fix:1 length:9 data:4 telecommunication:5 transmission:10 usually:3 baud:1 bps:1 originally:3 create:2 samuel:2 f:3 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1,311 | Kabuki | The July 1858 production of Shibaraku at Edo Ichimura-za theater is the highly stylized classical Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for the stylization of its drama and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers. The individual kanji characters, from left to right, mean sing (歌), dance (舞), and skill (伎). Kabuki is therefore sometimes translated as "the art of singing and dancing." These are, however, ateji, characters that do not reflect actual etymology. The kanji of 'skill', is however generally referred to as a performer in kabuki theatre. The word kabuki is believed to derive from the verb kabuku, meaning "to lean" or "to be out of the ordinary", so kabuki can be interpreted to mean "avant-garde" or "bizarre" theatre. "Kabuki" in Frederic, Louis (2002). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. The expression kabukimono (歌舞伎者) referred originally to those who were bizarrely dressed and swaggered on a street. __TOC__ The earliest portrait of Okuni (1600s) History of Kabuki 1603–1629: Female Kabuki The history of Kabuki began in 1603 when Okuni of Izumo, possibly a miko of Izumo Taisha, began performing a new style of dance drama in the dry riverbeds of Kyoto. Female performers played both men and women in comic playlets about ordinary life. The style was instantly popular; Okuni was even asked to perform before the Imperial Court. In the wake of such success, rival troupes quickly formed, and Kabuki was born as ensemble dance and drama performed by women—a form very different from its modern incarnation. Much of its appeal in this era was due to the ribald, suggestive performances put on by many troupes; this appeal was further augmented by the fact that the performers were often also available for prostitution. For this reason, Kabuki was also written "歌舞妓" (singing and dancing prostitute) during the Edo Period. In Kabuki's nascent period, women were the only performers in the plays. Soon women began attracting the wrong types of audiences and gaining too much attention from men. This type of attention raised some eyebrows and officials felt as if women were degrading the art of Kabuki. In 1629, women were banned from appearing in kabuki performances. Since kabuki was already so popular, young male actors, known as wakashu (or sometimes oyama), took over after women were banned from performing. These young men could take the role of women due to their less masculine appearance and higher pitched voices in comparison to adult men. Along with the change in the performers' gender came a change in the emphasis of the performance: increased stress was placed on drama rather than dance. Their performances were equally ribald, however, and they too were available for prostitution (also to male customers). Audiences frequently became rowdy, and brawls occasionally broke out, sometimes over the favors of a particularly handsome young actor, leading the shogunate to ban young male actors in 1652. 1673–1841: The Golden Age During the Genroku era, kabuki thrived. The structure of a kabuki play was formalized during this period, as were many elements of stylization. Conventional character types were determined. Kabuki theater and ningyō jōruri, the elaborate form of puppet theater that later came to be known as bunraku, became closely associated with each other during this period, and each has since influenced the development of the other. The famous playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, one of the first professional playwrights of kabuki, produced several influential works, though the piece usually acknowledged as his most significant, Sonezaki Shinju (The Love Suicides at Sonezaki), was originally written for bunraku. Like many bunraku plays, however, it was adapted for kabuki, and it spawned many imitators—in fact, it and similar plays reportedly caused so many real-life "copycat" suicides that the government banned shinju mono (plays about lovers' double suicides) in 1723. Ichikawa Danjūrō I also lived during this time; he is credited with the development of mie "Mie". Kabuki Jiten. Accessed 09 Feb 2007. poses and mask-like kumadori make-up Kincaid, Zoe (1925). Kabuki: The Popular Stage of Japan. London: MacMillan and Co. pp21–22. . 1842–1868: The Saruwaka-chō Kabuki Kabuki Theatre was first credited to a woman named Okuni of Izumo who performed this new and exotic dance in the Edo period of Japan in 1603. At this time Japan was under the control of the Tokugawa shogunate, enforced by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who ruled with shogun of the Tokugawa family. The Name Edo derives from the regimes capital city Edo that is now Tokyo. Kabuki was a wild new form of entertainment in the Ukiyo, or Yoshiwara the registered red-light district of the city of Edo. Kabuki was an extravagant social setting during this time period; actors performed, yes, but the performance also channeled a diverse crowd under one roof, something that happened nowhere else in the city. The variety of the social classes that mixed in attendance of the Kabuki performances was what irked the shogunate government. Kabuki became a way to see and be seen; Kabuki displayed the latest fashion trends and current events. The stage provided good entertainment with exciting new music, patterns, clothing, and famous actor’s. The theatre was an all day event; the performance went from morning until sunset. The teahouses surrounding and connected to the theater provided guests with meals, refreshments, and good company. The area around the theatre houses was lush with merchant shops full with Kabuki souvenirs. Kabuki started Japanese pop culture and maintained a devise for social inclination. Not long after the original performance word of traveled fast and Kabuki became tremendously popular. The Tokugawa shogunate government was never partial to Kabuki theatre and all the mischief it brought with it. Kabuki went through tremendous leaps trying to appease the government’s harsh restrictions. Women’s Kabuki, called Onna-Kabuki, was banned from the stage in 1629 for being too erotic. Following Onna-Kabuki, young boys performed in Wakashu-Kabuki, but since they too were eligible for prostitution the shogun government soon banned Wakashu-Kabuki as well. Kabuki finally settled with adult male actors, called Yaro-Kabuki in the mid 1600’s. Male actors played both female and male character types on stage. The theatre was as popular as ever, and remained the entity of the urban lifestyle even until modern times. Although kabuki was performed all over Ukiyo and other portions for the country, three main Kabuki theatres set themselves apart from the rest and became the top theatres in Ukiyo. The Nakamura-, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za theatres are where some of the most successful Kabuki performances were and still are held. Fires started terrorizing the city of Edo in the 1840’s due to dry spells. Kabuki theatres, traditionally made of wood, would constantly burn down and be forced to relocate with in the Ukiyo. The area that housed the Nakamura-za was completely destroyed in 1841. The Shogun refused to allow the theatre to rebuild saying it was against fire code. This sort of censorship happened was forced onto all of the theatre houses, making abiding by the shogun laws extremely difficult. This added to the underground life and mobility of the actors in Edo, since the government tremendously regulated them. The Shogunate government had ill feelings of town merchants mixing and trading with actors, artists, and prostitutes. The shogunate took full advantage of the fire crisis and in 1842, forced the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za, the three main Kabuki theatre houses out of the city limits and into Asakusa (a northern suburb of Edo). The shogun also relocated the puppet theatre along side Kabuki. This exile was desired almost from the start of Kabuki. Along with the theatres, all other theatrical attributes were forced out as well, this included the actors, stagehands, and all others associated with the performances. The areas and life styles around the theaters migrated as well, but due to the incontinence of the new location, audiences were scarce. The new theatre location was called Saruwaka-, or Saruwaka-machi. This period of the last thirty years of the Tokugawa shogunate’s rule, when Kabuki was located in the Saruwaka-machi and banned from Edo, is referred to as the Saruwaka-machi period. This period emitted some of the gaudiest Kabuki in Japanese history. The Saruwaka-machi became the new theatre district for the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za theatre houses. The district was located on the main street of Asakusa, which ran through the middle of the small city. The street was renamed after Saruwaka Kanzaburo, who initiated Edo kabuki in the Nakamura Theatre in 1624. The Kabuki theatre district was now located on the new Saruwaka Street in the Saruwaka-machi. Other things were happening around the city of Edo at this time. European artist began noticing Japanese theatrical performances and artwork. Artists like Monet were greatly inspired from Japanese wood block prints. This western interest in triggered Japanese artists to create prints and performances of everyday life and the places it occurs, such as theatre houses, brothels, main streets and so on. One artist in particular, Utagawa Hiroshige, did a series of prints based on Saruwaka Street from the Saruwaka-machi period in Asakusa. Saruwaka-machi had truly become the new theatre district, and was even getting recognized as so by artists outside the theatrical world of Kabuki. Even though the mentality of Kabuki had been almost destroyed by this relocation, which removed the play’s most abundant inspiration for costuming, make-up, and story line, Kabuki still worked with what it had in the Saruwaka-machi. Ichikawa Kodanji 4th was one of the most active and successful actors during the Saruwaka-machi period. Deemed unattractive, he mainly performed Buyo, or dancing. He performed in dramas written by Kawatake Mokuami, who also wrote during the Meiji period to follow. Kawatake Mokuami commonly wrote plays that depicted the common lives of the people of Edo. He used new techniques for his Kabuki, integrating shichigo-cho (seven-and-five syllable meter) dialogue and music such as Kiyomoto. His Kabuki performances became quite popular once the Saruwaka-machi period ended and theatre returned to Edo, many of his performances are still in the selection for Kabuki today. The Saruwaka-machi period only lasted thirty years. In 1868 the Tokugawa shogunate’s regime fell apart and lost control of the Japanese empire. The Emperor Meiji was restored to power and moved from Kyoto to the new capital of Edo, or Tokyo, thus starting the Meiji period of Japanese history. Kabuki was reinstated too its birthplace in the Ukiyo of Edo. Kabuki became more radical in the Meiji period; new playwrights took Kabuki under siege and created new genres and twists on traditional stories. The Meiji period is the start of modern kabuki theatre styles. Kabuki after the Meiji period The November 1895 production of Shibaraku at Tokyo Kabukiza theater The tremendous cultural changes beginning in 1868 by the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, the elimination of the samurai class, and the opening of Japan to the west helped to spark the re-emergence of kabuki. As the culture struggled to adapt to its new lack of isolation, actors strove to increase the reputation of kabuki among the upper classes and to adapt the traditional styles to modern tastes. They ultimately proved successful in this regard—on one occasion (21 April 1887), a performance was given for the Meiji Emperor. Shōriya, Asagoro. Kabuki Chronology of the 19th century at Kabuki21.com (Accessed 18 December 2006.) Many kabuki houses were destroyed by bombing during World War II, and the occupying forces briefly banned kabuki performances after the war. However, by 1947 the ban had been rescinded, and performances began once more. Kabuki today The immediate post-World War II era was a difficult time for kabuki. Besides the devastation caused to major Japanese cities as a result of the war, the popular trend was to reject the styles and thoughts of the past, kabuki among them. Director Tetsuji Takechi's popular and innovative productions of the kabuki classics at this time are credited with bringing about a rebirth of interest in the kabuki in the Kansai region. Of the many popular young stars who performed with the Takechi Kabuki, Nakamura Ganjiro III (b.1931) was the leading figure. He was first known as Nakamura Senjaku, and this period in Osaka kabuki became known as the "Age of Senjaku" in his honor. Today, kabuki remains relatively popular—it is the most popular of the traditional styles of Japanese drama—and its star actors often appear in television or film roles. Shōriya, Asagoro. Contemporary Actors at Kabuki21.com. (Accessed 18 December 2006.) For example, the well-known onnagata Bandō Tamasaburō V has appeared in several (non-kabuki) plays and movies—often in a female role. Kabuki is also referenced in works of Japanese popular culture such as anime. Though there are only a handful of major theatres in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka, there are many smaller theatres in Osaka, and throughout the countryside. The Ōshika Kabuki troupe, based in Ōshika"大鹿", Nagano Prefecture"長野県", is one example. Some local kabuki troupes today use female actors in the onnagata roles. The Ichikawa Kabuki-za, an all-female troupe, was formed after World War II but was short-lived. In 2003, a statue of Okuni was erected near Kyoto's Pontochō district. Interest in kabuki has also spread in the West. Kabuki troupes regularly tour Europe and America, and there have been several kabuki-themed productions of canonical Western plays such as those of Shakespeare. Western playwrights and novelists have also experimented with kabuki themes, an example of which is Gerald Vizenor's Hiroshima Bugi (2004). Writer Yukio Mishima pioneered and popularized the use of kabuki in modern settings, and revived other traditional arts, such as Noh, adapting them to modern contexts. In Australia, the Za Kabuki troupe at the Australian National University has been performing a Kabuki drama each year since 1976; the single longest regular Kabuki performance outside of Japan. Kabuki was enlisted on the UNESCO's Third Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Elements of kabuki Stage design Shibai Ukie ("A Scene from A Play") by Masanobu Okumura (1686–1764), depicting Edo Ichimura-za theater in the early 1740s The kabuki stage features a projection called a hanamichi (花道; literally, flower path), a walkway which extends into the audience and via which dramatic entrances and exits are made. Okuni also performed on a hanamichi stage with her entourage. This type of stage is very important in kabuki theatre. The stage is used not only as a walkway or path to get to and from the main stage, but also important scenes are also played on the stage. Kabuki stages and theaters have steadily become more technologically sophisticated, and innovations including revolving stages and trap doors, introduced during the 18th century, added greatly to the staging of kabuki plays. A driving force has been the desire to make manifest one frequent theme of kabuki theater, that of the sudden, dramatic revelation or transformation. Scott, A.C. The Kabuki Theatre of Japan. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1955. 55–56 A number of stage tricks, including rapid appearances and disappearances of actors, have evolved using these innovations. The term keren (外連), often translated playing to the gallery, is sometimes used as a catch-all term for these tricks. Hanamichi and several innovations including revolving stage, seri and chunori have all contributed to sophisticating kabuki play, by which hanamichi creates the second dimensionality (depth) and both seri and chunori gains three dimensionality (height). Mawari-butai (revolving stage) developed in the Kyōhō era (1716–1735). Originally accomplished by the on-stage pushing of a round, wheeled platform, this technique evolved into a circle being cut into the stage floor with wheels beneath it facilitating movement. When the stage lights are lowered during this transition it is known as kuraten (“darkened revolve”). More commonly the lights are left on for akaten (“lighted revolve”), sometimes with the transitioning scenes being performed simultaneously for dramatic effect. About 300 years ago, this stage was first built in Japan, and was designed for quick changes in the scenes. This stage is very useful because it helps the transition without any distractions. Seri refers to the stage traps that have been commonly employed in kabuki since the middle of the eighteenth century. These traps raise and lower actors or sets to the stage. Seridashi or seriage refers to the traps moving upward and serisage or serioroshi when they are being lowered. This technique is often used for dramatic effect of having an entire scene rise up to appear onstage. Chūnori: Kunitarō Sawamura II as Kitsune Tadanobu (left) flying over the stage, in the August 1825 production of Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura Chūnori (riding in mid-air) is a technique, which appeared toward the middle of the nineteenth century, by which an actor’s costume is attached to wires and he is made to “fly” over the stage and/or certain parts of the auditorium. This is similar to the wire trick in the stage musical Peter Pan, in which Peter launches himself into the air. It is still one of the most popular keren (visual tricks) in kabuki today; major kabuki theaters, such as the National Theatre, Kabukiz-a and Minami-za, are all equipped with the chūnori stage installations.<ref>Ukon Ichikawa as Genkurō Kitsune flying over audience in the July 2005 National Theatre production of Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura.</ref> In kabuki, as in some other Japanese performing arts, scenery changes are sometimes made mid-scene, while the actors remain on stage and the curtain stays open. This is sometimes accomplished by using a Hiki Dōgu, or small wagon stage. This technique originated at the beginning of the 18th century, where scenery or actors are moved on or off stage by means of a wheeled platform. Also common are stage hands rushing onto the stage adding and removing props, backdrops and other scenery; these stage hands, known as kuroko (黒子), are always dressed entirely in black and are traditionally considered invisible. These stage hands also assist in a variety of quick costume changes known as hayagawari (quick change technique). In plays, when a character's true nature is suddenly revealed, the devices of hikinuki or bukkaeri are often used. Hikinuki or bukkaeri is accomplished by having costumes layered one over another and having a stage assistant pull the outer one off in front of the audience. Performance There are three main categories of kabuki play: jidai-mono (時代物, historical, or pre-Sengoku period stories), sewa-mono (世話物, domestic, or post-Sengoku stories), and shosagoto (所作事, dance pieces).Jidaimono, or history plays, were often set within the context of major events in Japanese history. Strict censorship laws were in place almost throughout the entire Edo period, prohibiting the representation of contemporary events and particularly prohibiting criticism of the shogunate or casting the shogunate in a bad light. Strict as the word of the law may have been, however, the strictness of enforcement varied greatly over the years. Most jidaimono, set in the context of the Genpei War of the 1180s, the Nanboku-chō Wars of the 1330s, or other historical events, actually used these historical settings, and the events and historical figures within them, as thinly veiled metaphors for contemporary events. Kanadehon Chūshingura, one of the most famous plays in the kabuki repertoire, serves as an excellent example; it is ostensibly set in the 1330s, though it actually depicts the contemporary (18th century) affair of the revenge of the 47 Ronin. The March 1849 production of Chūshingura at Edo Nakamura-za theater Unlike jidaimono which generally focused upon the samurai class, sewamono focused primarily upon commoners, namely townspeople and peasants. Often referred to as "domestic plays" in English, sewamono generally related to themes of family drama and romances. Some of the most famous sewamono are likely the love suicide plays, adapted from works by the bunraku playwright Chikamatsu; these center on romantic couples who cannot be together in life due to various circumstances and who therefore decide to be together in death instead. Many if not most sewamono contain significant elements of this theme of societal pressures and limitations. Important characteristics of Kabuki theater include the mie (見得), in which the actor holds a picturesque pose to establish his character. At this point his house name (yagō, 屋号) is sometimes heard in loud shout (kakegoe, 掛け声) from an expert audience member, serving both to express and enhance the audience's appreciation of the actor's achievement. An even greater complement can be paid by shouting the name of the actor's father. Keshō, kabuki makeup, provides an element of style easily recognizable even by those unfamiliar with the art form. Rice powder is used to create the white oshiroi base, and kumadori enhances or exaggerates facial lines to produce dramatic animal or supernatural masks for the actors. The color of the kumadori is an expression of the character's nature: red lines are used to indicate passion, heroism, righteousness, and other positive traits; blue or black, villainy, jealousy, and other negative traits; green, the supernatural; and purple, nobility. Play structure Kabuki, like other traditional forms of drama in Japan as well as in other cultures around the world, was (and sometimes still is) performed in full-day programs. Rather than attending a single play for 2–5 hours, as one might do in a modern Western-style theater, one would "escape" from the day-to-day world, devoting a full day to entertainment in the theater district. Though some plays, particularly the historical jidaimono, might go on for an entire day, most plays were shorter and would be arranged, in full or in part, alongside other plays in order to produce a full-day program. This was because it was required in kabuki play to get the audience showing different preference, that is in either the history plays or domestic plays like a drama, to enjoy during the full-day program. The structure of the full-day program, like the structure of the plays themselves, was derived largely from the conventions of bunraku and Noh, conventions which also appear in countless other traditional Japanese arts. Chief among these is the concept of jo-ha-kyū (序破急), which states that all things should be done at a certain pace, one which starts out slow, speeds up, and ends quickly. The concept, elaborated on at length by master Noh playwright Zeami, governs not only the actions of the actors, but also the structure of the play as well as the structure of scenes and plays within a day-long program. Nearly every full-length play would be performed in five acts, the first one corresponding to jo, an auspicious and slow opening which introduces the audience to the characters and the plot. The next three acts would correspond to ha, speeding events up, culminating almost always in a great moment of drama or tragedy in the third act and possibly a battle in the second and/or fourth acts. The final act, corresponding to kyu, is almost always very short, providing a quick and satisfying conclusion. Quinn, Shelley Fenno. "How to write a Noh play—Zeami's Sandō. Monumenta Nipponica, vol 48, issue 1 (Spring 1993). pp53–88. The September 1824 production of Heike Nyōgo-ga-shima at Osaka Sumi-za theater While many plays were written for kabuki, many others were taken from jōruri plays, Noh plays, folklore, or other performing traditions such as the oral tradition of the Tale of the Heike. While plays taken from jōruri tend to have serious, emotionally dramatic, and organized plots, those plays written specifically for kabuki generally have far looser, sillier plots. Toita, Yasuji (1970). Kabuki: The Popular Theater. New York: Weatherhill. pp6–8. One of the crucial differences in the philosophy of the two forms is that jōruri focuses primarily on the story and on the chanter who recites it, while kabuki focuses more on the actors. Thus, it is not unknown in a jōruri play to sacrifice the details of sets, puppets, or onstage action in favor of directing attention to the chanter, while by contrast kabuki is known to sacrifice drama and even the plot itself in favor of showing off an actor's talents. It was not uncommon in kabuki to insert or remove individual scenes from a day's schedule in order to cater to the talents or desires of an individual actor—scenes he was famed for, or better at showing off in, would be inserted into a day's program where it made no sense in terms of plot continuity. Another crucial stylistic element of kabuki is the difference between traditions in Edo and in Kamigata (the Kyoto-Osaka region). Through most of the Edo period, kabuki in Edo was defined by extravagance and bombast, as exemplified by stark makeup patterns, flashy costumes, fancy keren (stage tricks), and bold mie (poses). Kamigata kabuki, meanwhile, was much calmer in tone and focused on naturalism and realism in acting. Only towards the end of the Edo period in the 19th century did the two regions begin to adopt one another's styles to any significant degree. Thornbury, Barbara E. "Sukeroku's Double Identity: The Dramatic Structure of Edo Kabuki". Japanese Studies 6 (1982). Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 13 For a long time, actors from one region often failed to adjust to the styles of the other region and were unsuccessful in their performance tours of that region. Famous playsKanadehon Chūshingura (Treasury of Loyal Retainers) is the famous story of the Forty-seven Ronin who track down their lord's killer, and exact revenge upon him before committing seppuku as required by their code of honor upon the death of their lord. Miyake, Shutarō (1971). "Kabuki Drama". Tokyo: Japan Travel Bureau. Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees) follows Minamoto no Yoshitsune as he flees from agents of his brother Yoritomo. Three Taira clan generals supposed killed in the Genpei War figure prominently, as their deaths ensure a complete end to the war and the arrival of peace, as does a kitsune named Genkurō. Jones, Stanleigh H. Jr. (trans.)(1993). "Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees." New York: Columbia University Press. Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami (Sugawara and the Secrets of Calligraphy) is based on the life of famed scholar Sugawara no Michizane (845–903), who is exiled from Kyoto, and upon his death causes a number of calamities in the capital. He is then deified, as Tenjin, kami (divine spirit) of scholarship, and worshipped in order to propitiate his angry spirit. Major theatres in operation Tokyo Kabuki-za Meiji-za Shinbashi Enbujō National Theater Kyoto Minami-za Osaka Shin-Kabuki-za Osaka Shōchiku-za Nagoya Misono-za Fukuoka Hakata-za Kotohira Kanamaru-za References Ronald Cavaye (1993) Kabuki - A Pocket Guide. USA and Japan: Charles E. Tuttle, Ronald Cavaye, Paul Griffith and Akihiko Senda (2004). A Guide to the Japanese Stage. Japan: Kodansha International. Scott, A. C. (1955). The Kabuki Theatre of Japan. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Ernst, E. (1956). The Kabuki Theatre. New York: Oxford University Press. Senelick, L. (2000). The Changing Room: Sex, Drag, and Theatre. London: Routledge. Facts JPN-kabuki. 25 November 2007 <http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/japan/kabuki.html>. Japanese Culture. 25 November 2007 <http://japan-zone.com/culture/kabuki.shtml>. Kabuki. 25 November 2007 <http://japan-guide.com/e/e2090.html> KABUKI. Ed. Shoriya Aragoro. 9 September 1999. 25 November 2007 <http://www.kabuki21.com/> See also Kanteiryū, a lettering style invented to advertise kabuki and other theatrical performances Kyōgen, a traditional form of Japanese comic theatre that influenced the development of kabuki. Kathakali, the Indian counterpart of kabuki. Noh, a traditional form of Japanese theatre Bunraku, a traditional Japanese puppet theatre from whose scripts many kabuki'' plays were adapted External links Kabuki 21 - All about Japan's traditional Theatre Art of Kabuki: The art, the plays, the great stars of today, the legends of the past, the theaters, the history, the glossary, the traditions, the heroes and the derivatives. Listen to music sample of Kokaji and Musume Dōjōji (After clicking on this link, scroll down page) National Diet Library: photograph of Kabuki-za in Kyobashi-ku, Kobiki-cho, Tokyo (1900); Kakuki-za (1901); Kakuki-za (1909); Kakuki-za (1911); Kakuki-za (1912); Kakuki-za (1915) Japan Mint: Kabuki Coin Set | Kabuki |@lemmatized july:2 production:8 shibaraku:2 edo:24 ichimura:5 za:30 theater:18 highly:1 stylized:1 classical:1 japanese:21 dance:10 drama:14 kabuki:137 theatre:40 know:10 stylization:2 elaborate:3 make:10 wear:1 performer:6 individual:3 kanji:2 character:8 leave:3 right:1 mean:4 sing:2 歌:1 舞:1 skill:2 伎:1 therefore:2 sometimes:9 translate:2 art:8 singing:1 however:6 ateji:1 reflect:1 actual:1 etymology:1 generally:4 refer:4 word:3 believe:1 derive:2 verb:1 kabuku:1 lean:1 ordinary:2 interpret:1 avant:1 garde:1 bizarre:1 frederic:1 louis:1 japan:18 encyclopedia:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 harvard:1 university:5 press:3 expression:2 kabukimono:1 歌舞伎者:1 originally:3 bizarrely:1 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1,312 | Executable_and_Linkable_Format | In computing, the Executable and Linking Format (ELF, formerly called Extensible Linking Format) is a common standard file format for executables, object code, shared libraries, and core dumps. First published in the System V Application Binary Interface specification, System V Application Binary Interface Edition 4.1 (1997-03-18) and later in the Tool Interface Standard, Tool Interface Standard (TIS) Executable and Linking Format (ELF) Specification Version 1.2 (May 1995) it was quickly accepted among different vendors of Unix systems. In 1999 it was chosen as the standard binary file format for Unix and Unix-like systems on x86 by the 86open project. Unlike many proprietary executable file formats, ELF is very flexible and extensible, and it is not bound to any particular processor or architecture. This has allowed it to be adopted by many different operating systems on many different platforms. The ELF format has replaced older executable formats such as a.out and COFF in many Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, Solaris, IRIX, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, DragonFly BSD, Syllable, and HP-UX (except for 32-bit PA-RISC programs which continue to use SOM). ELF has also seen some adoption in non-Unix operating systems, such as the Itanium version of OpenVMS, and BeOS Revision 4 and later for x86 based computers (where it replaced the Portable Executable format; the PowerPC version stayed with Preferred Executable Format). The PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Nintendo DS and GP2X consoles also use ELF. AmigaOS 4 and MorphOS also running on PowerPC machines, use ELF. On the Amiga platform the ELF executable has replaced the previous EHF (Extended Hunk Format) which was used on Amigas equipped with PPC processor expansion cards. The Symbian OS v9 uses E32Image Symbian OS executable file format format that is based on ELF file format. Most Sony Ericsson (for example, the W800i, W610, K790, etc.), some Siemens (SGOLD and SGOLD2 platforms: from Siemens C65 to S75 and BenQ-Siemens E71/EL71) and Motorola (for example, the E398, SLVR L7, v360, v3i and all phone LTE2 which has the patch apply) phones can run ELF files through the use of a patch that adds assembly code to the main firmware (Known as the ELFPack, in the underground modding culture). The ELF file format is also used as a generic object and executable format for binary images used with embedded processors. ELF file layout An ELF file has two views: The program header shows the segments used at run-time, whereas the section header lists the set of sections of the binary. Each ELF file is made up of one ELF header, followed by file data. The file data can include: Program header table, describing zero or more segments Section header table, describing zero or more sections Data referred to by entries in the program header table, or the section header table The segments contain information that is necessary for runtime execution of the file, while sections contain important data for linking and relocation. Each byte in the entire file is taken by no more than one section at a time, but there can be orphan bytes, which are not covered by a section. In the normal case of a Unix executable one or more sections are enclosed in one segment. Tools readelf is a Unix binary utility that displays information about one or more ELF files. A GPL implementation is provided by GNU Binutils. elfdump is a Solaris command for viewing ELF information in an elf file. objdump provides a wide range of information about ELF files and other object formats. Both readelf and objdump use the Binary File Descriptor library as a back-end to structure the ELF data. Specifications Generic: System V Application Binary Interface Edition 4.1 (1997-03-18) System V ABI Update (December 2003) ELF-64 Object File Format Version 1.5 Draft 2 (May 1998) AMD64: System V ABI, AMD64 Supplement ARM: ELF for the ARM Architecture IA32: System V ABI, IA32 Supplement IA64: Itanium Software Conventions and Runtime Guide (September 2000) M32R: M32R ELF ABI Supplement Version 1.2 (2004-08-26) MIPS: System V ABI, MIPS RISC Processor Supplement MIPS EABI documentation (2003-06-11) Motorola 6800: Motorola 8 and 16 bit Embedded ABI PA-RISC: PowerPC: System V ABI, PPC Supplement PowerPC Embedded Application Binary Interface 32-Bit Implementation (1995-10-01) 64-bit PowerPC ELF Application Binary Interface Supplement Version 1.9 (2004) SPARC: System V ABI, SPARC Supplement S/390: S/390 ELF ABI Supplement zSeries: zSeries ELF ABI Supplement Symbian OS 9: E32Image file format on Symbian OS 9 86open 86open was a project to form consensus on a common binary file format for Unix and Unix-like operating systems on the common PC compatible x86 architecture, so as to encourage software developers to port to the architecture. The format eventually chosen was ELF, specifically the Linux implementation of ELF, after it had turned out to be a de facto standard supported by all involved vendors and operating systems. History The group started email discussions in 1997 and first met in person at the Santa Cruz Operation offices on 1997-08-22. The steering committee was Marc Ewing, Dion Johnson, Evan Leibovitch, Bruce Perens, Andrew Roach, Bryan Sparks and Linus Torvalds. Other people on the project were Tim Bird, Keith Bostic, Chuck Cranor, Michael Davidson, Chris G. Demetriou, Ulrich Drepper, Don Dugger, Steve Ginzburg, Jon "maddog" Hall, Ron Holt, Jordan Hubbard, Dave Jensen, Kean Johnston, Andrew Josey, Robert Lipe, Bela Lubkin, Tim Marsland, Greg Page, Ronald Joe Record, Tim Ruckle, Joel Silverstein, Chia-pi Tien and Erik Troan. Operating systems and companies represented were BeOS, BSDI, FreeBSD, Intel, Linux, NetBSD, SCO and SunSoft, Inc.. The project progressed and in mid-1998, SCO began assisting in the development of lxrun, an open-source compatibility layer capable of running Linux binaries on OpenServer, UnixWare, and Solaris. SCO announced official support of lxrun at LinuxWorld in March 1999. Sun Microsystems began officially supporting lxrun for Solaris in early 1999, and has since moved to integrated support of the Linux binary format via Solaris Containers for Linux Applications. With the BSDs having long supported Linux binaries (through a compatibility layer) and the main x86 Unix vendors having added support for the format, the project decided that Linux ELF was the format chosen by the industry and "declare[d] itself dissolved" on July 25, 1999. See also DWARF - Debug With Attributed Record Format Application binary interface List of computer standards References Further reading An unsung hero: The hardworking ELF by Peter Seebach (2005-12-20) LibElf and GElf — A Library to Manipulate ELF Files by Neelakanth Nadgir (August 2001) The ELF Object File Format by Dissection by Eric Youngdale (1995-05-01) A Whirlwind Tutorial on Creating Really Teensy ELF Executables for Linux by Brian Raiter ELF relocation into non-relocatable objects by Julien Vanegue (2003-08-13) Embedded ELF debugging without ptrace by the ELFsh team (2005-08-01) External links Elf library routines LGPL ELF object file access library ELFIO: a C++ library for reading and generating files in the ELF binary format. FreeBSD Handbook — Binary formats FreeBSD elf(5) manual page NetBSD ELF FAQ Sun's Linker and Libraries Guide The ERESI project : reverse engineering on ELF-based operating systems 86open links Linux Today article on 86open July 26, 1999 Announcement of 86open on Debian Announce mailing list October 10, 1997, Bruce Perens Declaration of Ulrich Drepper (PDF) in The SCO Group vs IBM, September 19, 2006 86open and ELF discussion on Groklaw, August 13, 2006 | Executable_and_Linkable_Format |@lemmatized computing:1 executable:10 link:6 format:28 elf:42 formerly:1 call:1 extensible:2 common:3 standard:6 file:25 executables:2 object:7 code:2 share:1 library:7 core:1 dump:1 first:2 publish:1 system:18 v:10 application:7 binary:17 interface:8 specification:3 edition:2 later:2 tool:3 ti:1 version:6 may:2 quickly:1 accept:1 among:1 different:3 vendor:3 unix:10 choose:2 like:3 project:6 unlike:1 many:4 proprietary:1 flexible:1 bind:1 particular:1 processor:4 architecture:4 allow:1 adopt:1 operate:7 platform:3 replace:3 older:1 coff:1 linux:10 solaris:5 irix:1 freebsd:4 netbsd:3 openbsd:1 dragonfly:1 bsd:1 syllable:1 hp:1 ux:1 except:1 bit:4 pa:2 risc:3 program:4 continue:1 use:10 som:1 also:5 see:2 adoption:1 non:2 itanium:2 openvms:1 beos:2 revision:1 base:3 computer:2 portable:2 powerpc:5 stay:1 preferred:1 playstation:3 wii:1 nintendo:1 console:1 amigaos:1 morphos:1 run:4 machine:1 amiga:1 previous:1 ehf:1 extend:1 hunk:1 amigas:1 equip:1 ppc:2 expansion:1 card:1 symbian:4 sony:1 ericsson:1 example:2 etc:1 siemens:3 sgold:1 benq:1 motorola:3 slvr:1 phone:2 patch:2 apply:1 add:1 assembly:1 main:2 firmware:1 know:1 elfpack:1 underground:1 modding:1 culture:1 generic:2 image:1 embedded:2 layout:1 two:1 view:2 header:7 show:1 segment:4 time:2 whereas:1 section:9 list:3 set:1 make:1 one:5 follow:1 data:5 include:1 table:4 describe:2 zero:2 refer:1 entry:1 contain:2 information:4 necessary:1 runtime:2 execution:1 important:1 relocation:2 byte:2 entire:1 take:1 orphan:1 cover:1 normal:1 case:1 enclose:1 readelf:2 utility:1 display:1 gpl:1 implementation:3 provide:2 gnu:1 binutils:1 elfdump:1 command:1 objdump:2 wide:1 range:1 descriptor:1 back:1 end:1 structure:1 abi:10 update:1 december:1 draft:1 supplement:9 arm:2 software:2 convention:1 guide:2 september:2 mips:3 eabi:1 documentation:1 embed:2 sparc:2 zseries:2 form:1 consensus:1 pc:1 compatible:1 encourage:1 developer:1 port:1 eventually:1 specifically:1 turn:1 de:1 facto:1 support:6 involved:1 history:1 group:2 start:1 email:1 discussion:2 meet:1 person:1 santa:1 cruz:1 operation:1 office:1 steer:1 committee:1 marc:1 ewing:1 dion:1 johnson:1 evan:1 leibovitch:1 bruce:2 perens:2 andrew:2 roach:1 bryan:1 spark:1 linus:1 torvalds:1 people:1 tim:3 bird:1 keith:1 bostic:1 chuck:1 cranor:1 michael:1 davidson:1 chris:1 g:1 demetriou:1 ulrich:2 drepper:2 dugger:1 steve:1 ginzburg:1 jon:1 maddog:1 hall:1 ron:1 holt:1 jordan:1 hubbard:1 dave:1 jensen:1 kean:1 johnston:1 josey:1 robert:1 lipe:1 bela:1 lubkin:1 marsland:1 greg:1 page:2 ronald:1 joe:1 record:2 ruckle:1 joel:1 silverstein:1 chia:1 pi:1 tien:1 erik:1 troan:1 company:1 represent:1 bsdi:1 intel:1 sco:4 sunsoft:1 inc:1 progress:1 mid:1 begin:2 assist:1 development:1 lxrun:3 open:1 source:1 compatibility:2 layer:2 capable:1 openserver:1 unixware:1 announce:2 official:1 linuxworld:1 march:1 sun:2 microsystems:1 officially:1 early:1 since:1 move:1 integrated:1 via:1 container:1 bsds:1 long:1 added:1 decide:1 chosen:1 industry:1 declare:1 dissolve:1 july:2 dwarf:1 debug:2 attributed:1 reference:1 read:1 unsung:1 hero:1 hardworking:1 peter:1 seebach:1 libelf:1 gelf:1 manipulate:1 neelakanth:1 nadgir:1 august:2 dissection:1 eric:1 youngdale:1 whirlwind:1 tutorial:1 create:1 really:1 teensy:1 brian:1 raiter:1 relocatable:1 julien:1 vanegue:1 without:1 ptrace:1 elfsh:1 team:1 external:1 routine:1 lgpl:1 access:1 elfio:1 c:1 reading:1 generate:1 handbook:1 manual:1 faq:1 linker:1 eresi:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 today:1 article:1 announcement:1 debian:1 mail:1 october:1 declaration:1 pdf:1 ibm:1 groklaw:1 |@bigram unix_unix:2 linux_solaris:1 freebsd_netbsd:1 netbsd_openbsd:1 hp_ux:1 pa_risc:2 playstation_portable:1 playstation_playstation:1 nintendo_console:1 sony_ericsson:1 embedded_processor:1 abi_supplement:5 risc_processor:1 motorola_motorola:1 pc_compatible:1 de_facto:1 santa_cruz:1 bruce_perens:2 linus_torvalds:1 sun_microsystems:1 external_link:1 |
1,313 | Mechanical_advantage | In physics and engineering, mechanical advantage (MA) is the factor by which a mechanism multiplies the force or torque put into it. Generally, the mechanical advantage is calculated as follows: or more simply: The first equation shows that the force exerted IN to the machine multiplied by the distance moved IN will always be equal to the force exerted OUT of the machine multiplied by the distance moved OUT. For example, using a block and tackle with 6 ropes, and a 600 pound load, the operator would be required to pull the rope 6 feet, and exert 100 pounds of force to lift the 600 pound load 1 foot. The second equation is a simplified formula based just on the forces in and out. Using the example above, 100 pounds of force IN results in 600 pounds of force OUT, an MA of 6. Both of these equations calculate only the ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) and ignore any losses due to friction. The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) includes those frictional losses. The difference between the two is the mechanical efficiency of the system. Types There are two types of mechanical advantage: ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) and actual mechanical advantage (AMA). Ideal mechanical advantage The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA), or theoretical mechanical advantage, is the mechanical advantage of an ideal machine. It is usually calculated using physics principles because there is no ideal machine. The IMA of a machine can be found with the following formula: where DE equals the effort distance (the distance from the fulcrum to where the effort is applied) DR equals the resistance distance (the distance from the fulcrum to where the resistance is applied) Actual mechanical advantage The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is the mechanical advantage of a real machine. Actual mechanical advantage takes into consideration real world factors such as energy lost in friction. The AMA of a machine is calculated with the following formula: where R = resistance force Eactual = actual effort force Simple machines Beam balanced around a fulcrum The following simple machines exhibit a mechanical advantage: The beam shown is in static equilibrium around the fulcrum. This is due to the moment created by vector force "A" counterclockwise (moment A*a) being in equilibrium with the moment created by vector force "B" clockwise (moment B*b). The relatively low vector force "B" is translated in a relatively high vector force "A". The force is thus increased in the ratio of the forces A : B, which is equal to the ratio of the distances to the fulcrum b : a. This ratio is called the mechanical advantage. This idealised situation does not take into account friction. For more explanation, see also lever. Wheel and axle notion (e.g. screwdrivers, doorknobs): A wheel is essentially a lever with one arm the distance between the axle and the outer point of the wheel, and the other the radius of the axle. Typically this is a fairly large difference, leading to a proportionately large mechanical advantage. This allows even simple wheels with wooden axles running in wooden blocks to still turn freely, because their friction is overwhelmed by the rotational force of the wheel multiplied by the mechanical advantage. Pulley: Pulleys change the direction of a tension force on a flexible material, e.g. a rope or cable. In addition, pulleys can be "added together" to create mechanical advantage, by having the flexible material looped over several pulleys in turn. Adding more loops and pulleys increases the mechanical advantage. Screw: A screw is essentially an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The run over the rise of this inclined plane is the mechanical advantage of a screw. Fisher, pp. 69–70. Pulleys An example of a rope and pulley system illustrating mechanical advantage. Consider lifting a weight with rope and pulleys. A rope looped through a pulley attached to a fixed spot, e.g. a barn roof rafter, and attached to the weight is called a single pulley. It has an MA = 1 (assuming frictionless bearings in the pulley), meaning no mechanical advantage (or disadvantage) however advantageous the change in direction may be. A single movable pulley has an MA of 2 (assuming frictionless bearings in the pulley). Consider a pulley attached to a weight being lifted. A rope passes around it, with one end attached to a fixed point above, e.g. a barn roof rafter, and a pulling force is applied upward to the other end with the two lengths parallel. In this situation the distance the lifter must pull the rope becomes twice the distance the weight travels, allowing the force applied to be halved. Note: if an additional pulley is used to change the direction of the rope, e.g. the person doing the work wants to stand on the ground instead of on a rafter, the mechanical advantage is not increased. By looping more ropes around more pulleys we can continue to increase the mechanical advantage. For example if we have two pulleys attached to the rafter, two pulleys attached to the weight, one end attached to the rafter, and someone standing on the rafter pulling the rope, we have a mechanical advantage of four. Again note: if we add another pulley so that someone may stand on the ground and pull down, we still have a mechanical advantage of four. Here are examples where the fixed point is not obvious: A velcro strap on a shoe passes through a slot and folds over on itself. The slot is a movable pulley and the MA = 2. Two ropes laid down a ramp attached to a raised platform. A barrel is rolled onto the ropes and the ropes are passed over the barrel and handed to two workers at the top of the ramp. The workers pull the ropes together to get the barrel to the top. The barrel is a movable pulley and the MA = 2. If there is enough friction where the rope is pinched between the barrel and the ramp, the pinch point becomes the attachment point. This is considered a fixed attachment point because the rope above the barrel does not move relative to the ramp. Alternatively the ends of the rope can be attached to the platform. Block and tackle: MA = 3 Inclined plane: MA = length of slope ÷ height of slope Screws The theoretical mechanical advantage for a screw can be calculated using the following equation: United States Bureau of Naval Personnel, p. 5-4. where dm = the mean diameter of the screw thread l = the lead of the screw thread Note that the actual mechanical advantage of a screw system is greater, as a screwdriver or other screw driving system has a mechanical advantage as well. See also Balanced arm lamps Gear ratio References Notes Bibliography . . External links Gears and pulleys Mechanical engineering — pulleys Mechanical advantage — video | Mechanical_advantage |@lemmatized physic:2 engineering:2 mechanical:34 advantage:32 factor:2 mechanism:1 multiply:4 force:19 torque:1 put:1 generally:1 calculate:5 follow:1 simply:1 first:1 equation:4 show:2 exert:3 machine:9 distance:10 move:3 always:1 equal:4 example:5 use:5 block:3 tackle:2 rope:18 pound:5 load:2 operator:1 would:1 require:1 pull:5 foot:2 lift:3 second:1 simplified:1 formula:3 base:1 result:1 ideal:6 ima:4 ignore:1 loss:2 due:2 friction:5 actual:7 ama:4 include:1 frictional:1 difference:2 two:7 efficiency:1 system:4 type:2 theoretical:2 usually:1 principle:1 find:1 following:4 de:1 effort:3 fulcrum:5 apply:4 dr:1 resistance:3 real:2 take:2 consideration:1 world:1 energy:1 lose:1 r:1 eactual:1 simple:3 beam:2 balance:2 around:5 exhibit:1 static:1 equilibrium:2 moment:4 create:3 vector:4 counterclockwise:1 b:6 clockwise:1 relatively:2 low:1 translate:1 high:1 thus:1 increase:4 ratio:4 call:2 idealised:1 situation:2 account:1 explanation:1 see:2 also:2 lever:2 wheel:5 axle:4 notion:1 e:5 g:5 screwdriver:2 doorknobs:1 essentially:2 one:3 arm:2 point:6 radius:1 typically:1 fairly:1 large:2 lead:2 proportionately:1 allow:2 even:1 wooden:2 run:2 still:2 turn:2 freely:1 overwhelm:1 rotational:1 pulley:22 change:3 direction:3 tension:1 flexible:2 material:2 cable:1 addition:1 added:1 together:2 loop:4 several:1 add:2 screw:9 inclined:3 plane:3 wrap:1 cylinder:1 rise:1 fisher:1 pp:1 pulleys:1 illustrate:1 consider:3 weight:5 attach:9 fixed:3 spot:1 barn:2 roof:2 rafter:6 single:2 assume:2 frictionless:2 bearing:2 meaning:1 disadvantage:1 however:1 advantageous:1 may:2 movable:3 pass:3 end:4 fix:1 pulling:1 upward:1 length:2 parallel:1 lifter:1 must:1 become:2 twice:1 travel:1 halve:1 note:4 additional:1 person:1 work:1 want:1 stand:2 ground:2 instead:1 continue:1 someone:2 standing:1 four:2 another:1 obvious:1 velcro:1 strap:1 shoe:1 slot:2 fold:1 lay:1 ramp:4 raise:1 platform:2 barrel:6 roll:1 onto:1 hand:1 worker:2 top:2 get:1 enough:1 pinch:2 attachment:2 relative:1 alternatively:1 slope:2 height:1 united:1 state:1 bureau:1 naval:1 personnel:1 p:1 dm:1 mean:1 diameter:1 thread:2 l:1 great:1 drive:1 well:1 lamp:1 gear:2 reference:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 |@bigram inclined_plane:3 advantage_disadvantage:1 movable_pulley:3 screw_thread:2 external_link:1 |
1,314 | Extra-vehicular_activity | Mike Fossum works on the Kibo Module (JPM) during the second spacewalk of STS-124. Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) is work done by an astronaut away from the Earth, and outside of a spacecraft. The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth (a spacewalk), but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon (a moonwalk). In the later lunar landing missions (Apollo 15, 16, and 17) the command module pilot (CMP) did an EVA to retrieve film canisters on the return trip; he was assisted by the lunar module pilot (LMP) who remained at the open CM hatch. These trans-Earth EVAs were the only spacewalks ever conducted in deep space. Due to the different designs of the early spacecraft, the American and Soviet space programs also define an EVA differently. Russians define an EVA as occurring when a cosmonaut is in a vacuum. An American EVA begins when the astronaut switches the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) to battery power. A "Stand-up" EVA (SEVA) is where the astronaut does not fully exit a spacecraft, but is completely reliant on the spacesuit for environmental support. Its name derives from the astronaut "standing up" in the open hatch, usually to film or assist a spacewalking astronaut. EVAs may be either tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft, oxygen can be supplied through a tube, no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft) or untethered. When the tether performs life support functions such as providing oxygen, it is called an umbilical. Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER). A SAFER is a safety device worn on tethered U.S. EVAs, since the capability of returning to the spacecraft is essential. , Russia, the United States, and China are the only countries with a demonstrated capability to conduct an EVA. EVA hazards Tear in glove during STS-118 Astronaut Bruce McCandless on an untethered EVA. Spacewalks are dangerous for a number of different reasons. The primary one is collision with space debris. Velocity while orbiting 300 km above the Earth (typical for a space shuttle mission) is 7.7 km/s. This is approximately ten times the speed of a bullet. This means that a particle approximately 100 times smaller than a bullet would have the same effect at that velocity. Nearly every space mission creates more orbiting debris, so this problem will continue to worsen. Another reason for danger is that external environments in space are harder to simulate before the mission, though approximate simulations can be achieved at facilities like the Hydro-labs in Star City's Gagarin Training Center and NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Space walks are avoided for routine tasks because of their danger. As a result the EVAs are often planned late in the project development when problems are discovered, or sometimes even during an operational mission. The exceptional danger involved in EVAs inevitably leads to emotional pressures on astronauts. Other possible problems include a space walker becoming separated from his or her craft or suffering a spacesuit puncture which would depressurize the suit, causing anoxia and rapid death if the space walker is not brought into a pressurized spacecraft quickly. One astronaut has suffered a spacesuit puncture. During STS-37, a small rod punctured the glove of one of the astronauts (the name was not disclosed, but it was either Jerry L. Ross or Jay Apt). The puncturing object held in place, resulting in no detectable depressurization, and was not noticed until after the space walkers were safely back inside Atlantis. Alexey Leonov's EVA did not pass smoothly either. During the EVA, Leonov's suit became overinflated to the point he could no longer re-enter or seal the door of the airlock on Voskhod 2. Because he was breathing pure oxygen, he was able to reduce his suit pressure to under and, with effort, climb back inside. As of 2009, no catastrophic incident has ever occurred during an extra-vehicular activity, and no astronaut has ever died during one. Given the considerable hazards inherent in EVAs, and the resultant risk to astronauts, some scientists are working to develop tele-operated robots for outside construction work, to reduce or potentially eliminate the need for human EVAs. Camp out For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA now routinely employs a camp out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight prior to an EVA in the airlock, and lower the air pressure to , compared to the normal station pressure of . Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing "the bends". EVA milestones International Space Station assembly EVA made during the STS-116 mission. Robert Curbeam (with red stripes) together with Christer Fuglesang over Cook Strait, New Zealand. Stephen Robinson riding the robotic arm during STS-114. The first EVA was carried out by Alexey Leonov on March 18, 1965 from the Voskhod 2 spacecraft. The first EVA by an American was made on June 3, 1965 by Edward White during the Gemini 4 mission. The first EVA that was a moonwalk rather than a spacewalk was made by American Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969 when the Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon. He was joined by crewmate Buzz Aldrin, and their EVA lasted 2 hours and 32 minutes. The first untethered spacewalk was by American Bruce McCandless II on February 7, 1984, during Challenger mission STS-41-B. He was subsequently joined by Robert L. Stewart during the 5 hour 55 minute spacewalk. The first woman to perform an EVA was Russian Svetlana Savitskaya on July 25, 1984 while aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Her EVA lasted 3 hours and 35 minutes. The first American woman to make an EVA was Kathryn D. Sullivan, who stepped into space on October 11, 1984 during Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-G. The first (and only) three-person EVA was performed on May 13, 1992, as the third EVA of STS-49, the maiden flight of Endeavour. Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers conducted the EVA to capture and repair a non-functional Intelsat VI-F3 satellite, and equipped the satellite with a new motor, that after release, moved it into its planned geosynchronous orbit. The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American was made on December 9, 1988 by Jean-Loup Chrétien of France during a three-week stay on the Mir space station. On February 9, 1995, Bernard A. Harris, Jr. and Michael Foale became the first African American and the first Briton, respectively, to perform an EVA. On April 22, 2001, Chris Hadfield became the first Canadian to perform an EVA, while installing the Canadarm2 on to the International Space Station. The first EVA to perform an in-flight repair of the space orbiter was by American Steve Robinson on August 3, 2005, during "Return to Flight" mission STS-114. Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers from Discovery's heat shield, after engineers determined there was a small chance they could affect the shuttle upon re-entry. Robinson successfully removed the loose material while Discovery was docked to the International Space Station. The longest EVA was 8 hours and 56 minutes, performed by Susan J. Helms and James S. Voss on March 11, 2001. Anatoly Solovyev holds the record for most spacewalks (16), and total duration (82 hours, 22 minutes). Michael Lopez-Alegria holds the all time American record for number of EVAs (10), and for total EVA duration (67 hours and 40 minutes). The first EVA by a Chinese astronaut was made on September 27, 2008 by Zhai Zhigang during Shenzhou 7 mission. Zhai Zhigang's spacewalk, using a Feitian space suit, made China the third country to independently carry out an EVA. See also Suitport Space suit Space debris Kessler Syndrome Orlan space suit Sokol space suit Feitian space suit List of Mir spacewalks List of ISS spacewalks Manned Maneuvering Unit Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue List of spacewalks and moonwalks List of cumulative spacewalk records List of spacewalkers References External links NASA JSC Oral History Project Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology PDF document. NASDA Online Space Notes Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 1: System description - 1971 (PDF document) Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 2: Operational procedures - 1971 (PDF document) Skylab Extravehicular Activity Development Report - 1974 (PDF document) Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit - 1986 (PDF document) NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book - 1993 (PDF document) | Extra-vehicular_activity |@lemmatized mike:1 fossum:1 work:4 kibo:1 module:4 jpm:1 second:1 spacewalk:7 sts:9 extra:2 vehicular:2 activity:3 eva:38 astronaut:12 away:1 earth:4 outside:3 spacecraft:8 term:1 commonly:1 applies:1 make:9 craft:2 orbit:3 also:3 apply:1 surface:1 moon:2 moonwalk:3 late:2 lunar:3 land:2 mission:12 apollo:4 command:1 pilot:2 cmp:1 retrieve:1 film:2 canister:1 return:4 trip:1 assist:2 lmp:1 remain:1 open:2 cm:1 hatch:2 trans:1 evas:9 spacewalks:7 ever:3 conduct:3 deep:1 space:28 due:1 different:2 design:1 early:1 american:10 soviet:2 program:1 define:2 differently:1 russian:2 occur:2 cosmonaut:1 vacuum:1 begin:1 switch:1 extravehicular:5 mobility:4 unit:6 emu:1 battery:1 power:1 stand:2 seva:1 fully:1 exit:1 completely:1 reliant:1 spacesuit:3 environmental:1 support:2 name:2 derive:1 usually:1 spacewalking:1 may:2 either:3 tether:2 connect:1 oxygen:3 supply:1 tube:1 propulsion:1 need:2 untethered:4 perform:8 life:1 function:1 provide:1 call:1 umbilical:1 three:3 use:2 manned:1 maneuvering:1 mmu:1 flight:4 test:2 simplified:1 aid:2 rescue:2 safer:2 safety:1 device:1 wear:1 tethered:1 u:1 since:1 capability:2 essential:1 russia:1 united:1 state:1 china:2 country:2 demonstrated:1 hazard:2 tear:1 glove:2 bruce:2 mccandless:2 dangerous:1 number:2 reason:2 primary:1 one:4 collision:1 debris:3 velocity:2 km:2 typical:1 shuttle:5 approximately:2 ten:1 time:3 speed:1 bullet:2 mean:1 particle:1 small:3 would:2 effect:1 nearly:1 every:1 create:1 orbiting:1 problem:3 continue:1 worsen:1 another:1 danger:3 external:2 environment:1 hard:1 simulate:1 though:1 approximate:1 simulation:1 achieve:1 facility:1 like:1 hydro:1 lab:1 star:1 city:1 gagarin:1 train:1 center:1 nasa:4 neutral:1 buoyancy:1 laboratory:1 walk:2 avoid:1 routine:1 task:1 result:2 often:1 plan:2 project:2 development:2 discover:1 sometimes:1 even:1 operational:2 exceptional:1 involve:1 inevitably:1 lead:1 emotional:1 pressure:5 possible:1 include:1 walker:3 become:4 separate:1 suffer:2 puncture:3 depressurize:1 suit:8 cause:1 anoxia:1 rapid:1 death:1 bring:1 pressurized:1 quickly:1 rod:1 disclose:1 jerry:1 l:2 ross:1 jay:1 apt:1 puncturing:1 object:1 hold:3 place:1 detectable:1 depressurization:1 notice:1 safely:1 back:2 inside:2 atlantis:1 alexey:2 leonov:3 pass:1 smoothly:1 overinflated:1 point:1 could:2 longer:1 enter:1 seal:1 door:1 airlock:2 voskhod:2 breathe:1 pure:1 able:1 reduce:3 effort:1 climb:1 catastrophic:1 incident:1 die:1 give:1 considerable:1 inherent:1 resultant:1 risk:2 astronauts:2 scientist:1 develop:1 tele:1 operated:1 robot:1 construction:1 potentially:1 eliminate:1 human:1 camp:3 international:4 station:7 routinely:1 employ:1 procedure:2 decompression:1 sickness:1 first:14 expedition:1 crew:1 sleep:1 overnight:1 prior:1 low:2 air:2 compare:1 normal:1 spend:1 night:1 help:1 flush:1 nitrogen:1 body:1 thereby:1 prevent:1 bend:1 milestone:1 assembly:1 robert:2 curbeam:1 red:1 stripe:1 together:1 christer:1 fuglesang:1 cook:1 strait:1 new:2 zealand:1 stephen:1 robinson:4 rid:1 robotic:1 arm:1 carry:2 march:2 june:1 edward:1 white:1 gemini:1 rather:1 neil:1 armstrong:1 july:2 eagle:1 join:2 crewmate:1 buzz:1 aldrin:1 last:2 hour:6 minute:6 ii:1 february:2 challenger:2 b:1 subsequently:1 stewart:1 woman:2 svetlana:1 savitskaya:1 aboard:1 salyut:1 kathryn:1 sullivan:1 step:1 october:1 g:1 person:1 third:2 maiden:1 endeavour:1 pierre:1 thuot:1 richard:1 hieb:1 thomas:1 akers:1 capture:1 repair:2 non:3 functional:1 intelsat:1 vi:1 satellite:2 equip:1 motor:1 release:1 move:1 geosynchronous:1 december:1 jean:1 loup:1 chrétien:1 france:1 week:1 stay:1 mir:2 bernard:1 harris:1 jr:1 michael:2 foale:1 african:1 briton:1 respectively:1 april:1 chris:1 hadfield:1 canadian:1 instal:1 orbiter:1 steve:1 august:1 send:1 remove:2 two:1 protrude:1 gap:1 filler:1 discovery:2 heat:1 shield:1 engineer:1 determine:1 chance:1 affect:1 upon:1 entry:1 successfully:1 loose:1 material:1 dock:1 long:1 susan:1 j:1 helm:1 james:1 voss:1 anatoly:1 solovyev:1 record:3 total:2 duration:2 lopez:1 alegria:1 chinese:1 september:1 zhai:2 zhigang:2 shenzhou:1 feitian:2 independently:1 see:1 suitport:1 kessler:1 syndrome:1 orlan:1 sokol:1 list:5 iss:1 man:1 maneuver:1 simplify:1 cumulative:1 spacewalker:1 reference:2 link:1 jsc:1 oral:1 history:1 olympus:1 chronology:1 pdf:6 document:6 nasda:1 online:1 note:1 volume:2 system:1 description:1 skylab:1 report:1 analysis:1 tool:1 equipment:1 book:1 |@bigram extra_vehicular:2 vehicular_activity:2 module_pilot:2 lunar_module:2 extravehicular_mobility:4 eva_eva:1 space_shuttle:4 decompression_sickness:1 neil_armstrong:1 buzz_aldrin:1 shuttle_challenger:1 maiden_flight:1 list_spacewalks:1 external_link:1 |
1,315 | Carboniferous | For the album by Zu see Carboniferous (album). The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period, about 359.2 ± 2.5 Ma (million years ago), to the beginning of the Permian period, about 299.0 ± 0.8 Ma . The Carboniferous was a time of glaciation, low sea level and mountain building; a minor marine extinction event occurred in the middle of the period. The name comes from the Latin word for coal, carbo. Carboniferous means "coal-bearing." Many beds of coal were laid down all over the world during this period, hence the name. Subdivisions In the USA the Carboniferous is usually broken into Mississippian (earlier) and Pennsylvanian (later) Epochs. The Mississippian is about twice as long as the Pennsylvanian, but due to the large thickness of coal bearing deposits with Pennsylvanian ages in Europe and North America, the two subperiods were long thought to have been more or less equal. Menning et al. (2006) The Faunal stages from youngest to oldest, together with some of their subdivisions, are: Late Pennsylvanian: Gzhelian (most recent) Noginskian / Virgilian (part) Late Pennsylvanian: Kasimovian Klazminskian Dorogomilovksian / Virgilian (part) Chamovnicheskian / Cantabrian / Missourian Krevyakinskian / Cantabrian / Missourian Middle Pennsylvanian: Moscovian Myachkovskian / Bolsovian / Desmoinesian Podolskian / Desmoinesian Kashirskian / Atokan Vereiskian / Bolsovian / Atokan Early Pennsylvanian: Bashkirian / Morrowan Melekesskian / Duckmantian Cheremshanskian / Langsettian Yeadonian Marsdenian Kinderscoutian Late Mississippian: Serpukhovian Alportian Chokierian / Chesterian / Elvirian Arnsbergian / Elvirian Pendleian Middle Mississippian: Visean Brigantian / St Genevieve / Gasperian / Chesterian Asbian / Meramecian Holkerian / Salem Arundian / Warsaw / Meramecian Chadian / Keokuk / Osagean (part) / Osage (part) Early Mississippian: Tournaisian (oldest) Ivorian / Osagean (part) / Osage (part) Hastarian / Kinderhookian / Chouteau Paleogeography A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the Mississippian. Steven M. Stanley, Earth System History. (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999), 414. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwanaland was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. Stanley, 414. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush coal swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. Stanley, 416. Generalized geographic map of the United States in Middle Pennsylvanian time. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit crinoids and ammonites especially hard. This sea-level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the Mississippian period from the Pennsylvanian period. This happened about 320 million years ago File:Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png , at the onset of the Permo-Carboniferous Glaciation http://andvari.vedur.is/~halldor/HB/205Bold/Lecture7.html . The Carboniferous was a time of active mountain-building, as the supercontinent Pangaea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe (Laurussia) along the present line of eastern North America. This continental collision resulted in the Hercynian orogeny in Europe, and the Alleghenian orogeny in North America; it also extended the newly-uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the Ouachita Mountains. Stanley, 414-6. In the same time frame, much of present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains. Most of the Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangea was now assembled, although North China (which would collide in the Latest Carboniferous), and South China continents were still separated from Laurasia. The Late Carboniferous Pangaea was shaped like an "O." There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous—Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys, which was inside the "O" in the Carboniferous Pangaea. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed - Rheic Ocean (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow Ural Ocean (which was closed by the collision of Baltica and Siberia continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean (closed by North China collision with Siberia/Kazakhstania. Climate The early part of the Carboniferous was mostly warm; in the later part of the Carboniferous, the climate cooled. Glaciations in Gondwana, triggered by Gondwana's southward movement, continued into the Permian and because of the lack of clear markers and breaks, the deposits of this glacial period are often referred to as Permo-Carboniferous in age. Rocks and coal Lower Carboniferous marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Carboniferous rocks in Europe and eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of limestone, sandstone, shale and coal beds, known as "cyclothems" in the U.S. and "coal measures" in Britain. Stanley, 426. In North America, the early Carboniferous is largely marine limestone, which accounts for the division of the Carboniferous into two periods in North American schemes. The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the fuel for power generation during the Industrial Revolution and are still of great economic importance. The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous primarily owe their existence to two factors. The first of these is the appearance of bark-bearing trees (and in particular the evolution of the bark fiber lignin). The second is the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the Devonian period. This allowed for the development of extensive lowland swamps and forests in North America and Europe. Some hypothesize that large quantities of wood were buried during this period because animals and decomposing bacteria had not yet evolved that could effectively digest the new lignin. Those early plants made extensive use of lignin. They had bark to wood ratios of 8 to 1, and even as high as 20 to 1. This compares to modern values less than 1 to 4. This bark, which must have been used as support as well as protection, probably had 38% to 58% lignin. Lignin is insoluble, too large to pass through cell walls, too heterogeneous for specific enzymes, and toxic, so that few organisms other than Basidiomycetes fungi can degrade it. It can not be oxidized in an atmosphere of less than 5% oxygen. It can linger in soil for thousands of years and inhibits decay of other substances. Robinson, JM. 1990 Lignin, land plants, and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance. Geology 18; 607–610, on p608. Probably the reason for its high percentages is protection from insect herbivory in a world containing very effective insect herbivores, but nothing remotely as effective as modern insectivores and probably much fewer poisons than currently. In any case coal measures could easily have made thick deposits on well drained soils as well as swamps. The extensive burial of biologically-produced carbon led to a buildup of surplus oxygen in the atmosphere; estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, compared to 21% today. This oxygen level probably increased wildfire activity, as well as resulted in insect and amphibian gigantism--creatures whose size is constrained by respiratory systems that are limited in their ability to diffuse oxygen. In eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the late Carboniferous. More diverse geology existed elsewhere, of course. Marine life is especially rich in crinoids and other echinoderms. Brachiopods were abundant. Trilobites became quite uncommon. On land, large and diverse plant populations existed. Land vertebrates included large amphibians. Life Marine invertebrates In the oceans the most important marine invertebrate groups are the foraminifera, corals, bryozoa, brachiopods, ammonoids, hederelloids and echinoderms (especially crinoids). For the first time foraminifera take a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus Fusulina and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include Valvulina, Endothyra, Archaediscus, and Saccammina (the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still extant. The microscopic shells of Radiolaria are found in cherts of this age in the Culm of Devonshire and Cornwall, and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere. Sponges are known from spicules and anchor ropes, and include various forms such as the Calcispongea Cotyliscus and Girtycoelia, and the genus of unusual colonial glass sponges Titusvillia. Both reef-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both rugose (e.g. Canina, Corwenia, Neozaphrentis), heterocorals, and tabulate (e.g. Chaetetes, Chladochonus, Michelinia) forms. Conularids were well represented by Conularia Bryozoa are abundant in some regions; the Fenestellids including Fenestella, Polypora, and the remarkable Archimedes, so named because it is in the shape of an Archimedean screw. Brachiopods are also abundant; they include Productids, some of which (e.g. Gigantoproductus) reached very large (for brachiopods) size and had very thick shells, while others like Chonetes were more conservative in form. Athyridids, Spiriferids, Rhynchonellids, are Terebratulids are also very common. Inarticulate forms include Discina and Crania. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations. Annelids such as Spirorbis and Serpulites are common fossils in some horizons. Among the mollusca, the bivalves continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include Aviculopecten, Posidonomya, Nucula, Carbonicola, Edmondia, and Modiola Conocardium is a common rostroconch. Gastropods are also numerous, including the genera Murchisonia, Euomphalus, Naticopsis. Nautiloid cephalopods are represented by tightly coiled nautilids, with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare. Goniatite Ammonoids are common. Trilobites are rarer than in previous periods, represented only by the proetid group. A class of Crustacean Zooplankton known as Ostracods such as Cythere, Kirkbya, and Beyrichia was abundant. Amongst the echinoderms, the crinoids were the most numerous. Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent genera include Cyathocrinus, Woodocrinus, and Actinocrinus. Echinoids such as Archaeocidaris and Palaeechinus were also present. The Blastoids, which included the Pentreinitidae and Codasteridae and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the seabed, attain their maximum development at this time. Fish Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly Elasmobranchs (sharks and their relatives). These included some, like Psammodus, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other sharks had piercing teeth, such as the Symmoriida; some, the petalodonts, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the sharks were marine, but the Xenacanthida invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the bony fish, the Palaeonisciformes found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers. Sarcopterygian fish were also prominent, and one group, the Rhizodonts, reached very large size. Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera Ctenodus, Uronemus, Acanthodes, Cheirodus, and Gyracanthus. Sharks (especially the Stethacanthids) underwent a major evolutionary radiation during the Carboniferous. It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the placoderms at the end of the Devonian period caused many environmental niches to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches. As a result of the evolutionary radiation carboniferous sharks assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including Stethacanthus who possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of denticles on its top. Stethacanthus unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals. Plants Although Earth's poles were covered by ice caps, the equatorial regions of the planet were dominated by vast swamp lands during most of the Carboniferous. Painting depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous. Early Carboniferous land plants were very similar to those of the preceding Late Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time. The main Early Carboniferous plants were the Equisetales (Horse-tails), Sphenophyllales (vine-like plants), Lycopodiales (Club mosses), Lepidodendrales (scale trees), Filicales (Ferns), Medullosales (informally included in the "seed ferns", an artificial assemblage of a number of early gymnosperm groups) and the Cordaitales. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during late Carboniferous, several other groups, Cycadophyta (cycads), the Callistophytales (another group of "seed ferns"), and the Voltziales (related to and sometimes included under the conifers), appeared. The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included Lepidodendron (with its fruit cone called Lepidostrobus), Halonia, Lepidophloios and Sigillaria. The roots of several of these forms are known as Stigmaria. The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were epiphytic. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include Pecopteris, Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Alethopteris, and Sphenopteris; Megaphyton and Caulopteris were tree ferns. The Equisetales included the common giant form Calamites, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm and a height of up to 20 meters. Sphenophyllum was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods. Cordaites, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the catkin-like inflorescence, which bore yew-like berries, is called Cardiocarpus. These plants were thought to live in swamps and mangroves. True coniferous trees (Walchia, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground. Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various bivalve molluscs that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as Anthracomya, Naiadiles, and Carbonicola; diverse crustaceans such as Bairdia, Carbonia, Estheria, Acanthocaris, Dithyrocaris, and Anthrapalaemon. The Eurypterids were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as Eurypterus, Glyptoscorpius, Anthraconectes, Megarachne (originally misinterpreted as a giant spider) and the specialised very large Hibbertopterus. Many of these were amphibious. Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as Lingula, Orbiculoidea, and Productus being found in the thin beds known as marine bands. Terrestrial Invertebrates Meganeura. Fossil remains of air-breathing insects, myriapods and arachnids are known from the late Carboniferous, but so far not from the early Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well developed and numerous. Their large size can be attributed to the moistness of the environment (mostly swampy fern forests) and the fact that the oxygen concentration in the Earth's atmosphere in the Carboniferous was much higher than today. (The oxygen concentration in the Earth's atmosphere during the Carboniferous was 35% whereas the oxygen concentration in earth's current atmosphere is 21%.) This required less effort for respiration and allowed arthropods to grow larger. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory Protodonata (griffinflies), among which was Meganeura, a giant dragonfly-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm — the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the Syntonopterodea (relatives of present-day mayflies), the abundant and often large sap-sucking Palaeodictyopteroidea, the diverse herbivorous "Protorthoptera", and numerous basal Dictyoptera (ancestors of cockroaches). Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of Saarbrücken and Commentry, and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens: Archaeoptitus, from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a spread of wing extending to more than 35 cm; some specimens (Brodia) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (Archaeozonites, Dendropupa) have been found. Tetrapods Pederpes, the most primitive Mississippian tetrapod Carboniferous amphibians were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin. Stanley, 411-12. They included a number of basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the Labyrinthodontia. These had long bodies, a head covered with bony plates and generally weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the Lepospondyli, often only about 15 cm long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers (Loxomma, Eogyrinus, Proterogyrinus); others may have been semi-aquatic (Ophiderpeton, Amphibamus) or terrestrial (Dendrerpeton, Hyloplesion, Tuditanus, Anthracosaurus). Hylonomus. One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain tetrapods. These included the earliest Sauropsid reptiles (Hylonomus), and the earliest known synapsid (Archaeothyris). These small lizard-like animals quickly gave rise to many descendants. The amniote egg allowed these ancestors of all later birds, mammals, and reptiles to reproduce on land by preventing the desiccation, or drying-out, of the embryo inside. By the end of the Carboniferous period, the amniotes had already diversified into a number of groups, including protorothyridids, captorhinids, aeroscelids, and several families of pelycosaurs. During the final epoch of the Carboniferous the Gzhelian Age reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation possibly in response to an increasingly drier climate. M. Alan Kazlev (1998) The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era: 299 to 359 million years ago, Palaeos.org, Retrevied on 2008-06-23 Fungal life Because plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time (e.g., Lepidodendron), land fungi diversified further. Marine fungi still occupied the oceans. All modern classes of fungi were present in the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian Epoch). Blackwell, Meredith, Vilgalys, Rytas, James, Timothy Y., and Taylor, John W. 2008. Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.. Version 21 February 2008. http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377/2008.02.21 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/ Other life forms Extinction events In the middle Carboniferous, an extinction event occurred that was probably caused by climate change. A less intense extinction event also occurred at the end of the Carboniferous. See also Carboniferous tetrapods Important Carboniferous Lagerstätten Hamilton Quarry; 320 mya; Kansas, US Mazon Creek; 300 mya; Illinois, US List of fossil sites (with link directory) | Carboniferous |@lemmatized album:2 zu:1 see:2 carboniferous:53 geologic:1 period:19 system:3 extend:3 end:5 devonian:6 million:3 year:4 ago:3 beginning:1 permian:2 time:8 glaciation:3 low:2 sea:8 level:6 mountain:5 building:3 minor:3 marine:15 extinction:5 event:4 occur:5 middle:6 name:3 come:2 latin:1 word:1 coal:12 carbo:1 mean:1 bearing:2 many:7 bed:6 lay:1 world:2 hence:1 subdivision:2 usa:1 usually:1 break:2 mississippian:8 early:14 pennsylvanian:10 later:2 epoch:3 twice:1 long:8 due:1 large:15 thickness:1 bear:1 deposit:4 age:4 europe:6 north:14 america:11 two:4 subperiods:1 think:2 less:5 equal:1 menning:1 et:1 al:1 faunal:1 stage:1 young:1 oldest:1 together:3 late:13 gzhelian:2 recent:1 noginskian:1 virgilian:2 part:11 kasimovian:1 klazminskian:1 dorogomilovksian:1 chamovnicheskian:1 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1,316 | Jackson_County,_Michigan | Jackson County is a county in the U.S. state of Michigan. In 2000, its population was 158,422 with the 2007 Census Bureau placing the population at 163,006. This county is the sole county in the Jackson Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county seat is Jackson. It is named for U.S. President Andrew Jackson. It is considered to be one of Michigan's "Cabinet counties", named for members of Jackson's Cabinet. The Jackson County Courthouse was built by Claire Allen, a prominent southern Michigan architect. Geography According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 724 square miles (1,875 km²), of which, 707 square miles (1,830 km²) of it is land and 17 square miles (44 km²) of it (2.37%) is water. Adjacent counties Livingston County (northeast) Ingham County (north) Eaton County (northwest) Washtenaw County (east) Calhoun County (west) Lenawee County (southeast) Hillsdale County (southwest) Major highways Interstates I-94 I-94 Business Loop serves as a loop route through downtown Jackson. US highways US-127 US-127 Business Route serves as a loop route through downtown Jackson. Michigan State Trunklines M-50 M-52 M-60 M-99 M-106 M-124 Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 158,422 people, 58,168 households, and 40,833 families residing in the county. The population density was 224 people per square mile (87/km²). There were 62,906 housing units at an average density of 89/sq mi (34/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 88.54% White, 7.92% Black or African American, 0.40% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.83% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. 2.20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 21.7% were of German, 12.8% English, 11.5% American, 9.9% Irish and 8.1% Polish ancestry according to Census 2000. 95.9% spoke English and 2.1% Spanish as their first language. There were 58,168 households out of which 33.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.80% were married couples living together, 12.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.80% were non-families. 24.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.03. In the county the population was spread out with 25.60% under the age of 18, 8.10% from 18 to 24, 30.40% from 25 to 44, 23.00% from 45 to 64, and 12.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 104.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.70 males. The median income for a household in the county was $43,171, and the median income for a family was $50,970. Males had a median income of $38,919 versus $26,448 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,171. About 6.50% of families and 9.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.40% of those under age 18 and 6.10% of those age 65 or over. Government The county government operates the jail, maintains township roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services. The county board of commissioners controls the budget but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances. In Michigan, most local government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc. — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships. Elected officials Michigan State House of Representatives, State Representative District 64: Martin Griffin (D) Michigan State House of Representatives, State Representative District 65: Mike Simpson (D) Michigan State Senate, State Senate District 17: Randy Richardville President pro tempore (R) Michigan State Senate, State Senate District 19: Because State Senator Mark Schauer (D) was elected U.S. Representative for Michigan's 7th congressional district, a special election will be held. Prosecuting Attorney: Hank C. Zavislak Sheriff: Daniel H Heyns County Clerk: Amanda L. Riska County Treasurer: Karen Coffman Register of Deeds: Mindy Reilly Drain Commissioner: Geoffrey W. Snyder County Surveyor: Dean R. Gutekunst (information as of January 12, 2009) Cities, villages, and townships Cities Jackson Villages Brooklyn Cement City (partially) Concord Grass Lake Hanover Parma Springport Unincorporated Michigan Center Napoleon Spring Arbor Vandercook Lake Townships Blackman Charter Township Columbia Township Concord Township Grass Lake Charter Township Hanover Township Henrietta Township Leoni Township Liberty Township Napoleon Township Norvell Township Parma Township Pulaski Township Rives Township Sandstone Charter Township Spring Arbor Township Springport Township Summit Township Tompkins Township Waterloo Township References External links Jackson County Jackson County Convention and Visitors Bureau Jackson County Chamber of Commerce The Enterprise Group of Jackson, Inc. Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliography on Jackson County | Jackson_County,_Michigan |@lemmatized jackson:14 county:30 u:7 state:12 michigan:12 population:6 census:4 bureau:3 place:1 sole:1 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:2 seat:1 name:2 president:2 andrew:1 consider:1 one:1 cabinet:2 member:1 courthouse:1 build:1 claire:1 allen:1 prominent:1 southern:1 architect:1 geography:1 accord:2 total:1 square:4 mile:4 land:1 water:1 adjacent:1 livingston:1 northeast:1 ingham:1 north:1 eaton:1 northwest:1 washtenaw:1 east:1 calhoun:1 west:1 lenawee:1 southeast:1 hillsdale:1 southwest:1 major:2 highway:1 interstates:1 business:2 loop:3 serve:2 route:3 downtown:2 highways:1 trunklines:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:3 native:1 asian:1 pacific:1 islander:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 german:1 english:2 irish:1 polish:1 ancestry:1 speak:1 spanish:1 first:1 language:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:2 individual:2 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 include:1 government:3 operate:2 jail:1 maintain:1 township:23 road:1 local:2 court:1 keep:1 file:1 deed:2 mortgage:1 maintains:1 vital:1 record:1 administers:1 public:1 health:1 regulation:1 participate:1 provision:1 welfare:1 social:1 service:1 board:1 commissioner:2 control:1 budget:1 limited:1 authority:1 law:1 ordinance:1 function:1 police:1 fire:1 building:1 zoning:1 tax:1 assessment:1 street:1 maintenance:1 etc:1 responsibility:1 city:4 elect:2 official:1 house:2 representative:5 district:5 martin:1 griffin:1 mike:1 simpson:1 senate:4 randy:1 richardville:1 pro:1 tempore:1 r:2 senator:1 mark:1 schauer:1 congressional:1 special:1 election:1 hold:1 prosecute:1 attorney:1 hank:1 c:1 zavislak:1 sheriff:1 daniel:1 h:1 heyns:1 clerk:1 amanda:1 l:1 riska:1 treasurer:1 karen:1 coffman:1 register:1 mindy:1 reilly:1 drain:1 geoffrey:1 w:1 snyder:1 surveyor:1 dean:1 gutekunst:1 information:1 january:1 village:2 brooklyn:1 cement:1 partially:1 concord:2 grass:2 lake:3 hanover:2 parma:2 springport:2 unincorporated:1 center:1 napoleon:2 spring:2 arbor:2 vandercook:1 blackman:1 charter:3 columbia:1 henrietta:1 leoni:1 liberty:1 norvell:1 pulaski:1 rive:1 sandstone:1 summit:1 tompkins:1 waterloo:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 convention:1 visitor:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 enterprise:1 group:1 inc:1 clarke:1 historical:1 library:1 central:1 university:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram census_bureau:2 metropolitan_statistical:1 andrew_jackson:1 county_courthouse:1 ingham_county:1 washtenaw_county:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 deed_mortgage:1 pro_tempore:1 congressional_district:1 prosecute_attorney:1 charter_township:3 external_link:1 visitor_bureau:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
1,317 | Aurochs | The aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) was a type of wild cattle, the ancestor of domestic cattle. It occurred in Europe, Asia and North Africa, but is now extinct; it survived in Europe until 1627. The aurochs was far larger than most modern domestic cattle, being approximately at the shoulder and weighing . Domestication occurred in several parts of the world at roughly the same time, about 8,000 years ago. The aurochs featured in ancient cave art, and more recently it was regarded as a challenging quarry animal, this contributing to its extinction. In the 20th century a breed of modern cattle was created that resembles a small aurochs. Nomenclature Aurochs skeleton in Denmark. Illustration from 1556 The word aurochs ( or ) comes to English from German, where its normative spelling and declension today is Auerochs/Auerochse (sg), Auerochsen (gen), Auerochsen (pl). The declension in English varies, being either aurochs (sg), aurochs (pl) AHD4, headword aurochs. MWU, headword aurochs. or aurochs (sg), aurochses (pl). The declension auroch (sg), aurochs (pl), acknowledged by MWU, is a back-formation analogous to pea-from-pease derived from a misinterpretation of the singular form's ending in the /s/ sound (being cognate to ox/Ochs(e)). The use in English of the plural form aurochsen is not acknowledged by AHD4 or MWU, but is mentioned in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. It is directly parallel to the German plural and analogous (and cognate) to English ox (sg), oxen (pl). The word urus () comes to English from Latin, but may have come to Latin from Germanic origins. AHD4, headword urus. It declines in English as urus (sg), uruses (pl)., MWU, headword urus. The Germanic aurochs itself has evolved from the Proto-Indo-European *táwros, just like Ancient Greek ταϋρος (tauros), Latin taurus and Slavic tur (Proto-Slavic *turъ). http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/taurus http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tur The words aurochs, urus, and wisent have all been used synonymously in English. AHD4, headwords aurochs, urus, wisent. , MWU, headwords aurochs, urus, wisent. However, the extinct aurochs/urus is a completely separate species from the still-extant wisent (the European bison). The animal's original scientific name, Bos primigenius, was meant as a Latin translation of the German term Auerochse or Urochs, which was (possibly incorrectly) interpreted as literally meaning "primeval ox" or "proto-ox". This scientific name is now considered invalid by ITIS, who classify aurochs under Bos taurus, the same species as domestic cattle. In 2003, however, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature "conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms", BZN 63(3) General Articles & Nomenclatural Notes confirming Bos primigenius for the Aurochs. Taxonomists who consider domesticated cattle a subspecies of the wild Aurochs should use B. primigenius taurus; the name B. taurus remains available for domestic cattle where it is considered to be a separate species. Origin An Aurochs fighting a Eurasian Wolf pack. According to the Paleontologisk Museum, University of Oslo, aurochs evolved in India some two million years ago, migrated into the Middle East and further into Asia, and reached Europe about 250,000 years ago. Paleontologisk Museum They were once considered a distinct species from modern European cattle (Bos taurus), but more recent taxonomy has rejected this distinction. The South Asian domestic cattle, or zebu, descended from a different group of aurochs at the edge of the Thar Desert in India; this would explain zebu's resistance to drought. Domestic yak, gayal and Javan cattle do not descend from aurochs. Modern cattle have become much smaller than their wild forebears: aurochs were about tall, while a large domesticated cow is about and most domestic cattle are much smaller than this. Height of Holstein cows (at hips – note that cattle are often slightly taller at the withers than the hips). Aurochs also had several features rarely seen in modern cattle, such as lyre-shaped horns set at a forward angle, a pale stripe down the spine, and sexual dimorphism of coat color. Males were black with a pale eel stripe or finching down the spine, while females and calves were reddish (these colours are still found in a few domesticated cattle breeds, such as Jersey cattle). Aurochs were also known to have very aggressive temperaments and killing one was seen as a great act of courage in ancient cultures. Subspecies At one time there existed three aurochs subspecies, namely Bos primigenius namadicus (Falconer, 1859) that occurred in India, the Bos primigenius mauretanicus (Thomas, 1881) from North Africa and naturally the Bos primigenius primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) from Europe and the Middle East. Only the European subspecies survived until recent times. Domestication and extinction Skull of an aurochs. Monument to the last aurochs in Jaktorów, Poland. Domestication of the aurochs began in the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia from about the 6th millennium BC, while genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in northern Africa and in India. (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999) Domestication caused dramatic changes to the physiology of the creatures, to the extent that domestic cattle have been regarded as a separate species (see above). Genetic analysis of aurochs bones and of modern cattle has provided many insights about the aurochs. Remains of the beast, from specimens believed to have weighed more than a ton, have been found in Mesolithic sites around Goldcliff, Wales. Though aurochs became extinct in Britain during the Bronze age, analysis of bones from aurochs that lived contemporaneously with domesticated cattle there showed no genetic contribution to modern breeds. As a result, modern European cattle are now thought to be descended directly from the Near East domestication event. Indian cattle (zebu), although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago, are related to aurochs which diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago. The African cattle are thought to descend from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones. The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago, probably 15,000 years before domestication. The "Turano-Mongolian" type of cattle now found in Northern China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event (and a third event among Bos taurus–type aurochs). This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear. The original range of the aurochs was from Britain and Ireland and southern Scandinavia, to northern Africa, the Middle East, India and central Asia. By the 13th century A.D., the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania, Moldavia, Transylvania and East Prussia. The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted to nobles and gradually to the royal household. As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased but the royal court still required gamekeepers to provide open fields for the aurochs to graze in. The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service and a decree made poaching an aurochs punishable by death. In 1564, the gamekeepers knew of only 38 animals, according to the royal survey. The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland. The skull was later taken by the Swedish Army during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660) and is now the property of Livrustkammaren in Stockholm. Attempts at breeding back Heck cattle In the 1920s two German zoo directors (in Berlin and Munich), the brothers Heinz and Lutz Heck, attempted to breed the aurochs "back into existence" (see breeding back) from the domestic cattle that were their descendants. Their plan was based on the concept that a species is not extinct as long as all its genes are still present in a living population. The result is the breed called Heck cattle, "Recreated Aurochs", or "Heck Aurochs", which bears some resemblance to what is known about the appearance of the wild aurochs. Aurochs in art, history, mythology, and media Aurochs on a cave painting in Lascaux, France. Aurochs are depicted in many Paleolithic European cave paintings such as those found at Lascaux and Livernon in France. Early carvings of the aurochs have also been found. The impressive and dangerous aurochs survived into the Iron Age in Anatolia and the Near East, and was worshipped throughout that area as a sacred animal, the Lunar Bull, associated with the Great Goddess and later with Mithras. Aurochs are depicted on the Ishtar Gate. The ancient name of the Estonian town of Rakvere, Tarwanpe or Tarvanpea, propably derives from Auroch's head (Tarva pea) in ancient Estonian. A 3.5m high and 7.1m long Statue of an Aurochs was opened in Rakvere in 2002, for the town's 700th birthday. The sculpture, made by artist Tauno Kangro, has become a symbol of the town. Rakvere linn A 1999 archaeological dig in Peterborough, England, uncovered the skull of an aurochs. The front part of the skull had been removed but the horns remained attached. The supposition is that the killing of the aurochs in this instance was a sacrificial act. The wild-ox called re'em (Strong's # 07214) in the Bible (Numbers 23:22 and 24:8, Deuteronomy 33:17, Job 39:9-10, Psalms 22:21, 29:6, 92:10 and Isaiah 34:7) is occasionally associated with the aurochs and has incorrectly been translated as "unicorn" in the past (The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Entry for 'Wild Ox', Copyright, 1939, by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.). Julius Caesar wrote about them in Gallic War Chapter 6.28, "...those animals which are called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of the appearance, color, and shape of a bull. Their strength and speed are extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast which they have espied. These the Germans take with much pains in pits and kill them. The young men harden themselves with this exercise, and practice themselves in this sort of hunting, and those who have slain the greatest number of them, having produced the horns in public, to serve as evidence, receive great praise. But not even when taken very young can they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape, and appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our oxen. These they anxiously seek after, and bind at the tips with silver, and use as cups at their most sumptuous entertainments." Possible version of a Moldavian princely flag in use during the time of Stephen the Great An aurochs head, the traditional arms of the German region Mecklenburg, is included in the coat of arms of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The aurochs ("bour" in Romanian) was also the symbol of Moldavia; nowadays they can be found in the coat of arms of both Romania and Moldova. The horn of the aurochs is a charge of coat of arms of Tauragė, Lithuania. It is also present in the emblem of Kaunas, Lithuania, and was part of the emblem of Bukovina during its time as a Kronland of Austria-Hungary. The Swiss Canton of Uri is named after the aurochs. Its yellow Flag shows a black aurochs head. The last lines of Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita are: "I am thinking of aurochs and angels, the secret of durable pigments, prophetic sonnets, the refuge of art. And this is the only immortality you and I may share, my Lolita." East Slavic surnames Turenin, Turishchev, Turov, Turovsky originate from the East Slavic name of the species (Tur). Russian Surnames. Popular Etymological Dictionary. Yu. A. Fedosyuk. 6th Ed. Turopolje, a large lowland floodplain south of the Sava river in Croatia, got its name after the once abundant aurochs (Croatian: tur). In the Song of Albion novels by author Stephen Lawhead, the discovery of a wounded aurochs that died in the field of a Scottish farmer is the impetus that sets main character Lewis on his journey to Albion. Notably, the series begins and ends with the statement, "It all began with the aurochs." Auroch is an up-and-coming Canadian thrash metal band based out of Vancouver, British Columbia. "Lament for the Aurochs" is the 7th track on the Age of Winters album by the Texas band The Sword. See also Chillingham Cattle Wisent Ur (rune) Heck cattle Notes References American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (AHD4). Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Headwords aurochs, urus, wisent. Bunzel-Drüke, M. 2001. Ecological substitutes for Wild Horse (Equus ferus Boddaert, 1785 = E. przewalslii Poljakov, 1881) and Aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827). Natur- und Kulturlandschaft, Höxter/Jena, 4, 10 p. AFKP. Online pdf (298 kB) C. Julius Caesar. Caesar's Gallic War. Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper's New Classical Library. International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84. Merriam-Webster Unabridged (MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service of Merriam-Webster, based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headword aurochs. Accessed 2007-06-02. Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology. In: Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Ed. George Erdosy. ISBN 8121507901 Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology. In: Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ed. Bronkhorst and Deshpande. ISBN 1-888789-04-2. Vuure, T. van. 2002. History, morphology and ecology of the Aurochs (Bos primigenius). Lutra 45-1. Online pdf (603 kB) Vuure, C. van. 2005. Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox. Pensoft Publishers. Sofia-Moscow. Wilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder: Mammals. External links The Extinction Website - Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius) History of aurochs in Poland Breeding Back the Aurochs 2005, web-paper by student Magdalena Michalak at Bryn Mawr College, near Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. be-x-old:Тур | Aurochs |@lemmatized aurochs:79 urus:11 bos:12 primigenius:12 type:3 wild:11 cattle:28 ancestor:1 domestic:11 occur:3 europe:4 asia:5 north:2 africa:4 extinct:5 survive:3 far:2 large:4 modern:8 approximately:1 shoulder:1 weighing:1 domestication:7 several:2 part:3 world:1 roughly:1 time:5 year:8 ago:7 feature:2 ancient:6 cave:3 art:3 recently:1 regard:2 challenging:1 quarry:1 animal:7 contribute:1 extinction:3 century:2 breed:7 create:1 resemble:1 small:3 nomenclature:3 skeleton:1 denmark:1 illustration:1 word:3 come:4 english:9 german:6 normative:1 spelling:1 declension:3 today:1 auerochs:1 auerochse:2 sg:6 auerochsen:2 gen:1 pl:6 varies:1 either:1 headword:8 mwu:6 auroch:3 acknowledge:2 back:5 formation:1 analogous:2 pea:3 derive:2 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1,318 | Baralong_incidents | The Baralong Incident was a naval engagement of the First World War on August 19, 1915 involving the Q-Ship HMS Wyandra (sailing under the name of Baralong), the German U-boat U-27, and the British merchant vessel Nicosian. The Baralong sank U-27 which had been preparing to sink the nearby merchant ship. About a dozen of the crewmen managed to escape the sinking submarine, and Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the commanding officer of the Baralong, ordered the surviving German crewmen to be shot at as they tried to board the Nicosian, and then sent a boarding party aboard that ship to prevent any attempts at sinking it. All the survivors of the U-27s sinking, including a number of Germans who managed to climb board the Nicosian, were killed. The incident On August 19, 1915, about 100 miles south of Queenstown, Ireland, U-27, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Bernard Wegener, stopped the British steamer Nicosian in accordance with the rules laid down by the London Treaty. A boarding party of six from the U-27 discovered that Nicosian was carrying munitions and 250 American mules intended for the use of the British Army in France. They ordered the freighter's crew and passengers into lifeboats, which soon pulled away, and prepared to sink the freighter. U-27 was lying off Nicosians port quarter firing into it when Baralong appeared on the scene, sailing under the Stars and Stripes. When she was half a mile away Baralong ran up a signal flag to the effect that she was going to rescue Nicosians crew. Wegener acknowledged the signal, ordered his men to stop firing, and took U-27 along the port side of Nicosian to intercept the Baralong. As the submarine disappeared behind the steamship, Herbert steered Baralong on a parallel course along Nicosians starboard side. Messimer, pp. 46–47. Before U-27 came round Nicosians bow, Baralong hauled down the American flag and hoisted the Royal Navy White Ensign, and unmasked her guns. When U-27 came into view from behind Nicosian, Baralong opened fire with her three 12-pounder guns at a range of , firing 34 rounds, and U-27 rolled over and sank in under a minute. O'Neill Twelve men survived the sinking of the submarine; the crews of her two deck guns and those who had been on the conning tower. They swam to the Nicosian and clambered up her hanging boat falls and pilot ladder. Herbert, worried that they would try to scuttle the steamer or set fire to her, ordered his men to open fire with small arms, killing all except six who managed to board the Nicosian. Wegener is described by some accounts as being shot while trying to swim to the Baralong. Herbert sent a party of twelve Royal Marines led by Sergeant Collins aboard the steamer to hunt them down, and they were discovered in the engine room where they were shot on sight, an action which may have been spurred by motives of revenge. Earlier that same day, had sunk the White Star liner with the loss of 44 lives; the Baralong had been about from the scene, and had received a distress call from the ship. Her Royal Navy crew regarded it as an atrocity on a par with the sinking of the Lusitania. An alternative account has the Germans who boarded the Nicosian being killed by the engine room staff; this version apparently came from the officer in command of the muleteers. However, doubt is cast on this by the fact that the crew had earlier been ordered into lifeboats preparatory to the U-27 sinking the Nicosian by gunfire. Aftermath In Herbert's report to the Admiralty, he stated that he feared the survivors from the U-boat's crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the twelve Royal Marines on board his ship to shoot the survivors who attempted to board her. If they had in fact scuttled the freighter, it could have been counted as negligence on the part of Herbert to have allowed it to happen. Only moments before Baralong began her attack, the submarine had been firing on the freighter. It is not known if the escaping sailors had in fact intended to scuttle the freighter. The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert's report, immediately ordered its suppression (though it was not destroyed and is now available), but the strict censorship on the event failed when the Americans who had been aboard the Nicosian, and who had witnessed the events from the lifeboats, returned to the US at the end of August and spoke to newspaper reporters. Halpern German memorandum The German government delivered a memorandum on the incident via the American ambassador in Berlin, who received it on 6 December 1915. In it, they cited six US citizens as witnesses, stating that they had made sworn depositions regarding the incident before public notaries in the US. The statements said that five survivors from U-27 managed to board the Nicosian, while the rest were shot and killed while clinging to the Nicosians lifeboat falls (ropes) on Herbert's orders. It was further stated that when Herbert ordered his Marines to board the Nicosian and search for the Germans aboard her, he gave an order to "take no prisoners". Four German sailors were found in the Nicosians engine room and propeller shaft tunnel and killed. According to the witness statements, U-27s commander was shot while swimming towards the Baralong. The Memorandum demanded that the captain and crew of the Baralong should be tried for the murder of unarmed German seamen, and threatened to "take serious decision as to retribution for the unpunished crime" if this did not happen. Sir Edward Grey replied through the American ambassador that the incident could be grouped together with the Germans' sinking of the SS Arabic, their attack on a stranded British submarine on the neutral Dutch coast, and their attack on the steamship Ruel, and suggested that they be placed before a Tribunal composed of US Navy officers. German reaction A debate took place in the Reichstag on 15 January 1916, where the Baralong incident was described as a "cowardly murder" and Grey's note as being "full of insolence and arrogance". It was announced that reprisals had been decided, but not what form they would take. The outrage the Baralong incident aroused in Germany was used by the Kaiserliche Marine to justify increased cruelty at sea during World War I and especially in World War II under Nazi Germany. A German medal was issued commemorating the event. Medal commemorating the sinking… (MEC2375) - National Maritime Museum The Germans also put the Baralong and her crew on the "Black List", meaning that any member of her crew was to be shot on sight if captured. As a precaution to conceal the ships against any subsequent German action against their crews, HMS Wyandra was transferred to the Mediterranean, and took the name of her sister ship Manica, while the name Baralong was deleted from Lloyd's Register. The Nicosian was renamed Nevisian, and her crew was issued with new Discharge Books, with the voyage omitted. The crew of the Baralong were later awarded £185 prize bounty for sinking U-27. A Kriegsmarine submarine flotilla formed on June 25, 1938, was named "Wegener" in memory of this incident. Sinking of U-41 On 24 September 1915, Baralong sank the U-boat , for which her commanding officer at the time, Lieutenant-Commander A. Wilmot-Smith, was later awarded £170 prize bounty. The U-41 was in the process of sinking SS Urbino with gunfire when the Baralong arrived on the scene, flying an American flag. When U-41 surfaced near the Baralong, the latter opened fire, continuing to fly the American flag, and sank the U-boat. There were no neutral witnesses to the events that followed, apart from the German and British sailors present. Oberleutnant zur See Iwan Crompton later reported on the incident after he returned from a British prisoner of war camp, reporting that the Baralong had run down the lifeboat he was in; he leapt clear and was shortly after taken aboard the Baralong. The British crew denied that they had run down the lifeboat. Messimer, pp. 61-62 Crompton later published an account of U-41s exploits in 1917, "U-41: der zweite Baralong-Fall", which called the sinking of U-41 a "second Baralong case". Modern views of the incident It has been a controversial event, and many historians agree it was a violation of protocol to order the sailors attacked. Other historians debate this analysis (such as if the order was a violation), or debate aspects of the records, and have been either harsher or more lenient. There are widely available German, British, and American records, which all agree on certain facts, but there are a number of details of the incident which may or may not have been fabricated from a less notable or extensive violation. The disputed facts mostly center on the number of German sailors that actually escaped the sinking sub, to be killed later. This dispute alters the justification of the British captain's order to attack the German survivors, on the grounds of protecting the freighter and her cargo. Also, it is not known to what extent the escaping German sailors had made an effort to surrender, as soldiers who attempt to flee are generally shot at in a time of war. See also Unrestricted submarine warfare Merchant raiders Commerce raiding Tonnage war Notes References Massie, Robert K.: Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea. 2003, Random House, New York. O'Neill, Gerry: Favourable Winds 2nd edition October 2005 German Federal Archives Berlin, RM 5 / 2670 Vol. 1 (Az IV.1-2 V 1a2 Bd 1) | Baralong_incidents |@lemmatized baralong:27 incident:11 naval:1 engagement:1 first:1 world:3 war:7 august:3 involve:1 q:1 ship:7 hms:1 wyandra:2 sail:2 name:4 german:20 u:28 boat:5 british:9 merchant:3 vessel:1 nicosian:15 sank:1 prepare:2 sink:10 nearby:1 dozen:1 crewman:2 manage:4 escape:2 sinking:9 submarine:7 lieutenant:2 godfrey:1 herbert:9 commanding:1 officer:4 order:13 surviving:1 shoot:8 try:4 board:11 send:2 party:3 aboard:5 prevent:1 attempt:3 survivor:5 include:1 number:3 climb:1 kill:6 mile:2 south:1 queenstown:1 ireland:1 command:3 kapitänleutnant:1 bernard:1 wegener:4 stop:2 steamer:3 accordance:1 rule:1 lay:1 london:1 treaty:1 six:3 discover:2 carry:1 munition:1 american:8 mule:1 intend:2 use:2 army:1 france:1 freighter:7 crew:13 passenger:1 lifeboat:6 soon:1 pull:1 away:2 lie:1 nicosians:6 port:2 quarter:1 fire:7 appear:1 scene:3 star:2 stripe:1 half:1 run:3 signal:2 flag:4 effect:1 go:1 rescue:1 acknowledge:1 men:3 firing:1 take:7 along:2 side:2 intercept:1 disappear:1 behind:2 steamship:2 steer:1 parallel:1 course:1 starboard:1 messimer:2 pp:2 come:3 round:2 bow:1 haul:1 hoist:1 royal:4 navy:3 white:2 ensign:1 unmask:1 gun:3 view:2 open:3 three:1 pounder:1 range:1 roll:1 minute:1 neill:2 twelve:3 survive:1 two:1 deck:1 con:1 tower:1 swim:3 clamber:1 hanging:1 fall:3 pilot:1 ladder:1 worry:1 would:3 scuttle:4 set:1 small:1 arm:1 except:1 describe:2 account:3 marine:4 lead:1 sergeant:1 collins:1 hunt:1 engine:3 room:3 sight:2 action:2 may:3 spur:1 motif:1 revenge:1 early:1 day:1 liner:1 loss:1 life:1 receive:3 distress:1 call:2 regard:2 atrocity:1 par:1 lusitania:1 alternative:1 staff:1 version:1 apparently:1 muleteer:1 however:1 doubt:1 cast:1 fact:5 earlier:1 preparatory:1 gunfire:2 aftermath:1 report:4 admiralty:2 state:3 fear:1 could:2 count:1 negligence:1 part:1 allow:1 happen:2 moment:1 begin:1 attack:5 know:2 escaping:2 sailor:6 upon:1 immediately:1 suppression:1 though:1 destroy:1 available:2 strict:1 censorship:1 event:5 fail:1 witness:4 return:2 end:1 spoke:1 newspaper:1 reporter:1 halpern:1 memorandum:3 government:1 deliver:1 via:1 ambassador:2 berlin:2 december:1 cite:1 citizen:1 make:2 sworn:1 deposition:1 public:1 notary:1 statement:2 say:1 five:1 rest:1 cling:1 rope:1 far:1 search:1 give:1 prisoner:2 four:1 find:1 propeller:1 shaft:1 tunnel:1 accord:1 commander:2 towards:1 demand:1 captain:2 murder:2 unarmed:1 seaman:1 threaten:1 serious:1 decision:1 retribution:1 unpunished:1 crime:1 sir:1 edward:1 grey:2 reply:1 group:1 together:1 arabic:1 stranded:1 neutral:2 dutch:1 coast:1 ruel:1 suggest:1 place:2 tribunal:1 composed:1 reaction:1 debate:3 reichstag:1 january:1 cowardly:1 note:2 full:1 insolence:1 arrogance:1 announce:1 reprisal:1 decide:1 form:2 outrage:1 arouse:1 germany:3 kaiserliche:1 justify:1 increased:1 cruelty:1 sea:2 especially:1 ii:1 nazi:1 medal:2 issue:2 commemorate:2 national:1 maritime:1 museum:1 also:3 put:1 black:1 list:1 mean:1 member:1 capture:1 precaution:1 conceal:1 subsequent:1 hm:1 transfer:1 mediterranean:1 sister:1 manica:1 delete:1 lloyd:1 register:1 rename:1 nevisian:1 new:2 discharge:1 book:1 voyage:1 omit:1 later:5 award:2 prize:2 bounty:2 kriegsmarine:1 flotilla:1 june:1 memory:1 september:1 time:2 wilmot:1 smith:1 process:1 urbino:1 arrive:1 fly:2 surface:1 near:1 latter:1 continue:1 follow:1 apart:1 present:1 oberleutnant:1 zur:1 see:2 iwan:1 crompton:2 camp:1 leap:1 clear:1 shortly:1 deny:1 publish:1 exploit:1 der:1 zweite:1 second:1 case:1 modern:1 controversial:1 many:1 historian:1 agree:2 violation:3 protocol:1 historians:1 analysis:1 aspect:1 record:2 either:1 harsh:1 lenient:1 widely:1 certain:1 detail:1 fabricate:1 less:1 notable:1 extensive:1 disputed:1 mostly:1 center:1 actually:1 sub:1 dispute:1 alter:1 justification:1 ground:1 protect:1 cargo:1 extent:1 effort:1 surrender:1 soldier:1 flee:1 generally:1 unrestricted:1 warfare:1 raider:1 commerce:1 raid:1 tonnage:1 reference:1 massie:1 robert:1 k:1 castle:1 steel:1 britain:1 winning:1 great:1 random:1 house:1 york:1 gerry:1 favourable:1 wind:1 edition:1 october:1 federal:1 archive:1 rm:1 vol:1 az:1 iv:1 v:1 bd:1 |@bigram commanding_officer:1 board_nicosian:6 starboard_side:1 flag_hoist:1 pounder_gun:1 kaiserliche_marine:1 unrestricted_submarine:1 submarine_warfare:1 massie_robert:1 |
1,319 | Diego_Garcia | Diego Garcia is an island considered the largest atoll, in terms of land area, of the Chagos Archipelago, and is part of the British Indian Ocean Territories. The island is located in the Indian Ocean, about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) south of the southern coast of India. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EF0639AC568EB36&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM Other countries in the vicinity of Diego Garcia include Sri Lanka and Maldives. In the 1960s, the Chagos archipelago was secretly leased to the United Kingdom and detached from Mauritius with the intention of expelling its entire population and establish a military base. In 1971 the United Kingdom and United States entered an agreement under which the latter would set up a military base in Diego Garcia. Since then, United Kingdom enforced the highly controversial depopulation of Diego Garcia, forcing the deportation of the island's entire 2,000 Chagossian Indigenous population—mostly of African and Hindu heritage—to the surrounding islands including Mauritius, located 1,200 miles away. Instead a joint British-American military base of 3,500 was set up. This island has one of the five monitoring stations assisting the operation of the Global Positioning System, the others being on Ascension Island, Hawaii, Kwajalein and Colorado Springs. It is covered in luxuriant tropical vegetation, with little sign of the copra and coconut plantations that once covered it. It is long, with a maximum elevation of , and nearly encloses a lagoon about long and up to wide. Depths in the lagoon extend to , and numerous coral heads form hazards to navigation. Shallow reefs surround the island on the ocean side. The channel and anchorage area are dredged, while the old turning basin can also be used. Geography Location map of Diego Garcia. The atoll forms a nearly complete rim of land around a lagoon, enclosing 90 percent of its perimeter, with an opening only in the north. The main island is the largest of about sixty islands which form the Chagos Archipelago. Besides the main island, there are three small islets at the mouth of the lagoon in the north: West Island (3.4 ha/8.4 acres) Middle Island (6 ha/14.8 acres) East Island (11.75 ha/29 acres) The total area of the atoll is 174 km2 (66 mi2) according to , of which 30 km2 (12 mi2) are land, 17 km2 (6.5 mi2) peripheral reef and 124 km2 (48 mi2) are lagoon. Climate Eclipse Point Annual rainfall averages 260 cm (102 in), with the heaviest precipitation from October to February. August, the driest month, averages 100 mm (4.2 in). Temperatures are generally close to 30°C (86 °F) by day, falling to the low 20s °C (70 °F) by night. Humidity is high throughout the year. The almost constant breezes keep conditions reasonably comfortable. Diego Garcia is at risk from tropical cyclones. The surrounding topography is low and does not provide an extensive wind break. Since the 1960s the island has not been seriously affected by a severe tropical cyclone, even though it has often been threatened. The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone in the period 1970-2000 was approximately 40 knots (75 km/h). Sunset at Cannon Point The island was somewhat affected by the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Service personnel on the western arm of the atoll island reported only a minor increase in wave activity. The island was protected to a large degree by its favourable ocean topography. About 80 km (50 mi) east of the atoll lies the 650 km (400-mile) long Chagos Trench, an underwater canyon plunging more than 4,900 m (16,000 ft). The depth of the trench and its grade to the atoll's slope and shelf shore makes it more difficult for substantial tsunami waves to build before passing the atoll from the east. In addition, near shore coral reefs and an algal platform may have dissipated much of the waves' impact. "Diego Garcia Navy base reports no damage from quake, tsunamis". Leo Shane III, Stars and Stripes. 28 December 2004. URL accessed 1 June 2006. A biological survey conducted in early 2005 indicated erosional effects of the tsunami wave on Diego Garcia and other islands of the Chagos Archipelago. One 200 to 300 m stretch of atoll shoreline was found to have been breached by the tsunami wave, representing approximately 10 percent of the eastern arm. A biological survey by the Chagos Conservation Trust reported that the resulting inundation additionally washed away shoreline shrubs and small to medium size coconut palms. On November 30, 1983 a magnitude 7 earthquake 55 km (34 mi) northwest of the island caused a small tsunami resulting in a 1.5 m (5 ft) rise in wave height in the lagoon, causing some damage to buildings, piers and the runway. Immediately following the earthquake, many of the military and civilian residents of the island gathered at the Naval Support Facility swimming pool. The hill built to enclose the swimming pool, at 22 feet above sea level, is the highest point on the island. History Coconut Plantation, East Point(former main settlement) Portuguese explorers invaded Diego Garcia at some time in the sixteenth century. It has been suggested that the island was first taken over by the Portuguese navigator Pêro de Mascarenhas during his voyage of 1512-13, but there is little corroborative evidence for this, while cartographic analysis points to a subsequent date, possibly 1532 or later. In addition there is considerable uncertainty regarding the origin of the name of Diego Garcia, particularly as no navigator of this name can be traced in contemporary records for this part of the world. He might be the same Diego Garcia as sailed to the Río de la Plata in 1526, and possibly with Hernando de Soto's voyage, but as a Spaniard it seems unlikely that he was ever in the Indian Ocean. In fact there is good reason to believe that the Christian name, Diego, of the island's discoverer was a misnomer or misreading which came into use towards the end of the sixteenth century. Although the Cantino Planisphere (1504) and the Ruysch map (1507) clearly delineate the Maldives, giving them the same names, they show no islands to the south which can be identified as the Chagos group. The Sebastian Cabot map (Antwerp 1544) shows a number of islands well to the south, probably the Mascarene group. The first map which clearly identifies and names 'Los Chagos', in more or less the right position, is that of Pierre Descelier (Dieppe 1550), although Diego Garcia is not named. An island called 'Don Garcia' appears on the Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis of Abraham Ortelius (Antwerp 1564), together with 'Dos Compagnos', slightly to the north. There is a possibility that 'Don Garcia' was named after Garcia de Noronha, although there is no evidence for this supposition. The island is also shown as 'Don Garcia' on Mercator's Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Description (Duisburg 1569). However, on the Vera Totius Expeditionis Nauticae Description of Jodocus Hondius (London 1589), 'Don Garcia' mysteriously changes its name to 'I. de Dio Gratia', while the 'I. de Chagues' appears close by. In fact the first map to delineate the island under its present name, Diego Garcia, is the World Map of Edward Wright (London 1599), possibly as a result of misreading Dio (or simply 'D.') as Diego, and Gratia as Garcia. The Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica of Henricus Hondius (Antwerp 1630) repeats Wright's misreading of the name, which is then proliferated on all subsequent Dutch maps of the period, and so on to the present day. The islands was temporary inhabited by the Chagossian Indigenous people, until the 18th century when the French established copra plantations using slave labour. Diego Garcia became a colony of the United Kingdom after the Napoleonic wars, and from 1814 to 1965 it was a dependency of Mauritius. In 1914, the island was visited by the German cruiser SMS Emden. Barochois Maurice, Diego Garcia. In 1965, the Chagos Islands, which include Diego Garcia, were detached from Mauritius to form part of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). In 1966 the crown bought the islands and plantations, which had been under private ownership and which had not been profitable with the introduction of new oils and lubricants. In 1971, the plantations were closed because of the agreement between the United Kingdom and the United States to make Diego Garcia available to the U.S. as a military base. No payment was made as part of this arrangement, although it has been claimed that the United Kingdom received a US$14 million discount on the acquisition of Polaris missiles from the United States. The agreement forbids any other economic activity on the island. Until 1971 Diego Garcia had a native population of 2,000 Chagossians or Ilois, descendants of Indian workers and African slaves who had been brought to the island in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to work on the coconut and copra plantations. They lived in three settlements: East Point, the main settlement on the eastern rim of the atoll; Minni Minni, 4.5 km (2.75 mi) north of East Point; and Pointe Marianne, on the western rim. The islanders were forcibly depopulated to the Seychelles and then to Mauritius using controversial techniques by the UK government John Pilger: Paradise cleansed | Politics | The Guardian . Since their expulsion the Chagossians have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia. In April 2006, 102 Chagossians were allowed to visit Diego Garcia for a day, to tend to graves and visit their birthplaces. "Emotional return for Chagossians". BBC News. 14 April 2006. URL accessed 1 June 2006. "Out of Eden". John Pilger, The Guardian. 29 May 2006. URL accessed 1 June 2006 For a good general history of the Islands and what happened to the Ilois, refer to The Minority Rights Group Report No 54 - 'Diego Garcia: a contrast to the Falklands. Diego Garcia Police Station Diego Garcia is home to a military base jointly operated by the United States and the United Kingdom. It is a naval refuelling and support station and the home of Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron Two, the naval unit responsible for the readiness of the ships in Military Sealift Command Prepositioning Program in the Indian Ocean, a vital strategic asset to the United States. "Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron Two", URL Accessed 1 February 2007 It has an air base that primarily supported land-based U.S. Navy P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft during the Cold War. Since 11 September 2001, in addition to P-3 aircraft, it has also supported some of the largest military aircraft. U.S. Air Force B-52s, B-1Bs and B-2s, as well as various aerial refueling tanker aircraft have been deployed to Diego Garcia to execute missions. During the 1991 Gulf War, Diego Garcia was home to the 4300th Bomb Wing (Provisional), made up of B-52G bombers from the former Loring AFB, Maine and other B-52G bases. It was also used in support of military missions in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom, and to Iraq again during the 2003 invasion. High-tech portable shelters to support the B-2 bomber were built on the island before the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The B-52s, B-1s and B-2s deployed to Diego Garcia in anticipation of the second Iraq War carried out the initial aerial bombardment on Baghdad on March 22, 2003. Some of these bombers dropped GPS guided bombs and laser guided 1,905 kg (4,200 lb.) bunker busters in "decapitation strikes" intended to kill Saddam Hussein and other Baath Party officials. Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, secrecy and the end of the republic (London: Verso, 2004) 221-2. Although they now primarily deploy to Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar, Diego Garcia still remains a regular deployment site for U.S. Navy P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft. GEODSS at Diego Garcia The base is part of the U.S. Space Surveillance Network, United State Strategic Command: "Re-entry Assessment and Space Surveillance". U.S. Strategic Command. March 2004. URL accessed 1 June 2006 with a three-telescope GEODSS station, and is a NASA Space Shuttle emergency landing site. "Space Shuttle Emergency Landing Sites". GlobalSecurity.org. URL accessed 1 June 2006. Neither the U.S. nor the UK recognises Diego Garcia as being subject to the African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty, though the rest of the Chagos Archipelago is included, suggesting they wish to maintain the freedom to base nuclear weapons there. The agreement between the UK and U.S. for the U.S. to use the island as a military base was made in 1966. It runs until 2036, but either government can opt out of the agreement in 2016. Construction and maintenance of the base's communications equipment, fuel facilities and military hardware are done strictly by military contractors, and inventories of that weaponry are classified. No service-member family dependents are allowed. In 2001, the U.S. Department of Defense said that there were more buildings on Diego Garcia (654) than military personnel. Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, secrecy and the end of the republic (London: Verso, 2004) 221. Politics Detailed map of Diego Garcia. In 2000 the British High Court upheld the claims of the islanders that the Ordinance which had been enacted to ensure their removal (although it was never in fact invoked for that purpose) was unlawful. Robin Cook, the British Foreign Secretary at the time, did not appeal. In 2002, the UK Parliament enacted legislation which gave all Chagossians the right to obtain British citizenship, granted the islanders the right to return to the Archipelago and granted them UK citizenship. In 2002, the islanders and their descendants, now numbering 4,500, returned to court requesting compensation, after two years of delays by the British Foreign Office. The Chagossians began proceedings to seek additional compensation payments from the British Government (they had been granted £650,000 compensation on removal in the 1970s, and a further £4 million in the early 1980s). The High Court and Court of Appeal upheld the Government's position that the compensation already paid was fair and lawful, and struck down the Chagossians claims for additional payments. Subsequently, on June 10, 2004, the British government enacted two Orders-in-Council re-establishing immigration controls on the islands and effectively banning the islanders from returning home, reversing the 2000 court decision. Some of the Chagossians are making return plans to turn Diego Garcia into a sugarcane and fishing enterprise as soon as the defence agreement expires, and there have been discussions about the development of a commercial tourism industry on the islands, which may raise environmental concerns. A few dozen other Chagossians are still fighting to be housed in the UK, although they have the same rights as all British citizens. "Exiles protest in Downing Street". BBC News. 3 November 2004. URL accessed 1 June 2006 On May 11, 2006, the High Court ruled that the 2004 Orders-in-Council were unlawful, and that the Chagossians were entitled to return to the Chagos Archipelago.The judges, Lord Justice Hooper and Mr Justice Cresswell concluded: "The suggestion that a minister can, through the means of an order in council, exile a whole population from a British Overseas Territory and claim that he is doing so for the 'peace, order and good government' of the territory is to us repugnant." Olivier Bancoult, the representative of the Chagossians, called on Prime Minister Tony Blair to honour the decision of the court and allow his people to go home. "We have always believed that a human being has the right to live in the place of his birth. Everywhere, the British government paints itself as the champion of human rights - so what about the human rights of the Chagossian people?" This judgment was upheld by the Court of Appeal on May 23, 2007. The British Government then appealed to the House of Lords, which on 22 October 2008 overturned the earlier decision and ruled that the evicted islanders could not return to the archipelago. "Chagos islanders lose battle to return", The Guardian, 22 October 2008 The Chagossians may now take their legal battle to the European Court of Human Rights. "House of Lords says Chagos exiles cannot return", Radio Netherlands, 22 October 2008 Prison site allegation Human rights groups claim that the military base is used by the U.S. government for the controversial extraordinary rendition of prisoners. This claim was supported by the Council of Europe in June 2007. The British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw stated in Parliament that U.S. authorities have repeatedly assured him that no detainees have passed in transit through Diego Garcia or have disembarked there. In October 2007 the all-party Foreign Affairs Committee of the British Parliament announced that it would launch an investigation of the claims, which it is reported were twice confirmed by General Barry McCaffrey. On October 19, 2007 The Guardian reported: "The all-party foreign affairs committee is to examine long-standing suspicions that the agency has operated one of its so-called 'black site' prisons on Diego Garcia..." The Guardian quoted British Member of Parliament Andrew Tyrie, "Time and time again the UK government has relied on US assurances on this issue, refusing to examine the truth of these allegations for themselves. It is high time our government took its head out of the sand and looked into these allegations." On July 31, 2008 Time Magazine reported that a former White House official stated that the U.S. had imprisoned and interrogated at least one suspect on Diego Garcia during 2002 and possibly 2003. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1828469,00.html Rendition admission by F.O. On February 21, 2008, British Foreign Secretary David Miliband admitted that two US extraordinary rendition flights refuelled on Diego Garcia in 2002. Further, it has been implied that these actions constituted a direct breach of the treaty between the US and the UK concerning Diego Garcia. Further allegations from U.N. Official Manfred Novak, the United Nations' special rapporteur on torture, says that credible evidence exists supporting allegations about the use of Diego Garcia as a prison black site for alleged terrorists. Clara Gutteridge, an investigator with human rights group Reprieve, states that US-operated ships moored outside the territorial waters of Diego Garcia were used to incarcerate and torture detainees. Arrests On 12 March 2008, The Guardian reported that two British protesters had been arrested for "entering the waters [of Diego Garcia] illegally". Strategic importance During the Cold War era, the United States was keen on establishing a military base in the Indian Ocean. Because of Diego Garcia's proximity to India, the United States saw the island as a strategically important one. U.S. military activities in Diego Garcia have caused friction between India and U.S. in the past. Various political parties in India repeatedly demanded that the U.S. dismantle the military base as they saw U.S. naval presence in Diego Garcia as a potential threat to India's dominance of the Indian Ocean. B-1B Lancer Bombers on Diego Garcia. After the end of the Cold War, relations between India and U.S. improved dramatically. Diego Garcia was the site of several naval exercises between the U.S. and Indian Navy held between 2001 and 2004. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-25566204_ITM Diego Garcia is also located relatively close to the Middle East, and experienced rapid military build-ups during the beginnings of the Iranian revolution and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Diego Garcia has several current missions. U.S. Air Force bombers and air refueling planes operate from the 3,650 m (12,000 ft) runway, and the USAF Space Command has built a satellite tracking station and communications facility. The atoll shelters the 14 ships of Marine Prepositioning Squadron Two. These ships carry the equipment and supplies to support a major armed force with tanks, armored personnel carriers, munitions, fuel, spare parts and even a mobile field hospital. This equipment showed its necessity during the Persian Gulf War, when the Squadron quickly delivered its equipment to Saudi Arabia. There, soldiers flown on air transports from U.S. and European bases quickly unloaded and deployed the pre-positioned material. Aircraft Parking Area, Diego Garcia. Pre-positioned vessels There are five cargo vessels that each carry Marine Corps supplies sufficient to support a Marine Air-Ground Task Force for 30 days. MV Anderson MV Baugh MV Bonnyman MV Hauge MV Phillips The four combat force ships provide rapid-response delivery of U.S. Army equipment to ground troops. Three are Lighter aboard ships (LASH) which carry barges called Lighters that contain Army ammunition to be ferried ashore. MV American Cormorant SS Green Harbour, (LASH) SS Green Valley, (LASH) MV Jeb Stuart, (LASH) Five logistics vessels service the rapid delivery requirements of the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy and Defense Logistics Agency. There are two Air Force container ships for munitions, missiles and spare parts; a 500-bed hospital ship, and two floating storage and offloading units assigned to Military Sealift Command supporting the Defense Logistics Agency, including an offshore petroleum discharge system (OPDS) tanker ship. MV Buffalo Soldier, container MV Fisher container MV Green Ridge, hospital USNS Henry J. Kaiser, tanker SS Potomac, OPDS tanker GPS Diego Garcia is one of the five control bases for the Global Positioning System, operated by the US military. The US Air Force also has monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, and Colorado Springs, Colorado. The stations synchronise and update the atomic clocks on the 24 orbiting satellites that emit the signals used by GPS receivers. ETOPS Emergency Landing Site Diego Garcia may be identified as an ETOPS (Extended Range Twin Engine Operations) emergency landing site (en route alternate) for flight planning purposes of commercial airliners. This allows twin engine commercial aircraft (such as the Airbus A330, Boeing 767 or Boeing 777) to make theoretical nonstop flights between city pairs such as Perth and Dubai (5,602 miles), Hong Kong and Johannesburg (6,624 miles) or Singapore and Sao Paolo (9,935 miles), all while maintaining a suitable diversion airport within 180 minutes flying time with one engine inoperable. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/faqs/etopseropsenroutealt.pdf Space Shuttle The island is one of 33 emergency landing sites worldwide for the NASA Space Shuttle. None of these facilities have been used for a Shuttle landing. Cargo service MV Baffin Strait transits between Singapore and Diego Garcia once a month. Since 2004 the MV Baffin Strait, often referred to as the "DGAR shuttle," has been chartered to deliver 250 containers each month from Singapore to Diego Garcia. Change at the helm for MSC's Diego Garcia office The ship carries everything from fresh food to building supplies to aircraft parts, delivering more than 200,000 tons of cargo to the island each year." On the return trip to Singapore she carries recyclable metals. In 2004 TransAtlantic Lines outbid Sealift Incorporated for the transport contract between Singapore and Diego Garcia. The route had previously been serviced by Sealift Inc.'s MV Sagamore, manned by members of American Maritime Officers and Seafarers' International Union. TransAtlantic Lines reportedly won the contract by approximately 10 percent, representing a price difference of about US$2.7 million. The Baffin Strait'''s current charter runs from January 10, 2005 to September 30, 2008 at a daily rate of US$12,550. Wildlife Red Crab, Diego Garcia. The island is a haven for several types of crab; hermit crabs overrun the jungle at night. The extremely large 4 kg coconut crab, or "robber crab" is found here. There is a large number of red crabs everywhere in the island though it is not known to which species they belong. They can be seen everywhere (tents, showers, laundry rooms, runway, etc.) The island hosts birds from many different regions, including Indian Barred Ground Dove (Geopelia striata), Turtle Dove (Streptopelia picturata), Indian Mynah (Acridotheres tristis), Madagascar Fody (Foudia madagascariensis), and imported chickens (Gallus gallus). All the flora and fauna are protected, and it is even unlawful to be in possession of a dead coconut crab. Hefty fines are levied against violators. Diego Garcia was designated a Ramsar Site on July 4, 2001 (354 km2). See also Depopulation of Diego Garcia RAF Gan James Horsburgh Robert Moresby Stealing a Nation References External links Let Them Return - The Chagos People's Homeland Campaign The UK Chagos Support Association: The story so far Chagos Islands Indigenous Population Internet Site Diego Garcia Online: Information for locals of Diego Garcia. Official site of the United States Navy Support Facility, Diego Garcia. Official site of the UK PJHQ Overseas Bases, Diego Garcia. Diego Garcia timeline posted at the History Commons Diego Garcia "Camp Justice", GlobalSecurity.org US/UK BIOT defence agreements, 1966-1982, U.S. Court filing Where in the World Is Diego Garcia?, Infoplease.com Diego Garcia: Paradise Cleansed, by John Pilger The Jewel in the Pentagon's Crown, by Gisle Tangenes, BitsofNews.com Atoll Research Bulletin 149: Geography and Ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll Stealing a Nation - A Special Report by John Pilger on Google Video; on YouTube.com A Return from Exile in Sight? The Chagossians and their Struggle, from the Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights Alex Doherty 'Diego Garcia', in ZNet Curtis, Mark Web of Deceit: Britain's Real Role in the World. London:Vintage, 2003. BBC News Exiles lose appeal over benefits 02/11/07 The Island is a jazz opera commissioned and broadcast in the 60's on radio themed on events in Garcia Diego written by William Russo, words Adrian Mitchell performed by the Russo Orchestra sung by Cleo Lane and Denis Quilley http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080707.NUKE07/TPStory/National A Black and Disgraceful Site by Jonathan Freedland from The New York Review of Books'' be-x-old:Дыега Гарсія | Diego_Garcia |@lemmatized diego:70 garcia:74 island:48 consider:1 large:6 atoll:12 term:1 land:9 area:4 chagos:16 archipelago:8 part:8 british:18 indian:12 ocean:10 territory:4 locate:3 km:6 mi:4 south:3 southern:1 coast:1 india:6 http:5 nl:2 newsbank:1 com:8 search:2 archive:1 kc:2 googlepm:1 country:1 vicinity:1 include:6 sri:1 lanka:1 maldives:2 secretly:1 lease:1 united:17 kingdom:7 detach:2 mauritius:5 intention:1 expel:1 entire:2 population:5 establish:4 military:20 base:20 state:12 enter:2 agreement:7 latter:1 would:2 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1,320 | Hill_system | The Hill system is a system of writing chemical formulas such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. By sorting formulas according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier elements or numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later element or number — like sorting text strings into lexicographical order — it is possible to collate chemical formulas into what is known as Hill system order. The Hill system was first published by Edwin A. Hill of the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1900. Example The following formulas are written using the Hill system, and listed in Hill order: BrH BrI CH3I C2H5Br HI References | Hill_system |@lemmatized hill:6 system:5 write:2 chemical:3 formula:6 number:6 carbon:2 atom:3 molecule:1 indicate:1 first:2 hydrogen:2 next:1 element:5 subsequently:1 alphabetical:1 order:4 contain:1 include:1 list:2 alphabetically:1 sort:2 accord:2 present:1 rule:1 difference:2 early:1 treat:1 significant:1 late:1 like:1 text:1 string:1 lexicographical:1 possible:1 collate:1 know:1 publish:1 edwin:1 united:1 state:1 patent:1 trademark:1 office:1 example:1 following:1 use:1 brh:1 bri:1 hi:1 reference:1 |@bigram carbon_atom:1 hydrogen_atom:1 alphabetical_order:1 patent_trademark:1 |
1,321 | Aurangzeb | Aurangzeb ( (full title: Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I, Padshah Ghazi) (November 4, 1618 March 3, 1707), also known by his chosen imperial title Alamgir I (Conqueror of the Universe) (), was the 6th Mughal Emperor whose reign lasted from 1658 until his death in 1707. Aurangzeb's reign as the Mughal monarch was marked by years of wars of expansion The World Book Encyclopedia Volume:A1 (1989) pg 894-895 and a series of rebellions by his non-Muslim subjects. Mughal Rule in India - By Stephen Meredyth Edwardes, Herbert Leonard Offley Garrett Aurangzeb ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for 48 years, bringing a larger area, especially those in southern India, under Mughal rule than ever before. Gascoine, Bamber (1971). The Great Mughals. New York:Harper&Row. pp. 233 A devout Muslim, Aurangzeb tried to encourage all his people to follow the doctrines of Islam. He destroyed many works of art because he feared that they might be worshiped as idols. The World Book Encyclopedia Volume:A1 (1989) pg 894-895 After his death, the Mughal Empire shrunk. Aurangzeb's successors, the "Later Mughals", lacked his strong hand and the great fortunes amassed by his predecessors. Rise to throne Early life Aurangzeb was the third son of the fifth emperor Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bānū Begum). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a virtual hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court. After Jahangir's death in 1627, Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents. Shah Jahan followed the Mughal practice of assigning authority to his sons, and in 1634 made Aurangzeb Subahdar (governor) of the Deccan. He moved to Kirki, which in time he renamed Aurangabad. In 1637, he married Rabia Durrani. During this period the Deccan was relatively peaceful. In the Mughal court, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater and greater favoritism to his eldest son Dara Shikoh. In 1644, Aurangzeb's sister Jahanara Begum was accidentally burned in Agra. This event precipitated a family crisis which had political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure when he returned to Agra three weeks after the event, instead of immediately. Shah Jahan dismissed him as the governor of the Deccan. Aurangzeb later claimed (1654) that he had resigned in protest of his father favoring Dara. In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. But later, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat; he performed well and was rewarded. In 1647, Shah Jahan made him governor of Balkh and Badakhshan (in modern Afghanistan and Tajikistan), replacing Aurangzeb's ineffective brother Murad Baksh. These areas at the time were under attack from various forces and Aurangzeb's military skill proved successful. He was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh, and began a protracted military struggle against the Safavid army in an effort to capture the city of Kandahar. He failed, and fell again into his father's disfavour. In 1652, Aurangzeb was re-appointed governor of the Deccan. In an effort to extend the empire, Aurangzeb attacked the border kingdoms of Golconda (1657), and Bijapur (1658). Both times, Shah Jahan called off the attacks near the moment of Aurangzeb's triumph. In each case Dara Shikoh interceded and arranged a peaceful end to the attacks. War of succession Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, and was widely reported to have died. With this news, the struggle for the succession began. Aurangzeb's eldest brother, Dara Shikoh, was regarded as heir apparent, but the succession proved far from certain when Shah Jahan's second son Shah Shuja declared himself emperor in Bengal. Imperial armies sent by Dara and Shah Jahan soon restrained this effort, and Shuja retreated. Soon after, Shuja's youngest brother Murad Baksh, with secret promises of support from Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in Gujarat. Aurangzeb, ostensibly in support of Murad, marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from nobles and generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara had illegally usurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara would succeed him, handed over control of his empire to Dara. A Rajput lord opposed to Aurangzeb and Murad, Maharaja Jaswant Singh, battled them both at Dharmatpur near Ujjain. Aurangzeb eventually defeated Singh and concentrated his forces on Dara. A series of bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzeb battering Dara's armies at Samugarh. In a few months, Aurangzeb's forces surrounded Agra. Fearing for his life, Dara departed for Delhi, leaving Shah Jahan behind. The old emperor surrendered the Agra Fort to Aurangzeb's nobles, but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his father, and declared that Dara was no longer a Muslim. In a sudden reversal, Murad went into exile in Arakan (in present-day Myanmar) where he disappeared, and was presumed to be dead. Murad's former supporters, instead of fighting for Murad, defected to Aurangzeb. Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Diler Khan, submitted to Aurangzeb, but allowed Dara's son Suleman to escape. Aurangzeb offered Shuja the governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shuja, however, uncertain of Aurangzeb's sincerity, continued to battle his brother, but his forces suffered a series of defeats at Aurangzeb's hands. With Shuja and Murad disposed off, and with his father Shah Jahan confined in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1659, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. He had Dara openly marched in chains back to Delhi; when Dara finally arrived, Aurangzeb had Dara executed. Legends about the cruelty of this execution abound, including stories that Aurangzeb had Dara's severed head sent to the dying Shah Jahan. With his succession secured, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan under house arrest at the Agra Fort. Aurangzeb's reign Enforcement of Islamic law The Mughals had for the most part been tolerant of non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their customs and religion without too much interference. Aurangzeb abandoned many of the more liberal viewpoints of his predecessors. He espoused a more conservative interpretation of Islam and a behavior based on the Sharia (Islamic law), which he set about codifying through edicts and policies. Aurangzeb took personal interest in the compilation of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a digest of Muslim law, and attempted to create civil law in accordance with its principles. http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/muslim_family_law_pakistan.html "Hanafi law was sought to be codified under Aurangzeb but the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, seems too inclined to favour the Mughal elite to be useful for today's egalitarian society." Mughal court life changed dramatically. Around 1668, Auragnzeb commanded court musicians, dancers and singers to cease performing in his presence. Further, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the miniature painting that had reached its zenith before his rule http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/03/01/011/minart1.htm "The art of miniature painting reached its zenith during the time of Emperor Jehangir." . There is however a miniature portrait of the aged Aurangzeb with Qur'an in hand. Soldiers and citizens were given free rein to deface architectural images such as faces — even on the walls of Mughal palaces. Untold thousands of representational images were destroyed in this way. Aurangzeb abandoned the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the practice of Darshan, or public appearances to bestow blessings, which had been commonplace since the time of Akbar, as well as lavish celebrations of the Emperor's birthday. http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:Ijc-AMwEKygJ:www.archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/4966/doc/DPC0807.pdf+Mughal+OR+mogul+OR+moghul+emperor%27s+celebrations&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=10&gl=us&client=firefox-a Most significantly, Aurangzeb initiated laws which interfered with non-Muslim worship. These included the destruction of Hindu temples. Estimates of the number of temples so destroyed vary wildly, however. . However, a stone inscription in the historic Balaji or Vishnu Temple, located north of Chitrakut Balaghat, still shows that it was commissioned by the Emperor himself. The proof of Aurangzeb's land grant for famous Hindu religious sites in Kasi, Varanasi can easily be verified from the deed records extant at those sites. The same textbook reads: "During the fifty year reign of Aurangzeb, not a single Hindu was forced to embrace Islam. He did not interfere with any Hindu religious activities. Alexander Hamilton, a British historian, toured India towards the end of Aurangzeb's fifty year reign and observed that every one was free to serve and worship God in his own way. XVII. Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals from Muslim Civilization in India by S. M. Ikram edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. This page maintained by Prof. Frances Pritchett, Columbia University Aurangzeb encouraged the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. In economic and political terms, Aurangzeb's rule significantly favoured Muslims over non-Muslims. In many disputed successions for hereditary local office Aurangzeb chose candidates who had converted to Islam over their rivals. Pargana headmen and quangos or record-keepers were targeted especially for pressure to convert. The message was very clear for all concerned. Shared political community must also be shared religious belief." Richards 1995:177 .Aurangzeb's ultimate aim was conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honor, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor's favour. . He has been castigated as a religious Muslim who was anti-Hindu and ant-sikh , who taxed them, who tried to convert them, who discriminated against them in awarding high administrative positions, and who interfered in their religious matters. Aurangazeb is one of the most despotic rulers of India. He engaged significant conversions of Hindus to islam and killed those who resisted. However in recent years quite a few Hindu historians have come out in the open disputing those allegations. For example, historian Babu Nagendranath Banerjee rejected the accusation of forced conversion of Hindus by Muslim rulers by stating that if that was their intention then in India today there would not be nearly four times as many Hindus compared to Muslims, despite the fact that Muslims had ruled for nearly a thousand years. Banerjee challenged the Hindu hypothesis that Aurangzeb was anti-Hindu by reasoning that if the latter were truly guilty of such bigotry, how could he appoint a Hindu as his military commander-in-chief? Banerjee further stated: "No one should accuse Aurangzeb of being communal minded. In his administration, the state policy was formulated by Hindus. Two Hindus held the highest position in the State Treasury. Some prejudiced Muslims even questioned the merit of his decision to appoint non-Muslims to such high offices. The Emperor refuted that by stating that he had been following the dictates of the Shariah (Islamic Law) which demands appointing right persons in right positions." During Aurangzeb's long reign of fifty years, many Hindus, notably Jaswant Singh, Raja Rajrup, Kabir Singh, Arghanath Singh, Prem Dev Singh, Dilip Roy, and Rasik Lal Crory, held very high administrative positions. Two of the highest ranked generals in Aurangzeb's administration, Jaswant Singh and Jaya Singh, were Hindus. Other notable Hindu generals who commanded a garrison of two to five thousand soldiers were Raja Vim Singh of Udaypur, Indra Singh, Achalaji and Arjuji. Most Hindus like Akbar over Aurangzeb for his multi-ethnic court where Hindus were favored. Historian Shri Sharma states that while Emperor Akbar had fourteen Hindu Mansabdars (high officials) in his court, Aurangzeb actually had 148 Hindu high officials in his court. (Ref: Mughal Government) But this fact is somewhat less known. " U N Day; The Mughal Government Ad 1556-1707; 1994 Expansion of the empire From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire. Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west — into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted to recover those portions of the Deccan territories where the Maratha leader Shivaji was sparking rebellions. This combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And, as the empire expanded in size, Aurangzeb's chain of command grew weaker. The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers, and launched rebellions.The Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted for 27 years. Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive — particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they immediately revolted against his successors. With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority. Rebellions Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies, among them his own son, Prince Akbar. In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns revolted near Peshawar and were crushed. In 1669, the Jats around Mathura revolted and led to the formation of Bharatpur state after his death. In 1670, Chhatrapati Shivaji had opened the war against the Mughals. He opposed Aurangzeb with full strength and stopped him from entering the Deccan. In 1672, the Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan and some Satnami. They took over the administration of Narnaul, and defeated Mughal forces in an advance on Delhi. Soon afterwards the Afridi Pashtuns in the north-west also revolted, and Aurangzeb was forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them. When Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur died in 1679, a conflict ensued over who would be the next Raja. Aurangzeb's choice of a nephew of the former Maharaja was not accepted by other members of Jaswant Singh's family and they rebelled, but in vain. Aurangzeb seized control of Jodhpur. He also moved on Udaipur, which was the only other state of Rajputana to support the rebellion. There was never a clear resolution to this conflict, although it is noted that the other Rajputs, including the celebrated Kachhwaha Rajput clan of Raja Jai Singh, the Bhattis, and the Rathores, remained loyal. On the other hand, Aurangzeb's own third son, Prince Akbar, along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters, joined the rebels in the hope of dethroning his father and becoming emperor. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to the shelter of the Maratha Chhatrapati Sambhaji, Chhatrapati Shivaji's successor. The Sikh rebellion Early in Aurangzeb's reign, various insurgent groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in increasingly bloody battles. In 1670, the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur encamped in Delhi, receiving large numbers of followers, and this is said to have attracted the ire of Aurangzeb The Sikhism Home Page: Guru Tegh Bahadur . In 1675, a group of Kashmiri Brahmins, were being pressured by Muslim authorities to convert to Islam. The Pandits approached Tegh Bahadur with their dilemma. Tegh Badhur agreed to help the Brahmins. He told them to inform Aurangzeb that the Brahmins would convert only if he himself were converted. Aurangzeb then had Tegh Bahadur arrested and brought to Delhi where he was offered the choice of accepting Islam or death; he chose death. Untitled Document His three close aides were also executed. The execution of their guru infuriated the Sikhs. In response, his son and successor, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, Guru Gobind Singh further militarized his followers. Aurangzeb installed his son Bahadur Shah as governor of the northwest territories. The new governor relaxed enforcement of Aurangzeb's edicts, and an uneasy peace ensued. However, Gobind Singh had determined that the Sikhs should actively prepare to defend their territories and faith. In 1699, he established a Sikh movement, the Khalsa Panth. This development alarmed not only the Mughals, but the nearby Rajputs. In a temporary alliance, both groups attacked Gobind Singh and his followers. The united Mughal and Rajput armies laid siege to the fort at Anandpur Sahib. In an attempt to dislodge the Sikhs, Aurangzeb vowed that the Guru and his Sikhs would be allowed to leave Anandpur safely. But when the Sikhs abandoned the fort, the Mughals enagaged them in battle once again, at Chamkaur. Of his very small force—usually described as 40 men—only Gobind Singh and a few of his aides escaped. The Deccan wars and the Rise of the Marathas In the time of Shah Jahan, the Deccan had been controlled by three Muslim kingdoms: Ahmednagar (Nizamshahi), Bijapur (Adilshahi) and Golconda (Kutubshahi). Following a series of battles, Ahmendnagar was effectively divided, with large portions of the kingdom ceded to the Mughals and the balance to Bijapur. One of Ahmednagar's generals, a Hindu Maratha named Shahaji, joined the Bijapur court. Shahaji sent his wife Jijabai and young son Shivaji in Pune to look after his Jagir. Kincaid, Dennis (1937). The Grand Rebel. London:Collins Press. pp. 50,51. In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur, Shivaji, using guerrilla tactics, took control of three Adilshahi forts formerly controlled by his father. With these victories, Shivaji assumed de facto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Adilshahi and Mughals, gaining weapons, forts, and territories. Kincaid 1937:72-78 Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Adilshahi attack, and Shivaji personally killed the Adilshahi general, Afzal Khan. Kincaid 1937:121-125 With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Adilshahi and Mughal territories. Kincaid 1937:130-138 Following his coronation in 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan to the Deccan to recover his lost forts. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in Pune. In a daring raid, Shivaji attacked the governor's residence in Pune, killed Shaista Khan's son, even hacking off Shaista Khan's thumb as he fled. Once more the Marathas rallied to his leadership, taking back the territory. Kincaid 1937:145-161 Aurangzeb ignored the rise of the Marathas for the next few years. Shivaji continued to capture forts belonging to both Mughals and Bijapur. At last Aurangzeb sent his powerful general Raja Jai Singh of Amber, a Hindu Rajput, to attack the Marathas. Jai Singh's blistering attacks were so successful that he was able to persuade Shivaji to agree to peace by becoming a Mughal vassal. Kincaid 1937:189-193 Jai Singh also promised the Maratha hero his safety, placing him under the care of his own son, the future Raja Ram Singh I. However, circumstances at the Mughal court were beyond the control of the Raja, and when Shivaji and his son Sambhaji went to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, they were placed under house arrest, from which they managed to effect a daring escape. Kincaid 1937:197 Shivaji returned to the Deccan, successfully drove out the Mughal armies, and was crowned Chhatrapati or Emperor of the Maratha Empire in 1674. Kincaid 1937:283 While Aurangzeb continued to send troops against him, Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son Sambhaji. Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail. Aurangzeb's son Akbar left the Mughal court and joined with Sambhaji, inspiring some Mughal forces to join the Marathas. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia. Gascoine 1971:228-229 In 1689 Aurangzeb captured and killed Sambhaji. Lacking a powerful successor, the Maratha Sardars (commanders) fought individual battles against the Mughals, and territory changed hands again and again during years of endless warfare. As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and treasure. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory — notably conquering Satara — the Marathas expanded their attacks further into Mughal lands, including Mughal-held Malwa and Hyderabad. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution. Gascoine 1971:239-246 Aurangzeb lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in Deccan India. The Story of the World - By S. Wise Bauer, Sarah Park, James The Pashtun rebellion The Pashtun tribesmen of the Empire were considered the bedrock of the Mughal Empire Army. They were crucial defenders of the Empire from the threat of invasion from the North-West as well as the main fighting force against the Hindus. The Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet Khushal Khan Khattak "Biography: Khushal Khan Khattak" Afghan-Web was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan attempted to molest women of the Safi tribe in modern day Kunar. The Safi tribes attacked the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of the tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber pass. There the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape. After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority along the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly critical. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb himself camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebellion and while they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route, the revolt was partially suppressed. However the long term anarchy on the Empire's North-Western frontier that prevailed as a consequence ensured that the Persian Nadir Shah's forces half a century later faced little resistance on the road to Delhi. Legacy Aurangzeb's influence continues through the centuries. He was the first ruler to attempt to impose Sharia law on a non-Muslim country. His critics The truth about Aurangzeb , decry this as intolerance, while his mostly Muslim supporters applaud him, some calling him a Caliph. He engaged in nearly perpetual war, justifying the ensuing death and destruction on moral and religious grounds. He eventually succeeded in the imposition of Islamic Sharia in his realm, but alienated many constituencies, not only non-Muslims, but also Shi'ite Muslims. This led to increased militancy by the Marathas, the Sikhs, the Pashtuns, and the Rajputs, who along with other territories broke from the empire after his death; it also led to disputes among Indian Muslims. Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury as a trust of the citizens of his empire and did not use it for personal expenses or extravagant building projects. He built the Badshahi Masjid mosque (Imperial or Alamgiri Mosque) in Lahore, which was once the largest outside of Mecca. He also added a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) to the Red Fort complex in Delhi. His constant warfare, however, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful personal spending and opulence of his predecessors. Stanley Wolpert writes in his New History of India ISBN 0-19-516677-9 (Oxford, 2003) He alienated many of his children and wives, driving some into exile and imprisoning others. At the ebb of his life, he expressed his loneliness and perhaps a regret for his militant intolerant rule. His personal piety is undeniable. Unlike the often alcohol- and women-absorbed personal lives of his predecessors, he led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the entire Qur'an. He knitted Hajj caps and copied out the Qur'an throughout his life and sold these anonymously. He used only the proceeds from these to fund his modest resting place. He died in Ahmednagar on Friday, February 20 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad expresses his strict and deep interpretation of Islamic beliefs. After Aurangzeb's death, his son Bahadur Shah I took the throne. The Mughal Empire, due both to Aurangzeb's over-extension and to Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a period of long decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah occupied the throne, the Maratha Empire — which had been held at bay by Aurangzeb, albeit at a high human and monetary cost — consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, seizing power from the weak emperor. Within 100 years of Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Emperor had little power beyond Delhi and was ignored by most Indian princes. References Additional references Essays on Islam and Indian History, Richard M. Eaton. Reprint. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-19-566265-2). -- Eaton's essay "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", which attempts to comprehend Aurangzeb's motivation in destroying temples, has generated much recent debate The Peacock Throne, Waldemar Hansen (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1972). -- a very British accounting of Aurangzeb's reign, but filled with excellent references and source material A Short History of Pakistan, Dr. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi, University of Karachi Press. Delhi, Khushwant Singh, Penguin USA, Open Market Ed edition, February 5, 2000. (ISBN 0-14-012619-8) Mcleod, H. (1989) Who is a Sikh. Oxford. Claredon. Muḥammad Bakhtāvar Khān. Mir’at al-‘Alam: History of Emperor Awangzeb Alamgir. Trans. Sajida Alvi. Lahore: Idārah-ʾi Taḥqīqāt-i Pākistan, 1979. See also Mughal Empire Emperor of India External links Quran hand-written by the emperor- BBC Article on Aurganzeb from MANAS group page, UCLA Aurangzeb: Bad ruler or bad history? 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1,322 | GNU_Lesser_General_Public_License | The GNU Lesser General Public License (formerly the GNU Library General Public License) or LGPL is a free software license published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). It was designed as a compromise between the strong-copyleft GNU General Public License or GPL and permissive licenses such as the BSD licenses and the MIT License. The GNU Lesser General Public License was written in 1991 (and updated in 1999, and again in 2007) by Richard Stallman, with legal advice from Eben Moglen. The LGPL places copyleft restrictions on the program itself but does not apply these restrictions to other software that merely links with the program. There are, however, certain other restrictions on this software. The LGPL is primarily used for software libraries, although it is also used by some stand-alone applications, most notably Mozilla and OpenOffice.org. Version 3 of the LGPL is constructed by applying a GPL linking exception to version 3 of the GNU General Public License (GPL). Differences from the GPL The main difference between the GPL and the LGPL is that the latter can be linked to (in the case of a library, 'used by') a non-(L)GPLed program, and regardless of whether it is free software or proprietary software. Stallman, Richard. Why you shouldn't use the Library GPL for your next library. Free Software Foundation official website. This non-(L)GPLed program can then be distributed under any chosen terms if it is not a derivative work. If it is a derivative work, then the terms must allow "modification for the customer's own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications." Whether a work that uses an LGPL program is a derivative work or not is a legal issue. A standalone executable that dynamically links to a library is generally accepted as not being a derivative work. It would be considered a "work that uses the library" and paragraph 5 of the LGPL applies. A program that contains no derivative of any portion of the Library, but is designed to work with the Library by being compiled or linked with it, is called a "work that uses the Library". Such a work, in isolation, is not a derivative work of the Library, and therefore falls outside the scope of this License. Essentially, it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program. The most commonly used method for doing so is to use "a suitable shared library mechanism for linking". Alternatively, a statically linked library is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided. One feature of the LGPL is that one can convert any LGPLed piece of software into a GPLed piece of software (section 3 of the license). This feature is useful for direct reuse of LGPLed code in GPLed libraries and applications, or if one wants to create a version of the code that software companies cannot use in proprietary software products. Choosing to license a library under the GPL or the LGPL The former name of "GNU Library General Public License" gave some people the impression that the FSF wanted all libraries to use the LGPL and all programs to use the GPL. In February 1999 Richard Stallman wrote the essay Why you shouldn't use the Lesser GPL for your next library explaining why this was not the case, and that one should not necessarily use the LGPL for libraries: Which license is best for a given library is a matter of strategy, and it depends on the details of the situation. At present, most GNU libraries are covered by the Library GPL, and that means we are using only one of these two strategies [allowing/disallowing proprietary programs to use a library] , neglecting the other. So we are now seeking more libraries to release under the ordinary GPL. Contrary to popular impression, however, this does not mean that the FSF deprecates the LGPL, but merely says that it should not be used for all libraries — the same essay goes on to say: Using the ordinary GPL is not advantageous for every library. There are reasons that can make it better to use the Lesser GPL in certain cases. Indeed, Stallman and the FSF sometimes advocate licenses even less restrictive than the LGPL as a matter of strategy (to maximize the freedom of users). A prominent example was Stallman's endorsement of the use of a BSD-style license by the Vorbis project for its libraries. Stallman, Richard. Re: [open-source] [Fwd: [icecast-dev] Xiph.org announces Vorbis Beta 4 and the Xiph.org Programming languages specificity The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in the C programming language or its family. Franz Inc. published its own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in the Lisp programming language context. LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred as LLGPL. Preamble to the Gnu Lesser General Public License In addition, Ada has a special feature, generics, that may use the MGPL license. LGPL regarding inheritance (in programming) Some concern has arisen about the suitability of object-oriented classes in LGPL'd software being inherited by non-(L)GPL code. Generally, these concerns are unfounded, and clarification is given on the official GNU website: The LGPL contains no special provisions for inheritance, because none are needed. Inheritance creates derivative works in the same way as traditional linking, and the LGPL permits this type of derivative work in the same way as it permits ordinary function calls. Turner, David. The LGPL and Java. GNU official website. See also Affero General Public License Free Software licensing GNU Free Documentation License GNU General Public License GNAT Modified General Public License GPL linking exception References External links LGPL Official Page Derivative Works | GNU_Lesser_General_Public_License |@lemmatized gnu:12 lesser:3 general:10 public:10 license:25 formerly:1 library:27 lgpl:21 free:6 software:15 publish:2 foundation:2 fsf:4 design:2 compromise:1 strong:1 copyleft:2 gpl:15 permissive:1 bsd:2 mit:1 write:3 update:1 richard:4 stallman:6 legal:2 advice:1 eben:1 moglen:1 place:1 restriction:3 program:13 apply:2 merely:2 link:10 however:2 certain:2 primarily:1 use:23 although:1 also:2 stand:1 alone:1 application:3 notably:1 mozilla:1 openoffice:1 org:3 version:4 construct:1 exception:2 difference:2 main:1 latter:1 case:3 non:3 l:3 gpled:4 regardless:1 whether:2 proprietary:3 next:2 official:4 website:3 distribute:1 chosen:1 term:2 derivative:9 work:13 must:2 allow:3 modification:2 customer:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 debug:1 issue:1 standalone:1 executable:1 dynamically:1 generally:2 accept:1 would:1 consider:1 paragraph:1 applies:1 contain:2 portion:1 compile:1 call:2 isolation:1 therefore:1 fall:1 outside:1 scope:1 essentially:1 possible:1 new:1 covered:1 commonly:1 method:1 suitable:1 share:1 mechanism:1 alternatively:1 statically:1 either:1 source:2 code:4 linkable:1 object:2 file:1 provide:1 one:5 feature:3 convert:1 lgpled:2 piece:2 section:1 useful:1 direct:1 reuse:1 want:2 create:2 company:1 cannot:1 product:1 choose:1 former:1 name:1 give:3 people:1 impression:2 february:1 essay:2 less:3 explain:1 necessarily:1 best:1 matter:2 strategy:3 depend:1 detail:1 situation:1 present:1 cover:1 mean:2 two:1 disallow:1 neglect:1 seek:1 release:1 ordinary:3 contrary:1 popular:1 deprecate:1 say:2 go:1 advantageous:1 every:1 reason:1 make:1 good:1 indeed:1 sometimes:2 advocate:1 even:1 restrictive:1 maximize:1 freedom:1 user:1 prominent:1 example:1 endorsement:1 style:1 vorbis:2 project:1 open:1 fwd:1 icecast:1 dev:1 xiph:2 announces:1 beta:1 language:3 specificity:1 terminology:2 mainly:1 intend:1 c:1 family:1 franz:1 inc:1 preamble:3 clarify:1 lisp:1 context:1 refer:1 llgpl:1 addition:1 ada:1 special:2 generic:1 may:1 mgpl:1 regard:1 inheritance:3 concern:2 arise:1 suitability:1 orient:1 class:1 inherit:1 unfounded:1 clarification:1 provision:1 none:1 need:1 way:2 traditional:1 linking:1 permit:2 type:1 function:1 turner:1 david:1 java:1 see:1 affero:1 documentation:1 gnat:1 modify:1 reference:1 external:1 page:1 |@bigram gnu_lesser:3 license_lgpl:2 foundation_fsf:1 license_gpl:3 bsd_license:1 richard_stallman:2 openoffice_org:1 gpl_lgpl:2 xiph_org:2 external_link:1 |
1,323 | MIME | Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an Internet standard that extends the format of e-mail to support: Text in character sets other than ASCII Non-text attachments Message bodies with multiple parts Header information in non-ASCII character sets MIME's use, however, has grown beyond describing the content of e-mail to describing content type in general, including for the web (see Internet media type). Virtually all human-written Internet e-mail and a fairly large proportion of automated e-mail is transmitted via SMTP in MIME format. Internet e-mail is so closely associated with the SMTP and MIME standards that it is sometimes called SMTP/MIME e-mail. Promises, Promises - By Dan Backman - Network Computing The content types defined by MIME standards are also of importance outside of e-mail, such as in communication protocols like HTTP for the World Wide Web. HTTP requires that data be transmitted in the context of e-mail-like messages, even though the data may not actually be e-mail. MIME is specified in six linked RFC memoranda: RFC 2045, RFC 2046, RFC 2047, RFC 4288, RFC 4289 and RFC 2049, which together define the specifications. Introduction The basic Internet e-mail transmission protocol, SMTP, supports only 7-bit ASCII characters (see also 8BITMIME). This effectively limits Internet e-mail to messages which, when transmitted, include only the characters sufficient for writing a small number of languages, primarily English. Other languages based on the Latin alphabet typically include diacritics not supported in 7-bit ASCII, meaning text in these languages cannot be correctly represented in basic e-mail. MIME defines mechanisms for sending other kinds of information in e-mail. These include text in languages other than English using character encodings other than ASCII, and 8-bit binary content such as files containing images, sounds, movies, and computer programs. MIME is also a fundamental component of communication protocols such as HTTP, which requires that data be transmitted in the context of e-mail-like messages even though the data might not fit this context. Mapping messages into and out of MIME format is typically done automatically by an e-mail client or by mail servers when sending or receiving Internet (SMTP/MIME) e-mail. The basic format of Internet e-mail is defined in RFC 2822, which is an updated version of RFC 822. These standards specify the familiar formats for text e-mail headers and body and rules pertaining to commonly used header fields such as "To:", "Subject:", "From:", and "Date:". MIME defines a collection of e-mail headers for specifying additional attributes of a message including content type, and defines a set of transfer encodings which can be used to represent 8-bit binary data using characters from the 7-bit ASCII character set. MIME also specifies rules for encoding non-ASCII characters in e-mail message headers, such as "Subject:", allowing these header fields to contain non-English characters. MIME is extensible. Its definition includes a method to register new content types and other MIME attribute values. The goals of the MIME definition included requiring no changes to existent e-mail servers, and allowing plain text e-mail to function in both directions with extant clients. These goals were achieved by using additional RFC 822-style headers for all MIME message attributes and by making the MIME headers optional with default values ensuring a non-MIME message is interpreted correctly by a MIME-capable client. A simple MIME text message is therefore likely to be interpreted correctly by a non-MIME client although it has e-mail headers the non-MIME client won't know how to interpret. Similarly, if the quoted printable transfer encoding (see below) is used, the ASCII part of the message will be intelligible to users with non-MIME clients. MIME headers MIME-Version The presence of this header indicates the message is MIME-formatted. The value is typically "1.0" so this header appears as MIME-Version: 1.0 It should be noted that implementers have attempted to change the version number in the past and the change had unforeseen results. It was decided at an IETF meeting to leave the version number as is even though there have been many updates and versions of MIME. Content-Type This header indicates the Internet media type of the message content, consisting of a type and subtype, for example Content-Type: text/plain Through the use of the multipart type, MIME allows messages to have parts arranged in a tree structure where the leaf nodes are any non-multipart content type and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of multipart types. This mechanism supports: simple text messages using text/plain (the default value for "Content-type:") text plus attachments (multipart/mixed with a text/plain part and other non-text parts). A MIME message including an attached file generally indicates the file's original name with the "Content-disposition:" header, so the type of file is indicated both by the MIME content-type and the (usually OS-specific) filename extension reply with original attached (multipart/mixed with a text/plain part and the original message as a message/rfc822 part) alternative content, such as a message sent in both plain text and another format such as HTML (multipart/alternative with the same content in text/plain and text/html forms) image, audio, video and application (for example, image/jpg, audio/mp3, video/mp4, and application/msword and so on) many other message constructs Content-Disposition The original MIME specifications only provided a means to associate filenames with application/octet-stream parts. This was done through the use of a name= parameter on the content-type. The theory here was that filenames were mostly used for type information and therefore did not need to be present in most cases. It was a mistake. The specification of content-disposition attempted to provide a more general means of providing file name information by defining a filename parameter as part of the content-disposition field. The following example is taken from RFC 2183, where the header is defined Content-Disposition: attachment; filename=genome.jpeg; modification-date="Wed, 12 Feb 1997 16:29:51 -0500"; The filename may be encoded as defined by RFC 2231. Besides attachment, one can specify inline, or any other disposition type. Unfortunately, no name is defined for the nominal "default" disposition that corresponds to no content-disposition being present. Thus the recommended practice for generating agents is to only include filename information when it is necessary, also to avoid leaking sensitive information. If filename information has to be included, an agent should either put it in a filename= parameter or both a filename= and name= parameter. Never ever use just a name= parameter because that opens up to gratuitous interpretation of the part using an unintended disposition value. Content-Transfer-Encoding In June 1992, MIME (RFC 1341, since obsoleted by RFC 2045) defined a set of methods for representing binary data in ASCII text format. The content-transfer-encoding: MIME header has 2-sided significance: It indicates whether or not a binary-to-text encoding scheme has been used on top of the original encoding as specified within the Content-Type header, and If such a binary-to-text encoding method has been used it states which one. The RFC and the IANA's list of transfer encodings define the values shown below, which are not case sensitive. Note that '7bit', '8bit', and 'binary' mean that no binary-to-text encoding on top of the original encoding was used. In these cases, the header is actually redundant for the email client to decode the message body, but it may still be useful as an indicator of what type of object is being sent. Values 'quoted-printable' and 'base64' tell the email client that a binary-to-text encoding scheme was used and that appropriate initial decoding is necessary before the message can be read with its original encoding (e.g. UTF-8). Suitable for use with normal SMTP: 7bit – up to 998 octets per line of the code range 1..127 with CR and LF (codes 13 and 10 respectively) only allowed to appear as part of a CRLF line ending. This is the default value. quoted-printable – used to encode arbitrary octet sequences into a form that satisfies the rules of 7bit. Designed to be efficient and mostly human readable when used for text data consisting primarily of US-ASCII characters but also containing a small proportion of bytes with values outside that range. base64 – used to encode arbitrary octet sequences into a form that satisfies the rules of 7bit. Designed to be efficient for non-text 8 bit data. Sometimes used for text data that frequently uses non-US-ASCII characters. Suitable for use with SMTP servers that support the 8BITMIME SMTP extension: 8bit – up to 998 octets per line with CR and LF (codes 13 and 10 respectively) only allowed to appear as part of a CRLF line ending. Suitable only for use with SMTP servers that support the BINARYMIME SMTP extension (RFC 3030): binary – any sequence of octets. There is no encoding defined which is explicitly designed for sending arbitrary binary data through SMTP transports with the 8BITMIME extension. Thus base64 or quoted-printable (with their associated inefficiency) must sometimes still be used. This restriction does not apply to other uses of MIME such as Web Services with MIME attachments or MTOM Encoded-Word Since RFC 2822, message header names and values are always ASCII characters; values that contain non-ASCII data must use the MIME encoded-word syntax (RFC 2047) instead of a literal string. This syntax uses a string of ASCII characters indicating both the original character encoding (the "charset") and the content-transfer-encoding used to map the bytes of the charset into ASCII characters. The form is: "=?charset?encoding?encoded text?=". charset may be any character set registered with IANA. Typically it would be the same charset as the message body. encoding can be either "Q" denoting Q-encoding that is similar to the quoted-printable encoding, or "B" denoting base64 encoding. encoded text is the Q-encoded or base64-encoded text. Difference between Q-encoding and quoted-printable The ASCII codes for the question mark (?) and equals sign may not be represented directly as they are used to delimit the encoded-word. The ASCII code for space may not be represented directly because it could cause older parsers to split up the encoded word undesirably. To make the encoding smaller and easier to read the underscore is used to represent the ASCII code for space creating the side effect that underscore cannot be represented directly. Use of encoded words in certain parts of headers imposes further restrictions on which characters may be represented directly. For example, Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?=A1Hola,_se=F1or!?= is interpreted as "Subject: ¡Hola, señor!". The encoded-word format is not used for the names of the headers (for example Subject). These header names are always in English in the raw message. When viewing a message with a non-English e-mail client, the header names are usually translated by the client. Multipart messages A MIME multipart message contains a boundary in the "Content-type:" header; this boundary, which must not occur in any of the parts, is placed between the parts, and at the beginning and end of the body of the message, as follows: MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-type: multipart/mixed; boundary="frontier" This is a message with multiple parts in MIME format. --frontier Content-type: text/plain This is the body of the message. --frontier Content-type: application/octet-stream Content-transfer-encoding: base64 PGh0bWw+CiAgPGhlYWQ+CiAgPC9oZWFkPgogIDxib2R5PgogICAgPHA+VGhpcyBpcyB0aGUg Ym9keSBvZiB0aGUgbWVzc2FnZS48L3A+CiAgPC9ib2R5Pgo8L2h0bWw+Cg== --frontier-- Each part consists of its own content header (zero or more Content- header fields) and a body. Multipart content can be nested. The content-transfer-encoding of a multipart type must always be "7bit", "8bit" or "binary" to avoid the complications that would be posed by multiple levels of decoding. The multipart block as a whole does not have a charset; non-ASCII characters in the part headers are handled by the Encoded-Word system, and the part bodies can have charsets specified if appropriate for their content-type. Notes: Before the first boundary is an area that is ignored by MIME compliant clients. This area is generally used to put a message to users of old non-MIME clients. It is up to the sending mail client to choose a boundary string that doesn't clash with the body text. Typically this is done by inserting a long random string. The last boundary must have two hyphens at the end. Multipart subtypes The MIME standard defines various multipart-message subtypes, which specify the nature of the message parts and their relationship to one another. The subtype is specified in the "Content-Type" header of the overall message. For example, a multipart MIME message using the digest subtype would have its Content-Type set as "multipart/digest". The RFC initially defined 4 subtypes: mixed, digest, alternative and parallel. A minimally compliant application must support mixed and digest; other subtypes are optional. Additional subtypes, such as signed and form-data, have since been separately defined in other RFCs. The following is a list of the most commonly used subtypes; it is not intended to be a comprehensive list. Mixed Multipart/mixed is used for sending files with different "Content-Type" headers inline (or as attachments). If sending pictures or other easily readable files, most mail clients will display them inline (unless otherwise specified with the "Content-disposition" header). Otherwise it will offer them as attachments. The default content-type for each part is "text/plain". Defined in RFC 2046, Section 5.1.3 Message A message/rfc822 part contains an email message, including any headers. Rfc822 is a misnomer, since the message may be a full MIME message. This is used for digests as well as for E-mail forwarding. Defined in RFC 2046. Digest Multipart/digest is a simple way to send multiple text messages. The default content-type for each part is "message/rfc822". Defined in RFC 2046, Section 5.1.5 Alternative The multipart/alternative subtype indicates that each part is an "alternative" version of the same (or similar) content, each in a different format denoted by its "Content-Type" header. The formats are ordered by how faithful they are to the original, with the least faithful first and the most faithful last. Systems can then choose the "best" representation they are capable of processing; in general, this will be the last part that the system can understand, although other factors may affect this. Since a client is unlikely to want to send a version that is less faithful than the plain text version this structure places the plain text version (if present) first. This makes life easier for users of clients that do not understand multipart messages. Most commonly multipart/alternative is used for email with two parts, one plain text (text/plain) and one HTML (text/html). The plain text part provides backwards compatibility while the HTML part allows use of formatting and hyperlinks. Most email clients offer a user option to prefer plain text over HTML; this is an example of how local factors may affect how an application chooses which "best" part of the message to display. While it is intended that each part of the message represent the same content, the standard does not require this to be enforced in any way. At one time, anti-spam filters would only examine the text/plain part of a message, because it is easier to parse than the text/html part. But spammers eventually took advantage of this, creating messages with an innocuous-looking text/plain part and advertising in the text/html part. Anti-spam software eventually caught up on this trick, penalizing messages with very different text in a multipart/alternative message. Defined in RFC 2046, Section 5.1.4 Related A multipart/related is used to indicate that message parts should not be considered individually but rather as parts of an aggregate whole. The message consists of a root part (by default, the first) which reference other parts inline, which may in turn reference other parts. Message parts are commonly referenced by the "Content-ID" part header. The syntax of a reference is unspecified and is instead dictated by the encoding or protocol used in the part. One common usage of this subtype is to send a web page complete with images in a single message. The root part would contain the HTML document, and use image tags to reference images stored in the latter parts. Defined in RFC 2387 Report Multipart/report is a message type that contains data formatted for a mail server to read. It is split between a text/plain (or some other content/type easily readable) and a message/delivery-status, which contains the data formatted for the mail server to read. Defined in RFC 3462 Signed A multipart/signed message is used to attach a digital signature to a message. It has two parts, a body part and a signature part. The whole of the body part, including mime headers, is used to create the signature part. Many signature types are possible, like application/pgp-signature (RFC 3156) and application/x-pkcs7-signature (S/MIME). Defined in RFC 1847, Section 2.1 Encrypted A multipart/encrypted message has two parts. The first part has control information that is needed to decrypt the application/octet-stream second part. Similar to signed messages, there are different implementations which are identified by their separate content types for the control part. The most common types are "application/pgp-encrypted" (RFC 3156) and "application/pkcs7-mime" (S/MIME). Defined in RFC 1847, Section 2.2 Form Data As its name implies, multipart/form-data is used to express values submitted through a form. Originally defined as part of HTML 4.0, it is most commonly used for submitting files via HTTP. Defined in RFC 2388 Mixed-Replace (Experimental) The content type multipart/x-mixed-replace was developed as part of a technology to emulate server push and streaming over HTTP. All parts of a mixed-replace message have the same semantic meaning. However, each part invalidates - "replaces" - the previous parts as soon as it is received completely. Clients should process the individual parts as soon as they arrive and should not wait for the whole message to finish. Originally developed by Netscape, it is still supported by Mozilla, Firefox, Safari (but not in Safari on the iPhone) and Opera, but traditionally ignored by Microsoft. It is commonly used in IP cameras as the MIME type for MJPEG streams. Byteranges The multipart/byteranges is used to represent noncontiguous byte ranges of a single message. It is used by HTTP when a server returns multiple byte ranges and is defined in RFC 2068. See also Binary-to-text encoding Direct Internet Message Encapsulation (DIME)– a now superseded Microsoft-proposed protocol intended as a streamlined MIME, primarily for use in web services. Extended SMTP (ESMTP) Mailcap Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) S/MIME SOAP with Attachments Internet media type Unicode and e-mail 8BITMIME References Notes RFC 1426 SMTP Service Extension for 8bit-MIMEtransport. J. Klensin, N. Freed, M. Rose, E. Stefferud, D. Crocker. February 1993. RFC 1847 Security Multiparts for MIME: Multipart/Signed and Multipart/Encrypted RFC 3156 MIME Security with OpenPGP RFC 2045 MIME Part One: Format of Internet Message Bodies. RFC 2046 MIME Part Two: Media Types. N. Freed, Nathaniel Borenstein. November 1996. RFC 2047 MIME Part Three: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text. Keith Moore. November 1996. RFC 4288 MIME Part Four: Media Type Specifications and Registration Procedures. RFC 4289 MIME Part Four: Registration Procedures. N. Freed, J. Klensin. December 2005. RFC 2049 MIME Part Five: Conformance Criteria and Examples. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. RFC 2183 Communicating Presentation Information in Internet Messages: The Content-Disposition Header. Troost, R., Dorner, S. and K. Moore. August 1997. RFC 2231 MIME Parameter Value and Encoded Word Extensions: Character Sets, Languages, and Continuations. N. Freed, K. Moore. November 1997. RFC 2387 The MIME Multipart/Related Content-type RFC 1521 Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies External links A more detailed overview of MIME (1993) List of Character Sets Properly Configuring Server MIME Types W3 School's Multimedia MIME Reference MIME Edit Addon for Mozilla Firefox | MIME |@lemmatized multipurpose:1 internet:15 mail:32 extension:8 mime:67 standard:6 extend:2 format:16 e:28 support:8 text:47 character:20 set:9 ascii:20 non:18 attachment:8 message:68 body:13 multiple:5 part:65 header:36 information:9 use:49 however:2 grow:1 beyond:1 describe:3 content:50 type:44 general:3 include:12 web:5 see:4 medium:5 virtually:1 human:2 write:2 fairly:1 large:1 proportion:2 automate:1 transmit:4 via:2 smtp:13 closely:1 associate:2 sometimes:3 call:1 promise:2 dan:1 backman:1 network:1 compute:1 define:26 also:7 importance:1 outside:2 communication:2 protocol:5 like:4 http:6 world:1 wide:1 require:4 data:16 context:3 even:3 though:3 may:11 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1,324 | Christian_countercult_movement | The Christian countercult movement is a collective description for many, mostly unrelated, ministries and individual Christians who oppose religious groups whose doctrines or practices do not fit within their definition of mainstream Christianity, which they consider to be cults. They are also known as discernment ministries. Robert M. Bowman, Orthodoxy and Heresy: A Biblical Guide to Doctrinal Discernment, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1992, pp. 10, 106-107, & 123-124. Overview Protagonists generally come from an Evangelical or fundamentalist background, although many have Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox or Ancient Oriental Orthodox roots. A survey of Roman Catholic, Eastern orthodox and Protestant Evangelical countercult literature is found in John A. Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, 2nd ed, Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 2003, pp. 203-239. The countercult movement asserts that non-Christian faiths are spiritually counterfeit and claims the authority to define "true" Christianity, and thus to define "false" Christianity. Christian apologists who write from within this movement argue that a religious body may be defined as a "cult" if its doctrines involve a denial of the teachings which they hold to be essential Christian doctrine (e.g., the doctrine of the Trinity, the person and work of Christ, salvation, etc). Walter R. Martin, The Rise of the Cults, rev.ed. Santa Ana: Vision House, 1978, pp. 11-12. Richard Abanes, Defending the Faith: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions,Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997, p. 33. H. Wayne House & Gordon Carle, Doctrine Twisting: How Core Biblical Truths are Distorted, Downers Grove: IVP, 2003. Some "countercult" groups consider other similar groups to be non-Christian, due to additional disagreements over doctrine or the use of a different translation of the Bible. Many of the Protestant groups consider Catholicism to be a cult, due to beliefs regarding the Pope and Mary among others. Many of the Catholic groups feel the same way about Protestant groups. An extreme example, the Westboro Baptist Church, considers nearly all other churches to be cults, due to a perceived lack of sufficient condemnation of homosexuality. Countercult literature usually expresses doctrinal or theological concerns and a missionary or apologetic purpose. Garry W. Trompf,"Missiology, Methodology and the Study of New Religious Movements," Religious Traditions Volume 10, 1987, pp. 95-106. It seeks to identify problems with a given group's teachings or practices and present a rebuttal emphasizing doctrinal positions in a mainstream Christian vein. Christian countercult writers also emphasize the need for the evangelization of followers of "cults", and often present advice and strategies on how Christians may evangelize among targeted groups. Walter R. Martin, The Kingdom of the Cults, rev.ed. Ravi Zacharias ed. Bloomington: Bethany House, 2003, pp.479-493. Ronald Enroth ed. Evangelising the Cults, Milton Keynes: Word, 1990. Norman L Geisler & Ron Rhodes, When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretations, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997. Their activities and orientation vary: some are missionary and apologetically oriented, directed at current members of divergent groups, some are therapeutically oriented, directed mainly at former members of divergent groups, and others educationally oriented, directed at members of their own denomination or at the general public. A more radical arm actively protests and attempts to disrupt meetings of churches which they have labeled as "cults." Countercult ministries concern themselves mainly with religious groups that regard themselves as Christian, but hold beliefs which they consider to be unorthodox, including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Unification church, Christian Science, and Jehovah's Witnesses, although some also target non-Christian groups, such as Islam, Judaism, Wicca and other Neopagan groups, New Age groups, Buddhism, Hinduism, and other Eastern religions. The Christian countercult movement, with its emphases on apologetics and evangelism, does not constitute the totality of concerns which many Christians have about cult practices. Some Christians share concerns similar to those of the secular anti-cult movement. Paul R. Martin, Cult Proofing Your Kids, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993. Joel A. MacCollam, Carnival of Souls: Religious Cults and Young People, New York: Seabury Press, 1979. History Precursors and pioneers Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history. Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, pp.45-74. Harold O. J. Brown, Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present, Garden City: Doubleday, 1984. J.W.C.Wand, The Four Great Heresies:Nestorian, Eutychian,Apollinarian, Arian, London: A.R.Mowbray, 1955. The Apostles themselves were involved in challenging the doctrines and claims of various teachers. The Apostle Paul wrote an entire epistle, Galatians, antagonistic to the teachings of a Jewish sect that claimed adherence to the teachings of both Jesus and Moses (cf. Acts 15: & Gal. 1:6-10). The Apostle John devoted his first Epistle to countering early proto-gnostic cults that had arisen in the first century, all claiming to be "Christian" (1 Jn. 2:19). The early Church in the post-apostolic period was much more involved in "defending its frontiers against alternative soteriologies - either by defining its own position with greater and greater exactness, or by attacking other religions, and particularly the Hellenistic mysteries." Eric J. Sharpe, Comparative Religion: A History, London: Duckworth, 1975, p. 9 In fact, a good deal of the early Christian literature is devoted to the exposure and refutation of unorthodox theology, mystery religions and Gnostic groups. Brown, Heresies, pp.38-69. Ronald H. Nash, Christianity and the Hellenistic World, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984, pp.213-224. Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Hippolytus were among the greatest early Christian apologists who engaged in critical analyses of unorthodox theology, Greco-Roman pagan religions, and Gnostic groups. Avery Dulles, A History of Apologetics, Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 1999, pp. 22-58. J.K.S.Reid, Christian Apologetics, Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans, 1970, pp. 36-53. Bengt Hagglund, History of Theology, trans. Gene J. Lund, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1968, pp.31-105. In the Protestant traditions some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups like Swedenborg's teachings, can be traced back to John Wesley, Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) and Princeton theologians like Charles Hodge and Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield. Richard G. Kyle, The Religious Fringe: A History of Alternative Religions in America, Downers Grove: IVP, 1993. Philip Jenkins, Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. The first known usage of the term "cult" by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in Anti-Christian Cults by A. H. Barrington, published in 1898. A.H.Barrington, Anti-Christian Cults, Milwaukee:Young Churchman/London:Sampson Low, Marston, 1898. Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were Baptist pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the Brethren, like William Irvine and Sydney Watson. J. Gordon Melton,"The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," in Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker, edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, Routledge, London, 2003, pp. 102-113. Watson wrote a series of didactic novels like Escaped from the Snare: Christian Science, Sydney Watson, Escaped from the Snare: Christian Science, London:William Nichoson & Sons, no date. Bewitched by Spiritualism, Sydney Watson, The Lure of a Soul: Bewitched by Spiritualism, London: W. Nicholson & Sons, no date. and The Gilded Lie, as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like Frank Peretti. Frank E. Peretti, This Present Darkness, Westchester: Crossway,1986. James R. Lewis, "Works of Darkness: Occult Fascination in the Novels of Frank Peretti" in Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft, James R. Lewis ed. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, pp.339-350. The early twentieth century apologists generally applied the words "heresy" and "sects" to groups like the Christadelphians, Mormons, Spiritualists, and Theosophy. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in 1915 The Fundamentals, where apologists criticised the teachings of Charles Taze Russell, Mary Baker Eddy (Christian Science), the Mormons and Spiritualists. William G. Moorehead, ‘Millennial Dawn A Counterfeit of Christianity’, in The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 7. Chicago: Testimony Publishing. Maurice E. Wilson, ‘Eddyism, Commonly Called “Christian Science”, in The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 9. Chicago: Testimony Publishing. R. G. McNiece, ‘Mormonism: Its Origin, Characteristics, and Doctrines’, in The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 8. Chicago: Testimony Publishing. Algernon J. Pollock, ‘Modern Spiritualism Briefly Tested By Scripture’, in The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 10. Chicago: Testimony Publishing. Mid twentieth century apologists Since at least the 1940s, the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of cult such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the Bible or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are: The Missionary Faces Isms, by John C. Mattes, pub. 1937 (Board of American Missions of the United Lutheran Church in America). Heresies Ancient and Modern, by J.Oswald Sanders, pub.1948 (Marshall Morgan & Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids). Cults and Isms, by J. Oswald Sanders, pub.1962, 1969, 1980 (Arrowsmith), ISBN 0-551-00458-4. The Chaos of Cults, by J.K.van Baalen, pub. 1938, 1944, 1960, 1962 (Eerdmans)ISBN 0-8028-3278-4 Heresies Exposed, by W.C.Irvine, pub. 1921, 1975 (Loizeaux Brothers). Confusion of Tongues, by C.W.Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran & Co). Isms New and Old, by Julius Bodensieck. Some Latter-Day Religions, by G.H.Combs. One of the first prominent countercult apologists was Jan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America. His book, The Chaos of Cults, which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field as it was repeatedly revised and updated until 1962. J.K.van Baalen, The Chaos of Cults, 4th rev.ed.Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans Publishing, 1962. Walter Martin Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was Walter Martin (1928-89), whose numerous books include the 1955 The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults and the 1965 The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era, which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, "The Bible Answer Man", currently hosted by Hank Hanegraaff. In The Rise of the Cults Walter R. Martin, The Rise of the Cults, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1955, pp. 11-12. Martin gave the following definition of a cult: By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith. As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Science and the Unification Church, but also smaller groups like the Swedenborgian Church Each of these movements are treated in separate chapters in Walter R. Martin, The Kingdom of the Cults, rev. ed. Ravi Zacharias ed. Bloomington: Bethany House, 2003. Various other conservative Christian leaders—among them John Ankerberg and Norman Geisler—have emphasized themes similar to Martin's. John Ankerberg & John Weldon, Cult Watch,Eugene: Harvest House, 1991, pp. i-x. Geisler & Rhodes, When Cultists Ask, pp. 10-11. Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label. Dave Breese Dave Breese, Know the Marks of Cults, Wheaton: Victor, 1975, 14. summed up this kind of definition Compare this definition with heresy. in these words: A cult is a religious perversion. It is a belief and practice in the world of religion which calls for devotion to a religious view or leader centered in false doctrine. It is an organized heresy. A cult may take many forms but it is basically a religious movement which distorts or warps orthodox faith to the point where truth becomes perverted into a lie. A cult is impossible to define except against the absolute standard of the teaching of Holy Scripture. Other technical terminology Since the 1980s the term "new religions" or "new religious movements" has slowly entered into Evangelical usage, alongside the word "cult". Some book titles use both terms. Richard Abanes, Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family, Wheaton: Crossway, 1998. Ronald Enroth ed. A Guide to New Religious Movements, Downers Grove: IVP, 2005. Ron Rhodes, The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001. The acceptance of these alternatives to the word "cult" in Evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in the sociology of religion. On sociological understandings see for example Eileen Barker, New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1989. George D. Chryssides, Exploring New Religions, London & New York: Cassell, 1999.Jacob Needleman & George Baker ed. Understanding the New Religions, New York: Seabury Press, 1981. Mikael Rothstein & Reender Kranenborg ed. New Religions in a Postmodern World, Aarhus, Denmark: Aargus University Press, 2003. However, there is no unanimity about whether these terms are synonyms. "Countercult apologetics" as accepted term The term "countercult apologetics" first appeared in Protestant Evangelical literature as a self-designation in the late 1970s and early 1980s in articles by Ronald Enroth and David Fetcho, and by Walter Martin in Martin Speaks Out on the Cults. Ronald M. Enroth, "Cult/Counter-cult", Eternity, November 1977, pp.18-22 & 32-35. David Fetcho, "Disclosing the Unknown God: Evangelism to the New Religions", Update: A Quarterly Journal on New Religious Movements Volume 6, number 4 December 1982 p.8. Walter R. Martin, Martin Speaks Out On The Cults, rev. ed. Ventura: Vision House, 1983,pp.124-125. A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secular anti-cult. Ronald M. Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails, Elgin: Brethren, 1985, pp. 25-30. Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label "Christian countercult", Eric Pement, ‘Comments on the Directory’ in Keith Edward Tolbert and Eric Pement, The 1993 Directory of Cult Research Organizations,Trenton: American Religions Center, 1993, p. x. and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognised by sociologists such as Douglas Cowan. Douglas E. Cowan, Bearing False Witness? An Introduction ot the Christian Countercult, Westport: Praeger, 2003. The only existing umbrella organization within the countercult movement in the USA is the EMNR (Evangelical Ministries to New Religions) founded in 1982 which has the evangelical Lausanne Covenant as governing document and which stresses mission, scholarship, accountability and networking. Countercult outside the U.S. While the greatest number of countercult ministries is found in the United States of America, ministries exist in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Ethiopia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russia, Sweden, and Ukraine. A comparison between the methods employed in the USA and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis. The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about the evangelization of people in cults and new religions. There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination. However, in some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated. A group of organizations which originated within the context of established religion is working in more general fields of cult-awareness, especially in Europe. Their leaders are theologians, and they are often social ministries affiliated to big churches. Among them are Protestant: the Berlin-based Pfarramt für Sekten- und Weltanschauungsfragen Pfarramt für Sekten- und Weltanschauungsfragen - Index ("Pastoral ministry for Sects and World Views.") headed by Thomas Gandow Pfarramt für Sekten- und Weltanschauungsfragen - Pfarrer Gandow , the Swiss "Evangelische Informationsstelle Kirchen-Sekten-Religionen" (Evangelical information service on Churches, Sects and Religions) headed by Georg Schmid Relinfo , Catholic: Sekten in Sachsen (sects in Saxony) Sekten in Sachsen and Weltanschauungen und religiöse Gruppierungen ("Worldviews and religious groups") of the Austrian diocese of Linz Sekten & Gruppierungen , and GRIS in Italy www.gris.org Orthodox: Center of Ireneus of Lyon in Russia. Some independents like the international Dialog Center, and Anton Hein's Apologetics Index Apologetics Index : Apologetics and Cult Information in Amsterdam are Evangelical Christians. Hein considers Scientology a hate group because that religious movement has, in his opinion, a long, documented history of hate and harassment activities Hate Groups : Church of Scientology - Examining the cult's hate and harassment practices , which—along with lying and deception—are condoned and encouraged in Scientology's own scriptures. (See, for example, Scientology's Fair Game Scientology's ''Fair Game'' Policy - religious cults, sects and movements policy.) The members of this group are less concerned with doctrine and focus more on practices and methods, mainly targeting groups who, in their view, limit the freedom and self-determinism of their members or exploit them. Special concerns are Scientology, Unification church, Jehovah's Witnesses, VPM, but also some Europe-based NMRs and some fundamentalist charismatic groups. Contextual missiology The phenomena of "cults" has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced [http://www.lausanne.org/Brix?pageID=14647"The Thailand Report on New Religious Movements"]. The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper [http://www.lausanne.org/lcwe/assets/LOP45_IG16.pdf"Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality in the Western World"]. The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980. In the 1990s discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging which reflects the influence of contextual missions theory. Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favour a confrontational style of engagement. Irving Hexham, Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead ed. Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2004.Gordon R. Lewis, "Our Mission Responsibility to New Religious Movements" International Journal of Frontier Missions Volume 15, number 3 July-September 1998,p. 116. Apologetic nuances and models Countercult apologetics has several nuances and methods employed in analysing and responding to cults. The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed by John Saliba and Philip Johnson. Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, pp.212-223. Philip Johnson, "Apologetics, Mission and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach," Sacred Tribes Journal, Volume 1, number 1 Fall 2002 5-220. The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with orthodox interpretations of the Bible and early creedal documents. Some apologists, such as Francis J. Beckwith, have emphasised a philosophical approach, pointing out logical, epistemological and metaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group. Francis J. Beckwith & Stephen E. Parrish, See the gods fall, Joplin: College Press, 1997. Francis J. Beckwith, Carl Mosser & Paul Owen ed. The New Mormon Challenge, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002. Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to Evangelical Christianity. James R. Adair & Ted Miller ed. Escape from Darkness, Wheaton: Victor, 1982.Chris Elkins, Heavenly Deception, Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1980. Joe Hewitt, I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness, Denver: Accent Books, 1979. Latayne C. Scott, Ex-Mormons: Why We Left, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990. Pop apologists like Dave Hunt in Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust and Hal Lindsey in The Terminal Generation have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs that Christ's Second Advent is close at hand. Dave Hunt, Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust: The New Age Movement in Prophecy, Eugene: Harvest House, 1983. Hal Lindsey, The Terminal Generation, Old Tappan: Fleming H. Revell, 1976. Both Hunt, and Constance Cumbey, have applied a conspiracy model to interpreting the emergence of New Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance. Constance E. Cumbey, The Hidden Dangers of the Rainbow, Shreveport: Huntington House, 1983. Evaluated in Elliot Miller, A Crash Course on the New Age Movement, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1989, pp. 193-206. John A. Saliba, Christian Responses to the New Age Movement: A Critical Assessment, London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1999, pp.58-63. Other apologists like Bob Larson blend an understanding of cults as heresies with a strongly nuanced emphasis on Satan as the energizing power behind the growth of cults. Bob Larson, Larson’s Book of Cults, Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1982. This theme has been portrayed in the anti-New Age novels by Frank Peretti (This Present Darkness and Piercing the Darkness) where demonic forces empower practitioners of New Age groups while Christians engage in spiritual warfare tactics of prayer and exorcisms to counter the groups. Today there exist many and very diverse countercult ministries and authors, including everything between scholars and soapbox preachers, and there is no overall agreement regarding which groups are part of traditional Christianity. Some Protestants classify Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Seventh-day Adventist or Pentecostal churches as cults, because they allegedly have non-Biblical teachings. Others speak out mainly against current non-Christian groups or trends in society like the New Age movement, the popularity of Harry Potter books or Halloween. Some ministries, often led by former members, target single groups like Jehovah's Witnesses or Mormons. Some of the criticisms of contemporary "cults" (heterodoxy, breaking up families, etc.) were, in its early days, originally directed against Christianity itself. Prominent protagonists in the Christian countercult movement People Hank Hanegraaff is the successor to Walter Martin on the radio and in CRI. He has continued the work of Martin; he also speaks out against Oneness Pentecostalism, Word of Faith ministries, and other similar movements. Norman Geisler Douglas Groothuis Anton Hein Apologetics Index : Apologetics and Cult Information targets many groups from a Christian point of view. His Apologetics Index also operates a weblog, the Religion News Blog. J. P. Moreland, Biola University Richard Abanes PoP cuLTuRe MiX Bob and Gretchen Passantino Walter Martin Walter Martin's Religious InfoNet Late Baptist minister who was the host of the Bible Answer Man radio broadcast and the president of the Christian Research Institute. He often used his show to promote arguments against Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and other movements. Organizations Answers in Action Answers In Action - Truth Brings Light , Bob and Gretchen Passantino Apologia report Apologia , maintaining also a professional mailing list for apologetic resources Apologetics resource center Apologetics Resource Center (ARC) - Birmingham, AL , by Craig Branch Banner Ministries CROSS+WORD Christian Research; The Home of Banner Ministries founded by Tricia Tillin. Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry founded by Matt Slick Christian Research Institute (CRI) founded by Walter Martin Home - equip.org Cult Awareness and Information Centre Cult Help and Information - Home founded by the late Jan Groenveld Dialog Center http://www.dci.dk/en/ founded by Johannes Aagaard EMNR Evangelical Ministries to New Religions Welcome to EMNR On-Line , an umbrella group for ministries to the cults and new religions Eternal Ministries Eternal Ministries, Inc. || Living With An Eternal Perspective director, Ron J. Bigalke Jr. Institute for Religious Research Institute for Religious Research: Resources for investigating today's competing religious claims, including Mormonism, Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church Universal and Triumph... Living Hope Ministries Living Hope Ministries , an evangelical organization that produces media materials related to Mormonism Living Hope Utah A Church in Brigham City, Utah, with information and resources on Mormonism Midwest Christian Outreach Welcome to Midwest Christian Outreach, Christian Apologetics and Counter-Cult Ministry New England Institute of Religious Research (NEIRR) NEIRR: Resources for those in cults and high control groups Nauvoo Christian Visitors Center Official Website Personal Freedom Outreach PFO Home Page Probe Ministries Probe Ministries SoundWitness.org Examining the Jehovah's Witnesses Spiritual Counterfeits Project Spiritual Counterfeits Project, Avatar of Night , president Tal Brooke Watchman Fellowship Watchman Fellowship: A Christian Research and Apologetics Ministry , founder David Henke, president James K. Walker References Primary sources Abanes, Richard, Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family, Crossway Books, Wheaton, 1998. Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, Encyclopedia of Cults and New Religions, Harvest House, Eugene, 1999. Enroth, Ronald (ed)., A Guide to New Religious Movements, InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2005. Geisler, Norman L. and Ron Rhodes, When Cultists Ask, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1997 House, H.Wayne, Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2000. LeBar, James J. Cults, Sects, and the New Age, Our Sunday Visitor, Huntington, 1989. Martin, Walter R. The Kingdom of the Cults, edited by Ravi Zacharias, Bethany, Bloomington, 2003 McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions, Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1992 Rhodes, Ron, The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2001 Sire, James W. Scripture Twisting: Twenty Ways the Cults Misread the Bible, InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1980. Sire, James W. The Universe Next Door 4th ed., InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2004. Tucker, Ruth A. Another Gospel: Cults, Alternative Religions and the New Age Movement, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2004. Vatican Report on Sects, Cults and New Religious Movements, St. Paul Publications, Sydney, 1988. History and critical assessments Cowan, Douglas E. Bearing False Witness? An Introduction to the Christian Countercult (Praeger Publishers, Westport, Connecticut & London, 2003). Enroth, Ronald M. and J. Gordon Melton, Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails (Brethren Press, Elgin, 1985). Jenkins, Philip, Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000). Johnson, Philip, "Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach," [http://www.sacredtribesjournal.org/images/Articles/Vol_1/Apolog_Johnson.pdfSacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements], 1 (1) (2002) Melton, J. Gordon., "The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," in Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker, edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102–113. Saliba, John A., Understanding New Religious Movements, 2nd edition (Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York & Oxford, 2003). External links Apologetics Index; The counter-cult movement Douglas E. Cowan: Christian Countercult Website Profiles Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry/Matt Slick CESNUR: Overview of Christian Countercult movement by Douglas E. Cowan Counter Cult Movement at Religious Tolerance Jeff Lindsay's discussion of cults from an LDS perspective Article: Anti-"Minority Religion" Groups with "Big Religion" Ties | Christian_countercult_movement |@lemmatized christian:61 countercult:25 movement:46 collective:1 description:1 many:9 mostly:1 unrelated:1 ministry:27 individual:1 oppose:2 religious:41 group:45 whose:2 doctrine:14 practice:8 fit:1 within:5 definition:6 mainstream:2 christianity:10 consider:4 cult:85 also:11 know:6 discernment:2 robert:1 bowman:1 orthodoxy:2 heresy:10 biblical:4 guide:5 doctrinal:3 grand:18 rapid:18 baker:8 book:12 house:18 pp:23 overview:2 protagonists:1 generally:2 come:3 evangelical:12 fundamentalist:2 background:1 although:2 roman:3 catholic:5 eastern:4 orthodox:12 ancient:2 oriental:1 root:1 survey:1 protestant:8 literature:4 find:2 john:13 saliba:6 understand:4 new:55 ed:18 walnut:2 creek:2 altamira:1 press:13 assert:1 non:9 faith:5 spiritually:1 counterfeit:4 claim:6 authority:1 define:5 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1,325 | Oregon | Oregon (, ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The area was inhabited by many indigenous tribes before the arrival of traders, explorers and settlers. The Oregon Territory was created in 1848 after American settlement began in earnest in the 1840s. Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14, 1859. Oregon is located on the Pacific coast between Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern boundaries respectively. Salem is the state's third most populous city and the state capital, with Portland the most populous. Portland is currently the 30th largest U.S. city with a population of 575,930 (2008 estimate) and a metro population of 2,175,133 (2007 estimate), 23rd largest U.S. metro area. The valley of the Willamette River in western Oregon is the most densely populated and agriculturally productive region of the state and is home to eight of the ten most populous cities. Oregon's 2000 population was about 3.5 million, a 20.3% increase over 1990; it is estimated to have reached 3.7 million by 2006. Oregon's largest for-profit private employer is Intel, located in the Silicon Forest area on Portland's west side. The state has 199 public school districts, with Portland Public Schools as the largest. There are 17 community colleges, and seven publicly financed colleges in the Oregon University System. Oregon State University in Corvallis and the University of Oregon in Eugene are the two flagship universities of the state, while Portland State University has the largest enrollment. Major highways include Interstate 5 which runs the entire north-south length of the state, Interstate 84 that runs east-west, U.S. Route 97 that crosses the middle of the state, U.S. Route 101 that travels the entire coastline, and U.S. Route 20 and U.S. Route 26 that run east-west, among many other highways. Portland International Airport is the busiest commercial airport in the state and is operated as part of the Port of Portland, the busiest port. Rail service includes Union Pacific Railroad and BNSF Railway freight service, Amtrak passenger service, as well as light rail and street car routes in the Portland metro area. Oregon enjoys a diverse landscape including a scenic and windswept Pacific coastline, the volcanoes of a rugged and glaciated Cascade Mountain Range, dense evergreen forests, and high desert across much of the eastern portion of the state. The towering Douglas firs and redwoods along the rainy Western Oregon coast provide a dramatic contrast with the lower density and fire prone pine tree and juniper forests covering portions of the Eastern half of the state. The eastern portion of the state also includes semi-arid scrublands, prairies, deserts, and meadows. These drier areas stretch east from Central Oregon. Mount Hood is the highest point in the state at . Crater Lake National Park is the only national park in Oregon. Oregon is the United States' leader in forest fires; in 2007 Oregon had over 1,000 forest fires. History Earliest inhabitation Human habitation of the Pacific Northwest began at least 15,000 years ago, with the oldest evidence of habitation in Oregon found at Fort Rock Cave and the Paisley Caves in Lake County. Archaeologist Luther Cressman dated material from Fort Rock to 13,200 years ago. By 8000 B.C. there were settlements throughout the state, with populations concentrated along the lower Columbia River, in the western valleys, and around coastal estuaries. Discovery by European civilization By the 16th century Oregon was home to many Native American groups, including the Bannock, Chasta, Chinook, Kalapuya, Klamath, Molalla, Nez Perce, Takelma, and Umpqua. James Cook explored the coast in 1778 in search of the Northwest Passage. During U.S. westward expansion The Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled through the region also in search of the Northwest Passage. They built their winter fort at Fort Clatsop, near the mouth of the Columbia River. Overland exploration was also conducted by British explorer David Thompson. In 1811, David Thompson, of the North West Company, became the first European to navigate the entire length of the Columbia River. Stopping on the way, at the junction of the Snake River, he posted a claim to the region for Great Britain and the Northwest Company. Upon returning to Montreal, he publicized the abundance of fur-bearing animals in the area. Also in 1811, New Yorker John Jacob Astor financed the establishment of Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River as a western outpost to his Pacific Fur Company; this was the first permanent Caucasian settlement in Oregon. In the War of 1812, the British gained control of all of the Pacific Fur Company posts. The Treaty of 1818 established joint British and American occupancy of the region west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. By the 1820s and 1830s, the Hudson's Bay Company dominated the Pacific Northwest from its Columbia District headquarters at Fort Vancouver (built in 1825 by the District's Chief Factor John McLoughlin across the Columbia from present-day Portland). In 1841, the master trapper and entrepreneur Ewing Young died leaving considerable wealth and no apparent heir, and no system to probate his estate. A meeting followed Young's funeral at which a probate government was proposed. Doctor Ira Babcock of Jason Lee's Methodist Mission was elected Supreme Judge. Babcock chaired two meetings in 1842 at Champoeg (half way between Lee's mission and Oregon City) to discuss wolves and other animals of contemporary concern. These meetings were precursors to an all-citizen meeting in 1843, which instituted a provisional government headed by an executive committee made up of David Hill, Alanson Beers, and Joseph Gale. This government was the first acting public government of the Oregon Country before annexation by the government of the United States. Also in 1841, Sir George Simpson, Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, reversed the Hudson Bay Company's longstanding policy of discouraging settlement because it interfered with the lucrative fur trade. He directed that some 200 Red River Colony settlers be relocated to HBC farms near Fort Vancouver, (the James Sinclair expedition), in an attempt to hold Columbia District. Starting in 1842–1843, the Oregon Trail brought many new American settlers to Oregon Country. For some time, it seemed that these two nations would go to war for a third time in 75 years (see Oregon boundary dispute), but the border was defined peacefully in 1846 by the Oregon Treaty. The border between the United States and British North America was set at the 49th parallel. The Oregon Territory was officially organized in 1848. Settlement increased because of the Donation Land Claim Act of 1850, in conjunction with the forced relocation of the native population to Indian reservations in Oregon. After statehood The state was admitted to the Union on February 14, 1859. Founded as a refuge from the disputes over slavery that were tearing apart other places in the United States, such as Kansas, Oregon had a "whites only" clause in its state Constitution at the time of its admission; the only state thus admitted. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, regular U.S. troops were withdrawn and sent east. Volunteer cavalry were recruited in California and sent north to Oregon to keep peace and protect the populace. The First Oregon Cavalry served until June 1865. In the 1880s, the proliferation of railroads assisted in marketing of the state's lumber and wheat, as well as the more rapid growth of its cities. 20th and 21st centuries In 1902, Oregon introduced a system of direct legislation by the state’s citizens by way of initiative and referendum, known as the Oregon System. Oregon state ballots often include politically conservative proposals side-by-side with politically liberal ones, illustrating the wide spectrum of political thought in the state. Industrial expansion began in earnest following the construction of the Bonneville Dam in 1933–1937 on the Columbia River. Hydroelectric power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon helped fuel the development of the West, although the periodic fluctuations in the U.S. building industry have hurt the state's economy on multiple occasions. Name The origin of the name "Oregon" is unknown. One theory is that French explorers called the Columbia River "Hurricane River" (le fleuve aux ouragans), because of the strong winds of the Columbia Gorge. According to the Oregon Blue Book, the source for the earliest written use of the word was Major Robert Rogers, an English army officer. In his 1765 proposal for a journey, Rogers wrote: Where does the name "Oregon" come from? from the online edition of the Oregon Blue Book The rout . . . is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon. . . . One account, endorsed as the "most plausible explanation" in the book Oregon Geographic Names, was advanced by George R. Stewart in a 1944 article in American Speech. According to Stewart, the name came from an engraver's error in a French map published in the early 1700s, on which the Ouisiconsink (Wisconsin) River was spelled "Ouaricon-sint", broken on two lines with the -sint below, so that there appeared to be a river flowing to the west named "Ouaricon". According to the Oregon Tourism Commission (also known as Travel Oregon), present-day Oregonians () pronounce the state's name as "OR-UH-GUN never OR-EE-GONE". Oregon Fast Facts After being drafted by the Detroit Lions in 2002, former Oregon Ducks quarterback Joey Harrington distributed "ORYGUN" stickers (sold by the University of Oregon Bookstore, which credits the spelling as a joke "meant for Oregonians everywhere who get a kick out of this hilarious mispronunciation of our state.") to members of the media as a reminder of how to pronounce his home state. [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/inside_game/don_banks/news/2002/04/21/harrington_intro/ Harrington confident about Detroit QB challenge] [http://www.joeyharrington13.com/news_entry.cfm/id.efb3ab09-5668-1028-9832-3bb8ec748027/start.71 See no evil, hear no evil: Joey Harrington scoffs at criticism as he struggles to right the Lions] Geography + National parks and historic areas in Oregon Entity Location Crater Lake National Park Southern Oregon John Day Fossil Beds National Monument Eastern Oregon Newberry National Volcanic Monument Central Oregon Cascade–Siskiyou National Monument Southern Oregon Oregon Caves National Monument Southern Oregon California Trail Southern Oregon, California Fort Vancouver National Historic Site Western Oregon, Washington Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail IL, MO, KS, IA, NE, SD, ND, MT, ID, OR, WA Lewis and Clark National and State Historical Parks Western Oregon, Washington Nez Perce National Historical Park MT, ID, OR, WA Oregon Trail MO, KS, NE, WY, ID, OR Oregon's geography may be split roughly into seven areas: Oregon Coast—west of the Coast Range Willamette Valley Rogue Valley Cascade Mountains Klamath Mountains Columbia River Plateau Oregon Outback The mountainous regions of western Oregon, home to four of the most prominent mountain peaks of the United States including Mount Hood, were formed by the volcanic activity of Juan de Fuca Plate, a tectonic plate that poses a continued threat of volcanic activity and earthquakes in the region. The most recent major activity was the 1700 Cascadia earthquake; Washington's Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, an event which was visible from Oregon. The Columbia River, which constitutes much of the northern border of Oregon, also played a major role in the region's geological evolution, as well as its economic and cultural development. The Columbia is one of North America's largest rivers, and the only river to cut through the Cascades. About 15,000 years ago, the Columbia repeatedly flooded much of Oregon during the Missoula Floods; the modern fertility of the Willamette Valley is largely a result of those floods. Plentiful salmon made parts of the river, such as Celilo Falls, hubs of economic activity for thousands of years. In the 20th century, numerous hydroelectric dams were constructed along the Columbia, with major impacts on salmon, transportation and commerce, electric power, and flood control. Today, Oregon's landscape varies from rainforest in the Coast Range to barren desert in the southeast, which still meets the technical definition of a frontier. Oregon is north to south at longest distance, and east to west at longest distance. In terms of land and water area, Oregon is the ninth largest state, covering . United States -- States; and Puerto Rico: GCT-PH1-R. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on March 28, 2008. The highest point in Oregon is the summit of Mount Hood, at , and its lowest point is sea level of the Pacific Ocean along the Oregon coast. Its mean elevation is . Crater Lake National Park is the state's only national park and the site of Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the U.S. at . Oregon claims the D River is the shortest river in the world, though the American state of Montana makes the same claim of its Roe River. Oregon is also home to Mill Ends Park (in Portland), the smallest park in the world at . Oregon is home to what is considered the largest single organism in the world, an Armillaria ostoyae fungus beneath the Malheur National Forest of eastern Oregon. Beale, Bob. 10 April 2003. Humungous fungus: world's largest organism? at Environment & Nature News, ABC Online. Accessed January 2, 2007. Major cities +Ten Most Populous Cities in Oregon: 2008 City Population1. Portland 575,9302. Eugene 154,6203. Salem 154,5104. Gresham 100,6555. Hillsboro 89,2856. Beaverton 86,2057. Bend 80,9958. Medford 76,8509. Springfield 58,00510. Corvallis 54,880 Oregon's population is largely concentrated in the Willamette Valley, which stretches from Eugene in the south (home of the University of Oregon, second largest city in Oregon) through Corvallis (home of Oregon State University) and Salem (the capital, third largest) to Portland (Oregon's largest city). Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River, was the first permanent English-speaking settlement west of Rockies in what is now the United States. Oregon City, at the end of the Oregon Trail, was the Oregon Territory's first incorporated city, and was its first capital from 1848 until 1852, when the capital was moved to Salem. Bend, near the geographic center of the state, is one of the ten fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the United States. 50 Fastest-Growing Metro Areas Concentrated in West and South. U.S. Census Bureau 2005. Retrieved October 16, 2007. In the southern part of the state, Medford is a rapidly growing metro area, which is home to The Rogue Valley International-Medford Airport, the third-busiest airport in the state. Further to the south, near the California-Oregon border, is the community of Ashland, home of the Tony Award-winning Oregon Shakespeare Festival. Climate Oregon's climate—especially in the western part of the state—is heavily influenced by the Pacific Ocean. The climate is generally mild, but periods of extreme hot and cold can affect parts of the state. Precipitation in the state varies widely: the deserts of eastern Oregon, such as the Alvord Desert (in the rain shadow of Steens Mountain), get as little as 200 mm (8 inches) annually, while some western coastal slopes approach 5000 mm (200 inches) annually. Oregon's population centers, which lie mostly in the western part of the state, are generally moist and mild, while the lightly populated high deserts of Central and Eastern Oregon are much drier. + Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures(°F) For Various Oregon Cities Portland, OR monthly averages. US Travel Weather.com. Retrieved October 16, 2007. City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec AnnualPrecipitation Astoria 48/37 51/38 53/39 56/41 60/45 64/50 67/53 68/53 68/50 61/44 53/40 48/37 Bend 40/23 44/25 51/27 57/30 65/36 73/41 81/46 81/46 72/39 62/32 46/28 40/23 Brookings 55/42 56/42 58/42 60/44 63/47 67/50 68/52 68/53 68/51 65/48 58/45 55/41 Burns 35/14 40/19 49/25 57/29 66/36 75/41 85/46 84/44 75/35 62/26 45/21 35/15 Eugene 46/33 51/35 56/37 61/39 67/43 73/47 82/51 82/51 77/47 65/40 52/37 46/33 Medford 47/31 54/33 58/36 64/39 72/44 81/50 90/55 90/55 84/48 70/40 53/35 45/31 Pendleton 40/27 46/31 55/35 62/40 70/46 79/52 88/58 87/57 77/50 64/41 48/34 40/28 Portland 46/37 50/39 56/41 61/44 67/49 79/57 79/58 74/55 63/48 51/42 46/37 Salem 47/34 51/35 56/37 61/39 68/44 74/48 82/52 82/52 77/48 64/41 52/38 46/34 Law and government The Oregon Country functioned as an independent republic with a three-person executive office and a chief executive until August 13, 1848, when Oregon was annexed by the United States, at which time a territorial government was established. Oregon maintained a territorial government until February 14, 1859, when it was granted statehood. State government Oregon state government has a separation of powers similar to the federal government. It has three branches, called departments by the state's constitution: a legislative department (the bicameral Oregon Legislative Assembly), an executive department which includes an "administrative department" and Oregon's governor serving as chief executive, and a judicial department, headed by the Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court. Governors in Oregon serve four year terms and are limited to two consecutive terms, but an unlimited number of total terms. Oregon has no lieutenant governor; in the event that the office of governor is vacated, Article V, Section 8a of the Oregon Constitution specifies that the Secretary of State is first in line for succession. The other statewide officers are Treasurer, Attorney General, Superintendent, and Labor Commissioner. The biennial Oregon Legislative Assembly consists of a thirty-member Senate and a sixty-member House. The state supreme court has seven elected justices, currently including the only two openly gay state supreme court justices in the nation. They choose one of their own to serve a six-year term as Chief Justice. The only court that may reverse or modify a decision of the Oregon Supreme Court is the Supreme Court of the United States. The debate over whether to move to annual sessions is a long-standing battle in Oregon politics, but the voters have resisted the move from citizen legislators to professional lawmakers. Because Oregon's state budget is written in two year increments and, having no sales tax, its revenue is based largely on income taxes, it is often significantly over- or under-budget. Recent legislatures have had to be called into special session repeatedly to address revenue shortfalls resulting from economic downturns, bringing to a head the need for more frequent legislative sessions. The state maintains formal relationships with the nine federally recognized tribes in Oregon: Burns Paiute Tribe Confederated Tribes of Coos, Lower Umpqua and Siuslaw Indians Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Confederated Tribes of Siletz Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Coquille Indian Tribe Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Indians Klamath Tribes Oregonians have voted for the Democratic Presidential candidate in every election since 1988. In 2004 and 2006, Democrats won control of the state Senate and then the House. Since the late 1990s, Oregon has been represented by four Democrats and one Republican in the U.S. House of Representatives, and, until 2009, by one U.S. Senator from each party. In 2009, Democrat Jeff Merkley became the second Democratic senator, joining Ron Wyden. Democratic Governor Ted Kulongoski defeated Republicans in 2002 and 2006, defeating conservative Kevin Mannix and the more moderate Ron Saxton respectively. The base of Democratic support is largely concentrated in the urban centers of the Willamette Valley. In both 2000 and 2004, the Democratic Presidential candidate won Oregon, but did so with majorities in only eight of Oregon's 36 counties. The eastern two-thirds of the state beyond the Cascade Mountains often votes Republican; in 2000 and 2004, George W. Bush carried every county east of the Cascades. However, the region's sparse population means that the more populous counties in the Willamette Valley usually carry the day in statewide elections. Oregon's politics are largely similar to those of neighboring Washington, for instance in the contrast between urban and rural issues. In the 2004 general election, Oregon voters passed ballot measures banning same-sex marriage, and restricting land use regulation. In the 2006 general election, voters restricted the use of eminent domain and extended the state's discount prescription drug coverage. See Summary of 2006 ballot measures The distribution, sales and consumption of alcoholic beverages are regulated in the state by the Oregon Liquor Control Commission. Thus, Oregon is an Alcoholic beverage control state. While wine and beer are available in most grocery stores, comparatively few stores sell hard liquor. Federal government Like all U.S. states, Oregon is represented by two U.S. Senators. Since the 1980 census Oregon has had five Congressional districts. After Oregon was admitted to the Union, it began with a single member in the House of Representatives (La Fayette Grover, who served in the 35th United States Congress for less than a month). Congressional apportionment led to the addition of new members following the censuses of 1890, 1910, 1940, and 1980. A detailed list of the past and present Congressional delegations from Oregon is available. The United States District Court for the District of Oregon hears Federal cases in the state. The court has courthouses in Portland, Eugene, Medford, and Pendleton. Also in Portland is the federal bankruptcy court, with a second branch in Eugene. Oregon (among other western states and territories) is in the 9th Court of Appeals. One of the court's meeting places is at the Pioneer Courthouse in downtown Portland, a National Historic Landmark built in 1869. Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200840.40% 738,475 56.75% 1,037,291200447.19% 866,83151.35% 943,163200046.46% 713,57747.01% 720,342199639.06% 538,15247.15% 649,6411992 32.53% 475,75742.48% 621,3141988 46.61% 560,12651.28% 616,206 Voting results show the state to be politically split by the Cascade Range, with western Oregon being liberal and Eastern Oregon being conservative. In a 2008 analysis of the 2004 presidential election, political analyst and statistician Nate Silver found that according to the application of a Likert scale to 2004 exit polling, Oregon boasted both the most liberal Kerry (D) voters and the most conservative Bush (R) voters, making it the most politically polarized state in the country. During Oregon's history it has adopted many electoral reforms proposed during the Progressive Era, through the efforts of William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League. Under his leadership, the state overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. Today, roughly half of U.S. states do so. In following years, the primary election to select party candidates was adopted in 1904, and in 1908 the Oregon Constitution was amended to include recall of public officials. More recent amendments include the nation's first doctor-assisted suicide law, called the Death with Dignity law (which was challenged, unsuccessfully, in 2005 by the Bush administration in a case heard by the U.S. Supreme Court), legalization of medical cannabis, and among the nation's strongest anti-urban sprawl and pro-environment laws. More recently, 2004's Measure 37 reflects a backlash against such land use laws. However, a further ballot measure in 2007, Measure 49, curtailed many of the provisions of 37. Of the measures placed on the ballot since 1902, the people have passed 99 of the 288 initiatives and 25 of the 61 referendums on the ballot, though not all of them survived challenges in courts (see Pierce v. Society of Sisters, for an example). During the same period, the legislature has referred 363 measures to the people, of which 206 have passed. Oregon pioneered the American use of postal voting, beginning with experimentation authorized by the Oregon Legislative Assembly in 1981 and culminating with a 1998 ballot measure mandating that all counties conduct elections by mail. In the U.S. Electoral College, Oregon casts seven votes. Oregon has supported Democratic candidates in the last six elections. Democrat Barack Obama won the state in 2008 by a margin of sixteen percentage points, with over 56% of the popular vote. Economy Land in the Willamette Valley owes its fertility to the Missoula Floods, which deposited lake sediment from Glacial Lake Missoula in western Montana onto the valley floor. This soil is the source of a wealth of agricultural products, including potatoes, peppermint, hops, apples and other fruits. Oregon is also one of four major world hazelnut growing regions, and produces 95% of the domestic hazelnuts in the United States. While the history of the wine production in Oregon can be traced to before Prohibition, it became a significant industry beginning in the 1970s. In 2005, Oregon ranked third among U.S. states with 303 wineries. Due to regional similarities in climate and soil, the grapes planted in Oregon are often the same varieties found in the French regions of Alsace and Burgundy. In the northeastern region of the state, particularly around Pendleton, both irrigated and dry land wheat is grown. Oregon farmers and ranchers also produce cattle, sheep, dairy products, eggs and poultry. Vast forests have historically made Oregon one of the nation's major timber production and logging states, but forest fires (such as the Tillamook Burn), over-harvesting, and lawsuits over the proper management of the extensive federal forest holdings have reduced the amount of timber produced. According to the Oregon Forest Resources Institute, between 1989 and 2001 the amount of timber harvested from federal lands dropped some 96%, from 4,333 million to 173 million board feet (10,000,000 to 408,000 m³), although harvest levels on private land have remained relatively constant. Even the shift in recent years towards finished goods such as paper and building materials has not slowed the decline of the timber industry in the state. The effects of this decline have included Weyerhaeuser's acquisition of Portland-based Willamette Industries in January 2002, the relocation of Louisiana-Pacific's corporate headquarters from Portland to Nashville, and the decline of former lumber company towns such as Gilchrist. Despite these changes, Oregon still leads the United States in softwood lumber production; in 2001, 6,056 million board feet (14,000,000 m³) was produced in Oregon, compared to 4,257 million board feet (10,050,000 m³) in Washington, 2,731 million board feet (6,444,000 m³) in California, 2,413 million board feet (5,694,000 m³) in Georgia, and 2,327 million board feet (5,491,000 m³) in Mississippi. The effect of the forest industry crunch is still extensive unemployment in rural Oregon and is a bone of contention between rural and urban Oregon. Oregon occasionally hosts film shoots. Movies wholly or partially filmed in Oregon include: Rooster Cogburn,The Goonies, National Lampoon's Animal House, Stand By Me, Kindergarten Cop, Overboard, The River Wild, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Paint Your Wagon, The Hunted, Sometimes a Great Notion, Elephant, Bandits, The Ring, The Ring Two, Quarterback Princess, Mr. Brooks, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, Short Circuit, Come See the Paradise, The Shining, Drugstore Cowboy, My Own Private Idaho, The Postman, Homeward Bound, Free Willy, Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home, 1941, Swordfish, Twilight, Untraceable, and Wendy and Lucy. Oregon native Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, has incorporated many references from his hometown of Portland into the TV series. Oregon's scenic coastal and mountain highways are frequently seen in automobile commercials. In late 2008, Hells Canyon and Oregon's badlands were a set location for an episode of Man vs. Wild. http://beargrylls.blogspot.com/2008/11/man-vs-wildborn-survivor-complete.html#links +Largest Public Corporations Headquartered in Oregon Corporation Headquarters Market cap (million)1. Nike, Inc.near Beaverton$32,0392. Precision Castparts Corp. Portland$16,1583. FLIR SystemsWilsonville$4,2504. StanCorp Financial GroupPortland$2,4955. Schnitzer Steel IndustriesPortland$1,9746. Portland General ElectricPortland$1,7377. Columbia Sportswearnear Beaverton$1,5938. Northwest Natural GasPortland$1,2879. Mentor GraphicsWilsonville$97610. TriQuint SemiconductorHillsboro$938 High technology industries and services have been a major employer since the 1970s. Tektronix was the largest private employer in Oregon until the late 1980s. Intel's creation and expansion of several facilities in eastern Washington County continued the growth that Tektronix had started. Intel, the state's largest for-profit private employer, operates four large facilities, with Ronler Acres, Jones Farm and Hawthorn Farm all located in Hillsboro. The spinoffs and startups that were produced by these two companies led to the establishment in that area of the so-called Silicon Forest. The recession and dot-com bust of 2001 hit the region hard; many high technology employers reduced the number of their employees or went out of business. Open Source Development Labs made news in 2004 when they hired Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel. Recently, biotechnology giant Genentech purchased several acres of land in Hillsboro in an effort to expand its production capabilities. Oregon is also the home of large corporations in other industries. The world headquarters of Nike, Inc. are located near Beaverton. Medford is home to two of the largest mail order companies in the country: Harry and David Operations Corp. which sells gift items under several brands, and Musician's Friend, an international catalog and Internet retailer of musical instruments and related products. Medford is also home to the national headquarters of the Fortune 1000 company, Lithia Motors. Portland is home to one of the West's largest trade book publishing houses, Graphic Arts Center Publishing. Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries in the world, although ocean fisheries have reduced the river fisheries in recent years. Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen mountain forests, waterfalls, pristine lakes (including Crater Lake National Park), and scenic beaches draw visitors year round. The Oregon Shakespeare Festival, held in Ashland, is a tourist draw which complements the southern region of the state's scenic beauty and opportunity for outdoor activities. Oregon is home to many breweries and Portland has the largest number of breweries of any city in the world. Portland reportedly has more strip clubs per capita than Las Vegas or San Francisco. Oregon's gross state product is $132.66 billion as of 2006, making it the 27th largest GSP in the nation. Taxes and budgets Oregon's biennial state budget, $42.4 billion as of 2007, comprises General Funds, Federal Funds, Lottery Funds, and Other Funds. Personal income taxes account for 88% of the General Fund's projected funds. The Lottery Fund, which has grown steadily since the lottery was approved in 1984, exceeded expectations in the 2007 fiscal years, at $604 million. Oregon is one of only five states that have no sales tax. Oregon voters have been resolute in their opposition to a sales tax, voting proposals down each of the nine times they have been presented. The last vote, for 1993's Measure 1, was defeated by a 72–24% margin. The state also has a minimum corporate tax of only $10 per year, amounting to 5.6% of the General Fund in the 2005–2007 biennium; data about what businesses pay the minimum is not available to the public. As a result, the state relies almost entirely on property and income taxes for its revenue. Oregon has the fifth highest personal income tax per person in the nation. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Oregon ranked 41st out of the 50 states in taxes per person in 2005. The average paid of $1,791.45 is higher than only nine other states. Some local governments levy sales taxes on services: the city of Ashland, for example, collects a 5% sales tax on prepared food. Oregon is one of six states with a revenue limit. The "kicker law" stipulates that when income tax collections exceed state economists' estimates by 2 percent or more, all of the excess must be returned to taxpayers. Since the inception of the law in 1979, refunds have been issued for seven of the eleven biennia. In 2000, Ballot Measure 86 converted the "kicker" law from statute to the Oregon Constitution, and changed some of its provisions. Federal payments to county governments, which were granted to replace timber revenue when logging in National Forests was restricted in the 1990s, have been under threat of suspension for several years. This issue dominates the future revenue of rural counties, which have come to rely on the payments in providing essential services. 55% of state revenues are spent on public education, 23% on human services (child protective services, Medicaid, and senior services), 17% on public safety, and 5% on other services. 2006 Oregon full-year resident tax form instructions Demographics As of 2005, Oregon has an estimated population of 3,641,056, which is an increase of 49,693, or 1.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 219,620, or 6.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 75,196 people (that is 236,557 births minus 161,361 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 150,084 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 72,263 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 77,821 people. The center of population of Oregon is located in Linn County, in the city of Lyons. More than 42% of the state's population lives in the Portland metropolitan area. As of 2004, Oregon's population included 309,700 foreign-born residents (accounting for 8.7% of the state population) The largest reported ancestry groups in Oregon are: German (20.5%), English (13.2%), Irish (11.9%), American (6.2%), and Mexican (5.5%). Most Oregon counties are inhabited principally by residents of European ancestry. Concentrations of Mexican Americans are highest in Malheur and Jefferson counties. The majority of the diversity in Oregon is in the Portland metropolitan area. Oregon ranks 16th highest for population that is "white alone," with 86.1% in 2006. R0201. Percent of the Total Population Who Are White Alone: 2006 Accessed 8 March, 2008. Over two-thirds of Oregon's African-American population lives in Portland. 6.5% of Oregon's population were reported as less than 5 years old, 24.7% under 18, and 12.8% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.4% of the population. Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 348,239; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 104,312; and the Assemblies of God with 49,357. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/41_2000.asp Of the U.S. states, Oregon has the fourth largest percentage of people identifying themselves as "non-religious", at 21 percent, after Colorado, Washington, and Vermont. However, 75–79% of Oregonians identify themselves as being Christian , and some hold deeply conservative convictions. During much of the 1990s a group of conservative Christians formed the Oregon Citizens Alliance, and unsuccessfully tried to pass legislation to prevent "gay sensitivity training" in public schools and legal benefits for homosexual couples. Wentz, Patty. He’s Back. Willamette Week, February 11, 1998. Retrieved on March 14, 2008. Oregon also contains the largest community of Russian Old Believers to be found in the United States. Binus, Joshua. The Oregon History Project: Russian Old Believers. Oregon Historical Society. Retrieved on March 14, 2008. Additionally, Oregon, particularly the Portland metropolitan area, has become known as a center of non-mainstream spirituality. The Northwest Tibetan Cultural Association, reported to be the largest such institution of its kind, is headquartered in Portland, and the popular New Age film What the Bleep Do We Know!? was filmed and had its premiere in Portland. There are an estimated 6 to 10 thousand Muslims of various ethnic backgrounds in Oregon. Islam in Oregon and America -- The Facts 2000–2003 population trends Estimates released show double-digit growth in Latino and Asian American populations since the 2000 Census. About 60% of the 138,197 new residents come from ethnic and racial minorities. Asian growth is located mostly in the metropolitan areas of Portland, Salem, Medford and Eugene; Hispanic population growth is across the state. Education Primary and secondary As of 2005, the state had 559,215 students in public primary and secondary schools. Oregon Blue Book: Oregon Almanac: Native Americans to Shoes, Oldest. Oregon Secretary of State. Retrieved on March 28, 2008. There were 199 public school districts at that time, served by 20 education service districts. The five largest school districts as of 2007 were: Portland Public Schools (46,262 students), Salem-Keizer School District (40,106), Beaverton School District (37,821), Hillsboro School District (20,401), and Eugene School District (18,025). Oregon Public School Enrollment Increases during 2007-08. Oregon Department of Education. Retrieved on March 28, 2008. Colleges and universities Public The Oregon University System supports seven public universities and one affiliate in the state. The University of Oregon in Eugene is Oregon's flagship liberal arts institution, and was the state's only nationally ranked university by U.S. News & World Report. USNews.com: America's Best Colleges 2008: National Universities: Top Schools Oregon State University is located in Corvallis and holds the distinction of being the state's flagship in science, engineering and agricultural research and academics. The university is also the state's highest ranking university/college in a world survey of academic merit. The State has three regional universities: Western Oregon University in Monmouth, Southern Oregon University in Ashland, and Eastern Oregon University in La Grande. Portland State University is Oregon's largest. The Oregon Institute of Technology has its campus in Klamath Falls. The affiliate Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU) comprises a medical, dental, and nursing school in Portland and a science and engineering school in Hillsboro. Oregon has historically struggled to fund higher education. Recently, Oregon has cut its higher education budget over 2002–2006 and now Oregon ranks 46th in the country in state spending per student. However, 2007 legislation forced tuition increases to cap at 3% per year, and funded the OUS far beyond the requested governor's budget. The state also supports 17 community colleges. Private Oregon is home to a wide variety of private colleges. The University of Portland and Marylhurst University are Catholic institutions in the Portland area. Reed College, Concordia University, Lewis & Clark College, Multnomah Bible College, Portland Bible College, Warner Pacific College, Cascade College, the National College of Natural Medicine and Western Seminary, a theological graduate school, are also in Portland. Pacific University is in the Portland suburb of Forest Grove. There are also private colleges further south in the Willamette Valley. McMinnville has Linfield College, while nearby Newberg is home to George Fox University. Salem is home to two private schools, Willamette University (the state's oldest, established during the provisional period) and Corban College. Also located near Salem is Mount Angel Seminary, one of America's largest Roman Catholic seminaries. Eugene is home to three private colleges: Northwest Christian University, Eugene Bible College, and Gutenberg College. Sports The only major professional sports team in Oregon is the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the team was one of the most successful teams in the NBA in terms of both win-loss record and attendance. In the early 2000s, the team's popularity declined due to personnel and financial issues, but revived after the departure of controversial players and the acquisition of new players such as Brandon Roy, LaMarcus Aldridge, and Greg Oden. The Blazers play in the Rose Garden in Portland's Lloyd District, which is also home to the Portland LumberJax of the National Lacrosse League and the Portland Winterhawks of the junior-league Western Hockey League. Portland has two minor-league sports teams who play at PGE Park: The Portland Timbers of the USL First Division are a very popular soccer team, and the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League are the Triple-A affiliate of the San Diego Padres. Portland has actively pursued a Major League Baseball team. Eugene and Salem also have minor-league baseball teams. The Eugene Emeralds and the Salem-Keizer Volcanoes both play in the Single-A Northwest League. Oregon also has four teams in the fledgling International Basketball League: the Portland Chinooks, Central Oregon Hotshots, Salem Stampede, and the Eugene Chargers. The Oregon State Beavers and the University of Oregon Ducks football teams of the Pacific-10 Conference meet annually in the Civil War, one of the oldest college football rivalries in the United States, dating back to 1894. Both schools have had recent success in other sports as well: Oregon State won back-to-back college baseball championships in 2006 and 2007, and the University of Oregon won back-to-back NCAA men's cross country championships in 2007 and 2008. Sister states , Fujian Province - 1984 , Taiwan Province - 1985 , Toyama Prefecture - 1991 , Jeollanam-do Province - 1996 See also Index of Oregon-related articles List of Oregon state symbols References Further reading Excursion to the Oregon by John Kirk Townsend New map of Texas, Oregon and California with the regions adjoining, compiled from the more recent authorities by Samuel Augustus Mitchell Accompaniment to Mitchell's New map of Texas, Oregon, and California, with the regions adjoining by Samuel Augustus Mitchell External links State of Oregon (official website) Oregon Blue Book, the online version of the state's official directory and fact book TravelOregon.com an official website of the Oregon Tourism Commission'' Oregon Historical Society Oregon State Databases, an annotated list, in wiki form, of searchable databases produced by Oregon state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association Real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Oregon from the United States Geological Survey Oregon Quickfacts from the United States Census Bureau Oregon State Facts from the United States Department of Agriculture Related information | Oregon |@lemmatized oregon:215 state:129 pacific:16 northwest:10 region:16 united:21 area:19 inhabit:2 many:9 indigenous:1 tribe:10 arrival:1 trader:1 explorer:3 settler:3 territory:4 create:2 american:14 settlement:6 begin:6 earnest:2 become:5 february:4 locate:8 coast:8 washington:8 north:7 california:8 south:7 nevada:1 southeast:2 idaho:2 east:7 columbia:18 snake:2 river:25 delineate:1 much:6 northern:2 eastern:12 boundary:2 respectively:2 salem:12 third:7 populous:5 city:17 capital:4 portland:49 currently:2 large:30 u:25 population:22 estimate:6 metro:5 valley:12 willamette:11 western:16 densely:1 populated:1 agriculturally:1 productive:1 home:21 eight:2 ten:3 million:11 increase:10 reach:1 profit:2 private:10 employer:5 intel:3 silicon:2 forest:15 west:12 side:3 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1,326 | Hunter_S._Thompson | Hunter Stockton Thompson (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author, most famous for his novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He is credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of reporting where reporters involve themselves in the action to such a degree that they become central figures of their stories. He is also known for his use of psychedelics, alcohol, firearms, and his iconoclastic contempt for authority. Biography Early years A native of Louisville, Kentucky, Thompson grew up in the Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of the Highlands. He was the first son of Jack Robert (1893 – July 3, 1952), an insurance adjuster and a U.S. Army veteran who served in France during World War I, and Virginia Davidson Ray (1908 – 1998). Introduced by a mutual friend from Jack's fraternity in 1934, they married in 1935. Jack died of myasthenia gravis, a neuromuscular disease, on July 3, 1952, when Hunter was 14 years old, leaving three sons — Hunter, Davison, and James (1949–1993) — to be brought up by their mother. Contemporaries indicated that after Jack's death, Virginia became a "heavy drinker." Interested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson joined Louisville’s Castlewood Athletic Club, a sports club for teenagers that prepared them for high-school sports, where he excelled in baseball, though he never joined any sports teams in high school, where he was constantly in trouble. Education Thompson attended the I.N. Bloom Elementary School, and then Atherton High School, transferring to Louisville Male High School in 1952 following the death of his father. That same year he was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that had been founded at Male High in 1862. Its members at the time, generally drawn from Louisville’s wealthy upper-class families, included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of Rolling Stone. As an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles and helped edit the club’s yearbook The Spectator; however, the group ejected Thompson from its membership in 1955, citing his legal problems. Charged as an accessory to robbery after having been in a car with the person who committed the robbery, Thompson was sentenced to serve 60 days in Kentucky’s Jefferson County Jail. He served 30 days of his sentence, and joined the U.S. Air Force a week after his release. Military career Thompson did his basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, and later transferred to Scott Air Force Base in Illinois to study electronics. He applied to become a pilot but was rejected by the Air Force's aviation-cadet program. In 1956, he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base, near Pensacola, Florida. There he worked in the information-services department and became the sports editor of the base's newspaper, The Command Courier. In this capacity, he covered the Eglin Eagles, a base football team that included such future professional stars as Max McGee and Zeke Bratkowski. Thompson traveled with the team around the U.S., covering its games. In 1957, he also wrote a sports column anonymously for The Playground News, a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. Thompson left the Air Force in 1958 as an Airman First Class, having been recommended for an early honorable discharge by his commanding officer. "In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy," Col. William S. Evans, chief of information services wrote to the Eglin personnel office. "Sometimes his rebel and superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members." Thompson claimed in a mock press release he wrote about the end of his duty to have been issued a "totally unclassifiable" status. Rolfsen, Jeff (February 21, 2005) Writer Hunter S. Thompson commits suicide. Air Force Times. . Retrieved February 22, 2007. Early journalism career After the Air Force, he worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania before moving to New York City. There he attended Columbia University's School of General Studies part-time on the G.I. Bill, taking classes in short-story writing. During this time he worked briefly for Time, as a copy boy for $51 a week. While working, he used a typewriter to copy F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby and Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms in order to learn about the writing styles of the authors. In 1959, Time fired him for insubordination. Later that year, he worked as a reporter for The Middletown Daily Record in Middletown, New York. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper. Cover of The Rum Diary, showing a young Thompson at the beach in what was meant to portray San Juan, Puerto Rico, but was actually Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1960 Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine El Sportivo, which soon folded. Thompson had first unsuccessfully applied for a job with the Puerto Rico English-language daily The San Juan Star and its managing editor, future novelist William Kennedy. New York State Writers Institute William Kennedy Biography. After the demise of El Sportivo, Thompson worked as a stringer for the New York Herald Tribune and a few stateside papers on Caribbean issues with Kennedy working as his editor. Hunter S. Thompson: "Proud Highway" NPR Interview 7 August 1997 After returning to the States, Hunter lived in California, working as a security guard and caretaker at the Big Sur Hot Springs for an eight-month period in 1961, just before it became the Esalen Institute. While there, he was able to publish his first magazine feature in the nationally-distributed Rogue magazine on the artisan and bohemian culture of Big Sur. The article got him fired from his job as a caretaker. During this period, Thompson wrote two novels, Prince Jellyfish and The Rum Diary, and submitted many short stories to publishers with little success. The Rum Diary, which fictionalized Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico, was eventually published in 1998, long after Thompson had become famous. From May 1962 to May 1963, Thompson traveled to South America as a correspondent for a Dow Jones-owned weekly newspaper, the National Observer. In Brazil, he spent several months working also as a reporter on the Brazil Herald, the country's only English-language daily, published in Rio de Janeiro. His longtime girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (aka Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) later joined him in Rio. Thompson and Conklin were married on May 19, 1963, shortly after they returned to the United States. They briefly relocated to Aspen, Colorado, and had one son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, born March 23, 1964. The couple conceived five more times together. Three of the pregnancies were miscarried, and the other two pregnancies produced infants who died shortly after birth. Hunter and Sandy divorced in 1980 but remained close friends until Thompson's death. In 1964 the Thompson family then moved to Glen Ellen, California, where Thompson continued to write for the National Observer on an array of domestic subjects, including a story about his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, in order to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide. Brinkley, Douglas (March 24, 2005) "Last Days at Owl Farm" Rolling Stone. While working on the story, Thompson symbolically stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin. Thompson and the editors at the Observer eventually had a falling out after the paper refused to print Thompson's review of Tom Wolfe's 1965 essay collection The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, Brinkley, Douglas or Sadler, Shelby. Introduction to letter to Tom Wolfe, p.43. and he moved to San Francisco, immersing himself in the drug and hippie culture that was taking root in the area. About this time he began writing for the Berkeley underground paper The Spyder.<ref>Louison, Cole This is skag folks, pure skag: Hunter Thompson Buzzsaw Haircut'.' Retrieved October 12, 2006.</ref> Hells Angels In 1965, Carey McWilliams, editor of The Nation, offered Thompson the opportunity to write a story based on his experience with the California-based Hells Angels motorcycle gang. After The Nation published the article (May 17, 1965), Thompson received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the Hell's Angels. The relationship broke down when the bikers suspected that Thompson would make money from his writing. The gang demanded a share of the profits and after an argument at a party Thompson ended up with a savage beating, or 'stomping' as the Angels referred to it. Random House published the hard cover Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs in 1966. A reviewer for The New York Times praised it as an "angry, knowledgeable, fascinating and excitedly written book," that shows the Hells Angels "not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits — emotionally, intellectually and educationally unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers." The reviewer also praised Thompson as a "spirited, witty, observant and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust." Fremont-Smith, Eliot (February 23, 1967) "Books of The Times; Motorcycle Misfits—Fiction and Fact." The New York Times, p.33. Following the success of Hells Angels, Thompson was able to publish articles in a number of well-known magazines during the late 1960s, including The New York Times Magazine, Esquire, Pageant, and others. In the Times Magazine article, published in 1967 shortly before the "Summer of Love" and entitled "The Hashbury is the Capital of the Hippies", Thompson wrote in-depth about the hippies of San Francisco, deriding a culture that began to lack the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, instead becoming overrun with newcomers lacking any purpose other than obtaining drugs. Thompson, Hunter S. The Hashbury Is the Capital of the Hippie http://ugly-flashbacks.livejournal.com/1843.html The New York Times Magazine May 17, 1967 It was an observation on the 60s' counterculture that Thompson would further examine in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and other articles. According to Thompson's letters and his later writings, at this time he planned to write a book called The Joint Chiefs about "the death of the American dream." He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel on the 1968 Presidential campaign trail and attend the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago for research purposes. From his hotel room in Chicago, Thompson watched the clashes between police and protesters, which he wrote had a great effect on his political views. The planned book was never finished, but the theme of the death of the American dream would be carried over into his later work, and the contract with Random House was eventually fulfilled with the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Thompson also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called The Johnson File about Lyndon B. Johnson. A few weeks after the contract was signed, however, Johnson announced that he would not stand for re-election, and the deal was cancelled. By late 1967, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small mountain hamlet outside Aspen. In early 1969, Thompson finally received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback sales of Hells Angels and used two-thirds of the money for a down payment on a modest home and property in Woody Creek where Thompson would live for the rest of his life. He named the house Owl Farm and often described this house as his "fortified compound". A modification of one of the original Gonzo flyers/Aspen Wallposters created with artist Tom Benton during Thompson's bid for sheriff of Aspen, Colorado. Middle years In 1970 Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices on the "Freak Power" ticket. The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, and renaming Aspen "Fat City" to deter investors. Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to his opponent as "my long-haired opponent", as the Republican candidate had a crew cut. With polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at Rolling Stone magazine headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about to be elected the next sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the Freak Power movement. Anson, Robert Sam (December 10, 1976) Rolling Stone Pt. 2: Hunter Thompson Meets Fear and Loathing Face to Face New Times Thus, Thompson's first article in Rolling Stone was published as The Battle of Aspen with the byline "By: Dr. Hunter S. Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff)." Despite the publicity, Thompson ended up narrowly losing the election. While actually carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what became a two-way race as the Republican candidate for sheriff agreed to withdraw from the contest a few days before the election in order to consolidate the anti-Thompson votes, in return for the Democrats withdrawing their candidate for county commissioner. Thompson later remarked that the Rolling Stone article mobilized his opposition far more than his supporters. Thompson, Hunter S. (2003) Kingdom of Fear Simon & Schuster. p.95. Birth of Gonzo Also in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved for the short-lived new journalism magazine Scanlan's Monthly. Although it was not widely read at the time, the article is the first of Thompson's to use techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style he would later employ in almost every literary endeavor. The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook. Ralph Steadman, who would later collaborate with Thompson on several projects, contributed expressionist pen-and-ink illustrations. The first use of the word Gonzo to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso. Cardoso had first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary. In 1970, Cardoso (who, by this time had become the editor of The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine) wrote to Thompson praising the "Kentucky Derby" piece in Scanlan's Monthly as a breakthrough: "This is it, this is pure Gonzo. If this is a start, keep rolling." Thompson took to the word right away, and according to illustrator Ralph Steadman said, "Okay, that's what I do. Gonzo." Martin, Douglas, (March 16, 2006) Bill Cardoso, 68, Editor Who Coined 'Gonzo', Is Dead. The New York Times. Thompson's first published use of the word Gonzo appears in a passage in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream: "Free Enterprise. The American Dream. Horatio Alger had gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism." Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas Thompson (left), with Oscar Acosta, at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, 1971 The book for which Thompson gained most of his fame had its genesis during the research for Strange Rumblings in Aztlan, an exposé for Rolling Stone on the 1970 killing of the Mexican-American television journalist Ruben Salazar. Salazar had been shot in the head at close range with a tear gas canister fired by officers of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War. One of Thompson's sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a prominent Mexican-American activist and attorney. Finding it difficult to talk in the racially tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, Nevada, and take advantage of an assignment by Sports Illustrated to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400 motorcycle race held there. What was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely. Thompson first submitted to Sports Illustrated a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, "aggressively rejected." Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner was said to have liked "the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it," Thompson later wrote. The result of the trip to Las Vegas became the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas which first appeared in the November 1971 issues of Rolling Stone as a two-part series. It is written as a first-person account by a journalist named Raoul Duke on a trip to Las Vegas with Dr. Gonzo, his "300-pound Samoan attorney," to cover a narcotics officers' convention and the "fabulous Mint 400". During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as "my attorney") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with "...two bags of grass, seventy-five pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multi-colored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers [...] and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls." Coming to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book was greeted with considerable critical acclaim, including being heralded by the New York Times as "by far the best book yet written on the decade of dope". Woods, Crawford (July 23, 1972) The New York Times Book Review. "The Vegas Book", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to the masses. Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail, 1972 Within the next year, Thompson wrote extensively for Rolling Stone while covering the election campaigns of President Richard Nixon and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator George McGovern. The articles were soon combined and published as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. As the title suggests, Thompson spent nearly all of his time traveling the "campaign trail," focusing largely on the Democratic Party's primaries (Nixon, as an incumbent, performed little campaign work) in which McGovern competed with rival candidates Ed Muskie and Hubert Humphrey. Thompson was an early supporter of McGovern, and it could be argued that his unflattering coverage of the rival campaigns in the increasingly widely read Rolling Stone played a role in the senator's nomination. Thompson went on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in 1994, Thompson famously described him in Rolling Stone as a man who "could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time" and said "his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He] was an evil man—evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the Devil can understand it." Thompson, Hunter S. (June 15, 1994) He Was A Crook Rolling Stone The one passion they shared was a love of football, which is discussed in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. Thompson was to provide Rolling Stone similar coverage for the 1976 Presidential Campaign that would appear in a book published by the magazine. Reportedly, as Thompson was waiting for a $75,000 advance cheque to arrive, he learned that Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner had pulled the plug on the endeavor without telling Thompson. Wenner then asked Thompson to travel to Vietnam to report on what appeared to be the closing of the Vietnam War. Thompson accepted, and left for Saigon immediately. He arrived with the country in chaos, just as the United States was preparing to evacuate and other journalists were scrambling to find transportation out of the region. While there, Thompson learned that Wenner had pulled the plug on this excursion as well, and Thompson found himself in Vietnam without health insurance or additional financial support. Thompson's story about the fall of Saigon would not be published in Rolling Stone until ten years later. These two incidents severely strained the relationship between the author and the magazine, and Thompson contributed far less to the publication in later years. Later years The year 1980 marked both his divorce from Sandra Conklin and the release of Where the Buffalo Roam, a loose film adaptation of situations from Thompson's early 1970s work, with Bill Murray starring as the author. Murray would go on to become one of Thompson's only trusted friends . After the lukewarm reception of the film, Thompson temporarily relocated to Hawaii to work on a book, The Curse of Lono, a Gonzo-style account of a marathon held in that state. Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in Running magazine in 1981 as "The Charge of the Weird Brigade" and was excerpted in Playboy in 1983. The Great Thompson Hunt - Books - The Curse of Lono The Curse of Lono, with cover art by Ralph Steadman On July 21, 1981, in Aspen, Colorado, Thompson was pulled over for running a stop sign at 2 a.m., and began to "rave" at a state trooper. He also refused to submit to intoxication tests. Consequently he was arrested, but the drunk-driving charges against him were later dropped. In 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada but would not discuss these experiences until the publication of Kingdom of Fear 20 years later. Later that year he authored a piece for Rolling Stone called "A Dog Took My Place," an exposé of the scandalous Roxanne Pulitzer divorce and what he termed the "Palm Beach lifestyle." The article contained dubious insinuations of bestiality (among other things) but was considered to be a return to proper form by many. Shortly thereafter, Thompson accepted an advance to write about "couples pornography" for Playboy. As part of his research, in the spring of 1985 he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theater striptease club in San Francisco and his experience there eventually evolved into a full-length nonfiction novel tentatively titled The Night Manager. Neither the novel nor the article has been published. At the behest of old friend and editor Warren Hinckle, Thompson became a media critic for the San Francisco Examiner from the mid-1980s until the end of that decade. Thompson's editor at the Examiner, David McCumber (who would write a Mitchell brothers biography not long after Jim Mitchell fatally shot his brother Art in 1991), was reportedly deeply disappointed in the quality of Thompson's Examiner columns. In 1990 former porn director Gail Palmer visited Thompson's home in Woody Creek. She later accused him of sexual assault, claiming that he twisted her breast when she refused to join him in the hot tub. She also described cocaine use to authorities. A six person 11 hour search of Thompson's home turned up various kinds of drugs and a few sticks of dynamite. Aspen Journal; New Fear and Loathing: Gonzo Writer on Trial, The New York Times, May 22, 1990 All charges were dismissed after a pre-trial hearing. Thompson would later describe this experience at length in Kingdom of Fear. By the early 1990s Thompson was said to be working on a fictional novel called Polo Is My Life, which was briefly excerpted in Rolling Stone in 1994, and which Hunter himself described in 1996 as "...a sex book — you know, sex, drugs and rock and roll. It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains. He falls in love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco". Sara Nelson 1996 Interview with Hunter S. Thompson The Book Report The novel was slated to be released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned ISBN 0679406948, but was not actually published. Thompson continued to contribute irregularly to Rolling Stone. "Fear and Loathing in Elko," published in 1992, was a well-received fictional rallying cry against Clarence Thomas, while "Mr. Bill's Neighborhood" was a largely non-fictional account of an interview with Bill Clinton in an Arkansas diner. Rather than embarking on the campaign trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings from cable television; Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie, his account of the 1992 Presidential Election campaign, is composed of reactionary faxes sent to Rolling Stone. A decade later, he contributed "Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004" — an account of a road jaunt with John Kerry during his presidential campaign that would be Thompson's final magazine feature. Thompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the Governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony where he also received keys to the city of Louisville. Whitehead, Ron. Hunter S. Thompson, Kentucky Colonel Reykjaviks Magazine March 11, 2005 http://www.grapevine.is/Home/ReadArticle/Hunter-S-Thompson-1937-2005 The Gonzo Papers Hunter S. Thompson at the Miami Book Fair International of 1988 Despite publishing a novel and numerous newspaper and magazine articles, the majority of Thompson's literary output after the late 1970s took the form of a 4-volume series of books called The Gonzo Papers. Beginning with The Great Shark Hunt in 1979 and ending with Better Than Sex in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-gonzo period, along with almost all of his Rolling Stone short pieces, excerpts from the Fear and Loathing... books, and so on. By the late 1970s Thompson received complaints from critics, fans and friends that he was regurgitating his past glories without much new on his part; The Great Thompson Hunt - HST & Friends - Rolling Stone College Papers 1980 these concerns are alluded to in the introduction of The Great Shark Hunt, where Thompson suggested that his "old self" committed suicide. Perhaps in response to this, as well as the strained relationship with Rolling Stone, and the failure of his marriage, Thompson became more reclusive after 1980. He would often retreat to his compound in Woody Creek and reject assignments or refuse to complete them. Despite the dearth of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the Rolling Stone masthead as chief of the "National Affairs Desk," a position he would hold until his death. Fear and Loathing Redux Thompson's work was popularized again with the 1998 release of the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which opened to considerable fanfare. The novel was reprinted to coincide with the film, and Thompson's work was introduced to a new generation of readers. Soon thereafter, Thompson's "long lost" novel The Rum Diary was published, as were the first two volumes of his collected letters, which were greeted with critical acclaim. Thompson's next, and penultimate, collection, Kingdom of Fear, was a combination of new material, selected newspaper clippings, and some older works. Released in 2003, it was perceived by critics to be an angry, vitriolic commentary on the passing of the American Century and the state of affairs after the September 2001 attacks. Hunter married Anita Bejmuk, his long-time assistant, on April 23, 2003. Thompson ended his journalism career in the same way it had begun: writing about sports. Thompson penned a weekly column called "Hey, Rube" for ESPN.com's "Page 2". The column ran from 2000 to shortly before his death in 2005. Simon & Schuster bundled many of the columns from the first few years and released it in mid-2004 as Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness - Modern History from the Sports Desk. Death Thompson died at his self-described "fortified compound" known as "Owl Farm" in Woody Creek, Colorado, at 5:42 p.m. on February 20, 2005, from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. Thompson's son (Juan), daughter-in-law (Jennifer Winkel Thompson) and grandson (Will Thompson) were visiting for the weekend at the time of his suicide. Will and Jennifer were in the adjacent room when they heard the gunshot. Mistaking the shot for the sound of a book falling, they continued with their activities for a few minutes before checking on him. The police report concerning his death stated that in a typewriter in front of Thompson, they found "a piece of paper carrying the date 'Feb 22 '05' and the single word 'counselor'." They reported to the press that they do not believe his suicide was out of desperation, but was a well-thought out act resulting from Thompson's many painful and chronic medical conditions. Thompson's wife, Anita, who was at a gym at the time of her husband's death, was on the phone with him when he ended his life. What family and police describe as a suicide note was delivered to his wife four days before his death and later published by Rolling Stone. Entitled "Football Season Is Over," it read: "No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17 years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun — for anybody. 67. You are getting Greedy. Act your old age. Relax — This won't hurt." Artist and friend Ralph Steadman wrote: "...He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at any moment. I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell — rest assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to — and go there. He could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too — and Peacocks..." Steadman, Ralph (February 2005). "Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005". Retrieved March 19, 2005. Funeral On August 20, 2005, in a private ceremony, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon atop a tower of his own design (in the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button) to the tune of Norman Greenbaum's "Spirit in the Sky" and Bob Dylan's Mr. Tambourine Man. Hunter Thompson Blown Sky High Red, white, blue, and green fireworks were launched along with his ashes. As the city of Aspen would not allow the cannon to remain for more than a month, the cannon has been dismantled and put into storage until a suitable permanent location can be found. According to his widow Anita, Thompson's funeral was financed by actor Johnny Depp, a close friend of Thompson. Depp told the Associated Press, "All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out." Hunter Thompson Blown Sky High Other famous attendees at the funeral included U.S. Senator John Kerry and former U.S. Senator George McGovern; 60 Minutes correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, Bill Murray, Benicio Del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; singers Lyle Lovett, John Oates and numerous other friends. An estimated 280 people attended the funeral. The plans for this monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Ralph Steadman and were shown as part of an Omnibus program on the BBC entitled Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2003 Criterion Collection DVD release of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (labeled on the DVD as "Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood"). The video footage of Steadman and Thompson drawing the plans and outdoor footage showing where he wanted the cannon constructed were planned prior to the unveiling of his cannon at the funeral. Legacy Writing style Thompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between fiction and nonfiction. His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream reportage of the time. Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own experiences and emotions to color "the story" he was trying to follow. His writing aimed to be humorous, colorful and bizarre, and he often exaggerated events to be more entertaining. The term Gonzo has since been applied in kind to numerous other forms of highly subjective artistic expression. Despite his having personally described his work as "Gonzo," later observers attempted to describe more precisely what the phrase actually meant. While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the other. Thompson, in a 1974 Interview in Playboy addressed the issue himself, saying "Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They’re both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don’t think of myself as a reporter." Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as "...part journalism and part personal memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric." Wolfe, Tom (February 22, 2005) As Gonzo in Life as in His Work The majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of Rolling Stone Magazine. Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to the magazine. Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed. Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go to press. Robert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at Rolling Stone, wrote that "the dividing line between fact and fancy rarely blurred, and we didn’t always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the fabulous. But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps....Hunter was close friends with many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt, we’d call the press secretary. 'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,' he once said, and he was right." Discerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors and fact-checkers of his work. Love called fact-checking Thompson's work "one of the sketchiest occupations ever created in the publishing world," and "for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn’t know what was real and what wasn’t. You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when the riff began and reality ended. Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers, for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it." Love, Robert. (May-June 2005) Persona Thompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing as well, sometimes using the name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist who constantly drank alcohol and took hallucinogenic drugs. Fantasizing about causing bodily harm to others was also a characteristic in his work and according to the book "Hunter" by E. Jean Carroll, he would often deliver anecdotes about threatening to rape prostitutes, which also could have been jokes and just another example of his brand of humor. In the late sixties, Thompson obtained his famous title of "Doctor" from the Universal Life Church. The Great Thompson Hunt - HST & Friends - Who Is (Dr.) Hunter S. Thompson? He later preferred to be called Dr. Thompson, and his "alter-ego" Raoul Duke called himself a "doctor of journalism". Thompson was as fond of personae as W.C. Fields: besides "Raoul Duke," Thompson also toyed with the idea of taking the names "Jefferson Rank," "Gene Skinner," and "Sebastian Owl" for various purposes literary and non-literary, naming his "compound" in Woody Creek, CO, "Owl Farm" after the last of these. A number of critics have commented that as he grew older the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self became increasingly blurred.<ref>Cohen, Rich "Gonzo Nights] The New York Times April 17, 2005 </ref> Hart, Stephen Hunter S. Thompson The Opinion Mill December 26, 2005. Clifford, Peggy [http://www.smmirror.com/MainPages/DisplayArticleDetails.asp?eid=157 A love song for Hunter S. Thompson] Santa Monica Mirror'.' Retrieved March 28, 2007. Thompson himself admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding "I'm never sure which one people expect me to be. Very often, they conflict - most often, as a matter of fact. ...I'm leading a normal life and right along side me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped. When I get invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson. I'm not sure who to be." BBC 1978 Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision Thompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his cult status expanded into broader areas after being twice portrayed in major motion pictures. Hence, both his writing style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for Halloween. hunter s thompson halloween Political beliefs In the documentary Breakfast With Hunter, Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara t-shirts. Additionally, actor and friend Benicio Del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a "big" picture of Che in his kitchen. Hunter S Thompson: The Movie by Alex Gibney, The Sunday Times, December 14 2008 Hunter Thompson was a passionate proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights. Glassie, John Interview with Hunter S. Thompson Salon.com. Accessed Monday, March 5, 2007 A member of the National Rifle Association, Susman, Tina Writer's Death Shocks Friends Newsday February 22, 2005 Thompson was also co-creator of "The Fourth Amendment Foundation", an organization to assist victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure. Higgins, Matt THE GONZO KING An interview with Hunter S. Thompson High Times September 2, 2003. Part of his work with The Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence. Thompson organized rallies, provided legal support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of Vanity Fair, outlining the case. The Colorado Supreme Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now free. Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal. Mosely, Matt. "Lisl Released From Tooley Hall" www.lisl.com April 26, 2006 Thompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in real life) and owned a vast collection of handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semi-automatic weapons, along with numerous forms of gaseous crowd control and many other homemade devices. Thompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his less-than-shy accounts of his own drug usage. He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years until his death. NORML 2007 Aspen Legal Seminar Afternoon Cookout at Owl Farm. He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs should be legalized "Across the board. It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only way to deal with drugs. Look at Prohibition: all it did was make a lot of criminals rich." Far Gone Books Transcript of Hunter S. Thompson Interview After the September 11th, 2001 attacks, when airliners were hijacked and used as missiles against several targets in the U.S., Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was responsible for the attacks. He suggested to several interviewers that it may have been conducted by the U.S. Government or with the government's assistance. Bulger, Adam (March, 9, 2004) Interview with Hunter S. Thompson Freezer Box Magazine O'Regan, Mike. , August 2002. In 2002, Thompson told a radio show host "[Y]ou sort of wonder when something like that happens, well, who stands to benefit? Who had the opportunity and the motive? You just kind of look at these basic things [...] I saw that the US government was going to benefit, and the White House people, the Republican administration to take the mind of the public off the crashing economy. [...] And I have spent enough time on the inside of, well in the White House and you know, campaigns and I've known enough people who do these things, think this way, to know that the public version of the news or whatever event, is never really what happened." In 2004 Thompson, regarding politics, wrote: "Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for — but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush-Cheney gang, I would happily vote for him." Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004, Rolling Stone. Popular slogans A slogan of Thompson's, "When the going gets weird, the weird turn pro," appears as a chapter heading in Kingdom of Fear. He was also quoted as saying, "I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me" along with "It never got weird enough for me." Another one of his favorite sayings, "Buy the ticket, take the ride," is easily applied to virtually all of his exploits. "Too weird to live, too rare to die," a phrase applied to Oscar Zeta Acosta (Thompson's attorney from Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas), has been widely used to characterize the "Good Doctor" posthumously. In Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, he coined the term "bad craziness." He occasionally used the phrase, "There are many rooms in the mansion" in his non-fiction writings. The Hawaiian word "mahalo" also frequently appears in Thompson's works and correspondence. Loosely translated, it means "may you be in divine breath" or "thank you." On more than one occasion, "mahalo" followed Thompson's usage of "buy the ticket, take the ride." "Mahalo" is sometimes replaced with the untranslatable Hebrew word "selah". Letters Thompson wrote many letters and they were his primary means of personal conversation. Thompson made carbon copies of all his letters, usually typed, a habit that began in his teenage years. His letters were sent to friends, public officials and reporters. Some of his letters have begun to be published in a series of books called The Fear and Loathing Letters. The first volume, The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955 - 1967, is over 650 pages, while the second volume Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist passed 700. Douglas Brinkley, who edits the letter series, said that for every letter included, fifteen were cut. Brinkley estimated Thompson's own archive to contain over 20,000 letters. According to Amazon.com, the last of the three planned volumes of Thompson's letters was allegedly to be published on January 1, 2007 as The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977-2005. Anita Thompson has said on her blog that the collection will be released sometime in February. Amazon.com currently lists the publication date on its site as October 1, 2009. Many biographies have been written about Thompson, although he did not write an autobiography himself. But his letters contained "asides" to "his biographers" that he assumed could be "reading in" on his collected letters. Some of these letters were already bundled into Thompson's Kingdom of Fear, though it is not considered an autobiography. Illustrations Accompanying the eccentric and colorful writing of Hunter Thompson, illustrations by British artist Ralph Steadman offer visual representations of the Gonzo style. Steadman and Thompson developed a close friendship, and often traveled together. Though his illustrations occur in most of Thompson's books, they are conspicuously featured in full page color in Thompson's The Curse of Lono, set in Hawaii. Photography Thompson was an avid amateur photographer throughout his life and his photos have been exhibited since his death at art galleries in the United States and United Kingdom. In late 2006, AMMO Books published a limited-edition 224 page collection of Thompson photos called GONZO, with an introduction by Johnny Depp. Thompson's snapshots were a combination of the subjects he was covering, stylized self-portraits, and artistic still life photos. The London Observer called the photos "astonishingly good" and that "Thompson's pictures remind us, brilliantly in every sense, of very real people, real colours". Ferguson, Euan Hunter Gets Captured By The Frame London Observer February 4th, 2007 Movies The film Where the Buffalo Roam (1980) depicts Thompson's attempts at writing stories for both the Super Bowl and the 1972 U.S. presidential election. It stars Bill Murray as Thompson and Peter Boyle as Thompson's attorney Oscar Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Lazlo, Esq. The 1998 film adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was directed by Monty Python veteran Terry Gilliam, and starred Johnny Depp (who moved into Hunter's basement to 'study' Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as "Hunter Thompson/Raoul Duke" and Benicio del Toro as Oscar Acosta, referred to in the movie as "Dr. Gonzo". The film has achieved something of a cult following. A film is currently in production based on Thompson's novel The Rum Diary. It is scheduled for a 2010 release, starring Johnny Depp as the main character, Paul Kemp. The novel's premise was inspired by Thompson's own experiences in Puerto Rico. Bruce Robinson is directing. Documentaries "Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood" (1978) is an extended television profile by the BBC. It can be found on disc 2 of "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas" The Criterion Collection edition. The Mitchell brothers, owners of the O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, made a documentary about Thompson in 1988 called Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die. Wayne Ewing created three documentaries about Thompson. The film Breakfast With Hunter (2003) was directed and edited by Ewing. It documents Thompson's work on the movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, his arrest for drunk driving, and his subsequent fight with the court system. When I Die (2005) is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality, and documents the send-off itself. Free Lisl: Fear and Loathing in Denver (2006) chronicle's Thompson efforts in helping to free Lisl Auman who was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the shooting of a police officer, a crime she didn't commit. All three films are only available from http://www.hunterthompsonfilms.com/ In Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream Manifestation.tv (2004) Thompson gives director Adamm Liley insight into the nature of the American Dream over drinks at the Woody Creek Tavern.Buy The Ticket, Take The Ride: Hunter S. Thompson On Film (2006) was directed by Tom Thurman, written by Tom Marksbury, and produced by the Starz Entertainment Group. The original documentary features interviews with Thompson’s inner circle of family and friends, but the thrust of the film focuses on the manner in which his life often overlapped with numerous Hollywood celebrities who became his close friends, such as Johnny Depp, Benicio del Toro, Bill Murray, Sean Penn, John Cusack, Thompson’s wife Anita, son Juan, former Senators George McGovern and Gary Hart, writers Tom Wolfe and William F. Buckley, actors Gary Busey and Harry Dean Stanton, and the illustrator Ralph Steadman among others."Blasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson" (2006), produced, directed, photographed and edited by Blue Kraning, is a documentary about the scores of fans who volunteered their privately-owned artillery to fire the ashes of the late author, Hunter S Thompson. Blasted!!! premiered at the 2006 Starz Denver International Film Festival, part of a tribute series to Hunter S. Thompson held at the Denver Press Club. In 2008, Academy Award-winning documentarian Alex Gibney (Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, Taxi to the Dark Side) wrote and directed a documentary on Thompson, entitled Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson. The film premiered on January 20, 2008 at the Sundance Film Festival. Gibney uses intimate, never-before-seen home videos, interviews with friends, enemies and lovers, and clips from films adapted from Thompson's material to document his turbulent life. Theatre GONZO: A Brutal Chrysalis is a one-man show about Hunter S.Thompson written by Paul Addis. Set in the writing den of Thompson's Woody Creek home, the show presents the life of Hunter during the years between 1968 and 1971. Addis played the role of Hunter during the show's original run until his arrest for the Burning Man early torching on August 28, 2007. Accolades and tributes Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century. "As Gonzo in Life as in His Work: Hunter S. Thompson died as he lived." Tuesday, February 22, 2005 - Wall Street Journal, Opinion Journal. The 2006 documentary film Fuck, which features Hunter S Thompson commenting on the usage of that word, is dedicated to his memory. Premiere - Fuck Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th Rolling Stone issue (May 18 - June 1, 2006). He appeared as a devil playing the guitar next to the two "L"'s in the word "Rolling Stone". Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover. A Thompson-inspired character appears as the recurring Uncle Duke in Doonesbury, the daily newspaper comic strip by Garry Trudeau. When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested, (he was once quoted in an interview saying that he would set Trudeau on fire if the two ever met) although it was reported that he liked the character in later years. Between March 7, 2005 (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and March 12, 2005, Doonesbury ran a tribute to Hunter, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his "inspiration." The first of these strips featured a panel with artwork similar to that of Ralph Steadman, and later strips featured various non sequiturs (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass, or people around him turning into animals) which seemed to mirror some of the effects of hallucinogenic drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Besides Uncle Duke, Thompson served as the inspiration for two other comic strip characters. Underground comix creator turned animation/cartooning historian Scott Shaw! used an anthropomorphic dog named "Pointer X. Toxin" in a number of his works. Matt Howarth has created a number of comic books in his "Bugtown" universe with a Thompson-inspired character named "Monseiuer Boche", as well as a musician named "Savage Henry", the name of a drug dealer (or "scag baron") mentioned in Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas. Spider Jerusalem, the gonzo journalist protagonist of Warren Ellis's Transmetropolitan, is largely based on Thompson. Adult Swim's animated series The Venture Bros. featured a character named Hunter Gathers (who looks and acts much like Thompson) employed by the fictional Office of Secret Intelligence as a trainer. Gathers plays on Thompson's known affinity for dressing in drag. Metal Band, Avenged Sevenfold, quote Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas at the beginning of their hit single Bat Country. The music video includes many references to the movie. Deathcore/Metalcore band, Bring Me the Horizon have a track named after Thompson's suicide note "Football Season Is Over", from their album Suicide Season. At the beginning of the Velvet Acid Christ song "Fun With Drugs", from the album Fun with Knives, various quotes from the film Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas are played, including "Oh god, did you eat all this acid?" and "This is not a good town for psychedelic drugs". Lead singer Brandon Flowers of the rock band, The Killers, claimed that a Thompson quote inspired their song "Human", although the actual quote was never identified. Flying Dog Ales is a self-proclaimed "gonzo brewery" started by Hunter's long time friend George Stranahan. Flying Dog's Gonzo Imperial Porter is a tribute to Hunter. All the bottle labels are designed by Ralph Steadman. Los Angeles based indie rock band, Fat City Reprise's name is a tribute to Thompson's failed bid for sheriff of Pitkin County,Colorado in 1970. South Philly Review Interview 2 Bibliography Paul Oakenfold created a song called "Nixon's Spirit" incorporating speech from Hunter S. Thompson's testimony regarding Richard Nixon. References External links Chat with Director Alex Gibney about his documentary "Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson." "Shotgun Golf With Bill Murray," Thompson's final column for ESPN.com's Page 2. "Audio interview with Thompson's former assistant," Interview for Men's Vogue "Fear and Earning," a remembrance by screenwriter and novelist Lucian K. Truscott IV, published in The New York Times, February 25, 2005. "Bedtime For Gonzo," A Review of Thompson's 2003 Autobiography Kingdom Of Fear, by Jack Schafer in The New York Times Book Review, February 23, 2003. The Doctor Hunter S. Thompson Bulletin Board & All-Nite Shooting Range - The Doctor Hunter S. Thompson Bulletin Board & All-Nite Shooting Range" "All Aboard The Hell-Bound Train: An Interview With Hunter S. Thompson Claimed as Thompson's Final Interview. By Jess Hopsicker, from The College Crier. A collection of articles on Thompson from The Guardian Excerpt from , by E. Jean Carroll, first published in Esquire Magazine, February, 1993 Article about the funeral with photo of memorial tower Promo site for Starz Documentary Buy The Ticket, Take The Ride - Hunter S. Thompson on Film Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die, 1988 documentary by the Mitchell brothers [http://www.gonzopatriots.com/ '"Blasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson", 2006 documentary Hunter S. Thompson Shrine on Snowmass Mountain in Colorado Legacy and obituaries "Death Of A Comic," An essay critical of Thompson by William F. Buckley, Jr. in National Review, March 1, 2005. "A Tribute to The Great Gonzo Gonzo," Seattle Times. by Michael A. Stusser, February 24, 2005. "Gonzo Nights," an essay by Rich Cohen, a contributing editor for Rolling Stone published in The New York Times, April 17, 2005. "Going, Going, Gonzo" A remembrance by journalist Arik Hesseldahl from the Summer 2005 issue of Oregon Quarterly recalling a February, 1991 lecture by Thompson at the University of Oregon. "Gonzo In His Life As In His Work," A Tribute to Thompson by Tom Wolfe in The Wall Street Journal, February 22, 2005. Owl Farm Blog- Anita Thompson's blog dealing with her late husband's legacy Gonzo Store- Operated by the family of Hunter Thompson; profits go to protect and preserve Thompson's home at Owl Farm. "Hunter Thompson: The Minuteman Of The Rockies," Tribute to Thompson by Christopher Hitchens in Slate, February 22, 2005. "Hunter's Fear," A Eulogy To Thompson by D.A. Blyler from The Raw Story. "Hunter S. Thompson's Counselor," Thompson's Final "Counselor" by D.A. Blyler in The Raw Story. "Odi et Amo in Aspen," A Gonzo-style obituary by Kit Boyes on the BBC Web site H2G2, June 10, 2005. A Hero of Our Time: Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005 Obituary from Moscow alternative newspaper The eXile'' written by John Dolan Source material American Collection BookRags An Image Gallery of Thompson's photography be-x-old:Хантэр Томпсан | Hunter_S._Thompson |@lemmatized hunter:71 stockton:1 thompson:263 july:5 february:18 american:13 journalist:10 author:8 famous:4 novel:12 fear:43 loathing:31 las:12 vega:23 credit:3 creator:4 gonzo:43 journalism:11 style:13 report:6 reporter:6 involve:2 action:1 degree:1 become:21 central:1 figure:1 story:16 also:19 know:14 use:18 psychedelics:1 alcohol:3 firearm:2 iconoclastic:1 contempt:1 authority:2 biography:4 early:10 year:22 native:1 louisville:5 kentucky:7 grow:4 cherokee:1 triangle:1 neighborhood:2 highland:1 first:24 son:5 jack:6 robert:4 insurance:2 adjuster:1 u:11 army:1 veteran:3 serve:5 france:1 world:2 war:3 virginia:2 davidson:1 ray:1 introduce:4 mutual:1 friend:18 fraternity:1 marry:3 die:8 myasthenia:1 gravis:1 neuromuscular:1 disease:1 old:7 leave:4 three:6 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1,327 | Minute_of_arc | A minute of arc or arcminute (MOA) is a unit of angular measurement, equal to one sixtieth (1/60) of one degree. WordNet Search - 3.0 Since one degree is defined as one three hundred sixtieth (1/360) of a circle, 1 minute of arc is 1/21,600 of the amount of arc in a closed circle. It is used in those fields which require a unit for the expression of small angles, such as astronomy or marksmanship. There are 148,510,800 square arcminutes in a complete sphere. Symbols, abbreviations and subdivisions The standard symbol for marking the arcminute is the prime (′) (U+2032), though a single quote (') (U+0027) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written 1′. It is also abbreviated as arcmin or amin or, less commonly, the prime with a circumflex over it (). The subdivision of the minute of arc is the second of arc, or arcsecond. There are 60 arcseconds in an arcminute. Therefore, the arcsecond is 1/1296000 of a circle, or (π/648000) radians, which is approximately 1/206265 radian. The symbol for the arcsecond is the double prime (″) (U+2033). To express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed; in particular, the milliarcsecond, abbreviated mas, is sometimes used in astronomy. + The sexagesimal system of angular measurement unit value symbol abbreviations in radians (approx.) degree 1/360 circle ° deg17.4532925 mrad arcminute 1/60 degree ′ (prime) arcmin, amin, , MOA290.8882087 µrad arcsecond 1/60 arcminute ″ (double prime) arcsec 4.8481368 µrad milliarcsecond 1/1000 arcsecond mas4.8481368 nrad Uses Firearms The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly that concerning the accuracy of rifles, though the industry tends to refer to it as minute of angle. It is popular because 1 MOA subtends approximately one inch at 100 yards, a traditional distance on target ranges. A shooter can easily readjust his rifle scope by measuring the distance in inches the bullet hole is from the desired impact point, and adjusting the scope that many MOA in the same direction. Most target scopes designed for long distances are adjustable in quarter (¼) or eighth (⅛) MOA "clicks". One eighth MOA is equal to approximately an eighth of an inch at 100 yards or one inch at 800 yards. Calculating the physical equivalent group size equal to one minute of arc can be done using the equation: equivalent group size = tan(MOA/60) × distance. In the example previously given and substituting 3600 inches for 100 yards, tan(1 MOA/60) ∙ 3600 inches = 1.0471975511966 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 meters = 2.90888208665722 centimeters. Sometimes, a firearm's accuracy will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions, the gun with certain ammunition is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. (E.g.: a "1 MOA rifle" should be capable, under ideal conditions, of shooting an average 1-inch groups at 100 yards, a "2 MOA rifle" a average 2-inch groups at 100 yards, etc.) Some manufacturers such as Weatherby and Cooper offer actual guarantees of real-world MOA performance. Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as "Sub-MOA", meaning it shoots under 1 MOA. This is typically a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups. If larger samples are taken, i.e. more shots per group, then group size typically increases. For example mathematical statistical calculation yields the following accuracy for exactly the same rifle and ammunition combination (standard deviations of every shot from center is 1 MOA): for 2-shot groups - 1.77 MOA for 3-shot groups - 2.41 MOA for 5-shot groups - 3.07 MOA for 10-shot groups - 3.81 MOA for 20-shot groups - 4.45 MOA for 100-shot groups - 5.69 MOA Cartography Minutes of angle (and its subunit, seconds of angle or SOA—equal to a sixtieth of a MOA) are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level, one minute of angle (around the equator or a meridian) equals about 1.86 km or 1.15 miles, approximately one nautical mile (approximately, because the Earth is slightly oblate); a second of angle is one sixtieth of this amount: about 30 meters or 100 feet. Traditionally positions are given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of angles in two measurements: one for latitude, the angle north or south of the equator; and one for longitude, the angle east or west of the Prime Meridian. Using this method, any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given. However, because of the somewhat clumsy base-60 nature of MOA and SOA, many people now prefer to give positions using degrees only, expressed in decimal form to an equal amount of precision. Degrees, given to three decimal places (1/1000 of a degree), have about 1/4 the precision as degrees-minutes-seconds (1/3600 of a degree), and so identify locations within about 120 meters or 400 feet. Property surveying Related to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west. Astronomy The arcminute and arcsecond are also used in astronomy. Degrees (and therefore arcminutes) are used to measure declination, or angular distance north or south of the celestial equator. The arcsecond is also often used to describe parallax, due to very small parallax angles, and tiny angular diameters (e.g. Venus varies between 10″ and 60″). The parallax, proper motion and angular diameter of a star may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The parsec gets its name from "parallax second", for those arcseconds. Apart from the sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red supergiant with a diameter of 0.05 arcseconds. Due to the effects of atmospheric seeing, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5 arcsecond; in poor seeing conditions this increases to 1.5 arcseconds or even more. Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere, but are diffraction limited; for example the Hubble space telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1". Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground, for example adaptive optics, which can give images around 0.05 arcsecond on a 10 m class telescope. Human vision In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc. 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1,328 | Brain_abscess | Brain abscess (or cerebral abscess) is an abscess caused by inflammation and collection of infected material coming from local (ear infection, dental abscess, infection of paranasal sinuses, infection of the mastoid air cells of the temporal bone, epidural abscess) or remote (lung, heart, kidney etc.) infectious sources within the brain tissue. The infection may also be introduced through a skull fracture following a head trauma or surgical procedures. Brain abscess is usually associated with congenital heart disease in young children. It may occur at any age but is most frequent in the third decade of life. Features The symptoms of brain abscess are caused by a combination of increased intracranial pressure due to a space-occupying lesion (headache, vomiting, confusion, coma), infection (fever, fatigue etc.) and focal neurologic brain tissue damage (hemiparesis, aphasia etc.). The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, confusion, seizures, hemiparesis or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course. The symptoms and findings depend largely on the specific location of the abscess in the brain. An abscess in the cerebellum, for instance, may cause additional complaints as a result of brain stem compression and hydrocephalus. Neurological examination may reveal a stiff neck in occasional cases (erroneously suggesting meningitis). The famous triad of fever, headache and focal neurologic findings are highly suggestive of brain abscess but are observed only in a minority of the patients. Pathophysiology Brain abscesses are usually polymicrobial in nature. Bacterial The most common organism recovered from cultures is the bacterium Streptococcus. However, a wide variety of other bacteria (Proteus, Pseudomonas, Pneumococcus, Meningococcus, Haemophilus) may also cause the disease. Bacterial abscesses rarely (if ever) arise de novo within the brain, although establishing a cause can be difficult in many cases. There is almost always a primary lesion elsewhere in the body that must be sought assiduously, because failure to treat the primary lesion will result in relapse. In cases of trauma, for example in compound skull fractures where fragments of bone are pushed into the substance of the brain, the cause of the abscess is obvious. Similarly, bullets and other foreign bodies may become sources of infection if left in place. The location of the primary lesion may be suggested by the location of the abscess: infections of the middle ear result in lesions in the middle and posterior cranial fossae; congenital heart disease with right-to-left shunts often result in abscesses in the distribution of the middle cerebral artery ; and infection of the frontal and ethmoid sinuses usually results in collection in the subdural sinuses. Other organisms Fungi and parasites may also cause the disease. Fungi and parasites are especially associated with immunocompromised patients. Organisms that are most frequently-associated with brain abscess in patients with AIDS are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptococcus neoformans, though in infection with the latter organism, symptoms of meningitis generally predominate. Amoebic brain abscess is another cause. Diagnosis The diagnosis is established by a computed tomography (CT) (with contrast) examination. At the initial phase of the inflammation (which is referred to as cerebritis), the immature lesion does not have a capsule and it may be difficult to distinguish it from other space-occupying lesions or infarcts of the brain. Within 4–5 days the inflammation and the concomitant dead brain tissue are surrounded with a capsule, which gives the lesion the famous ring-enhancing appearance on CT examination with contrast (since intravenously applied contrast material can not pass through the capsule, it is collected around the lesion and looks as a ring surrounding the relatively dark lesion). Lumbar puncture procedure, which is performed in many infectious disorders of the central nervous system is contraindicated in this condition (as it is in all space-occupying lesions of the brain) because removing a certain portion of the cerebrospinal fluid may alter the concrete intracranial pressure balances and cause a part of the brain tissue to move out of the skull (brain herniation). Ring enhancement may also be observed in cerebral hemorrhages (bleeding) and some brain tumors. However, in the presence of the rapidly progressive course with fever, focal neurologic findings (hemiparesis, aphasia etc) and signs of increased intracranial pressure, the most likely diagnosis should be the brain abscess. Treatment The treatment includes lowering the increased intracranial pressure and starting intravenous antibiotics (and meanwhile identifying the causative organism mainly by blood culture studies). Surgical drainage of the abscess remains part of the standard management of bacterial brain abscesses. The location and treatment of the primary lesion also crucial, as is the removal of any foreign material (bone, dirt, bullets, and so forth). There are a few exceptions to this rule: Haemophilus influenzae meningitis is often associated with subdural effusions that are mistaken for subdural empyemas. These effusions resolve with antibiotics and require no surgical treatment. Tuberculosis can produce brain abscesses that look identical to bacterial abscesses on CT imaging and surgical drainage or aspiration is often necessary to make the diagnosis, but once the diagnosis is made no further surgical intervention is necessary. Prognosis Once an almost always fatal disease before the CT era. If the abscess is treated before the person goes into a coma then the death rate has been estimated from 5% to 20% although it is greater in cases of multiple abscesses, when raised intracranial pressure is observed and depending on the level of neurological dysfunction on presentation. Early treatment and the patients overall health has an effect on prognosis. Other factors include: antibiotic resistance or the abscess location. An abscess deep within the brain is more difficult to treat than others. 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1,329 | Mariotto_Albertinelli | The Visitation, painted for the Congregazione di San Martino 1503, Mariotto Alberti's masterpiece (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence). Mariotto di Bigio di Bindo Albertinelli (October 13, 1474 - November 5, 1515) was a High Renaissance Italian painter of the Florentine school, closely involved with Fra Bartolomeo and influenced by Raphael. Biography He was born in Florence. Already as a 12-year old boy, he became a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, and a fellow-pupil with Fra Bartolomeo with whom he formed such an intimate brotherly rapport that in 1494 the two started their own studio in Florence. Vasari's opinion was that Mariotto was not so well grounded in drawing as Bartolomeo, and he tells that, to improve his hand he had taken to drawing the antiquities in the Medici garden, where he was encouraged by Madonna Alfonsina, the mother of Duke Lorenzo II de' Medici. When the Medici were temporarily banished in 1494, he returned to his friend, whose manner he copied so assiduously, according to Vasari, that his works were taken for Baccio's. When, in the wake of Savonarola's morality campaign, Baccio joined the Dominican order as Fra Bartolomeo in 1500 and gave up painting, Albertinelli, beside himself with the loss, would have joined him; but, spurred by his success in completing an unfinished Last Judgment of Bartolomeo's, he resolved to carry on alone. Among his many students were Jacopo da Pontormo, Innocenzo di Pietro Francucci da Imola and Giuliano Bugiardini. Mariotto was a most restless person and carnal in the affairs of love and apt to the art of living, and, taking a dislike to the studies and brain-wracking necessary to painting, being also often stung by the tongues of other painters, as is their way, he resolved to give himself to a less laborious and more jovial profession, and so opened the most lovely hostelry outside the Porta San Gallo, and at the sign of the Dragon at the Ponte Vecchio a tavern and inn. This life he led for many months, saying that he had taken up an art that was without muscles, foreshortening or perspective and, better still, without faultfinding, and that the art that he had given up imitated flesh and blood, but this one created flesh and blood; in this if you had good wine you heard yourself praised, but in that every day you were blamed. But at last the low life became an annoyance to him, and, filled with remorse, he returned to painting. Giorgio Vasari, Le Vite de' più eccelenti architetti, pittori... vol. iv. Albertinelli's paintings bear the imprint of Perugino's sense of volumes in space and perspective, Fra Bartolomeo's coloring, the landscape portrayal of Flemish masters like Memling, and Leonardo's Sfumato technique. His chief paintings are in Florence, notably his masterpiece, the Visitation (1503) at the Uffizi (illustrated right). See also List of painters List of Italian painters List of famous Italians References Footnotes | Mariotto_Albertinelli |@lemmatized visitation:2 paint:3 congregazione:1 di:4 san:2 martino:1 mariotto:4 alberti:1 masterpiece:2 galleria:1 degli:1 uffizi:2 florence:4 bigio:1 bindo:1 albertinelli:3 october:1 november:1 high:1 renaissance:1 italian:3 painter:4 florentine:1 school:1 closely:1 involve:1 fra:4 bartolomeo:6 influence:1 raphael:1 biography:1 bear:2 already:1 year:1 old:1 boy:1 become:2 pupil:2 cosimo:1 rosselli:1 fellow:1 form:1 intimate:1 brotherly:1 rapport:1 two:1 start:1 studio:1 vasari:3 opinion:1 well:1 ground:1 draw:2 tell:1 improve:1 hand:1 take:4 antiquity:1 medici:3 garden:1 encourage:1 madonna:1 alfonsina:1 mother:1 duke:1 lorenzo:1 ii:1 de:2 temporarily:1 banish:1 return:2 friend:1 whose:1 manner:1 copy:1 assiduously:1 accord:1 work:1 baccio:2 wake:1 savonarola:1 morality:1 campaign:1 join:2 dominican:1 order:1 give:3 painting:3 beside:1 loss:1 would:1 spur:1 success:1 complete:1 unfinished:1 last:2 judgment:1 resolve:2 carry:1 alone:1 among:1 many:2 student:1 jacopo:1 da:2 pontormo:1 innocenzo:1 pietro:1 francucci:1 imola:1 giuliano:1 bugiardini:1 restless:1 person:1 carnal:1 affair:1 love:1 apt:1 art:3 living:1 dislike:1 study:1 brain:1 wrack:1 necessary:1 also:2 often:1 sting:1 tongue:1 way:1 less:1 laborious:1 jovial:1 profession:1 open:1 lovely:1 hostelry:1 outside:1 porta:1 gallo:1 sign:1 dragon:1 ponte:1 vecchio:1 tavern:1 inn:1 life:2 lead:1 month:1 say:1 without:2 muscle:1 foreshorten:1 perspective:2 good:2 still:1 faultfinding:1 imitated:1 flesh:2 blood:2 one:1 create:1 wine:1 hear:1 praised:1 every:1 day:1 blame:1 low:1 annoyance:1 fill:1 remorse:1 giorgio:1 le:1 vite:1 più:1 eccelenti:1 architetti:1 pittori:1 vol:1 iv:1 imprint:1 perugino:1 sense:1 volume:1 space:1 coloring:1 landscape:1 portrayal:1 flemish:1 master:1 like:1 memling:1 leonardo:1 sfumato:1 technique:1 chief:1 notably:1 illustrated:1 right:1 see:1 list:3 famous:1 reference:1 footnote:1 |@bigram uffizi_florence:1 fra_bartolomeo:4 di_pietro:1 ponte_vecchio:1 giorgio_vasari:1 le_vite:1 |
1,330 | Galilee | "Galil" redirects here. For the weapon, see IMI Galil. Safed, the "Capital" of Galilee, seen with the Sea of Galilee, also known as Lake Kinneret in the background. An orchard in Upper Galilee. Horses roam in Amud stream, near the Sea of Galilee Panorama of the Harod valley, part of the Jezreel Valley. Galilee ( ha-Galil, lit: the province, Latin: Galileia, al-Jaleel), is a large region in northern Israel which overlaps with much of the administrative North District (Israel) of the country. Traditionally divided into Upper Galilee ( Galil Elyon), Lower Galilee ( Galil Takhton), and Western Galilee ( Galil Maaravi), extending from Dan to the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, along Mount Lebanon to the ridges of Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa to the south, and from the Jordan Rift Valley to the east across the plains of the Jezreel Valley and Acre to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and the Coastal Plain in the west. Most of Galilee consists of rocky terrain, at heights of between 500 and 700 meters. There are several high mountains including Mount Tabor and Mount Meron in the region which relatively low temperatures and high rainfall. As a result of this climate, flora and wildlife thrive in the region, whilst many birds annually migrate from colder climates to Africa and back through the Hulah-Jordan corridor. The streams and waterfalls, the latter mainly in Upper Galilee, along with vast fields of greenery and colorful wildflowers, as well as numerous towns of biblical importance, make the region a popular tourist destination. Due to its high rainfall (900-1200 mm), mild temperatures and high mountains (Mount Meron's elevation is 1,000-1,208 meters), the upper Galilee region contains some unique flora and fauna : prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus), Lebanese cedar (Cedrus libani), which grows in a small grove on Mount Meron, cyclamens, paeonias and Rhododendron ponticum which sometimes appears on Meron. History According to the Bible, Solomon rewarded Hiram I for certain services by giving him the gift of an upland plain among the mountains of Naphtali. Hiram called it "the land of Cabul". In Isaiah (8:23), the region is referred to as "the District of the Nations" (גְּלִיל - הַגּוׁיִם; lit:Glil HaGoyim), with much of this name being retained in its present name of Galil or HaGalil. According to one view, during the Hasmonean period, with the revolt of the Maccabees and the decline of the Seleucid Empire, Galilee was conquered by the newly independent state of Judaea, and the region was resettled by Jews. However, according to another view there were not particularly large-scale population movements during this period, Galilee became Jewish because its population decided to recognise the authority of the Jerusalem temple rather than the Samaritan temple. In Roman times, the country was divided into Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, which comprised the whole northern section of the country, and was the largest of the three regions. Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, ruled Galilee as tetrarch. Galilee, ca. AD 50 The Galilee region was the home of Jesus during at least 30 years of his life. The first three Gospels of the New Testament are mainly an account of Jesus' public ministry in this province, particularly in the towns of Nazareth and Capernaum. Galilee is also cited as the place where Jesus cured a blind man. After the Arab caliphate took control of the region in 638, it became part of Jund al-Urrdun (District of Jordan). Its major towns were Tiberias — which was capital of the district — Qadas, Baysan, Acre, Saffuriya and Kabul.. le Strange, Guy. (1890)) Palestine Under the Moslems pp.30-32. The Shia Fatimids conquered the region in the 900s; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, formed the Druze religion, centered in and to north of, Galilee. Eastern Galilee, however, retained a Jewish majority for most of its history. During the Crusades, Galilee was organized into the Principality of Galilee, one of the most important Crusader seigneuries. The Jewish population of Galilee increased significantly following their expulsion from Spain and welcome from the Ottoman Empire. The community for a time made Safed an international center of cloth weaving and manufacturing, as well as a key site for Jewish learning. Safed/Tsfat Today it remains one of Judaism's four holy cities and a center for kabbalah. In the mid 18th century, Galilee was caught up in a struggle between the Bedouin leader Dhaher al-Omar and the Ottoman authorities who were centered in Damascus. Al-Omar ruled Galilee for 25 years until Ottoman loyalist Jezzar Pasha conquered the region in 1775. In the early 20th century, Galilee was inhabited by Arab Christians, Arab Muslims, Druze and Jews, whilst the Ottomans also settled minorities from elsewhere in their empire including Circassians and Bosniaks. Two Circassian villages exist in the Galilee region today. The Jewish population was increased significantly by Zionist immigration. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war nearly the whole of Galilee came under Israel's control. A large portion of the population fled, leaving dozens of entire villages empty; however, a large Israeli Arab community remained based in and near the cities of Nazareth, Acre, Tamra, Sakhnin and Shefa-'Amr, due to some extent to a successful rapprochement with the Druze. The kibbutzim around the Sea of Galilee were sometimes shelled by the Syrian army's artillery until Israel seized the Golan Heights in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the 1970s and the early 1980s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) launched several attacks on towns of the Upper and Western Galilee from Lebanon. Israel initiated Operation Litani (1979) and Operation Peace For Galilee (1982) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon and protecting the citizens of the Galilee. Israel occupied much of Southern Lebanon until 1985 when it withdrew to a narrow security buffer zone. Until the year 2000, Hezbollah, and earlier Amal, continued to fight the Israeli Defence Forces, sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities with Katyusha rockets. In May 2000, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak unilaterally withdrew IDF troops from southern Lebanon, maintaining a security force on the Israeli side of the international border recognized by the UN. However, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks. The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict was characterized by round-the-clock Katyusha rocket attacks (with a greatly extended range) by Hezbollah on the whole of Galilee, with long-range ground-launched missiles, hitting as far south as the Sharon plain, Jezreel Valley, and Jordan Valley below the Sea of Galilee. Modern Galilee Rainbow Cave (a natural arch) on the northern ridge of Nahal Betzet, Galilee. Today Galilee is home to a large Arab population, with a particularly large Druze population. The central portion of the Galilee also known as the "Heart of the Galilee" stretching from the border with Lebanon to the northern edge of the Jezreel Valley including the cities of Nazareth, Sakhnin, Shaghur, Tamra and Kafr Kanna has an Arab population of 78%. The Jewish Agency has attempted to increase the Jewish population in this area, but the non-Jewish population continues to grow. In 2006, out of the 1.2 million residents in the Galilee area some 53.1% were of various minorities, while only 46.9% were Jewish. The largest cities in the region are Acre, Nahariya, Nazareth, Safed, Karmiel, Shaghur, Afula, and Tiberias. The port city of Haifa serves as a commercial center for the whole region. Because of its hilly terrain, most of the settlements in the Galilee are small villages connected by relatively few roads. A railroad runs south from Nahariya along the Mediterranean coast. The main sources of livelihood throughout the area are in the fields of agriculture and tourism. Industrial parks are being developed, bringing further employment opportunities to the local population which includes many recent immigrants. The Israeli government is contributing funding to the private initiative, The Galilee Finance Facility, organised by the Milken Institute and Koret Economic Development Fund. Galilee is a popular destination for vacationing Israelis from other parts of the country who enjoy its scenery, recreational, and gastronomic offerings. Many kibbutzim and moshav families operate Zimmers (German: "room", the local term for a B&B). Numerous festivals are held throughout the year, especially in the autumn and spring holiday seasons. These include the Acco Festival of Alternative Theater, Acco Festival the olive harvest festival, and music festivals featuring Anglo-American folk, klezmer, Renaissance, and chamber music. Regions Galilee is often divided into the following sub-regions: Western Galilee, also known the "Northern Coastal Plain", stretches from north of Haifa up to Rosh HaNikra on the Israel-Lebanon border. Lower Galilee covers the area from Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa in the south to the Beit HaKerem Valley in the north. Its eastern border is the Jordan River. Upper Galilee extends from the Beit HaKerem Valley northwards into southern Lebanon. Its eastern border is the Sea of Galilee and the mountains of the Golan Heights. The "Finger of Galilee" (, Etzba HaGalil) is a panhandle along the Hulah Valley; it contains the towns Metulla and Qiryat Shemona and the rivers of Dan and Banias; also the Arab village of Cana. See also The Koenig Memorandum North District (Israel) References | Galilee |@lemmatized galil:7 redirect:1 weapon:1 see:3 imi:1 safed:4 capital:2 galilee:50 sea:6 also:7 know:3 lake:1 kinneret:1 background:1 orchard:1 upper:7 horse:1 roam:1 amud:1 stream:2 near:2 panorama:1 harod:1 valley:10 part:3 jezreel:4 ha:1 lit:2 province:2 latin:1 galileia:1 al:5 jaleel:1 large:8 region:17 northern:5 israel:10 overlap:1 much:3 administrative:1 north:6 district:5 country:4 traditionally:1 divide:3 elyon:1 low:3 takhton:1 western:3 maaravi:1 extend:2 dan:2 base:2 mount:10 hermon:1 along:5 lebanon:9 ridge:2 carmel:2 gilboa:2 south:4 jordan:5 rift:1 east:1 across:1 plain:5 acre:4 shore:1 mediterranean:2 coastal:2 west:1 consists:1 rocky:1 terrain:2 height:3 meter:2 several:2 high:4 mountain:4 include:5 tabor:1 meron:4 relatively:2 temperature:2 rainfall:2 result:1 climate:2 flora:2 wildlife:1 thrive:1 whilst:2 many:3 bird:1 annually:1 migrate:1 colder:1 africa:1 back:1 hulah:2 corridor:1 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memorandum:1 reference:1 |@bigram jezreel_valley:4 mount_hermon:1 mount_carmel:2 jordan_rift:1 rift_valley:1 coastal_plain:2 mount_tabor:1 mount_meron:3 colder_climate:1 tourist_destination:1 elevation_meter:1 flora_fauna:1 ו_י:1 י_ם:1 seleucid_empire:1 judea_samaria:1 herod_antipas:1 fatimid_caliph:1 al_hakim:1 ottoman_empire:1 golan_height:2 palestine_liberation:1 buffer_zone:1 katyusha_rocket:2 prime_minister:1 minister_ehud:1 ehud_barak:1 unilaterally_withdraw:1 hilly_terrain:1 rosh_hanikra:1 |
1,331 | Algebraic_number | In mathematics, an algebraic number is a complex number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with rational (or equivalently, integer) coefficients. Numbers such as that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental, and are infinitely more numerous within the complex number field. Examples The rational numbers, those expressed as the ratio of two whole numbers b and a, a not equal to zero, satisfy the above definition because is derived from (and satisfies) . (In general, or can be negative, as can ). Some of the following examples come from Hardy and Wright 1972:159-160 and pp. 178-179 Some irrational numbers are algebraic and some are not: The numbers and are algebraic since they are the roots of and , respectively. The golden ratio is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial . The numbers and are not algebraic numbers (see the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem); Also Liouville's theorem can be used to "produce as many examples of transcendentals numbers as we please," cf Hardy and Wright p. 161ff hence they are transcendental. The constructible numbers (those that, starting with a unit, can be constructed with straightedge and compass, e.g. the square root of 2) are algebraic. The quadratic surds (roots of a quadratic equation with integer coefficients , , and ) are algebraic numbers. If the quadratic equation is monic (the leading coefficient ) then the roots are quadratic integers. Gaussian integers: those complex numbers where both and are integers are also quadratic integers. When the lead coefficient of a polynomial is 1, any value that satisfies the polynomial is said to be an algebraic integer. Note that an "algebraic integer" need not be a counting number such as 1, 2, 3, ... or a negative counterpart. This definition comes from the notion that satisfies , and when then (i.e. here being a positive or negative counting number or 0). But observe that from , and . So these two are "algebraic integers" as well. This applies for any value of lead-exponent . (See more below). Properties The set of algebraic numbers is countable (enumerable). Hardy and Wright 1972:160 Hence, the set of algebraic numbers has Lebesgue measure zero (as a subset of the complex numbers), i.e. "almost all" complex numbers are not algebraic. Given an algebraic number, there is a unique monic polynomial (with rational coefficients) of least degree that has the number as a root. This polynomial is called its minimal polynomial. If its minimal polynomial has degree , then the algebraic number is said to be of degree . An algebraic number of degree 1 is a rational number. All algebraic numbers are computable and therefore definable. The field of algebraic numbers The sum, difference, product and quotient of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic, and the algebraic numbers therefore form a field, sometimes denoted by (which may also denote the adele ring) or . Every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are algebraic numbers is again algebraic. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the algebraic closure of the rationals. Numbers defined by radicals All numbers which can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and taking th roots (where is a positive integer) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers which cannot be obtained in this manner. All of these numbers are solutions to polynomials of degree ≥ 5. This is a result of Galois theory (see Quintic equations and the Abel–Ruffini theorem). An example of such a number is the unique real root of (which is approximately 1.167303978261418684256). Algebraic integers An algebraic integer is a number which is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients (that is, an algebraic number) with leading coefficient 1 (a monic polynomial). Examples of algebraic integers are , , and . The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a ring. The name algebraic integer comes from the fact that the only rational numbers which are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers. If is a number field, its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in K, and is frequently denoted as . These are the prototypical examples of Dedekind domains. Special classes of algebraic number Gaussian integer Eisenstein integer Quadratic irrational Fundamental unit Root of unity Gaussian period Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number Salem number Notes References G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright 1978, 2000 (with general index) An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers: 5th Edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 0 19 853171 0 Øystein Ore 1948, 1988, Number Theory and Its History, Dover Publications, Inc. New York, ISBN 0-486-65620-9 (pbk.) | Algebraic_number |@lemmatized mathematics:1 algebraic:40 number:47 complex:5 root:12 non:1 zero:3 polynomial:12 one:1 variable:1 rational:7 equivalently:1 integer:27 coefficient:8 say:4 transcendental:2 infinitely:1 numerous:1 within:1 field:7 examples:1 express:1 ratio:2 two:3 whole:1 b:1 equal:1 satisfy:2 definition:2 derive:1 satisfies:2 general:2 negative:3 following:1 example:5 come:3 hardy:4 wright:4 pp:1 irrational:2 since:2 respectively:1 golden:1 see:3 lindemann:1 weierstrass:1 theorem:3 also:3 liouville:1 use:2 produce:1 many:2 transcendentals:1 please:1 cf:1 p:1 hence:2 constructible:1 start:1 unit:2 construct:1 straightedge:1 compass:1 e:4 g:2 square:1 quadratic:6 surd:1 equation:4 monic:3 lead:4 gaussian:3 value:2 note:2 need:1 count:1 counterpart:1 notion:1 positive:2 counting:1 observe:1 well:1 applies:1 exponent:1 property:1 set:2 countable:1 enumerable:1 lebesgue:1 measure:1 subset:1 almost:1 give:1 unique:2 least:1 degree:5 call:2 minimal:2 computable:1 therefore:3 definable:1 sum:2 difference:2 product:2 quotient:1 form:2 sometimes:1 denote:3 may:1 adele:1 ring:3 every:1 whose:1 rephrase:1 algebraically:2 close:1 fact:2 small:1 closed:1 contain:1 closure:1 define:1 radical:1 obtain:2 finite:1 addition:1 subtraction:1 multiplication:1 division:1 take:1 th:1 converse:1 however:1 true:1 cannot:1 manner:1 solution:1 result:1 galois:1 theory:3 quintic:1 abel:1 ruffini:1 real:1 approximately:1 mean:1 name:1 way:1 analogous:1 subring:1 k:1 frequently:1 prototypical:1 dedekind:1 domain:1 special:1 class:1 eisenstein:1 fundamental:1 unity:1 period:1 pisot:1 vijayaraghavan:1 salem:1 reference:1 h:1 index:1 introduction:1 edition:1 clarendon:1 press:1 oxford:1 uk:1 isbn:2 øystein:1 ore:1 history:1 dover:1 publication:1 inc:1 new:1 york:1 pbk:1 |@bigram hardy_wright:3 golden_ratio:1 weierstrass_theorem:1 liouville_theorem:1 quadratic_equation:2 gaussian_integer:2 lebesgue_measure:1 algebraically_close:1 algebraically_closed:1 algebraic_closure:1 addition_subtraction:1 subtraction_multiplication:1 quintic_equation:1 abel_ruffini:1 ruffini_theorem:1 eisenstein_integer:1 clarendon_press:1 dover_publication:1 isbn_pbk:1 |
1,332 | Dumbarton_Bridge_(California) | The Dumbarton Bridge is the southernmost of the highway bridges that span the San Francisco Bay in California. Carrying over 81,000 vehicles daily, it is also the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at 1.63 miles (8,600 feet / 2,622 m). Its eastern terminus is in Fremont, near Newark in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and its western terminus is in Menlo Park. The bridge has three lanes in each direction, and features a separated bike/pedestrian lane on its south-facing side. Like the San Mateo Bridge to the north, power lines parallel the bridge across the bay. Tolls are collected in the westbound direction at the toll plaza, which is located on the eastern side of the bay; the toll as of 2008 is $4. There are six toll lanes at the plaza; the leftmost two are dedicated FasTrak lanes. An additional carpool lane to the left of these can be used for free during weekday morning and afternoon commute hours by vehicles carrying two or more persons, motorcycles, or hybrid vehicles with a permit decal. Environmental factors California clapper rail is a known resident of the western terminus area. Photo credit Don Roberson When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, Caltrans conducted extensive environmental research on the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Principal concerns of the public were air pollution and noise pollution impacts, particularly in some residential areas of Menlo Park and East Palo Alto. Studies were conducted to produce contour maps of projected sound levels and carbon monoxide concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme. C.M. Hogan, Leda Patmore, Harry Seidman et al., Air Quality and Acoustics Analysis for the Dumbarton Bridge Replacement Project, ESL Inc., prepared for the Bay Area Civision of Toll Crossings (1973) The local area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals. The endangered species California clapper rail is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area. Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and Palo Alto's Baylands Nature Preserve. An accessible portion of the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs. San Francisco Bay Shoreline Guide, by California State Coastal Conservancy, University of California Press (1995) ISBN 0-520-08878-6 On both sides of the eastern terminus of the bridge are large salt ponds and levee trails belonging to the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the eastern bridge terminus is Coyote Hills Regional Park, with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the Alameda Creek Regional Trail, running from the Bay to Niles Canyon. East of Coyote Hills is Ardenwood Historic Farm, a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods History and engineering features The bridge never was officially named, but the common use name comes from Dumbarton Point, which dates to 1876 when it was named for Dumbarton in Scotland. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara Counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge, opened on January 17 1927, was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. Portions of this old drawbridge remain as fishing piers. The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the State for $2.5 million in 1951. Its age and the limitations of a two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span made it necessary for a replacement bridge to be constructed to the north. This current bridge, a six-lane, high-level structure, was opened to traffic in October 1982. The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million. The current bridge has a shoulder in each direction for emergency use and a two-way bicycle and separate pedestrian path on the south-facing side. A center span provides of vertical clearance for shipping. The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of pre-stressed lightweight concrete girders supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck. A view from the air, above Palo Alto, looking towards Fremont Connections to the western circulation system The bridge is part of State Route 84, and is directly connected to Interstate 880 by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end. However, it is not directly connected to US 101 at its southwestern end in Menlo Park. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge. These are (north to south) the Bayfront Expressway, linking to 101 at Marsh Road, Atherton (the official routing of SR 84), or via another mile of frontage road, to Seaport Boulevard/Woodside Road, Redwood City; Willow Road, approximately one-mile expressway through east Menlo Park to 101; and University Avenue, the main commercial street of East Palo Alto. Although this has led to severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and East Palo Alto, Caltrans has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to Interstate standards, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, Atherton and Palo Alto. The freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in Alameda County (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area, thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south of the bridge. Bus service across the bridge is provided by the Dumbarton Express, run by a consortium of local transit agencies (SamTrans, AC Transit, VTA and others) which connects to BART at Union City and Caltrain at Palo Alto and California Avenue. Film credits A sequence in the movie Harold and Maude takes place on the 1927 span and its eastern approach. The Dumbarton Bridge is also mentioned in the dialog of the 1992 film Sneakers as well as shown. A 1999 film, Dumbarton Bridge, is set in the suburban tract neighborhood near the bridge terminus. Dumbarton Bridge (1999) Dumbarton Rail Bridge Dumbarton Rail Bridge 2007 (from kayak) Just to the south of the car bridge lies the Dumbarton Rail Bridge. Built in 1910, the rail bridge has been unused since 1982 and its western approach collapsed in a fire in 1998. Palo Alto Online Jan 7 1998 Story: "FIREFIGHTERS: Dumbarton rail bridge destroyed" When in use, boaters would signal the bridge operator who would start a diesel engine and rotate the bridge to the open position on a large gear. The bridge is now left in the open position as shown. There are plans for a new rail bridge and rehabilitation of the rail line to serve a commuter rail service to connect Union City, Fremont, and Newark to various Peninsula destinations. SMCTA: Dumbarton Rail Corridor A successful March 2004 regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for the commuter rail service. References External links California Dept. of Transportation: Dumbarton Bridge History & Information Bay Trail: Dumbarton Bridge | Dumbarton_Bridge_(California) |@lemmatized dumbarton:15 bridge:45 southernmost:1 highway:3 span:6 san:9 francisco:7 bay:13 california:7 carry:2 vehicle:3 daily:1 also:3 short:1 across:3 mile:3 foot:1 eastern:5 terminus:8 fremont:4 near:3 newark:2 national:3 wildlife:3 refuge:4 western:7 menlo:7 park:9 three:2 lane:7 direction:3 feature:2 separated:1 bike:1 pedestrian:2 south:6 facing:2 side:6 like:1 mateo:2 north:7 power:1 line:2 parallel:1 toll:5 collect:1 westbound:1 plaza:2 locate:1 six:2 leftmost:1 two:4 dedicate:1 fastrak:1 additional:1 carpool:1 left:1 use:4 free:1 weekday:1 morning:1 afternoon:1 commute:2 hour:1 person:1 motorcycle:1 hybrid:1 permit:1 decal:1 environmental:2 factor:1 clapper:2 rail:13 known:1 resident:1 area:8 photo:1 credit:2 roberson:1 current:3 plan:2 caltrans:2 conduct:2 extensive:1 research:1 aquatic:1 terrestrial:1 environment:1 principal:1 concern:1 public:1 air:3 pollution:2 noise:1 impact:1 particularly:1 residential:2 east:6 palo:9 alto:9 study:1 produce:1 contour:1 map:1 project:3 sound:1 level:2 carbon:1 monoxide:1 concentration:1 throughout:1 approach:5 alternative:1 connection:2 scheme:1 c:1 hogan:1 leda:1 patmore:1 harry:1 seidman:1 et:1 al:1 quality:1 acoustic:1 analysis:1 replacement:3 esl:1 inc:1 prepare:1 civision:1 crossing:1 local:2 around:1 important:1 ecological:1 host:1 many:1 specie:2 bird:1 fish:1 mammal:1 endangered:1 know:1 present:1 peninsula:3 bayfront:2 ravenswood:2 open:5 space:1 preserve:3 baylands:1 nature:1 accessible:1 portion:3 lie:2 immediately:1 trail:5 run:4 shoreline:1 guide:1 state:3 coastal:1 conservancy:1 university:2 press:1 isbn:1 large:2 salt:1 pond:1 levee:1 belong:1 edwards:1 headquarters:1 visitor:1 center:3 hill:4 coyote:2 regional:3 network:1 tall:1 alameda:2 creek:1 nile:1 canyon:1 ardenwood:1 historic:1 farm:3 restored:1 working:1 display:1 turn:1 century:1 method:1 history:2 engineering:1 never:1 officially:1 name:3 common:1 come:1 point:1 date:1 scotland:1 build:3 originally:1 provide:3 shortcut:1 traffic:4 originate:1 santa:1 clara:1 county:2 serve:2 industrial:1 early:1 january:1 first:1 vehicular:1 cross:1 old:1 drawbridge:1 remain:1 fishing:1 pier:1 original:1 private:1 capital:1 purchase:1 million:2 age:1 limitation:1 undivided:1 roadway:1 lift:1 make:1 necessary:1 construct:1 high:1 structure:1 october:1 cost:1 complete:1 shoulder:1 emergency:1 way:1 bicycle:1 separate:1 path:1 vertical:1 clearance:1 ship:1 pre:1 stress:1 lightweight:3 concrete:3 girder:2 support:2 deck:2 twin:1 steel:1 trapezoidal:1 view:1 look:1 towards:1 circulation:1 system:1 part:1 route:2 directly:2 connect:5 interstate:2 freeway:3 segment:1 end:2 however:1 u:1 southwestern:1 motorist:1 must:1 traverse:1 one:2 grade:1 bayshore:1 expressway:2 link:2 marsh:1 road:4 atherton:2 official:1 routing:1 sr:1 via:1 another:1 frontage:1 seaport:1 boulevard:1 woodside:1 redwood:1 city:4 willow:1 approximately:1 avenue:2 main:1 commercial:1 street:1 although:1 lead:1 severe:1 problem:1 unable:1 upgrade:2 relevant:1 standard:1 due:1 opposition:1 opponent:1 fear:1 encourage:1 people:1 live:1 housing:1 affordable:1 job:1 mid:1 thus:1 increase:1 neighborhood:2 bus:1 service:3 express:1 consortium:1 transit:2 agency:1 samtrans:1 ac:1 vta:1 others:1 bart:1 union:2 caltrain:1 film:3 sequence:1 movie:1 harold:1 maude:1 take:1 place:1 mention:1 dialog:1 sneaker:1 well:1 show:2 set:1 suburban:1 tract:1 kayak:1 car:1 unused:1 since:1 collapse:1 fire:1 online:1 jan:1 story:1 firefighter:1 destroy:1 boater:1 would:2 signal:1 operator:1 start:1 diesel:1 engine:1 rotate:1 position:2 gear:1 leave:1 new:1 rehabilitation:1 commuter:2 various:1 destination:1 smcta:1 corridor:1 successful:1 march:1 transportation:2 ballot:1 measure:1 include:1 funding:1 rehabilitate:1 reference:1 external:1 dept:1 information:1 |@bigram dumbarton_bridge:7 san_francisco:7 wildlife_refuge:3 menlo_park:7 san_mateo:2 toll_plaza:1 weekday_morning:1 palo_alto:9 carbon_monoxide:1 et_al:1 endangered_specie:1 santa_clara:1 lightweight_concrete:3 harold_maude:1 dumbarton_rail:5 diesel_engine:1 commuter_rail:2 external_link:1 |
1,333 | Politics_of_Niger | Politics of Niger takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Niger is head of state and the Prime Minister of Niger head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. Political parties and elections Fifth Republic Continuity Since the creation of the Fifth Republic in 1999, the political rivalries and parties of the Third Republic have maintained their central role in national politics. There continue to be three large parties, and several smaller ones, with no single party gaining a majority in the National Assembly of Niger. In the Third Republic a coalition of the CDS and PNDS was formed with many small parties, in part to keep the former military party of the MNSD out of power. Jibrin Ibrahim and Abdoulayi Niandou Souley, "The rise to power of an opposition party: the MNSD in Niger Republic", Unisa Press, Politeia, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1996. This coalition collapsed in recriminations in 1995, leading to a PNDS and MNSD government facing a CDS President. The bad blood and gridlock which resulted was one of the reasons given for General Maïnassara's 1996 Nigerien coup d'etat. Myriam Gervais, "Niger: Regime Change, Economic Crisis, and Perpetuation of Privilege", in Political Reform in Francophone Africa (1997), ed. John F. Clark and David E. Gardinier, pages 100–101. The same three men who dominated the parties in the Third Republic returned in 1999: Mamadou Tanja for the MNSD-Nassara, Mahamadou Issoufou of the PNDS, and Mahamane Ousmane of CDS-Rahama. 1999 elections Following another coup in April 1999, in which Maïnassara was killed, the MNSD-Nassara's Tandja won the October 1999 presidential election. "RAPPORT DE LA MISSION D’OBSERVATION DES ELECTIONS PRESIDENTIELLES ET LEGISLATIVES DES 17 OCTOBRE ET 24 NOVEMBRE 1999", democratie.francophonie.org . In the October 1999 National Assembly Election, the MNSD won 38 of the 83 seats, forming a government under Hama Amadou with the support of CDS-Rahama's 17 seats. The PNDS led the opposition with 16 seats, but the continued antagonism between Mahamadou Issoufou and Mahamane Ousmane meant that no other coalition was available. ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, a former split for the MNSD held only four seats. In 2002, this coalition was shored up when the ANDP joined the parliamentary majority coalition, the Alliance of Democratic Forces, leaving the opposition Coordination of Democratic Forces. "L’ANDP de Djermakoye rallie la mouvance présidentielle", Afrique Express, No. 253, July 30, 2002 . Djermakoye joined the government as a Minister of State in November 2002, serving in that position until December 2004. List of governments of Niger, izf.net . 2004 elections While Tandja easily retained the presidency against a second round challange by Mahamadou Issoufou, the 2004 National Assembly elctions were closer. The PNDS formed a coalition to contest the expanded 113 seats of the National Assembly, which also included the UNI (2 seats), the PPN (2), and the PNA-Al'ouma (4). With the PNDS' 17 seats this coalition took 25 seats. The MNSD remained the largest party at 47 seats, be relied again on CDS-Rahama's 22 seats to govern. A minor portfolios in the Council of Ministers were given to two smaller parties as well, the RDP-Jama'a (6 seats) and ANDP-Zaman Lahiya (5 seats). RSD-Gaskiya (7 seats) and PSDN-Alheri (1 seat) remained aloof of both blocs. Parliamentary groups in the National Assembly, National Assembly web site (2001 archive page) . 2007 PM crisis In December 2004 Hama Amadou was again chosen as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on 30 December 2004. In June 2007, a no confidence vote against the government led to the fall of the Prime Minister Hama Amadou and his ministers. Amadou was replaced by Seyni Oumarou, also of the president's MNSD-Nassara party, leading to infighting within a portion of the party still loyal to Amadou. Niger's ruling party faces crisis. AFP 04/07/2008 Broad changes were made to the Council of Ministers of Niger, with MNSD-Nassara continuing to take the majority of portfolios, but with the CDS, RDP-Jama'a, and NDP-Zaman Lahiya retaining Ministerial appointments. Tazartché In the run up to the 2009 elections (Presidential, Assembly, and Municipal), a movement to draft President Tandja for a third term appeared. Led by public figures of the MNSD outside government, the group took the name of Tandja's 2004 re-election slogan, Tazartché: a Hausa word meaning "Continuity". Through several well funded and well attended public rallies in late 2008, the President remained silent on the calls for him to remain. Le Président Tandja reste muet sur les appels en faveur d’une prolongation de son mandat. APA 19/12/2008 The 1999 constitution made the serving of more than two term impossible (article 36), and the revision of that article illegal by any means (article 136). The Prime Minister Seyni Oumarou reiterated on 22 January that all scheduled elections would go ahead before the end of 2009. Niger Plans Election by December, Prime Minister Says. Abdoulaye Ibbo Daddy, Bloomberg news. 22 January 2009. In March, during his meetings with French President Sarkozy, Tandja explicitly stated that he would not seek a third term. Niger : « Je suis prêt à partir à la fin de mon mandat », affirme le Président nigérien. APA 28 Mars 2009 11:34 « je ne cherche pas un autre mandat. Donc je suis très clair là-dessus, je n’ai demandé à aucun nigérien si on peut faire ceci ou cela. Jamais, et je n’ai jamais demandé quoi que ce soit pour changer la constitution nigérienne ou à y chercher des modifications » Then, in early May 2009, when questioned by the press on his visit to Agadez to begin peace talks with Tuareg rebels, Tandja announced that "the people have demanded I remain." Le président de la République Mamadou Tandja: «Le peuple demande que je reste, je ne peux pas rester insensible à son appel.». LE TEMOIN 04 - 08 May 2009. His spokesman then outlined a plan in which a referendum could be held in mid 2009, not to amend the 1999 constitution, but to scrap it and begin work on a constitution of the Sixth Republic of Niger, which would contain no term limits for the President, and create a fully Presidential republic. Chronogramme Tazartché: Bonus de 3 ans pour Tandja, Elections locales et législatives en 2009, Elections présidentielles (auxquelles Tandja pouvait participer) en 2012. LE TEMOIN du 11 au 15 mai 2009 ANNONCE DU RÉFÉRENDUM Le planning du Tazartché. Oumarou Keïta. Republicain-Niger. 15 May 2009. RÉFÉRENDUM CONSTITUTIONNEL Une présidence à vie s'annonce ! Oumarou Keïta. Republicain-Niger. 15 May 2009. ALa Cedeao contre la réforme constitutionnelle prévue au Niger . Deutche Welle. 15 May 2009. On 15 May 2009, in response to their parties opposition to a proposed referendum to allow the President to seek a third term, the three members of RDP-Jama'a and ANDP-Zaman Lahiya were replaced with ministers drawn from the MNSD-Nassara. With the continued support of the CDS, the MNSD maintained a working majority of 67 seats in the 113 seat National Assembly. Remaniement gouvernemental au Niger, nouveau ministre de la Justice. AFP 15/05/2009 According to the 1999 Constitution of Niger, the President may call a referendum on any matter (except for a revision of those elements of the Constitution outlined in Article 136 -- including the presidential term limits). The Constitutional Court of Niger and the National Assembly of Niger must advise the president, but there is no provision that the president must heed their advice. On 25 May 2009, the Constitutional Court, made up of appointed judges, released a ruling that any referendum to create a new constitution would be unconstitutional, and further would be a violation of the oath the president had taken on the Koran (a serious matter in this overwhelmingly Muslim country). Niger court says third-term referendum unlawful. Reuters. May 26, 2009 La Cour constitutionnelle du Niger s’oppose au projet de changement de constitution APA News. 25 May 2009. The the week prior, two major parties had come out in their opposition to the referendum proposal as well. On 13 May, the ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, led by former MNSD number two Djermokoye declared its oppostion to any change in the constitution. On 15 May the CDS-Rahama, the party without which the MNSD could not have formed governments in 1999, 2004, and 2007, came out opposing the referendum, and calling the constitution unalterable. Le principal parti allié de Tandja contre son projet de référendum. AFP 15 May 2009. Declaration du Bureau Politique CDS Rahama sur le schéma « Tazartché » proposé au président de la république. Bureau Politique CDS-Rahama. 15 May 2009. Neither party moved into the opposition, and both Ousmane and Djermokoye said they were willing to negotiate with the president. Ousmane et Djermokoye espèrent toujours l’ouverture des négociations avec Tandja . LE TEMOIN du 11 au 15 mai 200 On 26 March, within hours of the Constitutional courts statement, official media read out a statement that President Tandja had dissolved the National Assembly. Niger's Tandja dissolves parliament. Reuters. May 26, 2009 Under the 1999 Constitution he is allowed to do once every two years, Matthew Søberg Shugart. Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns. School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. University of California, San Diego (September 2005). but he must call parliamentary elections with three months. This would mean the government of Niger would carry out scheduled parliamentary elections in September, two months early, and a referendum on a new constitution before Presidential elections which can take place no later than December, assuming the 1999 constitution is in effect. Political parties Elections Constitution The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, recised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral National Assembly was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5 year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. Executive branch Mamadou Tandja |President |Tandja Mamadou |MNSD |22 December 1999 |- |Prime Minister |Seyni Oumarou |MNSD |7 June 2007 |} Niger's new constitution restores the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the President of the Republic is elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister, named by the president, share executive power. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 113 members, elected for a five year term, 105 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 8 members elected in single-seat national minority constituencies. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. References Niger: Description of Electoral System. ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Democratic Governance Thematic Trust Fund (DGTTF). 1998-2009. Niger: Comparative Electoral Data. ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Democratic Governance Thematic Trust Fund (DGTTF). 1998-2009. | Politics_of_Niger |@lemmatized politics:2 niger:27 take:7 place:2 framework:1 semi:4 presidential:9 representative:1 democratic:5 republic:14 whereby:1 president:20 head:3 state:3 prime:8 minister:13 government:14 multi:2 party:21 system:6 executive:5 power:6 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 national:16 assembly:14 political:6 election:16 fifth:3 continuity:2 since:1 creation:1 rivalry:1 third:9 maintain:2 central:1 role:1 continue:2 three:4 large:2 several:2 small:3 one:2 single:2 gain:3 majority:5 coalition:7 cd:11 pnds:6 form:4 many:1 part:1 keep:1 former:3 military:1 mnsd:17 jibrin:1 ibrahim:1 abdoulayi:1 niandou:1 souley:1 rise:1 opposition:6 unisa:1 press:2 politeia:1 vol:1 collapse:1 recrimination:1 lead:6 face:2 bad:1 blood:1 gridlock:1 result:1 reason:1 give:2 general:1 maïnassara:2 nigerien:1 coup:2 etat:1 myriam:1 gervais:1 regime:1 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1,334 | Navigation | Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. Navigation is the process of reading, and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. Bowditch, 2003:799. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. The word navigate is derived from the Latin "navigare", meaning "to sail". All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns. Basic concepts Latitude The latitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular distance north or south of the [equator]. Bowditch, 2003:4. Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S. Historically, mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the North Star Polaris with a sextant and sight reduction tables to take out error for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. Generally, the height of Polaris in degrees of arc above the horizon is the latitude of the observer. Longitude Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney, Australia, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of about 74° west. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine precise longitude. The problem was solved with the invention of the marine chronometer. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sextant sighting is known. Modern technique Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on crossing lines of position or LOP. Maloney, 2003:615. A line of position can refer to two different things: a line on a chart and a line between the observer and an object in real life. Maloney, 2003:614 A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object. If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be on that line on the chart. In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects. On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position. If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A fix is the intersection of two or more LOPs. If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the dead reckoning position to establish an estimated position. Maloney, 2003:618. Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources: celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but generally represented as a line), terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other, Maloney, 2003:622. compass bearing to a charted object, radar range to a charted object, on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line. There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse Methods of navigation have changed through history. Bowditch, 2002:1. Each new method has enhanced the mariner’s ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in the table. Modern navigation methods Illustration Description ApplicationDead reckoning or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP.Used at all times.Pilotage involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.When within sight of land.Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs.Used primarily as a backup to satellite and other electronic systems in the open ocean. Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means, including:Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C. Losing ground to GPS.Radar navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar’s use as a collision avoidance system. Primarily when within radar range of land.Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to determine position.Used in all situations. The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods. Dead reckoning The navigator plots his 9am position, indicated by the triangle, and, using his course and speed, estimates his position at 9:30am and 10am. Dead reckoning is the process of estimating present position by projecting course and speed from a known past position. Bowditch, 2002:99. It is also used to predict a future position by projecting course and speed from a known present position. The DR position is only an approximate position because it does not allow for the effect of leeway, current, helmsman error, compass error, or any other external influences. The navigator uses dead reckoning in many ways, such as: to determine sunrise and sunset, to predict landfall, sighting lights and arrival times, to evaluate the accuracy of electronic positioning information, to predict which celestial bodies will be available for future observation. The most important use of dead reckoning is to project the position of the ship into the immediate future and avoid hazards to navigation. The navigator carefully tends the DR plot, updating it when required, and uses it to evaluate external forces acting on the ship. The navigator also consults the DR plot to avoid navigation hazards. A fix taken at each DR position will reveal the effects of current, wind, and steering error, and allow the navigator to stay on track by correcting for them. The use of DR when an Electronic Charts Display and Information System (ECDIS) is the primary plotting method will vary with the type of system. An ECDIS allows the display of the ship’s heading projected out to some future position as a function of time, the display of waypoint information, and progress toward each waypoint in turn. Until ECDIS is proven to provide the level of safety and accuracy required, the use of a traditional DR plot on paper charts is a prudent backup, especially in restricted waters. Before the development of the lunar distance method or the marine chronometer, dead reckoning was the primary method of determining longitude available to mariners such as Christopher Columbus and John Cabot on their trans-Atlantic voyages. Piloting Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating a vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals. Bowditch, 2002:105. More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important. Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels. A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people. A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while the civilian navigator must often take and plot them himself. While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all. If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally. If a pilot is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload. But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures. Celestial navigation A celestial fix will be at the intersection of two or more circles. Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the Sun, Moon, Planets and navigational stars. Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A Nautical almanac and a chronometer are used to compute the subpoint on earth a celestial body is over, and a sextant is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The moon and sun may also be used. The sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position. Marine chronometer A traditional marine chronometer. In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .29 mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation. The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations. Bowditch, 2002:269. A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to compensate for temperature variations. A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals. The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings. Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day. Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy. They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections. Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset electrically. The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope. A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal. The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of 1 year on a single set of batteries. Observations may be timed and ship’s clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times. In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate. A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations. In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight. All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal. Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as Radio Navigational Aids. The marine sextant The marine sextant is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon. The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude"). The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass. Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation. Inertial navigation Inertial navigation is a dead reckoning type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Once the initial latitude and longitude is established, the system receives impulses from motion detectors that measure the acceleration along three or more axes enabling it continually and accurately to calculate the current latitude and longitude. Its advantages over other navigation systems are that, once the starting position is set, it does not require outside information, it is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed by the enemy. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. So inertial navigation systems must be corrected frequently with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system. The US Navy developed a Ships Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the Polaris missile program to insure a safe, reliable and accurate navigation system for its missile submarines. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until satellite navigation systems (GPS) became available. Electronic navigation Radio navigation A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land. RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most US aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of radio beacons, the radio version of a lighthouse. The signal is typically a simple AM broadcast of a morse code series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities. Decca, OMEGA, and LORAN-C are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that was first deployed during World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with Loran C, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by the United States in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four mile accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines. Due to the success of the Global Positioning System the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997 and all stations ceased operation. LORAN is a terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters that use the time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low frequency portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz. Many nations are users of the system, including the United States, Japan, and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called CHAYKA. LORAN use is in steep decline, with GPS being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals. Radar navigation Radar ranges and bearings can be very useful navigation. When a vessel is within radar range of land or special radar aids to navigation, the navigator can take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart. Maloney, 2003:744. A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix. Bowditch, 2002:816. Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object," National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:163. "two or more bearings," "tangent bearings," and "two or more ranges." Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar Observer's Handbook. National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:169. This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance. This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards. Some techniques have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position. National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:164. Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course. National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:182. During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line. Satellite navigation Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. , the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully operational GNSS. The Russian GLONASS is a GNSS in the process of being restored to full operation. The European Union's Galileo positioning system is a next generation GNSS in the initial deployment phase, scheduled to be operational in 2010. China has indicated it may expand its regional Beidou navigation system into a global system. More than two dozen GPS satellites are in medium Earth orbit, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to determine the receiver's location, speed and direction. Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to navigation around the world, and an important tool for map-making and land surveying. GPS also provides a precise time reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of telecommunications networks. Developed by the United States Department of Defense, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per year, GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office. Accessed December 15, 2006. including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good. Navigation processes Day's work in navigation The Day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but takes a form resembling Turpin and McEwen, 1980:6-18. : Maintain continuous dead reckoning plot. Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix. (prudent to observe 6 stars) Morning sun observation. Can be taken on or near prime vertical for longitude, or at any time for a line of position. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-meridian sights. Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with Venus line for noon fix. Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift. At least one afternoon sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix. (prudent to observe 6 stars) Passage planning Poor passage planning and deviation from the plan can lead to groundings and oil spills.Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor area, the enroute portion of a voyage, approaching the destination, and mooring. According to international law, a vessel's captain is legally responsible for passage planning, however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's navigator. Studies show that human error is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented the accident. The practice of voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on nautical charts to a process of risk management. Passage planning consists of four stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring, which are specified in International Maritime Organization Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage Planning, and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), and a number of professional books and publications. There are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel. The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage of passage planning consists of monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen circumstances. Integrated bridge systems Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning. Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course. The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response. Navigation Software There are many navigation software available in the industry. Saarathy is an indigenous multilingual mobile software for navigation related utilities including warning, rescue and geotagging; developed by Geomatics Solutions Development Group, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), India See also Compass Compass bearing Relative bearing True bearing Air navigation American Practical Navigator Astrogation Austronesian navigation Automotive navigation system Cammenga Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, a scientific editor and astronomer, who first located many places geographically. Galileo positioning system Geodetic system Great-circle distance explains how to find that quantity if two latitudes and longitudes are known. History of navigation Intermodal Journey Planner Karl Ramsayer, German inventor of auto guided navigation Ma Jun (invention of the South Pointing Chariot) Map database management Marshall Islands stick chart Orienteering Polynesian navigation Port Revel Shiphandling Training Centre Robotic mapping Shen Kuo SIGI South Pointing Chariot Spherical trigonometry Spherical geometry Surgical navigation in medicine Wind triangle Rhumb line Notes References External links General Concepts about Marine Navigation Earth navigation calculator for Windows (free) Lectures in Navigation by Ernest Gallaudet Draper Navigation - U.S. Army Manual Celestial navigation Bowditch Online - complete online edition of Nathaniel Bowditch's American Practical Navigator Navigational algorithms Precision navigation tutorial at University of New Brunswick traditional compass navigation How to navigate with less than a compass or GPS LOCUS research project about mobile navigation using a digital compass and a GPS. 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1,335 | Andreas_Capellanus | Andreas Capellanus (Capellanus meaning "chaplain") was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love"), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as The Art of Courtly Love, though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. Nothing is known of Andreas Capellanus's life, but he is presumed to have been a courtier of Marie of Troyes, and probably of French origin; he is sometimes known by a French translation of his name, André le Chapelain. Work De Amore was written at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. A dismissive allusion in the text to the "wealth of Hungary" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184, at the time when Bela III of Hungary had sent to the French court a statement of his income and had proposed marriage to Marie's sister Marguerite of France, but before 1186, when his proposal was accepted. John Jay Parry, the editor of De Amore, quotes critic Robert Bossuat as describing "De Amore" as "one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization". It may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive; in any event it preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in Western literature. The social system of "courtly love", as gradually elaborated by the Provençal troubadours from the mid twelfth century, soon spread. One of the circles in which this poetry and its ethic were cultivated was the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (herself the granddaughter of an early troubadour poet, William IX of Aquitaine). It has been claimed that De Amore codifies the social and sexual life of Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174, though it was evidently written at least ten years later and, apparently, at Troyes. It deals with several specific themes that were the subject of poetical debate among late twelfth century troubadours and trobairitz. Bibliography Andreas Capellanus: The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry. New York: Columbia University Press, 1941. (Reprinted: New York: Norton, 1969.) Donald K. Frank: Naturalism and the troubadour ethic. New York: Lang, 1988. (American university studies: Ser. 19; 10) ISBN 0-8204-0606-6 External links Excerpts of De Amore in English | Andreas_Capellanus |@lemmatized andreas:3 capellanus:4 meaning:1 chaplain:1 twelfth:3 century:3 author:1 treatise:1 commonly:1 entitle:1 de:7 amore:6 love:5 often:1 know:3 english:2 somewhat:2 misleadingly:1 art:2 courtly:4 though:2 realistic:1 cynical:1 tone:1 suggest:2 measure:1 antidote:1 nothing:1 life:2 presume:1 courtier:1 marie:3 troyes:2 probably:1 french:3 origin:1 sometimes:1 translation:1 name:1 andré:1 le:1 chapelain:1 work:2 write:3 request:1 champagne:1 daughter:1 king:1 louis:1 vii:1 france:2 eleanor:3 aquitaine:3 dismissive:1 allusion:1 text:1 wealth:1 hungary:2 hypothesis:1 time:1 bela:1 iii:1 send:1 court:3 statement:1 income:1 propose:1 marriage:1 sister:1 marguerite:1 proposal:1 accept:1 john:2 jay:2 parry:2 editor:1 quote:1 critic:1 robert:1 bossuat:1 describe:1 one:2 capital:1 reflect:1 thought:1 great:1 epoch:1 explain:1 secret:1 civilization:1 may:1 view:1 didactic:1 mocking:1 merely:1 descriptive:1 event:1 preserve:1 attitude:1 practice:1 foundation:1 long:1 significant:1 tradition:1 western:1 literature:1 social:2 system:1 gradually:1 elaborate:1 provençal:1 troubadour:4 mid:1 soon:1 spread:1 circle:1 poetry:1 ethic:2 cultivate:1 granddaughter:1 early:1 poet:1 william:1 ix:1 claim:1 codifies:1 sexual:1 poitier:1 evidently:1 least:1 ten:1 year:1 later:1 apparently:1 deal:1 several:1 specific:1 theme:1 subject:1 poetical:1 debate:1 among:1 late:1 trobairitz:1 bibliography:1 trans:1 new:3 york:3 columbia:1 university:2 press:1 reprint:1 norton:1 donald:1 k:1 frank:1 naturalism:1 lang:1 american:1 study:1 ser:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 excerpt:1 |@bigram courtly_love:4 eleanor_aquitaine:2 external_link:1 |
1,336 | Enid_Blyton | Enid Mary Blyton (11 August 1897 – 28 November 1968) was a British children's writer known as both Enid Blyton and Mary Pollock. She was one of the most successful children's storytellers of the twentieth century. Once described as a "one-woman fiction machine", she is noted for numerous series of books based on recurring characters and designed for different age groups. Her books have enjoyed popular success in many parts of the world, and have sold over 400 million copies. Blyton is the sixth most translated author worldwide: over 3400 translations of her books were available in 2007 according to UNESCO's Index Translationum; This index contains titles in all the translated languages. The top five are: Walt Disney Productions, Agatha Christie, Jules Verne, Shakespeare, Lenin, and the next five: Enid Blyton, Barbara Cartland, Danielle Steel, Hans Christian Andersen, and Stephen King. she is behind Lenin and almost equal to Shakespeare. One of her most widely known characters is Noddy, intended for early years readers. However, her main forte is the young readers' novels, where children ride out their own adventures with minimal adult help. In this genre, particularly popular series include the Famous Five (consisting of 21 novels, 1942–1963, based on four children and their dog), the Five Find-Outers and Dog, (15 novels, 1943–1961, where five children regularly outwit the local police) as well as the Secret Seven (15 novels, 1949–1963, a society of seven children who solve various mysteries). Her work involves children's adventure stories, and fantasy, sometimes involving magic. Her books were and still are enormously popular in Britain, Malta, India, Pakistan, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, Singapore, and Australia; and as translations in the former Yugoslavia, Japan, and across most of the globe. Her work has been translated into nearly 90 languages. Blyton's life is set to be turned into a BBC movie for the first time later in 2009. Academy Award nominated actress Helena Bonham Carter will be portraying Blyton in the movie. Filming is set to commence on the week beginning 9 March 2009, and will be aired in Britain on BBC Four later in 2009. Bonham Carter is set to star alongside Matthew Macfadyen and Denis Lawson who will be playing Blyton's first husband Hugh Pollock and Blyton's second husband Kenneth Darrell Waters respectively. Digital Spy: BBC producing Enid Blyton film Personal life Blyton was born on 11 August 1897 at 354 Lordship Lane, East Dulwich, London, the eldest child of Thomas Carey Blyton (1870–1920), a salesman of cutlery, and his wife, Theresa Mary, née Harrison (1874–1950). There were two younger brothers, Hanly (b. 1899), and Carey (b. 1902), who were born after the family had moved to the nearby suburb of Beckenham. From 1907 to 1915, Blyton was educated at St. Christopher's School in Beckenham, where she excelled at her endeavours, leaving as head girl. She enjoyed physical activities along with the academic work, but not maths. Blyton was a talented pianist, but gave up her musical studies when she trained as a teacher at Ipswich High School. She taught for five years at Bickley, Surbiton and Chessington, writing in her spare time. Her first book, Child Whispers, a collection of poems, was published in 1922. On 28 August 1924 Blyton married Major Hugh Alexander Pollock DSO (1888–1971), editor of the book department in the publishing firm of George Newnes, which published two of her books that year. The couple moved to Buckinghamshire. Eventually they moved to a house in Beaconsfield, named Green Hedges by Blyton's readers following a competition in Sunny Stories. They had two children: Gillian Mary Baverstock (15 July 1931 – 24 June 2007) and Imogen Mary Smallwood (born 27 October 1935). In the mid-1930s Blyton experienced a spiritual crisis, but she decided against converting to Roman Catholicism from the Church of England because she had felt it was "too restricting". Although she rarely attended church services, she saw that her two daughters were baptised into the Anglican faith and went to the local Sunday School. By 1939 her marriage to Pollock was in difficulties, and in 1941 she met Kenneth Fraser Darrell Waters (1892–1967), a London surgeon, with whom she began a friendship which quickly developed into something deeper. After each had divorced, they married at the City of Westminster registry office on 20 October 1943, and she subsequently changed the surname of her two daughters to Darrell Waters. Pollock remarried and had little contact with his daughters thereafter. Blyton's second marriage was very happy and, as far as her public image was concerned, she moved smoothly into her role as a devoted doctor's wife, living with him and her two daughters at Green Hedges. Blyton's husband died in 1967. During the following months, she became increasingly ill. Afflicted by Alzheimer's disease, Blyton was moved into a nursing home three months before her death; she died at the Greenways Nursing Home, 11 Fellows Road, Hampstead, London, on 28 November 1968, aged 71 and was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium where her ashes remain. Blyton's literary output was of an estimated 800 books over roughly 40 years. Chorion Limited of London now owns and handles the intellectual properties and character brands of Blyton's Noddy and the Famous Five. Most successful works The Famous Five series The Adventure series The Noddy books The Secret Seven series The Malory Towers series The St. Clare's series The Wishing-Chair series The Magic Faraway Tree series The Barney Mystery series The Circus series The Five Find-Outers The Mistletoe Farm series The Naughtiest Girl series The Amelia Jane short stories The Secret series Other works Blyton wrote hundreds of other books for young and older children: novels, story collections and some non-fiction. She also filled a large number of magazine pages, particularly the long-running Sunny Stories which were immensely popular among younger children. An estimate puts her total book publication at around 800 titles, not including decades of magazine writing. It is said that at one point in her career she regularly produced 10,000 words a day. Such prolific output led many to believe that some of her work was ghost-written. Yet, no ghost writers have come forward. She used a pseudonym Mary Pollock for a few titles (middle name plus first married name). The last volumes in her most famous series were published in 1963. Many books still appeared after that, but were mainly story books made up from re-cycled work. Blyton also wrote numerous books on nature and Biblical themes. Her story The Land of Far-Beyond is a Christian parable along the lines of John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, with modern children as the central characters. She also produced retellings of Old Testament and New Testament stories. Enid Blyton was a prolific author of short stories. These were first published, for the most part, in Sunny Stories, an Enid Blyton magazine, or other children's papers. She also used to explore the forests when she was a little girl and wrote of her dreams in a notebook kept by her bedside. Subject matter Blyton's books often mirrored the fantasies of younger children. Children are free to play and explore without adult interference, more clearly than in most authors before or since — although the children in E. Nesbit's turn of the century works, and those in the Swallows and Amazons series (mostly 1930s) were equally independent. Adult characters are usually either authority figures (such as policemen, teachers, or parents) or adversaries to be conquered by the children. Children are self-sufficient, spending days away from home. This theme is taken to its extreme in two books: Five Run Away Together and The Secret Island: a group of children run away from unpleasant guardians to live on an island together, making a home and fending for themselves until their parents return. Blyton's books are generally split into three types. One involves ordinary children in extraordinary situations, having adventures, solving crimes, or otherwise finding themselves in unusual circumstances. Examples include the Famous Five and Secret Seven, and the Adventure series. The second and more conventional type is the boarding school story; the plots of these have more emphasis on the day-to-day life at school. This is the world of the midnight feast, the practical joke, and the social interaction of the various types of character. Examples of this type are the Malory Towers stories, the St Clare's series, and the Naughtiest Girl books and are typical of the times — many comics of the day, for instance, also contained similar types of story. The third type is the fantastical. Children are typically transported into a magical world in which they meet fairies, goblins, elves, or other fantasy creatures. Examples of this type are the Wishing-Chair books and the The Faraway Tree. Alternatively, in many of her short stories, toys are shown to come alive when humans are not around. Controversies and revisions Blyton's status as a bestselling author is in spite of disapproval of her works from various perspectives, which has led to altered reprints of the books and withdrawals or “bans” from libraries. In the 1990s, Chorion, the owners of Blyton's works, edited her books to remove passages that were deemed racist or sexist.<ref>Geoghegan, Tom, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7591648.stm The mystery of Enid Blyton's revival], BBC News Magazine, September 5 2008</ref> The children’s author Anne Fine presented an overview of the concerns about Blyton's work and responses to them on BBC Radio 4 in November 2008, in which she noted the “drip, drip, drip of disapproval” associated with the books. Fine, Anne, A Fine Defence of Enid Blyton, BBC Radio 4, 2008 "Blyton bans" It was frequently reported (in the 1950s and also from the 1980s onwards) that various children's libraries removed some of Blyton's works from the shelves. The history of such "Blyton bans" is confused. Some librarians certainly at times felt that Blyton's restricted use of language, a conscious product of her teaching background, militated against appreciation of more literary qualities. There was some precedent in the treatment of L. Frank Baum's Oz books (and the many sequels by others) by librarians in the United States in the 1930s. A careful account of anti-Blyton attacks is given in Chapter 4 of Robert Druce's This Day Our Daily Fictions. The British Journal of Education in 1955 carried a piece by Janice Dohn, an American children's librarian, considering Blyton's writing together with authors of formula fiction, and making negative comments about Blyton's devices and tone. A 1958 article in Encounter by Colin Welch, directed against the Noddy character, was reprinted in a New Zealand librarians' periodical. This gave rise to the first rumour of a New Zealand "library ban" on Blyton's books, a recurrent press canard. Policy on buying and stocking Blyton's books by British public libraries drew attention in newspaper reports from the early 1960s to the end of the 1970s, as local decisions were made by a London borough, Birmingham, Nottingham and other central libraries. There is no evidence that her books' popularity ever suffered. She was defended by populist journalists, and others. Her response is said to be that she was not interested in the views of critics aged over 12. The Mystery of Enid Blyton Dated attitudes and altered reprints Cover of The Three Golliwogs, in which the golliwogs are the heroes. The books are very much of their time, particularly the titles published in the 1950s. They present Britain's class system — that is to say, "rough" versus "decent". Druce () "The system of middle-class values (and of automatic value-judgements entailed by such a system) which Blyton presents is simple enough." (p. 222) "In Blyton, an indifference to dirt, grease, foul smells and untidiness is a defining characteristic of the working class." (p. 225) Many of Blyton's children's books similarly popularised negative stereotypes regarding gender, race, and class. The most startling incidence of this type of material to a modern audience might be the use of a phrase like "black as a nigger with soot" appearing in Five Go off to Camp. http://www.bibsbooks.co.uk/the-library-the-smashing-world-of-enid-blyton.html http://www.enidblyton.net/buy-enid-blyton-books.html At the time, "Negro" was the standard formal term and "nigger" a relatively common colloquialism. This is one of the most obvious targets for alteration in modern reprints, along with the replacement of golliwogs with teddy bears or goblins. Some of these responses by publishers to contemporary attitudes on racial stereotypes has itself drawn criticism from those adults who view it as tampering with an important piece of the history of children's literature. The Druce book brings up the case of the The Little Black Doll (who wanted to be pink), which was turned on its head in a reprint. Also removed in deference to modern ethical attitudes are many casual references to slaves and to corporal punishment. Blyton's attitudes came under criticism during her working lifetime; a publisher rejected a story of hers in 1960, taking a negative literary view of it but also saying that "There is a faint but unattractive touch of old-fashioned xenophobia in the author's attitude to the thieves; they are 'foreign'...and this seems to be regarded as sufficient to explain their criminality." When Blyton fell out of the good books - smh.com.au Similarly, some have suggested the depictions of boys and girls in her books was sexist. For example, this Guardian article suggested that the Famous Five depicts a power struggle between Julian, Dick and George(ina), with the female characters either acting like boys or being heavily put-upon. Although the issues are more subjective than with some of the racial issues, it has been suggested that a new edition of the book will "address" these issues through alterations, which has led to the expression of nostalgia for the books and their lack of political correctness. Row faster, George! The PC meddlers are chasing us! - Daily Mail . In the Secret Seven books, the girls are deliberately excluded from tasks such as investigating the villains' hideouts — in Go Ahead, Secret Seven, it is directly stated "'Certainly not,' said Peter, sounding very grown-up all of a sudden. 'This is a man's job, exploring that coal-hole'". Blyton, Enid; Go Ahead, Secret Seven; Knight Books;(1953) In the Famous Five this is less often the case, but in Five on a Hike Together, Julian gives similar orders to George: "You may look like a boy and behave like a boy, but you're a girl all the same. And like it or not, girls have got to be taken care of." Enid Blyton - Five On a Hike Together Both of these involve situations that would in reality be dangerous for any child, and where clear gender roles are set out with boys in charge and girls protected, possibly sending out a gendered message for more realistic scenarios. Statistics A shelf full of Enid Blyton reprints Blyton's books have sold more than 600 million copies More than a million Famous Five books are sold worldwide each year Her books have been translated into more than 90 different languages The Magic Faraway Tree was voted no. 66 in the BBC's Big Read. In the 2008 Costa Book Awards, Enid Blyton was voted the best-loved author, ahead of Roald Dahl, JK Rowling and Shakespeare. 753 titles credited to her over a 45 year career with an average of 16 titles published per year (List of books by Enid Blyton) See also Enid Blyton Society Enid Blyton's illustrators Gillian Baverstock References External links "Golliwogg.co.uk" An independent guide to Golliwogs - "Golliwogs & Racism" "Enid Blyton in spanish world" Sources Enid Blyton (1952) The Story of My Life Barbara Stoney (1974) Enid Blyton, 1992 The Enid Blyton Biography, Hodder, London ISBN 0-340-58348-7 (paperback) ISBN 0-340-16514-6 Mason Willey (1993) Enid Blyton: A Bibliography of First Editions and Other Collectible Books ISBN 0-9521284-0-3 S. G. Ray (1982) The Blyton Phenomenon Bob Mullan (1987) The Enid Blyton Story George Greenfield (1998) Enid Blyton Robert Druce (1992) This Day Our Daily Fictions: An Enquiry into the Multi-Million Bestseller Status of Enid Blyton and Ian Fleming'' | Enid_Blyton |@lemmatized enid:26 mary:6 blyton:66 august:3 november:3 british:3 child:28 writer:2 know:2 pollock:6 one:6 successful:2 storyteller:1 twentieth:1 century:2 describe:1 woman:1 fiction:5 machine:1 note:2 numerous:2 series:18 book:42 base:2 recur:1 character:8 design:1 different:2 age:3 group:2 enjoy:2 popular:4 success:1 many:8 part:2 world:5 sell:3 million:4 copy:2 sixth:1 translated:1 author:8 worldwide:2 translation:2 available:1 accord:1 unesco:1 index:2 translationum:1 contain:2 title:6 translate:3 language:3 top:1 five:17 walt:1 disney:1 production:1 agatha:1 christie:1 jules:1 verne:1 shakespeare:3 lenin:2 next:1 barbara:2 cartland:1 danielle:1 steel:1 hans:1 christian:2 andersen:1 stephen:1 king:1 behind:1 almost:1 equal:1 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1,337 | Cosmic_microwave_background | In cosmology, cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation (also CMBR, CBR, MBR, and relic radiation) is a form of electromagnetic radiation filling the universe. With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies (the background) is pitch black. But with a radio telescope, there is a faint background glow, almost exactly the same in all directions, that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the radio spectrum, hence the name cosmic microwave background radiation. The CMB's discovery in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s, and earned them the 1978 Nobel Prize. The CMBR is well explained by the Big Bang model – when the universe was young, before the formation of stars and planets, it was smaller, much hotter, and filled with a uniform glow from its red-hot fog of hydrogen plasma. As the universe expanded, both the plasma and the radiation filling it grew cooler. When the universe cooled enough, stable atoms could form. These atoms could no longer absorb the thermal radiation, and the universe became transparent instead of being an opaque fog. The photons that were around at that time have been propagating ever since, though growing fainter and less energetic, since the exact same photons fill a larger and larger universe. This is the source for the term relic radiation, another name for the CMBR. Precise measurements of cosmic background radiation are critical to cosmology, since any proposed model of the universe must explain this radiation. The CMBR has a thermal black body spectrum at a temperature of 2.725 K, thus the spectrum peaks in the microwave range frequency of 160.2 GHz, corresponding to a 1.9 mm wavelength. The glow is almost but not quite uniform in all directions, and shows a very specific pattern equal to that expected if the inherent randomness of a red-hot gas is blown up to the size of the universe. In particular, the spatial power spectrum (how much difference is observed versus how far apart the regions are on the sky) contains small anisotropies, or irregularities, which vary with the size of the region examined. They have been measured in detail, and match what would be expected if small thermal fluctuations had expanded to the size of the observable space we can detect today. This is still a very active field of study, with scientists seeking both better data (for example, the Planck spacecraft ) and better interpretations of the initial conditions of expansion. Although many different processes might produce the general form of a black body spectrum, no model other than the Big Bang has yet explained the fluctuations. As a result, most cosmologists consider the Big Bang model of the universe to be the best explanation for the CMBR. Features The cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite is the most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature. The data points and error bars on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve. The cosmic microwave background is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the root mean square variations are only 18 µK. This ignores the dipole anisotropy, which is due to the Doppler shift of the microwave background radiation due to our peculiar velocity relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame. This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 380 km/s towards the constellation Virgo. The Far-Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) instrument on the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite has carefully measured the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background. The FIRAS project members compared the CMB with an internal reference black body and the spectra agreed to within the experimental error. They concluded that any deviations from the black body form that might still remain undetected in the CMB spectrum over the wavelength range from 0.5 to 5 mm must have a weighted rms value of at most 50 parts per million (0.005%) of the CMB peak brightness. This made the CMB spectrum the most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature. The cosmic microwave background, and its level of isotropy, are both predictions of Big Bang model. In the theory, after about 10-37 seconds the nascent universe underwent exponential growth that smoothed out nearly all inhomogeneities — a process known as cosmic inflation. The exception being inhomogeneities caused by quantum fluctuations in the inflaton field. This was followed by symmetry breaking; a type of phase transition that set the fundamental forces and elementary particles in their present form. After 10-6 seconds, the early universe was made up of a hot plasma of photons, electrons and baryons. The photons were constantly interacting with the plasma through Thomson scattering. As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the plasma to cool until it became favourable for electrons to combine with protons and form hydrogen atoms. This recombination event happened at around 3,000 K or when the universe was approximately 379,000 years old. This is equivalent to a redshift of z = 1088. At this point, the photons scattered off the now electrically-neutral atoms and began to travel freely through space, resulting in the decoupling of matter and radiation. The color temperature of the photons has continued to diminish ever since; now down to 2.725 K, their temperature will continue to drop as the universe expands. According to the Big Bang model, the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface called the surface of last scattering. This represents the collection of points in space at which the decoupling event is believed to have occurred, less than 400,000 years after the Big Bang, and at a point in time such that the photons from that distance have just reached observers. The estimated age of the Universe is 13.7 billion years. However, because the Universe has continued expanding since that time, the comoving distance from the Earth to edge of the observable universe is now at least 46.5 billion light years. The Big Bang theory suggests that the cosmic microwave background fills all of observable space, and that most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background, which makes up a fraction of roughly of the total density of the universe. The photon density is , while the critical density is . The ratio of the two is . See: Two of the greatest successes of the big bang theory are its prediction of its almost perfect black body spectrum and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. The recent Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe has precisely measured these anisotropies over the whole sky down to angular scales of 0.2 degrees. These can be used to estimate the parameters of the standard Lambda-CDM model of the big bang. Some information, such as the shape of the Universe, can be obtained straightforwardly from the cosmic microwave background, while others, such as the Hubble constant, are not constrained and must be inferred from other measurements. The latter value gives the redshift of galaxies (interpreted as the recessional velocity) as a proportion of their distance. History Timeline of the CMB<small>Important people and dates1941 Andrew McKellar reported the observation of an average bolometric temperature of 2.3 K based on the study of interstellar absorption lines. McKellar was attempting to measure the average temperature of the intestellar medium. It is unlikely that he had any idea of the cosmological implications of his measurement, but it was a remarkable and sophisticated achievement. 1946 Robert Dicke predicts ".. radiation from cosmic matter" at <20 K, but did not refer to background radiation "In 1946, Robert Dicke and coworkers at MIT tested equipment that could test a cosmic microwave background of intensity corresponding to about 20K in the microwave region. However, they did not refer to such a background, but only to 'radiation from cosmic matter'. Also, this work was unrelated to cosmology and is only mentioned because it suggests that by 1950, detection of the background radiation might have been technically possible, and also because of Dicke's later role in the discovery". See also 1948George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old Universe), commenting it ".. is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation.1948Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman estimate "the temperature in the Universe" at 5 K. Although they do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred. Kragh, Helge (1999:132) "Alpher and Herman first calculated the present temperature of the decoupled primordial radiation in 1948, when they reported a value of 5 K. Although it was not mentioned either then or in later publications that the radiation is in the microwave region, this follows immediately from the temperature... Alpher and Herman made it clear that what they had called "the temperature in the universe" the previous year referred to a blackbody distributed background radiation quite different from sunliight". 1950Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate the temperature at 28 K. 1953George Gamow estimates 7 K.1956George Gamow estimates 6 K.1957Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background ... is 4±3K". It is noted that the "measurements showed that radiation intensity was independent of either time or direction of observation... it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm" 1960sRobert Dicke re-estimates a MBR (microwave background radiation) temperature of 40 K 1964 A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov publish a brief paper, where they name the CMB radiation phenomenon as detectable. 1964–65 Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K. Robert Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson interpret this radiation as a signature of the big bang.1983 RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched.1990 FIRAS measures the black body form of the CMB spectrum with exquisite precision.January 1992 Scientists who analysed data from RELIKT-1 spacecraft report the discovery of anisotropy at the Moscow astrophysical seminar. April, 1992 Scientists who analysed data from COBE DMR announce the discovery of the primary temperature anisotropy. 1999 First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the TOCO, BOOMERANG and Maxima Experiments.2002 Polarization discovered by DASI. 2004 E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. The cosmic microwave background was predicted in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman. Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K, though two years later they re-estimated it at 28 K. Although there were several previous estimates of the temperature of space, See the timeline. these suffered from two flaws. First, they were measurements of the effective temperature of space and did not suggest that space was filled with a thermal Planck spectrum. Second, they depend on our being at a special place at the edge of the Milky Way galaxy and they did not suggest the radiation is isotropic. The estimates would yield very different predictions if Earth happened to be located elsewhere in the Universe. but see also The 1948 results of Gamow and Alpher were not widely discussed. However, they were rediscovered by Yakov Zel'dovich in the early 1960s, and independently predicted by Robert Dicke at the same time. The first published recognition of the CMB radiation as a detectable phenomenon appeared in a brief paper by Soviet astrophysicists A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov, in the spring of 1964. In 1964, David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, Dicke's colleagues at Princeton University, began constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure the cosmic microwave background. – This basic design for a radiometer has been used in most subsequent cosmic microwave background experiments. In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson at the Crawford Hill location of Bell Telephone Laboratories in nearby Holmdel Township, New Jersey had built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite communication experiments. Their instrument had an excess 3.5 K antenna temperature which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Crawford Hill, Dicke famously quipped: "Boys, we've been scooped." The history is given in A meeting between the Princeton and Crawford Hill groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery. The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the 1960s with some proponents of the steady state theory arguing that the microwave background was the result of scattered starlight from distant galaxies. Using this model, and based on the study of narrow absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the astronomer Andrew McKellar wrote in 1941: "It can be calculated that the 'rotational temperature' of interstellar space is 2 K." However, during the 1970s the consensus was established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was largely because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum was a thermal, black body spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to reproduce. The Horn Antenna on which Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave background. Harrison, Peebles and Yu, and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would have to have inhomogeneities at the level of 10−4 or 10−5. Rashid Sunyaev later calculated the observable imprint that these inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave background. While this is the first paper to discuss the detailed observational imprint of density inhomogeneities as anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, some of the groundwork was laid in Peebles and Yu, above. Increasingly stringent limits on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background were set by ground based experiments, but the anisotropy was first detected by the Differential Microwave Radiometer instrument on the COBE satellite. Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. This peak corresponds to large scale density variations in the early universe that are created by gravitational instabilities, resulting in acoustical oscillations in the plasma. The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the Toco experiment and the result was confirmed by the BOOMERanG and MAXIMA experiments. These measurements demonstrated that the geometry of the Universe is approximately flat, rather than curved. They ruled out cosmic strings as a major component of cosmic structure formation and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory of structure formation. The second peak was tentatively detected by several experiments before being definitively detected by WMAP, which has also tentatively detected the third peak. As of 2008, several experiments to improve measurements of the polarization and the microwave background on small angular scales are ongoing. These include DASI, WMAP, BOOMERanG and the Cosmic Background Imager. Forthcoming experiments include the Planck satellite, Atacama Cosmology Telescope, QUIET telescope and the South Pole Telescope. WMAP image of the CMB temperature anisotropy. Relationship to the Big Bang Measurements of the CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang theory the standard model of the earliest eras of the universe. This theory predicts that the initial conditions for the universe are originally random in nature, and follow a roughly Gaussian distribution. The power spectrum of these fluctuations has been calculated, and agrees startlingly well with the observations, although certain observables, for example the overall amplitude of the fluctuations, are more or less free parameters of the cosmic inflation model. Therefore, meaningful statements about the inhomogeneities in the universe need to be statistical in nature. This leads to cosmic variance in which the uncertainties in the variance of the largest scale fluctuations observed in the universe are difficult to accurately compare to theory. The model uses a Gaussian random field with a nearly scale invariant or Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum to represent the primeval inhomogeneities. Temperature The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological red shift are together regarded as the best available evidence for the Big Bang (BB) theory. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in alternatives such as the steady state theory. The CMB gives a snapshot of the Universe when, according to standard cosmology, the temperature dropped enough to allow electrons and protons to form hydrogen atoms, thus making the universe transparent to radiation. When it originated some 380,000 years after the Big Bang – this time period is generally known as the "time of last scattering" or the period of recombination or decoupling – the temperature of the Universe was about 3,000 K. This corresponds to an energy of about 0.25 eV, which is much less than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen. Since then, the temperature of the radiation has dropped by a factor of roughly 1100 due to the expansion of the Universe. As the universe expands, the CMB photons are redshifted, making the radiation's temperature inversely proportional to the Universe's scale length. For details about the reasoning that the radiation is evidence for the Big Bang, see Cosmic background radiation of the Big Bang. Primary anisotropy The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation temperature anisotropy in terms of the angular scale (or multipole moment). The data shown come from the WMAP (2006), Acbar (2004) Boomerang (2005), CBI (2004) and VSA (2004) instruments. Also shown is a theoretical model (solid line). The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two sorts: primary anisotropy – which is due to effects which occur at the last scattering surface and before – and secondary anisotropy – which is due to effects, such as interactions with hot gas or gravitational potentials, between the last scattering surface and the observer. The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a competition in the photon-baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons – which are moving at speeds much less than the speed of light – makes them tend to collapse to form dense haloes. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak determines the curvature of the Universe (but not the topology of the Universe). The second peak – truly the ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks – determines the reduced baryon density. The third peak can be used to extract information about the dark matter density. The locations of the peaks also give important information about the nature of the primordial density perturbations. There are two fundamental types of density perturbations—called "adiabatic" and "isocurvature." A general density perturbation is a mixture of these two types, and different theories that purport to explain the primordial density perturbation spectrum predict different mixtures. adiabatic density perturbations the fractional overdensity in each matter component (baryons, photons ...) is the same. That is, if there is 1% more energy in baryons than average in one spot, then with a pure adiabatic density perturbations there is also 1% more energy in photons, and 1% more energy in neutrinos, than average. Cosmic inflation predicts that the primordial perturbations are adiabatic. isocurvature density perturbations the sum of the fractional overdensities is zero. That is, a perturbation where at some spot there is 1% more energy in baryons than average, 1% more energy in photons than average, and 2% lower energy in neutrinos than average, would be a pure isocurvature perturbation. Cosmic strings would produce mostly isocurvature primordial perturbations. The CMB spectrum is able to distinguish these two because these two types of perturbations produce different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations produce a series of peaks whose angular scales (l-values of the peaks) are roughly in the ratio , while adiabatic density perturbations produce peaks whose locations are in the ratio . Observations are consistent with the primordial density perturbations being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and ruling out many models of structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings. Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as a fluid begins to break down: the increasing mean free path of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe the finite thickness of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring. These effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies on small scales, and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies. The thickness of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the photons and baryons does not happen instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of the Universe up to that era. One method to quantify exactly how long this process took uses the photon visibility function (PVF). This function is defined so that, denoting the PVF by P(t), the probability that a CMB photon last scattered between time t and t+dt is given by P(t)dt. The maximum of the PVF (the time where it is most likely that a given CMB photon last scattered) is known quite precisely. The first-year WMAP results put the time at which P(t) is maximum as . This is often taken as the "time" at which the CMB formed. However, to figure out how long it took the photons and baryons to decouple, we need a measure of the width of the PVF. The WMAP team finds that the PVF is greater than half of its maximum value (the "full width at half maximum", or FWHM) over an interval of . By this measure, decoupling took place over roughly 115,000 years, and when it was complete, the universe was roughly 487,000 years old. Late time anisotropy Since the CMB came into existence, it has apparently been modified by several subsequent physical processes, which are collectively referred to as late-time anisotropy, or secondary anisotropy. When the CMB photons became free to travel unimpeded, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen and helium atoms. However, observations of galaxies today seem to indicate that most of the volume of the intergalactic medium (IGM) consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to hydrogen atoms). This implies a period of reionization during which some of the material of the universe was broken into hydrogen ions. The CMB photons scatter off free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms. In an ionized universe, such charged particles have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the volume of the Universe that they do not measurably affect the CMB. However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still denser, then there are two main effects on the CMB: Small scale anisotropies are erased (just as when looking at an object through fog, details of the object appear fuzzy). The physics of how photons scatter off of free electrons (Thomson scattering) induces polarization anisotropies on large angular scales. This large angle polarization is correlated with the large angle temperature perturbation. Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP satellite, providing evidence that the universe was ionized at very early times, at a redshift larger than 17. The detailed provenance of this early ionizing radiation is still a matter of scientific debate. It may have included starlight from the very first population of stars (population III stars), supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes. The period following the emission of the Cosmic Microwave Background—and before the observation of the first stars—is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the dark age, and is a period which is under intense study by astronomers (See 21 centimeter radiation). Two other effects which occurred between reionization and our observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background, and which appear to cause anisotropies, include the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect, where a cloud of high energy electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some of its energy to the CMB photons, and the Sachs-Wolfe effect, which causes photons from the Cosmic Microwave Background to be gravitationally redshifted or blueshifted due to changing gravitational fields. E polarization measurements as of March 2006 in terms of angular scale (or multipole moment). The polarization is much more poorly measured than the temperature anisotropy. Velocity relative to CMB anisotropy From the CMB data it is seen that our local group of galaxies (the galactic cluster that includes the Solar System's Milky Way Galaxy) appears to be moving at relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame) in the direction of galactic longitude l = 276° ± 3°, b = 30° ± 3°. This motion results in an anisotropy of the data (CMB appearing slightly warmer in the direction of movement than in the opposite direction). The standard interpretation of this temperature variation is a simple velocity redshift and blueshift due to motion relative to the CMB, however alternative cosmological models can explain some fraction of the observed dipole temperature distribution in the CMB (see reference for one example). Polarization The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few microkelvins. There are two types of polarization, called E-modes and B-modes. This is in analogy to electrostatics, in which the electric field (E-field) has a vanishing curl and the magnetic field (B-field) has a vanishing divergence. The E-modes arise naturally from Thomson scattering in an inhomogeneous plasma. The B-modes, which have not been measured and are thought to have an amplitude of at most a 0.1 µK, are not produced from the plasma physics alone. They are a signal from cosmic inflation and are determined by the density of primordial gravitational waves. Detecting the B-modes will be extremely difficult, particularly given that the degree of foreground contamination is unknown, and the weak gravitational lensing signal mixes the relatively strong E-mode signal with the B-mode signal. Microwave background observations Subsequent to the discovery of the CMB, hundreds of cosmic microwave background experiments have been conducted to measure and characterize the signatures of the radiation. The most famous experiment is probably the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite that orbited in 1989–1996 and which detected and quantified the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its detection capabilities. Inspired by the initial COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of ground- and balloon-based experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these results implied that the geometry of the Universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers provided measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the Very Small Array, Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI made the first detection of the polarization of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum. In June 2001, NASA launched a second CMB space mission, WMAP, to make much more precise measurements of the large scale anisotropies over the full sky. The first results from this mission, disclosed in 2003, were detailed measurements of the angular power spectrum to below degree scales, tightly constraining various cosmological parameters. The results are broadly consistent with those expected from cosmic inflation as well as various other competing theories, and are available in detail at NASA's data center for Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) (see links below). Although WMAP provided very accurate measurements of the large angular-scale fluctuations in the CMB (structures about as large in the sky as the moon), it did not have the angular resolution to measure the smaller scale fluctuations which had been observed using previous ground-based interferometers. A third space mission, the Planck Surveyor, is to be launched in 2009. Planck employs both HEMT radiometers as well as bolometer technology and will measure the CMB on smaller scales than WMAP. Unlike the previous two space missions, Planck is a collaboration between NASA and ESA (the European Space Agency). Its detectors got a trial run at the Antarctic Viper telescope as ACBAR (Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver) experiment – which has produced the most precise measurements at small angular scales to date – and at the Archeops balloon telescope. Additional ground-based instruments such as the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica and the proposed Clover Project, Atacama Cosmology Telescope and the QUIET telescope in Chile will provide additional data not available from satellite observations, possibly including the B-mode polarization. Data analysis The analysis of cosmic microwave background data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum and ultimately cosmological parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem. Although computing a power spectrum from a map is in principle a simple Fourier transform, decomposing the map of the sky into spherical harmonics, in practice it is hard to take the effects of noise and foregrounds into account. In particular, these foregrounds are dominated by galactic emissions such free-free, synchrotron and dust that emit in the microwave band; in practice, the galaxy has to be removed resulting in a CMB map that is not a full-sky map. In addition, point sources like galaxies and clusters represent another source of foreground which must be removed lest they distort the short scale structure of the CMB power spectrum. Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the power spectrum, and results are often calculated using Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling techniques. Low multipoles and other anomalies With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of claims that the CMB suffers from anomalies, such as very large-scale anisotropies, anomalous alignments and a non-Gaussian distributions. , , , The most longstanding of these is the low-l multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the quadrupole (l = 2 spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the big bang. Some observers have pointed out that the anisotropies in the WMAP data did not appear to be consistent with the big bang picture. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole (l = 3) modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with the ecliptic plane. A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the largest observable scales. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance problem, the largest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as best as is possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by Max Tegmark and others. —This paper warns, "the statistics of this internal linear combination map are complex and inappropriate for most CMB analyses." —This paper states, "Not surprisingly, the two most contaminated multipoles are [the quadrupole and octopole], which most closely trace the galactic plane morphology." Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron, dust and free-free emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. A full Bayesian analysis of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the quadrupole prediction of Lambda-CDM cosmology is consistent with the data at the 10% level and that the octupole is not remarkable. Carefully accounting for the procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map further reduces the significance of the alignment by ~5%. Notes References External links Here you can "listen" to the echo of the Big Bang CMBR Theme on arxiv.org | Cosmic_microwave_background |@lemmatized cosmology:8 cosmic:58 microwave:49 background:57 cmb:45 radiation:41 also:11 cmbr:6 cbr:1 mbr:2 relic:2 form:11 electromagnetic:1 fill:6 universe:50 traditional:1 optical:1 telescope:10 space:14 star:8 galaxy:10 pitch:1 black:11 radio:4 faint:1 glow:4 almost:3 exactly:2 direction:6 associate:1 object:3 strongest:1 region:5 spectrum:32 hence:1 name:3 discovery:7 astronomer:3 arno:3 penzias:5 robert:10 wilson:5 culmination:1 work:2 initiate:1 earn:1 nobel:2 prize:2 well:5 explain:5 big:20 bang:20 model:15 young:1 formation:5 planet:1 small:15 much:6 hotter:1 uniform:2 red:3 hot:4 fog:3 hydrogen:7 plasma:11 expand:5 grow:2 cooler:1 cool:2 enough:2 stable:1 atom:9 could:5 longer:1 absorb:1 thermal:5 become:4 transparent:2 instead:2 opaque:1 photon:26 around:2 time:15 propagate:1 ever:2 since:8 though:2 fainter:1 less:5 energetic:1 exact:1 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1,338 | Mandy_Patinkin | Mandel Bruce "Mandy" Patinkin (; ) (born November 30, 1952) is an American actor of stage and screen and a tenor vocalist. Patinkin is known for his roles in television series such as: Chicago Hope, Dead Like Me and the first two seasons of Criminal Minds. His film credits include The Princess Bride, Alien Nation, Yentl, Men With Guns and Dick Tracy. Biography Early years Patinkin was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Doris "Doralee" Sinton, a homemaker, and Lester Patinkin, who was the head of the People's Iron & Metal Company and the Scrap Corporation of America. His mother wrote Grandma Doralee Patinkin's Jewish Family Cookbook. Patinkin is a cousin of Mark Patinkin, author and nationally syndicated columnist for The Providence Journal, and Jason "Dink" Patinkin, President of Columbia University's EarthCo. One of his other cousins is Sheldon Patinkin of Columbia College Chicago's Theater Department and a founder of The Second City. Patinkin grew up in a middle class Jewish family and was raised in Conservative Judaism, attending religion school daily "from the age of seven to 13 or 14" and singing in synagogue choirs. He attended South Shore High School, Kenwood Academy (1970 graduate), the University of Kansas, and Juilliard School of Drama. At Juilliard, he was a classmate of Kelsey Grammer. When the producers of the popular American sitcom, Cheers were auditioning for the role of Dr. Frasier Crane, Patinkin was the one who put Grammer's name forward. Career After some TV commercial and radio appearances, including the CBS Radio Mystery Theater in 1974, Patinkin's initial success came in musical theater, where he played the part of Che in Evita on Broadway in 1979. Patinkin went on to win that year's Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical. He then moved to film, playing parts in movies such as Yentl and Ragtime. He returned to Broadway in 1984 to star in the Pulitzer Prize winning musical Sunday in the Park with George, which saw him earn another Tony Award nomination for Best Actor (Musical). Patinkin played Inigo Montoya in Rob Reiner's 1987 The Princess Bride (which Patinkin considers his favorite role), in which he delivers what is possibly the best-remembered line in the film, and one he declared several times: "Hello, my name is Inigo Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die." Patinkin found his studies a huge asset in The Princess Bride, playing the role of the best swordsman in the country, short of the main character, and part of his role included proficiency in fencing, at a professional level. Over the next decade he continued to appear in various movies, such as Dick Tracy and Alien Nation. On Broadway, over the next decade, he appeared in the Tony Award-winning musical The Secret Garden for 706 performances. He also released two solo albums, titled Mandy Patinkin and Dress Casual. In 1994, he took the role of Dr. Jeffrey Geiger on CBS's Chicago Hope for which he won an Emmy Award. However, despite the award and the ratings success of the show, Patinkin left the show during the second season, as he was unhappy spending so much time away from his wife. He returned to the show in 1999 at the beginning of the sixth season, but it was later cancelled in 2000. Since Chicago Hope, Patinkin has appeared in a number of films. However, he has mostly performed as a singer, releasing three more albums. In 1995 he guest starred in The Simpsons in the episode "Lisa's Wedding" as Hugh Parkfield, Lisa's future English groom. In 1998, he debuted his most personal project, Mamaloshen, a collection of traditional, classic, and contemporary songs sung entirely in Yiddish ("Mamaloshen" is Yiddish for "mother tongue"). The stage production of Mamaloshen was performed on and off–Broadway, and has toured throughout the country. The recording of Mamaloshen won the Deutschen Schallplattenpreis (Germany’s equivalent of the Grammy Award). He returned to Broadway in 2000 in the New York Shakespeare Festival's The Wild Party, earning another Tony Award nomination for Best Actor (Musical). Recently, he has also been seen in the Showtime comedy-drama Dead Like Me as Rube Sofer. In 2004, he played a six–week engagement of his one–man concert at the Off–Broadway complex Dodger Stages. In September 2005, he debuted in the role of Jason Gideon, an experienced profiler just coming back to work after a series of nervous breakdowns, the result of six members of his team's deaths - which he feels responsible for, in the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds. Patinkin was absent from a table read for Criminal Minds and did not return for a third season. The departure from the show was not due to contractual or salary matters, but over creative differences. Many weeks before his departure, in a videotaped interview carried in the online magazine Monaco Revue, Patinkin told journalists at the Festival de Télévision de Monte-Carlo that he loathed violence on television and was uncomfortable with certain scenes in Criminal Minds. He also spoke of having planned to tour the world with a musical and wanting to inject more comedy into the entertainment business. http://monacorevue.com/people/iv1070830.php Videotaped interview with Monaco Revue In later episodes during the 2007-2008 season, Patinkin's character was written out of the series and was replaced by Special Agent David Rossi, played by Joe Mantegna. He also co-starred in The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland as Huxley the evil man who tries to steal Elmo's blanket. Personal life Patinkin married actress and writer Kathryn Grody in 1980. They have two sons, Isaac and Gideon. Patinkin suffered from keratoconus, a degenerative eye disease, in the mid-1990s. This led to two corneal transplants, his right cornea in 1997 and his left in 1998. He also was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer in 2004. He celebrated his first year of recovery by doing a 280-mile charity bike ride with his son Isaac — the Arava Institute Hazon Israel Ride: Cycling for Peace, Partnership & Environmental Protection. He subsequently joined the boards of the Arava Institute for Environmental Studies and Hazon. Patinkin has been involved in a variety of Jewish causes and cultural activities. He sings in Yiddish, often in concert, and on his album Mamaloshen. He also wrote introductions for two books on Jewish culture, The Jewish American Family Album, by Dorothy Hoobler and Thomas Hoobler, and Grandma Doralee Patinkin's Holiday Cookbook: A Jewish Family's Celebrations, by his mother, Doralee Patinkin Rubin. Patinkin contributed to the children's book Dewey Doo-it Helps Owlie Fly Again: A Musical Storybook inspired by Christopher Reeve prior to Christopher and Dana Reeve's deaths. The award winning book, published in 2005, benefits the Christopher Reeve Foundation and includes an audio CD with Mandy Patinkin singing and reading the story as well as Dana Reeve and Bernadette Peters singing. Awards Awards 1980: Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical - Evita 1987: CableACE Award for Best Actor in a Theatrical or Dramatic Special - Sunday in the Park with George 1995: Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series - Chicago Hope Nominations 1984: Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture in a Comedy/Musical - Yentl 1990: Saturn Awards Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films for Best Supporting Actor - Alien Nation 1995: Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series - Drama - Chicago Hope 1995: Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series - Chicago Hope 1996: Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series - The Larry Sanders Show: "Eight" 1999: Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series - Chicago Hope: "Curing Cancer" 2003: DVD Exclusive Award for Best Original Song in a DVD, Premiere Movie - Run Ronnie Run: "How High the Mountain" Work Stage Broadway Evita (1979) – Che (Tony Award, 1980) Sunday in the Park with George (1984) – George (Tony Award Nominee, 1984) Mandy Patinkin in Concert: Dress Casual (1989) The Secret Garden (1991) – Archibald Craven Falsettos (1993) – Marvin (Replacement) Sunday in the Park with George (Tenth Anniversary Concert) (1994) – George Mandy Patinkin in Concert (1997) Mandy Patinkin in Concert: Mamaloshen (1998) The Wild Party (2000) – Burrs (Tony Award Nominee, 2000) Celebrating Sondheim Other theater Enemy of the People (Williamstown Theater Festival) Henry IV, Part I Winters Tale The Knife Leave It to Beaver is Dead Trelawny of the Wells (1975) – Mr. Arthur Gower Hamlet (1975-76) – Fortinbras, Player King Rebel Woman The Shadow Box (1977) – Mark The Split and Savages Myths and Hymns The Tempest (2008) (Classic Stage Company) Filmography Film The Big Fix (1978) – pool man French Postcards (1979) – Sayyid Last Embrace (1979) – first commuter Night of the Juggler (1980) – Allesandro the cabbie Ragtime (1981) – Tateh Yentl (1983) – Avigdor Daniel (1983) – Paul Isaacson Maxie (1985) – Nick Tenkû no shiro Rapyuta (1986) (voice: English version) – Louis The Princess Bride (1987) – Inigo Montoya Alien Nation (1988) – Detective Samuel 'George' Francisco The House on Carroll Street (1988) – Ray Salwen Dick Tracy (1990) – 88 Keys True Colors (1991) – John Palmeri Impromptu (1991) – Alfred De Musset The Doctor (1991) – Dr. Murray Kaplan The Music of Chance (1993) – Jim Nashe Life with Mikey (1993) – irate man Squanto: A Warrior's Tale (1994) – Brother Daniel Lulu On The Bridge (1998) – Philip Kleinman Men with Guns (1998) – Andrew The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland (1999) – Huxley Piñero (2001) – Joseph Papp Run Ronnie Run (2002) – as himself, portraying Ronnie Dobbs, in an in-movie stage performance The Choking Man (2005); Rick Everyone's Hero (2006) (voice) – Stanley Irving Television That Thing on ABC – (1978), performer Charleston – (1979), Beaudine Croft Sunday in the Park with George – (1986), Georges Seurat/George Chicago Hope – Dr. Jeffrey Geiger (Emmy Award, 1994-95) The Hunchback (TV version) (1997) – Quasimodo Dead Like Me – Rube John Sofer The Larry Sanders Show – Himself Law & Order – Levi March in "Absentia" (Season 13, episode 290) The Simpsons – Hugh Parkfield in "Lisa's Wedding" (Season 6, episode 619) Touched By An Angel – Satan in Netherlands (single-episode guest star) (Season 7, episode 23) Broken Glass (1996) – Dr. Harry Hyman Strange Justice (1999) – Kenneth Duberstein NTSB: The Crash of Flight 323 (2004) – Al Cummings Criminal Minds – (2005-2007) Jason Gideon (show's star seasons 1, 2 & two ep season 3) Television commercials 7 Up (1970) Frosted Mini-Wheats (1971) (the first Kellogg's Frosted Mini-Wheats commercial) Crestor (2006) (a statin drug that lowers LDL Cholesterol) Discography Evita (1978) Sunday in the Park with George (1984) Mandy Patinkin (1989) Dress Casual (1990) The Secret Garden (1991) Experiment (1994) Oscar & Steve (1995) Mamaloshen (1998) The Wild Party (2000) Kidults (2001) Mandy Patinkin sings Sondheim (2002) Patinkin can also be heard in Adam Guettel's Myths and Hymns, the Placido Domingo-starring studio cast recording of Man of La Mancha (1996), the Leonard Bernstein compilation Leonard Bernstein's New York (1996), Madonna's album I'm Breathless (1990), the studio cast recording of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical South Pacific (1986), and the concert version of Sondheim´s Follies in Follies in Concert (1985). References External links The Mandy Patinkin official website The Mandy Patinkin in Concert official website Mandy Patinkin Bio at CBS — Criminal Minds The Princess Bride...On A Bike! In 2005 he reprised his most famous role and line for charity at a New York bike ride. Official website for "Criminal Minds" on CBS Television. 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1,339 | Dorians | Homeland of the Dorians before moving to the Peloponnese according to Herodotus. The Dorians (, Dōrieis, singular , Dōrieus) were one of the three major tribes into which the ancient Greeks divided themselves. Herodotus gave the earliest historical expression of a three-fold division: Herodotus, Histories, Book VII, Section 9A. online at Perseus. "... those who dwell in our land are called Ionians, Aeolians and Dorians." General names inherited from earlier times were considered to be in one of these three groups, from the earliest literature; for example, the Achaeans (also known as Danaans, Δαναοί, and Argives, Ἀργεῖοι) were primarily Ionians and Aeolians. The Dorians are almost always simply referenced as just "the Dorians", as they are in the earliest literary mention of them in Odyssey, Homer, Odyssey, Book XIX line 177. where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete. Herodotus does use the word ethnos Book VII, Section 73. with regard to them, from which the English word ethnic derives, which appears in the modern concept of ethnic group. It has to be clarified though, that in the ancient Greek language ethnos by no means can be translated as 'nation' alone, but rather as 'tribe', 'race' or 'people'. The Dorians are clearly among the peoples regarded as Hellenes. They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city of Corinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state of Lacedaemon or Sparta. However, peoples belonging to the same tribe, the Dorians, as well as the Aeolians and the Ionians, were further subdivided in independent groups often hostile to each other, usually named after the location of their state. And yet all Hellenes knew what localities were Dorian and what not. Dorian states at war could more likely than not (but not always) count on the assistance of other Dorian states. Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions. Accounts vary as to their place of origin. One theory widely believed in ancient times, but never proven beyond doubt, is that they originated in the north, north-eastern mountainous regions of Greece, ancient Macedonia and Epirus, whence obscure circumstances brought them south into the Peloponnese, to certain Aegean islands, Magna Graecia and Crete. Another theory is that they originated from Asia Minor, and that they either immigrated through the northeast of Greece and settled in southern Greece or immigrated from the coast of western Asian Minor into the Aegean islands and into southern Greece. Either way, mythology gave them a Greek origin and eponymous founder, Dorus son of Hellen, the mythological patriarch of the Hellenes. In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek ethne, whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War. The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as "Ionian" or "Dorian" has itself been disputed. The two poles are represented by the following works. French language. This much-cited study by Will concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda. John Alty reinterpreted the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions: First page available no charge. The fifth- and fourth-century literary tradition through which moderns view these ethnic identifications was profoundly influenced by the social politics of the time. Also, according to E.N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered "Dorian" identified themselves as "Laconophile" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of "Dorians". Tigerstedt discusses the development of the story of the Dorian invasion. Dorian identity In Classical Greece, "Dorian" applied to a fairly consistent group of peoples. Name of the Dorians Uplands of Greece - the Pindus Mountains A man's name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions invaded and subjected by the Dorians. Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the dative case as do-ri-je-we, *Dōriēwei, a third or consonant declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested plural, *Dōriēwes, would have become Dōrieis by loss of the w and contraction, but in the tablet, which is concerned with contribution of grain to a temple, it is simply a man's name. The ultimate authority on most Linear B topics, except for the specialized journals, is Ventris and Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek. This specialized work is generally found only the classics libraries of universities. However, an article by Killen (a Mycenaean linguist) is available on the Internet, RELIGION AT PYLOS: THE EVIDENCE OF THE Fn TABLETS, which concerns itself with Fn867, but does not mention the name of interest here. Whether it had the ethnic meaning of "the Dorian" is unknown. In the Linear B tablets the word "do-e-ro" is also found, meaning "slave". Greek spearman with the long upland spear. Julius Pokorny derives Dorian from dōris, "woodland" (which can also mean upland). "Δωριεύς 'Dorer' (von Δωρίς `Waldland')". To find this derivation, search for page 214 (the material is located on pages 214-217) in Pokorny's section of the INDO-EUROPEAN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY at Leiden University whenever the server is available. Elementary knowledge of German and a German dictionary should suffice to read it. The dōri- segment is from the o-grade (either ō or o) of Proto-Indo-European *deru-, "tree". Dorian might be translated as "the country people", "the mountain people", "the uplanders", "the people of the woods" or some such appellation. A second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greek doru, "spear" (which was wood); i.e., "the people of the spear" or "spearmen", emphasizing the warrior ferocity of the Dorians. Boisacq's magnum opus, Dictionnaire Etymologique de la Langue Grecque in the French language is notoriously difficult to obtain though a standard of university classics departments. The etymology from Boisacq can be found in brief in more accessible works such as Distinctions of language People who spoke the Doric dialect lived along the coast of the Peloponnese, in Crete, southwest Asia Minor, various cities of Southern Italy and Sicily, all of which adds weight to the theory of Asia Minor as the origin of the Dorians. Numerous historians link Doric, North-Western Greek and Ancient Macedonian. In later periods other dialects predominated, most notably the Attic, upon which the Koine or common Greek language of the Hellenistic period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of Indo-European [aː], long <α>, which in Attic-Ionic became [ɛː], <η>. Tsakonian Greek, a descendant of Doric Greek and source of great interest to linguists, is extraordinarily still spoken in some regions of the Southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, on the coast of the modern prefecture of Arcadia. Other cultural distinctions Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristic Doric calendar revolving round a cycle of festivals of which the Hyacinthia and the Carneia were especially important.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911, s.v. "Dorians".</ref>. The Dorian mode in music also was attributed to Doric societies and was associated by classical writers with martial qualities. The Doric order of architecture in the tradition inherited by Vitruvius included the Doric column, noted for its simplicity and strength. Ancient traditions Herodotus Fifth century BC hoplite, or "heavy-armed soldier", possibly the Spartan king Leonidas, a Dorian, who died holding the pass at the Battle of Thermopylae. The Dorians are mentioned by many authors and inscriptions. The chief classical authors to relate their origins are Herodotus, Thucydides and Pausanias. The customs of the Spartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors as Plutarch. Herodotus himself was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor (in modern Turkey); following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians. Peloponnesus. Sparta was in the valley of the lowermost bay. Herodotus mentions that the "people now called the Dorians" were neighbors of the Pelasgians. 1.57, online at Perseus. The women had a distinctive dress, he said, a tunic (plain dress) not needing to be pinned with brooches. 5.87, online at Perseus. According to Herodotus as to the Dorian migration, “Although the one nation nowhere yet went out, the Lacedaemonian was very much wandering. For, in the time of King Deucalion, it was settled in the land of Phthia, and in the time of Dorus, the son of Hellen, in the country under Ossa and Olympus, the so-called Histiaean. From the Histiaean, after it had been expelled by the Cadmeians, it was settled in Pindus called Macedonian. Thence again it changed its place to the Dryopian land, and from the Dryopian thus it came to Peloponnesus, and was called Doric.” (Herodot, Book I, 56.3). Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not acquire their name until they had reached Peloponnesus. The people they displaced gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as "Ionians". 7.94, 8.44. "Some historians believe the inclusion of Athens in the migration story is a fifth-centuryAthenian creation," John Alty noted (Alty 1982:2 note 8, but nuances this with a warning against reading too much into Athenian propaganda. Most conspicuous among the Dorians as related by Herodotus were the people later known as Lacedaemonians, or Spartans, one of whose archaic legendary kings was named Dōrieus. The military Spartans, under another of their kings, Leonidas, included the famous band of 300 soldiers who sacrificed themselves nearly to a man to delay the Persian army at the Battle of Thermopylae. Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows. From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon. In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, Book I section 56. specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus, Troezen and Hermione. Book VIII section 43. Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna. Book II section 178; Book VII section 99. Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous. C.Michael Hogan, Lato Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian, Jan. 10, 2008 The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters. Herodotus viii. 73 Thucydides Thucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. The Hellenes came from Phthiotis. Book I chapter 3. The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling." Book I chapter 12. Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and the Aeolians (here Boeotians) with the Ionians (former Peloponnesians). Other than these few brief observations Thucydides names but few Dorians. He does make it clear that some Dorian states aligned or were forced to align with the Athenians while some Ionians went with the Lacedaemonians and that the motives for alignment were not always ethnic but were diverse. Among the Dorians was Lacedaemon of course, Book II chapter 54. Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Book I chapter 24. Leucadia, Ambracia, Book VII chapter 58. Potidaea, Book I chapter 124. Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Carystus, Book VII chapter 57. Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae. Book VI chapter 4. He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth formed prior to it "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other. He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...." Pausanias The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans of the Peloponnesus were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. 5.1.2, online at Perseus. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles 4.30.1, online at Perseus; 8.5.1, online at Perseus. , but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." 3.1.6 online, 5.3.5ff online, 7.1.6 online, 7.3.9 online, 8.5.6 online They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. 10.38.10 This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. 2.13.1 Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor. Diodorus Siculus Scholarly concept of Dorian invasion The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for: at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times more generally, the distribution of the Dorians in Classical Greece the presence of the Dorians in Greece at all On the whole, none of the objectives were met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses. Post-migrational distribution of the Dorians Though most of the Doric invaders settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily, in what is now southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities): Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) and Knidos (Cnidus) in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes. These six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also invaded Crete. These origin traditions remained strong into classical times: Thucydides saw the Peloponnesian War in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that the Syracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent. 7.57 Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. (EB 1911). Use of "Doric" in reference to Scotland The term "Doric" came to be used in reference to Lowland Scottish dialects. The Oxford Companion to English Literature explains this phenomenon: The term "Doric" was used to refer to all dialects of Lowland Scots as a jocular reference to the Doric dialect of the Ancient Greek language. Greek Dorians lived in Sparta amongst other places, a more rural area, and were supposed by the ancient Greeks to have spoken laconically and in a language that was thought harsher in tone and more phonetically conservative than the Attic spoken in Athens. Use of the term "Doric" in this context may also arise out of a contrast with the anglicised speech of the Scottish capital, because at one point, Edinburgh was nicknamed 'Athens of the North'. The upper/middle class speech of Edinburgh would thus be 'Attic', making the rural areas' speech 'Doric'. Notes Additional Bibliography Müller, Karl Otfried, Die Dorier (1824) was translated by Henry Tufnel and Sir George Cornewall Lewis and published as The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race'', (London: John Murray), 1830, in two vols. Five editions between 1993 and 1995. See also Greek Dark Ages Sparta Ancient Greek dialects Doric Greek Dorus, the eponymous founder External links The Dorians, University of Minnesota Ancient Greek Civilizations site Note that the online edition omits the critical bibliography, which features works only in German, and includes Müller but not Kretschmer. Also the online version runs paragraphs and section headings together. The paragraph division is not the one of the article. S.W.J. 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1,340 | Hymn | A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of praise, adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek (hymnos), "a song of praise". Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymnbooks. Origins Ancient hymns include the Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten, composed by Pharaoh Akhenaten; the Vedas, a collection of hymns in the tradition of Hinduism; and the Psalms, a collection of songs from Judaism. The Western tradition of hymnody begins with the Homeric Hymns, a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC, praising deities of the ancient Greek religions. Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns () by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus. Patristic writers began applying the term , or hymnus in Latin, to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for "psalm". Entry on , Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 8th edition 1897, 1985 printing), p. 1849; entry on 'hymnus,' Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1879, 1987 printing), p. 872. Christian Hymnody Originally modeled on the Psalms and other poetic passages (commonly referred to as "canticles") in the Scriptures, Christian hymns are generally directed as praise and worship to the monotheistic God. Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly. Since the earliest times, Christians have sung "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs", both in private devotions and in corporate worship (; ; ; ; ; cf. ; ). Christian hymns are often written with special or seasonal themes and these are used on holy days such as Christmas, Easter and the Feast of All Saints, or during particular seasons such as Advent and Lent. Others are used to instill reverence to the Holy Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism. Some hymns praise or address individual saints, particularly the Blessed Virgin Mary; such hymns are particularly prevalent in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and to some extent "High Church" Anglicanism. A writer of hymns is known as a hymnist or hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the nineteenth century). A collection of hymns is called a hymnal or hymnary. These may or may not include music. A student of hymnody is called a hymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune. In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement and Jesus music. Music and accompaniment In ancient and medieval times, stringed instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms and hymns. Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally in Latin, many have been translated; a familiar example is the 4th century Of the Father's Heart Begotten sung to the 11th century plainsong Divinum Mysterium. Western church Later hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led by organ and choir. It shares many elements with classical music. Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and a cappella congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison. In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others organists and other accompanists are expected to transcribe the four-part vocal score for their instrument of choice. Contemporary Christian worship, as often found in Evangelicalism and Pentecostalism may include the use of contemporary worship music played with electric guitars and the drum kit, sharing many elements with rock music. Other groups of Christians have historically excluded instrumental accompaniment, citing the absence of instruments in worship by the church in the first several centuries of its existence, and adhere to an unaccompanied a cappella congregational singing of hymns. These groups include the 'Brethren' (often both 'Open' and 'Exclusive'), the Churches of Christ, Mennonites, Primitive Baptists, and certain Reformed churches such as the Free Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), although during the last century or so, several of these have reviewed and revised this stance. Eastern church Accompaniment is generally absent in worship by Eastern Orthodox congregations. The development of Christian hymnody Thomas Aquinas, in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: "Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem." ("A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.") The Protestant Reformation resulted in two conflicting attitudes to hymns. One approach, the regulative principle of worship, favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and other radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be a novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected. All hymns that were not direct quotations from the bible fell into this category. Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were ripped out of churches. Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment, to very basic melodies. This was known as exclusive psalmody. Examples of this may still be found in various places, including the "free churches" of western Scotland. The other Reformation approach, the normative principle of worship, produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing. Martin Luther is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of many hymns including Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God) which is sung today even by Roman Catholics. Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical texts, particularly Psalms; Isaac Watts followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture. Later writers took even more freedom, some even including allegory and metaphor in their texts. Charles Wesley's hymns spread Methodist theology, not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus: expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns. Wesley wrote: Where shall my wondering soul begin? How shall I all to heaven aspire? A slave redeemed from death and sin, A brand plucked from eternal fire, How shall I equal triumphs raise, Or sing my great deliverer's praise. Wesley's contribution, along with the Second Great Awakening in America led to a new style called gospel, and a new explosion of sacred music writing with Fanny Crosby, Lina Sandell, Philip Bliss, Ira D. Sankey, and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings, and evangelistic crusades. The tune style or form is technically designated "gospel songs" as distinct from hymns. Gospel songs generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns. As examples of the distinction, "Amazing Grace" is a hymn (no refrain), but "How Great Thou Art" is a gospel song. During the 19th century the gospel-song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and, to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism; the gospel-song genre is unknown in the worship per se by Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants (a type of hymn). African-Americans developed a rich hymnody from spirituals during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style. The Methodist Revival of the eighteenth century created an explosion of hymn writing in Welsh, which continued into the first half of the nineteenth century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers are William Williams Pantycelyn and Ann Griffiths. The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed an explosion of hymn tune composition and choir singing in Wales. Along with the more classical sacred music of composers ranging from Mozart to Monteverdi, the Roman Catholic Church continued to produce many popular hymns such as Lead, Kindly Light, Silent Night, O Sacrament Divine and Faith of our Fathers. Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes a range of styles often influenced by popular music. This often leads to some conflict between older and younger congregants (see contemporary worship). This is not new; the Christian pop music style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation. This long tradition has resulted in a wide variety of hymns. Some modern churches include within hymnody the traditional hymn (usually describing God), contemporary worship music (often directed to God) and gospel music (expressions of one's personal experience of God). This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements. Hymn meters The meter indicates the number of syllables for the lines in each stanza of a hymn. This provides a means of marrying the hymn's text with an appropriate hymn tune for singing. In practice many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable patterns). Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only the meter of words and tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line. Technically speaking an iambic tune, for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic meter. References See also List of Hymnals List of Chinese Hymn Books List of Roman Catholic hymns Carol Chorale Doxology Metrical psalter Psalm Contemporary worship music Shape note Sacred Harp Vedic Chant Hymn Society of Great Britain and Ireland Hymn Society in the United States and Canada External links The links below are restricted to either material that is historical or resources that are non-denominational or inter-denominational. Denomination-specific resources are mentioned from the relevant denomination-specific articles. — a useful resource for biographical information of hymn writers and composers — 2000 pages of hymns in both staff and neumatic notation — Saint Takla Haymanout the Ethiopian Church, Alexandria - Egypt — Resource for hymn lyrics searches — Free MP3 piano hymns: can be used for accompaniment — Extensive online database of hymns | Hymn |@lemmatized hymn:62 type:4 song:14 usually:3 religious:1 specifically:1 write:8 purpose:1 praise:8 adoration:1 prayer:1 typically:2 address:2 deity:3 prominent:2 figure:1 personification:1 word:6 derive:1 greek:4 hymnos:1 collection:6 know:3 hymnal:3 hymnbook:1 origin:1 ancient:4 include:10 egyptian:1 great:5 aten:1 compose:1 pharaoh:1 akhenaten:1 veda:1 tradition:4 hinduism:1 psalm:9 judaism:1 western:4 hymnody:11 begin:5 homeric:1 old:3 century:12 bc:2 religion:2 survive:1 six:1 literary:1 alexandrian:1 poet:1 callimachus:1 patristic:1 writer:6 apply:1 term:1 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1,341 | Keyboard_technology | Keyboard construction, in four layers, of a typical notebook computer keyboard There are many types of keyboards, usually differentiated by the switch technology employed in their operation. Since there are so many switches needed (usually about 80-110) and because they have to be highly reliable, this usually defines the keyboard. The choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has been pressed) and travel (the distance needed to push the key to enter a character reliably). Newer models use hybrids of various technologies to achieve greater cost savings. Types Membrane keyboard Membrane keyboards are usually flat. They are most often found on appliances like microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer (and the one the user touches) has the labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under this it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they do not normally make electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a particular position, his finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor that a particular button has been pressed. Generally, membrane keyboards do not have much of a "feel", so many machines which use them issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water or leak proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards. However, membrane keyboards with interchangeable key layouts, such as the IntelliKeys and Discover:board are still commonly used by people with physical, visual, or cognitive disabilities as well as people who require assistive technology to access a computer. Dome-switch keyboard How a dome-switch keyboard works: Finger depresses the dome to complete the circuit Dome-switches mesh with keys (keyboard is upside down in this image) Dome-switch keyboards are kind of a hybrid of membrane and mechanical keyboards. They bring two circuit board traces together under a rubber "dome" or bubble. The inside of the top of the bubble is coated in graphite. When a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the character. The pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated. This is a common switch technology used in mass market keyboards today. It is considered very quiet, but purists tend to find it "mushy" because the collapsing dome does not provide as much positive response as a hard closing switch. These are also a good choice for office or consumer environments because they are generally fairly quiet. This switch technology also happens to be most commonly used in handheld controllers, such as those used with home video game consoles. Dome-switch keyboards are also called direct-switch keyboards. See also: Chiclet keyboard Scissor-switch keyboard A special case of the computer keyboard dome-switch is the scissor-switch. The keys are attached to the keyboard via two plastic pieces that interlock in a "scissor"-like fashion, and snap to the keyboard and the key. It still uses rubber domes, but a special plastic 'scissors' mechanism links the keycap to a plunger that depresses the rubber dome with a much shorter travel than the typical rubber dome keyboard. Typically scissors switch keyboards also employ 3-layer membranes as the electrical component of the switch. These stabilizing scissor-like devices extend the lifespan of the membrane to as much as 10 million keystrokes. They also usually have a shorter total key travel distance (2 mm instead of 3.5 - 4 mm for standard dome-switch keyswitches). This type of keyswitch is often found on the built-in keyboards on laptops and keyboards marketed as 'low-profile'. These keyboards are generally quiet and the keys require little force to press. Scissor-switch keyboards are typically slightly more expensive and have a 'bouncier' feel to them, as the keys have scissor mechanisms to help them 'spring back' after you depress the keyswitch. They are harder to clean (due to the limited movement of the keys and their multiple attachment points) but also less likely to get debris in them as the gaps between the keys are often less (as there is no need for extra room to allow for the 'wiggle' in the key as you would find on a membrane keyboard). http://www.ergocanada.ca/ergo/keyboards/mechanical_vs_membrane_keyswitches.html Capacitive keyboard In this type of keyboard, pressing the key changes the capacitance of a pattern of capacitor pads. Unlike "dome switch" keyboards, the pattern consists of two D-shaped capacitor pads for each switch, printed on a printed circuit board (PC board) and covered by a thin, insulating film of soldermask which plays the role of a dielectric. The mechanism of capacitive switches is very simple, compared to mechanical ones. Its movable part is ended with a flat foam element (of dimensions near to a tablet of Aspirin) finished with aluminium foil below. The opposite side of the switch is a PC board with the capacitor pads. When a key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PC board, forming a daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with thin soldermask, and thus "shorting" the contact pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive reactance between them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. The keys do not need to be fully pressed to be fired on, which enables some typists to work faster. As of 2008 they are a rare find in generic PC keyboards . Only vintage PCs are equipped with this type of keyboard. There are also industrial makes of capacitive keyboards that are inexpensive, and they resist wear, water, foreign objects and dirt. Mechanical-switch keyboard Mechanical-switch keyboards use real switches, one under each key. Depending on the construction of the switch, these keyboards have varying responses and travel times. Notable keyboards utilizing this technology are the Apple Extended II, and its modern imitator, the Matias Tactile Pro. These two keyboards use ALPS switches. Cherry Corporation of Germany also makes mechanical switches used in special purpose and high end keyboards. In India, the TVS Gold mechanical keyboard is very popular despite costing about five times as much as a membrane keyboard. Buckling-spring keyboard Many typists prefer buckling-spring keyboards. A Passion for the Keys: Particular About What You Type On? Relax -- You're Not Alone. LOOSE WIRE, By JEREMY WAGSTAFF, Wall Street Journal, November 23, 2007 Dan's Data Review: IBM 42H1292 and 1391401 keyboards, Review date: 15 August 1999, updated 13-Nov-2007] The buckling spring mechanism () atop the switch is responsible for the tactile and aural response of the keyboard. This mechanism controls a small hammer that strikes the membrane switch. Qwerters Clini . In 1993, two years after spawning Lexmark, IBM transferred its keyboard operations to the daughter company. New Model M keyboards continued to be manufactured for IBM by Lexmark until 1996, when Unicomp purchased the keyboard technology. Unfortunately, the later Lexmark-manufactured Model M keyboards are of inferior quality to the original IBM-manufactured Model M. The plastic used is of lower grade (density) and other features such as a detachable heavy duty keyboard cord were replaced by lower-priced substitutes of lesser quality. Today, new buckling-spring keyboards are manufactured by Unicomp. Unicomp also repairs old IBM and Lexmark keyboards. Hall-effect keyboard Hall effect keyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of an actual switch. When a key is depressed, it moves a magnet, which is detected by the solid-state sensor. These keyboards are extremely reliable, and are able to accept millions of keystrokes before failing. They are used for ultra-high reliability applications, in locations like nuclear powerplants or aircraft cockpits. They are also sometimes used in industrial environments. These keyboards can be easily made totally waterproof. They also resist large amounts of dust and contaminants. Because a magnet and sensor is required for each key, as well as custom control electronics, they are very expensive. Laser keyboard A laser projection device approximately the size of a computer mouse projects the outline of keyboard keys onto a flat surface, such as a table or desk. This type of keyboard is portable enough to be easily used with PDAs and cellphones, and many models have retractable cords and wireless capabilities. However, sudden or accidental disruption of the laser will register unwanted keystrokes. Also, if the laser malfunctions, the whole unit becomes useless, unlike conventional keyboards which can be used even if a variety of parts (such as the keycaps) are removed. This type of keyboard can be frustrating to use since it is susceptible to errors, even in the course of normal typing, and its complete lack of tactile feedback makes it even less user-friendly than the cheapest membrane keyboards. Roll-up keyboard Most keyboards are rigid, but this foldable keyboard demonstrates one of many variations from the usual. Some keyboards are designed out of flexible materials that can roll up in a moderately tight bundle. Normally the external materials are either silicone or polyurethane. It is important to note that although many manufacturers claim that the keyboards are foldable, they cannot be folded without damaging the membrane that holds the circuitry. Typically they are completely sealed in rubber, making them watertight like membrane keyboards. Like membrane keyboards, they are reported to be very hard to get used to, as there is little tactile feedback. As of 2005, roll-up keyboards include: the CoolMac keyboard , the Eumax keyboard, the VIK ("virtually indestructible keyboard") , , the pocket VIK , the Flexboard keyboard , the CoolMIR keyboard , and the Whitelite FX100 Keyboard . See Roll-away computer. Debouncing When pressing a keyboard key, the key "bounces" like a ball against its contacts several times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it reverts to the uncontacted state. If the computer was watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what is typically a solid contact. It could be argued that the dome switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to accurately debounce the keystrokes. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed because they had to do significant debouncing. This was a noticeable problem on the ZX81. Keycaps Keycaps are also required for most types of keyboards; while modern keycaps are typically surface-marked, they can also be 2-shot molded, or engraved, or they can be made of transparent material with printed paper inserts. Other parts of the PC keyboard The modern PC keyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights. A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the keyboard. Keyboard switch matrix The keyboard switch matrix is often drawn with horizontal wires and vertical wires in a grid which is called a matrix circuit. It has a switch at some or all intersections, much like a multiplexed display. Almost all keyboards have only the switch at each intersection, which causes "ghost keys" and "key jamming" when multiple keys are pressed (see rollover (key) ). Certain, often more expensive keyboards have a diode between each intersection, allowing the keyboard microcontroller to accurately sense any number of simultaneous keys being pressed, without generating erronous ghost keys. . Notes See also Scancode External links Taking apart a dome-switch keyboard Mechanical Keyswitches, Membrane Keyswitches, Scissor-Switch Membrane Keyswitches web keyboard | Keyboard_technology |@lemmatized keyboard:101 construction:2 four:1 layer:10 typical:2 notebook:1 computer:13 many:8 type:10 usually:8 differentiate:1 switch:41 technology:9 employ:2 operation:2 since:2 need:4 highly:1 reliable:2 define:1 choice:2 affect:1 key:33 response:4 positive:2 feedback:4 press:12 travel:4 distance:2 push:3 enter:2 character:2 reliably:1 new:3 model:5 use:20 hybrid:2 various:1 achieve:1 great:1 cost:2 saving:1 membrane:17 flat:3 often:7 find:5 appliance:1 like:8 microwave:1 oven:1 photocopier:1 common:3 design:2 consist:2 three:1 top:2 one:7 user:5 touch:1 label:1 print:5 front:4 conductive:2 stripe:3 back:4 spacer:2 hold:2 apart:2 normally:2 make:7 electrical:2 contact:6 perpendicularly:1 place:1 together:2 form:2 grid:3 particular:3 position:1 finger:2 close:1 circuit:6 intersection:4 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1,342 | Catherine_of_Aragon | Catherine of Aragon y Castilla (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) also known as Katherine or Katharine; (Spanish Infanta Catalina de Aragón y Castilla or Infanta Catalina de Trastámara y Trastámara) was the Queen of England as the first wife of Henry VIII of England, and Princess of Wales by her first marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales. Henry VIII's attempt to have their 24-year marriage annulled set in motion a chain of events that led to England's break with the Roman Catholic Church. Henry was dissatisfied because their sons died in infancy, leaving their daughter, the future Queen Mary I, as heiress presumptive, at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters. This allowed him to marry Anne Boleyn on the judgment of clergy in England, without reference to the Pope. He was motivated by the hope of fathering a male heir to the Tudor dynasty. Catherine refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and Queen until her death. Early life (1485-1501) Catherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace in Alcalá de Henares, in Madrid, on the night of 16 December 1485. She was the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Catherine was quite short in stature<ref>Antonia Fraser,The Wives of Henry VIII', p.24</ref> with long golden auburn hair, wide blue eyes, a round face, and a fair complexion. Alison Weir, The Six Wives of Henry VIII,15 She was descended from the English royal house as her great-grandmother Katherine of Lancaster, after whom she was named, and her great-great-grandmother Philippa of Lancaster, were both daughters of John of Gaunt and granddaughters of Edward III of England. Consequently she was third cousin of her father-in-law, Henry VII, and fourth cousin of her mother-in-law Elizabeth of York. She was educated by a tutor, Alessandro Geraldini, who was a clerk in Holy Orders. Catherine studied religion, the classics, Latin histories, and canon and civil law. She had a strong religious upbringing and developed a faith that would play a major role in later life. Antonia Fraser, The Wives of Henry VIII',p.12</ref> She learned to speak, read and write in Spanish and Latin, and spoke French and Greek. She was also taught domestic skills, such as needlepoint, lacemaking, embroidery, music and dancing. Weir, p.20 The great scholar Erasmus would later say that Catherine "loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood". Maria Dowling,Humanism in the age of Henry VIII(Published 1986), p.17 At an early age, she was considered a suitable wife for Arthur, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Henry VII of England and heir to the throne due to her overwhelming prominent English ancestry inherited from her mother Queen Isabella I of Castile. By means of her mother Catherine had a stronger legitimate ancestry to the English throne via the two first wives of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster; Blanche of Lancaster and the Spanish Infanta Constance of Castile, by whom John hoped to claim the Crown of Castile. On the other hand Henry VII of England was the descendent of Gaunt’s third marriage to Katherine Swynford whose children were born out of wedlock and only legitimized after the death of Constance and the marriage of John to Katherine. The children of John and Katherine, while legitimized, were barred from ever inheriting the English throne. Because of this, the Tudor monarchy was not accepted by all the European kingdoms. At the time, the house of Trastamara was the most prestigious due to the great rule of the Catholic Monarchs, so the alliance of Catherine and Arthur validated the House of Tudor in the eyes of European royalty and also strengthened the Tudor claim to the English throne via Catherine of Aragon’s ancestry. It would also have given a male heir an indisputable claim to the throne. The two were married by proxy on 19 May 1499, and corresponded in Latin until Arthur turned 15 and it was decided that they were old enough to be married. As wife and widow of Arthur The couple later met on 4 November at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Little is known about their first impressions of each other, but Arthur did write to his parents-in-law that he would be 'a true and loving husband' and told his parents that he was immensely happy to 'behold the face of his lovely bride'. They found that they were unable to speak to each other since they had learned different pronunciations of Latin.<ref>Antonia Fraser, The Wives of Henry VIII', p.25 Ten days later, on 14 November 1501, they were married at St. Paul's Cathedral. Catherine, as Princess of Wales, adopted as her personal motto "Not for my crown" along with her personal badge of the pomegranate crowned. Weir, Alison,The Six Wives of Henry VIII,bvhhgfhg p.34 Catherine as a young widow. Saint Thomas More wrote that on her arrival in England she "thrilled the hearts of everyone, there is nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girl should have". Arthur was sent to Ludlow Castle on the borders of Wales, to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches, as was his duty as Prince of Wales, and his bride accompanied him. A few months later, they both became ill, possibly with the sweating sickness which was sweeping the area. He died on 2 April 1502, and she almost died too, but recovered to find herself a widow. At this point, Henry VII faced the challenge of avoiding returning her dowry to her father. To avoid complications, it was agreed she would marry Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, who was five years younger than her. However, the death of her mother meant that Catherine's 'value' in the marriage market decreased. Castile was a much larger kingdom than Aragon and it was inherited by Catherine's mentally unstable elder sister, Joanna. Ostensibly, the marriage was delayed until Henry was old enough, but Henry VII procrastinated so much about Catherine's unpaid dowry that it was doubtful if the marriage would ever take place. She lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London. Williams, p.15 Some of her letters to her father, complaining of her treatment, have survived. She had little money and struggled to cope, as she had the wellbeing of her ladies-in-waiting to maintain as well as her own. Marriage to Arthur's brother depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because of the close relationship. Catherine testified her marriage to Arthur was never consummated. The matter was considered of minor importance at the time, as the Pope had the power to overrule any objections, whether or not they were for religious reasons. Queen of England (1509-1533) Catherine's second wedding took place on 11 June 1509, seven weeks after Henry VII's death. They were married in a private ceremony at Greenwich Church. Coronation 16th century woodcut of the coronation of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon showing their heraldic badges, the Tudor Rose and the Pomegranate of Granada. On Saturday 23 June, the traditional eve-of-coronation procession to Westminster was greeted by an extremely large and very enthusiastic crowd. As was the custom, they spent the night before their coronation at the Tower of London. On Midsummer's Day, Sunday, 24 June 1509, Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon were anointed and crowned together by the Archbishop of Canterbury at a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey. The coronation was followed by a banquet in Westminster Hall. Many new Knights of the Bath were created in honour of the coronation. Pregnancies and children A son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, was born on New Year's Day 1511. He only lived for 52 days. In 1513, Catherine was pregnant again. Henry appointed her regent when he went to France on a military campaign. When the Scots invaded, they were defeated at the Battle of Flodden Field, with Catherine addressing the army, and riding north with some of the troops. She sent a letter to Henry along with the bloodied coat of the King of Scots, James IV, who died in the battle. Catherine had lost another son when Henry returned from France. He was either stillborn or died shortly afterward. In 1514, she had another stillborn son. On 18 February 1516, Catherine delivered a healthy girl. She was named Mary and christened three days later with great ceremony at The Church of Observant Friars. In 1517, she had a miscarriage and in 1518, Catherine became pregnant for the last time. She gave birth to a daughter in November, but the child was weak and lived only a few days. Catherine was pregnant six times altogether. Catherine watching Henry at the joust in honour of Catherine giving birth to a son. Catherine's religious dedication increased as she aged, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughters. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence. She also donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. A long civil war (1135–54) had been fought the last time a woman, (Henry I of England's daughter, Empress Matilda), had inherited the throne. The disasters of civil war were still fresh in living memory from the Wars of the Roses. In 1520, Catherine's nephew Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the so-called Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary. The King's Great Matter In 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne Boleyn, a maid-of-honour to Queen Catherine who was between 10–17 years younger than Henry. Henry began pursuing her. Scarisbrick, p.154. By this time Catherine was no longer able to undergo further pregnancies. Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from the Bible, which said if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. Leviticus 20:21 If she had lied when she said her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated, it meant that their marriage was wrong in the eyes of God. It is possible that the idea of annulment had been suggested to Henry much earlier than this, and is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a son. Before Henry's father, Henry VII, ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, and Henry may have wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Lacey, p.70. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment. Brigden, p.114. Catherine was defiant when it was suggested that she quietly retire to a nunnery, saying "God never called me to a nunnery I am the King's true and legitimate wife". Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.61. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. He set his hopes upon an appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, whom he told nothing of his plans. William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for an annulment, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences. Catherine and Henry's daughter Mary never accepted Anne as Queen As the Pope was, at that time, the prisoner of Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, following the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end, Henry's envoy had to return without accomplishing much. Henry now had no choice but to put his great matter into the hands of Thomas Wolsey, and Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour. How far the pope was influenced by Charles V is difficult to say, but it is clear Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to give him an annulment from the Emperor's aunt. Morris, p.166. The Pope forbade Henry to marry again before a decision was given in Rome. Wolsey had failed and was dismissed from public office in 1529. Wolsey then began a secret plot to have Anne Boleyn forced into exile and began communicating with the Pope, to that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and, had it not been for his death from terminal illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. Haigh p.92f A year later, Catherine was banished from court and her old rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed to the vacant position. When Henry decided to annul his marriage to Catherine, John Fisher became her most trusted counsellor and one of her chief supporters. He appeared in the legates' court on her behalf, where he shocked people with the directness of his language, and by declaring that, like John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. Henry was so enraged by this that he wrote a long Latin address to the legates in answer to Fisher's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared Henry's anger. The removal of the cause to Rome ended Fisher's role in the matter, but Henry never forgave him. Other people who supported Catherine's case included Thomas More, Henry's own sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France, Martin Luther, Maria de Salinas, Charles V of Spain, and Pope Paul III. Later years (1533-1536) Upon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony, Anne was already pregnant at the time. Starkey, pp. 462–464. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage illegal. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne valid. Williams, p.124. Until the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen; her faithful servants continued to address her by that title, and most of the population of Europe believed her to be Queen, and Anne just a concubine and her daughter a bastard. Henry refused her the right to any title but "Dowager Princess of Wales", in recognition of her position as his brother's widow. In 1535 she was transferred to the decaying and remote Kimbolton Castle. Confining herself to one room, leaving it only to attend Mass, and fasting most of the time, and wearing the hair shirt of the Order of St. Francis, she prepared to meet her end. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter, Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate but discreet sympathizers ferried letters between mother and daughter. Henry offered them both better quarters and each other's company if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as his new Queen. Neither did. In late December 1535, sensing death was near, she made her will, and wrote to her nephew, the Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter. She then penned one final letter to Henry, her "most dear lord and husband" Sharon Turner, The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth (Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green,1828) : {{quote|My most dear lord, King and husband,The hour of my death now drawing on, the tender love I owe you forceth me, my case being such, to commend myself to you, and to put you in remembrance with a few words of the health and safeguard of your soul which you ought to prefer before all worldly matters, and before the care and pampering of your body, for the which you have cast me into many calamities and yourself into many troubles. For my part, I pardon you everything, and I wish to devoutly pray God that He will pardon you also. For the rest, I commend unto you our daughter Mary, beseeching you to be a good father unto her, as I have heretofore desired. I entreat you also, on behalf of my maids, to give them marriage portions, which is not much, they being but three. For all my other servants I solicit the wages due them, and a year more, lest they be unprovided for. Lastly, I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things. Katharine the Quene.}} She died at Kimbolton Castle, on 7 January 1536. The following day, news of her death reached the King. According to the chronicler Edward Hall, Anne wore yellow for the mourning, which has been interpreted in various ways; Polydore Vergil interpreted this to mean that Anne did not mourn. Warnicke, p. 187. However, Chapuys reported that it was actually King Henry who decked himself in yellow, celebrating the news and making a great show of his and Anne's daughter, Elizabeth, to his courtiers. Warnicke, p. 188. This was seen as distasteful and vulgar by many. Rumours then circulated that she had been poisoned by Anne or Henry, or both, as Anne had threatened to murder both Catherine and Mary on several occasions. The rumours were born after the apparent discovery during her embalming that there was a black growth on her heart that might have been caused by poisoning. Lofts, p.139. Modern medical experts are in agreement that her heart's discolouration was due not to poisoning, but to cancer, something which was not understood at the time. Another theory, is that the dressing in yellow was out of respect for the late queen/princess dowager as yellow was the Spanish colour of mourning. Certainly, later in the day it is reported that Henry and Anne both individually and privately wept for her death. She was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to a Dowager Princess of Wales, not a queen. Henry did not attend the funeral and refused to allow Mary to attend either. Legacy, memory, and historiography In the reign of her daughter, Mary I of England her marriage to Henry VIII was declared "good and valid." Her daughter Queen Mary I also had several portraits commissioned of Catherine, and it would not by any means be the last time she was painted. After her death, numerous portraits have been painted of her, particularly of her speech of the Legatine Trial. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral can be seen and there is hardly ever a time when it is not decorated with flowers or pomegranates, her heraldic symbol. It bears the title Katharine Queen of England. Peterborough is twinned with the Castilian city of Alcalá de Henares, her birthplace, as a tribute to Catherine, and children from schools in the two places have learned about each other as part of the twinning venture, and artists have even come over from Alcalá de Henares to paint Catharine's tombstone. In the 20th century, Mary of Teck had her grave upgraded and there are now banners there denoting Catherine as a Queen of England. Every year at Peterbourgh Cathedral there is a service in her memory. On the service commemorating the 470th anniversary of her death, the Spanish Ambassador to the United Kingdom attended. The service started with a procession, led by the Mayor, from the Peterbourgh town hall, invited guests then joined the parade en route, before taking up their position in the Cathedral, music was played by pupils from the King's School, and a trumpeter heralded the start of the procession, then as they entered the Cathedral, music was played from the restored organ. After the service, people were able to view portraits of Catherine of Aragon drawn by local schoolchildren for an art competition, which the ambassador then judged. There is a statue of her in her birthplace of Alcalá de Henares, as a young woman holding a book and a rose. http://flickr.com/photos/29250286@N08/3206379232/ Catherine has remained a popular biographical subject to the present day. The American historian Garrett Mattingly was the author of a popular biography Katherine of Aragon in 1942. In 1966, Catherine and her many supporters at court were the subjects of Catherine of Aragon and her Friends, a biography by John E. Paul. In 1967, Mary M. Luke wrote the first book of her Tudor trilogy, Catherine the Queen which portrayed her and the controversial era of English history through which she lived. Grave of Katherine of Aragon in Peterborough Cathedral In recent years, the historian Alison Weir covered her life extensively in her biography The Six Wives of Henry VIII, first published in 1991. Antonia Fraser did the same in her own 1992 biography of the same title; as did the British historian David Starkey in his 2003 book Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. Starkey, David, "Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII" Part I Weir, Alison, "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" Part I Fraser, Antonia, "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" Part I Spelling of her name "Catherine", or "Katherine" is the most common modern English spelling of her name. Katherine herself signed her name "Katherina", "Katharine" and sometimes "Katharina". In a letter to her, Arthur, her first husband addressed her as "Princess Katerine". Her daughter Queen Mary I called her "Quene Kateryn", in her will. Rarely were names, particularly first names, written in an exact manner during the sixteenth century and it is evident from Catherine's own letters that she endorsed different variations. Currently though the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography lists her name as "Katherine of Aragon". Catherine's endorsement of different spellings can be identified in numerous letters, signing herself as 'Katharine the Quene' in a letter to Wolsey in 1513 and as 'Katharine' in her final letter to Henry VIII, dating to Jan 1536. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography lists her name as Katherine. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4891 Loveknots built into his various palaces by her husband, Henry VIII, display the initials "H & K", as do other items belonging to Henry and Katherine, including gold goblets, a gold salt cellar, basins of gold, and candlesticks. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral is marked "Katharine Queen of England". Antonia Fraser, The Six Wives of Hnery VIII, pages 57-58 Titles and styles 16 December 1485 – 14 November 1501: Infanta Catalina of Castile and Aragon 14 November 1501 – 2 April 1502: The Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Countess of Chester</small> As spouse of the Prince of Wales, Katherine held the titles of Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, and Countess of Chester. 2 April 1502 – 11 June 1509: The Dowager Princess of Wales, Dowager Duchess of Cornwall, Dowager Countess of Chester name="dowager">As a widow, she was Dowager Princess of Wales, Dowager Duchess of Cornwall, and Dowager Countess of Chester. 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533: Her Grace The Queen of England c. 1519 – 23 May 1533: Her Majesty The Queen of England Around 1519 Henry VIII decided Majesty should become the style of the Kings and Queens of England. "Majesty", however, was not used exclusively; it arbitrarily alternated with both "Highness" and "Grace", even in official documents. 23 May 1533 – 7 January 1536: Her Highness The Dowager Princess of Wales, Dowager Duchess of Cornwall, Dowager Countess of Chester As a widow, she was Dowager Princess of Wales, Dowager Duchess of Cornwall, and Dowager Countess of Chester. Since Katherine never acknowledged the annulment of her marriage, she styled herself as Queen until her death. In art and media William Shakespeare described her as "The Queen of Earthly Queens". Catherine's contemporaries said that she was "more beloved than any queen who ever reigned". Alison Weir,The Six Wives of Henry VIII', p.87</ref> Over the years, numerous artistic and cultural works have been dedicated to her, written about her, or mentioned her, including some by her husband Henry VIII, who wrote "Grene growth the holy" about and for her, and Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated "The Education of Christian Women" to her.<ref>Alison Weir,The Six Wives of Henry VIII', p.123 Catherine of Aragon has been portrayed in film, television, plays, books, and other forms many times, and as a result she has stayed very much in popular memory. There has never been a film or television series where she is the main character although an arguable exception is the first episode of The Six Wives of Henry VIII which is told from her point of view and where she is portrayed by Annette Crosbie. There are also many novels, songs, and poems written about her. Although Katherine is often portrayed in film and on stage as having possessed the stereotypical Spanish traits of dark hair, eyes, and olive complexion, she had, according to existing portraits and contemporary descriptions, blue eyes, fair skin, and reddish-blonde hair, not too unusual for many Spaniards such as those from her father's land of Aragon. Furthermore, she was part English, through her ancestors, Katherine of Lancaster and Philippa of Lancaster, who were both daughters of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster. Dame Ellen Terry as Katherine of Aragon Music and rhymes The ballad by Henry VIII "Pastime with Good Company" is said to have been written for Catherine of Aragon. A verse in the song "Who shot Henry VIII?" is about Catherine. The song "Green goweth the holly" is said to have been written for her by Henry VIII. In the children's nursery rhyme "I had a little nut tree" she is the "King of Spain's Daughter". In the nursery rhyme "Sing a Song of Sixpence" the "Queen in the Parlour" is believed to be Katherine of Aragon. She is remembered in a street ballad, for vouching for the rioters, on behalf of their wives and children, after the Evil May Day. Books Catherine is the main character in: "Katharine, The Virgin Widow", "The Shadow of the Pomegranate", and "The King's Secret Matter" (later published in an omnibus "Katharine of Aragon") by Jean Plaidy The King's Pleasure, by Norah Lofts; "The Constant Princess", by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Catherine's younger years); "Patience, Princess Catherine" by Carolyn Meyer (young adult novel); "Isabella's Daughter" by Charity Bishop. Catherine is a character in: "Murder Most Royal", by Jean Plaidy; "The Trusted Servant" by Alison Macleod "The Other Boleyn Girl" by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Mary Boleyn's life)''' The Dark Rose, Volume 2 of The Morland Dynasty, by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles Theatre, Film, Stage, and TV Catherine was portrayed by: Violet Vanbrugh in the 1911 short film production of William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII (first film portrayal). German actress Hedwig Pauly-Winterstein in the film "Anna Boleyn". Rosalie Crutchley in "The Sword and the Rose", an account of Mary Tudor's romance with the Duke of Suffolk in 1515. (Crutchley later played Henry's sixth queen Katherine Parr in The Six Wives of Henry VIII.). Greek actress Irene Pappas in Hal B. Wallis' acclaimed film Anne of the Thousand Days. Frances Cuka in the 1973 film "Henry VIII and his Six Wives". Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry VIII. A scene was incorporated between Frances Cuka and Charlotte Rampling (playing Anne Boleyn) to show their quiet, glacial enmity. Claire Bloom in a 1979 adaptation of Shakespeare's "Henry VIII". British actress Annette Crosbie in a 90-minute television drama entitled "Catherine of Aragon", the first part of the BBC series "The Six Wives of Henry VIII". Annabelle Dowler in Dr. David Starkey's 2001 documentary series on Henry VIII's Six Wives. Spanish actress Yolanda Vasquez, a brief appearance in the British TV version "The Other Boleyn Girl" (January 2003), opposite Jared Harris as Henry VIII and Natascha McElhone as Mary Boleyn. Assumpta Serna in the October 2003 ITV two-part television drama, "Henry VIII" which starred Ray Winstone in the title role. Part 1 chronicled the king's life from the birth of his bastard son, Henry Fitzroy until the execution of Anne Boleyn in 1536. David Suchet co-starred as Cardinal Wolsey. Maria Doyle Kennedy in the Showtime 2007 television series, "The Tudors" opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Henry. For her performance, Kennedy won an IFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role Television. Ana Torrent in the 2007 film adaptation of the novel "The Other Boleyn Girl" by Philippa Gregory, with Eric Bana as Henry VIII. Virginia Weeks portrayed her in the play "Six Dead Queens and an Inflatable Henry", and is one of only three productions that show Catherine with the correct colouring. In 2008 she was played by Victoria Pelro in the film "The Twisted Tale of Bloody Mary". She is played by Siobhan Hewitt in the 2009 documentary Henry:Mind of a Tyrant. This documentary is one of the few portrayals of Catherine to get her appearance correct. Other English keyboard player Rick Wakeman wrote a song entitled "Catherine of Aragon" for his 1973 concept album The Six Wives of Henry VIII. In "The Simpsons" episode "Margical History Tour", Marge Simpson tells a story about Henry VIII in which Marge portrays Catherine of Aragon. Ancestry </center> See also List of English consorts Descendants of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon Notes References Brigden, Susan (2000). New Worlds, Lost Worlds. Fraser, Antonia (1992). The Wives of Henry VIII. ISBN 067973001X Haigh, Christopher (1993). English Reformations. Lacey, Robert (1972). The Life and Times of Henry VIII. Lofts, Norah (1979). Anne Boleyn. ISBN 0-698-11005-6. Morris, T. A. (1998). Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century. Starkey, David (2003). Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. ISBN 0060005505 Warnicke, Retha M. (1991). The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn. ISBN 0521406773 Weir, Alison (1991). The Six Wives of Henry VIII. ISBN 0802136834 Williams, Neville (1971). Henry VIII and his Court. Mattingly, Gareth. Catherine of Aragon John E. Paul Catherine of Aragon and her friendsFurther reading Ashley, Mike (2002). British Kings & Queens. ISBN 0-7867-1104-3 Bernard, G.W. The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church. Coates, Tim. Letters of Henry VIII 1526-29. Lindsey, Karen. (1995). Divorced Beheaded Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII. ISBN 0201408236 Mattingly, Garrett. (1941). Katherine of Aragon. Starkey, David. Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. Weir, Alison. (2002). Henry VIII: The King and His Court''. ISBN 034543708X External links Catherine of Aragon's divorce papers and other Tudor treasures online to mark the 500th anniversary of Henry VIII's accession tudorhistory.org - A good overview of her life, accompanied by an excellent portrait gallery englishhistory.net - An in-depth look at her life and times A geo-biography of the Six Wives of Henry the VIII on Google Earth Guardian unlimited, letter from her to Pope Clement VII - A Fan site dedicated to Catherine. |- | Catherine_of_Aragon |@lemmatized catherine:70 aragon:26 castilla:2 december:4 january:4 also:11 know:2 katherine:20 katharine:9 spanish:7 infanta:4 catalina:3 de:7 aragón:1 trastámara:2 queen:35 england:25 first:11 wife:34 henry:109 viii:52 princess:14 wale:16 marriage:21 arthur:11 prince:4 attempt:1 year:12 annul:3 set:2 motion:1 chain:1 event:1 lead:2 break:1 roman:2 catholic:2 church:5 dissatisfy:1 son:9 die:8 infancy:1 leave:2 daughter:19 future:1 mary:18 heiress:1 presumptive:1 time:16 established:1 precedent:1 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1,343 | Argument_from_ignorance | The argument from ignorance, also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam ("appeal to ignorance" ), argument by lack of imagination, or negative evidence, is a logical fallacy in which it is claimed that a premise is true only because it has not been proven false, or is false only because it has not been proven true. The argument from personal incredulity, also known as argument from personal belief or argument from personal conviction, refers to an assertion that because one personally finds a premise unlikely or unbelievable, the premise can be assumed to be false, or alternatively that another preferred but unproven premise is true instead. Both arguments commonly share this structure: a person regards the lack of evidence for one view as constituting proof that another view is true. The types of fallacies discussed in this article should not be confused with the reductio ad absurdum method of argument, in which a valid logical contradiction of the form "A and not A" is used to disprove a premise. Overview Commonly in an argument from personal incredulity or argument from ignorance, the speaker considers or asserts that something is false, implausible, or not obvious to them personally and attempts to use this gap in knowledge as "evidence" in favor of an alternative view of his or her choice. Examples of these fallacies are often found in statements of opinion which begin: "It is hard to see how...," "I cannot understand how...," or "it is obvious that..." (if "obvious" is being used to introduce a conclusion rather than specific evidence in support of a particular view). Argument from ignorance The two most common forms of the argument from ignorance, both fallacious, can be reduced to the following form: Something is currently unexplained or insufficiently understood or explained, so it is not (or must not be) true. Because there appears to be a lack of evidence for one hypothesis, another chosen hypothesis is therefore considered proven. Argument from personal incredulity Two common versions of the argument from personal incredulity are: "I can't believe this is possible, so it can't be true." (The person is asserting that a proposition must be wrong because he or she is [or claims to be] unable or unwilling to fully consider that it might be true, or is unwilling to believe evidence which does not support her or his preferred view.) "That's not what people say about this; people instead agree with what I am saying." (Here the person is asserting that a proposition must be inaccurate because the opinion of "people in general" is claimed to agree with the speaker's opinion, without offering specific evidence in support of the alternative view.) This is also called argumentum ad populum. An argument from personal incredulity is the same as an argument from ignorance only if the person making the argument has solely their particular personal belief in the impossibility of the one scenario as "evidence" that the alternative scenario is true (i.e., the person lacks relevant evidence specifically for the alternative scenario). Quite commonly, the argument from personal incredulity is used in combination with some evidence in an attempt to sway opinion towards a preferred conclusion. Here too, it is a logical fallacy to the degree that the personal incredulity is offered as further "evidence." In such an instance, the person making the argument has inserted a personal bias in an attempt to strengthen the argument for acceptance of her or his preferred conclusion. (Also see similar arguments: wisdom of repugnance and argument from emotion) Negative evidence A related concept is negative evidence. This is commonly problematic in cladistics, such as the classification of organisms or languages. If two members of a group share a feature and a third does not, the two may be classified together as a subgroup excluding the third. However, without evidence that the trait was an innovation (apomorphy) in the two, rather than a loss of an ancestral feature (plesiomorphy) in the third, the lack of a feature is not a logically valid argument for such a classification. Two possible explanations of the situation are as follows: For example, in the classification of the Kradai languages of southern China and Southeast Asia, there are four clear branches: the Tai, Kra, Kam–Sui, and Hlai languages (excluding for argument's sake the problematic Be language). Traditionally the Kam–Sui and Tai branches were classified together, due to the large amount of vocabulary that they share. It was argued that this vocabulary was an innovation that defined a genealogical clade within the family. However, this amounts to a lack of evidence of this vocabulary in the other branches; another possibility is that it is common Kradai vocabulary that was lost in Kra and Hlai. Indeed, morphological evidence suggests that Tai is closer to Hlai, and Kam–Sui is closer to Kra, than Tai and Kam–Sui are to each other, pace the negative evidence from vocabulary. Phenetics, a now largely superseded method similar to cladistics, is particularly prone to this kind of error. As opposed to cladistics, where the relationships are resolved via evaluation of the evolutionary history of features, in phenetics plesiomorphies and apomorphies are treated identically. Thus, a phenetic hypothesis about relationships rests on the quantity (not quality) of evidence alone. In a cladistic analysis of Kradai languages, the stronger (though quantitatively less) evidence from morphology can reveal the plentiful evidence from vocabulary to be a conserved plesiomorphy, while a phenetic analysis would be overwhelmed by the sheer amount of vocabulary evidence. Burden of proof An important aspect of the ad ignorantiam argument is establishing the burden of proof. While this concept is discussed in the law section of this page, it is important to realize that establishing the burden of proof is important in other arenas as well. All logic follows from presuppositions (axiomatic statements, see axiom). These presuppositions are not provable but are assumed as true. Inductive usage Inductive usage refers to the extension of an argument to support a wider generalization of a hypothesis, principle, scientific theory, or universal law. Many such uses of the Argument from Ignorance are considered fallacious, especially in academic papers which are expected to be rigorous about their key premises and empirical foundations. However, in some cases (such as that which the noted author Irving Copi describes below) where affirmative evidence could reasonably be expected to be found, but following careful unbiased examination, this evidence has still not been found, then it might become expedient, and sometimes even prudent, to infer that this might suggest (though it does not prove, deductively, it suggests inductively) that the evidence does not exist. Or, where the speaker can reasonably assume that all sane people will agree with a premise (e.g. "The sky is blue"), then he might decide it is unnecessary to provide evidence supporting that assertion; however, these issues (to which epistemological foundationalism is closely related, and with which it is also closely intertwined) are still debated. Description Irving Copi writes that: The argumentum ad ignorantiam [fallacy] is committed whenever it is argued that a proposition is true simply on the basis that it has not been proven false, or that it is false because it has not been proven true. He adds, A qualification should be made at this point. In some circumstances it can be safely assumed that if a certain event had occurred, evidence of it could be discovered by qualified investigators. In such circumstances it is perfectly reasonable to take the absence of proof of its occurrence despite searching, as positive evidence towards its non-occurrence. (Copi 1953) To support this, one might add a third case, the argument that something is false or true because the speaker cannot (or finds it hard to) conceive otherwise. This argument by lack of imagination is sometimes expressed in the form "Y is absurd (because I cannot imagine it), therefore it must be untrue," or "It is hard to see how..." [ie I personally cannot see, or lack the imagination to see, how], and is sometimes confused with the logically valid method of argument, reductio ad absurdum. A logical argument using reductio ad absurdum would be framed as "X logically leads to a provably impossible (absurd) conclusion, therefore it must be false." In reductio ad absurdum, it is necessary to show that accepting X implies a contradiction (such as "not X", or "Y and not Y" for some other proposition Y). In an argument from ignorance, the speaker asserts "X implies not Y", where Y is believed to be, but cannot be proven, true, rather than something which is provably contradictory. Copi's argument concerns the Y condition; that in this case of "X implies not Y" for some other proposition Y, some weight must be given to the probability that the speaker's evaluation of Y is correct. For example, if proposition X is "This man was shot", and proposition Y is "There was no bullet", the speaker's qualification to assert condition Y must be considered. A coroner who had examined the body is most likely qualified to draw this conclusion, but an eyewitness is probably unqualified. Argument from personal incredulity is very similar, e.g. "I am unable to believe/understand X, therefore it must be false." Examples "If polar bears are (the) dominant (predator) in the Arctic, then there would seem to have been no need for them to evolve a white-coloured form of camouflage." In his book Probability of God, Anglican Bishop Hugh Montefiore casts doubt on neo-Darwinian evolution with that statement. This argument was addressed by the evolutionary theorist Richard Dawkins in his book The Blind Watchmaker, who wrote that if the writer had thought to imagine a black polar bear trying to sneak up on a seal in the Arctic, he would see the evolutionary value of such fur. The ignorance in this case was assuming that no other purpose could be served. Law In most modern criminal legal systems there is a presumption of innocence, and it is the responsibility of the prosecution to prove (usually "beyond reasonable doubt") that a defendant has in fact committed a particular crime. It is a logical fallacy to presume that mere lack of evidence of innocence of a crime is instead evidence of guilt. Similarly, mere lack of evidence of guilt cannot be taken as evidence of innocence. For this reason (among others), Western legal systems err on the side of caution. Simply the act of taking a defendant before a court is not adequate evidence to presume anything. Courts require evidence of guilt to be presented first, adequate for the court to find that the charge has been substantiated -- i.e., that the prosecution's evidentiary burden has been met -- and only after this burden is met is the defense obliged to present counterevidence of innocence. If the burden of proof is not met, that does not imply that the defendant is innocent. Hence, in such a case, the defendant is found "not guilty", except in Scotland, where the jury also has the option to return a verdict of not proven. Also, as a hypothetical example of an "argument from personal incredulity," defined above, suppose someone were to argue: I cannot imagine any way for Person P to have executed action X without committing a crime Y Therefore, Person P must be guilty of crime Y. Merely because the person making the argument cannot imagine how scenario "A" might have happened does not necessarily mean that the person's preferred conclusion (scenario "B") is correct. As with other forms of the argument from ignorance, the arguer in this instance has arrived at a conclusion without any evidence supporting the preferred hypothesis, merely for lack of being able to imagine the alternative. The same principles of logic apply to the civil law, although the required burdens of proof generally are different. As well, these principles of logic apply to the introduction of a given component of a legal case by either a complainant or a defendant. That is, the mere lack of evidence in favor of a proposition put forth by a party in a legal proceeding (e.g., the assertion "she couldn't have left the house and returned in time to do X..." is offered without evidence in support) would not properly be taken as evidence in favor of an alternative explanation (e.g., "she did leave the house and return in time to do X..."). Science Unexplained phenomena are an indication that a particular scientific theory does not provide a satisfactory model sufficient to explain or predict all outcomes. For example, the wave theory of light does not explain the photoelectric effect, though it successfully predicts the results of the double-slit experiment. However, later theories based around quantum mechanics provide an adequate explanatory model of both. It is a logical mistake to assert that because a phenomenon is unpredictable by current scientific theories, that a better scientific theory cannot be found that provides an adequate natural explanatory model for the phenomena in question; and that therefore, one must assert that the only viable explanation of the unexplained phenomena is the supernatural action of God. This variant is known as the God-of-the-gaps argument. However, it is also logically incorrect to assume that because a theory does explain all known relevant phenomena, it must be correct. The fact that no counter-examples are known to exist is not in itself proof of a given theory, since there is always the possibility of some yet-to-be-observed counter-example. For example, there are no known phenomena that are inconsistent with the Big Bang theory. This by no means constitutes definitive proof that the universe actually did originate with the Big Bang. References See also Negative proof Truthiness (Stephen Colbert's ironic term for belief regardless of truth in politics.) God of the gaps Argument from silence Russell's teapot Indeterminacy problem False dilemma External links Fallacy Files article on Appeal to Ignorance | Argument_from_ignorance |@lemmatized argument:39 ignorance:11 also:9 know:5 argumentum:3 ad:8 ignorantiam:3 appeal:2 lack:12 imagination:3 negative:5 evidence:37 logical:6 fallacy:7 claim:3 premise:7 true:13 proven:3 false:10 prove:6 personal:13 incredulity:9 belief:3 conviction:1 refers:2 assertion:3 one:6 personally:3 find:8 unlikely:1 unbelievable:1 assume:6 alternatively:1 another:4 preferred:6 unproven:1 instead:3 commonly:4 share:3 structure:1 person:10 regard:1 view:6 constitute:2 proof:10 type:1 discuss:2 article:2 confuse:2 reductio:4 absurdum:4 method:3 valid:3 contradiction:2 form:6 use:5 disprove:1 overview:1 speaker:7 considers:1 asserts:1 something:4 implausible:1 obvious:3 attempt:3 gap:3 knowledge:1 favor:3 alternative:6 choice:1 example:9 often:1 statement:3 opinion:4 begin:1 hard:3 see:8 cannot:9 understand:2 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1,344 | Canes_Venatici | Canes Venatici ( Cánes Venátici, genitive Canum Venaticorum ) is a small northern constellation that was created by Johannes Hevelius in the 17th century. Its name is Latin for hunting dogs and it represents the mythological dogs Chara and Asterion being held on a leash by Boötes the herdsman, a neighboring constellation. History Canes Venatici depicted in an old star atlas. Canes Venatici contains some bright stars, but before the seventeenth century it was treated as part of the constellation of Bootes the herdsman. Its identification with Bootes's dogs arose through a mistranslation. Some of its component stars were traditionally described as representing Bootes's cudgel (Greek, Κολλοροβος). When the Greek astronomer Ptolemy's Almagest was translated from Greek to Arabic, the translator did not know the Greek word and rendered it as the nearest-looking Arabic word, and wrote العصى ذات الكلاب in ordinary unvowelled Arabic text "al-`aşā dhāt al-kullāb", which means "the spearshaft having a hook", probably thinking of a shepherd's crook. When the Arabic text was translated into Latin, the translator (probably in Spain) mistook the Arabic word كلاب for kilāb, meaning "dogs", writing hastile habens canes ("spearshaft having dogs"). These spurious dogs floated about the astronomical literature until Hevelius decided to specify their presence in the sky. Hevelius named α CVn Asterion (now known as 'Cor Caroli') and another Chara; these names are Greek for "Little star" and "Bright female one". These were sometimes regarded as an independent constellation or at least an asterism. Canes Venatici is now one of the 88 official modern constellations. Notable features Stars The constellation's brightest star is Cor Caroli (α² CVn), named by Sir Charles Scarborough in memory of King Charles I, the deposed king of Britain. According to R. H. Allen (Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning), the star was named by Halley for Charles II "at the suggestion of the court physician Sir Charles Scarborough, who said it had shone with special brilliance on the eve of the king's return to London, May 29, 1660". According to Deborah J. Warner (The Sky Explored: Celestial Cartography 1500-1800), it was originally named "Cor Caroli Regis Martyris" ("The Heart of King Charles the Martyr") for Charles I. According to Robert Burnham, Jr. (Burnham's Celestial Handbook, Volume 1), "the attribution of the name to Halley appears in a report published by J. E. Bode at Berlin in 1801, but seems to have no other verification". It is of magnitude 2.90. La Superba (Y CVn) is a semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 4.7 and 6.2 over a period of around 158 days. It is a carbon star and is famous for being deep red. AM CVn, a very blue star of magnitude 14, is the prototype of a special class of cataclysmic variable stars, in which the companion star is a white dwarf, rather than a main sequence star. RS CVn is the prototype of a special class of binary stars SIMBAD Query Result: RS CVn -- Variable of RS CVn type on the SIMBAD database of chromospherically active and optically variable components. Deep sky objects Canes Venatici contains five Messier objects, including four galaxies. One of the more significant galaxies in Canes Venatici is the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51, NGC 5194) and NGC 5195, a small barred spiral galaxy that is seen face on. This was the first galaxy recognised as having a spiral structure, this structure being first observed by Lord Rosse in 1845. Other notable spiral galaxies in Canes Venatici are the Sunflower Galaxy (M63, NGC 5055), Messier 94 (NGC 4736), and Messier 106 (NGC 4258). Messier 3 (NGC 5272) is a globular cluster. It is 18' in diameter, and at magnitude 6.3 is bright enough to be seen with binoculars. Citations References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links Photographic Catalogue of Deep Sky Objects in Canes Venatici The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canes Venatici Star Tales – Canes Venatici | Canes_Venatici |@lemmatized cane:10 venatici:10 cánes:1 venátici:1 genitive:1 canum:1 venaticorum:1 small:2 northern:1 constellation:7 create:1 johannes:1 hevelius:3 century:2 name:8 latin:2 hunt:1 dog:6 represent:2 mythological:1 chara:2 asterion:2 hold:1 leash:1 boötes:1 herdsman:2 neighboring:1 history:1 depict:1 old:1 star:17 atlas:1 contain:1 bright:4 seventeenth:1 treat:1 part:1 bootes:3 identification:1 arise:1 mistranslation:1 component:2 traditionally:1 describe:1 cudgel:1 greek:5 κολλοροβος:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 almagest:1 translate:2 arabic:5 translator:2 know:2 word:3 render:1 near:1 look:1 write:2 العصى:1 ذات:1 الكلاب:1 ordinary:1 unvowelled:1 text:2 al:2 aşā:1 dhāt:1 kullāb:1 mean:2 spearshaft:2 hook:1 probably:2 thinking:1 shepherd:1 crook:1 spain:1 mistake:1 كلاب:1 kilāb:1 hastile:1 habens:1 spurious:1 float:1 astronomical:1 literature:1 decide:1 specify:1 presence:1 sky:4 α:1 cvn:7 cor:3 carolus:3 another:1 little:1 female:1 one:3 sometimes:1 regard:1 independent:1 least:1 asterism:1 official:1 modern:1 notable:2 feature:1 sir:2 charles:6 scarborough:2 memory:1 king:4 deposed:1 britain:1 accord:3 r:4 h:1 allen:1 lore:1 meaning:1 halley:2 ii:1 suggestion:1 court:1 physician:1 say:1 shine:1 special:3 brilliance:1 eve:1 return:1 london:2 may:1 deborah:1 j:2 warner:1 explore:1 celestial:2 cartography:1 originally:1 regis:1 martyris:1 heart:1 martyr:1 robert:1 burnham:2 jr:1 handbook:1 volume:1 attribution:1 appear:1 report:1 publish:1 e:1 bode:1 berlin:1 seem:1 verification:1 magnitude:4 la:1 superba:1 semiregular:1 variable:4 vary:1 period:1 around:1 day:1 carbon:1 famous:1 deep:4 red:1 blue:1 prototype:2 class:2 cataclysmic:1 companion:1 white:1 dwarf:1 rather:1 main:1 sequence:1 binary:1 simbad:2 query:1 result:1 type:1 database:1 chromospherically:1 active:1 optically:1 object:3 contains:1 five:1 messy:2 include:1 four:1 galaxy:7 significant:1 whirlpool:1 ngc:6 barred:1 spiral:3 see:2 face:1 first:2 recognise:1 structure:2 observe:1 lord:1 rosse:1 sunflower:1 messier:2 globular:1 cluster:1 diameter:1 enough:1 binoculars:1 citation:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:2 catalogue:1 tale:1 |@bigram cane_venatici:9 astronomer_ptolemy:1 ptolemy_almagest:1 galaxy_ngc:2 ngc_ngc:1 spiral_galaxy:2 messy_ngc:1 globular_cluster:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
1,345 | Carson_City,_Nevada | Carson City in 1877 The Consolidated Municipality of Carson City is the capital of the State of Nevada. The population was 52,457 at the 2000 census. Carson City is now an independent city and is its own Metropolitan Statistical Area. Like many towns in Nevada, Carson City was founded in the early boom days of mining. A center of silver mining, Carson City was the county seat of the former Ormsby County and was named for explorer Kit Carson. Carson City has the distinction of being the smallest of the 363 Metropolitan Statistical Areas as designated by the United States Census Bureau (as of July 1, 2007). The largest nearby city to Carson City is Reno, about to the north. Carson City is one of only two capital cities in the United States that borders another state (California); the other is Trenton, New Jersey (bordering Pennsylvania). Alaska's capital city, Juneau, borders British Columbia, Canada. History The first Europeans to arrive in what is known as Eagle Valley were John C. Fremont and his exploration party in January 1843 National Park Service: Three Historic Cities . Fremont named the river flowing through the valley, Carson River, in honor of his famous mountain man scout, Christopher "Kit" Carson. Prior to Fremont's expedition, Washoe Indians inhabited the valley and surrounding areas. By 1851 the Eagle Station ranch located along the Carson River served as a trading post and stopover for travelers on the California Trail's Carson Branch which ran through Eagle Valley. The trading post and valley received their named from a bald eagle, hunted and killed by one of the early settlers, featured on the wall of the post. In 1858 Abraham Curry bought Eagle Station and named the settlement there Carson City after the Carson River and indirectly after Kit Carson Carson City Living History . As Curry and several other partners had Eagle Valley surveyed for development. Curry had decided for himself that Carson City would someday serve as the capital city and left a plot open in the center of town for a future capitol building. Following the discovery of gold and silver on the nearby Comstock Lode in 1859, Carson City's population began to rise. Curry built the crude Warm Springs Hotel a mile to the east of downtown. As he predicted Carson City was selected as the territorial capital, beating out Virginia City and American Flat. Curry loaned the Warm Springs Hotel to the territorial Legislature as a meeting hall. The Legislature named Carson City to be the seat of Ormsby County and selected the hotel as the territorial prison with Curry serving as its first warden. Today the property still serves as part of the state prison. The advent of the Civil War made statehood an almost certainty. Nevada became a state in 1864, Carson City was confirmed as permanent capital. Carson City's development was no longer dependent on the mining industry and instead became a thriving commercial center. The Virginia & Truckee Railroad was built between Virginia City and Carson City. A wooden flume was also built from the Sierra Nevadas into Carson City. The current capitol building was constructed from 1870-71. Carson City's population and transportation traffic plummeted when the Southern Pacific Railroad built a line through Donner Pass, too far to the north to benefit Carson City. The city was slightly revitalized with the mining booms in Tonopah and Goldfield. The U.S. Federal building (now renamed the Paul Laxalt Building) was completed in 1890. Carson City resigned itself to small city status advertising as "America's smallest capital." The city slowly grew, and by 1960 it had reached its 1880 population. Portions of Ormsby County had been given over to neighboring counties and by this time the county was not much larger than the city itself. In 1969 Ormsby County was officially dissolved and Carson City took over all municipal services with an independent city status. With this consolidation, Carson City absorbed former town sites such as Empire City, which had grown up in the 1860s as a milling center along the Carson River and current U.S. 50. Carson City could now advertise itself as one of America's largest state capitals with its of city limits Carson City: History . In 1991, the city adopted a downtown master plan, specifying that no building within 500 feet (152 m) of the capitol is allowed to pass it in height, which prohibits future high-rise development in the center of downtown. About Carson City The Ormsby House is currently the tallest building in downtown Carson City, at a height of 117 feet. The structure was completed in 1972. Carson City High Rise Buildings Demographics As of the census of 2000, there are 52,457 people, 20,171 households, and 13,252 families residing in the city. The population density is 366 people per square mile (141/km²). There are 21,283 housing units at an average density of 148/sq mi (57/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 85.30% White, 1.80% Black or African American, 2.40% Native American, 1.77% Asian, 0.14% Pacific Islander, 6.46% from other races, and 2.12% from two or more races.20% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 20,171 households, out of which 29.80% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.00% are married couples living together, 11.00% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.30% are non-families. 27.80% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.00% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 2.97. The city's age distribution is: 23.40% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 28.90% from 25 to 44, 24.90% from 45 to 64, and 14.90% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 39 years. For every 100 females there are 106.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 108.20 males. The median income for a household in the city is $41,809, and the median income for a family is $49,570. Males have a median income of $35,296 versus $27,418 for females. The per capita income for the city is $20,943. 10.00% of the population and 6.90% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.70% of those under the age of 18 and 5.80% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Former Towns within Carson City Lakeview was established by the Virginia & Truckee Water Co. in 1870, taking its name from the views offered there of Washoe Lake. The Virginia & Truckee Railroad later made a station and post office there. The Lakeview post office continued in operation on and off until 1894. Lakeview is today a residential neighborhood along the west side of U.S. 395 on the north border of the city limits. Empire City started on the north bank of the Carson River as an overland station and tavern run by an early resident named Nicholas "Dutch Nick" Ambrose. Empire City thrived on the silver and logging industries and as early as 1860 streets and lots were surveyed. The town was nicknamed "Seaport" due to the large amount of logging traffic on the Carson River. The city grew to a peak of 700 inhabitants between 1865 and 1875 and featured hotels, grocery stores, real estate offices, saloons, stables and an elementary school. A number of mills ran throughout the Carson River Canyon just to the east as well as the Virginia & Truckee Railroad. Empire City declined as the Comstock declined. The post office closed in 1910 and only one family remained by 1960. Today the neighborhood of New Empire is located near the intersection of U.S. 50 and Fairview Drive west of the location of Empire City. Empire Cemetery still remains overlooking the Carson River at the site of the Morgan Mill. Government and Politics Nevada's capital had been a Republican stronghold, often voting for Republicans by wide margins. In 2004, George Bush defeated John Kerry 57-40%. In 2008 however Barack Obama became the first Democrat since 1964 to win Carson City, defeating John McCain 49% to 48%, a margin of under 1%. In 1964 Carson City was the county seat of Ormsby County, which no longer exists. In 1969, all of Ormsby County merged with Carson City. So President Obama was the first Democrat in history to carry the geographically large modern city. Climate Carson City is situated in a high desert river valley of approximately above sea level. There are four fairly distinct seasons, all of which are relatively mild compared to many parts of the country. Winters see typically light to medium snowfall. Most precipitation occurs in winter and spring, with summer and fall being fairly dry, drier than neighboring California. Mid-summer highs typically top out in the 90s, however, temperatures of 100 degrees and above do occur on occasion. The low humidity and high elevation generally make even the hottest and coldest days bearable. July high and low temperatures average at 91 and 51, respectively, while in January this drops to a high of 45 and a low of 22. The Carson River flows from Douglas County through the southernwestern edge of Carson City. Education Primary and secondary schools Public schools The Carson City School District operates eleven schools in Carson City. Bordewich-Bray Elementary School, Empire Elementary School, Fremont Elementary School, Fritsch Elementary School, Seeliger Elementary School, Gleason Elementary, and Mark Twain Elementary School. Carson Middle School and Eagle Valley Middle School are the district's two middle schools. Carson High School is the only district public high school serving Carson City. Carson High is on Saliman Road. In addition Silver State Charter High School is located in Carson City. Private schools Capital Christian School, Bethlehem Lutheran, Sierra Lutheran High School, Faith Christian Academy, Grace Christian Academy, and St. Teresa's are in Carson City. Colleges and universities Western Nevada College (WNC) is a regionally accredited, two year and four institution which is part of the Nevada System of Higher Education.www.nshe.edu The college has an enrollment of approximately 6,000. It has a prison education program, which offers classes to degree-seeking inmates in five correctional institutions throughout northern Nevada. Courses are conducted daytime and evening in the classroom, by cablecast, and on the Internet. WNC offers associate of arts, associate of science, associate of applied science or associate of general studies degrees, one-year certificates, or certificates of completion in more than 50 career fields, including architecture, auto/diesel mechanics, criminal justice, dental hygiene, graphic design, nursing, and welding. Recently, the college has added a four-year program. Sports Carson City has never hosted any professional team sports. Carson City did host the famous heavy weight professional boxing match between Bob Fitzsimmons and "Gentleman" Jim Corbett over a hundred years ago. The status of team sports could change with the possible relocation of a Golden Baseball League franchise currently known as the Reno Silver Sox, who are being forced to relocate due to the arrival of the Pacific Coast League's Reno Aces. City officials and league officials are currently negotiating bringing the franchise to the city in time to play in either the 2009 or 2010 seasons. GBL wants to keep Silver Sox in area; local investors sought for team (The Nevada Appeal, September 16, 2008) Transportation Carson City is one of five state capitals not served by an interstate highway (Dover, Delaware; Jefferson City, Missouri; Juneau, Alaska, and Pierre, South Dakota are the other four). This will soon change as Interstate 580, also known as the Carson City Freeway Carson City Freeway , is currently under construction. This will eventually link Carson City to Reno and Interstate 80. The Regional Transportation System of Washoe County (RTC) provides public transportation service between Reno and Carson City, and on Oct. 3, 2005, Carson City's first modern bus system, Jump Around Carson, or JAC Jump Around Carson opened to the public. JAC uses a smaller urban bus that is ideal for Carson City. Carson City is also served by the Carson City Airport, which is a regional airport in the northern part of the city. Reno-Tahoe International Airport,which is away, handles international and domestic commercial flights. Major highways U.S. Route 50 U.S. Route 395 Adjacent counties Douglas County, Nevada – south Lyon County, Nevada – east Storey County, Nevada – northeast Washoe County, Nevada – north Placer County, California – west Literature The book A Basque Hotel, nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, written by the Basque-American author Robert Laxalt, is set in Carson City in the early decades of the twentieth century. The author was the younger brother of Paul Laxalt, a former Nevada governor and US Senator for Nevada. Western Nevada, particularly the Carson City and Reno areas, is known for its significant Basque population. Images of Carson City Recreation Carson City offers a wide variety of city parks, museums and recreation opportunities. City parks offer opportunities for hiking, biking, horseback riding, boating, sports, nature walks, historic sites and train rides. The rave scene has been growing in Carson City as of recently and successful shows are booming within the area. Carson City also plays host to a number of historic buildings and houses. Several of the buildings and homes have been converted into museums while others have been preserved and are privately owned. While there are no ski slopes within Carson City, the city is located close to Heavenly Mountain Resort, Diamond Peak and Mount Rose skiing areas. Much of the open space in Carson City is managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). There are public access sites to BLM land at many locations throughout the city. The Carson Ranger District manages of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest and is headquartered in Carson City. The Carson Range runs through the far western part of the city limits and this area is known as the "Carson City Wilderness Area" according to city limit signs along Highway 28 . Along the Tahoe Rim Trail in this part of the city is Snow Valley Peak, which rises above sea level making it the highest point in the city limits and offers views of Lake Tahoe. The Virginia Range and Carson River run through the eastern part of the city, home to the Carson River Aquatic Trail. There are no paved roads in the far eastern part of the city making it a popular for off road vehicles, hiking and biking. City Parks Sports Mills Park - miniature railroad, farmers market, hockey rink, Aquatic Facility Edmonds Sport Complex - soccer fields Centennial Park - baseball diamonds, archery Governor's Field - baseball diamonds Pony Express Airpark - model airplane field Carson River Park - boat launch, BLM trailheads Biking/Hiking Riverview Park - hiking trails along the Carson River, Korean War Veterans Memorial Lakeview Park - hiking trails, views of Washoe Lake, mill ruins Mexican Ditch Trail - hiking/biking/equestrian trail following Mexican Ditch (irrigation) V&T Multi-Use Trail - biking trail along old Virginia & Trail R.R. Natural Areas Ambrose-Carson Natural Area - nature trails with interpretive brochure created by Carson High School Fulstone Wetlands Museums Nevada State Capitol - original capitol still housing the governor's offices with museum exhibits Nevada State Museum - former state mint featuring rock, mining and prehistoric exhibits, and a recreated Wild West village Nevada State Railroad Museum - featuring the Inyo locomotive and reolcated Wabuska Railroad Station Stewart Indian School - museum collection includes items from former faculty, students and school http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/nevada/ste.htm Foreman-Roberts House Museum http://www.cchistorical.org/historicrobertshouse.htm - Gothic Revival architecture, tours available. Ferris House http://nevadaculture.org/nsla/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=725&Itemid=95 - (not open to public) home of George Ferris, inventor of the Ferris wheel Open Land Silver Saddle Ranch - working ranch, public access to BLM land, hiking/biking/equestrian trails Mexican Dam - stone dam across the Carson River south of Silver Saddle Ranch, built in 1860, accessible via hiking, biking or horseback Prison Hill - BLM public access, California Trail historic markers, location of the Stewart "S" Carson Aquatic Trail - boating and rafting Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest (Carson Ranger District) Kings Canyon Road - hiking/biking/4x4 trail Kings Canyon Falls - approx. from downtown off Kings Canyon Road Snow Valley Peak - - accessible along Tahoe Rim Trail or through Lake Tahoe – Nevada State Park. Tahoe Rim Trail - Spooner Summit trailhead just outside city limits along U.S. 50 Lake Tahoe – Nevada State Park - hiking, biking, fishing, backwoods camping Washoe Lake State Park - borders city to the north, sailing, swimming, hiking Brunswick Canyon Road - biking/off roading through far eastern part of city "C Hill" - hill featuring the Carson City "C" and giant American Flag, trailhead parking behind R.R. museum Rifle Range - near Brunswick Canyon and the Ormsby Landfill References External links City of Carson City – official site. 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1,346 | Federico_Fellini | Federico Fellini, Cavaliere di Gran Croce OMRI Il Quirinale (January 20 1920 – October 31 1993) was an Italian film director. Known for a distinct style that blends fantasy and baroque images, he is considered one of the most influential and widely revered filmmakers of the 20th century. Burke and Waller, 12 Early life and education Rimini (1920-1938) Federico Fellini was born on January 20, 1920 to middle-class parents in Rimini, then a small town on the Adriatic Sea. His father, Urbano Fellini (1894-1956), born to a family of Romagnol peasants and small landholders from Gambettola, moved to Rome in 1915 as a baker apprenticed to the Pantanella pasta factory. His mother, Ida Barbiani (1896-1984), came from a bourgeois Catholic family of Roman merchants. Despite her family’s vehement disapproval, she eloped with Urbano in 1917 to live at his parent’s home in Gambettola. Alpert, 16 A civil marriage followed in 1918 with the religious ceremony held at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome a year later. The couple settled in Rimini where Urbano became a traveling salesman and wholesale vendor. Fellini had two siblings: Riccardo (1921-1991), a documentary director for RAI Television, and Maria Maddalena (m. Fabbri; 1929-2002). In 1924, Fellini started primary school with the Sisters of Vincenzo in Rimini, attending the Carlo Tonni public school two years later. An attentive student, he spent his leisure time drawing, staging puppet shows, and reading Il corriere dei piccoli, the popular children’s magazine that reproduced traditional American cartoons by Windsor McCay, George McManus, and Frederick Burr Opper. MacManus’s Little Nemo had a direct influence on City of Women while Opper’s Happy Hooligan was the visual inspiration of Gelsomina in La Strada. Bondanella, The Films of Federico Fellini, 7 In 1926, he discovered the world of Grand Guignol, the circus with Pierino the Clown, and the movies. Guido Brignone’s Maciste all’Inferno (1926), the first film he saw, would mark him in ways linked to Dante and the cinema throughout his entire career. Burke and Waller, 5-13 Enrolled at the Ginnasio Giulio Cesare in 1929, he made friends with Luigi ‘Titta’ Benzi, later a prominent Rimini lawyer and the model for young Titta in Amarcord (1973). In Benito Mussolini’s Italy, Fellini and Riccardo became members of the Avanguardista, the compulsory Fascist youth group for males. He visited Rome with his parents for the first time in 1933, the year of the maiden voyage of the SS Rex, the transatlantic ocean liner referenced in Amarcord. The sea creature that ends La Dolce Vita (1960) has its origin in the giant fish marooned on a Rimini beach during a storm in 1934. Although Fellini adapted key events from his childhood and adolescence in films such as I Vitelloni (1953), 8½ (1963), and Amarcord (1973), he insisted that such autobiographical memories were inventions: "It is not memory that dominates my films. To say that my films are autobiographical is an overly facile liquidation, a hasty classification. It seems to me that I have invented almost everything: childhood, character, nostalgias, dreams, memories, for the pleasure of being able to recount them." Fellini interview in Panorama 18 (14 January 1980). Screenwriters Tullio Pinelli and Bernardino Zapponi, cinematographer Giuseppe Rotunno, and set designer Dante Ferretti also reported that Fellini imagined many of his “memories”. Cf. Bernardino Zapponi's memoir, Il mio Fellini and Fellini's own insistence on having created his cinematic autobiography in I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon, 32 In 1937, Fellini opened Febo, a portrait shop in Rimini with the painter Demos Bonini. His first humorous article appeared in the "Postcards to Our Readers" section of Rimini’s Domenica del Corriere. Deciding on a career as a caricaturist and gag writer, Fellini travelled to Florence in 1938 where he published his first cartoon in the weekly 420. Failing his military culture exam, he graduated from high school in July 1938 after doubling the exam. Rome (1939) In September 1939, he enrolled in law school at the University of Rome to please his parents although biographer Hollis Alpert reports that "there is no record of his ever having attended a class". Alpert, 33 Installed in a family pensione, he met another lifelong friend, the painter Rinaldo Geleng. Desperately poor, they unsuccessfully joined forces to draw sketches of restaurant and café patrons. Fellini eventually found work as a cub reporter on the dailies Il Piccolo and Il Popolo di Roma but quit after a short stint, bored by the local court news assignments. Four months after publishing his first article in Marc’Aurelio, the highly influential biweekly humour magazine, he joined the editorial board, achieving success with a regular column titled Will You Listen to What I Have to Say? Kezich, 31 Described as “the determining moment in Fellini’s life” Bondanella, The Films of Federico Fellini, 8 , he enjoyed steady employment between 1939 and 1942, interacting with writers, gagmen, and scriptwriters that eventually led to opportunities in show business and cinema. Among his collaborators on the magazine’s editorial board were the future director Ettore Scola, Marxist theorist and scriptwriter Cesare Zavattini, and Bernardino Zapponi, a future Fellini screenwriter. Conducting interviews for CineMagazzino also proved congenial: when asked to interview Aldo Fabrizi, Italy’s most popular variety performer, their immediate personal rapport led to professional collaboration. Specializing in humorous monologues, Fabrizi commissioned material from his young protegé. Kezich, 55 Career and later life Early screenplays (1940-43) Retained on business in Rimini, Urbano sent wife and family to Rome in 1940 to share an apartment with his son. Fellini and Ruggero Maccari, also on the staff of Marc’Aurelio, began writing radio sketches and gags for films. Not yet twenty and with Fabrizi’s help, Fellini obtained his first screen credit as a comedy writer on Mario Mattoli’s Il pirata sono io (I’m the Pirate). Progressing rapidly to numerous collaborations on films at Cinecittà, his circle of professional acquaintances widened to include novelist Vitaliano Brancati and scriptwriter Piero Tellini. In the wake of Mussolini’s declaration of war against France and England on June 10, 1940, he discovered Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, Gogol, John Steinbeck and William Faulkner along with French films by Marcel Carné, René Clair, and Julien Duvivier. Alpert, 42 In 1941 he published Il mio amico Pasqualino, a 74-page booklet in ten chapters describing the absurd adventures of Pasqualino, an alter ego. Kezich, 35 Writing for radio while attempting to avoid the draft, Fellini met his future wife Giulietta Masina in a studio office at EIAR (Italian Radio Broadcast Corporation) in autumn 1942. Well-paid as the voice of Pallina in Fellini's serial, Cico and Pallina, Masina was already famous in radio where her comedy shows cheered a large audience depressed by the war. Kezich, 46 In November 1942, Fellini was sent to Libya, then occupied by Fascist Italy, to work on the screenplay of I cavalieri del deserto (Knights of the Desert, 1942), directed by Osvaldo Valenti and Gino Talamo. Fellini welcomed the assignment as it allowed him "to secure another extension on his draft order". Kezich, 70 Responsible for emergency re-writing, he also directed the film's first scenes. When Tripoli fell under siege by British forces, he and his colleagues made a narrow escape by boarding a German military plane flying to Sicily. His African adventure, later published in Marc’Aurelio as "The First Flight", marked “the emergence of a new Fellini, no longer just a screenwriter, working and sketching at his desk, but a filmmaker out in the field”. Kezich, 71 The apolitical Fellini was finally freed of the draft when an Allied air raid over Bologna destroyed his medical records. He spent the remainder of the war hiding with Giulietta in her aunt’s apartment until the fall of Mussolini on July 25, 1943. After dating for nine months, the couple were married on October 30, 1943. Several months later, Masina fell down the stairs and suffered a miscarriage. She gave birth to a son, Pierfederico, on March 22, 1944 but the child died of encephalitis three weeks later. The tragedy had enduring emotional and artistic repercussions. Kezich, 157. Cf. filmed interview with Luigi 'Titta' Benzi in Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2003). Neorealist apprenticeship (1944-1949) After the Allied liberation of Rome on June 4, 1944, Fellini and Enrico De Seta opened the Funny Face Shop where they survived the postwar recession drawing caricatures of American soldiers. Roberto Rossellini, at work on Stories of Yesteryear (later Rome, Open City), met Fellini in his shop proposing he contribute gags and dialogue for the script . Aware of Fellini’s reputation as Aldo Fabrizi’s “creative muse” Kezich, 78 , Rossellini also requested he try and convince the actor to play the role of Father Giuseppe Morosini, the parish priest executed by the on April 4, 1944. In 1947, Fellini and Sergio Amidei received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay of Rome, Open City. Working as both screenwriter and assistant director on Rossellini’s Paisà (Paisan) in 1946, Fellini was entrusted to film the Sicilian scenes in Maiori. In February 1948, he was introduced to Marcello Mastroianni, then a young theatre actor appearing in a play with Giulietta Masina. Kezich, 404 Establishing a close working relationship with Alberto Lattuada, Fellini co-wrote the director’s Senza pietà (Without Pity) and Il mulino del Po (The Mill on the Po). Fellini also worked with Rossellini on the anthology film L'Amore (1948), co-writing the screenplay and in one segment titled, "The Miracle", acting opposite Anna Magnani. To play the role of a vagabond rogue mistaken by Magnani for a saint, Fellini had to bleach his black hair blond. Early films (1950-53) In 1950 Fellini co-produced and co-directed with Alberto Lattuada, Variety Lights (Luci del varietà), his first feature film. A backstage comedy set among the world of small-time travelling performers, it featured Giulietta Masina and Lattuada’s wife, Carla del Poggio. Its release to poor reviews and limited distribution proved a disaster for all concerned. The production company went bankrupt, leaving both Fellini and Lattuada with debts to pay for over a decade. Kezich, 114 In February 1950, Paisà received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay by Rossellini, Sergio Amidei, and Fellini. After travelling to Paris for a script conference with Rossellini on Europa '51, Fellini began production on The White Sheik in September 1951, his first solo-directed feature. Starring Alberto Sordi in the title role, the film is a revised version of a treatment first written by Michelangelo Antonioni in 1949 and based on the fotoromanzi, the photographed cartoon strip romances popular in Italy at the time. Producer Carlo Ponti commissioned Fellini and Tullio Pinelli to write the script but Antonioni rejected the story they developed. With Ennio Flaiano, they re-worked the material into a light-hearted satire about newly-wed couple Ivan and Wanda Cavalli (Leopoldo Trieste, Brunello Bovo) in Rome to visit the Pope. Ivan’s prissy mask of respectability is soon demolished by his wife’s obsession with the White Sheik. Highlighting the music of Nino Rota, the film was selected at Cannes (among the films in competition was Orson Welles’s Othello) and then retracted. Screened at the 13th Venice Film Festival, it was razzed by critics in “the atmosphere of a soccer match”. Kezich, 128 One reviewer declared that Fellini had “not the slightest aptitude for cinema direction”. In 1953, I Vitelloni found favour with critics and public alike. Winning the Silver Lion Award in Venice, it secured Fellini’s first international distributor. Beyond neorealism (1954-60) Fellini directed La Strada based on a script completed in 1952 with Pinelli and Flaiano. During the last three weeks of shooting, Fellini experienced the first signs of severe clinical depression. Kezich, 158 Aided by his wife, he undertook a brief period of therapy with Freudian psychoanalyst Emilio Servadio. Kezich, 158 Fellini cast American actor Broderick Crawford to interpret the role of an aging swindler in Il Bidone. Based partly on stories told to him by a petty thief during production of La Strada, Fellini developed the script into a con man’s slow descent towards a solitary death. To incarnate the role’s “intense, tragic face”, Fellini’s first choice had been Humphrey Bogart Kezich, 167 but after learning of the actor’s lung cancer, chose Crawford after seeing his face on the theatrical poster of All the King’s Men (1950). The film shoot was wrought with difficulties stemming from Crawford’s alcoholism. Kezich, 168-69 Savaged by critics at the 16th Venice Film Festival, the film did miserable box office and wasn’t distributed internationally until 1964. During the autumn, Fellini researched and developed a treatment based on a film adaptation of Mario Tobino’s novel, The Free Women of Magliano. Located in a mental institution for women, financial backers considered the subject had no potential and the project was abandoned. While preparing Nights of Cabiria in spring 1956, Fellini learnt of his father’s death by cardiac arrest at 62. Produced by Dino De Laurentiis and starring Giulietta Masina, the film took its inspiration from news reports on a woman’s decapitated head retrieved in a lake and stories by Wanda, a shantytown prostitute Fellini met on the set of Il Bidone. Kezich, 177 Pier Paolo Pasolini was hired to translate Flaiano and Pinelli’s dialogue into Roman dialect as well as supervise researches in the vice-ridden suburbs of Rome. The movie won an Academy Award as Best Foreign Film and brought Masina the Best Actress Award at Cannes for her performance. On May 1, 1956, a statue of Christ was flown by helicopter over Rome to Saint Peter's Square. Fellini made notes on the media event. With Pinelli, he developed Journey with Anita for Sophia Loren and Gregory Peck. An “invention born out of intimate truth”, the script was based on Fellini's return to Rimini with a mistress to attend his father's funeral. Kezich, 189 Due to Loren’s unavailability, the project was shelved and resurrected twenty-five years later as Lovers and Liars (1981), a comedy directed by Mario Monicelli with Goldie Hawn and Giancarlo Giannini. For Eduardo De Filippo, he co-wrote the script of Fortunella, tailoring the lead role to accommodate Masina’s particular sensibility. The Hollywood on the Tiber phenomenon of 1958 in which American studios profited from the cheap studio labour available in Rome provided the backdrop for photojournalists to steal shots of celebrities on the via Veneto. Alpert, 122 The scandal provoked by Turkish dancer Haish Nana’s improvised striptease at a nightclub captured Fellini’s imagination: he decided to end his latest script-in-progress, Moraldo in the City, with an all-night “orgy” at a seaside villa. Pierluigi Praturlon’s photos of Anita Ekberg wading fully dressed in the Trevi Fountain provided further inspiration for Fellini and his scriptwriters. Changing the title of the screenplay to La Dolce Vita, Fellini soon clashed with his producer on casting: the director insisted on the relatively unknown Mastroianni while De Laurentiis wanted Paul Newman as a hedge on his investment. Reaching an impasse, De Laurentiis sold the rights to publishing mogul Angelo Rizzoli. Shooting began on March 16, 1959 with Anita Ekberg climbing the stairs to the cupola of Saint Peter’s in a mammoth décor constructed at Cinecittà. The film wrapped August 15th on a deserted beach at Passo Oscuro with a cyclopic fish designed by Piero Gherardi. La Dolce Vita broke all box office records. Despite scalpers selling tickets at 1000 lire Kezich, 208 , crowds queued in line for hours to see the “immoral movie” before the censors banned it. At a posh Milan screening on February 5, 1960, one outraged spectator spat on Fellini while others hurled insults. Denounced in parliament by right-wing conservatives, undersecretary Domenico Magrì of the Christian Democrats demanded tolerance for the film’s controversial themes. Kezich, 209 The Vatican's official press organ, l'Osservatore Romano, lobbied for censorship while the Board of Roman Parish Priests and the Genealogical Board of Italian Nobility attacked the film. In one documented instance involving favourable reviews written by the Jesuits of San Fedele, defending La Dolce Vita had severe consequences. Kezich, 210 In competition at Cannes alongside Antonioni’s L’Avventura, the film won the Palme d'Or awarded by presiding juror Georges Simenon. The Belgian writer was promptly “hissed at” by the disapproving festival crowd. Alpert 145 Art films and dreams (1961-1969) A major discovery for Fellini after his Italian neorealism period (1950-1959) was the work of Carl Jung. After meeting Jungian psychoanalyst Dr. Ernst Bernhard in early 1960, he read Jung's autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Bernhard also recommended that Fellini consult the I Ching and keep a record of his dreams. What Fellini formerly accepted as "his extrasensory perceptions" Kezich, 224 were now interpreted as psychic manifestations of the unconscious. Bernhard’s focus on Jungian depth psychology proved to be the single greatest influence on Fellini’s mature style and marked the turning point in his work from neorealism to filmmaking that was “primarily oneiric”. Kezich, 227 As a consequence, Jung's seminal ideas on the anima and the animus, the role of archetypes and the collective unconscious directly influenced such films as 8½ (1963), Juliet of the Spirits (1965), Satyricon (1969), Casanova (1976), and City of Women (1980). Bondanella, Cinema of Federico Fellini, 151-54 Exploiting La Dolce Vita’s blockbuster success, financier Angelo Rizzoli set up Federiz in 1960, an independent film company, for Fellini and production manager Clemente Fracassi to discover and produce new talent. Despite the best intentions, their guarded editorial and business skills forced the company to close down soon after cancelling Pasolini’s project, Accattone (1961). Condemned as a “public sinner” Kezich, 212 for La Dolce Vita, Fellini responded with The Temptations of Doctor Antonio, a segment in the omnibus Boccaccio '70. His first colour film, it was the sole project green-lighted at Federiz. Infused with the surrealistic satire that characterized the young Fellini’s work at Marc’Aurelio, the film ridiculed a crusader against vice who goes insane trying to censor a billboard of Anita Ekberg espousing the virtues of milk. In an October 1960 letter to his colleague Brunello Rondi, Fellini first outlined his film ideas about a man suffering creative block: "Well then - a guy (a writer? any kind of professional man? a theatrical producer?) has to interrupt the usual rhythm of his life for two weeks because of a not-too-serious disease. It’s a warning bell: something is blocking up his system." Affron, 227 Unclear about the script, its title, and his protagonist’s profession, he scouted locations throughout Italy “looking for the film” Alpert, 159 in the hope of resolving his confusion. Flaiano suggested La bella confusione (literally A Fine Confusion) as the movie’s title. Under pressure from his producers, Fellini finally settled on 8 1/2, a self-referential title referring principally (but not exclusively) Kezich, 234 and Affron, 3-4 to the number of films he’d directed up to that time. Giving the order to start production in spring 1962, Fellini signed deals with his producer Rizzoli, fixed dates, had sets constructed, cast Mastroianni, Anouk Aimée, and Sandra Milo in lead roles, and did screen tests at the Scalera Studios in Rome. He hired cinematographer Gianni Di Venanzo, among key personnel. But apart from naming his hero Guido Anselmi, he still couldn't decide what his character did for a living. Alpert, 160 The crisis came to a head in April when, sitting in his Cinecittà office, he began a letter to Rizzoli confessing he’d "lost his film" and had to abandon the project. Interrupted by the chief machinist requesting he celebrate the launch of 8 1/2, Fellini put aside the letter and went on the set. Raising a toast to the crew, he "felt overwhelmed by shame… I was in a no exit situation. I was a director who wanted to make a film he no longer remembers. And lo and behold, at that very moment everything fell into place. I got straight to the heart of the film. I would narrate everything that had been happening to me. I would make a film telling the story of a director who no longer knows what film he wanted to make". Fellini, Comments on Film, 161-62 Shooting began on May 9, 1962. Perplexed by the seemingly chaotic, incessant improvisation on the set, Deena Boyer, the director’s American press officer at the time, asked for a rationale. Fellini told her that he hoped to convey the three levels “on which our minds live: the past, the present, and the conditional - the realm of fantasy”. Alpert, 170 After shooting wrapped on October 14th, Nino Rota composed various circus marches and fanfares that would later become signature tunes of the maestro’s cinema. Kezich, 245 Nominated for four Oscars, 8 1/2 won awards for best foreign language film and best costume design in black-and-white. In Hollywood for the ceremony, Fellini toured Disneyland with Walt Disney the day after. Increasingly attracted to parapsychology, Fellini met the Turin magician Gustavo Rol in 1963. Rol, a former banker, introduced him to the world of Spiritism and séances. In 1964, Fellini experimented with LSD 25 A synthetic derivative “fashioned to produce the same effects as the hallucinogenic mushrooms used by Mexican tribes”. Kezich, 255 under the supervision of Emilio Servadio, his psychoanalyst during production of La Strada. Kezich, 255 For years reserved about what actually occurred that Sunday afternoon, he admitted in 1992 that objects and their functions no longer had any significance. All I perceived was perception itself, the hell of forms and figures devoid of human emotion and detached from the reality of my unreal environment. I was an instrument in a virtual world that constantly renewed its own meaningless image in a living world that was itself perceived outside of nature. And since the appearance of things was no longer definitive but limitless, this paradisiacal awareness freed me from the reality external to my self. The fire and the rose, as it were, became one. Fellini and Pettigrew, 91 Nostalgia, sexuality, and politics (1970-1980) Fellini and René Clair received lifetime achievement honours when Amarcord screened out of competition at the 27th Cannes Film Festival in 1974. Late films and projects (1981-1990) Organized by his publisher Diogenes Verlag in 1982, the first major exhibition of 63 drawings by Fellini was held in Paris, Brussels, and the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York. Kezich, 413. Also cf. The Warsaw Voice A gifted caricaturist, much of the inspiration for his sketches was derived from his own dreams while the films-in-progress both originated from and stimulated drawings for characters, decor, costumes and set designs. Under the title, I disegni di Fellini (Fellini’s Designs), he published 350 drawings executed in pencil, watercolours, and felt pens. Fellini, I disegni di Fellini (Roma: Editori Laterza), 1993. The drawings are edited and analysed by Pier Marco De Santi. For comparing Fellini's graphic work with those of Sergei Eisenstein, consult S.M. Eisenstein, Dessins secrets (Paris: Seuil), 1999. On September 6 1985 Fellini was awarded the Golden Lion for lifetime achievement at the 42nd Venice Film Festival. That same year, he became the first non-American to receive the Film Society of Lincoln Center’s annual award for cinematic achievement. Long fascinated by Carlos Castaneda’s The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge, Fellini accompanied the Peruvian author on a journey to the Yucatán to assess the feasibility of a film. After first meeting Castaneda in Rome in October 1984, Fellini drafted a treatment with Pinelli titled Viaggio a Tulun. Producer Alberto Grimaldi, prepared to buy film rights to all of Castaneda’s work, then paid for pre-production research taking Fellini and his entourage from Rome to Los Angeles and the jungles of Mexico in October 1985. Kezich, 360-61 When Castaneda inexplicably disappeared and the project fell through, Fellini’s mystico-shamanic adventures were scripted with Pinelli and serialized in Corriere della Sera in May 1986. A barely veiled satirical interpretation of Castaneda's work Kezich, 362 , Viaggio a Tulun was published in 1989 as a graphic novel with artwork by Milo Manara and as Trip to Tulum in America in 1990. For Intervista, produced by Ibrahim Moussa and RAI Television, Fellini intercut memories of the first time he visited Cinecittà in 1939 with present-day footage of himself at work on a screen adaptation of Franz Kafka’s Amerika. A meditation on the nature of memory and film production, it won the special 40th Anniversary Prize at Cannes and the 15th Moscow Film Festival Grand Prize. In Brussels later that year, a panel of thirty professionals from eighteen European countries named Fellini the world’s best director and 8 1/2 the best European film of all time. Burke and Waller, xvi In early 1989 Fellini began production on The Voice of the Moon, based on Ermanno Cavazzoni’s novel, Il poema des lunatici (The Lunatics’s Poem). A small town was built at Empire Studios on the via Pontina outside Rome. Starring Roberto Benigni as Ivo Salvini, a madcap poetic figure newly released from a mental institution, the character is a combination of La Stradas Gelsomina, Pinocchio, and Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi. Bondanella, Cinema of Federico Fellini, 330 Fellini improvised as he filmed, using as a guide a rough treatment written with Pinelli. Kezich, 383 Despite its modest critical and commercial success in Italy, and its warm reception by French critics, it failed to interest North American distributors. Fellini won the Praemium Imperiale, the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in the visual arts, awarded by the Japan Art Association in 1990. Kezich, 387 The award covers five disciplines: painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and theatre/film. Other winners include Akira Kurosawa, David Hockney, Balthus, Pina Bausch, and Maurice Béjart. Final years (1991-1993) In July 1991 and April 1992, Fellini worked in close collaboration with Canadian filmmaker Damian Pettigrew to establish "the longest and most detailed conversations ever recorded on film". Peter Bondanella, Review of Fellini: I'm a Born Liar in Cineaste Magazine (September 22, 2003), 32 Described as the "Maestro's spiritual testament” by his biographer Tullio Kezich Kezich, "Forward" in I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon, 5. Also cf. Kezich, 388 , excerpts culled from the conversations later served as the basis of their feature documentary, Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2002) and the book, I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon. Finding it increasingly difficult to secure financing for feature films, he developed a suite of television projects whose titles reflect their subjects: Attore, Napoli, L’Inferno, L’opera lirica, and L’America. In April 1993, Fellini received his fifth Oscar for lifetime achievement "in recognition of his cinematic accomplishments that have thrilled and entertained audiences worldwide". On June 28, he underwent heart bypass surgery at the Cantonal Hospital in Zurich but suffered a stroke at the Grand Hotel in Rimini two months later. Partially paralyzed, he was first transferred to Ferrara for rehabilitation and then to the Polyclinico Umberto I in Rome to be near his wife, also hospitalized. He suffered a second stroke and fell into an irreversible coma. Fellini died in Rome on October 31st at the age of 73, a day after his fiftieth wedding anniversary. The memorial service was held in Studio 5 at Cinecittà attended by an estimated “70,000 people”. Kezich, 416 Five months later on March 23 1994, Giulietta Masina died of lung cancer. Fellini, Masina and their son Pierfederico are buried in a bronze sepulchre sculpted by Arnaldo Pomodoro. Designed as a ship's prow, the tomb is located at the main entrance to the Cemetery of Rimini. The Federico Fellini International Airport in Rimini is named in his honour. Influence and legacy Plaque to Fellini on Via Veneto, Rome Personal and highly idiosyncratic visions of society, Fellini's films are a unique combination of memory, dreams, fantasy and desire. The adjectives “Fellinian” and "Felliniesque" are “synonymous with any kind of extravagant, fanciful, even baroque image in the cinema and in art in general”. Bondanella, The Films of Federico Fellini, 7 La Dolce Vita contributed the term paparazzi to the language, derived from Paparazzo, the photographer friend of journalist Marcello Rubini (Marcello Mastroianni). Ennio Flaiano, the film's co-screenwriter and creator of Paparazzo, explained that he took the name from Signor Paparazzo, a character in George Gissing's novel By the Ionian Sea (1901). Bondanella, The Cinema of Federico Fellini, 136 Important contemporary filmmakers such as Woody Allen, Pedro Almodovar, Tim Burton Cf. Tim Burton Collective Accessed Sept 17 2008 , Terry Gilliam Cf. Gilliam at Senses of Cinema Accessed Sept 17 2008 , Emir Kusturica Cf. Kusturica Interview at BNET Accessed Sept 17 2008 , David Lynch Cf. City of Absurdity Quote Collection Accessed Sept 17 2008 , Girish Kasaravalli, David Cronenberg, Stanley Kubrick, and Martin Scorsese have cited Fellini's influence on their work. Polish director, Wojciech Has, whose two major films, The Saragossa Manuscript (1965) and The Hour-Glass Sanatorium (1973) are examples of modernist fantasies, has been compared to Fellini for the sheer "luxuriance of his images". Gilbert Guez, Review of The Saragossa Manuscript in Le Figaro (September, 1966), 23 I Vitelloni inspired European directors Juan Antonio Bardem, Marco Ferreri, and Lina Wertmuller and had an influence on Martin Scorsese's Mean Streets (1973), George Lucas's American Graffiti (1974), Joel Schumacher's St. Elmo's Fire (1985), and Barry Levinson's Diner (1987), among many others. Kezich, 137 Nights of Cabiria was adapted as the Broadway musical Sweet Charity and the movie Sweet Charity (film) (1969) by Bob Fosse starring Shirley MacLaine. 8 1/2 inspired among others: Mickey One (Arthur Penn, 1965), Alex in Wonderland (Paul Mazursky, 1970), Beware of a Holy Whore (Rainer Werner Fassbinder, 1971), Day for Night (François Truffaut, 1973), All That Jazz (Bob Fosse, 1979), Stardust Memories (Woody Allen, 1980), Sogni d'oro (Nanni Moretti, 1981), Parad Planet (Vadim Abdrashitov, 1984), La Pelicula del rey (Carlos Sorin, 1986), Living in Oblivion (Tom DiCillo, 1995) , 8 1/2 Women (Peter Greenaway, 1999), Falling Down (Joel Schumacher, 1993), along with the successful Broadway musical, Nine (Maury Yeston and Mario Fratti, 1982). Numerous sources include Affron, Alpert, Bondanella, Kezich, Miller et al. City of Women was adapted for the Berlin stage by Frank Castorf in 1992. Fellini’s work is referenced on the albums Fellini Days (2001) by Fish and Funplex (2008) by the the B-52's with the song Juliet of the Spirits, and in the opening traffic jam of the music video Everybody Hurts by R.E.M. Miller, 7 . It influenced two American TV shows, Northern Exposure and Third Rock from the Sun. Burke and Waller, xv Awards Selected awards and nominations Rome, Open City (Dir. Roberto Rossellini, 1945) Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Sergio Amidei) Paisà (Dir. Roberto Rossellini, 1946) Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Sergio Amidei, Alfred Hayes, Marcello Pagliero, and Rossellini) I Vitelloni (1953) Venice Film Festival Silver Lion Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano) La Strada (1954) Venice Film Festival Silver Lion Oscar for the Best Foreign Language Film Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano, Brunello Rondi) New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film Screen Directors Guild Award for Best Foreign Film Nights of Cabiria (1957) Festival de Cannes Best Actress Award (Giulietta Masina) Oscar for the Best Foreign Language Film La Dolce Vita (1960) Palme d'Or at Festival de Cannes Oscar Best Costumes in B&W (Piero Gherardi) Oscar nominations for Best Director, Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano, Brunello Rondi), Best Art and Set Direction New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Language Film National Board of Review citation for Best Foreign Language Film 8 1/2 (Otto e Mezzo, 1963) Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prize Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film Oscar for Best Costumes in B&W (Piero Gherardi) Oscar nomination for Best Director Oscar nomination for Best Art Direction-Set Decoration in B&W (Piero Gherardi) Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbons for Best Cinematography in B&W (Gianni Di Venanzo), Best Director (Federico Fellini), Best Original Story (Fellini and Flaiano), Best Producer (Angelo Rizzoli), Best Score (Nino Rota), Best Screenplay (Fellini, Pinelli, Flaiano, Rondi), and Best Supporting Actress (Sandra Milo) Berlin Film Festival Special Award BAFTA Film Award nomination for Best Film from any Source Bodil Award for Best European Film Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Picture Grolla d’Oro at Saint Vincent Film Festival for Best Director Kinema Junpo Award for Best Foreign Language Film & Best Foreign Language Film Director Juliet of the Spirits (1965) New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Story Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film I clowns (1970) National Board of Review citation for Best Foreign Language Film Amarcord (1974) Oscar for Best Foreign Film New York Film Critics Award for Best Direction New York Film Critics Award for Best Motion Picture Fellini's Casanova (1976) Oscar for Best Costumes (Danilo Donati) Intervista (1987) Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prize Festival de Cannes Special 40th Anniversary Prize The Voice of the Moon (1990) David di Donatella Awards for Best Actor, Best Production Design, and Best Editing Distinctions 1974 27th Cannes Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award (with French director René Clair) 1985 42nd Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement Film Society of Lincoln Center Award for Cinematic Achievement 1990 Japan Art Association's Praemium Imperiale (equivalent of the Nobel Prize in the visual arts) 1993 Oscar for Lifetime Achievement Filmography Major screenplay contributions L'ultima carrozzella (1943) (dir. Mario Mattoli) Co-scriptwriter Roma, città aperta (1945) (dir. Roberto Rossellini) Co-scriptwriter Paisà (1946) (dir. Roberto Rossellini). Co-scriptwriter Il delitto di Giovanni Episcopo (1947) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter Senza pietà (1948) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter Il miracolo (1948) (dir. Roberto Rossellini) Co-scriptwriter Il mulino del Po (1949) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter Francesco, giullare di Dio (1950) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter Il cammino della speranza (1950) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter La città si defende (1951) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter Persiane chiuse (1951) (dir. Luigi Comencini) Co-scriptwriter Il brigante di Tacca del Lupo (1952) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter Fortunella (1979) (dir. Eduardo De Filippo) Co-scriptwriter Lovers and Liars (1979) (dir. Mario Monicelli) Fellini not credited Television commercials TV commercial titled, Oh, che le paesaggio!, for Campari Soda (1984) TV commercial for Barilla pasta (1984) Three TV commercials for Banca di Roma (1992) Written and directed Luci del varietà (1950) (co-credited with Alberto Lattuada) Lo sceicco bianco (1952) I vitelloni (1953) L'amore in città (1953) (segment Un'agenzia matrimoniale) La strada (1954) Il bidone (1955) Le notti di Cabiria (1957) La dolce vita (1960) Boccaccio '70 (1962) (segment Le tentazioni del Dottor Antonio) 8½ (1963) Giulietta degli spiriti (1965) Histoires extraordinaires (1968) (segment Toby Dammit, based on Edgar Allan Poe's short story "Never Bet the Devil Your Head") Fellini: A Director's Notebook (1969) Satyricon (1969) I clowns (1970) Roma (1972) Amarcord (1973) Il Casanova di Federico Fellini (1976) Prova d'orchestra (1978) La città delle donne (1980) E la nave va (1983) Ginger and Fred (1986) Intervista (1987) La voce della luna (1990) References Notes Bibliography <div style="font-size: 95%"> Primary sources Fellini, Federico (1988). Comments on Film. Ed. Giovanni Grazzini. Trans. Joseph Henry. Fresno: The Press of California State University at Fresno. — (1993). I disegni di Fellini. Ed. Pier Marco De Santi. Roma: Editori Laterza. — and Damian Pettigrew (2003). I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0847831353 — and Tullio Pinelli. Trip to Tulum. Trans. Stefano Gaudiano and Elizabeth Bell. New York: Catalan Communications. Secondary sources Alpert, Hollis (1988). Fellini: A Life. New York: Paragon House. ISBN 1557780005 Bondanella, Peter (1992). The Cinema of Federico Fellini. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00875-2 — (2002). The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Burke, Frank, and M. R. Waller (2003). Federico Fellini: Contemporary Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802076475 Kezich, Tullio (2006). Federico Fellini: His Life and Work. New York: Faber and Faber, 2006. ISBN 9780571211685 Miller, D. A. (2008). 8 1/2. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Further readingGeneral''' Betti, Liliana (1979). Fellini: An Intimate Portrait. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Bondanella, Peter (ed.)(1978). Federico Fellini: Essays in Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press. Fellini, Federico (2008). Fellini's Book of Dreams. New York: Rizzoli. Panicelli, Ida, and Antonella Soldaini (ed.)(1995). Fellini: Costumes and Fashion. Milan: Edizioni Charta. ISBN 8886158823 Rohdie, Sam (2002). Fellini Lexicon. London: BFI Publishing. Tornabuoni, Lietta (1995). Federico Fellini. Preface Martin Scorsese. New York: Rizzoli. Walter, Eugene (2002). Milking the Moon: A Southerner's Story of Life on This Planet. Ed. Katherine Clark. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80965-2 Documentaries on Fellini Ciao Federico (1969). Dir. Gideon Bachmann. (60') Federico Fellini - un autoritratto ritrovato (2000). Dir. Paquito Del Bosco. (RAI TV, 68') Fellini: I'm a Born Liar'' (2002). Dir. Damian Pettigrew. Feature documentary. (ARTE, Eurimages, Scottish Screen, 102'). See also Art film Fellini Bibliography via UC Berkeley External links Fellini Foundation official web site (in Italian) Fondation Fellini pour le cinéma (Switzerland) official web site (in French) Felliniana Archive (USA) Fellini's influence on popular culture be-x-old:Фэдэрыка Фэліні | Federico_Fellini |@lemmatized federico:21 fellini:139 cavaliere:1 di:14 gran:1 croce:1 omri:1 il:18 quirinale:1 january:3 october:7 italian:7 film:100 director:21 know:2 distinct:1 style:3 blend:1 fantasy:4 baroque:2 image:4 consider:2 one:7 influential:2 widely:1 revere:1 filmmaker:4 century:1 burke:5 waller:5 early:5 life:7 education:1 rimini:13 bear:5 middle:1 class:2 parent:4 small:4 town:2 adriatic:1 sea:3 father:4 urbano:4 family:5 romagnol:1 peasant:1 landholder:1 gambettola:2 move:1 rome:21 baker:1 apprentice:1 pantanella:1 pasta:2 factory:1 mother:1 ida:2 barbiani:1 come:2 bourgeois:1 catholic:1 roman:3 merchant:1 despite:4 vehement:1 disapproval:1 elope:1 live:2 home:1 alpert:11 civil:1 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1,347 | Biathlon_World_Championships | The first Biathlon World Championships (BWCH) was held in 1958, with individual (official) and relay (unofficial) contests for men. The number of events has grown significantly over the years. Beginning in 1984, women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from 1989, both genders have been participating in joint BWCHs. BWCH venues The season's BWCHs takes place during February or March. Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions. Full, joint BWCHs have never been held in Olympic Winter Games seasons. BWCHs in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons. In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships. Arranged Championships: 1958 Saalfelden, Austria 1959 Courmayeur, Italy 1961 Umeå, Sweden 1962 Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus, Finland 1963 Seefeld, Austria 1965 Elverum, Norway 1966 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West Germany 1967 Altenberg, East Germany 1969 Zakopane, Poland 1970 Östersund, Sweden 1971 Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus, Finland 1973 Lake Placid, New York, USA 1974 Minsk, USSR 1975 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1976 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy (Sprint) 1977 Lillehammer, Norway 1978 Hochfilzen, Austria 1979 Ruhpolding, West Germany 1981 Lahti, Finland 1982 Minsk, USSR 1983 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1984 Chamonix, France (Women) 1985 Ruhpolding, West Germany (Men) and Egg am Etzel (near Einsiedeln), Switzerland (Women) 1986 Oslo, Norway (Men) and Falun, Sweden (Women) 1987 Lake Placid, New York, USA (Men) and Lahti, Finland (Women) 1988 Chamonix, France (Women) 1989 Feistritz an der Drau, Austria (first joint Men+Women BWCH) 1990 Minsk, USSR; Oslo, Norway; and Kontiolahti, Finland 1991 Lahti, Finland 1992 Novosibirsk, Russia (Team) 1993 Borovets, Bulgaria 1994 Canmore, Canada (Team) 1995 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1996 Ruhpolding, Germany 1997 Brezno-Osrblie, Slovakia 1998 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Pursuit) and Hochfilzen, Austria (Team) 1999 Kontiolahti, Finland and Oslo, Norway 2000 Oslo, Norway and Lahti, Finland 2001 Pokljuka, Slovenia 2002 Oslo, Norway (Mass start) 2003 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia 2004 Oberhof, Germany 2005 Hochfilzen, Austria, and Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (K-M: Mixed Relay) 2006 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Mixed Relay) 2007 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 2008 Östersund, Sweden 2009 Pyeongchang, South Korea Upcoming: 2010 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed Relay) 2011 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia 2012 Ruhpolding, Germany 2013 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic Men Individual (20 km) This event was first held in 1958. Year Gold Silver Bronze195819591961196219631965196619671969197019711973197419751977197819791981198219831985198619871989199019911993199519961997199920002001200320042005200720082009 Sprint (10 km) This event was first held in 1974. Year Gold Silver Bronze1974197519761977197819791981198219831985198619871989199019911993199519961997199920002001200320042005200720082009 Pursuit (12.5 km) This event was first held in 1997. Year Gold Silver Bronze19971998199920002001200320042005200720082009 Mass start (15 km) This event was first held in 1999. Year Gold Silver Bronze1999200020012002200320042005200720082009 Relay (4 × 7.5 km) This event was first held unofficially in 1958 and officially in 1966. The 1959 to 1965 contests were three legs only. Year Gold Silver Bronze1958Adolf WiklundOlle GunneriussonSture OhlinSven NilssonViktor ButakovValentin PzhenitsynDmitriy SolokovAlexander GubinArvid NybergAsbjørn Bakken Knut WoldRolf Greterud1959Vladimir MelaninDmitriy SokolovValentin PzhenitsynSven AggeAdolf WiklundSture OhlinKnut WoldHenry HermansenIvar Skogsrud1961Kalevi HuuskonenPaavo RepoAntti TyrväinenAlexander PrivalovValentin PzhenitsynDmitriy SokolovKlas LestanderTage LundinStig Anersson1962Vladimir MelaninValentin PzhenitsynNikolay PuzanovAntti TyrväinenHannu PostiKalevi HuuskonenJon IstadOlav JordetHenry Hermansen1963Vladimir MelaninNikolay MezharyakovValentin PzhenitsynAntti TyrväinenHannu PostiVeikko HakulinenJon IstadOlav JordetEgil Nygård1965Olav JordetOla WærhaugIvar NordkildNikolay PuzanovVladimir MelaninVassiliy MakarovStanisław SzczepaniakJózef RubiśJózef Sobczak-Gąsienica1966Jon IstadRagnar TveitenIvar NordkildOlav JordetJózef Sobczak-GąsienicaStanisław SzczepaniakStanisław ŁukaszczykJózef RubiśOlle PetrussonTore ErikssonHolmfrid OlssonSture Ohlin1967Jon IstadRagnar TveitenOla WærhaugOlav JordetAlexander TikhonovViktor MamatovRinnat SafinNikolay PuzanovOlle PetrussonTore ErikssonHolmfrid OlssonSture Ohlin1969Alexander TikhonovViktor MamatovRinnat SafinVladimir GundartsevJon IstadRagnar TveitenMagnar SolbergEsten GjeltenKalevi VähäkyläMauri RöppänenMauno PeltonenEsko Marttinen1970Alexander TikhonovViktor MamatovRinnat SafinAlexander UshakovTor SvendsbergetRagnar TveitenMagnar SolbergEsten GjeltenHans-Günther JahnHansjörg KnautheDieter SpeerHorst Koschka1971Alexander TikhonovViktor MamatovRinnat SafinNikolay MuzhytovTor SvendsbergetRagnar TveitenMagnar SolbergIvar NordkildJózef RoczakAndrzej RapaczAleksander KlimaJózef Stopka1973Alexander TikhonovRinnat SafinYuriy KolmakovGennady KovalyevTor SvendsbergetEsten GjeltenRagnar TveitenKjell HovdaDieter SpeerManfred GeyerHerbert WiegandGünther Bartnick1974Alexander TikhonovAlexander UshakovNikolay KruglovYuriy KolmakovSimo HalonenCarl-Henrik FlöjtJuhani SuutarinenHeikki IkolaKjell HovdaKåre HovdaTerje HanssenTor Svendsberget1975Carl-Henrik FlöjtSimo HalonenJuhani SuutarinenHeikki IkolaAlexander TikhonovAlexander YelizarovAlexander UshakovNikolay KruglovJan SzpunarAndrzej RapaczLudwig ZiębaWojciech Truchan1977Alexander TikhonovAlexander YelizarovAlexander UshakovNikolay KruglovErkki AntilaRaimo SeppänenSimo HalonenHeikki IkolaManfred BeerKlaus SiebertFrank UllrichManfred Geyer1978Manfred BeerFrank UllrichKlaus SiebertEberhard RöschOdd LirhusSigleif JohansenRoar NilsenTor SvendsbergetGerhard WinklerAndreas SchweigerHansi EstnerHeinrich Mehringer1979Manfred BeerKlaus SiebertFrank UllrichEberhard RöschSimo HalonenHeikki IkolaErkki AntilaRaimo SeppänenVladimir AlikinVladimir BarnachovNikolay KruglovAlexander Tikhonov1981Mathias JungMatthias JacobFrank UllrichEberhard RöschPeter AngererPeter SchweigerFritz FischerFranz BernreiterVladimir AlikinAnatoly AlyabyevVladimir BarnachovVladimir Gavrikov1982Frank UllrichMatthias JungMatthias JacobBernd HelmichEirik KvalfossKjell SøbakOdd LirhusRolf StorsveenVladimir AlikinAnatoly AlyabyevVladimir BarnachovViktor Semyonov1983Alguimantas ŠalnaJuri KashkarovPetr MiloradovSergei BulyginFrank UllrichMathias JungMatthias JacobFrank-Peter RoetschKjell SøbakEirik KvalfossOdd LirhusØyvind Nerhagen1985Juri KashkarovAlguimantas ŠalnaSergei BulyginAndrei SenkovFrank-Peter RoetschMatthias JacobRalf GöthelAndré SehmischPeter AngererWalter PichlerFritz FischerHerbert Fritzenwenger1986Juri KashkarovDmitry VasilyevValery MedvedtsevSergei BulyginJürgen WirthFrank-Peter RoetschMatthias JacobAndré SehmischWerner KiemGottlieb TaschlerJohann PasslerAndreas Zingerle1987Frank-Peter RoetschMatthias JacobAndré SehmischJürgen WirthDmitry VasilyevJuri KashkarovAlexandr PopovValery MedvedtsevErnst ReiterHerbert FritzenwengerPeter Angerer Fritz Fischer1989Frank LuckAndré SehmischBirk AndersFrank-Peter RoetschJuri KashkarovSergei TchepikovAlexandr PopovSergei BulyginGeir EinangSylfest GlimsdalGisle FenneEirik Kvalfoss1990Pieralberto CarraraWilfried PallhuberJohann PasslerAndreas ZingerleChristian DumontXavier BlondHervè FlandinThierry GerbierFrank LuckAndré SehmischMark KirchnerBirk Anders1991Ricco GroßFrank LuckMark KirchnerFritz FischerJuri KashkarovAlexandr PopovSergey TarasovSergei TchepikovGeir EinangEirik KvalfossJon Åge TyldumGisle Fenne1993Wilfried PallhuberJohann PasslerPieralberto CarraraAndreas ZingerleValery MedvedtsevValeriy KirienkoSergey TarasovSergei TchepikovSven FischerFrank LuckMark KirchnerJens Steinigen1995Ricco GroßMark KirchnerFrank LuckSven FischerLionel LaurentPatrice Bailly-SalinsThierry DusserreHervè FlandinIgor KhokhriakovAlexandr PopovOleg RyzhenkovVadim Sashurin1996Viktor MaigourovVladimir DratchevSergey TarasovAlexei KobelevRicco GroßPeter SendelFrank LuckSven FischerAlexei AidarovOleg RyzhenkovVadim SashurinAlexandr Popov1997Ricco GroßPeter SendelSven FischerFrank LuckEgil GjellandJon Åge TyldumDag BjørndalenOle Einar BjørndalenRené CatarinussiWilfried PallhuberPatrick FavrePieralberto Carrara1999Alexei AidarovPetr IvashkoVadim SashurinOleg RyzhenkovViktor MaigourovVladimir DratchevSergei RozhkovPavel RostovtsevHalvard HanevoldDag BjørndalenFrode AndresenOle Einar Bjørndalen2000Viktor MaigourovSergei RozhkovVladimir DratchevPavel RostovtsevEgil GjellandFrode AndresenHalvard HanevoldOle Einar BjørndalenFrank LuckPeter SendelSven FischerRicco Groß2001Gilles MarguetVincent DefrasneJulien RobertRaphaël PoiréeAleksei AidarovAlexander SymanOleg RyzhenkovVadim SashurinEgil GjellandFrode AndresenHalvard HanevoldOle Einar Bjørndalen2003Peter SendelSven FischerRicco GroßFrank LuckViktor MaigourovPavel RostovtsevSergei RozhkovSergei TchepikovAlexei AidarovVladimir DratchevRustam ValliulinOleg Ryzhenkov2004Frank LuckRicco GroßSven FischerMichael GreisHalvard HanevoldLars BergerEgil GjellandOle Einar BjørndalenFerreol CannardVincent DefrasneJulien RobertRaphaël Poirée2005Halvard HanevoldStian EckhoffEgil GjellandOle Einar BjørndalenSergei RozhkovNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Pavel RostovtsevSergei TchepikovDaniel MesotitschFriedrich PinterWolfgang RottmannChristoph Sumann2007Ivan TcherezovMaxim TchoudovDmitri YaroshenkoNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Halvard HanevoldLars BergerFrode AndresenOle Einar BjørndalenRicco GroßMichael RöschSven FischerMichael Greis2008Ivan TcherezovNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Dmitri YaroshenkoMaxim TchoudovEmil Hegle SvendsenRune BratsveenHalvard HanevoldOle Einar BjørndalenMichael RöschAlexander WolfAndreas BirnbacherMichael Greis2009Emil Hegle SvendsenLars BergerHalvard HanevoldOle Einar BjørndalenDaniel MesotitschSimon EderDominik LandertingerChristoph SumannMichael RöschChristoph StephanArnd PeifferMichael Greis Team This event was held from 1989 to 1998. Year Gold Silver Bronze1989Juri KashkarovSergei BulyginAlexandr PopovSergei TchepikovFranz WudyHerbert FritzenwengerGeorg FischerFritz FischerAndreas HeymannAndré SehmischRaik DittrichSteffen Hoos1990Raik DittrichMark KirchnerBirk AndersFrank LuckTomáš KosIvan MasaříkJiří HolubecJan MatoušChristian DumontStéphane BouthiauxHervè FlandinThierry Gerbier1991Hubert LeitgebGottlieb TaschlerSimon DemetzWilfried PallhuberSverre IstadJon Åge TyldumIvar Michal UlekleivFrode LøbergAnatoliy ZdanovichSergey TarasovSergei TchepikovValery Medvedtsev1992Eugeni RedkineAnatoliy ZdanovichAlexandr PopovAleksei TropnikovFrode LøbergJon Åge TyldumSylfest GlimsdalGisle FenneAivo UdrasUrmas KaldveeHillar ZahknaKalju Ojaste1993Fritz FischerFrank LuckSteffen HoosSven FischerAleksei KobelevValeriy KirienkoSergei LoschkinSergei TchepikovGilles MarguetThierry DusserreXavier BlondLionel Laurent1994Pieralberto CarraraHubert LeitgebAndreas ZingerleWilfried PallhuberVladimir DratchevAlexei KobelevValeriy KirienkoSergey TarasovJens SteinigenMarco MorgensternPeter SendelSteffen Hoos1995Frode AndresenDag BjørndalenHalvard HanevoldJon Åge TyldumPetr GarabíkRoman DostálJiří HolubecIvan MasaříkThierry DusserreFranck PerrotLionel LaurentStéphane Bouthiaux1996Petr IvashkoOleg RyzhenkovAlexandr PopovVadim SashurinVladimir DratchevPavel MouslimovViktor MaigurovSergei RozhkovRené CatarinussiHubert LeitgebPieralberto CarraraPatrick Favre1997Oleg RyzhenkovPetr IvashkoAlexandr PopovVadim SashurinCarsten HeymannMark KirchnerFrank LuckPeter SendelWiesław ZiemianinJan ZiemianinWojciech KozubTomasz Sikora1998Egil GjellandHalvard HanevoldSylfest GlimsdalOle Einar BjørndalenRicco GroßCarsten HeymannSven FischerFrank LuckVladimir DratchevAlexei KobelevSergei RozhkovViktor Maigourov Women Individual (15 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 10 km. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1993 1995 1996 1997¹ 1999¹ 2000 2001¹ 2003¹ 20042005200720082009 Sprint (7.5 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 5 km. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1993 1995 1996¹ 1997²¹ 1999² 2000³ 2001³ 2003 2004³, 2005² 200720082009 Pursuit (10 km) This event was first held in 1997. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003, - 2004 2005 200720082009 Mass start (12.5 km) This event was first held in 1999. In 2002, the distance was 15 km. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1999¹ 2000 2001 2002¹ 2003 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 Relay (4 × 7.5/6 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1991, the event was 3 × 5 km. In 2003, leg distance was set to 6 km. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1984Venera ChernychovaLiudmila ZabolotyanaKaija ParveSanna GrønlidGry ØstvikSiv BråtenHolly BeatieJulie NewmanKari Swenson 1985Venera ChernychovaElena GolovinaKaija ParveSanna GrønlidGry ØstvikSiv BråtenPirjo MattilaTuija VuoksialaTeija Nieminen 1986Kaija ParveNadejda BelovaVenera ChernychovaEva KorpelaInger BjörkbomSabine KarlssonSanna GrønlidSiv BråtenAnne Elvebakk 1987Elena GolovinaVenera ChernychovaKaija ParveInger BjörkbomMia StadigEva KorpelaAnne ElvebakkSanna GrønlidSiv Bråten Lunde 1988Venera ChernychovaElena GolovinaKaija ParveElin KristiansenAnne ElvebakkMona BollerudEva KorpelaInger BjörkbomMia Stadig 1989Natalia PrikostshikovaSvetlana DavidovaElena GolovinaZvetanka KrastevaMaria ManolovaNadezhda AleksievaEva BurešováRenata NovotnáJiřina Adamičková 1990Elena BatsevichElena GolovinaSvetlana DavidovaGrete Ingeborg NykkelmoAnne ElvebakkElin KristiansenTuija VuoksialaSeija HyytiäinenPirjo Mattila 1991Elena BelovaElena GolovinaSvetlana DavidovaGrete Ingeborg NykkelmoAnne ElvebakkElin KristiansenUschi DislKerstin MöringAntje Misersky 1993Jana KulhaváJiřina AdamičkováIveta KnížkováEva HákováCorinne NiogretVéronique ClaudelDelphyne HeymannAnne BriandSvetlana PaniutinaNadejda TalanovaOlga SimushinaElena Belova 1995Uschi DislAntje HarveySimone Greiner-Petter-MemmPetra SchaafCorinne NiogretVéronique ClaudelFlorence BaverelAnne BriandAnn-Elen SkjelbreidHildegunn FossenAnnette SikvelandGunn Margit Andreassen 1996Uschi DislSimone Greiner-Petter-MemmKatrin ApelPetra BehleCorinne NiogretFlorence BaverelEmmanuelle ClaretAnne BriandTetyana VodopyanovaValentina TserbeOlena PetrovaOlena Zubrilova 1997Uschi DislSimone Greiner-Petter-MemmKatrin ApelPetra BehleAnn-Elen SkjelbreidAnnette SikvelandLiv Grete SkjelbreidGunn Margit AndreassenOlga MelnikGalina KouklevaNadejda TalanovaOlga Romasko 1999Uschi DislSimone Greiner-Petter-MemmKatrin ApelMartina ZellnerNadejda TalanovaGalina KouklevaOlga RomaskoAlbina AkhatovaDelphyne Heymann-BurletFlorence BaverelChristelle GrosCorinne Niogret 2000Olga PylevaSvetlana ChernousovaGalina KouklevaAlbina AkhatovaUschi DislKatrin ApelAndrea HenkelMartina ZellnerOlena Zubrilova¹Olena PetrovaNina LemeshTetyana Vodopyanova 2001Olga PylevaAnna BogaliyGalina KouklevaSvetlana IshmouratovaUschi DislKatrin ApelAndrea HenkelKati WilhelmOlena ZubrilovaOlena PetrovaNina LemeshTetyana Vodopyanova 2003Albina AkhatovaSvetlana IshmouratovaGalina KouklevaSvetlana ChernousovaOksana KhvostenkoIrina MerkushinaOksana YakovlevaOlena PetrovaSimone DenkingerUschi DislKati WilhelmMartina Glagow 2004Linda TjørhomGro Marit Istad KristiansenGunn Margit AndreassenLiv Grete PoiréeOlga PylevaSvetlana IshmouratovaAnna BogaliyAlbina AkhatovaMartina GlagowKatrin ApelSimone DenkingerKati Wilhelm 2005Olga PylevaSvetlana IshmouratovaAnna Bogaliy-TitovetsOlga ZaitsevaUschi DislKatrin ApelAndrea HenkelKati WilhelmEkaterina IvanovaOlga NazarovaLiudmilla AnankoOlena Zubrilova 2007Martina GlagowAndrea HenkelMagdalena NeunerKati WilhelmFlorence Baverel-RobertDelphyne PerettoSylvie BecaertSandrine BaillyTora BergerAnn Kristin FlatlandJori MørkveLinda Grubben 2008Martina GlagowAndrea HenkelMagdalena NeunerKati WilhelmOksana YakovlevaVita SemerenkoValj SemerenkoOksana KhvostenkoDelphine PerettoMarie Laure BrunetSylvie BecaertSandrine Bailly 2009Svetlana SleptsovaAnna BoulyginaOlga MedvedtsevaOlga ZaitsevaMartina BeckMagdalena NeunerAndrea HenkelKati WilhelmMarie Laure BrunetSylvie BecaertMarie DorinSandrine Bailly Team This event was held from 1989 to 1998. Year Gold Silver Bronze 1989Natalya PrikotshikovaSvetlana DavidovaLuisa ZherepenovaElena GolovinaSynnøve ThoresenElin KristiansenAnne ElvebakkMona BollerudInga KesperDaniela HörburgerDorina PieperPetra Schaaf 1990Elena BatsevichElena GolovinaSvetlana ParamyginaSvetlana DavidovaIrene SchrollDaniela HörburgerInga KesperPetra SchaafNadezda AleksievaIva SchkodrevaMaria ManolovaZvetanka Krasteva 1991Elena BelovaElena GolovinaSvetlana ParamyginaSvetlana DavidovaMaria ManolovaSilvana BlogoevaNadezda AleksievaIva SchkodrevaSynnøve ThoresenSigne TrostenHildegunn FossenUnni Kristiansen 1992Petra BauerPetra SchaafUschi DislInga KesperElena BelovaInna SheshiklAnfisa ReztsovaSvetlana PetcherskaiaGabriela SuvováEva HákováJana KulhaváJiřina Adamičkova 1993Nathalie BeausireDelphyne HeymannAnne BriandCorinne NiogretNatalia PermiakovaNatalia SulzhevaNatalia RyzhenkovaSvetlana ParamyginaZofia KiełpińskaKrystyna LiberdaAnna SteraHelena Mikołajczyk 1994Natalia PermiakovaNatalia RyzhenkovaIrina KokouevaSvetlana ParamyginaAnn Elen SkjelbreidÅse IdlandAnnette SikvelandHildegunn FossenEmmanuelle ClaretNathalie BeausireCorinne NiogretVéronique Claudel 1995Elin KristiansenAnnette SikvelandGunn Margit AndreassenAnn Elen SkjelbreidKathy SchwaabSimone Greiner-Petter-MemmUschi DislPetra BehleEmmanuelle ClaretVéronique ClaudelAnne BriandCorinne Niogret 1996Katrin ApelSimone Greiner-Petter-MemmPetra BehleUschi DislNina LemeshOlena PetrovaTetyana VodopyanovaOlena ZubrilovaEmmanuelle ClaretAnne BriandFlorence BaverelCorinne Niogret 1997Annette SikvelandAnn Elen SkjelbreidLiv Grete SkjelbreidGunn Margit AndreassenOlga RomaskoAnna VolkovaNadejda TalanovaOlga MelnikOlena PetrovaOlena ZubrilovaValentina TserbeTetyana Vodopyanova 1998Anna VolkovaOlga RomaskoSvetlana IshmouratovaAlbina AkhatovaHildegunn MikkelsplassAnnette SikvelandAnn Elen SkjelbreidLiv Grete SkjelbreidKatja HolantiTiina MikkolaMari LampinenSanna-Leena Perunka Mixed Relay This event was first held in 2005, at the Biathlon World Cup finals in Khanty-Mansiysk. In 2005 the women biathletes did the first two legs, and the men did the following two, while in 2006 the sequence was woman–man–woman–man. At the Biathlon World Championships 2007 in Antholz, the sequence was women–women–man–man. The men ski legs of 7.5km and the women ski 6km each. Year Gold Silver Bronze2005Olga PylevaSvetlana IshmouratovaIvan TcherezovNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Anna Bogaliy-TitovetsOlga ZaitsevaSergei TchepikovSergei RozhkovUschi DislKati WilhelmMichael GreisRicco Groß2006Anna Bogaliy-TitovetsSergei TchepikovIrina MalginaNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Linda TjørhomHalvard HanevoldTora BergerOle Einar BjørndalenFlorence Baverel-RobertVincent DefrasneSandrine BaillyRaphaël Poirée2007Helena JonssonAnna Carin OlofssonBjörn FerryCarl Johan BergmanFlorence Baverel-RobertSandrine BaillyVincent DefrasneRaphaël PoiréeTora BergerJori MørkveEmil Hegle SvendsenFrode Andresen2008Sabrina BuchholzMagdalena NeunerAndreas BirnbacherMichael GreisLiudmila KalinchikDarya DomrachevaRustam ValiullinSergey NovikovSvetlana SleptsovaOksana NeupokoevaNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Dmitri Yaroshenko2009Marie Laure BrunetSylvie BecaertVincent DefrasneSimon FourcadeHelena JonssonAnna Carin Olofsson-ZidekDavid EkholmCarl Johan BergmanAndrea HenkelSimone HauswaldArnd PeifferMichael Greis Total medals by country 1 44 1 25 70 29 1 34 64 21 0 22 43 94 2 81 177 2 19 2 43 64 12 4 33 49 10 7 25 42 41 13 101 155 3 45 51 46 142 4 16 13 22 51 5 11 9 15 35 6 9 9 12 30 7 6 3 8 17 8 5 6 12 23 9 3 8 11 22 10 0 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 6 4 8 12 11 2 4 5 11 12 1 3 5 8 13 1 1 0 2 14 0 3 4 7 15 0 3 0 3 16 0 2 0 2 17 0 1 1 2 18 0 1 0 1 18 0 1 0 1 20 0 0 2 2 21 0 0 1 1 21 0 0 1 1 Total 236 234 236 704 See also Biathlon World Cup List of Olympic medalists in biathlon References Sports 123 biathlon results | Biathlon_World_Championships |@lemmatized first:14 biathlon:6 world:5 championship:6 bwch:3 hold:16 individual:3 official:1 relay:8 unofficial:1 contest:2 men:9 number:1 event:17 grow:1 significantly:1 year:15 begin:1 woman:15 biathletes:2 finally:1 gender:1 participate:1 joint:3 bwchs:4 venues:1 season:3 take:1 place:1 february:1 march:1 necessary:1 schedule:1 part:1 main:1 venue:1 weather:1 snow:1 condition:1 full:1 never:1 olympic:3 winter:1 game:1 non:1 ioc:1 however:1 new:3 mixed:5 two:4 leg:6 arrange:2 separately:1 ordinary:1 saalfelden:1 austria:6 courmayeur:1 italy:6 umeå:1 sweden:4 hämeenlinna:2 tavastehus:2 finland:8 seefeld:1 elverum:1 norway:7 garmisch:1 partenkirchen:1 west:3 germany:7 altenberg:1 east:1 zakopane:1 poland:1 östersund:2 lake:2 placid:2 york:2 usa:2 minsk:3 ussr:3 antholz:6 anterselva:5 sprint:3 lillehammer:1 hochfilzen:3 ruhpolding:4 lahti:4 chamonix:2 france:2 egg:1 etzel:1 near:1 einsiedeln:1 switzerland:1 oslo:5 falun:1 feistritz:1 der:1 drau:1 kontiolahti:2 novosibirsk:1 russia:5 team:5 borovets:1 bulgaria:1 canmore:1 canada:1 brezno:1 osrblie:1 slovakia:1 pokljuka:3 slovenia:3 pursuit:3 mass:3 start:3 khanty:5 mansiysk:5 oberhof:1 k:1 pyeongchang:1 south:1 korea:1 upcoming:1 nové:1 město:1 na:1 moravě:1 czech:1 republic:1 km:15 gold:13 silver:13 unofficially:1 officially:1 three:1 wiklundolle:1 gunneriussonsture:1 ohlinsven:1 nilssonviktor:1 butakovvalentin:1 pzhenitsyndmitriy:2 solokovalexander:1 gubinarvid:1 nybergasbjørn:1 bakken:1 knut:1 woldrolf:1 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1,348 | Kurt_Gödel | Kurt Gödel (; April 28, 1906 Brno – January 14, 1978 Princeton, New Jersey) was an Austrian-American logician, mathematician and philosopher. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when many, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead and David Hilbert, were pioneering the use of logic and set theory to understand the foundations of mathematics. Principia Mathematica (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Gödel is best known for his two incompleteness theorems, published in 1931 when he was 25 years of age, one year after finishing his doctorate at the University of Vienna. The more famous incompleteness theorem states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. To prove this theorem, Gödel developed a technique now known as Gödel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers. He also showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be disproved from the accepted axioms of set theory, if those axioms are consistent. He made important contributions to proof theory by clarifying the connections between classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and modal logic. Life Childhood Kurt Friedrich Gödel was born April 28, 1906, in Brno, Austria-Hungary into the ethnic German family of Rudolf Gödel, the manager of a textile factory, and Marianne Gödel (born Handschuh). Dawson 1997, pp. 3-4 At the time of his birth the town had a slight German-speaking majority, and this was the language of his parents. Dawson 1997, p. 12 The ancestors of Kurt Gödel were often active in the cultural life of the Brno city. For example, his grandfather Joseph Gödel was a famous singer of that time and for some years a member of the "Brünner Männergesangverein". Procházka 2008, pp. 30–34. Although he spoke very little Czech himself, Gödel automatically became a Czechoslovak citizen at age 12 when the Austro-Hungarian empire broke up at the end of World War I. He later told his biographer John W. Dawson that he felt like an "exiled Austrian in Czechoslovakia" ("ein Österreicher im Exil in der Tschechoslowakei") during this time. He chose to become an Austrian citizen at age 23. When Nazi Germany annexed Austria, Gödel automatically became a German citizen at age 32. After World War II, at the age of 42, he became an American citizen. In his family, young Kurt was known as Herr Warum ("Mr. Why") because of his insatiable curiosity. According to his brother Rudolf, at the age of six or seven Kurt suffered from rheumatic fever; he completely recovered, but for the rest of his life he remained convinced that his heart had suffered permanent damage. Gödel attended the Evangelische Volksschule, a Lutheran school in Brno from 1912 to 1916, and was enrolled in the Deutsches Staats-Realgymnasium from 1916 to 1924, excelling with honors in all his subjects, particularly in mathematics, languages and religion. Although Kurt had first excelled in languages, he later became more interested in history and mathematics. His interest in mathematics increased when in 1920 his older brother Rudolf (born 1902) left for Vienna to go to medical school at the University of Vienna (UV). During his teens, Kurt studied Gabelsberger shorthand, Goethe's Theory of Colours and criticisms of Isaac Newton, and the writings of Immanuel Kant. Studying in Vienna At the age of 18, Kurt joined his brother Rudolf in Vienna and entered the UV. By that time, he had already mastered university-level mathematics. Although initially intending to study theoretical physics, Kurt also attended courses on mathematics and philosophy. During this time, he adopted ideas of mathematical realism. He read Kant's Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft, and participated in the Vienna Circle with Moritz Schlick, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap. Kurt then studied number theory, but when he took part in a seminar run by Moritz Schlick which studied Bertrand Russell's book Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, Kurt became interested in mathematical logic. Attending a lecture by David Hilbert in Bologna on completeness and consistency of mathematical systems may have set Gödel's life course. In 1928, Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann published Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik (Principles of Mathematical Logic), an introduction to first-order logic in which the problem of completeness was posed: Are the axioms of a formal system sufficient to derive every statement that is true in all models of the system? This was the topic chosen by Gödel for his doctorate work. In 1929, at the age of 23, he completed his doctoral dissertation under Hans Hahn's supervision. In it, Gödel established the completeness of the first-order predicate calculus (this result is known as Gödel's completeness theorem). He was awarded the doctorate in 1930. His thesis, along with some additional work, was published by the Vienna Academy of Science. Working in Vienna In 1931, Gödel published his famous incompleteness theorems in "Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme" (called in English "On formally undecidable propositions of Principia Mathematica and related systems"). In that article, he proved for any computable axiomatic system that is powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (e.g. the Peano axioms or ZFC), that: If the system is consistent, it cannot be complete. (This is generally known as the incompleteness theorem.) The consistency of the axioms cannot be proved within the system. These theorems ended a half-century of attempts, beginning with the work of Frege and culminating in Principia Mathematica and Hilbert's formalism, to find a set of axioms sufficient for all mathematics. The incompleteness theorems also imply that not all mathematical questions are computable. In hindsight, the basic idea at the heart of the incompleteness theorem is rather simple. Gödel essentially constructed a formula that claims that it is unprovable in a given formal system. If it were provable, it would be false, which contradicts the fact that in a consistent system, provable statements are always true. Thus there will always be at least one true but unprovable statement. That is, for any computably enumerable set of axioms for arithmetic (that is, a set that can in principle be printed out by an idealized computer with unlimited resources), there is a formula that obtains in arithmetic, but which is not provable in that system. To make this precise, however, Gödel needed to solve several technical issues, such as encoding statements, proofs, and the very concept of provability into the natural numbers. He did this using a process known as Gödel numbering. In his two-page paper "Zum intuitionistischen Aussagenkalkül" (1932) Gödel refuted the finite-valuedness of intuitionistic logic. In the proof he implicitly used what has later become known as Gödel–Dummett intermediate logic (or Gödel fuzzy logic). Gödel earned his habilitation at the UV in 1932, and in 1933 he became a Privatdozent (unpaid lecturer) there. In 1933 Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany and over the following years the Nazis rose in influence in Austria, and among Vienna's mathematicians. In June 1936, Moritz Schlick, whose seminar had aroused Gödel's interest in logic, was assassinated by a pro-Nazi student. This triggered "a severe nervous crisis" in Gödel. . From p. 80, which quotes Rudolf Gödel, Kurt's brother and a medical doctor. The words "a severe nervous crisis", and the judgement that the Schlick assassination was its trigger, are from the Rudolf Gödel quote. Rudolf knew Kurt well in those years. He developed paranoid symptoms, including a fear of being poisoned, and spent several months in a sanatorium for nervous diseases. Dawson 1997, pp. 110-112 Visits to the USA In 1933, Gödel first traveled to the U.S., where he met Albert Einstein, who became a good friend. He delivered an address to the annual meeting of the American Mathematical Society. During this year, Gödel also developed the ideas of computability and recursive functions to the point where he delivered a lecture on general recursive functions and the concept of truth. This work was developed in number theory, using Gödel numbering. In 1934 Gödel gave a series of lectures at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey, entitled On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical systems. Stephen Kleene, who had just completed his Ph.D. at Princeton, took notes of these lectures which have been subsequently published. Gödel would visit the IAS again in the autumn of 1935. The traveling and the hard work had exhausted him and the next year he had to recover from a depression. He returned to teaching in 1937. During this time, he worked on the proof of consistency of the axiom of choice and of the continuum hypothesis; he would go on to show that these hypotheses cannot be disproved from the common system of axioms of set theory. He married Adele Nimbursky (née Porkert, 1899-1981), whom he had known for over 10 years, on September 20, 1938. Their relationship had been opposed by his parents on the grounds that she was a divorced dancer, six years older than he. They had no children. Subsequently, he left for another visit to the USA, spending the autumn of 1938 at the IAS and the spring of 1939 at the University of Notre Dame. Gödel and his wife Adele spent the summer of 1942 in Blue Hill, Maine, in the Blue Hill Inn at the top of the bay. Gödel was taking a vacation from the IAS. Gödel was not merely vacationing, and had a very productive summer of work. Using Heft 15 [volume 15] of Gödel's still-unpublished Arbeitshefte [working notebooks], John W. Dawson, Jr. conjectures that Gödel discovered a proof for the independence of the axiom of choice from finite type theory, a weakened form of set theory, while in Blue Hill in 1942. Gödel's close friend Hao Wang supports this conjecture, noting that Gödel's Blue Hill notebooks contain his most extensive treatment of the problem. Princeton After the Anschluss in 1938, Austria had become a part of Nazi Germany. Germany abolished the title of Privatdozent, so Gödel had to apply for a different position under the new order. His former association with Jewish members of the Vienna Circle, especially with Hahn, weighed against him. The University of Vienna turned his application down. His predicament intensified when the German army found him fit for conscription. World War II started in September 1939. Before the year was up, Gödel and his wife left Vienna for Princeton. To avoid the difficulty of an Atlantic crossing, the Gödels took the trans-Siberian railway to the Pacific, sailed from Japan to San Francisco (which they reached on March 4, 1940), then crossed the U.S. by train to Princeton, where Gödel would accept a position at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS). Gödel very quickly resumed his mathematical work. In 1940, he published his work Consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum-hypothesis with the axioms of set theory which is a classic of modern mathematics. In that work he introduced the constructible universe, a model of set theory in which the only sets that exist are those that can be constructed from simpler sets. Gödel showed that both the axiom of choice (AC) and the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) are true in the constructible universe, and therefore must be consistent with the Zermelo-Frankel axioms for set theory (ZF). Paul Cohen later constructed a model of ZF in which AC and GCH are false; together these proofs mean that AC and GCH are independent of the ZF axioms for set theory. In 1951, Gödel demonstrated the existence of paradoxical solutions to Albert Einstein's field equations in general relativity. He gave this elaboration to Einstein as a present for his 70th birthday. Das Genie & der Wahnsinn, Der Tagesspiegel, 13 January 2008 (in German). These "rotating universes" would allow time travel and caused Einstein to have doubts about his own theory. His solutions are known as the Gödel metric. During his many years at the Institute, Gödel's interests turned to philosophy and physics. He studied and admired the works of Gottfried Leibniz, but came to believe that a hostile conspiracy had caused some of Leibniz's works to be suppressed. John W. Dawson, Jr. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel. A K Peters, Ltd., 2005. P. 166. To a lesser extent he studied Kant and Edmund Husserl. In the early 1970s, Gödel circulated among his friends an elaboration of Leibniz's version of Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof of God's existence. This is now known as Gödel's ontological proof. Gödel became a permanent member of the IAS in 1946. Around this time he stopped publishing, though he continued to work. He became a full professor at the Institute in 1953 and an emeritus professor in 1976. Gödel was awarded (with Julian Schwinger) the first Albert Einstein Award, in 1951, and was also awarded the National Medal of Science, in 1974. Death In later life, Gödel suffered periods of mental instability and illness. He had an obsessive fear of being poisoned; he wouldn't eat unless his wife, Adele, tasted his food for him. Late in 1977, Adele was hospitalized for six months and could not taste Gödel's food anymore. In her absence, he refused to eat, eventually starving himself to death. He weighed 65 pounds (approximately 30 kg) when he died. His death certificate reported that he died of "malnutrition and inanition caused by personality disturbance" in Princeton Hospital on January 14, 1978. Gravestone of Kurt Gödel in the Princeton, NJ, cemetery Legacy The Kurt Gödel Society, founded in 1987, was named in his honor. It is an international organization for the promotion of research in the areas of logic, philosophy, and the history of mathematics. Religious views Gödel was a convinced theist and a lifelong Christian. He rejected the notion that God was impersonal, as Einstein believed. He believed firmly in an afterlife, stating: “I am convinced of the afterlife, independent of theology. If the world is rationally constructed, there must be an afterlife." http://www.metanexus.net/magazine/tabid/68/id/9796/Default.aspx Gödel's friendship with Einstein Gödel and Einstein at the IAS (1950) Albert Einstein and Gödel had a legendary friendship, shared in the walks they took together to and from the Institute for Advanced Study. The nature of their conversations was a mystery to the other Institute members. Economist Oskar Morgenstern recounts that toward the end of his life Einstein confided that his "own work no longer meant much, that he came to the Institute merely…to have the privilege of walking home with Gödel". On December 5, 1947, Einstein and Morgenstern accompanied Gödel to his U.S. citizenship exam, where they acted as witnesses. Gödel had confided in them that he had discovered an inconsistency in the U.S. Constitution, one that would allow the U.S. to become a dictatorship. Einstein and Morgenstern were concerned that their friend's unpredictable behavior might jeopardize his chances. Fortunately, the judge turned out to be Phillip Forman. Forman knew Einstein and had administered the oath at Einstein's own citizenship hearing. Everything went smoothly until Forman happened to ask Gödel if he thought a dictatorship like the Nazi regime could happen in the U.S. Gödel then started to explain his discovery to Forman. Forman understood what was going on, cut Gödel off, and moved the hearing on to other questions and a routine conclusion. Dawson 1997, pp. 179-180. The story of Gödel's citizenship hearing is repeated in many versions. Dawson's account is the most carefully researched. Most other accounts appear to be based on Dawson, hearsay or speculation. Kurt Gödel: A Contradiction in the U.S. Constitution? has a link to a document written by Morgenstern recounting the event. Important publications In German: 1931, "Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme," Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 38: 173-98. 1932, "Zum intuitionistischen Aussagenkalkül", Anzeiger Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien 69: 65–66. In English: 1940. The Consistency of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set Theory. Princeton University Press. 1947. "What is Cantor's continuum problem?" The American Mathematical Monthly 54: 515-25. Revised version in Paul Benacerraf and Hilary Putnam, eds., 1984 (1964). Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings. Cambridge Univ. Press: 470-85. In English translation: Kurt Godel, 1992. On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems, tr. B. Meltzer, with a comprehensive introduction by Richard Braithwaite. Dover reprint of the 1962 Basic Books edition. Kurt Godel, 2000. http://www.research.ibm.com/people/h/hirzel/papers/canon00-goedel.pdf On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems, tr. Martin Hirzel Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. Harvard Univ. Press. 1930. "The completeness of the axioms of the functional calculus of logic," 582-91. 1930. "Some metamathematical results on completeness and consistency," 595-96. Abstract to (1931). 1931. "On formally undecidable propositions of Principia Mathematica and related systems," 596-616. 1931a. "On completeness and consistency," 616-17. Collected Works: Oxford University Press: New York. Editor-in-chief: Solomon Feferman. Volume I: Publications 1929-1936 ISBN 0195039645, Volume II: Publications 1938-1974 ISBN 0195039726, Volume III: Unpublished Essays and Lectures ISBN 0195072553, Volume IV: Correspondence, A-G ISBN 0198500734. Volume V: Correspondence, H-Z ISBN 0198500750 See also Gödel dust, an exact solution of the Einstein field equation Gödel Prize Gödel programming language Gödel, Escher, Bach Gödel's Slingshot List of Austrian scientists Notes References Dawson, John W., 1997. Logical dilemmas: The life and work of Kurt Gödel. Wellesley MA: A K Peters. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brünn. (2007, September 19). In Wikisource, The Free Library. Retrieved 10PM EST March 13, 2008, from http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Br%C3%BCnn&oldid=447734 Further reading John L. Casti and Werner DePauli, 2000. Gödel: A Life of Logic, Basic Books (Perseus Books Group), Cambridge, MA. ISBN 0-7382-0518-4. John W. Dawson, Jr. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel. AK Peters, Ltd., 1996. John W. Dawson, Jr, 1999. "Gödel and the Limits of Logic", Scientific American, vol. 280 num. 6, pp. 76–81 Torkel Franzén, 2005. Gödel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters. Rebecca Goldstein, 2005. Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Gödel. W. W. Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 0-393-32760-4 pbk. Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940. Princeton Univ. Press. Jaakko Hintikka, 2000. On Gödel. Wadsworth. Douglas Hofstadter, 1980. Gödel, Escher, Bach. Vintage. Stephen Kleene, 1967. Mathematical Logic. Dover paperback reprint ca. 2001. J.R. Lucas, 1970. The Freedom of the Will. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Ernst Nagel and Newman, James R., 1958. Gödel's Proof. New York Univ. Press. Procházka, Jiří, 2006, 2006, 2008, 2008. Kurt Gödel: 1906–1978: Genealogie. ITEM, Brno. Volume I. Brno 2006, ISBN 80-902297-9-4. In Ger., Engl. Volume II. Brno 2006, ISBN 80-903476-0-6. In Germ., Engl. Volume III. Brno 2008, ISBN 80-903476-4-9. In Germ., Engl. Volume IV. Brno, Princeton 2008, ISBN 978-80-903476-5-6. In Germ., Engl. Ed Regis, 1987. Who Got Einstein's Office? Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Raymond Smullyan, 1992. Godel's Incompleteness Theorems. Oxford University Press. Hao Wang, 1987. Reflections on Kurt Gödel. MIT Press. Wang, Hao. 1996. A Logical Journey: From Godel to Philosophy. MIT Press. Yourgrau, Palle, 1999. Gödel Meets Einstein: Time Travel in the Gödel Universe. Chicago: Open Court. Yourgrau, Palle, 2004. A World Without Time: The Forgotten Legacy of Gödel and Einstein. Basic Books. External links Kennedy, Juliette. "Kurt Gödel." In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Kurt Gödel The modern development of the foundations of mathematics in the light of philosophy Time Bandits - an article about the relationship between Gödel and Einstein by Jim Holt Gödels Theorem and Information - Authored by Gregory Chaitin "Gödel and the limits of logic" by John W Dawson Jr. (June 2006) Notices of the AMS, April 2006, Volume 53, Number 4 Kurt Gödel Centenary Issue Paul Davies and Freeman Dyson discuss Kurt Godel "Gödel and the Nature of Mathematical Truth" Edge: A Talk with Rebecca Goldstein on Kurt Gödel. Dangerous Knowledge Google Video of a BBC documentary featuring Kurt Gödel and other revolutionary mathematical thinkers. 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1,349 | Mass_suicide | Mass suicide occurs when a number of people kill themselves together and/or for the same reason. Examples Mass suicide sometimes occurs in religious or cultic settings. Suicide missions, suicide bombers, and kamikazes are military or paramilitary forms of mass suicide. Defeated groups may resort to mass suicide rather than being captured. Suicide pacts are a form of mass suicide unconnected to cults or war that are sometimes planned or carried out by small groups of frustrated people, typically lovers . Mass suicides have been used as a form of political protest. Holology: Mass Suicide Notable mass suicides During the late 2nd century BC, the Teutons are recorded as marching south through Gaul along with their neighbors, the Cimbri, and attacking Roman Italy. After several victories for the invading armies, the Cimbri and Teutones were then defeated by Gaius Marius in 102 BC at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (near present-day Aix-en-Provence). Their King, Teutobod, was taken in irons. The captured women committed mass suicide, which passed into Roman legends of Germanic heroism: by the conditions of the surrender three hundred of their married women were to be handed over to the Romans. When the Teuton matrons heard of this stipulation, they first begged the consul that they might be set apart to minister in the temples of Ceres and Venus; then, when they failed to obtain their request and were removed by the lictors, they slew their children and next morning were all found dead in each other's arms having strangled themselves in the night. At the end of the fifteen months of the siege of Numantia in summer 133 BC most of the defeated Numantines, instead of surrendering, preferred to commit suicide and set fire to the city. The 960 members of the Sicarii Jewish community at Masada, who collectively committed suicide in the first century AD, rather than be conquered and enslaved by the Romans. Each man killed his wife and children, then the men drew lots and killed each other until the last man killed himself. Masada and the first Jewish revolt against Rome: Near East Tourist Industry, Steven Langfur 2003 The occasional practice of mass suicide known as Jauhar was carried out in medieval times by Rajput communities in India, when the fall of a city, besieged by Islamic invaders was certain, in order to avoid capture, dishonour and forced conversion. The best known cases of Jauhar are the three occurrences at the fort of Chittaur in Rajasthan, in 1303, in 1535, and 1568. Rajasthan: Monique Choy, Sarina Singh p.231 ISBN 1740593634, Lonely Planet Publications, Oct 2002 In 1336, when the castle of Pilėnai (in Lithuania) was besieged by the army of the Teutonic Knights, the defenders, led by the Duke Margiris, realized that it was impossible to defend themselves any longer and made the decision to commit mass suicide, as well as to set the castle on fire in order to destroy all of their possessions, and anything of value to the enemy. GEDIMINO LAIŠKAI: The Letters of Gediminas, the Great Duke of Lithuania (appr. 1275 - 1341) During the Ottoman occupation of Greece and shortly before the Greek War of Independence, women from Souli, pursued by the Ottomans, ascended the mount Zalongo, threw their children over the precipice and then jumped themselves, to avoid capture. Memorials and Other Papers:Thomas de Quincey, ISBN 0140430156 In April and May 1945, about 900 residents of Demmin, Germany, committed mass suicide in fear of the advancing Red Army. MDR Fakt of September 22, 2003 (mostly German, English in parts) A Balinese mass ritual suicide is called a puputan. Major puputan occurred in 1906-1908 when Balinese kingdoms faced overwhelming Dutch colonial forces. The root of the Balinese term puputan is puput, meaning 'finishing' or 'ending'. It is an act that is more symbolic than strategic; the Balinese are "a people whose genius for theatre is unsurpassed" and a puputan is viewed as "the last act of a tragic dance-drama". Pringle, p 106 Japan is known for its centuries of suicide tradition, from seppuku ceremonial self-disemboweling to kamikaze warriors flying their aircraft into American warships during World War II. During that same war on the island of Saipan, hundreds of trapped Japanese committed mass suicide rather than surrender to the invading American forces. The Jonestown suicides in Guyana, where 909 members of the Peoples Temple, led by Jim Jones, died in 1978. Of the 918 dead (including four in Georgetown and five non-members at an airstrip), 276 were children. 1978: Mass suicide leaves 900 dead BBC News, "On this day", 18th November 1978 The tragedy at Jonestown was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the incidents of September 11, 2001. Rapaport, Richard, Jonestown and City Hall slayings eerily linked in time and memory, San Francisco Chronicle, November 16, 2003 On a tape of their final meeting, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not take them after the Temple had murdered Congressman Leo Ryan, NBC reporter Don Harris and three others at a nearby airstrip. "Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project." Alternative Considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple. San Diego State University. When members apparently cried during what the Temple called "revolutionary suicide," Jones counseled "Stop this hysterics. This is not the way for people who are Socialists or Communists to die. No way for us to die. We must die with some dignity." 1987 Mass Suicide of Tamil Tigers. The Order of the Solar Temple mass suicide killed 74 people in two towns in Switzerland and one in Canada in October 1994. About two thirds of the deaths were murders, including the ritual murder of a newborn child. How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate: Catherine Wessinger, ISBN 1889119245 p218 Solar Temple: A cult gone wrong CBC Archives The Heaven's Gate mass suicide occurred in a hilltop mansion near San Diego, California, in 1997. They were mistakenly reported to believe an alien spaceship was following in the tail of the Comet Hale-Bopp and that killing themselves was necessary to reach it. They were cited on their website as wishing to reach the next plane of existence. The victims were self-drugged and then suffocated by other members in a series of suicides over a period of three days. Thirty-nine died, from a wide range of backgrounds. The 778 deaths of members of the Ugandan group Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God, on March 17 2000, is considered to be a mass murder and suicide orchestrated by leaders of the group. Mass graves found in sect house Anna Borzello The Guardian March 25, 2000 Cult in Uganda Poisoned Many, Police Say New York Times July 28, 2000 Footnotes References See also Cult suicide The Lemming Suicide Myth Mass hysteria External links Cult Mass Suicide 39 men die in mass suicide near San Diego - CNN, March 26, 1997 Near-Death Experience Time.com January 19, 1998 | Mass_suicide |@lemmatized mass:23 suicide:32 occur:4 number:1 people:7 kill:6 together:1 reason:1 example:1 sometimes:2 religious:1 cultic:1 setting:1 mission:1 bomber:1 kamikaze:2 military:1 paramilitary:1 form:3 defeat:2 group:4 may:2 resort:1 rather:3 capture:3 pact:1 unconnected:1 cult:5 war:4 plan:1 carry:2 small:1 frustrated:1 typically:1 lover:1 use:1 political:1 protest:1 holology:1 notable:1 late:1 century:3 bc:3 teuton:2 record:1 marching:1 south:1 gaul:1 along:1 neighbor:1 cimbri:2 attack:1 roman:4 italy:1 several:1 victory:1 invading:2 army:3 teutones:1 gaius:1 marius:1 battle:1 aquae:1 sextiae:1 near:5 present:1 day:3 aix:1 en:1 provence:1 king:1 teutobod:1 take:2 iron:1 captured:1 woman:3 commit:4 pass:1 legend:1 germanic:1 heroism:1 condition:1 surrender:3 three:4 hundred:2 married:1 hand:1 matron:1 heard:1 stipulation:1 first:3 beg:1 consul:1 might:1 set:3 apart:1 minister:1 temple:9 cere:1 venus:1 fail:1 obtain:1 request:1 remove:1 lictors:1 slew:1 child:5 next:2 morning:1 find:2 dead:3 arm:1 strangle:1 night:1 end:2 fifteen:1 month:2 siege:1 numantia:1 summer:1 defeated:1 numantines:1 instead:1 prefer:1 fire:2 city:3 member:7 sicarii:1 jewish:2 community:2 masada:2 collectively:1 ad:1 conquer:1 enslave:1 man:2 wife:1 men:2 draw:1 lot:1 last:2 revolt:1 rome:1 east:1 tourist:1 industry:1 steven:1 langfur:1 occasional:1 practice:1 know:2 jauhar:2 medieval:1 time:4 rajput:1 india:1 fall:1 besiege:2 islamic:1 invader:1 certain:1 order:3 avoid:2 dishonour:1 force:3 conversion:1 best:1 known:1 case:1 occurrence:1 fort:1 chittaur:1 rajasthan:2 monique:1 choy:1 sarina:1 singh:1 p:2 isbn:3 lonely:1 planet:1 publication:1 oct:1 castle:2 pilėnai:1 lithuania:2 teutonic:1 knight:1 defender:1 lead:2 duke:2 margiris:1 realize:1 impossible:1 defend:1 long:1 make:1 decision:1 well:1 destroy:1 possession:1 anything:1 value:1 enemy:1 gedimino:1 laiškai:1 letter:1 gediminas:1 great:2 appr:1 ottoman:2 occupation:1 greece:1 shortly:1 greek:1 independence:1 souli:1 pursue:1 ascend:1 mount:1 zalongo:1 throw:1 precipice:1 jump:1 memorial:1 paper:1 thomas:1 de:1 quincey:1 april:1 resident:1 demmin:1 germany:1 committed:2 fear:1 advance:1 red:1 mdr:1 fakt:1 september:2 mostly:1 german:1 english:1 part:1 balinese:4 ritual:2 call:2 puputan:4 major:1 kingdom:1 face:1 overwhelming:1 dutch:1 colonial:1 root:1 term:1 puput:1 mean:1 finish:1 act:2 symbolic:1 strategic:1 whose:1 genius:1 theatre:1 unsurpassed:1 view:1 tragic:1 dance:1 drama:1 pringle:1 japan:1 tradition:1 seppuku:1 ceremonial:1 self:2 disemboweling:1 warrior:1 fly:1 aircraft:1 american:3 warship:1 world:1 ii:1 island:1 saipan:1 trap:1 japanese:1 jonestown:6 guyana:1 jim:1 jones:3 die:6 include:2 four:1 georgetown:1 five:1 non:2 airstrip:2 leave:1 bbc:1 news:1 november:2 tragedy:1 single:1 loss:1 civilian:1 life:1 natural:1 disaster:1 incident:1 rapaport:1 richard:1 hall:1 slaying:1 eerily:1 link:2 memory:1 san:4 francisco:1 chronicle:1 tape:1 final:1 meeting:1 tell:1 soviet:1 union:1 negotiate:1 potential:1 exodus:1 would:1 murder:4 congressman:1 leo:1 ryan:1 nbc:1 reporter:1 harris:1 others:1 nearby:1 audiotape:1 primary:1 project:1 alternative:1 consideration:1 diego:3 state:1 university:1 apparently:1 cry:1 revolutionary:1 counsel:1 stop:1 hysteric:1 way:2 socialist:1 communist:1 u:1 must:1 dignity:1 tamil:1 tiger:1 solar:2 two:2 town:1 switzerland:1 one:1 canada:1 october:1 third:1 death:3 newborn:1 millennium:1 come:1 violently:1 heaven:2 gate:2 catherine:1 wessinger:1 go:1 wrong:1 cbc:1 archive:1 hilltop:1 mansion:1 california:1 mistakenly:1 report:1 believe:1 alien:1 spaceship:1 follow:1 tail:1 comet:1 hale:1 bopp:1 necessary:1 reach:2 cite:1 website:1 wish:1 plane:1 existence:1 victim:1 drugged:1 suffocate:1 series:1 period:1 thirty:1 nine:1 wide:1 range:1 background:1 ugandan:1 movement:1 restoration:1 ten:1 commandment:1 god:1 march:3 consider:1 orchestrate:1 leader:1 graf:1 sect:1 house:1 anna:1 borzello:1 guardian:1 uganda:1 poison:1 many:1 police:1 say:1 new:1 york:1 july:1 footnote:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 lemming:1 myth:1 hysteria:1 external:1 cnn:1 experience:1 com:1 january:1 |@bigram cimbri_teutones:1 gaius_marius:1 en_provence:1 commit_suicide:2 lonely_planet:1 teutonic_knight:1 de_quincey:1 bbc_news:1 san_francisco:1 soviet_union:1 san_diego:3 tamil_tiger:1 comet_hale:1 hale_bopp:1 ten_commandment:1 external_link:1 |
1,350 | Ethylene | Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is the chemical compound with the formula C2H4. It is the simplest alkene. Because it contains a carbon-carbon double bond, ethylene is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon or an olefin. It is extremely important in industry and also has a role in biology as a hormone. Ethylene is the most produced organic compound in the world; global production of ethylene exceeded 107 million metric tonnes in 2005. “Production: Growth is the Norm” Chemical and Engineering News, July 1 0, 2006, p. 59. To meet the ever increasing demand for ethylene, sharp increases in production facilities have been added globally, particularly in the Gulf countries. Structure This hydrocarbon has four hydrogen atoms bound to a pair of carbon atoms that are connected by a double bond. All six atoms that comprise ethylene are coplanar. The H-C-H angle is 119°, close to the 120° for ideal sp² hybridized carbon. The molecule is also relatively rigid: rotation about the C-C bond is a high energy process that requires breaking the π-bond, while retaining the σ-bond between the carbon atoms. The double bond is a region of high electron density, and most reactions occur at this double bond position. History From 1795 on, ethylene was referred as the olefiant gas (oil-making gas), because it combined with chlorine to produce the oil of the Dutch (1,2-dichloroethane). Ethylene was first synthesized in 1795 by a collaboration of four Dutch chemists. In the mid-19th century, the suffix -ene (an Ancient Greek root added to the end of female names meaning "daughter of") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the molecule being modified. Thus, ethylene (C2H4) was the "daughter of ethyl" (C2H5). The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852. In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent alkane. In this system, ethylene became ethene. Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of the IUPAC nomenclature. However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry. The 1979 IUPAC nomenclature rules made an exception for retaining the non-systematic name ethylene IUPAC nomenclature rule A-3.1 (1979) , however, this decision was reversed in the 1993 rules Footnote to IUPAC nomenclature rule R-9.1, table 19(b) so the correct name is now ethene. Uses Approximately 80% of ethylene used in the United States and Europe is used to create ethylene oxide, ethylene dichloride, and polyethylene. In smaller quantities, ethylene is used as an anesthetic agent (in an 85% ethylene/15% oxygen ratio), to hasten fruit ripening, as well as a welding gas. Polyethylenes of various density and melt flow account for more than 50% of world ethylene demand. The primary use of polyethylene is in film applications for packaging, carrier bags and trash liners. Other applications include injection moulding, pipe extrusion, wire and cable sheathing and insulation, as well as extrusion coating of paper and cardboard. Ethylene derivatives include: ethylene oxide, styrene monomer (via ethyl benzene) and linear higher olefins. Ethylene oxide is a key raw material in the production of surfactants and detergents. It is also used to manufacture ethylene glycols, which are in turn used in packaging and textiles, and to make glycol ether solvents. Styrene monomer is used principally in polystyrene for packaging and insulation, as well as in styrene butadiene rubber for tires and footwear. Linear higher olefins are used as base materials for the manufacture of detergents, plasticisers, synthetic lubricants and additives, but also as co-monomers in the production of polyethylenes. Ethylene is a key component in Levinstein sulfur mustard, a chemical weapon agent. Production Ethylene is produced in the petrochemical industry by steam cracking. In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are heated to 750–950 °C, inducing numerous free radical reactions followed by immediate quench to freeze the reactions. This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation. Ethylene is separated from the resulting complex mixture by repeated compression and distillation. In a related process used in oil refineries, high molecular weight hydrocarbons are cracked over zeolite catalysts. Heavier feedstocks, such as naphtha and gas oils require at least two "quench towers" downstream of the cracking furnaces to recirculate pyrolysis-derived gasoline and process water. When cracking a mixture of ethane and propane, only one water quench tower is required. The areas of an ethylene plant are: steam cracking furnaces; primary and secondary heat recovery with quench; a dilution steam recycle system between the furnaces and the quench system; primary compression of the cracked gas (3 stages of compression); hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide removal (acid gas removal); secondary compression (1 or 2 stages); drying of the cracked gas; cryogenic treatment; all of the cold cracked gas stream goes to the demethanizer tower. The overhead stream from the demethanizer tower consists of all the hydrogen and methane that was in the cracked gas stream. Different methods of cryogenically treating this overhead stream results in the separation of the hydrogen and the methane. This usually involves liquid methane at a temperature around . Complete recovery of all the methane is critical to the economical operation of an ethylene plant. Often one or two Turboexpanders are used for Methane recovery from the demethanizer overhead stream. the bottom stream from the demethanizer tower goes to the deethanizer tower. The overhead stream from the deethanizer tower consists of all the C2,'s that were in the cracked gas stream. The C2's then go to a C2 splitter. The product ethylene is taken from the overhead of the tower and the ethane coming from the bottom of the splitter is recycled to the furnaces to be cracked again; the bottom stream from the deethanizer tower goes to the depropanizer tower. The overhead stream from the depropanizer tower consists of all the C3's that were in the cracked gas stream. Prior to sending the C3's to the C3 splitter this stream is hydrogenated in order to react out the methylacetylene and propadiene. Then this stream is sent to the C3 splitter. The overhead stream from the C3 splitter is product propylene and the bottom stream from the C3 splitter is propane which can be sent back to the furnaces for cracking or used as fuel. The bottom stream from the depropanizer tower is fed to the debutanizer tower. The overhead stream from the debutanizer is all of the C4's that was in the cracked gas stream. The bottom stream from the debutanizer consists of everything in the cracked gas stream that is C5 or heavier. This could be called a light pyrolysis gasoline. Since the production of ethylene is energy intensive, much effort has been dedicated recovering heat from the gas leaving the furnaces. Most of the energy recovered from the cracked gas is used to make high pressure (1200 psig) steam. This steam is in turn used to drive the turbines for compressing cracked gas, the propylene refrigeration compressor, and the ethylene refrigeration compressor. An ethylene plant, once running, does not need to import any steam to drive its steam turbines. A typical world scale ethylene plant (about 1.5 billion pounds of ethylene per year) uses a cracked gas compressor, a propylene compressor, and a ethylene compressor. When starting an ethylene plant it is important to start the cooling systems in the proper order. The cooling systems consist of Cooling Tower Water (CTW); propylene refrigeration with four or five different levels or stages. Each level corresponds to a particular pressure and temperature; and three or four stages of ethylene regfrigeration. The CTW must be started first because the propylene system needs it to condense propylene and the ethylene refrigeration systems needs it to desuperheat high pressure ethylene. The propylene system must start next because the ethylene system needs high pressure propylene for desuperheating the high pressure ethylene stage and the low pressure propylene stage for condensing the high pressure ethylene. While the ethylene plant is running, the plant can continue to run for a time if the ethylene refrigeration compressor shuts down. However, if the propylene compressor shuts down the whole plant must be shut down immediately. Laboratory preparation Ethylene can be conveniently produced in the laboratory by distilling absolute ethanol with an excess of concentrated sulfuric acid and washing the distillate vapor stream in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to remove the sulfur dioxide contaminant. Peculiarity of spectrum Although ethylene is a relatively simple molecule, its spectrum is considered to be one of the most difficult to explain adequately from both a theoretical and practical perspective. For this reason, it is often used as a test case in computational chemistry. Of particular note is the difficulty in characterizing the ultraviolet absorption of the molecule. Interest in the subtleties and details of the ethylene spectrum can be dated back to at least the 1950s. Chemical reactions Ethylene is an extremely important building block in the petrochemical industry. It can undergo many types of reactions which leads to a plethora of major chemical products. A list of some major types of reactions includes, 1) Polymerization, 2) Oxidation, 3) Halogenation and Hydrohalogenation, 4) Alkylation, 5) Hydration, 6) Oligomerization, 7) Oxo-reaction, and 8) a ripening agent for fruits and vegetables (see Physiological responses of plants). Additions to double bond Like most alkenes, ethylene reacts with halogens to produce halogenated hydrocarbons1,2-C2H4X2. It can also react with water to produce ethanol, but the rate at which this happens is very slow unless a suitable catalyst, such as phosphoric or sulfuric acid, is used. Under high pressure, and, in the presence of a catalytic metal (platinum, rhodium, nickel), hydrogen will react with ethylene to form ethane. Ethylene is used primarily as an intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals in the synthesis of monomers. Ethylene can be chlorinated to produce 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride). This can be converted to vinyl chloride, the monomer precursor to plastic polyvinyl chloride, or combined with benzene to produce ethylbenzene, which is used in the manufacture of polystyrene, another important plastic. Ethylene is more reactive than alkanes because of two reasons: 1. It has a double bond, one called the π-bond(pi) and one called the σ-bond (sigma), where the π-bond is weak and the σ-bond is strong. The presence of the π-bond makes it a high energy molecule. Thus bromine water decolourises readily when it is added to ethylene. 2. High electron density at the double bond makes it react readily. It is broken in an addition reaction to produce many useful products. Polymerization Ethylene polymerizes to produce polyethylene, also called polyethene or polythene, the world's most widely-used plastic. Major polyethylene product groups are low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, polyethylene copolymers, as well as ethylene-propylene co- & terpolymers. Oxidation Ethylene is oxidized to produce ethylene oxide, which is hydrolysed to ethylene glycol. It is also a precursor to vinyl acetate. Ethylene undergoes oxidation by palladium to give acetaldehyde. This conversion was at one time a major industrial process. The process proceeds via the initial complexation of ethylene to a Pd(II) center. Major intermediates of the oxidation of Ethylene are ethylene oxide, acetaldehyde, vinyl acetate and ethylene glycol. The list of products made from these intermediates is long. Some of them are: polyesters, polyurethane, morpholine, ethanolamines, aspirin and glycol ethers. Halogenation and hydrohalogenation Major intermediates from the halogenation and hydrohalogenation of ethylene include: ethylene dichloride, ethyl chloride and ethylene dibromide. Some products in this group are: polyvinyl chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, polyvinylidiene chloride and copolymers, and ethyl bromide. Alkylation Major chemical intermediates from the alkylation of ethylene include: ethylbenzene, ethyl toluene, ethyl anilines, 1,4-hexadiene and aluminium alkyls. Products of these intermediates include polystyrene, unsaturated polyesters and ethylene-propylene terpolymers. Hydration Ethanol is the primary intermediate of the hydration of ethylene. Important products from ethanol are: ethylamines, acetaldehyde, and ethyl acetate. Oligomerization The primary products of the Oligomerization of ethylene are alpha-olefins and linear primary alcohols. These are used as plasticizers and surfactants. Oxo-reaction The Oxo-reaction of ethylene results in propionaldehyde with its primary products of propionic acid and n-propyl alcohol. In the synthesis of fine chemicals Ethylene is useful in organic synthesis. Crimmins, M. T.; Kim-Meade, A. S. "Ethylene" in Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis (Ed: L. Paquette) 2004, J. Wiley & Sons, New York. DOI: 10.1002/047084289. Representative reactions include Diels-Alder additions, ene reaction, and arene alkylation. Miscellaneous Ethylene is found in many lip gloss products. Production of ethylene in mineral oil-filled transformers is a key indicator of severe localized overheating (>750 °C). Transformerworld Tutorial No. 3 http://www.transformerworld.co.uk/dga.htm Ethylene as a plant hormone Ethylene acts physiologically as a hormone in plants. It exists as a gas and acts at trace levels throughout the life of the plant by stimulating or regulating the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the abscission (or shedding) of leaves. Its biosynthesis starts from methionine with 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) as a key intermediate. History of ethylene in plant biology Ethylene has been used in practice since the ancient Egyptians, who would gash figs in order to stimulate ripening (wounding stimulates ethylene production by plant tissues). The ancient Chinese would burn incense in closed rooms to enhance the ripening of pears. In 1864, it was discovered that gas leaks from street lights led to stunting of growth, twisting of plants, and abnormal thickening of stems (Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). In 1901, a Russian scientist named Dimitry Neljubow showed that the active component was ethylene . Doubt discovered that ethylene stimulated abscission in 1917 . It wasn't until 1934 that Gane reported that plants synthesize ethylene (Gane, 1934). In 1935, Crocker proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone responsible for fruit ripening as well as senescence of vegetative tissues (Crocker, 1935). Ethylene biosynthesis in plants Plant biosynthesis of ethyleneIt has been shown that ethylene is produced from essentially all parts of higher plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, tubers, and seedlings. "Ethylene production is regulated by a variety of developmental and environmental factors. During the life of the plant, ethylene production is induced during certain stages of growth such as germination, ripening of fruits, abscission of leaves, and senescence of flowers. Ethylene production can also be induced by a variety of external aspects such as mechanical wounding, environmental stresses, and certain chemicals including auxin and other regulators" The biosynsthesis of the hormone starts with conversion of the amino acid methionine to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM, also called Adomet) by the enzyme Met Adenosyltransferase. SAM is then converted to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic-acid (ACC) by the enzyme ACC synthase (ACS); the activity of ACS is the rate-limiting step in ethylene production, therefore regulation of this enzyme is key for the ethylene biosynthesis. The final step requires oxygen and involves the action of the enzyme ACC-oxidase (ACO), formerly known as the Ethylene Forming Enzyme (EFE). Ethylene biosynthesis can be induced by endogenous or exogenous ethylene. ACC synthesis increases with high levels of auxins, specially Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), and cytokinins. ACC synthase is inhibited by abscisic acid. Ethylene perception in plants Ethylene could be perceived by a transmembrane protein dimer complex. The first gene encoding an ethylene receptor was first cloned from Arabidopsis thaliana by Caren Chang, Elliot Meyerowitz and colleagues at the California Institute of Technology and then in tomato by Jack Wilkinson, Harry Klee and colleagues at the Monsanto Company . Ethylene receptors are encoded by multiple genes in the Arabidopsis and tomato genomes. The gene family is comprised of five receptors in Arabidopsis and at least six in tomato, most of which have been shown to bind ethylene. DNA sequences for ethylene receptors have also been identified in many other plant species and an ethylene binding protein has even been identified in Cyanobacteria Environmental and biological triggers of ethylene Environmental cues can induce the biosynthesis of the plant hormone. Flooding, drought, chilling, wounding, and pathogen attack can induce ethylene formation in the plant. In flooding, root suffers from lack of oxygen, or anoxia, which leads to the synthesis of 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC). ACC is transported upwards in the plant and then oxidized in leaves. The product, the ethylene causes epinasty of the leaves. One speculation recently put forth for epinasty is the downard pointing leaves may act as pump handles in the wind. The ethylene may or may not additionally induce the growth of a valve in the xylem, but the idea would be that the plant would harness the power of the wind to pump out more water from the roots of the plants than would normally happen with transpiration. Physiological responses of plants Like the other plant hormones, ethylene is considered to have pleiotropic effects. This essentially means that it is thought that at least some of the effects of the hormone are unrelated. What is actually caused by the gas may depend on the tissue affected as well as environmental conditions. In the evolution of plants, ethylene would simply be a message that was coopted for unrelated uses by plants during different periods of the evolutionary development. List of plant responses to ethylene Seedling triple response, thickening and shortening of hypocotyl with pronounced apical hook. This is thought to be a seedling's reaction to an obstacle in the soil such a stone, allowing it to push past the obstruction. In pollination, when the pollen reaches the stigma, the precursor of the ethylene, ACC, is secreted to the petal, the ACC releases ethylene with ACC oxidase. Stimulates leaf and flower senescence Stimulates senescence of mature xylem cells in preparation for plant use Inhibits shoot growth except in some habitually flooded plants like rice Induces leaf abscission Induces seed germination Induces root hair growth – increasing the efficiency of water and mineral absorption Induces the growth of adventitious roots during flooding Stimulates epinasty – leaf petiole grows out, leaf hangs down and curls into itself Stimulates fruit ripening Induces a climacteric rise in respiration in some fruit which causes a release of additional ethylene. This can be the one bad apple in a barrel spoiling the rest phenomenon. Affects neighboring individuals Disease/wounding resistance Inhibits stem growth outside of seedling stage Stimulates stem and cell broadening and lateral branch growth also outside of seedling stage Synthesis is stimulated by auxin and maybe cytokinin as well Ethylene levels are decreased by light The flooding of roots stimulates the production of ACC which travels through the xylem to the stem and leaves where it is converted to the gas Interference with auxin transport (with high auxin concentrations) Inhibits stomatal closing except in some water plants or habitually flooded ones such as some rice varieties, where the opposite occurs (conserving CO2 and O2) Where ethylene induces stomatal closing, it also induces stem elongation Induces flowering in pineapples Commercial Issues Ethylene shortens the shelf life of many fruits by hastening fruit ripening and floral senescence. Tomatoes, bananas and apples will ripen faster in the presence of ethylene. Bananas placed next to other fruits will produce enough ethylene to cause accelerated fruit ripening. Ethylene will shorten the shelf life of cut flowers and potted plants by accelerating floral senescence and floral abscission. Flowers and plants which are subjected to stress during shipping, handling, or storage produce ethylene causing a significant reduction in floral display. Flowers affected by ethylene include carnation, geranium, petunia, rose, and many others . Ethylene can cause significant economic losses for florists, markets, suppliers, and growers. Researchers have come up with several ways to inhibit ethylene, including inhibiting ethylene synthesis and inhibiting ethylene perception. Inhibiting ethylene synthesis is less effective for reducing post-harvest losses since ethylene from other sources can still have an effect. By inhibiting ethylene perception, fruits, plants and flowers don't respond to ethylene produced endogenously or from exogenous sources. Inhibitors of ethylene perception include compounds that have a similar shape to ethylene, but do not elicit the ethylene response. An example of an ethylene perception inhibitor is 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). Commercial growers of bromeliads, including pineapple plants, use ethylene to induce flowering. Plants can be induced to flower either by treatment with the gas in a chamber, or by placing a banana peel next to the plant in an enclosed area. Effects upon humans Depending on the concentration, ethylene gas can cause a pleasant odor, euphoria, nausea, hyperglycemia, a variety of psychological effects, blood pressure changes, hypoxia, loss of consciousness, or death. Symptoms Ethylene has a pleasant sweet faint odor, and has a slightly sweet taste, and as it enhances fruit ripening, assists in the development of odour-active aroma volatiles (especially esters), which are responsible for the specific smell of each kind of flower or fruit. In mild doses, ethylene produces states of euphoria, associated with stimulus to the pleasure centers of the human brain. Exposure at 37.5% for 15 minutes may result in marked memory disturbances. Humans exposed to as much as 50% ethylene in air, whereby the oxygen availability is decreased to 10%, experience a complete loss of consciousness and may subsequently die due to hypoxia. Symptoms of ethylene exposure include the following. Mild exposure in air Percent of O2 saturation at 90% Night vision decreased Mild euphoria reported. Moderate exposure in air Percent of O2 saturation at 82 to 90% Respiratory rate has compensatory increase Pulse, also a compensatory increase Night vision is decreased further, focus is simplified Performance ability is somewhat reduced, mild distortion to speech, utterances increasingly ambiguous. General alertness level is somewhat reduced to anything but central concerns Symptoms may begin in those patients with pre-existing significant cardiac, pulmonary, or hematologic diseases. Euphoria High concentration in air Percent of O2 saturation at 64 to 82% Compensatory mechanisms increasingly become inadequate Air hunger, gasping for breath Fatigue, lassitude, inability to maintain balance Tunnel vision, out-of-body experiences Dizziness Mild to persistent headache Belligerence, certainty of truth Extreme euphoria, belief in capacities of the self enhanced Visual acuity is reduced, dreamlike seeing of visions Numbness and tingling of extremities Hyperventilation Distortions of judgment, abnormal or illogical inferences drawn Memory loss after event Increased cyanosis Decreased ability for escape from toxic environment Very high concentration in air Percent of O2 saturation at 60 to 70% or less Further deterioration in judgment and coordination may occur in 3 to 5 minutes or less Severe oxygen deprivation Loss of consciousness results when the air contains about 11% of oxygen. Death occurs quickly when the oxygen content falls to 8% or less. Very high concentrations in oxygen Prolonged inhalation of about 85% in oxygen is slightly toxic, resulting in a slow fall in blood pressure. At about 94% in oxygen, ethylene is acutely fatal. Medical Use Ethylene has long been in use as an inhalatory anaesthetic. When used as a surgical anaesthetic, it is always administered with oxygen with an increased risk of fire. In such cases, however, it acts as a simple, rapid anaesthetic having a quick recovery. Historical Significance Many geologists and scholars believe that the famous Greek Oracle at Delphi (the Pythia) went into her trance-like state as an effect of ethylene rising from ground faults. Retrieved on March 8, 2007 Safety There is no evidence to indicate that prolonged exposure to low concentrations of ethylene can result in chronic effects. Prolonged exposure to high concentrations may cause permanent effects because of oxygen deprivation. Prolonged inhalation of about 85% in oxygen (a relatively high concentration) is also slightly toxic, resulting in a slow fall in blood pressure. At about 94% in oxygen, ethylene is acutely fatal. It shows little or no carcinogenic or mutagenic properties. Although there may be moderate hyperglycemia, post operative nausea - while higher than nitrous oxide - is less than in the use of cyclopropane. During the induction and early phases, blood pressure may rise a little, but this effect may be due to patient anxiety, as blood pressure quickly returns to normal. Cardiac arrythmias are infrequent and cardio-vascular effects are benign. See also References External links International Chemical Safety Card 0475 European Chemicals Bureau Speculations Towards a General Plant Hormone Theory | Ethylene |@lemmatized ethylene:144 iupac:5 name:7 ethene:3 chemical:12 compound:3 formula:1 simple:3 alkene:2 contain:3 carbon:6 double:7 bond:15 call:6 unsaturated:2 hydrocarbon:7 olefin:4 extremely:2 important:5 industry:4 also:15 role:1 biology:2 hormone:9 produced:1 organic:3 world:4 global:1 production:14 exceed:1 million:1 metric:1 tonne:1 growth:9 norm:1 engineering:1 news:1 july:1 p:1 meet:2 ever:1 increase:8 demand:2 sharp:1 facility:1 add:3 globally:1 particularly:1 gulf:1 country:1 structure:1 four:4 hydrogen:7 atom:5 bind:2 pair:1 connect:1 six:2 comprise:2 coplanar:1 h:2 c:5 angle:1 close:1 ideal:1 hybridize:1 molecule:6 relatively:3 rigid:1 rotation:1 high:23 energy:4 process:7 require:4 break:2 π:4 retain:2 σ:3 region:1 electron:2 density:5 reaction:13 occur:3 position:1 history:2 refer:2 olefiant:1 gas:23 oil:5 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1,351 | Exponential_function | The exponential function is a function in mathematics. The application of this function to a value x is written as exp(x). Equivalently, this can be written in the form ex, where e is the mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm (approximately 2.71828182846) and that is also known as Euler's number. As a function of the real variable x, the graph of y = ex is always positive (above the x axis) and increasing (viewed left-to-right). It never touches the x axis, although it gets arbitrarily close to it (thus, the x axis is a horizontal asymptote to the graph). Its inverse function, the natural logarithm, ln(x), is defined for all positive x. In older sources it is often referred as an anti-logarithm which is the inverse function of a logarithm. Sometimes, especially in the sciences, the term exponential function is more generally used for functions of the form cbx, where b, called the base, is any positive real number, not necessarily e. See exponential growth for this usage. In general, the variable x can be any real or complex number, or even an entirely different kind of mathematical object; see the formal definition below. Overview and motivation The exponential function is written as an exponentiation of the mathematical constant e because it is equal to e when applied to 1 and obeys the basic exponentiation identity, that is: It is the unique continuous function satisfying these identities for real number exponents. Because of this it can be used to define exponentiation to a non rational exponent. The exponential function has an analytic continuation which is an entire function, that is it has no singularity over the whole complex plane. The occurrence of the exponential function in Euler's formula gives it a central place when working with complex numbers. The definition has been usefully extended to some non-numeric exponents, for instance as the matrix exponential or the exponential map. There are a number of other characterizations of the exponential function. The one which mainly leads to its pervasive use in mathematics is as the function for which the rate of change is equal to its value, and which is 1 at 0. In the general case where the rate of change is directly proportional (rather than equal) to the value the resulting function can be expressed using the exponential function as follows: gives If b = ek then this has the form cbx. Exponentiation with a general base b as in bx (called the exponential function with base b) is defined using the exponential function and its inverse the natural logarithm as follows: Its use in science is described in exponential growth and exponential decay. Formal definition The exponential function (in blue), and the sum of the first n+1 terms of the power series on the left (in red). The exponential function ex can be defined, in a variety of equivalent ways, as an infinite series. In particular it may be defined by a power series: . Note that this definition has the form of a Taylor series. Using an alternate definition for the exponential function should lead to the same result when expanded as a Taylor series. Less commonly, ex is defined as the solution y to the equation It is also the following limit: The error term of this limit-expression is described by where, the polynomial's degree (in x) in the nominator with denominator is 2k. Derivatives and differential equations The importance of exponential functions in mathematics and the sciences stems mainly from properties of their derivatives. In particular, That is, ex is its own derivative and hence is a simple example of a pfaffian function. Functions of the form Kex for constant K are the only functions with that property. (This follows from the Picard-Lindelöf theorem, with y(t) = et, y(0)=K and f(t,y(t)) = y(t).) Other ways of saying the same thing include: The slope of the graph at any point is the height of the function at that point. The rate of increase of the function at x is equal to the value of the function at x. The function solves the differential equation y ′ = y. exp is a fixed point of derivative as a functional. In fact, many differential equations give rise to exponential functions, including the Schrödinger equation and Laplace's equation as well as the equations for simple harmonic motion. For exponential functions with other bases: A proof being, Thus, any exponential function is a constant multiple of its own derivative. If a variable's growth or decay rate is proportional to its size — as is the case in unlimited population growth (see Malthusian catastrophe), continuously compounded interest, or radioactive decay — then the variable can be written as a constant times an exponential function of time. Furthermore for any differentiable function f(x), we find, by the chain rule: Continued fractions for ex Via Euler's identity: More advanced techniques are necessary to construct the following: Setting m = x and n = 2 yields On the complex plane Exponential function on the complex plane. The transition from dark to light colors shows that the magnitude of the exponential function is increasing to the right. The periodic horizontal bands indicate that the exponential function is periodic in the imaginary part of its argument. As in the real case, the exponential function can be defined on the complex plane in several equivalent forms. Some of these definitions mirror the formulas for the real-valued exponential function. Specifically, one can still use the power series definition, where the real value is replaced by a complex one: Using this definition, it is easy to show why holds in the complex plane. Another definition extends the real exponential function. First, we state the desired property . For we use the real exponential function. We then proceed by defining only: . Thus we use the real definition rather than ignore it. When considered as a function defined on the complex plane, the exponential function retains the important properties for all z and w. It is a holomorphic function which is periodic with imaginary period and can be written as where a and b are real values. This formula connects the exponential function with the trigonometric functions and to the hyperbolic functions. Thus we see that all elementary functions except for the polynomials spring from the exponential function in one way or another. See also Euler's formula. Extending the natural logarithm to complex arguments yields a multi-valued function, ln(z). We can then define a more general exponentiation: for all complex numbers z and w. This is also a multi-valued function. The above stated exponential laws remain true if interpreted properly as statements about multi-valued functions. Because it is multi-valued the rule about multiplying exponents for positive real numbers doesn't work in general: See failure of power and logarithm identities for more about problems with combining powers. The exponential function maps any line in the complex plane to a logarithmic spiral in the complex plane with the center at the origin. Two special cases might be noted: when the original line is parallel to the real axis, the resulting spiral never closes in on itself; when the original line is parallel to the imaginary axis, the resulting spiral is a circle of some radius. Computation of ez for a complex z This is fairly straightforward given the formula Note that the argument y to the trigonometric functions is real. Computation of ab where both a and b are complex Complex exponentiation ab can be defined by converting a to polar coordinates and using the identity (eln(a))b = ab: However, when b is not an integer, this function is multivalued, because θ is not unique (see failure of power and logarithm identities). Matrices and Banach algebras The definition of the exponential function given above can be used verbatim for every Banach algebra, and in particular for square matrices (in which case the function is called the matrix exponential). In this case we have is invertible with inverse the derivative of at the point is that linear map which sends to . In the context of non-commutative Banach algebras, such as algebras of matrices or operators on Banach or Hilbert spaces, the exponential function is often considered as a function of a real argument: where A is a fixed element of the algebra and t is any real number. This function has the important properties On Lie algebras The exponential map sending a Lie algebra to the Lie group that gave rise to it shares the above properties, which explains the terminology. In fact, since R is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all positive real numbers with multiplication, the ordinary exponential function for real arguments is a special case of the Lie algebra situation. Similarly, since the Lie algebra M (n, R) of all square real matrices belongs to the Lie group of all invertible square matrices, the exponential function for square matrices is a special case of the Lie algebra exponential map. In general, when the argument of the exponential function is noncommutative, the formula is given explicitly by the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula. Double exponential function The term double exponential function can have two meanings: a function with two exponential terms, with different exponents a function f(x) = aax; this grows even faster than an exponential function; for example, if a = 10: f(−1) = 1.26, f(0) = 10, f(1) = 1010, f(2) = 10100 = googol, ..., f(100) = googolplex. Factorials grow faster than exponential functions, but slower than double-exponential functions. Fermat numbers, generated by and double Mersenne numbers generated by are examples of double exponential functions. Similar properties of e and the function ez The function ez is not in C(z) (ie. not the quotient of two polynomials with complex coefficients). For n distinct complex numbers {a1,..., an}, {ea1z,..., eanz} is linearly independent over C(z). The function ez is transcendental over C(z). See also e (mathematical constant) Characterizations of the exponential function Exponential field Exponential growth Exponentiation List of exponential topics List of integrals of exponential functions Tetration References External links Complex Exponential Function Module by John H. Mathews Taylor Series Expansions of Exponential Functions at efunda.com Complex exponential interactive graphic | Exponential_function |@lemmatized exponential:57 function:79 mathematics:3 application:1 value:11 x:15 write:5 exp:2 equivalently:1 form:6 ex:6 e:6 mathematical:4 constant:6 base:5 natural:4 logarithm:8 approximately:1 also:5 know:1 euler:4 number:13 real:19 variable:4 graph:3 always:1 positive:5 axis:5 increase:3 view:1 leave:1 right:2 never:2 touch:1 although:1 get:1 arbitrarily:1 close:2 thus:4 horizontal:2 asymptote:1 inverse:4 ln:2 define:11 old:1 source:1 often:2 refer:1 anti:1 sometimes:1 especially:1 science:3 term:5 generally:1 use:13 cbx:2 b:8 call:3 necessarily:1 see:8 growth:5 usage:1 general:6 complex:20 even:2 entirely:1 different:2 kind:1 object:1 formal:2 definition:11 overview:1 motivation:1 exponentiation:7 equal:4 apply:1 obey:1 basic:1 identity:6 unique:2 continuous:1 satisfy:1 exponent:5 non:3 rational:1 analytic:1 continuation:1 entire:1 singularity:1 whole:1 plane:8 occurrence:1 formula:7 give:7 central:1 place:1 work:2 usefully:1 extend:3 numeric:1 instance:1 matrix:8 map:5 characterization:2 one:4 mainly:2 lead:2 pervasive:1 rate:4 change:2 case:8 directly:1 proportional:2 rather:2 result:4 express:1 follow:3 ek:1 bx:1 describe:2 decay:3 blue:1 sum:1 first:2 n:4 power:6 series:7 left:1 red:1 variety:1 equivalent:2 way:3 infinite:1 particular:3 may:1 note:3 taylor:3 alternate:1 expand:1 less:1 commonly:1 solution:1 equation:7 following:2 limit:2 error:1 expression:1 polynomial:3 degree:1 nominator:1 denominator:1 derivative:6 differential:3 importance:1 stem:1 property:7 hence:1 simple:2 example:3 pfaffian:1 kex:1 k:2 picard:1 lindelöf:1 theorem:1 et:1 f:8 say:1 thing:1 include:2 slope:1 point:4 height:1 solve:1 fixed:2 functional:1 fact:2 many:1 rise:2 schrödinger:1 laplace:1 well:1 harmonic:1 motion:1 proof:1 multiple:1 size:1 unlimited:1 population:1 malthusian:1 catastrophe:1 continuously:1 compound:1 interest:1 radioactive:1 time:2 furthermore:1 differentiable:1 find:1 chain:1 rule:2 continue:1 fraction:1 via:1 advanced:1 technique:1 necessary:1 construct:1 set:1 yield:2 transition:1 dark:1 light:1 color:1 show:2 magnitude:1 periodic:3 band:1 indicate:1 imaginary:3 part:1 argument:6 several:1 mirror:1 specifically:1 still:1 replace:1 easy:1 hold:1 another:2 state:2 desired:1 proceed:1 ignore:1 consider:2 retain:1 important:2 z:7 w:2 holomorphic:1 period:1 connect:1 trigonometric:2 hyperbolic:1 elementary:1 except:1 spring:1 multi:4 law:1 remain:1 true:1 interpret:1 properly:1 statement:1 multiply:1 failure:2 problem:1 combine:1 line:3 logarithmic:1 spiral:3 center:1 origin:1 two:4 special:3 might:1 original:2 parallel:2 circle:1 radius:1 computation:2 ez:4 fairly:1 straightforward:1 ab:3 convert:1 polar:1 coordinate:1 eln:1 however:1 integer:1 multivalued:1 θ:1 banach:4 algebras:1 verbatim:1 every:1 algebra:10 square:4 invertible:2 linear:1 send:2 context:1 commutative:1 operator:1 hilbert:1 space:1 element:1 lie:9 group:3 share:1 explain:1 terminology:1 since:2 r:2 multiplication:1 ordinary:1 situation:1 similarly:1 belongs:1 noncommutative:1 explicitly:1 baker:1 campbell:1 hausdorff:1 double:5 meaning:1 aax:1 grow:2 faster:1 googol:1 googolplex:1 factorial:1 fast:1 slow:1 fermat:1 generate:2 mersenne:1 similar:1 c:3 ie:1 quotient:1 coefficient:1 distinct:1 eanz:1 linearly:1 independent:1 transcendental:1 field:1 list:2 topic:1 integral:1 tetration:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 module:1 john:1 h:1 mathews:1 expansion:1 efunda:1 com:1 interactive:1 graphic:1 |@bigram exponential_function:43 horizontal_asymptote:1 analytic_continuation:1 differential_equation:3 schrödinger_equation:1 radioactive_decay:1 holomorphic_function:1 trigonometric_function:2 ln_z:1 logarithmic_spiral:1 fairly_straightforward:1 polar_coordinate:1 banach_algebra:2 invertible_inverse:1 lie_algebra:6 linearly_independent:1 external_link:1 |
1,352 | Economy_of_Ecuador | The economy of Ecuador is based mostly on exports of bananas, oil, shrimp, gold, other primary agricultural products and money transfers from nearly a million Ecuadorian immigrants employed abroad. In 2002, oil accounted for about one-third of public sector revenue and 40% of export earnings. Ecuador is the world's largest exporter of bananas ($936.5 million in 2002) and a major exporter of shrimp ($251 million in 2002). Exports of nontraditional products such as flowers ($291 million in 2002) and canned fish ($333 million in 2002) have grown in recent years. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market. Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999. On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency. The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy, successfully completing the transition from sucres to dollars in 2001. Following the completion of a one-year stand-by program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 2001, Ecuador successfully negotiated a new $205 million stand-by agreement with the IMF in March 2003. Buoyed by higher oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000-01, with GDP rising 2.3% in 2000 and 5.4% in 2001. GDP growth leveled off to 3.3% in 2002. Although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to fall further, to about 1.7%, for 2003. But GDP growth is estimated to recover to over 4% in 2004, due largely to expanded oil exports. Inflation fell from an annual rate of 96.1% in 2000 to an annual rate of 22.4% in 2001; although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to drop below 7% for 2003. Despite recent gains, 40% of the population lives below the poverty line, more than double the rate of 5 years ago. The completion of the second Transandean Oil Pipeline (OCP in Spanish) in 2003 will enable Ecuador to expand oil exports. The OCP will double Ecuador’s oil transport capacity, but Ecuador will need to attract additional foreign investment to realize the full economic potential of the added capacity. Diversity and Sustainability Ecuadorians often describe the country as a series of "micro-environments" and economic-cultural regions that are reflected in the country's cultural and geographic diversity of coastal fishing and trade (with Guayaquil as a port), highland Quichua speaking peoples (with Quito as a center, and the Amazon or jungle region, with several indigenous populations continually facing intrusions by "colonos" (colonists) seeking to use land for farming including palm oil, or for oil and resource exploitation. Various studies have noted the threats to the country's cultures and the continuing growth in population that has contributed to poverty and are a reflection of unsustainable development. Migration of more than 500,000 Ecuadorians following crisis in 1999 also highlights the population growth and inability of the resource base to sustain it, as well as the lack of appropriate economic planning in the country to fit historical traditions or the resource base. Political tensions with neighboring countries like Peru over mining and other resources to support the growing population, and struggles between the growing urban mestizo population and indigenous peoples over land and resources have underlined the political struggles in recent years. Though foreign-driven economic approaches have mostly focused on exports and on resource exploitation and development rather than on sustainable economic development and stability within the regions and the micro-environments, some economic teams, such as one led by David Lempert, have sought to focus on sustainability. </ref1> See also Ecuador Economy of South America References - Ecuador David Lempert, Kim McCarty and Craig Mitchell, "A Model Development Plan: New Strategies, New Alternatives," Westport, CT: Praeger Greenwood Press, 1995, 1998. hi dude im kuwl like that ugh | Economy_of_Ecuador |@lemmatized economy:3 ecuador:10 base:3 mostly:2 export:6 banana:2 oil:10 shrimp:2 gold:1 primary:1 agricultural:1 product:2 money:2 transfer:1 nearly:1 million:6 ecuadorian:4 immigrant:1 employ:1 abroad:1 account:1 one:3 third:1 public:1 sector:1 revenue:1 earnings:1 world:1 large:2 exporter:2 major:1 nontraditional:1 flower:1 fish:1 grow:3 recent:3 year:6 industry:1 largely:2 orient:1 service:1 domestic:1 market:2 deteriorate:1 economic:11 performance:1 culminate:1 severe:1 financial:1 crisis:4 precipitate:1 number:1 external:1 shock:1 include:2 el:1 niño:1 weather:1 phenomenon:1 sharp:1 drop:2 global:1 price:2 international:2 emerge:1 instability:1 factor:1 highlight:2 government:2 unsustainable:2 policy:2 mix:1 fiscal:1 deficit:1 expansionary:1 result:1 contraction:1 gdp:4 annual:3 inflation:2 devaluation:1 national:1 currency:2 january:1 administration:1 president:2 jamil:1 mahuad:2 announce:1 intention:1 adopt:1 u:1 dollar:2 official:1 address:1 ongoing:1 subsequent:1 protest:1 lead:2 removal:1 office:1 elevation:1 vice:1 gustavo:1 noboa:2 presidency:1 confirm:1 commitment:1 dollarize:1 centerpiece:1 recovery:2 strategy:2 successfully:2 complete:1 transition:1 sucre:1 follow:2 completion:2 stand:2 program:1 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:2 december:1 negotiate:1 new:3 agreement:1 march:1 buoy:1 high:1 experience:1 modest:1 rise:1 growth:4 level:1 although:2 final:2 figure:2 yet:2 available:2 expect:2 fall:1 far:1 estimate:1 recover:1 due:1 expand:2 fell:1 rate:3 despite:1 gain:1 population:6 live:1 poverty:2 line:1 double:2 ago:1 second:1 transandean:1 pipeline:1 ocp:2 spanish:1 enable:1 transport:1 capacity:2 need:1 attract:1 additional:1 foreign:2 investment:1 realize:1 full:1 potential:1 added:1 diversity:2 sustainability:2 often:1 describe:1 country:5 series:1 micro:2 environment:2 cultural:2 region:3 reflect:1 geographic:1 coastal:1 fishing:1 trade:1 guayaquil:1 port:1 highland:1 quichua:1 speaking:1 people:2 quito:1 center:1 amazon:1 jungle:1 several:1 indigenous:2 continually:1 face:1 intrusion:1 colonos:1 colonist:1 seek:2 use:1 land:2 farm:1 palm:1 resource:6 exploitation:2 various:1 study:1 note:1 threat:1 culture:1 continue:1 contribute:1 reflection:1 development:4 migration:1 also:2 inability:1 sustain:1 well:1 lack:1 appropriate:1 planning:1 fit:1 historical:1 tradition:1 political:2 tension:1 neighboring:1 like:2 peru:1 mining:1 support:1 struggle:2 urban:1 mestizo:1 underline:1 though:1 driven:1 approach:1 focus:2 rather:1 sustainable:1 stability:1 within:1 team:1 david:2 lempert:2 see:1 south:1 america:1 reference:1 kim:1 mccarty:1 craig:1 mitchell:1 model:1 plan:1 alternative:1 westport:1 ct:1 praeger:1 greenwood:1 press:1 hi:1 dude:1 im:1 kuwl:1 ugh:1 |@bigram export_earnings:1 el_niño:1 fiscal_deficit:1 jamil_mahuad:1 vice_president:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 amazon_jungle:1 westport_ct:1 ct_praeger:1 praeger_greenwood:1 |
1,353 | Marxist_film_theory | Marxist film theory is one of the oldest forms of film theory. Sergei Eisenstein and many other Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s expressed ideas of Marxism through film. In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the Kuleshov Experiment and the development of montage. While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of Hollywood filmmaking. Eisenstein's solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over. Eisenstein himself, however, was accused by the Soviet authorities under Stalin of "formalist error," of highlighting form as a thing of beauty instead of portraying the worker nobly. French Marxist film makers, such as Jean-Luc Godard, would employ radical editing and choice of subject matter, as well as subversive parody, to heighten class consciousness and promote Marxist ideas. Situationist film maker Guy Debord, author of The Society of the Spectacle, began his film In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni [Wandering around in the night we are consumed by fire] with a radical critique of the spectator who goes to the cinema to forget about his dispossessed daily life. Situationist film makers produced a number of important films, where the only contribution by the situationist film cooperative was the sound-track. In Can dialectics break bricks? (1973) a Chinese Kung Fu film was transformed by redubbing into an epistle on state capitalism and Proletarian revolution. The intellectual technique of using capitalism's own structures against itself is known as detournement. See also Cultural Marxism Observations on the English translation of Guy Debord's Oeuvres Cinématographiques Completes | Marxist_film_theory |@lemmatized marxist:3 film:11 theory:2 one:2 old:1 form:2 sergei:1 eisenstein:3 many:1 soviet:2 filmmaker:2 express:1 idea:3 marxism:3 fact:1 hegelian:1 dialectic:1 consider:1 best:1 display:1 edit:1 kuleshov:1 experiment:1 development:1 montage:1 structuralist:1 approach:1 filmmaking:2 use:2 vociferous:1 complaint:1 russian:1 narrative:2 structure:3 hollywood:1 solution:1 shun:1 eliminate:1 individual:1 protagonist:1 tell:2 story:2 action:1 move:1 group:1 clash:1 image:1 next:1 whether:1 composition:1 motion:1 audience:1 never:1 lull:1 believe:1 watch:1 something:1 work:1 however:1 accuse:1 authority:1 stalin:1 formalist:1 error:1 highlight:1 thing:1 beauty:1 instead:1 portray:1 worker:1 nobly:1 french:1 maker:3 jean:1 luc:1 godard:1 would:1 employ:1 radical:2 editing:1 choice:1 subject:1 matter:1 well:1 subversive:1 parody:1 heighten:1 class:1 consciousness:1 promote:1 situationist:3 guy:2 debord:2 author:1 society:1 spectacle:1 begin:1 girum:1 imu:1 nocte:1 et:1 consumimur:1 igni:1 wander:1 around:1 night:1 consume:1 fire:1 critique:1 spectator:1 go:1 cinema:1 forget:1 dispossessed:1 daily:1 life:1 produce:1 number:1 important:1 contribution:1 cooperative:1 sound:1 track:1 dialectics:1 break:1 brick:1 chinese:1 kung:1 fu:1 transform:1 redubbing:1 epistle:1 state:1 capitalism:2 proletarian:1 revolution:1 intellectual:1 technique:1 know:1 detournement:1 see:1 also:1 cultural:1 observation:1 english:1 translation:1 oeuvre:1 cinématographiques:1 completes:1 |@bigram sergei_eisenstein:1 hollywood_filmmaking:1 jean_luc:1 luc_godard:1 guy_debord:2 kung_fu:1 proletarian_revolution:1 |
1,354 | Frans_Eemil_Sillanpää | Sillanpää redirects here. For other meanings, see Sillanpää (disambiguation). Frans Eemil Sillanpää () (September 16, 1888—June 3, 1964) was one of the most famous Finnish writers. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1939 "for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature." Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant family in Hämeenkyrö. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in Tampere. In 1908 he moved to Helsinki to study medicine. Here his acquaintances included the painter Eero Järnefelt, Jean Sibelius, Juhani Aho and Pekka Halonen. In 1913 Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing. He won international fame for his novel Nuorena nukkunut (The Maid Silja/Fallen Asleep While Young) in 1931. The asteroid 1446 Sillanpää, discovered by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him. Works Elämä ja aurinko (1916) Ihmislapsia elämän saatossa (1917) Hurskas kurjuus (translated as Meek Heritage) (1919) Rakas isänmaani (1919) Hiltu ja Ragnar (1923) Enkelten suojatit (1923) Omistani ja omilleni (1924) Maan tasalta (1924) Töllinmäki (1925) Rippi (1928) Kiitos hetkistä, Herra... (1930) Nuorena nukkunut (1931) Miehen tie (1932) Virranpohjalta (1933) Ihmiset suviyössä (translated as People in the Summer Night) (1934) Viidestoista (1936) Elokuu (1941) Ihmiselon ihanuus ja kurjuus (1945) | Frans_Eemil_Sillanpää |@lemmatized sillanpää:6 redirects:1 meaning:1 see:1 disambiguation:1 frans:2 eemil:2 september:1 june:1 one:1 famous:1 finnish:2 writer:1 award:1 nobel:1 prize:1 literature:1 deep:1 understanding:1 country:1 peasantry:1 exquisite:1 art:1 portray:1 way:1 life:1 relationship:1 nature:1 bear:1 peasant:1 family:1 hämeenkyrö:1 although:1 parent:1 poor:1 manage:1 send:1 school:1 tampere:1 move:2 helsinki:2 study:1 medicine:1 acquaintance:1 include:1 painter:1 eero:1 järnefelt:1 jean:1 sibelius:1 juhani:1 aho:1 pekka:1 halonen:1 old:1 home:1 village:1 devote:1 write:1 win:1 international:1 fame:1 novel:1 nuorena:2 nukkunut:2 maid:1 silja:1 fall:1 asleep:1 young:1 asteroid:1 discover:1 renowned:1 astronomer:1 physicist:1 yrjö:1 väisälä:1 name:1 work:1 elämä:1 ja:4 aurinko:1 ihmislapsia:1 elämän:1 saatossa:1 hurskas:1 kurjuus:2 translate:2 meek:1 heritage:1 rakas:1 isänmaani:1 hiltu:1 ragnar:1 enkelten:1 suojatit:1 omistani:1 omilleni:1 maan:1 tasalta:1 töllinmäki:1 rippi:1 kiitos:1 hetkistä:1 herra:1 miehen:1 tie:1 virranpohjalta:1 ihmiset:1 suviyössä:1 people:1 summer:1 night:1 viidestoista:1 elokuu:1 ihmiselon:1 ihanuus:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:1 jean_sibelius:1 fall_asleep:1 |
1,355 | Christian_of_Oliva | Christian of Oliva, Christian of Prussia, () (died 1245) was the first Bishop of Prussia. He was a Cistercian. Most but not all authors identify him with Godfrey of Łękno. Before his appointment as bishop, he had been the abbot of the monastery of Łekno near Gniezno. In 1209, Christian was commissioned by Pope Innocent III to be responsible for the Prussian missions between the Rivers Vistula and Neman. He was appointed bishop in 1212. Three years later, he went to Rome in order to report to the Pope on the condition and prospects of his mission, and was consecrated first Bishop of Prussia. His seat as a Bishop was Oliva (Oliwa) Abbey, founded in 1178 by the dukes of eastern Pomerania near Gdańsk at the Baltic Sea. So his seat was on the western side of Vistula river, whereas the pagan Prussian territory was on the eastern side of it. Together with Conrad of Mazovia, Christian later created the Order of Dobrzyń. From 1233-39, Christian was held captive by pagan Prussians, and freed in trade for five other hostages who then in turn were released for a ransom of 800 Marks, granted to him by Pope Gregory IX. In 1243, the Papal legate William of Modena divided Prussia into four bishoprics Bishopric of Culm (Chełmno) (Kulmerland, Chełmno Land, Ziemia Chełminska) Bishopric of Pomesania (Pomesania) Bishopric of Warmia (Ermland) Bishopric of Samland (Sambia) under the archbishopric of Riga. Christian was supposed to choose one of them, but did not agree to the division, and died before the conflict was solved. External links Article in Catholic Encyclopedia at newadvent.org | Christian_of_Oliva |@lemmatized christian:6 oliva:2 prussia:4 died:1 first:2 bishop:5 cistercian:1 author:1 identify:1 godfrey:1 łękno:1 appointment:1 abbot:1 monastery:1 łekno:1 near:2 gniezno:1 commission:1 pope:3 innocent:1 iii:1 responsible:1 prussian:3 mission:2 river:2 vistula:2 neman:1 appoint:1 three:1 year:1 later:2 go:1 rome:1 order:2 report:1 condition:1 prospect:1 consecrate:1 seat:2 oliwa:1 abbey:1 found:1 duke:1 eastern:2 pomerania:1 gdańsk:1 baltic:1 sea:1 western:1 side:2 whereas:1 pagan:2 territory:1 together:1 conrad:1 mazovia:1 create:1 dobrzyń:1 hold:1 captive:1 freed:1 trade:1 five:1 hostage:1 turn:1 release:1 ransom:1 mark:1 grant:1 gregory:1 ix:1 papal:1 legate:1 william:1 modena:1 divide:1 four:1 bishopric:5 culm:1 chełmno:2 kulmerland:1 land:1 ziemia:1 chełminska:1 pomesania:2 warmia:1 ermland:1 samland:1 sambia:1 archbishopric:1 riga:1 suppose:1 choose:1 one:1 agree:1 division:1 die:1 conflict:1 solve:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 newadvent:1 org:1 |@bigram pope_innocent:1 baltic_sea:1 vistula_river:1 pope_gregory:1 gregory_ix:1 papal_legate:1 chełmno_land:1 external_link:1 newadvent_org:1 |
1,356 | King_Arthur | Statue of King Arthur, Hofkirche, Innsbruck, designed by Albrecht Dürer and cast by Peter Vischer the Elder, 1520s King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. , has a summary of the debate on this point. The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin. ; . Y Gododdin cannot be dated precisely: it describes 6th-century events and contains 9th- or 10th- century spelling, but the surviving copy is 13th-century. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). , but see also However, some Welsh and Breton tales and poems relating the story of Arthur date from earlier than this work; in these works, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. See ; ; ; and How much of Geoffrey's Historia (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey's version of events often served as the starting point for later stories. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. In fact, many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's Historia, including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, the wizard Merlin, the sword Excalibur, Arthur's birth at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann and final rest in Avalon. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend lives on, both in literature and in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media. Debated historicity Arthur as one of the Nine Worthies, tapestry, c. 1385 The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long been debated by scholars. One school of thought, citing entries in the Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) and Annales Cambriae (Welsh Annals), sees Arthur as a genuine historical figure, a Romano-British leader who fought against the invading Anglo-Saxons sometime in the late 5th to early 6th century. The Historia Brittonum, a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed in some late manuscripts to a Welsh cleric called Nennius, lists twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in the Battle of Mons Badonicus, or Mount Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum as a source for the history of this period. ; ; . The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, which also link Arthur with the Battle of Mount Badon. The Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often been used to bolster confidence in the Historia's account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Mount Badon. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonum'''s account. The latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the complex textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at some point in the 10th century and may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The Mount Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum. ; . This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of post-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but …] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him". These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less sceptical. Historian John Morris made the putative reign of Arthur the organising principle of his history of sub-Roman Britain and Ireland, The Age of Arthur (1973). Even so, he found little to say of a historic Arthur. The 10th-century Annales Cambriae, as copied into a manuscript of c. 1100 Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Morris's Age of Arthur prompted archaeologist Nowell Myres to observe that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time". Gildas' 6th-century polemic De Excidio Britanniae (On the Ruin of Britain), written within living memory of Mount Badon, mentions the battle but does not mention Arthur. Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae, chapter 26. Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript written between 400 and 820. He is absent from Bede's early 8th-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, another major early source for post-Roman history that mentions Mount Badon. Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, Book 1.16. Historian David Dumville has written: "I think we can dispose of him [Arthur] quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a 'no smoke without fire' school of thought ... The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books." Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore – or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity – who became credited with real deeds in the distant past. They cite parallels with figures such as the Kentish totemic horse-gods Hengest and Horsa, who later became historicised. Bede ascribed to these legendary figures a historical role in the 5th-century Anglo-Saxon conquest of eastern Britain. ; ; , chapters five and seven. It is not even certain that Arthur was considered a king in the early texts. Neither the Historia nor the Annales calls him "rex": the former calls him instead "dux" or "dux bellorum" (leader of battles).<ref>Historia Brittonum 56; Annales Cambriae 516, 537.</ref> Historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, so a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely. Sites and places have been identified as "Arthurian" since the 12th century, For example, . but archaeology can confidently reveal names only through inscriptions found in secure contexts. The so-called "Arthur stone", discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall in securely dated 6th-century contexts, created a brief stir but proved irrelevant. Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including the Glastonbury cross, is tainted with the suggestion of forgery. Modern scholarship views the Glastonbury cross as the result of a probably late 12th-century fraud. See and . Although several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, These range from Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman officer who served in Britain in the 2nd century (), to Roman usurper emperors such as Magnus Maximus or sub-Roman British rulers such as Riotamus (), Ambrosius Aurelianus (), Owain Ddantgwyn (), and Athrwys ap Meurig () no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged. Name The origin of the Welsh name Arthur remains a matter of debate. Some suggest it is derived from the Latin family name Artorius, of obscure and contested etymology. Others propose a derivation from Welsh arth (earlier art), meaning "bear", suggesting art-ur (earlier *Arto-uiros), "bear-man", is the original form, although there are difficulties with this theory. See . It may be relevant to this debate that Arthur's name appears as Arthur, or Arturus, in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as Artorius. However, this may not say anything about the origin of the name Arthur, as Artorius would regularly become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh; all it would mean, as John Koch has pointed out, is that the surviving Latin references to a historical Arthur (if he was called Artorius and really existed) must date from after the 6th century. . See further and on how Artorius would regular take the form Arthur when borrowed into Welsh. An alternative theory links the name Arthur to Arcturus, the brightest star in the constellation Boötes, near Ursa Major or the Great Bear. The name means "guardian of the bear" or "bear guard". Classical Latin Arcturus would also have become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh, and its brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the "guardian of the bear" (due to its proximity to Ursa Major) and the "leader" of the other stars in Boötes. ; . The exact significance of such etymologies is unclear. It is often assumed that an Artorius derivation would mean that the legends of Arthur had a genuine historical core, but recent studies suggest that this assumption may not be well founded. . By contrast, a derivation of Arthur from Arcturus might be taken to indicate a non-historical origin for Arthur, but Toby Griffen has suggested it was an alternative name for a historical Arthur designed to appeal to Latin-speakers. Medieval literary traditions The creator of the familiar literary persona of Arthur was Geoffrey of Monmouth, with his pseudo-historical Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), written in the 1130s. The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey's Historia (known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus) and those written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts). Pre-Galfridian traditions A facsimile page of Y Gododdin, one of the most famous early Welsh texts featuring Arthur, c. 1275 The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text/story-type. One recent academic survey that does attempt this, by Thomas Green, identifies three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in the Historia Brittonum, but the majority are supernatural, including giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants and witches. The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore (particularly topographic or onomastic folklore) and localised magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. has a thorough discussion of this aspect of Arthur's character. The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin. . On his possessions and wife, see also . One of the most famous Welsh poetic references to Arthur comes in the collection of heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin (The Gododdin), attributed to the 6th-century poet Aneirin. In one stanza, the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies is praised, but it is then noted that despite this "he was no Arthur", that is to say his feats cannot compare to the valour of Arthur. , line 1242 Y Gododdin is known only from a 13th-century manuscript, so it is impossible to determine whether this passage is original or a later interpolation, but John Koch's view that the passage dates from a 7th-century or earlier version is regarded as unproven; 9th- or 10th-century dates are often proposed for it. ; ; . Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries. See, for example, and . They include "Kadeir Teyrnon" ("The Chair of the Prince"), Online translations of this poem are out-dated and inaccurate. See , for a full translation, and for a discussion of its Arthurian aspects. which refers to "Arthur the Blessed", "Preiddeu Annwn" ("The Spoils of the Annwn"), See, for example, and , who includes a translation. which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld, and "Marwnat vthyr pen[dragon]" ("The Elegy of Uther Pen[dragon]"), which refers to Arthur's valour and is suggestive of a father-son relationship for Arthur and Uther that pre-dates Geoffrey of Monmouth. Culhwch entering Arthur's Court in the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen, 1881 Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, "Pa gur yv y porthaur?" ("What man is the gatekeeper?"). has a full translation and analysis of this poem. This takes the form of a dialogue between Arthur and the gatekeeper of a fortress he wishes to enter, in which Arthur recounts the names and deeds of himself and his men, notably Cei (Kay) and Bedwyr (Bedivere). The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen (c. 1100), included in the modern Mabinogion collection, has a much longer list of more than 200 of Arthur's men, though Cei and Bedwyr again take a central place. The story as a whole tells of Arthur helping his kinsman Culhwch win the hand of Olwen, daughter of Ysbaddaden Chief-Giant, by completing a series of apparently impossible tasks, including the hunt for the great semi-divine boar Twrch Trwyth. The 9th-century Historia Brittonum also refers to this tale, with the boar there named Troy(n)t. For a discussion of the tale, see ; see also ; ; and and chapter three. Finally, Arthur is mentioned numerous times in the Welsh Triads, a collection of short summaries of Welsh tradition and legend which are classified into groups of three linked characters or episodes in order to assist recall. The later manuscripts of the Triads are partly derivative from Geoffrey of Monmouth and later continental traditions, but the earliest ones show no such influence and are usually agreed to refer to pre-existing Welsh traditions. Even in these, however, Arthur's court has started to embody legendary Britain as a whole, with "Arthur's Court" sometimes substituted for "The Island of Britain" in the formula "Three XXX of the Island of Britain". ; While it is not clear from the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae that Arthur was even considered a king, by the time Culhwch and Olwen and the Triads were written he had become Penteyrnedd yr Ynys hon, "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall and the North. In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, Arthur appears in some other early Latin texts besides the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae. In particular, Arthur features in a number of well-known vitae ("Lives") of post-Roman saints, none of which are now generally considered to be reliable historical sources (the earliest probably dates from the 11th century). According to the Life of Saint Gildas, written in the early 12th century by Caradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur is said to have killed Gildas' brother Hueil and to have rescued his wife Gwenhwyfar from Glastonbury. Translated in . On the Glastonbury tale and its Otherworldly antecedents, see . In the Life of Saint Cadoc, written around 1100 or a little before by Lifris of Llancarfan, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers, and Arthur demands a herd of cattle as wergeld for his men. Cadoc delivers them as demanded, but when Arthur takes possession of the animals, they turn into bundles of ferns. Similar incidents are described in the medieval biographies of Carannog, Padarn and Eufflam, probably written around the 12th century. A less obviously legendary account of Arthur appears in the Legenda Sancti Goeznovii, which is often claimed to date from the early 11th century although the earliest manuscript of this text dates from the 15th century. See for an attempt to use this vita as a historical source. Also important are the references to Arthur in William of Malmesbury's De Gestis Regum Anglorum and Herman's De Miraculis Sanctae Mariae Laudensis, which together provide the first certain evidence for a belief that Arthur was not actually dead and would at some point return, a theme that is often revisited in post-Galfridian folklore. ; ; Geoffrey of Monmouth Mordred, Arthur's final foe according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, illustrated by H. J. Ford for Andrew Lang's King Arthur: The Tales of the Round Table, 1902 The first narrative account of Arthur's life is found in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin work Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). ; This work, completed c. 1138, is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exile Brutus to the 7th-century Welsh king Cadwallader. Geoffrey places Arthur in the same post-Roman period as do Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae. He incorporates Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin's magic, sleeps with Gorlois's wife Igerna at Tintagel, and she conceives Arthur. On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, similar to those in the Historia Brittonum, culminating in the Battle of Bath. He then defeats the Picts and Scots before creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland and the Orkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark and Gaul. Gaul is still held by the Roman Empire when it is conquered, and Arthur's victory naturally leads to a further confrontation between his empire and Rome's. Arthur and his warriors, including Kaius (Kay), Beduerus (Bedivere) and Gualguanus (Gawain), defeat the Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephew Modredus (Mordred) – whom he had left in charge of Britain – has married his wife Guenhuuara (Guinevere) and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Modredus on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsman Constantine and is taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again. Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae Book 8.19–24, Book 9, Book 10, Book 11.1–2 Merlin the wizard, c. 1300 How much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. Certainly, Geoffrey seems to have made use of the list of Arthur's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum, along with the battle of Camlann from the Annales Cambriae and the idea that Arthur was still alive. ; Arthur's personal status as the king of all Britain would also seem to be borrowed from pre-Galfridian tradition, being found in Culhwch and Olwen, the Triads and the Saints' Lives. Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur's possessions, close family and companions from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition, including Kaius (Cei), Beduerus (Bedwyr), Guenhuuara (Gwenhwyfar), Uther (Uthyr) and perhaps also Caliburnus (Caledfwlch), the latter becoming Excalibur in subsequent Arthurian tales. ; However, while names, key events and titles may have been borrowed, Brynley Roberts has argued that "the Arthurian section is Geoffrey’s literary creation and it owes nothing to prior narrative." So, for instance, the Welsh Medraut is made the villainous Modredus by Geoffrey, but there is no trace of such a negative character for this figure in Welsh sources until the 16th century. There have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge this notion that the Historia Regum Britanniae is primarily Geoffrey's own work, with scholarly opinion often echoing William of Newburgh's late-12th-century comment that Geoffrey "made up" his narrative, perhaps through an "inordinate love of lying". See, for example, . Geoffrey Ashe is one dissenter from this view, believing that Geoffrey's narrative is partially derived from a lost source telling of the deeds of a 5th-century British king named Riotamus, this figure being the original Arthur, although historians and Celticists have been reluctant to follow Ashe in his conclusions. ; ; . Whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey's Historia Regum Britanniae cannot be denied. Well over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey’s Latin work are known to have survived, and this does not include translations into other languages. Thus, for example, around 60 manuscripts are extant containing Welsh-language versions of the Historia, the earliest of which were created in the 13th century; the old notion that some of these Welsh versions actually underlie Geoffrey's Historia, advanced by antiquarians such as the 18th-century Lewis Morris, has long since been discounted in academic circles. . See further, and . As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey's Historia Regum Britanniae was enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend. While it was by no means the only creative force behind Arthurian romance, many of its elements were borrowed and developed (e.g., Merlin and the final fate of Arthur), and it provided the historical framework into which the romancers' tales of magical and wonderful adventures were inserted. As noted by, for example, . Romance traditions During the 12th century, Arthur's character began to be marginalised by the accretion of "Arthurian" side-stories such as that of Tristan and Iseult. John William Waterhouse, 1916 The popularity of Geoffrey's Historia and its other derivative works (such as Wace's Roman de Brut) is generally agreed to be an important factor in explaining the appearance of significant numbers of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France. For example, It was not, however, the only Arthurian influence on the developing "Matter of Britain". There is clear evidence for a knowledge of Arthur and Arthurian tales on the Continent before Geoffrey's work became widely known (see for example, the Modena Archivolt), as well as for the use of "Celtic" names and stories not found in Geoffrey's Historia in the Arthurian romances. ; ; . From the perspective of Arthur, perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guenevere, Perceval, Galahad, Gawain, and Tristan and Isolde. Whereas Arthur is very much at the centre of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey's Historia itself, in the romances he is rapidly sidelined. ; . His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and Geoffrey he is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns, For example, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae Book 10.3. whereas in the continental romances he becomes the roi fainéant, the "do-nothing king", whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society". Arthur's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. So, he simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere in the Mort Artu, whilst in Chrétien de Troyes's Yvain, the Knight of the Lion he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap. ; . Nonetheless, as Norris J. Lacy has observed, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these Arthurian romances, "his prestige is never – or almost never – compromised by his personal weaknesses ... his authority and glory remain intact." Arthur (top centre) in an illustration to the Middle English poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, late 14th century Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the Lais of Marie de France, but it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the above development of the character of Arthur and his legend. Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between c. 1170 and c. 1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès are tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, while Yvain, the Knight of the Lion features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the most significant for the development of the Arthurian legend are Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen (Guinevere), extending and popularizing the recurring theme of Arthur as a cuckold, and Perceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King and which again sees Arthur having a much reduced role. Chrétien was thus "instrumental both in the elaboration of the Arthurian legend and in the establishment of the ideal form for the diffusion of that legend", and much of what came after him in terms of the portrayal of Arthur and his world built upon the foundations he had laid. Perceval, although unfinished, was particularly popular: four separate continuations of the poem appeared over the next half century, with the notion of the Grail and its quest being developed by other writers such as Robert de Boron, a fact that helped accelerate the decline of Arthur in continental romance. Similarly, Lancelot and his cuckolding of Arthur with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend, although the Lancelot of the prose Lancelot (c. 1225) and later texts was a combination of Chrétien's character and that of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven's Lanzelet. Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature, with the result that the romance Arthur began to replace the heroic, active Arthur in Welsh literary tradition. Particularly significant in this development were the three Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien, albeit with some significant differences: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is related to Chrétien's Yvain; Geraint and Enid, to Erec and Enide; and Peredur son of Efrawg, to Perceval. See for accurate translations of all three texts. It is not entirely certain what, exactly, the relationship is between these Welsh romances and Chrétien's works, however: see for a survey of opinions The Round Table experience a vision of the Holy Grail. From a 15th century French manuscript. Up to c. 1210, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th-century prose romances was the Vulgate Cycle, (also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle), a series of five Middle French prose works written in the first half of that century. These works were the Estoire del Saint Grail, the Estoire de Merlin, the Lancelot propre (or Prose Lancelot, which made up half the entire Vulgate Cycle on its own), the Queste del Saint Graal and the Mort Artu, which combine to form the first coherent version of the entire Arthurian legend. The cycle continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur in his own legend, partly through the introduction of the character of Galahad and an expansion of the role of Merlin. It also made Mordred the result of an incestuous relationship between Arthur and his sister and established the role of Camelot, first mentioned in passing in Chrétien's Lancelot, as Arthur's primary court. For a study of this cycle, see . This series of texts was quickly followed by the Post-Vulgate Cycle (c. 1230–40), of which the Suite du Merlin is a part, which greatly reduced the importance of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere but continued to sideline Arthur, now in order to focus more on the Grail quest. As such, Arthur became even more of a relatively minor character in these French prose romances; in the Vulgate itself he only figures significantly in the Estoire de Merlin and the Mort Artu. The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance" culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book – originally titled The Whole Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table – on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. On Malory and his work, see and . Perhaps as a result of this, and the fact that Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485, most later Arthurian works are derivative of Malory's. Decline, revival, and the modern legend Post-medieval literature The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although Malory's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances – established since Geoffrey of Monmouth's time – and thus the legitimacy of the whole Matter of Britain. So, for example, the 16th-century humanist scholar Polydore Vergil famously rejected the claim that Arthur was the ruler of a post-Roman empire, found throughout the post-Galfridian medieval "chronicle tradition", to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians. Social changes associated with the end of the medieval period and the Renaissance also conspired to rob the character of Arthur and his associated legend of some of their power to enthral audiences, with the result that 1634 saw the last printing of Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur for nearly 200 years. King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century the material was taken less seriously and was often used simply as vehicle for allegories of 17th- and 18th-century politics. ; Thus Richard Blackmore's epics Prince Arthur (1695) and King Arthur (1697) feature Arthur as an allegory for the struggles of William III against James II. Similarly, the most popular Arthurian tale throughout this period seems to have been that of Tom Thumb, which was told first through chapbooks and later through the political plays of Henry Fielding; although the action is clearly set in Arthurian Britain, the treatment is humorous and Arthur appears as a primarily comedic version of his romance character. Tennyson and the revival Gustave Doré's illustration of Arthur and Merlin for Lord Alfred Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, 1868 In the early 19th century, medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in Arthur and the medieval romances. A new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen was shaped around the chivalric ideals that the "Arthur of romance" embodied. This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur was reprinted for the first time since 1634. Initially the medieval Arthurian legends were of particular interest to poets, inspiring, for example, William Wordsworth to write "The Egyptian Maid" (1835), an allegory of the Holy Grail. Pre-eminent among these was Alfred Lord Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem, "The Lady of Shalott", was published in 1832. See for the sources Tennyson used when writing this poem Although Arthur himself played a minor role in some of these works, following in the medieval romance tradition, Tennyson's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity with Idylls of the King, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur's life for the Victorian era. First published in 1859, it sold 10,000 copies within the first week. In the Idylls, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood whose attempt to establish a perfect kingdom on earth fails, finally, through human weakness. See and for analyses of The Idylls of the King. Tennyson's works prompted a large number of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legends of Arthur and the character himself, and brought Malory’s tales to a wider audience. See, for example, . Indeed, the first modernization of Malory's great compilation of Arthur's tales was published shortly after Idylls appeared, in 1862, and there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended. This interest in the "Arthur of romance" and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. ; . Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances, and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions. ; The revived Arthurian romance also proved influential in the United States, with such books as Sidney Lanier's The Boy's King Arthur (1880) reaching wide audiences and providing inspiration for Mark Twain's satiric A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889). ; . Although the "Arthur of romance" was sometimes central to these new Arthurian works (as he was in Burne-Jones's The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon, 1881–1898), on other occasions he reverted back to his medieval status and is either marginalised or even missing entirely, with Wagner's Arthurian operas providing a notable instance of the latter. Furthermore, the revival of interest in Arthur and the Arthurian tales did not continue unabated. By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators, and it could not avoid being affected by the First World War, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model. The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuade Thomas Hardy, Laurence Binyon and John Masefield to compose Arthurian plays, ; ; and and T. S. Eliot alludes to the Arthur myth (but not Arthur) in his poem The Waste Land, which mentions the Fisher King. ; Modern legend The combat of Arthur and Mordred, illustrated by N.C. Wyeth for The Boy's King Arthur, 1922 In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such as T. H. White's The Once and Future King (1958) and Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon (1982) in addition to comic strips such as Prince Valiant (from 1937 onward). ; ; Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Bradley's tale, for example, takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials, and American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy. The romance Arthur has become popular in film as well. The musical Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and the cuckolding of Arthur, was made into a film in 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and, according to critics, successfully handled in Robert Bresson's Lancelot du Lac (1974), Eric Rohmer's Perceval le Gallois (1978) and perhaps John Boorman's fantasy film Excalibur (1981); it is also the main source of the material utilised in the Arthurian spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975). ; Re-tellings and re-imaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of c. 500 AD, stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition"' of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Brittonum is a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic invaders struck a chord in Britain. , chapter nine; see also . Clemence Dane's series of radio plays, The Saviours (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff's play The Long Sunset (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders. This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period. For example: Rosemary Sutcliff's The Lantern Bearers (1959) and Sword at Sunset (1963); Mary Stewart's The Crystal Cave (1970) and its sequels; Parke Godwin's Firelord (1980) and its sequels; Stephen Lawhead's Pendragon Cycle (1987–99); Nikolai Tolstoy's The Coming of the King (1988); Jack Whyte's Camulod Chronicles (1992–97); and Bernard Cornwell's The Warlord Chronicles (1995–97). See List of books about King Arthur. In recent years the portrayal of Arthur as a real hero of the 5th century has also made its way into film versions of the Arthurian legend, most notably King Arthur (2004) and The Last Legion (2007). ; Arthur has also been used as a model for modern-day behaviour. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table formed in Britain to promote Christian ideals and Arthurian notions of medieval chivalry. In the United States, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups, such as the Knights of King Arthur, in which Arthur and his legends were promoted as wholesome exemplars. ; However, Arthur's diffusion within contemporary culture goes beyond such obviously Arthurian endeavours, with Arthurian names being regularly attached to objects, buildings and places. As Norris J. Lacy has observed, "The popular notion of Arthur appears to be limited, not surprisingly, to a few motifs and names, but there can be no doubt of the extent to which a legend born many centuries ago is profoundly embedded in modern culture at every level." See also King Arthur's family King Arthur's messianic return King Arthur's weapons Nine Worthies, of which Arthur was one List of Arthurian characters List of books about King Arthur List of films based on Arthurian legend Notes References . . . . . . . . . Second ed. . . . . . . . 2nd. ed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (EBSCO subscription required for online access.) . . Conference paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 vols. . . . . . . . . . (JSTOR subscription required for online access.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 vols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trans. Thomas Kerth. . Third, revised, ed. . . . . . . External links . An excellent site detailing Welsh Arthurian folklore. . A detailed and comprehensive academic site, which includes numerous scholarly articles, from Thomas Green of Oxford University. . The only academic journal solely concerned with the Arthurian Legend; a good selection of resources and links. . Provides texts and translations (of varying quality) of Welsh medieval sources, many of which mention Arthur. . An interesting collection of articles on King Arthur by various Arthurian enthusiasts. . . Provides valuable bibliographies and freely downloadable versions of Arthurian texts. . 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1,357 | JavaScript | JavaScript is a scripting language used to enable programmatic access to objects within other applications. It is primarily used in the form of client-side JavaScript for the development of dynamic websites. JavaScript is a dialect of the ECMAScript standard and is characterized as a dynamic, weakly typed, prototype-based language with first-class functions. JavaScript was influenced by many languages and was designed to look like Java, but to be easier for non-programmers to work with. JavaScript, despite the name, is essentially unrelated to the Java programming language even though the two do have superficial similarities. Both languages use syntaxes influenced by that of C syntax, and JavaScript copies many Java names and naming conventions. The language's name is the result of a co-marketing deal between Netscape and Sun, in exchange for Netscape bundling Sun's Java runtime with their then-dominant browser. The key design principles within JavaScript are inherited from the Self and Scheme programming languages. "JavaScript" is a trademark of Sun Microsystems. It was used under license for technology invented and implemented by Netscape Communications and current entities such as the Mozilla Foundation. History and naming JavaScript was originally developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape under the name Mocha, which was later renamed to LiveScript, and finally to JavaScript. The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape adding support for Java technology in its Netscape Navigator web browser. JavaScript was first introduced and deployed in the Netscape browser version 2.0B3 in December 1995. The naming has caused confusion, giving the impression that the language is a spin-off of Java, and it has been characterized by many as a marketing ploy by Netscape to give JavaScript the cachet of what was then the hot new web-programming language. Due to the widespread success of JavaScript as a client-side scripting language for web pages, Microsoft developed a compatible dialect of the language, naming it JScript to avoid trademark issues. JScript added new date methods to fix the non-Y2K-friendly methods in JavaScript, which were based on java.util.Date. JScript was included in Internet Explorer 3.0, released in August 1996. The dialects are perceived to be so similar that the terms "JavaScript" and "JScript" are often used interchangeably. Microsoft, however, notes dozens of ways in which JScript is not ECMA compliant. Netscape submitted JavaScript to Ecma International for standardization resulting in the standardized version named ECMAScript. JavaScript has become one of the most popular programming languages on the web. Initially, however, many professional programmers denigrated the language because its target audience was web authors and other such "amateurs", among other reasons. The advent of AJAX returned JavaScript to the spotlight and brought more professional programming attention. The result was a proliferation of comprehensive frameworks and libraries, improved JavaScript programming practices, and increased usage of JavaScript outside of the web. Features The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations, unless explicitly specified otherwise. Imperative and structured JavaScript supports all the structured programming syntax in C (e.g., if statements, while loops, switch statements, etc.). One partial exception is scoping: C-style block-level scoping is not supported. JavaScript 1.7, however, supports block-level scoping with the let keyword. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between expressions and statements. Dynamic dynamic typing As in most scripting languages, types are associated with values, not variables. For example, a variable x could be bound to a number, then later rebound to a string. JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of an object, including duck typing. objects as associative arrays JavaScript is almost entirely object-based. Objects are associative arrays, augmented with prototypes (see below). Object property names are associative array keys: obj.x = 10 and obj["x"] = 10 are equivalent, the dot notation being merely syntactic sugar. Properties and their values can be added, changed, or deleted at run-time. The properties of an object can also be enumerated via a for...in loop. run-time evaluation JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time. Functional first-class functions Functions are first-class; they are objects themselves. As such, they have properties and can be passed around and interacted with like any other object. inner functions and closures Inner functions (functions defined within other functions) are created each time the outer function is invoked, and variables of the outer functions for that invocation continue to exist as long as the inner functions still exist, even after that invocation is finished (e.g. if the inner function was returned, it still has access to the outer function's variables) — this is the mechanism behind closures within JavaScript. Prototype-based prototypes JavaScript uses prototypes instead of classes for defining object properties, including methods, and inheritance. It is possible to simulate many class-based features with prototypes in JavaScript. functions as object constructors Functions double as object constructors along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call with new creates a new object and calls that function with its local this keyword bound to that object for that invocation. The function's prototype property determines the new object's prototype. functions as methods Unlike many object-oriented languages, there is no distinction between a function definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling; a function can be called as a method. When a function is invoked as a method of an object, the function's local this keyword is bound to that object for that invocation. Miscellaneous run-time environment JavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g. in a web browser) to provide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with "the outside world". In fact, it relies on the environment to provide the ability to include/import scripts (e.g. HTML <script> elements). (This is not a language feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations.) variadic functions An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can both access them through formal parameters and the local arguments object. array and object literals Like many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other languages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these literals form the basis of the JSON data format. regular expressions JavaScript also supports regular expressions in a manner similar to Perl, which provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophisticated than the built-in string functions. JavaScript-specific JavaScript is officially managed by Mozilla, and new language features are added periodically, but few non-Mozilla "JavaScript" engines support these new features: conditional catch clauses property getter and setter functions iterator protocol adopted from Python shallow generators/coroutines also adopted from Python array comprehensions and generator expressions also adopted from Python proper block scope via new let keyword array and object destructuring (limited form of pattern matching) concise function expressions (function(args) expr) E4X Syntax and semantics As of 2008, the latest version of the language is JavaScript 1.8. It is a superset of ECMAScript (ECMA-262) Edition 3. Extensions to the language, including partial E4X (ECMA-357) support and experimental features considered for inclusion into ECMAScript Edition 4, are documented here. Sample code showcasing various JavaScript features: function LCMCalculator(x, y) { // constructor function function checkInt(x) { // inner function if (x % 1 != 0) throw new TypeError(x + " is not an integer"); // exception throwing return x; } this.a = checkInt(x); this.b = checkInt(y); this.ab = this.a * this.b; } // The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is that constructor's "prototype" property. LCMCalculator.prototype = { // object literal gcd : function() { // Euclidean algorithm: var a = Math.abs(this.a), b = Math.abs(this.b); if (a < b) { var t = b; b = a; a = t; // swap variables } while (b != 0) { t = b; // |t| already declared above (though we could redeclare if we wish) b = a % b; a = t; } // Only need to calculate gcd once, so "redefine" this method. // (Actually not redefinition - it's defined on the instance itself, // so that this.gcd refers to this "redefinition" instead of LCMCalculator.prototype.gcd.) // Also, 'gcd' == "gcd", this['gcd'] == this.gcd this['gcd'] = function() { return a; }; return a; }, lcm : function() { // Variable names don't collide with object properties, e.g. |lcm| is not |this.lcm|. var lcm = this.ab / this.gcd(); // Only need to calculate lcm once, so "redefine" this method. this.lcm = function() { return lcm; }; return lcm; }, toString : function() { return "LCMCalculator: a = " + this.a + ", b = " + this.b; } }; [[25,55],[21,56],[22,58],[28,56]].map(function(pair) { // array literal + mapping function return new LCMCalculator(pair[0], pair[1]); }).sort(function(a, b) { // sort with this comparative function return a.lcm() - b.lcm(); }).forEach(function(obj) { /* Note: print() is a JS builtin function available in Mozilla's js CLI interpreter; * it's functionally equivalent to Java's System.out.println(). * Within a web browser, print() is a very different function (opens the "Print Page" dialog), * so use something like document.write() instead. */ print(obj + ", gcd = " + obj.gcd() + ", lcm = " + obj.lcm()); }); // Note: Array's map() and forEach() are predefined in JavaScript 1.6. // They are currently not available in all major JavaScript engines (including Internet Explorer's), // but are shown here to demonstrate JavaScript's inherent functional nature. The output is: LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm = 56 LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168 LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275 LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638 Use in web pages The primary use of JavaScript is to write functions that are embedded in or included from HTML pages and interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) of the page. Some simple examples of this usage are: Opening or popping up a new window with programmatic control over the size, position, and attributes of the new window (i.e. whether the menus, toolbars, etc. are visible). Validation of web form input values to make sure that they will be accepted before they are submitted to the server. Changing images as the mouse cursor moves over them: This effect is often used to draw the user's attention to important links displayed as graphical elements. Because JavaScript code can run locally in a user's browser (rather than on a remote server) it can respond to user actions quickly, making an application feel more responsive. Furthermore, JavaScript code can detect user actions which HTML alone cannot, such as individual keystrokes. Applications such as Gmail take advantage of this: much of the user-interface logic is written in JavaScript, and JavaScript dispatches requests for information (such as the content of an e-mail message) to the server. The wider trend of Ajax programming similarly exploits this strength. A JavaScript engine (also known as JavaScript interpreter or JavaScript implementation) is an interpreter that interprets JavaScript source code and executes the script accordingly. The first ever JavaScript engine was created by Brendan Eich at Netscape Communications Corporation, for the Netscape Navigator web browser. The engine, code-named SpiderMonkey, is implemented in C. It has since been updated (in JavaScript 1.5) to conform to ECMA-262 Edition 3. The Rhino engine, created primarily by Norris Boyd (formerly of Netscape; now at Google) is a JavaScript implementation in Java. Rhino, like SpiderMonkey, is ECMA-262 Edition 3 compliant. A web browser is by far the most common host environment for JavaScript. Web browsers typically use the public API to create "host objects" responsible for reflecting the DOM into JavaScript. The web server is another common application of the engine. A JavaScript webserver would expose host objects representing an HTTP request and response objects, which a JavaScript program could then manipulate to dynamically generate web pages. A minimal example of a standards-conforming web page containing JavaScript (using HTML 4.01 syntax) would be: <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> <html> <head><title>simple page</title></head> <body> <script type="text/javascript"> document.write('Hello World!'); </script> <noscript> <p>Your browser either does not support JavaScript, or you have JavaScript turned off.</p> </noscript> </body> </html> Compatibility considerations The DOM interfaces for manipulating web pages are not part of the ECMAScript standard, or of JavaScript itself. Officially, they are defined by a separate standardization effort by the W3C; in practice, browser implementations differ from the standards and from each other, and not all browsers execute JavaScript. To deal with these differences, JavaScript authors can attempt to write standards-compliant code which will also be executed correctly by most browsers; failing that, they can write code that checks for the presence of certain browser features and behaves differently if they are not available. Peter-Paul Koch, Object detection In some cases, two browsers may both implement a feature but with different behavior, and authors may find it practical to detect what browser is running and change their script's behavior to match. Peter-Paul Koch, Mission Impossible - mouse position Peter-Paul Koch, Browser detect Programmers may also use libraries or toolkits which take browser differences into account. Furthermore, scripts will not work for all users. For example, a user may: use an old or rare browser with incomplete or unusual DOM support, use a PDA or mobile phone browser which cannot execute JavaScript, have JavaScript execution disabled as a security precaution, or be visually or otherwise disabled and use a speech browser To support these users, web authors can try to create pages which degrade gracefully on user agents (browsers) which do not support the page's JavaScript. Security JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client computer via the web. Browser authors contain this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only perform web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same origin policy: scripts from one web site do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox. Cross-site vulnerabilities A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting, or XSS, a violation of the same-origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker is able to cause a target web site, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization. A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use HTML escaping whenever displaying untrusted data. XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors. MozillaZine, Mozilla Cross-Site Scripting Vulnerability Reported and Fixed Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery or CSRF. In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user didn't intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). It works because, if the target site relies only on cookies to authenticate requests, then requests initiated by code on the attacker's site will carry the same legitimate login credentials as requests initiated by the user. In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help. "JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <script> tag on an attacker's site exploits a page on the attacker's site that returns private information as JSON or JavaScript. Possible solutions include requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any response that returns private JSON (even if it has no side effects); using POST and never GET for requests that return private JSON; and modifying the response so that it can't be used via a <script> tag (by, for example, wrapping the JSON in a JavaScript comment). Misplaced trust in the client Client-server applications, whether they involve JavaScript or not, must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the control of attackers. Thus any secret embedded in JavaScript could be extracted by a determined adversary, and the application author can't assume that his JavaScript runs as intended, or at all. Some implications: Web site authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates, because the code is sent to the client, and obfuscated code can be reverse engineered. JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client. Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript can't be relied on to prevent operations such as "save image". It would be extremely bad practice to embed a password in JavaScript (where it can be extracted by an attacker), then have JavaScript verify a user's password and pass "password_ok=1" back to the server (since the "password_ok=1" response is easy to forge). For an example of this bad practice, see http://javascript.internet.com/passwords/ Browser and plugin coding errors JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts which would run any code they wish on the user's system. These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox, Mozilla Corporation, Buffer overflow in crypto.signText() Internet Explorer, Paul Festa, CNet, Buffer-overflow bug in IE and Safari. SecurityTracker.com, Apple Safari JavaScript Buffer Overflow Lets Remote Users Execute Arbitrary Code and HTTP Redirect Bug Lets Remote Users Access Files Plugins, such as video players, Macromedia Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript, and such flaws have been exploited in the past. SecurityFocus, Microsoft WebViewFolderIcon ActiveX Control Buffer Overflow Vulnerability Fusion Authority, Macromedia Flash ActiveX Buffer Overflow In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges. Mike Friedman, Protected Mode in Vista IE7 Google Chrome similarly limits page renderers to an operating-system-enforced "sandbox." Sandbox implementation errors Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside of the sandbox, with the privileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Of course, such privileges aren't meant to be granted to code from the web. Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer US CERT, Vulnerability Note VU#713878: Microsoft Internet Explorer does not properly validate source of redirected frame and Firefox. Mozilla Foundation, Mozilla Foundation Security Advisory 2005-41: Privilege escalation via DOM property overrides In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer. Microsoft Corporation, Changes to Functionality in Microsoft Windows XP Service Pack 2: Part 5: Enhanced Browsing Security Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs. This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Trojan horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice. For one example of a rare JavaScript Trojan Horse, see Symantec Corporation, JS.Seeker.K (See Windows Script Host.) Uses outside web pages Outside the web, JavaScript interpreters are embedded in a number of tools. Each of these applications provides its own object model which provides access to the host environment, with the core JavaScript language remaining mostly the same in each application. ActionScript, the programming language used in Adobe Flash, is another implementation of the ECMAScript standard. Apple's Dashboard Widgets, Microsoft's Gadgets, Yahoo! Widgets, Google Desktop Gadgets, Serence Klipfolio are implemented using JavaScript. The Mozilla platform, which underlies Firefox and some other web browsers, uses JavaScript to implement the graphical user interface (GUI) of its various products. Adobe's Acrobat and Adobe Reader (formerly Acrobat Reader) support JavaScript in PDF files. Tools in the Adobe Creative Suite, including Photoshop, Illustrator, Dreamweaver and InDesign, allow scripting through JavaScript. Microsoft's Active Scripting technology supports the JavaScript-compatible JScript as an operating system scripting language. The Java programming language, in version SE 6 (JDK 1.6), introduced the javax.script package, including a JavaScript implementation based on Mozilla Rhino. Thus, Java applications can host scripts that access the application's variables and objects, much like web browsers host scripts that access the browser's Document Object Model (DOM) for a webpage. Flanagan 5th Edition, Pp 214 et seq The Qt C++ toolkit includes a QtScript module to interpret JavaScript, analogous to javax.script. Trolltech ASA, QtScript Module OpenOffice.org office application suite allows for JavaScript as one of its scripting languages. Adobe Integrated Runtime is a JavaScript runtime that allows developers to create desktop applications. The interactive music signal processing software Max/MSP released by Cycling '74, offers a JavaScript model of its environment for use by developers. It allows much more precise control than the default GUI-centric programming model. Late Night Software's JavaScript OSA (aka JavaScript for OSA, or JSOSA), is a freeware alternative to AppleScript for Mac OS X. It is based on the Mozilla 1.5 JavaScript implementation, with the addition of a MacOS object for interaction with the operating system and third-party applications. AppleScript#Open_Scripting_Architecture ECMAScript was included in the VRML97 standard for scripting nodes of VRML scene description files. Some high-end Philips universal remote panels, including TSU9600 and TSU9400, can be scripted using JavaScript. Koninklijke Philips Electronics NV, Sphere is an open source and cross platform computer program designed primarily to make role-playing games that use JavaScript as a scripting language. The open-source Re-Animator framework allows developing 2D sprite-based games using JavaScript and XML. Methabot is a web crawler that uses JavaScript as scripting language for custom filetype parsers and data extraction using E4X. Debugging Within JavaScript, access to a debugger becomes invaluable when developing large, non-trivial programs. Because there can be implementation differences between the various browsers (particularly within the Document Object Model) it is useful to have access to a debugger for each of the browsers a web application is being targeted at. Currently, Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Google Chrome, and Opera all have script debuggers available for them. Internet Explorer has three debuggers available for it: Microsoft Visual Studio is the richest of the three, closely followed by Microsoft Script Editor (a component of Microsoft Office JScript development in Microsoft Office 11 (MS InfoPath 2003) ), and finally the free Microsoft Script Debugger which is far more basic than the other two. The free Microsoft Visual Web Developer Express provides a limited version of the JavaScript debugging functionality in Microsoft Visual Studio. Web applications within Firefox can be debugged using the Firebug add-on, or the older Venkman debugger. Firefox also has a simpler built-in Error Console, which logs and evaluates JavaScript. It also logs CSS errors and warnings. WebKit's Web Inspector includes a JavaScript debugger in Apple's Safari. Some debugging aids are themselves bits of JavaScript code built to run on the Web. JSlint scans code for violations of a standard coding style. Web development bookmarklets and Firebug Lite provide variations on the idea of the cross-browser JavaScript console. Since JavaScript is interpreted, loosely-typed, and may be hosted in varying environments, each incompatible with the others, a programmer has to take extra care to make sure the code executes as expected in as wide a range of circumstances as possible, and that functionality degrades gracefully when it does not. Versions Version Release date Equivalent to NetscapeNavigator MozillaFirefox InternetExplorer Opera Safari GoogleChrome 1.0 March 1996 2.0 3.0 1.1 August 1996 3.0 1.2 June 1997 4.0-4.05 1.3 October 1998 ECMA-262 1st edition / ECMA-262 2nd edition 4.06-4.7x 4.0 1.4 NetscapeServer 1.5 November 2000 ECMA-262 3rd edition 6.0 1.0 5.5 (JScript 5.5),6 (JScript 5.6),7 (JScript 5.7),8 (JScript 6) 6.0,7.0,8.0,9.0 1.6 November 2005 1.5 + Array extras + Array and String generics + E4X 1.5 3.0, 3.1 1.7 October 2006 1.6 + Pythonic generators + Iterators + let 2.0 3.2, 4.0 1.0 1.8 June 2008 1.7 + Generator expressions + Expression closures 3.0 1.8.1 1.8 + Minor Updates 3.5 1.9 1.8.1 + ECMAScript 5 Compliance 4 Related languages The standardization effort for JavaScript needed to avoid trademark issues, so the ECMA 262 standard calls the language ECMAScript, three editions of which have been published since the work started in November 1996. Objective-J is a strict superset of JavaScript that adds traditional inheritance and Smalltalk/Objective-C style dynamic dispatch and optional pseudo-static typing to pure JavaScript. Microsoft's VBScript, like JavaScript, can be run client-side in web pages. VBScript has syntax derived from Visual Basic and is only supported by Microsoft's Internet Explorer. JSON, or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange format that is defined as a subset of JavaScript. JavaScript is also considered a functional programming language like Scheme and OCaml because it has closures and supports higher-order functions. The Little JavaScripter shows the relationship with Scheme in more detail. Although JavaScript and Lua are not genealogically related, the two are semantically very similar despite apparent syntactical and implementational differences. Mozilla browsers currently support LiveConnect, a feature that allows JavaScript and Java to intercommunicate on the web. However, support for LiveConnect is scheduled to be phased out in the future. JavaScript and Java A common misconception is that JavaScript is similar or closely related to Java; this is not so. Both have a C-like syntax, are object-oriented, are typically sandboxed and are widely used in client-side Web applications, but the similarities end there. Java has static typing; JavaScript's typing is dynamic (meaning a variable can hold an object of any type and cannot be restricted). Java is loaded from compiled bytecode; JavaScript is loaded as human-readable code. C is their last common ancestor language. Nonetheless, JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords are reserved in JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's Math and Date classes are based on those from Java 1.0. See also ECMAScript JavaScript syntax Client-side JavaScript AJAX Dynamic HTML Comparison of JavaScript frameworks Server-side JavaScript JSDoc JSON JSAN Comparison of layout engines (ECMAScript) Comparison of JavaScript-based source code editors List of computer standards References Notes External links Mozilla Developer Center Mozilla's Official Documentation on JavaScript References for Core JavaScript versions: 1.5 New in JavaScript: 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.8.1 List of JavaScript releases: versions 1.5 - 1.8 Re-Introduction to JavaScript Computerworld Interview with Brendan Eich on JavaScript be-x-old:JavaScript | JavaScript |@lemmatized javascript:146 scripting:7 language:32 use:30 enable:2 programmatic:2 access:11 object:39 within:8 application:17 primarily:3 form:6 client:11 side:7 development:3 dynamic:7 website:2 dialect:3 ecmascript:12 standard:12 characterize:2 weakly:1 type:6 prototype:12 base:10 first:6 class:6 function:49 influence:2 many:7 design:4 look:1 like:13 java:20 easy:2 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1,358 | Enchiridion_of_Epictetus | The Enchiridion, or Handbook of Epictetus, (), is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, who had been a pupil of Epictetus at the beginning of the 2nd century. Although the content is derived from the Discourses of Epictetus, it is not a summary of the Discourses, but rather it is compilation of practical precepts. The Handbook is a guide to daily life. Unlike some of his forefathers in Greek philosophy (i.e. Plato and the other metaphysicians), Epictetus focuses his attention on how to practically apply oneself on a philosophical level. The primary theme in this short work is that one should expect what will happen and wish it to happen so. The other motif that appears is Epictetus' opinion on the judgment of events: Underlying all of this, however, is the idea that "Some things are up to us and some are not up to us" and we must react and interact with those things accordingly. Even in antiquity the Enchiridion was regarded as a suitable manual of practical philosophy, and maintained its authority for many centuries, both with Christians and Pagans. In the 6th century, Simplicius wrote a commentary upon it, and two Christian writers, Nilus and an anonymous author wrote paraphrases of it, adapted for Christians, in the first half of the 5th century. The Enchiridion was first published in a Latin translation by Poliziano, Rome, 1493, and in 1496, by Beroaldus, at Bologna. The Greek original, with the commentary of Simplicius, appeared first at Venice, 1528. English translations There have been many English translations of the Enchiridion. Every translation of the Discourses (Elizabeth Carter, George Long, etc.) has included the Enchiridion, and it has often been included with other moral writings from the ancient world, most notably the Tablet of Cebes. Some notable translations of the Enchiridion include: James Sandford, 1567, The Manual of Epictetus, Translated out of Greek into French, and now into English. John Healey, 1610, Epictetus his Manual and Cebes his Table. John Davies, 1670, The Life and Philosophy of Epictetus, with the Emblem of Human Life by Cebes. Ellis Walker, 1692, Epictetus, his Enchiridion made English in a poetical paraphrase. George Stanhope, 1694, Epictetus his Morals, with Simplicius his Comment. William Bond, 1736, The Manual of Epictetus the Philosopher. Thomas William Rolleston, 1881, The Encheiridion of Epictetus. Thomas Talbot, 1881, The Encheiridion of Epictetus and The Golden Verses of Pythagoras. Nicholas White, 1983, Handbook of Epictetus, Translated with Introduction and Annotations. Keith Seddon, 2005, Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes: Guides to Stoic Living. References External links The text (translated by Elizabeth Carter circa 1750), which is brief, can be found at http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html. Free audiobook of The Enchiridion (Elizabeth Carter translation) at Librivox.org. | Enchiridion_of_Epictetus |@lemmatized enchiridion:8 handbook:4 epictetus:16 short:2 manual:5 stoic:2 ethical:1 advice:1 compile:1 arrian:1 pupil:1 beginning:1 century:4 although:1 content:1 derive:1 discourse:3 summary:1 rather:1 compilation:1 practical:2 precept:1 guide:2 daily:1 life:3 unlike:1 forefather:1 greek:3 philosophy:3 e:1 plato:1 metaphysicians:1 focus:1 attention:1 practically:1 apply:1 oneself:1 philosophical:1 level:1 primary:1 theme:1 work:1 one:1 expect:1 happen:2 wish:1 motif:1 appear:2 opinion:1 judgment:1 event:1 underlie:1 however:1 idea:1 thing:2 u:2 must:1 react:1 interact:1 accordingly:1 even:1 antiquity:1 regard:1 suitable:1 maintain:1 authority:1 many:2 christian:3 pagan:1 simplicius:3 write:2 commentary:2 upon:1 two:1 writer:1 nilus:1 anonymous:1 author:1 paraphrase:2 adapt:1 first:3 half:1 publish:1 latin:1 translation:6 poliziano:1 rome:1 beroaldus:1 bologna:1 original:1 venice:1 english:4 every:1 elizabeth:3 carter:3 george:2 long:1 etc:1 include:3 often:1 moral:2 writing:1 ancient:1 world:1 notably:1 tablet:2 cebes:4 notable:1 james:1 sandford:1 translate:3 french:1 john:2 healey:1 table:1 davy:1 emblem:1 human:1 elli:1 walker:1 make:1 poetical:1 stanhope:1 comment:1 william:2 bond:1 philosopher:1 thomas:2 rolleston:1 encheiridion:2 talbot:1 golden:1 verse:1 pythagoras:1 nicholas:1 white:1 introduction:1 annotation:1 keith:1 seddon:1 living:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 circa:1 brief:1 find:1 http:1 classic:1 mit:1 edu:1 epicench:1 html:1 free:1 audiobook:1 librivox:1 org:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
1,359 | Honduras | Honduras (, ) is a democratic republic in Central America. It was formerly known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras (now Belize). [http://www.aboututila.com/UtilaInfo/William-Strong/AI-Environmental.htm Archeological Investigations in the Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea. Its size is just over 110,000 km² with an estimated population of almost 7,500,000. Its capital is Tegucigalpa. More than 80 % of the country live in poverty. Etymology The Spanish used at least three different terms to refer to the area that became the Central American country of Honduras. Guaymuras - a name Columbus provided for a town near modern Trujillo. Bartolomé de las Casas subsequently generalized it to apply to the whole colony. Higueras - a reference to the gourds that come from the Jicaro tree, many of which were found floating in the waters off the northwest coast of Honduras. Honduras - literally "depths" in Spanish. Columbus is traditionally quoted as having written Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras (English: "Thank God we have come out of those depths") while along the northeastern coast. Columbus's quote History Archaeologists have demonstrated that Honduras had a rich, multi-ethnic prehistory. An important part of that prehistory was the Mayan presence around the city of Copán in western Honduras, near the Guatemalan border. A major Mayan city flourished during the classic period (150-900) in that area. It has many carved inscriptions and stelae. The ancient kingdom, named rtyu, existed from the fifth century to the early ninth century, with antecedents going back to at least the second century. The Mayan civilization began a marked decline in the ninth century, but there is evidence of people still living in and around the city until at least 1200 Paine and Fretter 1996 "Environmental Degredation and the Ancient Maya Collapse at Copan, Honduras" Ancient Mesoamerica 7:37-47 . By the time the Spanish came to Honduras, the once great city-state of Copán was overrun by the jungle, and the Lencas, not the Mayans, were the main Amerindian people living in western Honduras Newson, Linda The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras Under Spanish Rule. Dellplain Latin American Studies; No. 20, Westview Press, Boulder . On his fourth and the final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus reached the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras. Honduras History Columbus landed near the modern town of Trujillo, in the vicinity of the Guaimoreto Lagoon. After the Spanish discovery, Honduras became part of Spain's vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala. Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals. The Spanish ruled the region for approximately three centuries. Spain granted independence to Honduras along with the rest of the Central American provinces on September 15 1821. In 1822 the United Central American Provinces decided to join the newly declared Mexican Empire of Iturbide. The Iturbide Empire was overthrown in 1823 and Central America separated from it, forming the Federal Republic of Central America, which disintegrated in 1838. As a result the states of the republic became independent nations. Silver mining was a key factor in the Spanish conquest and settlement of Honduras . The American-owned Barger Mining Company was a major gold and silver producer but shut down its large mine at San Juancito in 1954. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Honduras joined the Allied Nations on December 8, 1941. Along with twenty-five other governments, Honduras signed the Declaration by United Nations on January 1, 1942. In 1969, Honduras and El Salvador fought what would become known as the Football War. There had been border tensions between the two countries after Oswaldo López Arellano, a former president of Honduras, blamed the deteriorating economy on the large number of immigrants from El Salvador. From that point on, the relationship between the two countries grew acrimonious and reached a low when El Salvador met Honduras for a three-round football elimination match as a preliminary to the World Cup. Tensions escalated, and on July 14, 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire which took effect on July 20 and brought about a withdrawal of Salvadoran troops in early August. Contributing factors in the conflict were a boundary dispute and the presence of thousands of Salvadorans living in Honduras illegally. After the week-long football war, many Salvadoran families and workers were expelled. El Salvador had agreed on a truce to settle the boundary issue, but Honduras later paid war damage costs for expelled refugees. Honduran Beach Hurricane Fifi caused severe damage while skimming the northern coast of Honduras on September 18 and 19, 1974. Melgar Castro (1975-78) and Paz Garcia (1978-82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras. During the early 1980s, the United States established a continuing military presence in Honduras with the purpose of supporting the anti-Sandinista Contras fighting the Nicaraguan government see Soto Cano Air Base . The U.S. built Soto Cano Air Base also known as Palmerola, near Comayagua, with a runway so that C-5 Galaxy cargo planes could land there, rather than at the public airport in San Pedro Sula see Soto Cano Air Base . They revitalized an airstrip last used in World War II near Trujillo along the beach by the Guaimoretto lagoon as well. The U.S. also built a training base near Trujillo known as CREMS, which primarily trained Contras and the El Salvadoran military, and in conjunction with this, developed Puerto Castilla into a modern port http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3498 Honduras: From Banana Republic to U.S. Military garrison a Visit to Puerto Castilla's military center Though spared the bloody civil wars wracking its neighbors, the Honduran army quietly waged a campaign against Marxist-Leninist militias such as Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement, notorious for kidnappings and bombings , and allegedly some non-militants. The operation is alleged to have included extra judicial killings done by government-backed units, most notably Battalion 316. "A survivor tells her story" baltimoresun.com, June 15, 1995, retrieved January 8, 2007. President Roberto Suazo Cordoba launched ambitious social and economic development projects sponsored by American development aid. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused such massive and widespread loss that former Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed that fifty years of progress in the country were reversed. Mitch obliterated about 70% of the crops and an estimated 70-80% of the transportation infrastructure, including nearly all bridges and secondary roads. Across the country, 33,000 houses were destroyed, an additional 50,000 damaged, some 5,000 people killed, 12,000 injured, and total loss estimated at $3 billion USD. [http://mitchnts1.cr.usgs.gov/country/honduras.html USGS Hurricane Mitch Politics Honduras has five registered political parties: National Party (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH), Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH), Social Democrats (Partido Innovación y Unidad-Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano de Honduras: DCH), and Democratic Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last years, Honduras has had five Liberal presidents: Roberto Suazo Córdova, José Azcona del Hoyo, Carlos Roberto Reina, Carlos Roberto Flores and Manuel Zelaya, and two Nationalists: Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero and Ricardo Maduro. The elections have been full of controversies, including questions about whether Azcona was born in Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand given he was born in Panama. In 1963, a military coup was mounted against the democratically-elected president Ramón Villeda Morales. This even started a string of Military Governments which held power almost uninterrupted until 1981. In this year Suazo Córdova (LPH) was elected president and Honduras changed from a military authoritarian regime. In 1986, there were five Liberal candidates and four Nationalists running for president. Because no one candidate obtained a clear majority, the so-called "Formula B" was invoked and Azcona del Hoyo became president. In 1990, Callejas won the election under the slogan "Llegó el momento del Cambio" (English: "The time for change has arrived"), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador's "ARENAs" political campaign. Once in office, Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment, and has been the subject of several scandals and accusations. It was during Flores Facusse's mandate that Hurricane Mitch hit the country and decades of economic growth were eradicated in less than a week. Government ministries are often incapable of carrying out their mandate due to budgetary constraints. In an interview with Rodolfo Pastor Fasquelle, Minister of Sports & Culture and one of three 'super ministers' responsible for coordinating the ministries related to public services (security & economic being the other 2), published in Honduras This Week on July 31, 2006, it was related that 94% of the department budget was spent on bureaucracy and only 6% went to support activities and organizations covered by the mandate. Wages within that ministry were identified as the largest budget consumer. President Maduro's administration "de-nationalized" the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of these services to the Honduran population. As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecommunications companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies. As of mid 2007 the issue of tele-communications continues to be very damaging to the current government. [http://www.laprensa.hn/ediciones/2007/08/11/que_nadie_se_atreva_a_intentar_romper_el_orden_constitucional Que nadie se atreva a intentar romper el orden constitucional] The country's main newspapers are La Prensa, El Heraldo, La Tribuna and Diario Tiempo. The official newspaper is La Gaceta. A Presidential and General Election was held on November 27, 2005. Manuel Zelaya of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won, with Porfirio Pepe Lobo of the National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until December 7. Towards the end of December, the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory. Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras' new president on January 27, 2006. Departments and municipalities Departmental division of Honduras Honduras is divided into 18 departments. The capital city is Tegucigalpa Central District of the department of Francisco Morazán. 1-Atlántida 2-Choluteca 3-Colón 4-Comayagua 5-Copán 6-Cortés 7-El Paraíso 8-Francisco Morazán 9-Gracias a Dios 10-Intibucá 11-Islas de la Bahía 12-La Paz 13-Lempira 14-Ocotepeque 15-Olancho 16-Santa Bárbara 17-Valle 18-Yoro Geography Honduras is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea (top), Nicaragua, a gulf on the Pacific Ocean, El Salvador (lower left) & Guatemala (left) River landscape in Tela. Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea on the north coast and the Pacific Ocean on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast. The Honduran territory consists mainly of mountains, but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle La Mosquitia region in the northeast, and the heavily populated lowland Sula valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia, lies the UNESCO world-heritage site Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, with the Coco River which divides the country from Nicaragua. The Islas de la Bahía and the Swan Islands (all off the north coast) are part of Honduras. Misteriosa Bank and Rosario Bank, 130 to 150 km (80–93 miles) north of the Swan Islands, fall within the EEZ of Honduras. Natural resources include timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, shrimp, and hydropower. Ecology The region is considered a biodiversity hotspot because of the numerous plant and animal species that can be found there. Like other countries in the region, Honduras contains vast biological resources. The country hosts more than 6,000 species of vascular plants, of which 630 (described so far) are orchids; around 250 reptiles and amphibians, more than 700 bird species, and 110 mammal species, half of them being bats. Honduras Silvestre - Honduran Biodiversity Database In the northeastern region of La Mosquitia lies the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, a lowland rainforest which is home to a great diversity of life. The reserve was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List in 1982. Honduras has rain forests, cloud forests (which can rise up to nearly three thousand meters above sea level), mangroves, savannas and mountain ranges with pine and oak trees, and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. In the Bay Islands there are bottlenose dolphins, manta rays, parrot fish, schools of blue tang and whale shark. Economy The famous hotel Gran Sula in the center of San Pedro Sula Fruit Market on the Road The economy has continued to grow slowly, but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining low. Economic growth in the last few years has averaged 7% per year which has been one of the most successful growths in Latin America, but 50%, approximately 3.7 million, of the population still remains below the poverty line. web.worldbank.org It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are unemployed, the rate of unemployment standing at 27.9%. Honduras was declared one of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund which made it eligible for debt relief in 2005. Both the electricity services (ENEE) and land-line telephone services (HONDUTEL) have been operated by government agencies, with ENEE receiving heavy subsidies because of chronic financial problems. HONDUTEL, however, is no longer a monopoly, the telecommunication sector having been opened to private-sector companies after December 25 2005; this was one of the requirements before approving the beginning of CAFTA. There are price controls on petrol, and other temporary price controls for basic commodities are often passed for short periods by the Congress. After years of declining against the U.S. dollar the Lempira has stabilized at around 19 Lempiras per dollar. In June 2008 the exchange rate between United States Dollars and Honduran Lempiras was approximately 1 to 18.85. In 2005 Honduras signed the CAFTA (Free Trade Agreement with United States). In December 2005, Honduras' main seaport Puerto Cortes was included in the U.S. Container Security Initiative. Ports in CSI - CBP.gov On December 7 2006, the U.S. Departments of Homeland Security (DHS) and Energy (DOE) announced the first phase of the Secure Freight Initiative, an unprecedented effort to build upon existing port security measures by enhancing the U.S. federal government’s ability to scan containers for nuclear and radiological materials overseas and to better assess the risk of inbound containers. The initial phase of Secure Freight involves the deployment of a combination of existing technology and proven nuclear detection devices to six foreign ports: Port Qasim in Pakistan; Puerto Cortes in Honduras; Southampton in the United Kingdom; Port Salalah in Oman; Port of Singapore; and the Gamman Terminal at Port Busan in Korea. Since early 2007, containers from these ports are scanned for radiation and information risk factors before they are allowed to depart for the United States. DHS: DHS and DOE Launch Secure Freight Initiative Demographics According to the CIA World Factbook, Honduras has a population of 7.48 million; 90% of the population is Mestizo, 7% Amerindian, 2% black and 1% white. CIA - The World Factbook - Honduras Village in Copán. Ninety percent of the Honduran population is Mestizo (a mixture of Amerindian and European ancestry). About 7% of the Honduran population are members of one of the seven recognized indigenous groups. The Confederation of Autochthonous Peoples of Honduras (CONPAH) and the government of Honduras count seven different indigenous groups: the Ch'orti', a Mayan group living in the northwest on the border with Guatemala; the Garifuna speaking an Arawakan language. They live along the entire Caribbean coastline of Honduras, and in the Bay Islands; the Pech or Paya Indians living in a small area in the Olancho department; the Tolupan (also called Jicaque, "Xicaque", or Tol), living in the Department of Yoro and in the reserve of the Montaña de la Flor and parts of the department of Yoro; the Lenca Indians living in the Valle and Choluteca departments; the Miskito Indians living on the northeast coast along the border with Nicaragua. The confederation and each separate group of indigenous people have worked, since the 1980s, for bettering the life of the aboriginal peoples. Change, however, has been elusive as these peoples still face violence and discrimination. About 2% of Honduras's population is black , or Afro-Honduran, and mainly reside on the country's Caribbean coast. Most are the descendants of the West Indian islands brought to Honduras as slaves and indentured servants. Another large group (about 150,000 today) are the Garifuna, descendants of an Afro-Carib population which revolted against British authorities on the island of St. Vincent and were forcibly moved to Belize and Honduras during the eighteenth century. Garífunas are part of Honduran identity through theatrical presentations such as Louvavagu. Honduras hosts a significant Palestinian community (the vast majority of whom are Christian Arabs). The Palestinians arrived in the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, establishing themselves especially in the city of San Pedro Sula. The Palestinian community, well integrated in Honduras, is prominent in business, commerce, banking, industry, and politics. There is also an East Asian community that is primarily Chinese descent, and to a lesser extent Japanese. Korean, Ryukyuan, Vietnamese also make up a small percentage due to their arrival to Honduras as contract laborers in the 1980s and 1990s. There are also an estimated 1000 Sumos (or Mayangnas) that live in Honduras, the majority of whom reside on the Caribbean coast. Although plurality of Hondurans are nominally Roman Catholic (47% according to 2007 CID-Gallup nationwide survey), membership in the Roman Catholic Church is declining while membership in Protestant churches is increasing. There are thriving Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Lutheran and Pentecostal churches, and together Evangelical Protestant churches constitute 36% of population. There are Protestant seminaries. Practitioners of the Buddhist, Jewish, Islamic, Bahá'í, Rastafari and indigenous denominations and religions exist. International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Honduras The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) claims over 120,000 members in Honduras as of the beginning of 2007 (lds.org newsroom site). Since 1975, emigration from Honduras has accelerated as job-seekers and political refugees sought a better life elsewhere. Although many Hondurans have relatives in Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, El Salvador and Canada, the majority of Hondurans living abroad are in the United States. Culture The Cathedral of Comayagua. Colonial architecture in Copán. The most renowned Honduran painter is Jose Antonio Velásquez. Other important painters include Carlos Garay, and Roque Zelaya. Two of Honduras' most notable writers are Froylan Turcios and Ramón Amaya Amador. Others include Marco Antonio Rosa, Roberto Sosa, Lucila Gamero de Medina, Eduardo Bähr, Amanda Castro, Javier Abril Espinoza, Teófilo Trejo, and Roberto Quesada. Some of Honduras' notable musicians include Rafael Coello Ramos, Lidia Handal, Victoriano Lopez, Guillermo Anderson, Victor Donaire, Francisco Carranza and Camilo Rivera Guevara. Hondurans are often referred to as Catracho or Catracha (fem) in Spanish. The word was coined by Nicaraguans and derives from the last name of the Spanish Honduran General Florencio Xatruch, who, in 1857, led Honduran armed forces against an attempted invasion by North American adventurer William Walker. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory. The main language is Spanish spoken by a 94% as first language. The other languages that are minorities and are spoken by less than 4%, are Amerindian languages, and in the islands next to the coast English (spoken by less than 0.3%). Honduras This Week is a weekly English language newspaper that has been published for seventeen years in Tegucigalpa. On the islands of Roatan, Utila and Guanaja, the Bay Islands Voice has been a source of monthly news since 2003. Honduran cuisine makes extensive use of coconut, in both sweet and savory foods, and even in soups. The José Francisco Saybe theater in San Pedro Sula is home to the Círculo Teatral Sampedrano (Theatrical Circle of San Pedro Sula) Celebrations |Sawdust Carpets of Comayagua During the Easter Celebrations Some of Honduras' national holidays include Honduras Independence Day on September 15 and Children's Day or Día del Niño, which is celebrated in homes, schools and churches on September 10; on this day, children receive presents and have parties similar to Christmas or birthday celebrations. Some neighborhoods have piñatas on the street. Other holidays are Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Day of the Soldier (October 3 to celebrate the birth of Francisco Morazán), Christmas, El Dia de Lempira on July 20, Honduras This Week Online June 1999 and New Year's Eve. Honduras Independence Day festivities start early in the morning with marching bands. Each band wears different colors and features cheerleaders. Fiesta Catracha takes place this same day: typical Honduran foods such as beans, tamales, baleadas, yucca with chicharron, and tortillas are offered. On Christmas Eve, the people reunite with their families and close friends to have dinner, then give out presents at midnight. In some cities fireworks are seen and heard at midnight. On New Year's Eve there is food and "cohetes", fireworks and festivities. Birthdays are also great events, and include the famous “piñata” which is filled with candies and surprises for the children invited. La Feria Isidra is celebrated in La Ceiba in the end of May A city located in the coast. It is usually called "The Friendship Carnaval". People from all over the world come for one week of festivities. Every night there is a little carnaval (carnavalito) in a neighborhood. Finally, on Saturday there is a big parade with floats and displays with people from Brazil, New Orleans, Japan, Jamaica, Barbados and many other countries. This celebration is also accompanied by the Milk Fair, where many Hondurans come to show off their farm products and animals. Infrastructure Energy About half of the electricity sector in Honduras is privately owned. The remaining generation capacity) is run by ENEE (Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica). Key challenges in the sector are: How to finance investments in generation and transmission in the absence of either a financially healthy utility or of concessionary funds by external donors for these types of investments; How to re-balance tariffs, cut arrears and reduce commercial losses - including electricity theft - without fostering social unrest; and How to reconcile environmental concerns with the government's objective to build two new large dams and associated hydropower plants. How to improve access in rural areas. El Cajon Dam Water supply and sanitation Water supply and sanitation in Honduras varies greatly from urban centers to rural villages. Larger population centers generally have modernized water treatment and distribution systems, however water quality is often poor because of lack of proper maintenance and treatment. Rural areas generally have basic drinking water systems with limited capacity for water treatment. Many urban areas have sewer systems in place for the collection of wastewater, however proper treatment of wastewater is scarce. In rural areas, sanitary facilities are generally limited to latrines and basic septic pits. Water and sanitation services were historically provided by Servicio Autonomo de Alcantarillas y Aqueductos (SANAA). In 2003, a new "water law" was passed which called for the decentralization of water services. With the 2003 law, local communities have the right and responsibility to own, operate, and control their own drinking water and wastewater systems. Since passage of the new law, many communities have joined together to address water and sanitation issues on a regional basis. Many national and international non-government organizations have a history of working on water and sanitation projects in Honduras. International groups include, but are not limited to, the Red Cross, Water 1st, Rotary Club, Catholic Relief Services, Water for People, CARE, CESO-SACO and SHH. Old Honduran Police Cars In addition, many government organizations working on projects include: the European Union, USAID, the Army Corps of Engineers,Cooperacion Andalucia, the government of Japan, and many others. Transport Highway in Honduras Transportation in Honduras consists of the following infrastructure: 699 km of railways; CIA - The World Factbook - Honduras 13,603 km of roadways; 7 ports and harbors; and 112 airports altogether (12 Paved, 100 unpaved). Responsibility for policy in the transport sector rests with the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Housing (SOPRTRAVI after its Spanish acronym). National symbols National flower, the orchid (orquídea) Rhyncholaelia digbyana National bird, Ara Macao The flag of Honduras is composed of 3 equal horizontal stripes, with the upper and lower ones being blue and representing the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The central stripe is white. It contains five blue stars representing the five states of the Central American Union. The middle star represents Honduras, located in the center of the Central American Union. The Coat of Arms was established in 1825. It is an equilateral triangle, at the base is a volcano between two castles, over which is a rainbow and the sun shining. The triangle is placed on an area that symbolizes being bathed by both seas. Around all of this an oval containing in golden lettering: "Republic of Honduras, Free, Sovereign and Independent". The National Anthem of Honduras is a result of a contest carried out in 1904 during the presidency of Manuel Bonilla. In the end, it was the poet Augusto C. Coello that ended up writing the anthem, with the participation of German composer Carlos Hartling writing the music. The anthem was officially adopted on November 15, 1915, during the presidency of Alberto Membreño. The anthem is composed of a choir and seven stroonduran. The national flower is the famous orchid, Rhyncholaelia digbyana (formerly known as Brassavola digbyana), which replaced the rose in 1969. The change of the National Flower was carried out during the administration of general Oswaldo López Arellano, thinking that Brassavola digbiana "is an indigenous plant of Honduras; having this flower exceptional characteristics of beauty, vigor and distinction", as the decree dictates it. The National Tree of Honduras is the Honduras Pine (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis). Also the use of the tree was regulated, "to avoid the unnecessary destructions caused by choppings or fires of forest." The National Mammal is the White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), whicvh was adopted as a measure to avoid excessive depredation. It is one of two species of deer that live in Honduras. The National Bird of Honduras is the Scarlet Macaw (Ara Macao). This bird was much valued by the pre-Columbian civilizations of Honduras. Folklore Legends and fairy tales are paramount within the Honduras culture; Lluvia de Peces (Fish Rain) is an example of this. The legend of El Cadejo and La Ciguanaba (La Sucia) are also popular. Sports Football is the most popular sport in Honduras. Information on all other Honduran-sports related atricles are below: Football in Honduras Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras Honduras national baseball team Honduras national football team Honduras national under-20 football team Honduras U-17 national football team Honduran football clubs Honduran football competitions Honduran footballers Football venues in Honduras See also Notes References Adventures in Nature: Honduras; James D. Gollin Don't Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks From The Heart: The Story of Elvia Alvarado; Medea Benjamin Honduras: The Making of a Banana Republic; Alison Acker Honduras: State for Sale; Richard Lapper, James Painter Inside Honduras; Kent Norsworthy and Tom Berry La Mosquitia: A Guide to the Savannas, Rain Forest and Turtle Hunters; Derek Parent Moon Handbooks: Honduras; Christopher Humphrey Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: Region and State in Honduras, 1870-1972; Dario A. Euraque Seven Names for the Bellbird: Conservation Geography in Honduras; Mark Bonta Ulysses Travel Guide: Honduras; Eric Ilamovitch The United States in Honduras, 1980-1981: An Ambassador's Memoir; Jack R. Binns The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador, 1969; Thomas P. Anderson External links Government of Honduras Official Site of the Tourism Institute of Honduras (English) Chief of State and Cabinet Members Honduras at University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries GovPubs Honduran Biodiversity Database [http://www.hondurastips.honduras.com/ Honduras Tips Travel Info (English)} Travel and Tourism Info on Honduras (English) Humanitarian Aid in Honduras Honduran English Language weekly newspaper Answers.com CIA World Factbook be-x-old:Гандурас | Honduras |@lemmatized honduras:123 democratic:2 republic:7 central:11 america:4 formerly:2 know:5 spanish:13 differentiate:1 british:2 belize:2 http:5 www:4 aboututila:1 com:4 utilainfo:1 william:2 strong:1 ai:1 environmental:3 htm:1 archeological:1 investigation:1 bay:5 island:7 country:18 border:6 west:2 guatemala:4 southwest:1 el:17 salvador:9 southeast:1 nicaragua:5 south:2 pacific:4 ocean:4 gulf:4 fonseca:2 north:5 large:9 inlet:1 caribbean:7 sea:6 size:1 estimated:2 population:11 almost:2 capital:3 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1,360 | Faith | Faith is the confident belief or trust in the truth of or trustworthiness of a person, idea, or thing. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/faith http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=confidence For example, the word "faith" can refer to a religion itself or to religion in general. As with "trust", faith involves a concept of future events or outcomes, and is used conversely for a belief "not resting on logical proof or material evidence." http://www.thefreedictionary.com/faith http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/faith Informal usage of the word "faith" can be quite broad, and may be used standardly in place of "trust" or "belief." Faith is often used in a religious context, as in theology, where it almost universally refers to a trusting belief in a transcendent reality, or else in a Supreme Divine Being or and said being's role in the order of transcendent, spiritual things. In a religious context, the actual meaning of the word "faith" is very commonly misconstrued, mostly by those who call themselves faithful and very commonly even by their opponents. These words indisputably refer to the requirement of solid and logical inferences for the foundation of a real and acceptable faith, relatively speaking. Conversely, a "believer" that does not have logical, solid, and trustworthy references on which to base their "faith" has fallen into mere credulity and fideism. Many are surprised to see that the Bible itself actually condemns illogical, unfounded credulity. Faith is in general the persuasion of the mind that a certain statement is true. Dictionary.com. Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/faith (accessed: April 20, 2009) It is the belief and the assent of the mind to the truth of what is declared by another, based on his or her authority and truthfulness. Dictionary.com. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/faith (accessed: April 20, 2009) The English word faith is dated from 1200–50, from the Latin fidem, or fidēs, meaning trust, akin to fīdere to trust. Allegory of faith, by L.S. Carmona (1752–53). Veil symbolizes the impossibility to know directly the evidences. Epistemological validity of faith There exists a wide spectrum of opinion with respect to the epistemological validity of faith. On one extreme is logical positivism, which denies the validity of any beliefs held by faith; on the other extreme is fideism, which holds that true belief can only arise from faith, because reason and evidence cannot lead to truth. Some foundationalists, such as St. Augustine of Hippo and Alvin Plantinga, hold that all of our beliefs rest ultimately on beliefs accepted by faith. Others, such as C. S. Lewis, hold that faith is merely the virtue by which we hold to our reasoned ideas, despite moods to the contrary. Fideism and Pistisism Fideism is not a synonym for “religious belief”, but describes a particular philosophical proposition in regard to the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reasons. It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth. The word and concept had its origin in the mid to late nineteenth century by way of Roman Catholic thought, in a movement called traditionalism. The Roman Catholic Magisterium has repeatedly condemned fideism though. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fideism/ The word is also occasionally used to refer to the Protestant belief that Christians are saved by faith alone: for which see sola fide. This position is sometimes called solifidianism and sol Pistisism. Many noted philosophers and theologians have espoused the idea that faith is the basis of knowledge. One example is St. Augustine of Hippo. Known as one of his contributions to philosophy, the idea of "faith seeking understanding" was set forth by St. Augustine in his statement "Crede, ut intelligas" ("Believe in order that you may understand"). One illustration of this concept is in the development of knowledge in children. A child typically holds parental teaching as credible, in spite of the child's lack of sufficient research to establish such credibility empirically. That parental teaching, however fallible, becomes a foundation upon which future knowledge is built. The child’s faith in his/her parents teaching is based on a belief in their credibility. Unless/until the child’s belief in their parents’ credibility is superseded by a stronger belief, the parental teaching will serve as a filter through which other teaching must be processed and/or evaluated. Following this line of reasoning, and assuming that children have finite or limited empirical knowledge at birth, it follows that faith is the fundamental basis of all knowledge one has. Even adults attribute the basis for some of their knowledge to so called "authorities" in a given field of study. This is true because one simply does not have the time or resources to evaluate all of his/her knowledge empirically and exhaustively. "Faith" is used instead. However, a child's parents are not infallible. Some of what the child learns from them will be wrong, and some will be rejected. It is rational (albeit at a perhaps instinctive level) for the child to trust the parents in the absence of other sources of information, but it is also irrational to cling rigidly to everything one was originally taught in the face of countervailing evidence. Parental instruction may be the historical foundation of future knowledge, but that does not necessarily make it a structural foundation. It is sometimes argued that even scientific knowledge is dependent on 'faith' - for example, faith that the researcher responsible for an empirical conclusion is competent, and honest. Indeed, distinguished chemist and philosopher Michael Polanyi argued that scientific discovery begins with a scientist's faith that an unknown discovery is possible. Scientific discovery thus requires a passionate commitment to a result that is unknowable at the outset. Polanyi argued that the scientific method is not an objective method removed from man's passion. On the contrary, scientific progress depends primarily on the unique capability of free man to notice and investigate patterns and connections, and on the individual scientist's willingness to commit time and resources to such investigation, which usually must begin before the truth is known or the benefits of the discovery are imagined, let alone understood fully. It could then be argued that even in science, until one possesses all knowledge in totality, one will need faith in order to believe an understanding to be correct or incorrect in total affirmation. Again, scientific faith does not see itself as dogmatic. While the scientist must make presuppositions in order to get the enterprise under way, almost everything (according to some thinkers, such as Quine, literally everything) is revisable and discardable. Faith in world religions Judaism Although Judaism does recognize the positive value of Emunah (faith/belief) and the negative status of the Apikorus (heretic), faith is not as stressed or as central as it is in other religions, e.g. Christianity. It is a necessary means for being a practicing religious Jew, but the ends is more about practice than faith itself. The specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been disputed throughout Jewish history. Today many, but not all, Orthodox Jews have accepted Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Belief. The 13 Principles and the Resurrection of the Dead from The Wolf Shall Lie With the Lamb, Rabbi Shmuel Boteach (Oxford University) A traditional example of faith as seen in the Jewish annals is found in the person of Abraham. On a number of occasions, Abraham both accepts statements from God that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from God to do things that seem implausible (see Genesis 12-15). For a wide history of this dispute, see: Shapira, Marc: The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (Series).) In the Jewish scriptures it refers to how God acts toward His people and how they are to respond to him, it is rooted in the covenant established in the Torah, notable Deuteronomy 7:9 (New American Standard Bible) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%207:9;&version=49; "Know therefore that the LORD your God, He is God, (the faithful God, who keeps His covenant and His lovingkindness to a thousandth generation with those who love Him and keep His commandments" Very rarely does it relate to any teaching that must be believed. Christianity Faith in Christianity is based in the work and teaching of Jesus Christ. In this way Christianity declares not to be distinguished by its faith, but by the object of its faith. Faith is an act of trust or reliance on God. Rather than being passive, faith leads to an active life of obedience to the one being trusted. It sees the mystery of God and his grace and seeks to know and become obedient to God. Faith is not static but causes one to learn more of God and grow, it has its origin in God. . In Christianity faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of God. Faith is not fideism or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements. Migliore, Daniel L. 2004. Faith seeking understanding: an introduction to Christian theology. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans. pp 3-8. Before the Christian has faith, one must understand in whom and in what one has faith. Without understanding, there cannot be true faith. Understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers: the understanding of the scriptures and traditions of the community of believers and on personal experiences of the believer. Inbody, Tyron. 2005. The faith of the Christian church: an introduction to theology. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. pp 1-10. In the New Testament, the word faith is derived from the Greek word pistis or from the root word peitho, meaning to trust, to have confidence, faithfulness, to be reliable, to assure. Islam Faith in Islam is called Iman. It is a complete submission to the will of Allah which includes belief, profession, and the body's performance of deeds consistent with the commission as vicegerent on Earth, all according to Allah's will. Iman has two aspects Recognizing and affirming that there is one Creator of the universe and only to this Creator is worship due. According to Islamic thought, this comes naturally because faith is an instinct of the human soul. This instinct is then trained via parents or guardians into specific religious or spiritual paths. Likewise, the instinct may not be guided at all. Willingness and commitment to submitting that Allah exists, and to His prescriptions for living in accordance with vicegerency. The Qur'an (Koran) is the dictation of Allah's prescriptions through Prophet Muhammad and is believed to have updated and completed previous revelations Allah sent through earlier prophets. In the Qur'an, God (Allah in Arabic), states (2:62): Surely, those who believe, those who are Jewish, the Christians, and the Sabians; anyone who (1) believes in GOD, and (2) believes in the Last Day, and (3) leads a righteous life, will receive their recompense from their Lord. They have nothing to fear, nor will they grieve. Islam (Submission). Your best source for Islam on the Internet. Happiness is submission to God.-Islam-Submission-Introduction,definition, discussion, debate, laws, justice, hum... Hinduism In Hinduism, Śraddhā is the word that is synonymous with faith. It means unshaken belief and purity of thought. Faith is recognized as a virtue throughout all schools of Hinduism, although there is a variety of interpretations of the role of faith in one's daily life, its foundation, and what rests upon it. Some schools more strongly emphasize reason and direct personal knowledge, while other schools of thought more strongly emphasize religious devotion. In chapter 17 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna mentions the three gunas of faith: Faith rooted in sattva, faith rooted in rajas, and faith rooted in tamas. Those with sattvic faith are said to worship the devas, those with rajasic faith are said to worship demons, and those with tamasic faith are said to worship ghosts and spirits. Buddhism Faith (Pali: Saddhā, Sanskrit: Śraddhā) is an important constituent element of the teachings of the Buddha - both in the Theravada tradition as in the Mahayana. Faith in Buddhism derives from the pali word saddhā, which often refers to a sense of conviction. The saddhā is often described as: A conviction that something is A determination to accomplish one's goals A sense of joy deriving from the other two While faith in Buddhism does not imply "blind faith", Buddhist faith (as advocated by the Buddha in various scriptures, or sutras) nevertheless requires a degree of faith and belief primarily in the spiritual attainment of the Buddha. Faith in Buddhism centers on the understanding that the Buddha is an Awakened being, on his superior role as teacher, in the truth of his Dharma (spiritual Doctrine), and in his Sangha (community of spiritually developed followers). Faith in Buddhism is better classified or defined as a Confidence in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, and is intended to lead to the goal of Awakening (bodhi) and Nirvana. Volitionally, faith implies a resolute and courageous act of will. It combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it. The Way of Wisdom The Five Spiritual Faculties by Edward Conze, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/conze/wheel065.html As a counter to any form of "blind faith", the Buddha taught the Kalama Sutra, exhorting his disciples to investigate any teaching and to live by what is learnt and accepted, rather than believing something outright. Bahá'í Faith In the Bahá'í Faith faith is ultimately the acceptance of the divine authority of the Manifestations of God. In the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth. Faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings. By faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good deeds. Baha'i World Faith - Abdu'l-Baha Section, p. 383 See the Role of faith in the Baha'i Faith Criticisms of faith A certain number of rationalists criticize religious faith, or what they perceive to be religious faith. They argue it is irrational, and see faith as ignorance of reality: a strong belief in something with no evidence and sometimes a strong belief in something even with evidence against it. Bertrand Russell used to note that no one speaks of faith in the existence of such entities as gravity or electricity; rather, resorts to arguing faith occur only when evidence or logic fails. Michael Green states that the idea of faith being "belief not based on evidence" is one of the myths about Christianity. Faith is to commit oneself to act based on sufficient experience to warrant belief, but without absolute proof. To have faith involves an act of will. For example, many people saw Blondin walk across the gorge below Niagara Falls on a tightrope, and believed (on the basis of the evidence of their own eyes) that he was capable of carrying a man on his back safely across. But only his manager Harry Colcord had enough faith to allow himself to be carried. Defenders of faith say that belief in scientific evidence is itself based on faith — in positivism; yet they do not themselves defy reason by walking off cliffs out of faith in divine intervention. Others claim that faith is perfectly compatible with and does not necessarily contradict reason, "faith" meaning an assumed belief. Many Jews, Christians and Muslims claim that there is adequate historical evidence of their God's existence and interaction with human beings. As such, they may believe that there is no need for "faith" in God in the sense of belief against or despite evidence; rather, they hold that evidence is sufficient to demonstrate that their God probably exists or certainly exists. Some religious believers – and many of their critics – often use the term "faith" as the affirmation of belief without an ongoing test of evidence. In this sense faith refers to belief beyond evidence or logical arguments, sometimes called "implicit faith". Another form of this kind of faith is fideism: one ought to believe that God exists, but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any reasons at all. "Faith" in this sense, belief for the sake of believing, is often associated with Søren Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling and some other existentialist religious thinkers. Faith as Religious belief, has been advanced as being desirable, for example for emotional reasons or to regulate society, and this can be seen as ‘positive’ when it has 'benign’ effects. However, rationalists may become alarmed that faithful activists, perhaps with extreme beliefs, might not be amenable to argument or to negotiation over their behavior In the rationalist view, belief should be restricted to what is directly supportable by logic or scientific evidence. Robert Todd Carroll, an advocate of atheism, argues that the word "faith" is usually used to refer to belief in a proposition that is not supported by a perceived majority of evidence. Since many beliefs are in propositions that are supported by a perceived majority of evidence, the claim that all beliefs/knowledge are based on faith is a misconception "or perhaps it is an intentional attempt at disinformation and obscurantism" made by religious apologists: "There seems to be something profoundly deceptive and misleading about lumping together as acts of faith such things as belief in the Virgin birth and belief in the existence of an external world or in the principle of contradiction. Such a view trivializes religious faith by putting all non-empirical claims in the same category as religious faith. In fact, religious faith should be put in the same category as belief in superstitions, fairy tales, and delusions of all varieties." Carroll, Robert T. faith (religious). skepdic.com. 2006. http://www.skepdic.com/faith.html (accessed February 20, 2007). Atheist Richard Dawkins contends that faith is merely belief without evidence; a process of active non-thinking. A practice which only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about reality that is based solely off of their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, has no ability to make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review. See also Apostasy Belief system Crisis of faith Faith and rationality Fideism Lectures on Faith Major world religions Pascal's WagerReligion Rationalism Religious belief Religious conversion Spectrum of Theistic Probability St. Faith Saints - Faith, Hope, and Charity Theocracy Notes Further reading Sam Harris, The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason, W. W. Norton (2004), hardcover, 336 pages, ISBN 0-393-03515-8 Hein, David. "Faith and Doubt in Rose Macaulay's The Towers of Trebizond." Anglican Theological Review Winter2006, Vol. 88 Issue 1, p47-68. Stephen Palmquist, "Faith as Kant's Key to the Justification of Transcendental Reflection", The Heythrop Journal 25:4 (October 1984), pp.442–455. Reprinted as Chapter V in Stephen Palmquist, Kant's System of Perspectives (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993). Zarlengo, Michael. Pray Like This: God's Secret to Answered Prayer. Dallas, Texas: Michael Zarlengo Publishing, 2005. D. Mark Parks, "Faith/Faithfulness" Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Eds. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England. Nashville: Holman Publishers, 2003. Poetry & Spirituality Classic reflections on the nature of faith Martin Buber, I and Thou Paul Tillich, The Dynamics of Faith The Reformation view of faith John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion R.C. Sproul, Faith Alone Faith in Analysis Paul Williams, The Anatomy of Spiritual Growth External links Epistemology of the religion, article from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Peter Forrest Martin Luther's Definition of Faith John Calvin on Justification by Faith from The Institutes of the Christian Religion Charles Spurgeon on the Warrant of Faith B.B. 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1,361 | Abstract_(law) | In law, an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers. Abstract of title The Abstract of Title, used in real estate transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds, wills, mortgages, and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. Clear Title A Clear Title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary. Patent law In the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step (or non-obviousness in United States patent law) of an invention. Under United States patent law, the abstract may be called "Abstract of the Disclosure". United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) web site, 608.01(b) Abstract of the Disclosure Administrative process Certain government bureaucracies, such as a department of motor vehicles will issue an abstract of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents. Notes References World Book encyclopedia 1988 See also Property abstract External links , defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and (previously ), defining the abstract-related requirements in a European patent application | Abstract_(law) |@lemmatized law:5 abstract:16 brief:1 statement:1 contain:1 important:1 point:1 long:1 legal:3 document:4 several:1 related:2 paper:1 title:9 use:1 real:2 estate:1 transaction:2 common:2 form:1 list:1 owner:6 piece:1 land:1 house:1 building:1 come:1 possession:1 present:1 also:2 record:3 deed:2 mortgage:1 affect:1 ownership:2 property:6 describe:1 chain:2 transfer:1 agreement:1 former:1 bind:1 later:1 clear:4 one:1 clearly:1 state:5 obligation:1 reveal:1 break:1 trace:1 find:2 sometimes:1 guarantee:1 insured:1 efficient:1 system:1 insure:1 provide:1 registration:1 public:1 authority:1 accomplish:1 necessary:1 patent:7 context:1 specifically:1 prior:2 art:2 search:2 way:1 relevant:1 question:1 novelty:1 inventive:1 step:1 non:1 obviousness:1 united:3 invention:1 may:1 call:1 disclosure:2 trademark:1 office:1 uspto:1 web:1 site:1 b:1 administrative:2 process:1 certain:1 government:1 bureaucracy:1 department:1 motor:1 vehicle:1 issue:1 complete:1 updated:1 intend:1 serve:1 proof:1 compliance:1 requirement:3 often:1 advance:1 update:1 report:1 database:1 issuance:1 official:1 note:1 reference:1 world:1 book:1 encyclopedia:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 define:2 regard:1 international:1 application:2 file:1 cooperation:1 treaty:1 pct:1 previously:1 european:1 |@bigram real_estate:1 deed_mortgage:1 patent_trademark:1 external_link:1 |
1,362 | Demographics_of_American_Samoa | This article is about the demographic features of the population of American Samoa, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Population in thousands; Data of FAO, year 2005. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 57,902 (July 2004 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 36.6% (male 10,983; female 10,208) 15-64 years: 60.3% (male 18,010; female 16,933) 65 years and over: 3.1% (male 699; female 1,069) (2004 est.) Population growth rate -0.19% (2006 est.) Birth rate 24.46 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) Death rate 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) Net migration rate -20.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2004 est.) American Samoa's population pyramid. Infant mortality rate 9.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 75.62 years male: 72.05 years female: 79.41 years (2004 est.) Total fertility rate 3.41 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: American Samoan(s) adjective: American Samoan Ethnic groups Samoan (Polynesian) 89%, Caucasian 2%, Tongan 4%, other 5% Religions Mormon 50%, Roman Catholic 20%, Buddhism 2%, Protestant and other 28% Languages Samoan (closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages), English (closely related to German and other European languages). note: most people are bilingual Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97% male: 98% female: 97% (1980 est.) See also American Samoa | Demographics_of_American_Samoa |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:13 american:5 samoa:3 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 thousand:1 data:1 fao:1 year:10 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 age:2 structure:1 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 pyramid:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 samoan:4 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 polynesian:2 caucasian:1 tongan:1 religion:1 mormon:1 roman:1 catholic:1 buddhism:1 protestant:1 language:3 closely:2 relate:2 hawaiian:1 english:1 german:1 european:1 note:1 people:1 bilingual:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 closely_relate:2 literacy_definition:1 |
1,363 | Benelux | The Benelux is a union in Western Europe that comprises three neighboring countries, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (België/Belgique/Belgien - Nederland - Lëtzebuerg/Luxembourg/Luxemburg), which lie in the north western European region between France and Germany. The name is formed from the beginning of each country's name; it was possibly created for the Benelux Customs Union, Revue de l'Institut International de Statistique (1947) Vol. 15, No. 1/4. ( page 43 although according to The Economist it was coined somewhat earlier, in August 1946, by that newspaper's correspondent in Belgium. Going Dutch However, it is now used in a more generic way. The Benelux region has a total population of about 27,725,734 and occupies an area of approximately 74,640 km² (28,819 sq mi). Thus, the Benelux has a population density of 371/km² (958/sq mi). Politics A Benelux Parliament (originally referred to as Interparliamentary Consultative Council) was created in 1955. This parliamentary assembly is composed of 21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourgish parliament. The treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union (Benelux Economische Unie/Union Économique Benelux) was signed on February 3, 1958 and came into force in 1960 to promote the free movement of workers, capital, services, and goods in the region. Its secretariat-general is located in Brussels. The unification of the law of the three Benelux countries is mainly achieved by regulations of its Council of Ministers, that only bind the three states, but are not directly applicable in their internal legal orders. There is also a large number of Benelux conventions in a wide range of subject matters. Law In 1965, the treaty establishing a Benelux Court of Justice was signed. It entered into force in 1975. The Court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three States, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules. This international judicial institution is located in Brussels. The Benelux is particularly active in the field of intellectual property. The three countries established a Benelux Trademarks Office and a Benelux Designs Office, both situated in The Hague. In 2005, they concluded a treaty establishing a Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property which replaced both offices upon its entry into force on September 1, 2006. Geography, demographics and languages Minority languages, regional languages and dialects in the Benelux Dutch and French are the official languages of the Benelux and its institutions. Out of the total of about 27.7 million people living in the member states, 22.61 million (82%) live in the Netherlands or the Flemish Region, where Dutch is the sole official language. The officially French-speaking Walloon Region has 3.5 million inhabitants (12.5%), while a majority of the Brussels Capital-Region (3.8%) —although officially bilingual French-Dutch— is also Francophone. Luxembourg (1.74%) is officially trilingual with Luxembourgish as a "national language", the latter being a standardised High German dialect. Combined with the German-speaking Community of Belgium, this adds up to an estimated 2% of native German-speakers. Although it is not an official language of the Benelux and its institutions, Belgium and Luxembourg recognise German as one of the official national languages. In Friesland, in the north of the Netherlands, Frisian is co-official with Dutch. Sports In 2000, Belgium and the Netherlands jointly hosted the UEFA European Championship. In June 2007, representatives of the three countries announced they would bid, as a single political entity, for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Future The treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union will expire in 2010. It will be replaced by a new legal framework, which has been signed on June 17th 2008. The main objectives of the treaty are the continuation and enlargement of the cooperation between the three member states within a larger European context. The name of the "Benelux economic union" will change to Benelux union to reflect this broader scope. References See also Low Countries External links Benelux Economic Union - Official site Benelux Parliament - Official site Benelux Court of Justice - Official site Benelux Office for Intellectual Property - Official site | Benelux |@lemmatized benelux:25 union:8 western:2 europe:1 comprise:1 three:7 neighbor:1 country:6 belgium:5 netherlands:4 luxembourg:4 belgië:1 belgique:1 belgien:1 nederland:1 lëtzebuerg:1 luxemburg:1 lie:1 north:2 european:3 region:6 france:1 germany:1 name:3 form:1 beginning:1 possibly:1 create:2 custom:1 revue:1 de:2 l:1 institut:1 international:2 statistique:1 vol:1 page:1 although:3 accord:1 economist:1 coin:1 somewhat:1 early:1 august:1 newspaper:1 correspondent:1 go:1 dutch:6 however:1 use:1 generic:1 way:1 total:2 population:2 occupies:1 area:1 approximately:1 sq:2 mi:2 thus:1 density:1 politics:1 parliament:5 originally:1 refer:1 interparliamentary:1 consultative:1 council:2 parliamentary:1 assembly:1 compose:2 member:5 belgian:1 national:3 regional:2 luxembourgish:2 treaty:5 establish:5 economic:4 economische:1 unie:1 économique:1 sign:3 february:1 come:1 force:3 promote:1 free:1 movement:1 worker:1 capital:2 service:1 good:1 secretariat:1 general:1 locate:2 brussels:3 unification:1 law:2 mainly:1 achieve:1 regulation:1 minister:1 bind:1 state:4 directly:1 applicable:1 internal:1 legal:3 order:1 also:3 large:2 number:1 convention:1 wide:1 range:1 subject:1 matter:1 court:4 justice:2 enter:1 judge:1 high:2 guarantee:1 uniform:1 interpretation:1 common:1 rule:1 judicial:1 institution:3 particularly:1 active:1 field:1 intellectual:3 property:3 trademarks:1 office:4 designs:1 situate:1 hague:1 conclude:1 organisation:1 replace:2 upon:1 entry:1 september:1 geography:1 demographic:1 language:7 minority:1 languages:1 dialect:2 french:3 official:9 million:3 people:1 live:2 flemish:1 sole:1 officially:3 speak:2 walloon:1 inhabitant:1 majority:1 bilingual:1 francophone:1 trilingual:1 latter:1 standardise:1 german:4 combine:1 community:1 add:1 estimate:1 native:1 speaker:1 recognise:1 one:1 friesland:1 frisian:1 co:1 sport:1 jointly:1 host:1 uefa:1 championship:1 june:2 representative:1 announce:1 would:1 bid:1 single:1 political:1 entity:1 fifa:1 world:1 cup:1 future:1 expire:1 new:1 framework:1 main:1 objective:1 continuation:1 enlargement:1 cooperation:1 within:1 context:1 change:1 reflect:1 broad:1 scope:1 reference:1 see:1 low:1 external:1 link:1 site:4 |@bigram sq_mi:2 density_sq:1 belgium_luxembourg:1 external_link:1 |
1,364 | Dennis_the_Menace_and_Gnasher | Dennis the Menace (known as Dennis the Menace and Gnasher since 1970) is a long-running comic strip featured in The Beano children's comic, published by D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd, Dundee, Scotland, in the United Kingdom. The strip first appeared in issue 452, released on 15 March 1951 (cover dated for the off-sale date of 17 March), and is the longest running strip in the comic. From issue 1678 onwards (dated 14 September 1974) Dennis the Menace replaced Biffo the Bear on the front cover, and has been there ever since. Three days earlier, on 12 March 1951, another Dennis the Menace debuted in the United States. The two strips should not be confused — as a result of this the US series has been retitled Dennis for UK consumption, while the British character's appearances are often titled "Dennis and Gnasher" outside the UK. Dennis the Menace and Gnasher was first drawn by David Law (1951 – 1970), then David Sutherland (1970 – 1998). David Parkins took over in 1998, but due to his other work commitments, Nigel Parkinson and Jimmy Hansen have drawn the lion's share of the strips for some years. More recently, Tom Paterson has drawn occasional strips, while David Sutherland has been providing some second Dennis strips for the comic's rear pages, and also drawing strips for the BeanoMAX. Barrie Appleby did the artwork for the Beano Superstars series, which, towards the end of its run, resorted exclusively to strips based on the TV series (see below). History The main recurring storyline throughout the years features Dennis's campaign of terror against a gang of 'softies' (effeminate, well-behaved boys), particularly Walter. Walter finds himself in unfavorable circumstances on many occasions; although he sometimes gets the "last laugh". Slippering Dennis usually used to get away with his mischief for a while before receiving a spanking from his father, for which Dennis’s father used a slipper. Dennis’s best defence involved sticking a thick book down his short trousers. His dad never noticed. Dennis’s grandma also had a slipper, except it was made of elephant skin and called 'The Demon Whacker'. Since the 1980s, however - owing to increasing sensitivity about corporal punishment of children in the U.K. - the slipper is no longer used. Redesigning Dennis started wearing a striped red-and-black jumper a couple of months after his debut, in May 1951, knitted by his granny for him, which along with his spiky hair has become his trademark. It is notable that another Beano character, Minnie the Minx, also wears this colour jumper. He uses his faithful pea shooter, catapult and water pistol. The Dennis the Menace Fan Club A Dennis the Menace fan club was set up in 1976. By the time it was replaced with The Beano Club in 1998, it had reached over a million members (the millionth occurring in 1988), including actor Mark Hamill in 1979. Millionth member Simon Palmer "met" Dennis (a costumed character) and Beano editor Euan Kerr, and was treated to a traditional slap-up comic meal of bangers and mash. The Beano Club was launched to coincide with the comic's revamp, including its logo. 40th Anniversary Dennis celebrated his 40th anniversary in March 1991. A special pull-out poster supplement (including a story featuring Dennis appearing on This is Your Life, looking back at the last 40 years of menacing) for the comic was produced to celebrate this. Also, for the same reason, an Italian designer was called in to give Dennis a makeover. He now wore a tracksuit, sported a pair of shades, and had a personal stereo on him. However, this revamp lasted only one story - since the strips are written and drawn months in advance of printing, it seems this was a publicity stunt, as when The Bash Street Kids were briefly given similar modernisation for their 40th anniversary in 1994, and when Desperate Dan in The Dandy 'left' the comic on his 60th anniversary in 1997. Dennis in other media A Dennis the Menace puppet series was produced in the early 1990s for broadcast on the Children's Channel. A Dennis the Menace animated cartoon began airing on BBC One (as part of CBBC) in 1996, with another series following in 1998. Originally called Dennis the Menace in the UK, the series was renamed Dennis and Gnasher for international broadcast, to avoid confusion with the American Dennis The Menace (likewise, the US series was retitled "Dennis" in the UK). The show has ceased production, although repeats are frequently shown still. It was announced in October 2007 that a new animated series of Dennis The Menace will be made. Like the original, it will be screened on CBBC. It will premiere in 2009. Relationship with Minnie the Minx Although a rivalry between Dennis and Minnie The Minx is frequently shown, they do appear to have feelings for each other. For instance, in a 1980s strip in which Dennis and Minnie arm-wrestled when Dennis took on all the other Beano characters, she said to Dennis he better let her win. When Dennis enquired what would happen should he not, she replied with the threat of giving him a kiss. Another example is when Nigel Parkinson drew the 'several ages of Dennis' in a Dennis the Menace annual. He was shown to marry Minnie and for them to have children. Also, in the 1992 Dennis Annual an interviewer called Terry Wigon (a pun on the name Terry Wogan) Asked Dennis "Is it true you fancy Minnie The Minx?", Dennis pounced on him angrily with his fist raised and said "Is it true you fancy a punch in the mouth?" Timeline March 1951 Drawn by David Law, Dennis the Menace appears for the first time, as well as his dad. May 1951 Dennis gets his famous striped jersey knitted by his granny aka Whentball. He also teams up with fellow menace Curly. 1952 The strip appears in two colours (red and black). Walter appears for the first time. Early 1953 Walter is now named. Mid 1953 Dennis gets expanded to a full page, while earlier strips were only half a page long. 1955 The first Dennis Annual is published, using reprinted stories from previous years. 1957 David Law's style of drawing Dennis changes dramatically, making the characters tall and thin. 1958 After a year of being drawn this way, characters become more or less back the way they were. 1962 Dennis returns to the back of the comic. August 31, 1968 Dennis finds a dog on the street, Gnasher, on his way to the dog show at the local town hall. Gnasher becomes a regular from this point onwards. 1969 Walter's Dog, Foo-Foo, debuts, replacing Walter's previous dog, Tiddlums. July 22, 1970 Law retires, and one comic was drawn by Pup Parade artist Gordon Bell. July 29, 1970 Bash Street Kids artist David Sutherland starts drawing Dennis, although drawing the strip almost identical to David Law. The strip is renamed "Dennis the Menace & Gnasher" when originally it was just called "Dennis the Menace" as Gnasher had been appearing every week on the strips. September 14 1974 Dennis takes the front cover of The Beano. Mid 1974 Sutherland's style starts sinking in on Dennis, with Walter looking slightly different, and the outlines getting slightly thicker. 1975 Walter joins "the softies", Bertie Blenkinsop and Algernon "Spotty" Perkins. May 21 1977 Gnasher gets his own strip in the comic, called "Gnasher's Tale". May 1979 Dennis' pet pig, "Rasher" debuts. 1983 Dennis starts looking taller and stockier. September 22 1984 Rasher gets his own strip in the comic, called simply "Rasher". March 1986 Gnasher "goes missing". Foo Foo's Fairy Story temporarily replaces Gnasher's Tale. May 1986 Gnasher returns, introducing his pups; Gnatasha, Gnannete, Gnancy, Gnaomi, Gnorah and Gnipper. "Gnasher and Gnipper" replaces "Gnasher's Tale". 1987 Dennis' spider, Dasher, appears. 1988 Rasher's strip ends, replaced by Ill Will and the Germs. 1990 Granny's personality also changes drastically. Now, rather than a mean old woman, she becomes an elderly menace. The slipper is no longer used, partly due to changing attitudes towards child discipline at the time. 1991 Editor Euan Kerr has a word with Sutherland that Dennis is looking too old. 1992 The Menace car is seen for the first time. 1993 Sutherland, understanding Euan's words, starts changing Dennis, making him look young and cute for a few years. The "Gnasher and Gnipper" strip is now drawn by Barry Glennard, the current artist. Early 1996 Dennis The Menace is looking like he did again, and for the first time ever, the story is drawn in the same style as the Bash Street Kids. April 1996 The Dennis the Menace TV series appears for the first time on BBC and TCC. 1997 The strip is printed in bright, shiny colours, for a short while. This year marks the first appearances of The Colonel, Dennis' neighbour, and Sergeant Slipper, the local constable. August-September 1998 For the 60th anniversary for the Beano, David Parkins draws Dennis the Menace, creating Bea some issues later. October 1998 Bea gets her own strip called Beaginnings drawn by Nigel Parkinson. She says her first word (Mud) in this strip. 2000 Nigel Parkinson becomes main artist of Dennis the Menace strip. March 2001 Dennis celebrates his 50th Birthday. A poster drawn by David Parkins (In the style of David Law) is available in the issue. December 2001 Beaginnings gets renamed Dennis' little sister Bea - the Mini Menace. 2003 Jimmy Hansen joins Nigel Parkinson as main artist. Over the next 5 years they each draw about half of the strips. 2004 Dennis the Menace becomes the longest running strip in the Beano ever, beating Lord Snooty. 2004 Walter gets revamped when drawn by Jimmy Hansen, and he now bears the appearance of an Elvis impersonator with much bigger glasses. 2007 Tom Paterson starts drawing Dennis occasionally. 2008 Dennis gets a comic strip at the back of the Beano as well as the front. It is now clear that Walter has a new personality. Instead of being a gentle, well behaved boy, he's become camp, considerably meaner, and possibly evil. Characters Over the years a variety of subsidiary characters have arisen. Family Dennis, Dennis the Menace is a boy of around ten years old; he is solidly built with a mass of spiky black hair, and is habitually dressed in a black and red striped jumper, and a large pair of black shoes which he occasionally takes off. Dennis is an anti-hero; broadly well-intentioned, but utterly amoral, and possessed of a moral code that is widely at variance with that of grown ups and authority: school is boring, homework to be avoided, parents an occupational hazard (at best), and Walter the Softy a traitor to boyhood. Dennis is the indefatigable enemy of all of the above; the bane of a many a teacher's life, the despair of his parents, and the terror of Walter and his chums. Although most of Dennis's escapades and vendettas are doomed to end in retribution, he is never daunted, and always returns the following week enthusiastic for fresh villainy. Even back in the early days, when Dennis was spanked 'severely and often' (to quote his father), the effects were invariably very short lived, the Menace always ready to return to the fray; it didn't matter how often Dennis got whacked by Dad or Teacher, corporal punishment was almost entirely ineffective, and only really to be feared from Granny's dreaded Demon Whacker, which was even known to inspire Dennis to brush his hair and tidy himself up. It is implied in several sketches he has a crush on Minnie the Minx, as they are occasionally seen together. He was once Minnie's Valentine in the 1960s. Dad, along with Dennis himself, appeared in the first strip. His hair loss is down to Dennis’s menacing, and his real name has never been given. He also appears in both Bea and Gnasher and Gnipper. The real name of his wife, Mum, has also never been given. According to the letters page of an early 1990s Beano, he was christened "Dennis' Dad". In his twenties he met a girl named "Dennis' Mum", and they knew they were made for each other. According to his report cards,Issue No.3428's strip (and some of Dennis' older teachers), he was just like Dennis when he was younger. Bea is Dennis’s little sister, born in issue 2931, dated 19 September 1998. She has her own strip (Bea, originally Beaginnings) and sometimes appears in Dennis the Menace and Gnasher. Granny, real name "Gertrude", is Dennis's and Bea's 80-year-old grandmother. She owned the Demon Whacker, as above, but in the late 1980s/early 1990s, she got her own strip - Go, Granny, Go! drawn by Brian Walker. As a result, she transformed from the indulgent Granny who used the Demon Whacker when necessary to a very active elderly lady who enjoyed motorbikes. This was also partly because by this time, The Beano no longer punished its characters with the slipper. Denise is Dennis's cousin, bearing a striking resemblance to Beryl the Peril, although she too wears a red and black striped jumper. She appeared in just a few stories (at least two, both reprinted in the 60 Years books), visiting along with her cat 'Santa Claws'. She generally managed to out-menace Dennis, showing considerable fortitude against the Softies, and at the local boxing club. Dennis seemed to be quite glad to see the back of her. She also appeared in Beano Superstars No 59 titled Dennis and Denise. Pets Gnasher is a black dog who first appeared in issue 1363, dated 31 August 1968. He is supposedly an "Abyssinian wire-haired tripehound", although sceptics have suggested that he looks more like a mop of Dennis’s hair, with eyes, and teeth gone for a walk on their own. He has extremely strong teeth that can leave teethmarks in seemingly anything, and is usually called upon by Dennis to 'gnash' their way out of situations; however, he usually prefers to bite the postman. His name comes from the British slang for teeth (gnashers). Since 1986 Gnasher also has a son, Gnipper, who appears with him in the separate strip ( Gnasher and Gnipper). Gnipper is not owned by Dennis the Menace. He first appeared in issue 2286, dated 10 May 1986. Gnipper's name is a pun since 'to nip' something means to give something a small bite, while 'nipper' is a slang term for a young child. Gnasher also has several daughters, their names being Gnatasha, Gnaomi, Gnanette, Gnorah and Gnancy, though these tend not to be seen much. Gnatasha had her own strip in The Beezer and Topper, and appeared in the Beezer Book 1994. Gnasher also used to have another strip, Gnasher's Tale, which began in 1977 and continued for another nine years. Rasher is a pig (hence the name) and is Dennis’s other loyal pet, first seen in issue 1920, dated 5 May 1979. He loves to eat swill and was rescued by Dennis. Rasher also has children, their names being Oink, Snort, Grunt, Squeal, and Squeak. He also used to have his own strip called Rasher, which started in 1984 and continued for another four years, with a few one off appearances after that He is a very greedy pig, he loves swill and will do whatever it takes to get it. In the Rasher strips, he lived in a pig sty on a local farm. The strip is currently being reprinted. Dennis has also been seen with his pet spider called Dasher (named "Sidney" in the animated series). He first appeared in about 1987, as a tool to scare Softy Walter, and was the mascot of the Beano website when it launched in 1997. Originally the spider was all black, but when it reappeared in 1997, it was red and black, matching Dennis's jersey. He also has a new fish named Splasher. He first appeared in 2006. However, it appears this was just a one off, rather like the bat Dennis had for a pet in a Halloween issue, as neither have been seen since. Other menace animals have included the Menace sheep, who produce his jumper wool, and their even tougher counterpart, the Menace ram. In the plant kingdom, Dennis had the Menace tree (Conkerus Menaceus), with leaves shaped like his hair, and twigs which can be broken off and used as slingshots. It was cut down, but several new ones were planted. Friends Dennis also has two main friends. Curly was the first to appear, appearing a few months after the strip started in 1951. He has a lot of blonde, curly hair, hence his name. In a 1996 episode of the animated TV series entitled 'The Bath-Night Club', we learnt he has a little brother named Spiky. He has spiky hair, and, according to Curly, could not escape and was put in the bath. The next day he started smelling of soap and began prancing about with Softies and girls. The episode was reprinted in print form in 1998 as Number 81 of The Beano Super Stars. Pieface, real name Kevin, is Dennis's other friend. His favourite food is pies, hence the name. It was revealed in the cartoon series that his real name is never used on the account that 'Kevins' were not what he ate. He does enjoy a good meal. The Softies Together, Dennis, Curly and Pie-Face battle the Softies, a group of children who enjoy things such as teddy bears, dolls and flowers. The most famous, Dennis’s greatest sworn enemy, is a character called Walter. He has a pet poodle called Foo-Foo and a cat named Fluffy. The two most other frequently seen Softies are Algernon 'Spotty' Perkins and Bertie Blenkinsop, who are usually seen playing with him. Walter, Spotty and Bertie once had a competition to decide who had the cutest teddy, but they agreed that they were all lovely. In a 1984 strip both their pets were seen, two dogs called Yorkie and Papillon, although it did not state which pet belong to which Softy. Other softies include Bennie Benry Sweet William, Dudley Nightshirt, Jeremy Snodgrass, Softy Matthew, Lisping Lester, Matilda and Nervous Rex, a character who is scared of everything and everyone. The temptation to beware of is to classify Walter as "good" and Dennis as "bad" simply because one is well-behaved and the other not (both boys' fathers are white collar workers, but Walter's Dad appears to be a couple of pay scales up on Dennis'); below Walter's prim virtue lies a deep vein of spite that he is usually too cowardly to express, he actively practises his highly manipulative "winning simper", and his eagerness to please grown ups seems to imply a whole series of hidden agendas. The Softies seem to be bound together much more by fear of the Menaces than by any real mutual liking; though they are scrupulously polite to each other, they have occasionally decided to pick on someone perceived as much weaker than they are. In one story they even went as far as being cruel to an animal by dropping Dennis's cousin Denise's cat into a puddle. Other characters The Colonel is an old army colonel who is often seen with toy soldiers and often makes references to being in battles which happened hundreds of years ago. In an episode of the animated TV series entitled 'The Trial', his first name was revealed to be Godfrey. Sergeant Slipper is the police sergeant who is always trying to catch Dennis for menacing. Dennis' Teacher often appeared in Dennis the Menace strips from the early 1970s. Nasty Norman was a bully who was often seen as Dennis' rival. Television series Influence on popular culture Darts player Dennis Priestley is known as "The Menace" and wears a shirt with the familiar red and black horizontal bands. In recent years, the satirical magazine Private Eye has carried comic strips featuring a character sometimes called Beano Boris or Boris the Menace, a blond-haired version of Dennis the Menace, parodying the politician Boris Johnson. See also Dennis the Menace (U.S.) Dennis the Menace Annual Beryl the Peril Minnie the Minx External links Toonopedia profile Timeline on Thebeanocomic.com | Dennis_the_Menace_and_Gnasher |@lemmatized dennis:110 menace:42 know:4 gnasher:24 since:7 long:4 run:4 comic:14 strip:45 feature:4 beano:17 child:8 publish:2 c:1 thomson:1 co:1 ltd:1 dundee:1 scotland:1 united:2 kingdom:2 first:18 appear:25 issue:10 release:1 march:7 cover:3 date:6 sale:1 onwards:2 dated:1 september:5 replace:5 biffo:1 bear:5 front:3 ever:3 three:1 day:3 earlier:1 another:7 debut:4 state:2 two:6 confuse:1 result:2 u:4 series:15 retitled:2 uk:4 consumption:1 british:2 character:13 appearance:4 often:7 title:2 outside:1 draw:20 david:11 law:6 sutherland:6 parkins:3 take:5 due:2 work:1 commitment:1 nigel:5 parkinson:5 jimmy:3 hansen:3 lion:1 share:1 year:16 recently:1 tom:2 paterson:2 occasional:1 provide:1 second:1 rear:1 page:4 also:20 beanomax:1 barrie:1 appleby:1 artwork:1 superstars:1 towards:2 end:3 resort:1 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1,365 | Civilization_(video_game) | Sid Meier's Civilization is a turn-based strategy computer game created by Sid Meier for MicroProse in 1991.Civilization 1 Fanatics' Site The game's objective is to "...build an empire to stand the test of time". The game begins in 4000 BC, and the players attempt to expand and develop their empires through the ages until modern and near-future times. It is also known simply as Civilization, or abbreviated to Civ or Civ I. Gameplay Civilization is a turn-based single-player computer game. The player takes on the role of the ruler of a civilization starting with only one or two Settler units. The player attempts to build an empire in competition with between two and six other civilizations. The game requires a fair amount of micromanagement (although less than any of the simulation games).Civilization manual at Civ Fanatics Along with the larger tasks of exploration, war and diplomacy, the player has to make decisions about where to build new cities, which improvements or units to build in each city, which advances in knowledge should be sought (and at what rate), and how to transform the land surrounding the cities for maximum benefit. From time to time the player's towns may be harassed by barbarians, units with no specific nationality and no named leader. These threats only come from unclaimed land or sea, so that over time there are fewer and fewer places barbarians will emanate from. Conducting negotiations with Stalin of the Russians Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical civilization to play. In contrast to later games in the Civilization series, in Civ I, this is largely a cosmetic choice, affecting titles, city names, musical heralds, color, and also their starting position on the "Play on Earth" map (and thus different resources in one's initial cities). It has no effect on starting position, however, when starting a random world game or a customized world game. The player's choice of civilization also prevents the computer from being able to play as that civilization or the other civilization of the same colour, and since computer-controlled opponents display certain traits of their civilizations this affects gameplay as well. The Aztecs are both fiercely expansionistic and generally extremely wealthy, for example. Other civilizations include the Americans, the Mongols, and the Romans. Each civilization is led by a historical figure, such as Mahatma Gandhi (Indians) and Joseph Stalin (Russians). The scope of the game is huge — larger than most other computer games. The game begins in 4000 BC, before the Bronze Age, and can last through to 2100 AD (on the easiest setting) with Space Age and "future technologies". At the start of the game there are no cities anywhere in the world: the player controls one or two Settler units, which can be used to found new cities in appropriate sites (and those cities may build other settler units, which can go out and found new cities, thus expanding the empire). Settlers can also alter terrain, build improvements such as mines and irrigation, build roads to connect cities, and later in the game they can construct railroads which offer unlimited movement. Choosing which technology to pursue As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way in which the game changes and grows. At the start, players choose from advances such as Pottery, the Wheel, and the Alphabet to, near the end of the game, Nuclear fission and Spaceflight. Players can gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology (the secrets of flight, for example) and put it to use in a military or other context. Most advances give access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the Chariot unit becomes available after the Wheel is developed, and the Granary building becomes available to build after Pottery is developed. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the Technology tree, or simply the Tech tree; this concept has been adopted in many other strategy games. Since only one tech may be "researched" at any given time, the order in which technologies are chosen makes a considerable difference in the outcome of the game and generally reflects the player's preferred style of gameplay. Players can also build Wonders of the World in each of the epochs of the game, subject only to obtaining the prerequisite knowledge. These wonders are important achievements of society, science, culture and defense, ranging from the Pyramids and the Great Wall in the Ancient age, to Copernicus' Observatory and Magellan's Expedition in the middle period, up to the Apollo program, the United Nations, and the Manhattan Project in the modern era. Each wonder can only be built once in the world, and requires a lot of resources to build, far more than most other city buildings or units. Wonders provide unique benefits to the controlling civilization. For example, Magellan's Expedition increases the movement rate of naval units. Wonders typically affect either the city in which they are built (e.g., the Colossus), every city on the continent (e.g., the Hanging Gardens), or the civilization as a whole (e.g., Darwin's Voyage). Also, some wonders are made obsolete by new technologies. The game can be won by destroying all other civilizations, reaching the end of the modern era with the highest score or by winning the space race by reaching the star system of Alpha Centauri. Development Meier admits to "borrowing" many of the technology tree ideas from a board game also called Civilization (published in the United Kingdom in 1980 by Hartland Trefoil (later by Gibson Games), and in the United States in 1981 by Avalon Hill). The early versions of the game even included a flier of information and ordering materials for the board game. There is now a board game based on the computer game version of Civilization. Meier was the third major designer to plan a computer version of Civilization, but the first to actually carry out that plan. Danielle Bunten Berry planned to start work on the game after completing M.U.L.E. in 1983, and again in 1985, after completing The Seven Cities of Gold at Electronic Arts. In 1983 Bunten and producer Joe Ybarra opted to first do Seven Cities of Gold. The success of Seven Cities in 1985 in turn led to a sequel, Heart of Africa. Bunten never returned to the idea of Civilization. Game Trivia for Sid Meier's Civilization Meier's designs of Pirates! and Colonization both contain elements of Bunten's The Seven Cities of Gold. Don Daglow, designer of Utopia, the first simulation game, began work programming a version of Civilization in 1987. He dropped the project, however, when he was offered an executive position at Brøderbund, and never returned to the game Gamasutra - Column: 'Playing Catch Up: Stormfront Studios' Don Daglow' . When the first version of Civilization was being developed, it was designed to run on an IBM PC computer, which at the time was transitioning from 16 color EGA to VGA, which could use 256 different colors. The decision to limit the number of different civilizations to 16 was made to make Civilization compatible with both display standards: 16 civilizations for the 16 colors available to EGA. Intellectual property status As of late 2004, Atari, the latest publisher of a Civilization game, sold the intellectual property of the Civilization brand to Take 2 Interactive Software, who will distribute Civilization games under the 2K Games label. Take 2 went public with news of the sale on January 26 2005. Multiplayer remake Sid Meier's CivNet was released in 1995 and was a remake of the original game with added multiplayer, improved graphics and sound, and Windows 3.1/95 support. Gameplay was almost identical to the original game. There were several methods of multiplayer, including LAN, primitive Internet play, hotseat, modem, and direct serial link. Sequels and clones There have been several sequels to Civilization, including Civilization II, Civilization III, Civilization IV and Civilization Revolution. An open source clone of Civilization has been developed under the name of Freeciv, with the slogan "'Cause civilization should be free". Currently it can be configured to match the rules of both Civilization and Civilization II. Similar games In 1994 Meier produced a similar game called Colonization. Colonization, while very similar to Civilization, never became as popular. It has been criticized on several theoretical grounds, particularly because winning the game seems to necessitate the extermination of native tribes and because it ignores slavery and other historically important features in the creation of many nations and empires. Sid Meier’s Colonization | Gameology Civilization III, however, recognized slavery in the game play. The game Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri is also by Meier and is in the same genre, but with a futuristic/space theme. Many of the interface and gameplay innovations in this game eventually made their way into Civilization III and IV. Alpha Centauri essentially picks up where Civilization left off, with your space ship arriving at Sol's closest neighbour. In 1994 MicroProse published Master of Magic, a similar game but embedded in a medieval-fantasy setting where instead of technologies the player (a powerful wizard) develops spells, among other things. The game also shared many things with the popular fantasy card-trading game Magic: The Gathering. In 1994 Stardock released Galactic Civilizations, a similar turn-based strategy game for OS/2 which became one of the best-selling games for that platform. They released a reprogrammed Windows version in 2003, and a sequel in 2006. The designers of the historical strategy 1997 game Age of Empires received much inspiration from Civilization, with many similar features (e.g. technologies, wonders). The main difference here is that Age of Empires is not turn-based, but plays in real-time. In 1999 Activision released Civilization: Call to Power, a sequel of sorts to Civilization II but by a completely different design team. Gamers that year had a choice between a new game with the Civilization name but no involvement of Sid Meier; and a "space"-themed civilization game without the name but clearly designed by the same team (Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri). Call to Power spawned a sequel in 2000, but by then Activision had lost the rights to the Civilization name and could only call it Call to Power II. Platforms MS-DOS version of Civilization Civilization was originally developed for MS-DOS running on a PC. It has undergone numerous revisions for various platforms (including Windows, Macintosh, Amiga, Atari ST, PlayStation, N-Gage and Super Nintendo) and now exists in several versions. Points of controversy A contentious aspect of the game occurs in combat when a modern unit is fighting an obsolete or ancient unit. The ancient unit can sometimes win what most players consider to be an impossible battle. The most notorious example of this is the infamous "phalanx defeats tank" phenomenon in which ancient combat units could defeat modern ones (such as tanks and aircraft) due to status modifiers such as terrain, fortifications, and veteran status. "Veteran players of Civilization were occasionally disconcerted when a veteran phalanx unit fortified behind city walls on a mountain would defeat an attacking battleship. Mathematically it was possible but the image just didn't sit right. How could ancient spearmen destroy a modern steel warship?" Civilization II manual The problem plagued all versions of the game — including Alpha Centauri — but was greatly mitigated in Civilization IV in 2006, despite claiming that the new combat system was developed to avoid such situations. The historian and anthropologist Matthew Kapell has published an essay critical of the Civilization series. It suggests that the game uses unique American myths of progress and the frontier in culturally elitist fashion. ("Civilization and its Discontents: American Monomythic Structure as Historical Simulacrum." Popular Culture Review Vol. XIII, No. 2 (Summer): 129-136.) Reception This game has been one of the most popular strategy games of all time, and has a loyal following of fans. The game (by means of all its versions and updates) has endured for almost two decades, with product being offered for sale the entire time in retail stores. This high level of interest has spawned a number of free software versions, such as Freeciv and C-evo, and inspired similar games by other commercial developers, as well. In 1992, Civilization won the Origins Award for Best Military or Strategy Computer Game of 1991. In November 1996 Computer Gaming World's Anniversary Edition, Civilization was chosen the #1 of the 150 Best Games of All Time, and it was described as follows: Civilizations in Civilization I Civilization Leader Capital America Abraham Lincoln Washington Azteca Montezuma Tenochtitlan Babylon Hammurabi Babylon China Mao Tse Tung Peking Egypt Rameses II Thebes England Elizabeth I London France Napoleon Bonaparte Paris Germany Friedrich the Great Berlin Greece Alexander the Great Athens India Mohandas Gandhi Delhi Mongolia Genghis Khan Samarqand Rome Julius Caesar Rome Russia Joseph Stalin Moscow Zululand Shaka Zulu Zimbabwe See also Freeciv 4X game Overlord References Notes Bibliography The Official Guide to Sid Meier's Civilization, Keith Ferrell, Edmund Ferrell, Compute Books, 1992, ISBN 0874552591 External links Civilization FAQ CivFanatics fansite GamaSutra history of Civilization be-x-old:Civilization | Civilization_(video_game) |@lemmatized sid:9 meier:14 civilization:68 turn:5 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1,366 | Centromere | Chromosomal components:(1) Chromatid (2) Centromere(3) Short arm(4) Long arm A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a chromosome where two identical sister chromatids come in contact. It is involved in cell division as the point of mitotic spindle. Function The centromeres are, together with telomeres and origins of replication, one of the essential parts of any eukaryotic chromosome. The centromere usually contains specific types of DNA sequences which are in higher eukaryotes typically tandem repetitive sequences, often called "satellite DNA". These sequences bind specific proteins called "cen"-Proteins. During mitosis the centromeres can be identified in particular during the metaphase stage as a constriction at the chromosome. At this centromeric constriction the two mostly identical halves of the chromosome, the sister chromatids, are held together until late metaphase. During mitotic division, a transient structure called kinetochore is formed on top of the centromeres. The kinetochores are the sites where the spindle fibers attach. Kinetochores and the spindle apparatus are responsible for the movement of the two sister chromatids to opposite poles of dividing cell nucleus during anaphase. Usually the mitosis is immediately followed by a cell division cytokinesis. However, mitosis and cytokinesis are separate processes and can be uncoupled. A centromere functions in sister chromatid adhesion, kinetochore formation, and pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, prophase and metaphase. The centromere is also where kinetochore formation takes place: proteins bind on the centromeres that form an anchor point for the spindle formation required for the pull of chromosomes toward the centrioles during anaphase and telophase of mitosis. Improperly functioning centromeres result in the chromosomes that do not align and separate properly, resulting in aneuploidy or daughter cells receiving the wrong number of chromosomes. Aneuploidy can cause conditions such as Down syndrome if the cells survive at all. Centromere positions Each chromosome has two arms, labeled p (the shorter of the two) and q (the longer). The p arm is named for "petite" meaning 'small'; the q arm is named q simply because it follows p in the alphabet. (According to the NCBI, "q" refers to the French word "queue".) They can be connected in either metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric or telocentric manner. Metacentric A chromosome is metacentric if its two arms are roughly equal in length. In some cases, a metacentric chromosome is formed by balanced Robertsonian translocation: the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes to form one metacentric chromosome. Submetacentric If arms' lengths are unequal, the chromosome is said to be submetacentric Acrocentric If the p (short) arm is so short that is hard to observe, but still present, then the chromosome is acrocentric (The "acro-" in acrocentric refers to the Greek word for "peak."). The human genome includes five acrocentric chromosomes: 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22. In an acrocentric chromosome the p arm contains genetic material including repeated sequences such as nucleolar organizing regions, and can be translocated without significant harm, as in a balanced Robertsonian translocation. The domestic horse genome includes one metacentric chromosome that is homologous to two acrocentric chromosomes in the conspecific but undomesticated Przewalski's horse. This may reflect either fixation of a balanced Robertsonian translocation in domestic horses or, conversely, fixation of the fission of one metacentric chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes in Przewalski's horses. A similar situation exists between the human and great ape genomes; in this case, because more species are extant, it is apparent that the evolutionary sequence is a reduction of two acrocentric chromosomes in the great apes to one metacentric chromosome in humans (see Karyotype#Historical note). Telocentric A telocentric chromosome's centromere is located at the terminal end of the chromosome. Telomeres may extend from both ends of the chromosome. For example, all mouse chromosomes are telocentric. 5.2 KARYOTYPES, CHROMOSOMES, AND TRANSLOCATIONS Humans do not possess telocentric chromosomes. Some authors denote extreme acrocentric chromosomes as telocentric- 21, 22, Y. Holocentric With holocentric chromosomes, the entire length of the chromosome acts as the centromere. Examples of this type of centromere can be found scattered throughout the plant and animal kingdoms with the most well known example being in the worm, Caenorhabditis elegans. The centromeric sequence There are two types of centromeres. In regional centromeres, DNA sequences contribute to but do not define function. Regional centromeres contain large amounts of DNA and are often packaged into heterochromatin. In most eukaryotes, the centromere has no defined DNA sequence. It typically consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (e.g. satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical. In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called α-satellite (or alphoid), although a number of other sequence types are found in this region. Point centromeres are smaller and more compact. DNA sequences are both necessary and sufficient to specify centromere identity and function in organisms with point centromeres. In budding yeasts, the centromere region is relatively small (about 125 bp DNA) and contains two highly conserved DNA sequences that serve as binding sites for essential kinetochore proteins. Inheritance Epigenetic inheritance plays a major role in specifying the centromere in most organisms. The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence. However, there must still be some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically. Structure The centromeric DNA is normally in a heterochromatin state, which is essential for the recruitment of the cohesin complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion after DNA replication as well as coordinating sister chromatid separation during anaphase. In this chromatin, the normal histone H3 is replaced with a centromere-specific variant, CENP-A in humans (Lodish et al. 2004). The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere. CENP-C has been shown to localise almost exclusively to these regions of CENP-A associated chromatin. In the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to RNAi. In nematodes such as Caenorhabditis elegans, some plants, and the insect orders Lepidoptera and Hemiptera, chromosomes are "holocentric", indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a "diffuse" kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome. Centromeric aberrations In rare cases in humans, neocentromeres can form at new sites on the chromosome. There are approximately 70 known human neocentromeres on 19 different chromosomes . The formation of a neocentromere must be coupled with or followed or proceeded by the inactivation of the centromere since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (Dicentric chromosome) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis. In some unusual cases human neocentromeres have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes. Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether. Centromere proteins are also the autoantigenic target for some anti-nuclear antibodies, such as anti-centromere antibodies. Related links Monopolin Genetics Cell biology Chromatid Diploid References Further reading Lodish et al.; Molecular Cell Biology; sixth edition 2008; ISBN 97814203142 External links Report about Nature Genetics article that centromere of rice genome carries active genes | Centromere |@lemmatized chromosomal:1 component:1 chromatid:8 centromere:32 short:3 arm:9 long:1 region:5 dna:14 typically:3 find:3 near:1 middle:1 chromosome:42 two:13 identical:3 sister:6 come:1 contact:1 involve:1 cell:7 division:3 point:4 mitotic:2 spindle:4 function:5 together:2 telomere:2 origin:1 replication:2 one:5 essential:3 part:1 eukaryotic:1 usually:2 contain:4 specific:3 type:4 sequence:13 high:1 eukaryote:3 tandem:1 repetitive:2 often:2 call:4 satellite:4 bind:2 protein:5 cen:1 mitosis:5 identify:1 particular:1 metaphase:3 stage:1 constriction:3 centromeric:6 mostly:1 half:1 hold:1 late:1 transient:1 structure:2 kinetochore:8 form:6 top:1 site:4 fiber:1 attach:1 apparatus:1 responsible:1 movement:1 opposite:1 pole:1 divide:1 nucleus:1 anaphase:3 immediately:1 follow:3 cytokinesis:2 however:2 separate:2 process:1 uncouple:1 adhesion:1 formation:5 pairing:1 homologous:2 meiosis:1 prophase:1 also:2 take:1 place:2 anchor:1 require:1 pull:1 toward:1 centriole:1 telophase:1 improperly:1 result:3 align:1 properly:1 aneuploidy:2 daughter:2 receive:1 wrong:1 number:2 cause:1 condition:1 syndrome:1 survive:1 position:2 label:1 p:5 shorter:1 q:4 longer:1 name:2 petite:1 meaning:1 small:3 simply:1 alphabet:1 accord:1 ncbi:1 refers:2 french:1 word:2 queue:1 connect:2 either:2 metacentric:8 submetacentric:3 acrocentric:11 telocentric:6 manner:1 roughly:1 equal:1 length:4 case:4 balanced:3 robertsonian:3 translocation:4 fusion:1 unequal:1 say:1 hard:1 observe:2 still:2 present:1 acro:1 greek:1 peak:1 human:9 genome:4 include:3 five:1 genetic:1 material:1 repeated:1 nucleolar:1 organize:1 translocate:1 without:1 significant:1 harm:1 domestic:2 horse:4 conspecific:1 undomesticated:1 przewalski:2 may:2 reflect:1 fixation:2 conversely:1 fission:1 similar:2 situation:1 exist:1 great:2 ape:2 specie:1 extant:1 apparent:1 evolutionary:1 reduction:1 see:1 karyotype:2 historical:1 note:1 locate:1 terminal:1 end:2 extend:1 example:3 mouse:1 possess:1 author:1 denote:1 extreme:1 holocentric:3 entire:2 act:1 scatter:1 throughout:1 plant:2 animal:1 kingdom:1 well:2 known:2 worm:1 caenorhabditis:2 elegans:2 regional:2 contribute:1 define:2 large:2 amount:1 package:1 heterochromatin:3 consist:1 array:1 e:1 g:1 within:1 individual:1 repeat:2 element:1 primary:3 unit:1 α:1 alphoid:1 although:1 compact:1 necessary:1 sufficient:1 specify:3 identity:1 organism:2 bud:1 yeast:2 relatively:1 bp:1 highly:1 conserve:1 serve:1 binding:1 inheritance:2 epigenetic:1 play:1 major:1 role:1 assemble:1 parent:1 independent:1 must:2 original:1 way:1 even:1 subsequently:1 propagate:1 epigenetically:1 normally:1 state:1 recruitment:1 cohesin:1 complex:1 mediate:1 cohesion:1 coordinate:1 separation:1 chromatin:2 normal:1 histone:1 replace:1 variant:1 cenp:4 lodish:2 et:2 al:2 presence:1 believe:1 important:1 assembly:1 c:1 show:1 localise:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 associated:1 schizosaccharomyces:1 pombe:1 probably:1 rnai:1 nematode:1 insect:1 order:1 lepidoptera:1 hemiptera:1 indicate:1 microtubule:1 attachment:1 diffuse:1 assembles:1 along:1 aberration:1 rare:1 neocentromeres:3 new:2 approximately:1 different:1 neocentromere:1 couple:1 proceed:1 inactivation:1 since:1 functional:1 dicentric:1 breakage:1 unusual:1 spontaneously:1 fragment:1 originally:1 euchromatic:1 lack:1 alpha:1 altogether:1 autoantigenic:1 target:1 anti:2 nuclear:1 antibody:2 related:1 link:2 monopolin:1 genetics:2 biology:2 diploid:1 reference:1 read:1 molecular:1 sixth:1 edition:1 isbn:1 external:1 report:1 nature:1 article:1 rice:1 carry:1 active:1 gene:1 |@bigram sister_chromatid:6 mitotic_spindle:1 homologous_chromosome:1 prophase_metaphase:1 anaphase_telophase:1 metacentric_chromosome:6 robertsonian_translocation:3 acrocentric_chromosome:7 przewalski_horse:2 caenorhabditis_elegans:2 dna_replication:1 et_al:2 almost_exclusively:1 external_link:1 |
1,367 | Load_(album) | Load is the sixth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released June 4, 1996. To date, the album has sold over 5 million copies in America, RIAA - Gold & Platinum and is certified Gold in the UK, having sold over 100,000 copies. Platinum Awards Content It spent four consecutive weeks at #1 on Billboard 200. According to drummer Lars Ulrich: "This album and what we're doing with it - that, to me, is what Metallica are all about: exploring different things. The minute you stop exploring, then just sit down and fucking die." Interview "Pretty Hate Machine" 1996 History Musical style Released approximately five years after the international smash success, Metallica, Load saw the band embrace a collective sound and identity closer to traditional heavy metal and different from their thrash metal roots. As on previous releases, the fourteen songs that would eventually make up the album began as rough demos created by principal songwriters James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich in Ulrich's basement recording studio, "The Dungeon." The band took over 30 demos into The Plant Studios in the spring of 1995 where they would work for approximately the next year. Once again, Metallica teamed up with famed producer Bob Rock, who had been at the helm during the recording process for Metallica. The songwriting dispenses almost entirely with the thrash metal style that characterized the band's sound in the 1980s. In place of staccato riffs, Hetfield and lead guitarist Kirk Hammett experimented with more blues-based tones and styles. Additionally, Ulrich adopted a minimalist approach to his drum recording, abandoning the speed and complex double bass patterns of previous albums. Hetfield displayed a lyrical evolution as well, writing what many feel to be his most personal and introspective lyrics. "Until it Sleeps," the album's lead single, addressed his mother's losing battle with cancer, and "Mama Said" also explored his relationship with her. All of this marked a departure from the political and social overtones of albums like ...And Justice for All and Master of Puppets. At 78:59 minutes, this is Metallica's longest studio album. Initial pressings of the album were affixed with stickers that boasted its long playtime, simply reading "78:59." "The Outlaw Torn" had to be shortened by about one minute to fit on the album. The full version was released on a single for "The Memory Remains" as "The Outlaw Torn (Unencumbered by Manufacturing Restrictions Version)" with a running time of 10:48. An explanation was given on the single's back cover: This was the only Metallica studio album on which the band's bassist (Jason Newsted for this album) did not have a writing credit. It was also their first album for all tracks to be down tuned to Eb standard; they had, however, previously tuned down to C# on "The Thing That Should Not Be" from Master of Puppets and D on "Sad But True" on The Black Album and down to Eb standard on "The God That Failed" (also from The Black Album) and some covers including the Motörhead songs recorded before Load. The Australian CD release of Load includes a bonus interview CD which is unavailable elsewhere. http://encycmet.com/discography/new/Detailed/254.shtml Visual style The cover of the album is original artwork entitled "Semen and Blood III." It is one of three photographic studies by Andres Serrano created in 1990 by mingling the artist's own semen and bovine blood between two sheets of Plexiglas. Semen & Blood II Load also marked the first appearance of a new Metallica logo, rounding off the stabbing edges of the first and last letters of the band's earlier 1980s logo. The M from the original logo was used to make a shuriken-like symbol known as the "ninja star" which was used as an alternate logo on this and future albums as well as other related artwork. The album featured an expansive booklet which contained extensive photography by Anton Corbijn, best known for his work with U2 and Depeche Mode. These photos depicted the band in various dress including white A-shirts with suspenders, Cuban suits, and gothic. The booklet only contained select lyrics from each song in contrast to Metallica's previous studio albums which included complete song lyrics. Additionally, the interior artwork revolved around images of inkblots, a theme which would carry over to ReLoad and the covers for the singles released from the two albums. Reception Rolling Stone (7/11-25/1996, p.85) - 4 Stars - Excellent - "...with Load, the foursome dams the bombast and chugs half-speed ahead, settling into a wholly magnetizing groove that bridges old-school biker rock and the doomier side of post-grunge '90s rock." Entertainment Weekly (6/7/96, pp.56-57) - "...captures the band's earnest pursuit of its Sisyphean mission: to create hard rock that reaches grown-ups and basement-dwelling teens." - Rating: B Q magazine (7/96, p.119) - 4 Stars - Excellent - "These boys set up their tents in the darkest place of all, in the naked horror of their own heads....Metallica make existential metal and they've never needed the props....Metallica are still awesome....What is new is streamlined attack, the focus and, yes, the tunes." Melody Maker (6/8/96, p.49) - "A Metallica album is traditionally an exhausting event. It should rock you to exhaustion, leave you brutalised and drained. This one is no exception. It is, however, the first Metallica album to make me wonder at any point, 'What the fuck was that?' It's as if the jackboot grinding the human face were to take occasional breaks for a pedicure." Musician (8/96, p.85) - "The smoother, broader sound that distinguished...1991's Metallica is even more apparent here, as is the tendency to write accessible tunes....the exploration of new sounds does nothing but good for the guitar duo of [James] Hetfield and Kirk Hammett." New York Times (6/2/96, Sec.2, p.28) - "On Load, Metallica has altered its music, learning new skills. Hetfield has committed himself to melodies, carrying tunes where he used to bark, and he no longer sounds sheepish when he sings quietly." NME (6/1/96, p.44) - 7 (out of 10) - "...like triumphant warriors returning into a world changed beyond all recognition...Metallica emphatically prove they are still unsurpassed in their self-created genre of stadium nihilism." Pitchfork Media writer Nick Mirov described the album as "probably the greatest joke ever played on wannabe metalheads." Pitchfork Media review of California by Mr. Bungle Track listing Personnel James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar Kirk Hammett – lead guitar Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals Lars Ulrich – drums, percussion Production Bob Rock, James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich – producers Brian Dobbs, Randy Staub – engineers Brian Dobbs, Jason Goldstein, Kent Matcke – assistant engineers Mike Rew, Randy Staub – mixing Matt Curry – mixing assistant George Marino – mastering Paul DeCarli – digital editing Mike Gillies, Chris Vrenna – digital editing assistants Chris Vrenna – programming Andie Airfix – design Andres Serrano – cover design Anton Corbijn – photography Chart performance Album Year Chart Position1996 Billboard 2001 UK Album Charts Australian ARIA Albums Chart Singles Year Single Chart Position 1996 "Ain't My Bitch" Mainstream Rock Tracks 15 1996 "Hero of the Day" Mainstream Rock Tracks 1 1996 "Hero of the Day" UK Singles Chart 17 1996 "Hero of the Day" The Billboard Hot 100 60 1996 "Until It Sleeps" Mainstream Rock Tracks 1 1996 "Until It Sleeps" Modern Rock Tracks 27 1996 "Until It Sleeps" The Billboard Hot 100 10 1996 "Until It Sleeps" UK Singles Chart 5 1996 "Mama Said" ARIA Singles Chart 24 1997 "Ain't My Bitch" Mainstream Rock Tracks 40 1997 "Bleeding Me" Mainstream Rock Tracks 6 1997 "Hero of the Day" Canadian Singles Chart 17 1997 "King Nothing" Canadian Singles Chart 14 1997 "King Nothing" Mainstream Rock Tracks 6 1997 "King Nothing" The Billboard Hot 100 90 Certification Country Sales CertificationUnited States5,020,0005x PlatinumUnited Kingdom100,000Gold References | Load_(album) |@lemmatized load:7 sixth:1 studio:6 album:26 american:1 heavy:2 metal:5 band:8 metallica:16 release:6 june:1 date:1 sell:2 million:1 copy:2 america:1 riaa:1 gold:2 platinum:2 certify:1 uk:4 award:1 content:1 spend:1 four:1 consecutive:1 week:1 billboard:5 accord:1 drummer:1 lars:4 ulrich:6 explore:3 different:2 thing:2 minute:3 stop:1 sit:1 fuck:2 die:1 interview:2 pretty:1 hate:1 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1,368 | Darwin_Awards | A Darwin Award is a tongue-in-cheek honour named after evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin. Awards have been given for people who "do a service to Humanity by removing themselves from the gene pool" (i.e. lose the ability to reproduce either by death or sterilization in a stupid fashion). According to Wendy Northcutt, author of the Darwin Award books: "The Awards honor people who ensure the long-term survival of the human race by removing themselves from the gene pool in a sublimely idiotic fashion." The Darwin Award books state that an attempt is made to disallow known urban legends from the awards, but some older "winners" have been 'grandfathered' to keep their awards. However, despite claiming veracity as a requirement, most submitted stories are not verified against reliable published sources, and many of them are fictional. snopes.com discussion of the Darwin Awards History The Awards have circulated since 1985 as emails and Usenet group discussions; the Google Usenet archive records two early mentions of Darwin Awards, 7 August 1985 Vending Machine Tipover Vending machine tipover and 7 December 1990 JATO Rocket Car JATO Rocket Car urban legend. The JATO legend was widely distributed via emails from 1995–97. Several anonymously authored email lists titled (for example) 1999 Darwin Awards have appeared annually since 1991. There are several websites that record "Darwin Awards" snopes.com discussion of the Darwin Awards — a well-known one started in 1994 is darwinawards.com, run by Wendy Northcutt, who has also written several books on being bored. Rules DarwinAwards.com logo Northcutt has stated five requirements for her Darwin Award: Inability to reproduce Nominee must be dead or rendered sterile. Sometimes this can be a matter of dispute. Potential awardees may be out of the gene pool due to age; others have already reproduced before their deaths. To avoid debates about the possibility of in-vitro fertilization, artificial insemination, or cloning, the original Darwin Awards book applied the following "deserted island" test to potential winners: If the person would be unable to reproduce when stranded on a deserted island with a fertile member of the opposite sex, he or she would be considered sterile. In general, winners of the award are either dead, become unable to use their sexual organs, or are imprisoned for life with no chance of escape. Excellence Astoundingly stupid judgment. The candidate's foolishness must be unique and sensational, perhaps because the award is intended to be funny. A number of foolish but common activities, such as smoking in bed, are excluded from consideration. In contrast, self-immolation caused by smoking after being administered a flammable ointment in a hospital and specifically told not to smoke "Stubbed Out" is grounds for nomination. One 'Honorable Mention' (a man who attempted suicide by swallowing nitroglycerine pills, and then tried to detonate them by running into a wall) is noted to be in this category, despite being intentional and self-inflicted, which would normally disqualify the inductee. http://darwinawards.com/stupid/stupid2001-24.html Self-selection Cause of one's own demise. Killing a friend with a hand grenade would not be eligible, but killing oneself while manufacturing a homemade chimney-cleaning device from a grenade "Chimney Cleaning Grenade" would be eligible. To earn a Darwin Award, the candidate must have injured or killed himself, rather than a third party. Maturity Capable of sound judgment. The nominee must be at least past the legal driving age and free of mental defect. Veracity The event must be verified. The story must be documented by reliable sources, i.e., reputable newspaper articles, confirmed television reports, or responsible eyewitnesses. If a story is found to be untrue, it is disqualified, but particularly amusing ones are placed in the urban legend section of the archives. Despite this requirement, most of the stories are fictional, often appearing as "original submissions" and presenting no further sources than unverified (and unreliable) "eyewitnesses". Examples Examples of Darwin award winners include: Juggling active hand grenades (Croatia, 2001), Juggling Hand Grenades Leaving a lit cigarette in a warehouse full of explosives (Philippines, 1999) Jumping out of a plane to film skydivers without wearing a parachute (U.S., 1987), Parachuting Without a Parachute Trying to get enough light to look down the barrel of a loaded muzzleloader gun using a cigarette lighter (U.S., 1996), Looking Down a Gun Barrel Using a lighter to illuminate a fuel tank to make sure it contains nothing flammable (Brazil, 2003), Attempting to play Russian roulette with a semi-automatic pistol that automatically reloads the next round into the chamber, Gun Safety Training or attempting Russian roulette with an unexploded landmine, Crashing through a window and falling to your death in trying to demonstrate that the window is unbreakable, Lawyer Aloft Northcutt's Darwin Awards site gives "Honorable Mentions" to people who survive their misadventures with their reproductive capacity intact, by luck or chance. One example is Lawnchair Larry, who attached helium filled weather balloons to a lawn chair and floated far above Long Beach, California, in July 1982. He reached an altitude of 16,000 feet and was later fined for crossing controlled airspace. Another notable honourable mention was given to the two men who attempted to burgle the home of 'hard man' footballer Duncan Ferguson (who had 4 convictions for assault and had served 6 months in Glasgow's Barlinnie prison) in 2001, with one burglar requiring 3 days hospitalization after being confronted by the player. http://darwinawards.com/stupid/stupid2001-04.html Special winners Each year, one award is selected as being much more "honorable" than the rest, and it is crowned as the "Darwin Award of the Year" or "[year] Darwin Award Winner". In 2007, the winner was "The Enema Within", in which a man died of alcohol poisoning after having two 1.5 litre bottles (over 100 fluid ounces) of sherry inserted anally. Cultural References The Darwin Awards is a movie structured around the Darwin Awards. Actual 'Darwin Award' The Zoological Society of London presents the Charles Darwin Award, given to a British undergraduate student "for outstanding work in zoology." http://www.zsl.org/science/scientific-awards/the-charles-darwin-award-2005,203,AR.html retrieved February 13th 2009. See also List of inventors killed by their own inventions Other mock awards Golden Raspberry Awards for bad film work Pigasus Award for paranormal fraud (U.S.) Bent Spoon Award for paranormal fraud (Australia) Stella Awards for outrageous lawsuits Bad Sex in Fiction Award for exactly that Bookseller/Diagram Prize for Oddest Title of the Year for odd book titles Ig Nobel Prizes for questionable scientific achievements References Bibliography Wendy Northcutt, Darwin Awards: Evolution in Action, Dutton Adult, October 19, 2000. ISBN 0-525-94572-5 Wendy Northcutt, Darwin Awards II: Unnatural Selection Dutton Adult, October 29, 2001. ISBN 0-525-94623-3 Wendy Northcutt, Darwin Awards III: Survival of the Fittest, Dutton Adult, October 9, 2003. ISBN 0-525-94773-6 Wendy Northcutt, Darwin Awards IV: Intelligent Design, Dutton Adult, October 24, 2006. ISBN 0-525-94960-7 Wendy Northcutt, Darwin Awards: Next Evolution, Dutton Adult, October 30, 2008. ISBN 0-525-95085-0 External links DarwinAwards.com website An interview with Wendy Northcutt | Darwin_Awards |@lemmatized darwin:26 award:40 tongue:1 cheek:1 honour:1 name:1 evolutionary:1 theorist:1 charles:3 give:4 people:3 service:1 humanity:1 remove:2 gene:3 pool:3 e:2 lose:1 ability:1 reproduce:4 either:2 death:3 sterilization:1 stupid:4 fashion:2 accord:1 wendy:8 northcutt:10 author:1 book:5 honor:1 ensure:1 long:2 term:1 survival:2 human:1 race:1 sublimely:1 idiotic:1 state:2 attempt:5 make:2 disallow:1 know:2 urban:3 legend:4 old:1 winner:7 grandfathered:1 keep:1 however:1 despite:3 claim:1 veracity:2 requirement:3 submit:1 story:4 verify:2 reliable:2 publish:1 source:3 many:1 fictional:2 snopes:2 com:7 discussion:3 history:1 circulate:1 since:2 email:3 usenet:2 group:1 google:1 archive:2 record:2 two:3 early:1 mention:4 august:1 vending:1 machine:2 tipover:2 vend:1 december:1 jato:3 rocket:2 car:2 widely:1 distribute:1 via:1 several:3 anonymously:1 authored:1 list:2 title:3 example:4 appear:2 annually:1 website:2 well:1 one:7 start:1 darwinawards:5 run:2 also:2 write:1 bore:1 rule:1 logo:1 five:1 inability:1 nominee:2 must:6 dead:2 render:1 sterile:2 sometimes:1 matter:1 dispute:1 potential:2 awardees:1 may:1 due:1 age:2 others:1 already:1 avoid:1 debate:1 possibility:1 vitro:1 fertilization:1 artificial:1 insemination:1 cloning:1 original:2 apply:1 following:1 desert:1 island:2 test:1 person:1 would:5 unable:2 strand:1 deserted:1 fertile:1 member:1 opposite:1 sex:2 consider:1 general:1 become:1 use:3 sexual:1 organ:1 imprison:1 life:1 chance:2 escape:1 excellence:1 astoundingly:1 judgment:2 candidate:2 foolishness:1 unique:1 sensational:1 perhaps:1 intend:1 funny:1 number:1 foolish:1 common:1 activity:1 smoking:1 bed:1 exclude:1 consideration:1 contrast:1 self:3 immolation:1 cause:2 smoke:2 administer:1 flammable:2 ointment:1 hospital:1 specifically:1 tell:1 stub:1 ground:1 nomination:1 honorable:3 man:3 suicide:1 swallow:1 nitroglycerine:1 pill:1 try:3 detonate:1 wall:1 note:1 category:1 intentional:1 inflict:1 normally:1 disqualify:2 inductee:1 http:3 html:3 selection:2 demise:1 kill:4 friend:1 hand:3 grenade:5 eligible:2 oneself:1 manufacture:1 homemade:1 chimney:2 cleaning:1 device:1 clean:1 earn:1 injure:1 rather:1 third:1 party:1 maturity:1 capable:1 sound:1 least:1 past:1 legal:1 driving:1 free:1 mental:1 defect:1 event:1 document:1 reputable:1 newspaper:1 article:1 confirm:1 television:1 report:1 responsible:1 eyewitness:2 find:1 untrue:1 particularly:1 amusing:1 place:1 section:1 often:1 submission:1 present:2 unverified:1 unreliable:1 include:1 juggling:1 active:1 croatia:1 juggle:1 leave:1 lit:1 cigarette:2 warehouse:1 full:1 explosive:1 philippine:1 jump:1 plane:1 film:2 skydiver:1 without:2 wear:1 parachute:3 u:3 get:1 enough:1 light:1 look:2 barrel:2 loaded:1 muzzleloader:1 gun:3 lighter:2 illuminate:1 fuel:1 tank:1 sure:1 contain:1 nothing:1 brazil:1 play:1 russian:2 roulette:2 semi:1 automatic:1 pistol:1 automatically:1 reload:1 next:2 round:1 chamber:1 safety:1 training:1 unexploded:1 landmine:1 crash:1 window:2 fall:1 demonstrate:1 unbreakable:1 lawyer:1 aloft:1 site:1 survive:1 misadventure:1 reproductive:1 capacity:1 intact:1 luck:1 lawnchair:1 larry:1 attach:1 helium:1 fill:1 weather:1 balloon:1 lawn:1 chair:1 float:1 far:1 beach:1 california:1 july:1 reach:1 altitude:1 foot:1 later:1 fin:1 cross:1 controlled:1 airspace:1 another:1 notable:1 honourable:1 men:1 burgle:1 home:1 hard:1 footballer:1 duncan:1 ferguson:1 conviction:1 assault:1 serve:1 month:1 glasgow:1 barlinnie:1 prison:1 burglar:1 require:1 day:1 hospitalization:1 confront:1 player:1 special:1 year:4 select:1 much:1 rest:1 crown:1 enema:1 within:1 die:1 alcohol:1 poisoning:1 litre:1 bottle:1 fluid:1 ounce:1 sherry:1 insert:1 anally:1 cultural:1 reference:2 movie:1 structure:1 around:1 actual:1 zoological:1 society:1 london:1 british:1 undergraduate:1 student:1 outstanding:1 work:2 zoology:1 www:1 zsl:1 org:1 science:1 scientific:2 ar:1 retrieve:1 february:1 see:1 inventor:1 invention:1 mock:1 golden:1 raspberry:1 bad:2 pigasus:1 paranormal:2 fraud:2 bent:1 spoon:1 australia:1 stella:1 outrageous:1 lawsuit:1 fiction:1 exactly:1 bookseller:1 diagram:1 prize:2 odd:2 ig:1 nobel:1 questionable:1 achievement:1 bibliography:1 evolution:2 action:1 dutton:5 adult:5 october:5 isbn:5 ii:1 unnatural:1 iii:1 fit:1 iv:1 intelligent:1 design:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 |@bigram tongue_cheek:1 charles_darwin:3 wendy_northcutt:8 snopes_com:2 vend_machine:1 darwinawards_com:5 artificial_insemination:1 russian_roulette:2 semi_automatic:1 automatic_pistol:1 northcutt_darwin:6 fluid_ounce:1 http_www:1 golden_raspberry:1 ig_nobel:1 nobel_prize:1 dutton_adult:5 intelligent_design:1 external_link:1 |
1,369 | Patent | A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor or his assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an invention. The procedure for granting patents, the requirements placed on the patentee and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims defining the invention which must be new, inventive, and useful or industrially applicable. In many countries, certain subject areas are excluded from patents, such as business methods and mental acts. The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission. Patents: Frequently Asked Questions, World Intellectual Property Organization, Retrieved on 22 February 2009 Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, patents should be available in WTO member states for any inventions, in all fields of technology, Article 27.1. of the TRIPs Agreement. and the term of protection available should be minimum twenty years. Different types of patents may have varying patent terms (i.e., durations). Definition The term patent usually refers to a right granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof. The additional qualification utility patents is used in the United States to distinguish them from other types of patents but should not be confused with utility models granted by other countries. Examples of particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents. Some other types of intellectual property rights are referred to as patents in some jurisdictions: industrial design rights are called design patents in some jurisdictions (they protect the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian), plant breeders' rights are sometimes called plant patents, and utility models or Gebrauchsmuster are sometimes called petty patents or innovation patents. This article relates primarily to the patent for an invention, although so-called petty patents and utility models may also be granted for inventions. Certain grants made by the monarch in pursuance of the royal prerogative were sometimes called letters patent, which was a government notice to the public of a grant of an exclusive right to ownership and possession. These were often grants of a patent-like monopoly and predate the modern British origins of the patent system. For other uses of the term patent see Land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA. This reflects the original meaning of letters patent that had a broader scope than current usage. Etymology The word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means "to lay open" (i.e., to make available for public inspection), and more directly as a shortened version of the term letters patent, which originally denoted an open for public reading royal decree granting exclusive rights to a person. Law Effects A patent is not a right to practice or use the invention. "A patent is not the grant of a right to make or use or sell. It does not, directly or indirectly, imply any such right. It grants only the right to exclude others. The supposition that a right to make is created by the patent grant is obviously inconsistent with the established distinctions between generic and specific patents, and with the well-known fact that a very considerable portion of the patents granted are in a field covered by a former relatively generic or basic patent, are tributary to such earlier patent, and cannot be practiced unless by license thereunder." - Herman v. Youngstown Car Mfg. Co., 191 F. 579, 584-85, 112 CCA 185 (6th Cir. 1911) Rather, a patent provides the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent, which is usually 20 years from the filing date Article 33 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) subject to the payment of maintenance fees. A patent is, in effect, a limited property right that the government offers to inventors in exchange for their agreement to share the details of their inventions with the public. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned. The rights conveyed by a patent vary country-by-country. For example, in the United States, a patent covers research, except "purely philosophical" inquiry. A U.S. patent is infringed by any "making" of the invention, even a making that goes toward development of a new invention — which may itself become subject of a patent. A patent being an exclusionary right does not, however, necessarily give the owner of the patent the right to exploit the patent. For example, many inventions are improvements of prior inventions which may still be covered by someone else's patent. If an inventor takes an existing, patented mouse trap design, adds a new feature to make an improved mouse trap, and obtains a patent on the improvement, he or she can only legally build his or her improved mouse trap with permission from the patent holder of the original mouse trap, assuming the original patent is still in force. On the other hand, the owner of the improved mouse trap can exclude the original patent owner from using the improvement. Some countries have "working provisions" which require that the invention be exploited in the jurisdiction it covers. Consequences of not working an invention vary from one country to another, ranging from revocation of the patent rights to the awarding of a compulsory license awarded by the courts to a party wishing to exploit a patented invention. The patentee has the opportunity to challenge the revocation or license, but is usually required to provide evidence that the reasonable requirements of the public have been met by the working of invention. Enforcement The plate of the Martin ejector seat of the military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others". Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation. Patents can generally only be enforced through civil lawsuits (for example, for a U.S. patent, by an action for patent infringement in a United States federal court), although some countries (such as France and Austria) have criminal penalties for wanton infringement. DLA Piper Rudnick Gray Cary (2005) Patent Litigation across Europe, handout available as per this link. Typically, the patent owner will seek monetary compensation for past infringement, and will seek an injunction prohibiting the defendant from engaging in future acts of infringement. In order to prove infringement, the patent owner must establish that the accused infringer practices all of the requirements of at least one of the claims of the patent (noting that in many jurisdictions the scope of the patent may not be limited to what is literally stated in the claims, for example due to the "doctrine of equivalents"). An important limitation on the ability of a patent owner to successfully assert the patent in civil litigation is the accused infringer's right to challenge the validity of that patent. Civil courts hearing patent cases can and often do declare patents invalid. The grounds on which a patent can be found invalid are set out in the relevant patent legislation and vary between countries. Often, the grounds are a sub-set of the requirements for patentability in the relevant country. Whilst an infringer is generally free to rely on any available ground of invalidity (such as a prior publication, for example), some countries have sanctions to prevent the same validity questions being relitigated. An example is the UK Certificate of contested validity. Patents in force in 2000 The vast majority of patent rights, however, are not determined through litigation, but are resolved privately through patent licensing. Patent licensing agreements are effectively contracts in which the patent owner (the licensor) agrees to forgo their right to sue the licensee for infringement of the licensor's patent rights, usually in return for a royalty or other compensation. It is common for companies engaged in complex technical fields to enter into dozens of license agreements associated with the production of a single product. Moreover, it is equally common for competitors in such fields to license patents to each other under cross-licensing agreements in order to share the benefits of using each other's patented inventions. The United Nations Statistics Division reports that the United States was the top market for patents in force in 2000 closely followed by the EU and Japan. Ownership In most countries, both natural persons and corporate entities may apply for a patent. In the United States, however, only the inventor(s) may apply for a patent although it may be assigned to a corporate entity subsequently and inventors may be required to assign inventions to their employers under the contract of employment. In most European countries, ownership of an invention may pass from the inventor to their employer by rule of law if the invention was made in the course of the inventor's normal employment duties. See Section 39 of the UK Patents Act as an example. The laws across Europe vary from country to country but are generally harmonised The inventors, their successors or their assignees become the proprietors of the patent when and if it is granted. If a patent is granted to more than one proprietor, the laws of the country in question and any agreement between the proprietors may affect the extent to which each proprietor can exploit the patent. For example, in some countries, each proprietor may freely license or assign their rights in the patent to another person while the law in other countries prohibits such actions without the permission of the other proprietor(s). The ability to assign ownership rights increases the liquidity of a patent as property. Inventors can obtain patents and then sell them to third parties. The third parties then own the patents and have the same rights to prevent others from exploiting the claimed inventions, as if they had originally made the inventions themselves. Governing laws The grant and enforcement of patents are governed by national laws, and also by international treaties, where those treaties have been given effect in national laws. Patents are, therefore, territorial in nature. Commonly, a nation forms a patent office with responsibility for operating that nation's patent system, within the relevant patent laws. The patent office generally has responsibility for the grant of patents, with infringement being the remit of national courts. There is a trend towards global harmonization of patent laws, with the World Trade Organization (WTO) being particularly active in this area. The TRIPs Agreement has been largely successful in providing a forum for nations to agree on an aligned set of patent laws. Conformity with the TRIPs agreement is a requirement of admission to the WTO and so compliance is seen by many nations as important. This has also led to many developing nations, which may historically have developed different laws to aid their development, enforcing patents laws in line with global practice. A key international convention relating to patents is the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, initially signed in 1883. The Paris Convention sets out a range of basic rules relating to patents, and although the convention does not have direct legal effect in all national jurisdictions, the principles of the convention are incorporated into all notable current patent systems. The most significant aspect of the convention is the provision of the right to claim priority: filing an application in any one member state of the Paris Convention preserves the right for one year to file in any other member state, and receive the benefit of the original filing date. Because the right to a patent is intensely date-driven, this right is fundamental to modern patent usage. The authority for patent statutes in different countries varies. In the United States, the Constitution empowers Congress to make laws to "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts..." The laws Congress passed are codified in Title 35 of the United States Code and created the United States Patent and Trademark Office. In the UK, substantive patent law is contained in the Patents Act 1977 as amended. United Kingdom law requiring no explicit authority due to the Supremacy of Parliament. In addition, there are international treaty procedures, such as the procedures under the European Patent Convention (EPC) [administered by the European Patent Organisation (EPOrg)], and the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) (administered by WIPO and covering 137 countries), that centralise some portion of the filing and examination procedure. Similar arrangements exist among the member states of ARIPO and OAPI, the analogous treaties among African countries, and the nine CIS member states that have formed the Eurasian Patent Organization. Application and prosecution A patent is requested by filing a written application at the relevant patent office. The application contains a description of how to make and use the invention that must provide sufficient detail for a person skilled in the art (i.e., the relevant area of technology) to make and use the invention. In some countries there are requirements for providing specific information such as the usefulness of the invention, the best mode of performing the invention known to the inventor, or the technical problem or problems solved by the invention. Drawings illustrating the invention may also be provided. The application also includes one or more claims, although it is not always a requirement to submit these when first filing the application. The claims set out what the applicant is seeking to protect in that they define what the patent owner has a right to exclude others from making, using, or selling, as the case may be. In other words, the claims define what a patent covers or the "scope of protection". For a patent to be granted, that is to take legal effect in a particular country, the patent application must meet the patentability requirements of that country. Most patent offices examine the application for compliance with these requirements. If the application does not comply, objections are communicated to the applicant or their patent agent or attorney and one or more opportunties to respond to the objections to bring the application into compliance are usually provided. Once granted the patent is subject in most countries to renewal fees to keep the patent in force. These fees are generally payable on a yearly basis, although the US is a notable exception. Economics Rationale There are four primary incentives embodied in the patent system: to invent in the first place; to disclose the invention once made; to invest the sums necessary to experiment, produce and market the invention; and to design around and improve upon earlier patents. Howard T. Markey (chief judge of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and later of the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit), Special Problems in Patent Cases, 66 F.R.D. 529, 1975. Patents provide incentives for economically efficient research and development (R&D). Many large modern corporations have annual R&D budgets of hundreds of millions or even billions of dollars. Without patents, R&D spending would be significantly less or eliminated altogether, limiting the possibility of technological advances or breakthroughs. Corporations would be much more conservative about the R&D investments they made, as third parties would be free to exploit any developments. This second justification is closely related to the basic ideas underlying traditional property rights. Howard T. Markey (chief judge of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and later of the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit), Special Problems in Patent Cases, 66 F.R.D. 529, 1975. In accordance with the original definition of the term "patent," patents facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovations into the public domain for the common good. If inventors did not have the legal protection of patents, in many cases, they would prefer or tend to keep their inventions secret. Awarding patents generally makes the details of new technology publicly available, for exploitation by anyone after the patent expires, or for further improvement by other inventors. Furthermore, when a patent's term has expired, the public record ensures that the patentee's idea is not lost to humanity. In many industries (especially those with high fixed costs and either low marginal costs or low reverse engineering costs — computer processors, software, and pharmaceuticals for example), once an invention exists, the cost of commercialization (testing, tooling up a factory, developing a market, etc.) is far more than the initial conception cost. (For example, the internal "rule of thumb" at several computer companies in the 1980s was that post-R&D costs were 7-to-1). Unless there is some way to prevent copies from competing at the marginal cost of production, companies will not make that productization investment. One effect of modern patent usage is that a small-time inventor can use the exclusive right status to become a licensor. This allows the inventor to accumulate capital from licensing the invention and may allow innovation to occur because he or she may choose to not manage a manufacturing buildup for the invention. Thus the inventor's time and energy can be spent on pure innovation, allowing others to concentrate on manufacturability. Stim, Rishand, "Profit from Your Idea: How to Make Smart Licensing Decisions", ISBN 1413304508 (Published 2006) Costs The costs of preparing and filing a patent application, prosecuting it until grant and maintaining the patent vary from one jurisdiction to another, and may also be dependent upon the type and complexity of the invention, and on the type of patent. The European Patent Office estimated in 2005 that the average cost of obtaining a European patent (via a Euro-direct application, i.e. not based on a PCT application) and maintaining the patent for a 10 year term was around 32 000 Euro. With the following assumptions: "18 pages (11 pages description, 3 pages claims, 4 pages drawings), 10 claims, patent validated in 6 countries (Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland), excl. in-house preparation costs for the patentee" (the costs relate to European patents granted in 2002/2003), in European Patent Office, The cost of a sample European patent - new estimates, 2005, page 1. Since the London Agreement entered into force on May 1, 2008, this estimation is however no longer up-to-date, since fewer translations are required. Criticism Patents have been criticized for being granted on already known inventions. In 1938, for example, R. Buckminster Fuller, inventor of the geodesic dome wrote: Nine Chains to the Moon, Chapter 36, "Throwing in the Patent Sponge", p 277 "At present (1938), the (US patent) files, are so extraordinarily complex and the items so multitudinous that a veritable army of governmental servants is required to attend them and sort them into some order of distinguishable categories to which reference may be made when corresponding with patent applicants for the purposes of examiner citation of "prior art" disclosure. This complexity makes it inevitable that the human-equation involved in government servants relative to carelessness or mechanical limitations should occasion the granting of multitudes of "probably" invalid patent claims." Patents have also been criticized for conferring a "negative right" upon a patent owner, permitting them to exclude competitors from using or exploiting the invention, even if the competitor subsequently develops the same invention independently. This may be subsequent to the date of invention, or to the priority date, depending upon the relevant patent law (see First to file and first to invent). Patents may hinder innovation as well in the case of "troll" entities. A holding company, pejoratively known as a "patent troll", owns a portfolio of patents, and sues others for infringement of these patents while doing little to develop the technology itself. Another theoretical problem with patent rights was proposed by law professors Michael Heller and Rebecca Sue Eisenberg in a 1998 Science article. Heller, M.A., & Eisenberg, R.S. (1998). Can Patents Deter Innovation? The Anticommons in Biomedical Research. Science, 280(1 May 1998), 280, 698-701. Building from Heller's theory of the tragedy of the anticommons, the professors postulated that intellectual property rights may become so fragmented that, effectively, no one can take advantage of them as to do so would require an agreement between the owners of all of the fragments. In regards to pharmaceutical patents, the preservation of exclusivity rights on medications prevents generic alternatives to enter the market and thus maintains a high price of drug treatments. Banta, D.H. (2001). Worldwide interest in global access to drugs. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 (22), 2844-2846. This can have significant effects in the developing world as those who are most in need of basic essential medicines are unable to afford such high priced pharmaceuticals. Ferreira, L. (2002). Access to affordable HIV/AIDS drugs: the human rights obligations of multinational pharmaceutical corporations. Fordham Law Review, 71(3), 1133-1179. Another criticism of pharmaceutical patenting relates the rationale of exclusivity rights and subsequent high drug prices as required to make back the vast investment needed to further research and development. Banta, D.H. (2001). Worldwide interest in global access to drugs. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 (22), 2844-2846. Critics have investigated pharmaceutical budget allocations to address this price justification and revealed that marketing expenditures of new drugs have often doubled the amount that was allocated for required research and development. Barton, J.H., Emanuel, E.J. (2005). The patents-based pharmaceutical development process: rationale, problems and potential reforms. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 294(16), 2075-2082. In response to these criticisms against pharmaceutical patents it has been pointed out that less than 5% of medicines on the WHO’s essential drugs list are subject to patent protection http://www.ip-institute.org.uk/pdfs/Perceptions%20of%20IP.pdf and that countries who believe that intellectual property is impeding health care may not be aware that the medicines in question, particularly for HIV/AIDS related drugs, are not patented in their country. Also, the pharmaceutical industry has contributed US$2 billion in healthcare efforts in developing countries, providing HIV/AIDS drugs at lower cost or even free of charge in certain countries and has used differential pricing and parallel imports as a means to provide medication to the poor. Other groups are investigating ways in which social inclusion and equitable distribution of research and development findings can be obtained within the existing intellectual property framework, although these efforts have received less exposure. History U.S. Patents granted, 1800–2004. U.S. Patent Activity 1790 to the Present In 500 BC, in the Greek city of Sybaris (located in what is now southern Italy), "encouragement was held out to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury, the profits arising from which were secured to the inventor by patent for the space of a year." Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing An Account Of The Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, And Intended To Elucidate All The Important Points Connected With The Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, And Fine Arts Of The Greeks And Romans Together With An Account Of Coins, Weights, And Measures, With Tabular Values Of The Same, Harper & Bros, 1841, page 1273. The Florentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi received a three year patent for a barge with hoisting gear, that carried marble along the Arno River in 1421. Christine MacLeod, Inventing the Industrial Revolution: The English Patent System, 1660-1800, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0521893992, 9780521893992, page 11. Patents in the modern sense originated in 1474, when the Republic of Venice enacted a decree by which new and inventive devices, once they had been put into practice, had to be communicated to the Republic in order to obtain the right to prevent others from using them. Helmut Schippel: Die Anfänge des Erfinderschutzes in Venedig, in: Uta Lindgren (Hrsg.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation, 4. Aufl., Berlin 2001, S.539-550 ISBN 3-7861-1748-9. England followed with the Statute of Monopolies in 1623 under King James I, which declared that patents could only be granted for "projects of new invention." During the reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714), the lawyers of the English Court developed the requirement that a written description of the invention must be submitted. In the United States, during the so-called colonial period and Articles of Confederation years (1778–1789), several states adopted patent systems of their own. The first Congress adopted a Patent Act, in 1790, and the first patent was issued under this Act on July 31, 1790 (to Samuel Hopkins of Vermont for a potash production technique). See also List of patent legal concepts List of patent related topics List of people associated with patent law References External links Directory of Intellectual Property Offices, maintained by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Patent and Trademark Information from UCB Libraries GovPubs Useful links, "Your guide to intellectual property information and services on the internet.", maintained by the European Patent Office OECD Patent statistics | Patent |@lemmatized patent:183 set:6 exclusive:6 right:45 grant:26 state:21 inventor:17 assignee:2 limited:2 period:2 time:3 exchange:2 disclosure:3 invention:43 procedure:4 requirement:10 place:2 patentee:5 extent:2 vary:7 widely:1 country:31 accord:1 national:5 law:22 international:4 agreement:13 typically:2 however:5 application:14 must:6 include:3 one:11 claim:10 define:3 new:11 inventive:2 useful:5 industrially:1 applicable:1 many:8 certain:3 subject:5 area:3 exclude:6 business:2 method:2 mental:1 act:6 prevent:5 others:9 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1,370 | Concept | There are two prevailing theories in contemporary philosophy which attempt to explain the nature of concepts (abstract term: "conception"). The representational theory of mind proposes that concepts are mental representations, while the semantic theory of concepts (originating with Frege's distinction between concept and object) holds that they are abstract objects. The Ontology of Concepts—Abstract Objects or Mental Representations?, Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence Ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily appear to the mind as images as some ideas do. Cambribdge Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. Audi Many philosophers consider concepts to be a fundamental ontological category of being. A concept is a cognitive unit of meaning— an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a "unit of knowledge," built from other units which act as a concept's characteristics. A concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language or symbology such as a word. The meaning of "concept" is explored in mainstream cognitive science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (l. conceptum - something conceived), but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms. Origin and acquisition of concepts A posteriori abstractions John Locke's description of a general idea corresponds to a description of a concept. According to Locke, a general idea is created by abstracting, drawing away, or removing the common characteristic or characteristics from several particular ideas. This common characteristic is that which is similar to all of the different individuals. For example, the abstract general idea or concept that is designated by the word "red" is that characteristic which is common to apples, cherries, and blood. The abstract general idea or concept that is signified by the word "dog" is the collection of those characteristics which are common to Airedales, Collies, and Chihuahuas. In the same tradition as Locke, John Stuart Mill stated that general conceptions are formed through abstraction. A general conception is the common element among the many images of members of a class. "… [W]hen we form a set of phenomena into a class, that is, when we compare them with one another to ascertain in what they agree, some general conception is implied in this mental operation" (A System of Logic, Book IV, Ch. II). Mill did not believe that concepts exist in the mind before the act of abstraction. "It is not a law of our intellect, that, in comparing things with each other and taking note of their agreement, we merely recognize as realised in the outward world something that we already had in our minds. The conception originally found its way to us as the result of such a comparison. It was obtained (in metaphysical phrase) by abstraction from individual things" (Ibid.). For Schopenhauer, empirical concepts "… are mere abstractions from what is known through intuitive perception, and they have arisen from our arbitrarily thinking away or dropping of some qualities and our retention of others." (Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. I, "Sketch of a History of the Ideal and the Real"). In his On the Will in Nature, "Physiology and Pathology," Schopenhauer said that a concept is "drawn off from previous images … by putting off their differences. This concept is then no longer intuitively perceptible, but is denoted and fixed merely by words." Nietzsche, who was heavily influenced by Schopenhauer, wrote: "Every concept originates through our equating what is unequal. No leaf ever wholly equals another, and the concept 'leaf' is formed through an arbitrary abstraction from these individual differences, through forgetting the distinctions … ." "On Truth and Lie in an Extra–Moral Sense," The Portable Nietzsche, p. 46 By contrast to the above philosophers, Immanuel Kant held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result of abstraction "a posteriori concepts" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects. (Logic, I, 1., §1, Note 1) A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. Kant's description of the making of a concept has been paraphrased as "… to conceive is essentially to think in abstraction what is common to a plurality of possible instances … ." (H.J. Paton, Kant's Metaphysics of Experience, I, 250). In his discussion of Kant, Christopher Janaway wrote: "… generic concepts are formed by abstraction from more than one species." Christopher Janaway, Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy, Ch. 3, p. 112, Oxford, 2003, ISBN 0-19-825003-7 A priori concepts Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. Conceptual structure It seems intuitively obvious that concepts must have some kind of structure. Up until recently, the dominant view of conceptual structure was a containment model, associated with the classical view of concepts. According to this model, a concept is endowed with certain necessary and sufficient conditions in their description which unequivocally determine an extension. The containment model allows for no degrees; a thing is either in, or out, of the concept's extension. By contrast, the inferential model understands conceptual structure to be determined in a graded manner, according to the tendency of the concept to be used in certain kinds of inferences. As a result, concepts do not have a kind of structure that is in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions; all conditions are contingent. (Margolis:5) However, some theorists claim that primitive concepts lack any structure at all. For instance, Jerry Fodor presents his Asymmetric Dependence Theory as a way of showing how a primitive concept's content is determined by a reliable relationship between the information in mental contents and the world. These sorts of claims are referred to as "atomistic", because the primitive concept is treated as if it were a genuine atom. Conceptual content Content as pragmatic role A concept may be abstracted from several perceptions, but that is only its origin. In regard to its meaning or its truth, William James proposed his Pragmatic Rule. This rule states that the meaning of a concept may always be found in some particular difference in the course of human experience which its being true will make (Some Problems of Philosophy, "Percept and Concept — The Import of Concepts"). In order to understand the meaning of the concept and to discuss its importance, a concept may be tested by asking, "What sensible difference to anybody will its truth make?" There is only one criterion of a concept's meaning and only one test of its truth. That criterion or test is its consequences for human behavior. In this way, James bypassed the controversy between rationalists and empiricists regarding the origin of concepts. Instead of solving their dispute, he ignored it. The rationalists had asserted that concepts are a revelation of Reason. Concepts are a glimpse of a different world, one which contains timeless truths in areas such as logic, mathematics, ethics, and aesthetics. By pure thought, humans can discover the relations that really exist among the parts of that divine world. On the other hand, the empiricists claimed that concepts were merely a distillation or abstraction from perceptions of the world of experience. Therefore, the significance of concepts depends solely on the perceptions that are its references. James's Pragmatic Rule does not connect the meaning of a concept with its origin. Instead, it relates the meaning to a concept's purpose, that is, its function, use, or result. Embodied content In Cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections, in Plato's term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism (above), the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation. Philosophical implications Concepts and metaphilosophy A long and well-established tradition philosophy posits that philosophy itself is nothing more than conceptual analysis. This view has its proponents in contemporary literature as well as historical. According to Deleuze and Guattari's What Is Philosophy? (1991), philosophy is the activity of creating concepts. This creative activity differs from previous definitions of philosophy as simple reasoning, communication or contemplation of Universals. Concepts are specific to philosophy: science creates "functions", and art "sensations". A concept is always signed: thus, Descartes' Cogito or Kant's "transcendental". It is a singularity, not universal, and connects itself with others concepts, on a "plane of immanence" traced by a particular philosophy. Concepts can jump from one plane of immanence to another, combining with other concepts and therefore engaging in a "becoming-Other." Concepts in epistemology Concepts are vital to the development of scientific knowledge. For example, it would be difficult to imagine physics without concepts like: energy, force, or acceleration. Concepts help to integrate apparently unrelated observations and phenomena into viable hypothesis and theories, the basic ingredients of science. The concept map is a tool that is used to help researchers visualize the inter-relationships between various concepts. Ontology of concepts Although the mainstream literature in cognitive science regards the concept as a kind of mental particular, it has been suggested by some theorists that concepts are real things. (Margolis:8) In most radical form, the realist about concepts attempts to show that the supposedly mental processes are not mental at all; rather, they are abstract entities, which are just as real as any mundane object. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that laid behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts. Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status. (Morgolis:7) According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of appearance or existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained. hi all See also Abstraction Categorization Class (philosophy) Concept and object Concept car Concept learning Concept map Concept single Conceptual art Conceptual blending Conceptual clustering Conceptual framework Conveyed concept Formal concept analysis Fuzzy concept Hypostatic abstraction Idea Meme Misconception Object (philosophy) Philosophy Schema (Kant) Social construction Symbol grounding problem References A concept is a system of general ideas targeting the multilateral treatment/interpretation of economic, social, legal, scientific, technical and other problems, and reflecting the manner of perception or the multitude of opinions, ideas regarding problems associated with to the development of one or several fields or sectors as a whole Publications The History of Calculus and its Conceptual Development, Carl Benjamin Boyer, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-60509-4 The Writings of William James, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-39188-4 Logic, Immanuel Kant, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-25650-2 A System of Logic, John Stuart Mill, University Press of the Pacific, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6 Parerga and Paralipomena, Arthur Schopenhauer, Volume I, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-824508-4 What is Philosophy?, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari Kant's Metaphysic of Experience, H.J. Paton, London: Allen & Unwin, 1936 "Conceptual Integration Networks." Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, 1998. Cognitive Science. Volume 22, number 2 (April-June 1998), pages 133-187. The Portable Nietzsche, Penguin Books, 1982, ISBN 0-14-015062-5 Stephen Laurence and Eric Margolis. "Concepts and Cognitive Science" . In Concepts: Core Readings, MIT Press, pp. 3-81, 1999. External links E. Margolis and S. Lawrence (2006), Blending and Conceptual Integration Conceptual Science and Mathematical Permutations v:Conceptualize: A Wikiversity Learning Project Concept simultaneously translated in several languages and meanings | Concept |@lemmatized two:2 prevail:1 theory:8 contemporary:2 philosophy:17 attempt:2 explain:3 nature:2 concept:109 abstract:16 term:7 conception:5 representational:1 mind:7 proposes:1 mental:8 representation:5 semantic:1 originate:4 frege:3 distinction:2 object:11 hold:2 ontology:2 eric:2 margolis:5 stephen:2 laurence:2 idea:14 take:4 although:2 necessarily:1 appear:1 image:3 cambribdge:1 dictionary:1 ed:1 audi:1 many:3 philosopher:2 consider:3 fundamental:1 ontological:3 category:5 cognitive:6 unit:3 mean:3 symbol:2 sometimes:1 define:1 knowledge:2 build:1 act:2 characteristic:8 typically:1 associate:3 corresponding:1 language:4 symbology:1 word:5 meaning:8 explore:1 mainstream:2 science:7 metaphysics:2 trace:2 back:1 l:1 conceptum:1 something:2 conceived:1 today:1 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1,371 | List_of_French_words_and_phrases_used_by_English_speakers | Here are some examples of French words and phrases used by English speakers. There are many words of French origin in English, such as art, collage, competition, force, machine, police, publicity, role, routine, table, and many others which have been and are being anglicized. They are now pronounced according to English rules of orthography, rather than French (which uses nasal vowels not found in English). Approximately 40% of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted by, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest, before the language settled into what became Modern English. This article, however, covers words and phrases that generally entered the lexicon later, as through literature, the arts, diplomacy, and other cultural exchanges not involving conquests. As such, they have not lost their character as Gallicisms, or words that seem unmistakably foreign and "French" to an English-speaking person. That said, the phrases are given as used in English, and may seem correct modern French to English speakers, but may not be recognised as such by French speakers as many of them are now defunct or have a different meaning due to semantic evolution. A general rule is that if the word or phrase retains French diacritics or is usually printed in italics, it has retained its French identity. It should be equally noted that not all of these phrases are common knowledge to all English speakers, nor should any of them be considered part of the current English lexicon. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z __NOTOC__ #Not used as such in French — Only found in English — French phrases in international air-sea rescue — See also — References Used in English and French A à gogo in abundance. It pertains to the familiar language in French. à la [...] in the manner of/in a similar manner to [...] à la carte on the card; (in restaurants refers to ordering individual dishes rather than a fixed-price meal) à la mode fashionable; also, with ice cream (in the U.S.) à propos regarding (note that the correct French syntax is à propos de) abattoir slaughterhouse accoutrement assorted little items, provisions accouchement confinement during childbirth; the process of having a baby; only this last meaning remains in French adieu farewell; as it literally means "to God," it carries more weight than "au revoir" ("goodbye", literally "see you later"): it is definitive, implying you will never see the other person again. Depending on the context, misuse of this term can be considered as an insult, as you'll wish for the other person's death or will say that you don't wish to see the other person ever again while alive. adroit skillful, clever, in French: habile, as a "right-handed" person would be using his "right" hand, as opposed to his left one with which he would be "gauche" meaning "left". aide-de-camp "camp assistant"; assistant to a senior military officer aide-mémoire "memory aid"; an object or memorandum to assist in remembrance, or a diplomatic paper proposing the major points of discussion allez! "go!", as in "go team!" ancien régime a sociopolitical or other system that no longer exists, an allusion to pre-revolutionary France (used with capital letter in French with this meaning : Ancien Régime) aperçu preview; a first impression; initial insight. apéritif a before-meal drink (in familiar French, it is shortened as "un apéro"). appellation contrôlée supervised use of a name. For the conventional use of the term, see Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée après moi, le déluge remark attributed to Louis XV of France; used in reference to the impending end of a functioning French monarchy and predicting the French Revolution. (After me, the deluge.) 617 Squadron Royal air Force famously known as The Dam Busters use this as their motto. Also a verse in the song Après Moi by Regina Spektor. arête a narrow ridge. In French, also fishbone; edge of a polyhedron or graph; bridge of the nose. armoire a type of cabinet; wardrobe. artiste a skilled performer, a person with artistic pretensions. art deco a style of decoration and architecture of the early 20th century made famous by the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes art nouveau a style of decoration and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries (usually bears a capital in French : Art nouveau). attaché a person attached to an embassy; in French is also the past participle of the verb attacher (=to fasten) au contraire on the contrary. au courant up-to-date; abreast of current affairs. au fait being conversant in or with, or instructed in or with. au jus literally, with juice, referring to a food course served with sauce. Often redundantly formulated, as in 'Open-faced steak sandwich, served with au jus.' au pair a young foreigner who does domestic chores in exchange for room and board. au revoir! "See you later!" In French a contraction of Au plaisir de vous revoir (to the pleasure of seeing you again). avant-garde (pl. avant-gardes) applied to cutting-edge or radically innovative movements in art, music and literature; figuratively "on the edge", literally, a military term, meaning "vanguard" (which is the deformation of avant-garde) or "advance guard", in other words, "first to attack" (antonym of arrière-garde). avant la lettre used to describe something or someone seen as a precursor or forerunner of something (such as an artistic or political movement) before that something was recognized and named, e.g. "a post-modernist avant la lettre", "a feminist avant la lettre"; the expression literally means before the letter, i.e. "before it had a name". avec plaisir my pleasure (lit. "with pleasure") B baguette a long, narrow loaf of bread with a crispy crust, otherwise called 'French bread' in the United States ballet a classical type of dance beau geste literally "beautiful gesture"; gracious gesture; also, a gesture noble in form but meaningless in substance Beaux-Arts monumental architectural style of the early 20th century made famous by the Académie des Beaux-Arts beaucoup plenty, lots of, much; merci beaucoup: thanks a lot; used in slang, e.g. "beaucoup money", especially in New Orleans, LA. Occasionally corrupted to "Bookoo," typically in the context of French influenced by Vietnamese culture. bel esprit (pl. beaux esprits) literally "fine mind"; a cultivated, highly intelligent person belle a beautiful woman or girl. Common uses of this word are in the phrases the belle of the ball (the most beautiful woman or girl present at a function) and southern belle (a beautiful woman from the southern states of the US) belles-lettres literally "fine letters"; literature regarded for its aesthetic value rather than its didactic or informative content; also, light, stylish writings, usually on literary or intellectual subjects bien fait ! literally "well done"; used to express schadenfreude when someone is well-deservedly punished bien pensant literally "well thinking"; right thinking, orthodox blasé unimpressed with something because of over-familiarity, jaded. bon appétit literally "good appetite"; enjoy your meal bon mot well-chosen word(s), particularly a witty remark bon vivant one who enjoys the good life, an epicurean bon voyage have a good trip! bonjour "good day", the usual greeting bonne chance "good luck" (as in, 'I wish you good luck') les boules (vulgar) literally "the balls"; meaning that whatever you are talking about is dreadful bric-à-brac small ornamental objects, less valuable than antiques; a collection of old furniture, china, plate and curiosities. Cf. de bric et de broc, corresponding to our "by hook or by crook", and brack, refuse. brioche a sweet yeast bun, kind of a crossover between a popover and a light muffin; French also use the term as slang for 'potbelly', because of the overhang effect. brunette a brown-haired girl. For brown-haired man, French uses brun and for a woman brune. Not used often in French, unlike brun(e). The masculine form, brunet (for a boy) is even more rarely used. bureau (pl. bureaux) office C ça ne fait rien "that doesn't matter"; rendered as san fairy Ann in British WWI slang Eric Partridge: Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, 1951 . cachet lit. "stamp"; a distinctive quality ; quality, prestige. café a coffee shop. café au lait coffee with milk; or a light-brown color. In medicine, it is also used to describe a birthmark that is of a light-brown color (café au lait spot). carte blanche unlimited authority; literally "white card" (i.e. blank check). carte de visite a calling card, literally "visiting card". carte d'identité identity card. c'est bon "that's good". c'est la guerre ! "That's War!"; or "Such is war!" Often used with the meaning that "this means war", but it can be sometimes used as an expression to say that war (or life in general) is harsh but that one must accept it. c'est la mode. "Such is fashion". c'est la vie ! "That's life!"; or "Such is life!" It is sometimes used as an expression to say that life is harsh but that one must accept it. c'est magnifique ! "That's great!"; literally it's magnificent. c'est pas grave "it doesn't matter, it's not a big deal" (informal). Ceux qui rient le vendredi, pleureront le dimanche Those who laugh on Friday will cry on Sunday. chacun ses goûts / à chacun ses goûts / à chacun son goût [all 3 are used] "to each his (their) own taste(s)". chaise longue a long chair for reclining; (also rendered chaise lounge or chase lounge via folk etymology). Champs-Élysées literally "Elysian Fields"; Avenue des Champs-Élysées, one of the largest boulevards in Paris. Often referred as simply "les Champs" ; l'"Élysée" (or "palais de l'Elysée") refers to the French Republich President's main residence, which is situated close to the Champs-Élysées. chanson a song. Also, more specifically: (1) a classical "art song," equiv. to the German lied or the Italian aria; or (2) in Russian, a cabaret-style sung narrative, usually rendered by a guttural male voice with guitar accompaniment (http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD). chanteuse a female singer chapeau a hat. In French, chapeau is also an expression of congratulations similar to the English "hats off to...." chargé d'affaires a diplomat left in charge of day to day business at a diplomatic mission. Within the United States Department of State a chargé is any officer left in charge of the mission in the absence of the titular chief of mission. châteaux en Espagne literally "castles in Spain"; imaginary projects, with little hope of realisation (means the same as "castles in the air" or "pie in the sky"). No known etymology, though it was already used in the 13th century in the Roman de la rose. chef d'œuvre a masterpiece cherchez la femme "look for the woman", in the sense that, when a man behaves out of character or in an otherwise apparently inexplicable manner, the reason may be found in his trying to cover up an illicit affair with a woman, or to impress or gain favour with a woman. First used by Alexandre Dumas (père) in the third chapter of his novel Les Mohicans de Paris (1854). chevalier d'industrie "knight of industry" : one who lives by his wits, specially by swindling chez at the house of : often used in the names of restaurants and the like; Chez Marie = "Marie's" chic stylish chignon a hairstyle worn in a roll at the nape of the neck cinéma vérité realism in documentary filmmaking cinq, cinque five; normally referring to the 5 on dice or cards. In French, always spelt cinq. cinq à sept cute name for stuff you do discreetly with someone other than your spouse between five and seven o'clock so no one notices. cinquefoil five-petal, five-leaf flower of the genus Potentilla, family Rosaceae; also a circular 5-lobed ornamental design. Spelt quintefeuille in French. cliché lit. negative; trite through overuse; a stereotype clique a small exclusive group of friends without morale; always used in a pejorative way in French. commandant a commanding officer. In France, used for an airline pilot (le commandant de bord), in the Army as appellative for a chef de bataillon or a chef d'escadron (roughly equivalent to a major) or in the Navy for any officer from capitaine de corvette to capitaine de vaisseau (equivalent to the Army's majors, lieutenant-colonels and colonels) or for any officer heading a ship. comme ci, comme ça "like this, like that"; so-so, neither good nor bad. In French, usu. couci-couça. comme il faut "as it must be" : in accord with conventions or accepted standards; proper. communiqué lit. communicated; an official communication concierge a hotel desk manager (in French also refers to the caretaker of a building usually living at the front floor ; concierges have a reputation for gossiping) concordat an agreement; a treaty; when used with a capital C in French, it refers to the treaty between the French State and Judaeo-Christian religions during the French Empire (Napoleon) : priests, ministers and rabbis became civil servants. This treaty was abolished in 1905 (law Church-State separation) but is still in use in Alsace-Lorraine (those territories were under German administration during 1871–1918) confrère a colleague, esp. in the medical and law professions. congé a departure; in French when used in the plural form refers to vacations conte a short story, a tale; in French a conte has usually a fantasy context (such as in fairytales) and always begins with the words "Il était une fois" ("Once upon a time"). contre-jour against daylight contretemps an awkward clash; a delay coquette a flirtatious girl; a tease cordon sanitaire a policy of containment directed against a hostile entity or ideology; a chain of buffer states; lit. "quarantine line" cortège a funeral procession; in French has a broader meaning and refers to all kinds of processions. corvée forced labor for minimal or no pay cotte d'armes coat of arms coup de foudre lit. thunderbolt ("strike of thunder"); used only in the context of love at first sight. coup de grâce the final blow that results in victory (literally "blow of mercy"), historically used in the context of the battlefield to refer to the killing of badly wounded enemy soldiers, now more often used in a figurative context (e.g., business) coup de maître stroke of the master, master stroke coup d'œil a glance, literally "a blow (or touch) of the eye". coup de théâtre unexpected dramatic turn of events, a plot twist couture fashion (usually refers to high fashion) couturier a fashion designer (usually refers to high fashion, rather than everyday clothes design) crèche a nativity display; more commonly (in UK), a place where children are left by their parents for short periods in the supervision of childminders; both meanings still exist in French crème brûlée a dessert consisting primarily of custard and toasted sugar, that is, caramel; literally "burnt cream" crème de la crème best of the best, "cream of the cream", used to describe highly skilled people or objects. A synonymous expression in French is « fin du fin ». crème fraîche literally "fresh cream", a heavy cream slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as sour cream crêpe a thin sweet or savoury pancake eaten as a light meal or dessert cri du cœur "cry from the heart" : an impassioned outcry, as of entreaty or protest croissant a crescent-shaped bread made of flaky pastry cri d'amour a "cry of love" cuisine minceur gourmet cooking for staying thin cul-de-sac a dead-end (residential) street; literally "bottom (buttocks) of the bag". D d'accord in accord; agreed; sure; OK; of course de nouveau again; anew de règle according to custom; de rigueur required or expected, especially in fashion or etiquette de trop excessive, "too much" déclassé of inferior social status décolleté a woman's garment with a low-cut neckline that exposes cleavage, or a situation in which a woman's chest or cleavage is exposed; décolletage is dealt with below. décor the layout and furnishing of a room découpage decoration with cut paper demi-glace a reduced wine-based sauce for meats and poultry demi-sec semi-dry, usually said of wine déjà vu "already seen" : an impression or illusion of having seen or experienced something before. dénouement the end result dérailleur a bicycle gear-shift mechanism dernier cri the latest fashion; literally "latest scream" derrière rear; buttocks; literally "behind" déshabillé partially clad or scantily dressed; also a special type of garment. désolé sorry détente easing of diplomatic tension diablerie witchcraft, deviltry, or, more figuratively, "wickedness" Dieu et mon droit motto of the British Monarchy. It appears on a scroll beneath the shield of the coat of arms of the United Kingdom. divertissement an amusing diversion; entertainment dossier a file containing detailed information about a person; it has a much wider meaning in modern French, as any type of file, or even a computer directory douceur de vivre "sweetness of life" doyen the senior member of a group; the feminine is doyenne dressage a form of competitive horse training, in French has the broader meaning of taming any kind of animal droit du seigneur "right of the lord" : the purported right of a lord in feudal times to take the virginity of one of his vassals' brides on her wedding night (in precedence to her new husband). The actual French term for this hypothetical custom is droit de cuissage (from cuisse 'thigh'). du jour said of something fashionable or hip for a day and quickly forgotten; today's choice on the menu, as soup du jour, literally "of the day" E eau de toilette perfume; can be shortened as eau (water); literally "grooming water." Usually refers to a product which is less expensive, because it has less aromatic compounds, and is thus used more for everyday purposes écarté a card game; also a ballet position échappé dance movement foot position éclair a cream and chocolate icing pastry éclat Great brilliance, as of performance or achievement. Conspicuous success. Great acclamation or applause écorché flayed; biological graphic or model with skin removed élan a distinctive flair or style élan vital literally "vital ardor"; the vital force hypothesized by Henri Bergson as a source of efficient causation and evolution in nature; also called "life-force" éminence grise "grey eminence" : a publicity-shy person with little formal power but great influence over those in authority en bloc as a group en passant in passing en principe, oui "in principle, yes" : a diplomatic way of saying 'no' en route on the way (je suis) enchanté(e) "(I am) enchanted (to meet you)" : a formal greeting on receiving an introduction. Often shortened to simply "enchanté". enfant terrible a disruptively unconventional person, a "terrible child" ennui boredom entente diplomatic agreement or cooperation. L'Entente cordiale (the Cordial Entente) refers to the good diplomatic relationship between France and United Kingdom before the first World War. entre nous confidentially; literally "between us" entrée literally "entrance"; the first course of a meal (UK English); used to denote the main dish or course of a meal (US English) entremets desserts/sweet dishes. More literally, a side dish that can be served between the courses of a meal entrepreneur a person who undertakes and operates a new enterprise or venture and assumes some accountability for the inherent risks escargot snail escritoire writing desk; spelled "écritoire" in current French esprit de corps "spirit of the body [group]" : a feeling of solidarity among members of a group; morale. Often used in connection with a military force. esprit de l'escalier "wit of the stairs" : a concise, clever statement you don't think of until too late, e.g. on the stairs leaving the scene l'État, c'est moi! "I am the state!" — attributed to the archetypal absolute monarch, Louis XIV of France étude a musical composition designed to provide practice in a particular technical skill in the performance of an instrument. French for "study". excusez-moi excuse me; can be used sarcastically (depends on the tone) excusez le mot ! excuse the word!; if a certain word has negative connotations (for example, a word-joke at a time of grief) extraordinaire extraordinary, usually as a following adjective, as "musician extraordinaire" F façade the front view of an edifice (from the Italian facciata, or face); a fake persona, as in "putting on a façade" (the ç is pronounced like an s) fait accompli lit. accomplished fact; something that has happened before any participant gets a chance to question or reverse it and is usually considered irreversible. faute de mieux for want of better faux false, ersatz, fake. faux amis "false friends" : words in two different languages that have the same or similar spelling, and often the same etymology but different meanings, such as the French verb rester which means "to stay" rather than "to rest" faux pas "false step" : violation of accepted, although unwritten, social rules femme fatale "deadly woman" : an attractive woman who seduces and takes advantage of men in order to achieve personal goals after which she discards or abandons the victim. Used to describe an attractive woman with whom a relationship is likely to result, or has already resulted, in pain and sorrow fiancé/e betrothed; lit. a man/woman engaged to be married. fier de l'être proud of being; "French, and proud to be so" film noir a genre of dark-themed movies from the 1940s and 1950s that focus on stories of crime and immorality fils used after a man's surname to distinguish a son from a father, as George Bush fils (in French, "fils" = son) fin de saison "end of season" : marks the end of an extended (annual) period during which business increases significantly, most commonly used for the end of summer tourism flambeau a lit torch flâneur a gentleman stroller of city streets; an aimless idler fleur-de-lis a stylized-flower heraldic device; the golden fleur-de-lis on an azure background were the arms of the French Kingdom (often spelled with the old French style as "fleur-de-lys") foie gras fatty liver; usually the liver of overfed goose, hence: pâté de foie gras, pâté made from goose liver. However, "foie gras" generally stands for "paté de foie gras" as it is the most common way to use it. folie à deux a simultaneous occurrence of delusions in two closely related people, often said of an unsuitable romance force majeure an overpowering event, an act of God (often appears in insurance contracts) G gaffe blunder garçon literally "boy" or "male servant"; sometimes used by English speakers to summon the attention of a male waiter (has a playful connotation in English but is condescending in French) gauche tactless, does not mean "left-handed" (which is translated in French as "gaucher"), but does mean "left" gaucherie boorishness Gautier et Garguille all the world and his wife (possibly derived from a 17th century French comic Hugues Guérin, who performed under the stage name Gautier-Garguille, though it is likely that he in turn may have taken this pseudonym from earlier 16th century recorded sayings: prendre Gautier pour Garguille: "to take Gautier for Garguille", that is to mistake one person for another; il n'y a ni Gautier, ni Garguille: "he is neither Gaultier nor Garguille", that is, 'he is no-one') genre a type or class, such as "the thriller genre" glissade slide down a slope les goûts et les couleurs ne se discutent pas "tastes and colours are not argued over"; one does not argue over differences in taste, to each his own. French People usually shorten the sentence, to "les goûts et les couleurs..." grâce à "thanks to", "by the grace of", naming credit or fortune Grand Prix a type of motor racing, literally "Great Prize" grand projet literally "large project"; usually a government funded large scale civil engineering or technology project executed for prestige or general social benefit, and not immediately (if ever) profitable Grand Guignol a horror show, named after a French theater famous for its frightening plays and bloody special effects. (Guignol can be used in French to describe a ridiculous person, in the same way that clown might be used in English.) H habitué one who regularly frequents a place haute couture "high sewing" : Paris-based custom-fitted clothing; trend-setting fashion haute cuisine upscale gastronomy; literally "upper cooking". haute école advanced horsemanship; literally "upper school" hauteur arrogance; lit. height haut monde fashionable society, the "upper world" homme du monde cultured, sophisticated man, "man of the world" Honni soit qui mal y pense. "Shame on him who thinks ill of it"; or sometimes translated as Evil be to him who evil thinks; the motto of the English Order of the Garter (modern French writes honni instead of Old French honi) hors concours "out of the running"; a non-competitor, e.g. in love hors de combat out of the fight : prevented from fighting, usually by injury hors d'œuvre "outside the [main] work" : appetizer huis-clos "closed door" : an enclosed space such as a room or cell, where action or speech can not be seen or heard from outside; title of a play by Jean-Paul Sartre I idée fixe "fixed idea": obsession; in music, a leitmotiv. impasse a deadlock. insouciant/e a nonchalant man/woman ingénu/e an innocent young man/woman, used particularly in reference to a theatrical stock character who is entirely virginal and wholesome. L'Ingénu is a famous play written by Voltaire. J j’accuse "I accuse"; used generally in reference to a political or social indictment (alluding to the title of Émile Zola’s exposé of the Dreyfus affair, a political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s which involved the false conviction for treason in 1894 of a young French artillery officer of Jewish background) j'adore literally, I adore. I love to the full extent. Can imply "Je t'adore", translated as "I love you", or possibly I adore you. j'adoube In chess, an expression said discreetly signaling an intention to straighten out the pieces, without being committed to moving or capturing the first one touched as per the game's rules; lit. "I adjust". From adouber, to dub (the action of knighting someone) Jacques Bonhomme a name given to a French peasant as tamely submissive to taxation. Also the pseudonym of the 14th century peasant leader Guillaume Caillet je m'appelle my name is... je m'en fous "I don't give a damn / a fuck". je ne regrette rien "I regret nothing" (from the title of a popular song sung by Édith Piaf: "Non, je ne regrette rien"). Also the phrase the UK's then Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont chose to use to describe his feelings over the events of September 16 1992 ('Black Wednesday') je ne sais pas "I don't know"; collapses to chais pas in modern colloquial speech je ne sais quoi "I-don't-know-what" : an indescribable or indefinable 'something' which distinguishes the object in question from others which are superficially similar. je t'aime I love you. Implies "I like you" too. The French word "aimer" implies all the different kinds of love (love = like). In order to differentiate the two, one would say simply "je t'aime" to one's love whereas one would say "je t'aime bien" (lit. I love you well) to a friend. je suis I am jeunesse dorée "gilded youth"; name given to a body of young dandies who, after the fall of Robespierre, strove to bring about a counter-revolution. Today used for any offspring living an affluent lifestyle. joie de vivre "joy of life/living" K --- knowing; a wise or learned person L laïcité separation of the State and the different Churches (at first, it concerned especially Catholicism). In France, where the concept originated, it means an absence of religious interference in government affairs and government interference in religious affairs. But the concept is often assimilated and changed by other countries. For example, in Belgium, it usually means the secular-humanist movement and school of thought. laissez-faire "let do"; often used within the context of economic policy or political philosophy, meaning leaving alone, or non-interference. laissez les bons temps rouler Cajun expression for "let the good times roll": not used in proper French, and not generally understood by Francophones outside of Louisiana, who would say "profitez des bons moments" (enjoy the good moments) lamé a type of fabric woven or knit with metallic yarns layette a set of clothing and accessories for a new baby lèse majesté an offense against a sovereign power; or, an attack against someone's dignity or against a custom or institution held sacred (from the Latin "crimen laesae maiestatis": the crime of injured majesty) liaison a close relationship or connection; an affair. The French meaning is broader; "liaison" also means bond such as in "une liaison chimique" (a chemical bond) Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité "Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood" (motto of the French Republic) lieu from Latin locus ("place"); in lieu of: "instead of", "in the place of". This is illustrated for instance in the English word "lieutenant", which literally means "place-holder" littérateur an intellectual (can be pejorative in French, meaning someone who writes a lot but does not a particular skill) louche of questionable taste; Louis Quatorze "Louis XIV" (of France), the Sun King, usually a reference to décor or furniture design. Also the namesake of the winner of the 1996 Preakness. Louis Quinze "Louis XV" (of France), associated with the rococo style of furniture, architecture and interior decoration M macramé coarse lace work made with knotted cords mademoiselle young unmarried lady, miss; literally "my noble young lady" mais oui "but of course!". Often used as a sarcastic reply in French, in order to close the debate by feigning to agree. maison house malaise a general sense of depression or unease mange tout another phrase describing 'peas' (litt : "Eat-all", due to the fact that some peas can be cooked and eaten with their pod.) mal de mer motion sickness, literally "seasickness" Mardi gras Fat Tuesday, the last day of eating meat before Lent. Note that there isn't a capital to gras marque a model or brand matériel supplies and equipment, particularly in a military context (French meaning is broader and corresponds more to "hardware") mauvais quart d'heure "bad quarter hour" : a short unpleasant or uncomfortable moment mélange a mixture mêlée a confused fight; a struggling crowd ménage à trois "household for three" : a sexual arrangement between three people merci beaucoup "Thank you very much!" merde "shit" merde alors "shit then" métier a field of work or other activity; usually one in which one has special ability or training milieu social environment; setting (has also the meaning of "middle" in French.) mirepoix a cooking mixture of two parts onions and one part each of celery and carrots mise en place a food assembly station in a commercial kitchen mise en scène the process of setting a stage with regard to placement of actors, scenery, properties, etc.; the stage setting or scenery of a play; surroundings, environment moi "me"; often used in English as an ironic reply to an accusation; for example, "Pretentious? Moi?" moi aussi "me too", used to show agreeing with someone le moment suprême "the supreme moment"; the climax in a series of events (for example at the unveiling of an art exhibition) Mon Dieu! my God! montage a blending of pictures, scenes, or sounds le mot juste "the just word"; the right word at the right time. French uses it often in the expression chercher le mot juste (to search for the right word) motif a recurrent thematic element moue a pursing together of the lips to indicate dissatisfaction, a pout mousse a whipped dessert or a hairstyling foam; in French, means any type of foam N natation swimming né, née "born" : a man/woman’s birth name (maiden name for a woman), e.g., "Martha Washington, née Custis". n'est-ce pas? "isn't it [true]?"; asked rhetorically after a statement, as in "Right?" noblesse oblige "nobility obliges"; those granted a higher station in life have a duty to extend (possibly token) favours/courtesies to those in lower stations nom de guerre pseudonym to disguise the identity of a leader of a militant group, literally "war name", used in France for "pseudonym" nom de plume author's pseudonym, literally "pen name". Originally an English phrase, now also used in France nouveau new nouveau riche newly rich, used in English to refer particularly to those living a garish lifestyle with their newfound wealth. nouvelle cuisine new cuisine nouvelle vague Literally meaning "new wave". Used for stating a new way or a new trend of something. Originally marked a new style of French filmmaking in the late 1950s and early 1960s, reacting against films seen as too literary (whereas the phrase "new wave" is used in French to qualify some '80's music, such as Depeche Mode.) O objet d'art a work of art, commonly a painting or sculpture œuvre "work", in the sense of an artist's work; by extension, an artist's entire body of work orange orange ouais yeah oui yes P panache verve; flamboyance papier-mâché lit. chewed paper; a craft medium using paper and paste par avion by air mail. The meaning is broader in French, it means by plane in general. par excellence "by excellence" : quintessential pas de deux a close relationship between two people; a duet in ballet pas de problème no problem pas de trois a dance for three, usually in ballet. passe-partout a document or key that allows the holder to travel without hindrance from the authorities and enter any location. pastiche a derivative work; an imitation patois a dialect; jargon père used after a man's surname to distinguish a father from a son, as in "George Bush père." la petite mort an expression for orgasm; literally "the little death" peut-être perhaps, possibly, maybe pied-à-terre "foot-on-the-ground" or "foothold"; a place to stay, generally applied to the city house in contradistinction to the country estate of the wealthy pis-aller "worse"; an undesirable option selected because the other choices were even worse piste referring to skiing at a ski area (on piste) versus skiing in the back country (off piste). plat du jour a dish served in a restaurant on a particular day but which is not part of the regular menu; literally "dish of the day" plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose (or plus ça change, plus c’est pareil) the more things change, the more they stay the same plus royaliste que le roi "more royalist than the king", i.e. more enthusiastic than the cause deserves pomme apple porte cochère an architectural term referring to a kind of porch or portico-like structure. poseur "poser" : a person who pretends to be something he is not; an affected or insincere person: a wannabe pot-au-feu stew, soup pour encourager les autres "to encourage others"; said of an excessive punishment meted out as an example. The original is from Voltaire's Candide and referred to the execution of Admiral John Byng. http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1469618 pourboire "for drink"; gratuity, tip; donner un pourboire: to tip. prêt-à-porter "ready to wear" (clothing off the shelf), in contrast to haute couture protégé/e a man/woman who receives support from an influential mentor. provocateur a polemicist Q Quai d'Orsay address of the French foreign ministry in Paris, used to refer to the ministry itself. Quatorze juillet "14th July" Bastille Day. The beginning of the French Revolution in 1789; used to refer to the Revolution itself and its ideals. It is the French National Day. quel dommage! "What a pity!" quelle horreur! What a horrible thing! (can be used sarcastically). quelle surprise! "What a surprise!" Qu'est-ce que c'est ? "What is this/that?" qui vive ? "who would live?" : a sentry's challenge to determine a person's political sympathies. Obsolete, but for the expression "sur le qui-vive" (literally "on the point of saying qui vive") — on the alert, vigilant. quoi de neuf? "What's new?" What's up? R raconteur a conversationalist raison d'État reason of state (always with a capital "É" in French). raison d'être "reason for being" : justification or purpose of existence rapport to be in someone's "good graces"; to be in synch with someone; "I've developed a rapport with my co-workers"; French for: relationship rapprochement the establishment of cordial relations, often used in diplomacy reconnaissance scouting; like connoisseur, modern French use a "a", never a "o" (as in reconnoissance). répertoire the range of skills of a particular person or group reportage reporting; journalism répondez s'il vous plaît. (RSVP) Please reply. Though francophones may use more usually "prière de répondre", it is common enough. (Note: RSLP ["Répondre s'il lui plaît"] is used on old-fashioned invitations written in the 3rd person, usually in "Script" typography — at least in Belgium.) ressentiment a deep-seated sense of aggrievement and powerlessness restaurateur a restaurant owner Rive Gauche the left (southern) bank (of the River Seine in Paris). A particular mindset attributed to inhabitants of that area, which includes the Sorbonne roi fainéant "do-nothing king" : an expression first used about the kings of France from 670 to 752 (Thierry III to Childeric III), who were puppets of their ministers. The term was later used about other royalty who had been made powerless, also in other countries, but lost its meaning when parliamentarism made all royals powerless. rôle a part or function of a person in a situation or an actor in a play roman à clef "novel with a key" : an account of actual persons, places or events in fictional guise roux a cooked mixture of flour and fat used as a base in soups and gravies S sabotage subversive destruction, from the practice of workers fearful of industrialization destroying machines by tossing their sabots ("wooden shoes") into machinery saboteur one who commits sabotage Sacrebleu! "holy Blue!" general exclamation of horror and shock; a stereotypical minced oath. Very dated in France and rarely heard. sang-froid "cold blood" : coolness and composure under strain; stiff upper lip. Also pejorative in the phrase meurtre de sang-froid ("cold-blooded murder"). sans without sans-culottes "without knee-pants", a name the insurgent crowd in the streets of Paris gave to itself during the French Revolution, because they usually wore pantaloons (full-length pants or trousers) instead of the chic knee-length culotte of the nobles. In modern use: holding strong republican views. saperlipopette goodness me sauté lit. jumped ; quickly fry in a small amount of oil. sauve qui peut! those who can should save themselves. Used as a pragmatic response to an accident. Roughly equivalent to the English "every man for himself". savant "knowing" : a wise or learned person; in English, one exceptionally gifted in a narrow skill. savoir-faire literally "know how to do"; to respond appropriately to any situation. savoir-vivre fact of following conventional norms within a society; etiquette (etiquette also comes from a French word, "étiquette") s'il vous plaît (SVP) "if it pleases you", "if you please" si vous préférez "if you prefer" sobriquet an assumed name, a nickname (often used in a pejorative way in French) soi-disant so-called; self-described; literally "oneself saying" soigné fashionable; polished soirée an evening party sommelier a wine steward soupçon a very small amount (In French, can also mean suspicion) soupe du jour "soup of the day", meaning the particular kind of soup offered that day succès d’estime a "success in the estimation of others", sometimes used pejoratively il faut souffrir pour être belle "beauty does not come without suffering" ; lit. "you have to suffer to be pretty" sur le tas as one goes along; on the fly Système D resourcefulness, or ability to work around the system; from débrouillard, one with the knack of making do. A typical phrase using this concept would translate directly to "Thanks to System D, I managed to fix this cupboard without the missing part." T tableau chalkboard tant mieux so much the better tant pis "too bad," "oh well, that's tough" tête-à-tête "head to head"; an intimate get-together or private conversation between two people toilette the process of dressing or grooming touché acknowledgment of an effective counterpoint; literally "touched" or "hit!" Comes from the fencing vocabulary. tour de force "feat of strength" : a masterly or brilliant stroke, creation, effect, or accomplishment tout de suite lit. everything (else) follows; "at once", "immediately" (per Oxford English Dictionary). très very (often ironic in English) très beau very beautiful trompe-l'œil photograph-like realism in painting; literally "trick the eye" U unique One of a kind. Unique is considered a paradigmatic absolute and something can not, therefore, be 'very unique'. V vas-y! Go Ahead! Used to encourage someone (pronounced vah-zee) va-t'en! imperative form, like above, literally meaning "Go from here" but translating more closely as "Go away". Roughly equivalent to idiomatic English get lost or get out. vendu (pl. vendus) sellout, generally by apostates venu/e invited man/woman for a show, once ("come"); unused in modern French, though it can still be used in a few expressions like bienvenu/e (literally well come : welcome) or le premier venu (anyone; literally, the first who came) vin de pays literally "county wine"; wine of a lower designated quality than appellation controlée vinaigrette salad dressing of oil and vinegar; diminutive of vinaigre (vinegar) vis-à-vis "face to face [with]" : in comparison with or in relation to; opposed to. From "vis" (conjugated form of "voir", to see). In French, it's also a real estate vocabulary word meaning that your windows and your neighbours' are within sighting distance (more precisely, that you can see inside of their home). viva, vive [...]! "Long live...!"; lit. "Live"; as in "Vive la France!", "Vive la République!", “Vive la Résistance!”, "Vive le Canada!", or "Vive le Québec libre!" (long live free Quebec, a sovereigntist slogan famously used by French President Charles de Gaulle in 1967 in Montreal). Unlike "viva" or "vivat", it cannot be used as such, it needs a complement. vive la différence! "[long] live the difference"; originally referring to the difference between the sexes, the phrase may be used to celebrate the difference between any two groups of people (or simply the general diversity of individuals) voilà! literally "see there"; in French it can mean simply "there it is"; in English it is generally restricted to a triumphant revelation. volte-face a complete reversal of opinion or position, about face Voulez-vous coucher avec moi (ce soir) ? "Do you want to sleep with me (tonight)? " In English it appears in Tennessee Williams's play A Streetcar Named Desire, as well as in the lyrics of a popular song by Labelle, "Lady Marmalade" http://www.lyricsdownload.com/labelle-lady-marmelade-voulez-vous-coucher-avec-moi-ce-s-lyrics.html ). In French, it is a rude and cheesy pick-up line ("coucher" connotes vulgarity in French). voyeur lit. someone who sees; a peeping tom. W - X - Y - Z le zinc bar/café counter. zut alors! "Darn it all!" or the British expression "Blimey!", a general exclamation. Just plain zut is also in use — often repeated for effect, for example, zut, zut et zut! There is an album by Frank Zappa titled Zoot Allures. Not used as such in French Through the evolution of the language, there are many words and phrases that are not used anymore in French. Also, there are those which, even though they are grammatically correct, are not used as such in French or do not have the same meaning. accoutrement personal military or fighting armaments worn about one's self; has come to mean the accompanying items available to pursue a mission. In French, means a funny or ridiculous clothing; often a weird disguise or a getup, though it can be said also for people with bad taste in clothing. agent provocateur a police spy who infiltrates a group to disrupt or discredit it. In French it has both a broader and more specific meaning. The Académie française, in its dictionary, says that an agent provocateur is a person working for another State or a political party (for examples), whose mission is to provoke troubles in order to justify repression. appliqué an inlaid or attached decorative feature. Lit. "applied", though this meaning doesn't exist as such in French, the dictionary of the Académie française indicates that in the context of the arts, "arts appliqués" is synonym of decorative arts. après-ski after skiing socializing after a ski session; in French, this word refers to boots used to walk in snow (e.g. MoonBoots™). auteur A film director, specifically one who controls most aspects of a film, or other controller of an artistic situation. The English connotation derives from French film theory. It was popularized in the journal Cahiers du cinéma: auteur theory maintains that directors like Hitchcock exert a level of creative control equivalent to the author of a literary work. In French, the word means author, but some expressions like "cinéma d'auteur" are also in use. au naturel nude; in French, literally, in a natural manner or way ("au" is the contraction of "à le", masculine form of "à la"). It means "in an unaltered way" and can be used either for people or things. For people, it rather refers to a person who doesn't use make-up or artificial manners (un entretien au naturel = a backstage interview). For things, it means that they weren't altered. Often used in cooking, like "thon au naturel" : canned tuna without any spices or oil. Also in heraldry, meaning "in natural colours", especially flesh colour, which is not one of the "standard" colours of heraldry. bête noire a scary or unpopular person, idea, or thing, or the archetypical scary monster in a story; literally "black beast." In French, "être la bête noire de quelqu'un" ("to be somebody's bête noire") means that you're particularly hated by this person or this person has a strong aversion against you, regardless of whether you're scary or not. It can only be used for people. bureau de change (pl. bureaux de change) a currency exchange. In French, it means the office where you can change your currency. cap-à-pied from head to foot; modern French uses de pied en cap. cause célèbre An issue arousing widespread controversy or heated public debate, lit. famous cause. It's correct grammatically, but the expression is not used in French. c'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre "it is magnificent, but it is not war" — quotation from Marshal Pierre Bosquet commenting on the charge of the Light Brigade. Unknown quotation in French. claque a group of admirers; in old French, the claque was a group of people paid to applaud or disturb a piece at the theater; in modern French, it means "a slap"; "clique" is used in this sense (but in a pejorative way). coiffeur hairstyle. In French, means a hairstylist, a hairdresser, a barber. connoisseur an expert in wines, fine arts, or other matters of culture; a person of refined taste. It is spelled connaisseur in modern French. coup de main (pl. coups de main) a surprise attack. In French, "[donner] un coup de main" means "[to give] a hand" (to give assistance). Even if the English meaning exists as well, it is old-fashioned. coup d'état (pl. coups d'État) a sudden change in government by force; literally "hit (blow) of state". French uses the capital É, because using or not a capital change the sense of the word (État : a State, as in a country; état : a state of being). crêpe a thin sweet or savoury pancake eaten as a light meal or dessert. In French, a crêpe can only be sweet, unlike a "galette". It can be eaten as a dessert, or, if you take several (while oftentimes varrying the top), a very nourishing meal. It is the custom, for example, to eat such a meal during Mardi gras. However, in Brittany the "crêpes bretonnes", made from buckwheat, are salty, typically made with ham, egg and/or cheese. crudité an appetizer consisting of grated raw vegetables soaked in a vinaigrette. In French, it means uncooked vegetable, traditionally served as an entrée (first part of the meal, contrary to an appetizer which is considered as outside of the meal), with or without a vinaigrette or another sauce. Almost always used in the plural form in French (as in, crudités). décolletage a low-cut neckline, cleavage (This is actually a case of "false friends": Engl. décolletage = Fr. décolleté; Fr. décolletage means: 1. action of lowering a female garment's neckline; 2. Agric.: cutting leaves from some cultivated roots such as beets, carrots, etc.; 3. Tech. Operation consisting of making screws, bolts, etc. one after another out of a single bar of metal on a parallel lathe. déjà entendu/lu already heard/read. They do not exist as an expression in French: the Académie française http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/generic/cherche.exe?22;s=3375794295;; says that un déjà vu (a feeling of something already seen) can be used but not un déjà entendu or un déjà lu. démarche a decisive step. In French, it means all the different kinds of manners you can walk. dépanneur a neighbourhood general/convenience store, term used in eastern Canada (often shortened to "dép" or "dep"). In French, it means a repairman. A convenience store would be a "supérette" or "épicerie [de quartier]". émigré one who has emigrated for political reasons. In French, it means someone who emigrated. To imply the political reason, French would use of the word "exilé" (exiled). encore A request to repeat a performance, as in “Encore !”, lit. again; also used to describe additional songs played at the end of a gig. Francophones would say « Bis ! » (a second time !); or « Une autre ! » (Another one !) to request « un rappel » (an encore). To say « Encore ! » implies a request to reprieve the entire repertoire. épée a fencing foil. In French, the term is more generic : it means sword. en masse in a mass or group, all together. In French, 'mass' only refers to a physical mass, whether for people or objects. It cannot be used for something immaterial, like, for example, the voice : "they all together said 'get out'" would be translated as "ils dirent 'dehors' en choeur" ([like a chorus]). Also, 'en masse' refers to numerous people or objects (a crowd or a mountain of things). en suite as a set (do not confuse with "ensuite", meaning "then"). In French, "suite", when in the context of a hotel, already means several rooms following each other. "J'ai loué une suite au Ritz" would be translated as "I rented a suite at the Ritz". "En suite" is not grammatically incorrect in French, but it's not an expression in itself and it is not used. escritoire a writing table. It is spelt écritoire in modern French. exposé a published exposure of a fraud or scandal (past participle of "to expose"); in French refers to a talk or a report on any kind of subject. extraordinaire extraordinary, out of the ordinary capacity for a person. In French, it simply means extraordinary (adjective) and can be used for either people, things or concepts. The rule that systematically puts 'extraordinary' after the noun in English is also wrong, because in French, an adjective can be put before the noun to emphasize - which is particularly the case for the adjective 'extraordinaire'. In fact, French people would just as well use 'un musicien extraordinaire' as 'un extraordinaire musicien' (a extraordinary male musician, but the later emphasizes on his being extraordinary). femme a stereotypically effeminate gay man or lesbian (slang, pronounced as written). In French, femme (pronounced 'fam') means "woman". fin de siècle comparable to (but not exactly the same as) turn-of-the-century but with a connotation of decadence, usually applied to the period from 1890 through 1910. In French, it means "end of the century", but it isn't a recognized expression as such. foible a minor weakness. The word is spelt faible in French and means "weak" (adjective). Weakness is translated as faiblesse (noun). forte a strength, a strong point, typically of a person, from the French fort (strong) and/or Italian forte (strong, esp. "loud" in music) and/or Latin forte (neutral form of fortis, strong). French use "fort" both for people and objects. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, "In forte we have a word derived from French that in its "strong point" sense has no entirely satisfactory pronunciation. Usage writers have denigrated \'for-"tA\ and \'for-tE\ because they reflect the influence of the Italian-derived forte. Their recommended pronunciation \'fort\, however, does not exactly reflect French either: the French would write the word le fort and would rhyme it with English for [French doesn't pronounce the final "t"]. All are standard, however. In British English \'fo-"tA\ and \'fot\ predominate; \'for-"tA\ and \for-'tA\ are probably the most frequent pronunciations in American English." The New Oxford Dictionary of English derives it from fencing. In French, "le fort d'une épée" is the third of a spade nearer the hilt, the strongest part of the sword used for parrying. fromage cheese. Used in place of Say cheese. when taking pictures of people to get them to smile, one would utter Say fromage. French people would use the English word "cheese" or "ouistiti". la sauce est tout "The sauce is everything!" or "The secret's in the sauce!" Tagline used in a 1950s American TV commercial campaign for an American line of canned food products. Grammatically correct but not used in French, where one might say "Tout est dans la sauce" or "C'est la sauce qui fait passer le poisson" (also fig.). marquee the sign above a theater that tells you what's playing. From "marquise" which not only means a marchioness but also an awning. Theater buildings are generally old and nowadays there's never such a sign above them anymore; there's only the advertisement for the play (l'affiche). naïve a man or woman lacking experience, understanding or sophistication. In French, it only refers to the latest two and often has a pejorative connotation, as in gullible. Also, naïve can only be used for women; the masculine form is "naïf". ooh la la! "wowie!" Expression of exaggerated feminine delight; variation of an expression more commonly used by the French, "oh la la!" which means "yikes!" or "uh-oh!" The "zowie" intent does not exist in French. outré out of the ordinary, unusual. In French, it means outraged (for a person) or exaggerated, extravagant, overdone (for a thing, esp. a praise, an actor's style of acting, etc.) (In that second meaning, belongs to "literary" style.) passé out of fashion. The correct expression in French is "passé de mode". Passé means past, passed, or (for a colour) faded. peignoir a woman’s dressing gown. In French it is a bathrobe. A dressing gown is a "robe de chambre" (lit. a bedroom dress). petite small; waiflike; skinny; In French, it only means small and doesn't have those other connotations it has in English. Also, this is the feminine form of the adjectif (used for girls...); the masculine form is "petit". pièce d'occasion "occasional piece"; item written or composed for a special occasion. In French, it means "second-hand hardware". Can be shortened as "pièce d'occas'" or even "occas'" (pronounced "okaz"). portemanteau (pl. portemanteaux) a blend; a word which fuses two or more words or parts of words to give a combined meaning. In French, lit. a carry coat, referred to a person who carried the royal coat or dress train, now meaning a large suitcase; more often, a clothes hanger. The equivalent of the English "portemanteau" is un mot-valise (lit. a suitcase word). potpourri medley, mixture; French write it "pot-pourri", lit. rotten pot (it is primarily a pot where you put different kind of flowers or spices and let it dry for years for its scent). précis a concise summary. In French, when talking about a school course, it means an abridged book about the matter. première refers to the first performance of a play, a film, etc. In French, it means "the first", and only for a live performance; it cannot be used as a verb ("the film premiered on November" is the equivalent of "the film firsted in November"). recherché lit. searched; obscure; pretentious. In French, means sophisticated or delicate. résumé in North American English, a document listing one's qualifications for employment. In French, it means summary; they would use instead curiculum vitæ, or its abbreviation, C.V.. rendezvous lit. "go to"; a meeting, appointment, or date. Always in two words in French, as in "rendez-vous". Its abbreviation is RDV. risqué sexually suggestive; in French, the meaning of risqué is "risky", with no sexual connotation. Francophones use instead "osé" (lit. "daring") or sometimes "dévergondé" (very formal language). "Osé", unlike "dévergondé", cannot be used for people themselves, only for things (pictures...) or attitudes. table d'hôte (pl. tables d'hôte) a full-course meal offered at a fixed price. In French, it is a type of lodging where, unlike a hotel, you eat with other patrons and the host. Lit. "the host's table" : you eat at the host's table whatever he prepared for him or herself, at the family's table, with a single menu. Generally, the menu is composed of traditional courses of the region & the number of patrons is very limited. tableau vivant (pl. tableaux vivants, often shortened as tableau) in drama, a scene in which actors remain still as if in a picture. Tableau means painting, tableau vivant, living painting. In French, it is an expression used in body painting. vignette a brief description; a short scene. In French, it is a small picture. Only found in English après-garde Avant-garde's antonym. French (and most English speakers) uses arrière-garde (either in a military or artistic context). brassiere French use brassière (note the accent). Also, the French equivalent of "bra" would be "un soutien-gorge" (which can be familiarly abbreviated as soutif). A "brassière", in French, is a special kind of woman undergarment for sports ; larger than a simple "soutien-gorge", it offers a better support of the breast. corduroy Suggested as "corde du roi" ("the king's cord") but this doesn't exist in French. More likely from 1780 American English "cord" and 17th "duroy", a coarse fabric made in England. demimonde a class of women of ill repute; a fringe group or subculture. Fell out of use in the French language in the 19th century. Frenchmen still use "une demi-mondaine" to qualify a woman that lives (exclusively or partially) of the commerce of her charms but in a high-life style. demitasse small cup, usually for coffee. Comes from "une demi-tasse", literally a half cup. It's not an expression as such in French. double entendre double meaning. French would use either "un mot / une phrase à double sens" (a word / a sentence with two meanings) or "un sous-entendu" (a hidden meaning). The verb entendre, to hear (modern), originally meant to understand. "Double entendre" has, however, been found previously in French documents dating back to the 15th century. The dictionary of the Académie française lists the expression "à double entente" as obsolete. homage term used for films that are influenced by other films, in particular by the works of a notable director. French word is written "hommage", and is used for all shows of admiration, respect. léger de main "light of hand" : sleight of hand, usually in the context of deception or the art of stage magic tricks. Means nothing in French and has no equivalent. maître d’ translates as master o'''. Francophones would say maître d’hôtel (head waiter) instead (French never uses "d'" alone). negligee A robe or a dressing gown, usually of sheer or soft fabric for women. French uses négligé (masculine form, with accents) or nuisette. Négligée qualifies a woman who neglects her appearance. parkour urban street sport involving climbing and leaping, using buildings, walls, curbs to ricochet off much as if one were on a skateboard, often in follow-the-leader style. It's actually the phonetic form of the French word "parcours", which means "course". pièce de résistance the best; the main meal, literally "a piece that resists". Francophones use plat de résistance (main dish). succès de scandale Success through scandal; Francophones might use « succès par médisance ». voir dire jury selection (Law French). Literally "to speak the truth". voir dire The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2006) (Anglo-Norman voir [truth] is etymologically unrelated to the modern French voir [to see].) voir The Anglo-Norman Dictionary French phrases in international air-sea rescue International authorities have adopted a number of words and phrases from French for use by speakers of all languages in voice communications during air-sea rescues. Note that the "phonetic" versions are presented as shown and not the IPA. SECURITAY (securité, “safety”) the following is a safety message or warning, the lowest level of danger. PAN PAN (panne, “breakdown”) the following is a message concerning a danger to a person or ship, the next level of danger. MAYDAY ([venez] m'aider, come help me"; note that aidez-moi means "help me") the following is a message of extreme urgency, the highest level of danger. (MAYDAY is used on voice channels for the same uses as SOS on Morse channels.) SEELONCE (silence, “silence”) keep this channel clear for air-sea rescue communications. SEELONCE FEE NEE (silence fini, “silence is over”) this channel is now available again. PRU DONCE (prudence, “prudence”) silence partially lifted, channel may be used again for urgent non-distress communication. MAY DEE CAL (médical, “medical”) medical assistance needed. It is a serious breach in most countries, and in international zones, to use any of these phrases without justification.See Mayday (distress signal) for a more detailed explanation.See also Pseudo-gallicisms Law French French language Glossary of ballet (which is predominantly French) List of Latin words with English derivatives List of Latin phrases List of Greek phrases List of German expressions in English List of French loanwords in Persian :Category:French words and phrases Wiktionary:Transwiki:List of German words and phrases Wiktionary:Transwiki:List of Spanish expressions in common English References External links Communications Instructions, Distress and Rescue Procedures (pdf), Combined Communications-Electronics Board Hutchinson Dictionary of Difficult Words, Helicon Publishing, Ltd. Online Etymology Dictionary, Harper, D. Je Ne Sais What?: A Guide to de rigueur Frenglish for Readers, Writers, and Speakers'', Winokur, J. 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1,372 | New_South_Wales | {{Australia state or territory |Name = New South Wales |Fullname = State of New South Wales |Flag = Flag of New South Wales.svg |CoatOfArms = New South Wales coa.png |Map = New South Wales locator-MJC.png |Motto = "Orta Recens Quam Pura Nites"(Newly Risen, How Brightly You Shine) |Nickname = First State, Premier State |Emblems = Floral - Waratah (Telopea speciosissima); Bird - Kookaburra (Dacelo gigas); Animal - Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus); Fish - Blue groper (Achoerodus viridis) |Emblem_title1 = Floral |Emblem1 = Waratah (Telopea speciosissima) |Emblem_title2 = Bird |Emblem2 = Kookaburra (Dacelo gigas) |Emblem_title3 = Animal |Emblem3 = Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) |Emblem_title4 = Fish |Emblem4 = Blue groper (Achoerodus viridis) |Emblem_title5 = Colours |Emblem5 = Sky blue (Pantone 291) |Emblem_title6 = |Emblem6 = |Capital = Sydney |Largest City = Sydney |ChiefType = Premier |Chief = Nathan Rees |ChiefParty = ALP |Viceroy = Professor Marie Bashir |ViceroyType = Governor |PostalAbbreviation = NSW |EntityAdjective = State |GSP = $321,325 Australian National Accounts: State Accounts, 2006-07 |GSPYear = 2006-07 |GSPRank = 1st |GSPPerCapita = $46,816 |GSPPerCapitaRank = 5th |AreaRank = 5th |TotalArea = 809444 |LandArea = 800642 |WaterArea = 8802 |PercentWater = 1.09 |PopulationRank = 1st |Population = 7,017,100 |PopulationYear = End of September 2008 |DensityRank = 3rd |Density = 8.60 |HighestPoint = Mount Kosciuszko |HighestElev = 2,228 m |HighestElev_ft = 7,310 |LowestPoint = Sea level |LowestElev = |LowestElev_ft = |TimeZone = UTC+10 (UTC+11 DST)(½-hour variations) |HouseSeats = 49/150 |SenateSeats = 12/76 |ISOCode = AU-NSW |Website = www.nsw.gov.au }} New South Wales (abbreviated as NSW) is Australia's most populous state, located in the south-east of the country, north of Victoria, south of Queensland and east of South Australia. It was founded in 1788 and originally comprised much of the Australian mainland, as well as Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. New Zealand was not initially part of the colony, although when Britain annexed New Zealand in 1840 it was briefly a part of New South Wales.<ref>A.H. McLintock (ed), An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand', 3 vols, Wellington, NZ:R.E. Owen, Government Printer, 1966, vol 3 p.526. '</ref> During the 19th century large areas were successively separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania (proclaimed as a separate colony named Van Diemen's Land in 1825), South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851) and Queensland (1859). Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as being New South Welsh or New South Welshmen. New South Wales's largest city and capital is Sydney. History Aborigines The original inhabitants of the area were Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia approximately forty to sixty thousand years ago. European settlement The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his voyage along the east coast of Australia in 1770. In the journal covering his survey of the eastern coast of the Australian continent, Cook first named the east coast of Australia "New Wales", which he later corrected in his journal to "New South Wales". See Captain W.J.L. Wharton's preface to his 1893 transcription of Cook's journal. Available online in the University of Adelaide Library's Electronic Texts Collection. The first British settlement was made by what is known in Australian history as the First Fleet led by Captain Arthur Phillip who assumed the role of governor of the settlement on arrival in 1788 until 1792. During this time New South Wales was an entirely penal colony. After years of chaos, anarchy and the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, a new governor, Lieutenant-colonel (later Major-General) Lachlan Macquarie, was sent from Britain to reform the settlement in 1809. During his time as governor, Macquarie commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches and public buildings, sent explorers across the continent and employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney. Macquarie's legacy is still evident today. Mid 1800s During the 19th century large areas were successively separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania (proclaimed as a separate colony named Van Diemen's Land in 1825), South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851) and Queensland (1859). Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855. Federation At the end of the 19th century, the movement toward federation between the Australian colonies gathered momentum. Conventions and forums involving colony leaders were held on a regular basis. Proponents of NSW as a free trade state were in dispute with the other leading colony Victoria who had a protectionist economy. At this time customs posts were common on borders, even on the Murray River. Travelling from NSW to Victoria in those days would have been very similar to travelling from NSW to New Zealand today. Supporters of federation included the NSW premier Sir Henry Parkes whose 1889 speech in Tenterfield was pivotal in gathering support for NSW involvement. Edmund Barton later to become Australia's first Prime Minister was another strong advocate for federation and a meeting held in Corowa in 1893 drafted an initial constitution. In 1898 popular referendums on the proposed federation were held in NSW, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. All votes resulted in a majority in favour, but the NSW government under Premier George Reid (popularly known as "yes-no Reid" because of his constant changes of opinion on the issue) had set a requirement for a higher "yes" vote than just a simple majority which was not met. In 1899 further referendums were held in the same states as well as Queensland (but not Western Australia). All resulted in yes votes with majorities increased from the previous year. NSW met the conditions its government had set for a yes vote. As a compromise to the question on where the capital was to be located, an agreement was made that the site was to be within NSW but not closer than from Sydney. Eventually the area that now forms the Australian Capital Territory was ceded by NSW when Canberra was selected. Early 20th century In the years after World War I, the high prices enjoyed during the war fell with the resumption of international trade, and farmers became increasingly discontented with the fixed prices paid by the compulsory marketing authorities set up as a wartime measure by the Hughes government. In 1919 the farmers formed the Country Party, led at national level by Earle Page, a doctor from Grafton, and at state level by Michael Bruxner, a small farmer from Tenterfield. The Great Depression which began in 1929 ushered a period of political and class conflict in New South Wales. The mass unemployment and collapse of commodity prices brought ruin to both city workers and to farmers. The beneficiary of the resultant discontent was not the Communist Party, which remained small and weak, but Jack Lang's Labor populism. Lang's second government was elected in November 1930 on a policy of repudiating New South Wales' debt to British bondholders and using the money instead to help the unemployed through public works. This was denounced as illegal by conservatives, and also by James Scullin's federal Labor government. The result was that Lang's supporters in the federal Caucus brought down Scullin's government, causing a second bitter split in the Labor Party. In May 1932 the Governor, Sir Philip Game dismissed his government. The subsequent election was won by the conservative opposition. By the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the differences between New South Wales and the other states that had emerged in the 19th century had faded as a result of federation and economic development behind a wall of protective tariffs. New South Wales continued to outstrip Victoria as the centre of industry, and increasingly of finance and trade as well. Labor returned to office under the moderate leadership of William McKell in 1941 and stayed in power for 24 years. World War II saw another surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a war economy, and also the elimination of unemployment. Postwar New South Wales Labor stayed in power until 1965. Towards the end of its term in power it announced a plan for the construction of an opera/arts facility on Bennelong Point. The design competition was won by Jørn Utzon. Controversy over the cost of what would eventually become the Sydney Opera House became a political issue and was a factor in the eventual defeat of Labor in 1965 by the conservative Liberal Party led by Sir Robert Askin. Sir Robert remains a controversial figure with supporters claiming him to be reformist especially in terms of reshaping the NSW economy. Others though regard the Askin era has synonymous with corruption with Askin the head of a network involving NSW police and SP bookmaking (Goot). In the late 1960s, a secessionist movement in the New England region of the state led to a referendum on the issue. The new state would have consisted of much of northern NSW including Newcastle. The referendum was narrowly defeated and there are no active or organised campaigns for new states in NSW beyond individuals. Askin's resignation in 1975 was followed by a number of short lived premierships by Liberal Party leaders. When a general election came in 1976 the ALP under Neville Wran were returned to power. Wran was able to transform this narrow one seat victory into landslide wins (known as Wranslide) in 1978 and 1981. After winning a comfortable though reduced majority in 1984, Wran resigned as premier and left parliament. His replacement Barry Unsworth struggled to emerge from Wran's shadow and lost a 1988 election against a resurgent Liberal Party led by Nick Greiner. Unsworth was replaced as ALP leader by Bob Carr. Initially Greiner was a popular leader instigating reform such as the creation of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC). Greiner called a snap election in 1991 which the Liberals were expected to win. However the ALP polled extremely well and the Liberals lost their majority and needed the support of independents to retain power. Greiner was accused (by ICAC) of corrupt actions involving an allegation that a government position was offered to tempt an independent (who had defected from the Liberals) to resign his seat so that the Liberal party could regain it and shore up its numbers. Greiner resigned but was later cleared of corruption. His replacement as Liberal leader and Premier was John Fahey. Although personally popular, Fahey's government suffered from a series of scandals including tax evasion, illegal recording of customer conversations, sexual harassment, and death threats. In the 1995 election, Fahey's government lost narrowly and the ALP under Bob Carr returned to power. Like Wran before him Carr was able to turn a narrow majority into landslide wins at the next two elections (1999 and 2003). During this era, NSW hosted the 2000 Sydney Olympics which were internationally regarded as very successful, and helped boost Carr's popularity. Carr surprised most people by resigning from office in 2005. He was replaced by Morris Iemma, who remained Premier after being re-elected in the March 2007 state election, until he resigned from parliament in September 2008. Government Executive authority is vested in the Governor of New South Wales, who represents and is appointed by Queen Elizabeth II. The current Governor is Her Excellency Professor Marie Bashir (Lady Shehadie). The Governor commissions as Premier the leader of the parliamentary political party that can command a simple majority of votes in the Legislative Assembly. The Premier then recommends the appointment of other Members of the two Houses to the Ministry, under the principle of responsible or Westminster government. It should be noted, however, that as in other Westminster systems, there is no constitutional requirement in NSW for the Government to be formed from the Parliament - merely convention. The Premier is Nathan Rees of the Australian Labor Party. Constitution The form of the Government of New South Wales is prescribed in its Constitution, which dates from 1856, although it has been amended many times since then. Since 1901 New South Wales has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, and the Australian Constitution regulates its relationship with the Commonwealth. Under the Australian Constitution, New South Wales ceded certain legislative and judicial powers to the Commonwealth, but retained independence in all other areas. The New South Wales Constitution says: "The Legislature shall, subject to the provisions of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, have power to make laws for the peace, welfare, and good government of New South Wales in all cases whatsoever." Parliament PoliticalPartyLegislativeAssemblyLegislativeCouncilALP52 (56%)19 (45%)Liberal22 (24%)10 (24%)National13 (14%)5 (11%)Independent/Other6 (6%)8 (20%) Source: Parliament of New South Wales. The State Parliament is composed of the Sovereign and two houses: the Legislative Assembly (lower house), and the Legislative Council (upper house). Elections are held every four years on the fourth Saturday of March, the most recent being on 24 March 2007. At each election one member is elected to the Legislative Assembly from each of 93 electoral districts and half of the 42 members of the Legislative Council are elected by a statewide electorate. Emergency services New South Wales is policed by the New South Wales Police Force, a statutory authority. Established in 1862, the NSW Police Force investigates Summary and Indictable offences throughout the State of New South Wales. The state has two fire services: the volunteer based New South Wales Rural Fire Service, mainly active in small towns and the countryside, and the New South Wales Fire Brigades, a government agency responsible for protecting urban areas. There is some overlap due to suburbanisation. Ambulance services are provided through the Ambulance Service of New South Wales. Rescue services (ie. vertical, road crash, confinement) are a joint effort by all emergency services, with Ambulance Rescue, Police Rescue Squad and Fire Rescue Units contributing. Volunteer rescue organisations include the State Emergency Service (SES) and Volunteer Rescue Association (VRA). Demographics Population The estimated population of New South Wales at the end of June 2007 was 6.89 million people. Population grew by 1.1% over the preceding year, 3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, June 2007 lower than the national rate of 1.5%. 62.9% of NSW's population is based in Sydney. 1338.1 - New South Wales in Focus, 2007 Rank Statistical Division/District June 2007 Population 1 Sydney 4,336,374 2 Newcastle 523,662 3 Wollongong 280,159 4 Wagga Wagga 56,147 5 Tweed Heads 50,726 6 Coffs Harbour 50,726 7 Tamworth 44,970 8 Albury 44,787 9 Port Macquarie 42,042 10 Orange 37,333 11 Queanbeyan 36,331 12 Dubbo 36,150 13 Nowra-Bomaderry 32,556 14 Bathurst 32,385 15 Lismore 31,865 Education Primary and Secondary The NSW school system comprises a kindergarten to year twelve system with primary schooling up to year 6 and secondary schooling between year 7 and 12. Schooling is compulsory until age 15. Education Act 1990 (NSW), Section 22 Primary and secondary schools include government and non-government schools. Government schools are further classified as comprehensive and selective schools. Non-government schools include Catholic schools, other denominational schools, and non-denominational independent schools. Typically, a primary school provides education from kindergarten level to year 6. A secondary school, usually called a "high school", provides education from years 7 to 12. Secondary colleges are secondary schools which only cater for years 11 and 12. The government classifies the 12 years of primary and secondary schooling into six stages, beginning with stage 1 (years 1 and 2) and ending with stage 6 (years 11 and 12). School Certificate The School Certificate is awarded by the Board of Studies to students at the end of Year 10. Typically, students in secondary schools will have completed a course of study in accordance with the Board's requirements, and sit for the tests at the end of year 10. The Board administers five external tests in English-literacy, Mathematics, Science, Australian History, Geography, Civics and Citizenship. Students are not given a "pass" or "fail" result. The tests are designed to grade a student on their ability. The results of this test are categorised into bands 1 through to 6 with band 1 as the lowest and band 6 as the highest. Introduction to the School Certificate - Board of Studies NSW Higher School Certificate The Higher School Certificate (HSC) is the usual Year 12 leaving certificate in NSW. Most students complete the HSC prior to entering the workforce or going on to study at college, university or TAFE (although the HSC itself can be completed at TAFE). The HSC must be completed for a student to get a University Admissions Index, which determines the students rank against fellow students who completed the Higher School Certificate. Tertiary Eleven universities primarily operate in New South Wales. Sydney is home to Australia's first university, the University of Sydney, founded in 1850, as well as the University of New South Wales, Macquarie University, the University of Technology, Sydney and the University of Western Sydney. The Australian Catholic University has two of its six campuses in Sydney, and the private University of Notre Dame Australia also operates a secondary campus in the city. Outside Sydney, the leading universities are the University of Newcastle and the University of Wollongong. Armidale is home to the University of New England, and Charles Sturt University and Southern Cross University have campuses spread across cities in the state's south-west and north coast respectively. The public universities are state government agencies, however they are largely regulated by the federal government, which also administers their public funding. Admission to NSW universities is arranged together with universities in the Australian Capital Territory by another government agency, the Universities Admission Centre. Primarily vocational training is provided up the level of advanced diplomas is provided by the state government's ten Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutes. These institutes run courses in over 130 campuses throughout the state. Geography and ecology New South Wales is bordered on the north by Queensland, on the west by South Australia, on the south by Victoria and on the east by the Tasman Sea. The Australian Capital Territory and the Jervis Bay Territory are Federal enclaves of New South Wales. The state can be divided geographically into four areas. New South Wales' three largest cities, Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong, lie near the centre of a narrow coastal strip extending from cool temperate areas on the far south coast to subtropical areas near the Queensland border. The Illawarra region is centred on the city of Wollongong, with the Shoalhaven, Eurobodalla and the Sapphire Coast to the south. The Central Coast lies between Sydney and Newcastle, with the North Coast and Northern Rivers regions reaching northwards to the Queensland border. Tourism is important to the economies of coastal towns such as Coffs Harbour, Lismore, Nowra and Port Macquarie, but the region also produces seafood, beef, dairy, fruit, sugar cane and timber. The Great Dividing Range extends from Victoria in the south through New South Wales to Queensland, parallel to the narrow coastal plain. This area includes the Snowy Mountains, the Northern, Central and Southern Tablelands, the Southern Highlands and the South West Slopes. Whilst not particularly steep, many peaks of the range rise above , with the highest Mount Kosciuszko at . The relatively short ski season underwrites the tourist industry in the Snowy Mountains. Agriculture, particularly the wool industry, is important throughout the highlands. Major centres include Armidale, Bathurst, Bowral, Goulburn, Inverell, Orange, Queanbeyan and Tamworth. There are numerous forests in New South Wales, with such tree species as Red Gum Eucalyptus and Crow Ash (Flindersia australis), being represented. Joseph Henry Maiden. 1908. The Forest Flora of New South Wales, v. 3, Australian Government Printing Office Forest floors have a diverse set of understory shrubs and fungi. One of the widespread fungi is Witch's Butter (Tremella mesenterica). C. Michael Hogan, Witch's Butter: Tremella mesenterica, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed; N. Stromberg The western slopes fill a significant portion of the state's area and have a much sparser population than areas nearer the coast. Agriculture is the central to the economy of the western slopes, particularly the Riverina region and Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area in the state's south-west. Regional cities such as Albury, Dubbo, Griffith and Wagga Wagga and towns such as Deniliquin, Leeton and Parkes exist primarily to service these agricultural regions. The western slopes descend slowly to the western plains that comprise almost two-thirds of the state and are largely arid or semi-arid. The mining town of Broken Hill is the largest centre in this area. Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol. 7, Grolier Society The highest maximum temperature recorded was at Wilcannia in the state's west on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was at Charlotte Pass on 29 June 1994 in the Snowy Mountains. This is also the lowest temperature recorded in whole of Australia excluding the Antarctic Territory. One possible definition of the centre for New South Wales is located west-north-west of Tottenham. National parks New South Wales has more than 780 national parks and reserves covering more than 8% of the state. 2008 Guide to National Parks, p. 59, NSW NPWS These parks range from rainforests, spectacular waterfalls, rugged bush to marine wonderlands and outback deserts, including World Heritage areas. http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/nationalparks/ Welcome to NSW National Parks The Royal National Park on the southern outskirts of Sydney became Australia's first National Park when proclaimed on 26 April 1879. Originally named The National Park until 1955, this park was the second National Park to be established in the world after Yellowstone National Park in the U.S. Kosciuszko National Park is the largest park in state encompassing New South Wales' alpine region. The National Parks Association was formed in 1957 to create a system of national parks all over New South Wales. This government agency is responsible for developing and maintaining the parks and reserve system, and conserving natural and cultural heritage, in the state of New South Wales. These parks preserve special habitats, plants and wildlife, such as the Wollemi National Park where the Wollemi Pine grows and areas sacred to Australian Aboriginals such as Mutawintji National Park in western New South Wales. Economy Agriculture is spread throughout the New South Wales state, except in the western third. Cattle, sheep and pigs are the predominant types of livestock produced in NSW and they have been present since their importation during the earliest days of European settlement. Economically the state is the most important state in Australia, with about a third of the country's sheep, a fifth of its cattle, and a third of its small number of pigs. New South Wales produces a large share of Australia's hay, fruit, legumes, lucerne, maize, nuts, wool, wheat, oats, oilseeds (about 51%), poultry, rice (about 99%), Agricultural ProductionRetrieved on 7 March 2009 vegetables, fishing including oyster farming, and forestry including wood chips. Agriculture - Overview - Australia Bananas and sugar are grown chiefly in the Clarence, Richmond and Tweed River areas. The world's finest wools are produced on the Northern Tablelands as well as prime lambs and beef cattle. The cotton industry is centred in the Namoi Valley in north western New South Wales. On the central slopes there are many orchards with the principal fruits grown being apples, cherries and pears. Approximately 40,200 ha of vineyards lie across the eastern region of the state with excellent wines produced in the Hunter Valley with the Riverina being the largest largest wine producer in New South Wales. Australia’s largest and most valuable Thoroughbred horse breeding area is centred on Scone in the Hunter Valley. SMH Travel - Scone Retrieved on 7 March 2009 About half of Australia's timber production is in New South Wales. Large areas of the state are now being replanted with eucalyptus forests. Since the 1970s, New South Wales has undergone an increasingly rapid economic and social transformation. Old industries such as steel and shipbuilding have largely disappeared, and although agriculture remains important its share of the state's income is smaller than ever before. New industries such as information technology and financial services are largely centred in Sydney and have risen to take their place with many companies having their Australian headquarters in Sydney CBD. In addition, the Macquarie Park area of Sydney has attracted the Australian headquarters of many information technology firms. Coal and related products are the state's biggest export. Its value to the state's economy is over AUD$5 billion accounting for about 19% of all exports from NSW. http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/PDF/Trade%20and%20Investment-B3_top10_merch_exports.pdf Tourism has also become important, with Sydney as its centre but also stimulating growth on the North Coast, around Coffs Harbour and Byron Bay. Tourism is worth over $23 billion to the New South Wales economy and employs over 8% of the workforce. http://corporate.tourism.nsw.gov.au/scripts/runisa.dll?CORPORATELIVE.590808:HOMEPAGE:790544129:pp=UPPER,pc=HOME In 2007, the (then) Premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma established Events New South Wales to "market Sydney and NSW as a leading global events destination". New South Wales had a Gross State Product in 2006 (equivalent to Gross Domestic Product) of $310 billion which equalled $45,584 per capita. 1338.1 - New South Wales in Focus, 2007 On 9 October 2007, NSW announced plans to build a 1,000 MW (megawatt) bank of wind powered turbines. The output of these is anticipated to be able to power up to 400,000 homes. The cost of this project will be $1.8 billion for 500 turbines. Australia to get 1,000 megawatt wind farm On 28 August 2008, the New South Wales cabinet voted to privatise electricity retail, causing 1,500 electrical workers to strike after a large anti-privatisation campaign. The NSW business community is represented by the NSW Business Chamber which has 30,000 members. Sport Throughout Australian history, NSW sporting teams have been very successful in both winning domestic competitions and providing players to the Australian national teams. The NSW Blues play in the Ford Ranger Cup and Sheffield Shield cricket competitions, the NSW Waratahs in the Super 14 rugby union competition and The 'Blues' represent NSW in the annual Rugby League State of Origin series. As well as the State of Origin, the headquarters of the Australian Rugby League and National Rugby League (NRL) are in Sydney, which is home to 9 of the 16 National Rugby League (NRL) teams. (South Sydney Rabbitohs, Sydney Roosters, Parramatta Eels, Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks, Wests Tigers, Penrith Panthers, Canterbury Bulldogs and Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles), as well as being the northern home of the St George Illawarra Dragons, which is half-based in Wollongong. A tenth team, the Newcastle Knights is located in Newcastle. The main summer sport is cricket. The state is represented by three teams in association football's A-League: Sydney FC (the inaugural champions in 2005-06), the Central Coast Mariners, based at Gosford and the Newcastle United Jets (2007-08 A League Champions). Football has the highest number of registered players in New South Wales of any football code. 4177.0 - Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2005-06 Australian rules football has historically not been strong in New South Wales outside the Riverina region. However, the Sydney Swans relocated from South Melbourne in 1982 and their presence and success since the late 1990s has raised the profile of Australian rules football, especially after their AFL premiership in 2005. Other teams in national competitions include basketball's Sydney Spirit (formerly the West Sydney Razorbacks) and the defunct team Sydney Kings and Sydney Uni Flames, and netball's Sydney Swifts. Sydney was the host of the 2000 Summer Olympics and the 1938 British Empire Games. The Olympic Stadium, now known as ANZ Stadium is the scene of the annual NRL Grand Final. It also regularly hosts rugby league State of Origin games and rugby union internationals, and has recently hosted the final of the 2003 Rugby World Cup and the football World Cup qualifier between Australia and Uruguay. The Sydney Cricket Ground hosts the 'New Year' cricket Test match from 2-6 January each year, and is also one of the sites for the finals of the One Day International series. The annual Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race begins in Sydney Harbour on Boxing Day. The climax of Australia's touring car racing series is the Bathurst 1000, held near the city of Bathurst. The popular equine sports of campdrafting and polocrosse were developed in New South Wales and competitions are now held across Australia. Polocrosse is now played in many overseas countries. Culture As Australia's most populous state, New South Wales is home to a number of cultural institutions of importance to the nation. In music, New South Wales is home to the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, Australia's busiest and largest orchestra. Australia's largest opera company, Opera Australia, is headquartered in Sydney. Both of these organisations perform a subscription series at the Sydney Opera House. Other major musical bodies include the Australian Chamber Orchestra. Sydney is host to the Australian Ballet for its Sydney season (the ballet is headquartered in Melbourne). Apart from the Sydney Opera House, major musical performance venues include the City Recital Hall and the Sydney Town Hall. New South Wales is home to a number of major art galleries. The Art Gallery of New South Wales (AGNSW), houses a significant collection of Australian art, while the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney focuses on contemporary art. Major museums include the natural history-focussed Australian Museum, the technology and arts-and-crafts focussed Powerhouse Museum, and the history-focussed Museum of Sydney. Other museums include the Sydney Jewish Museum. Sydney is home to five Arts teaching organisations which have all produced world famous students: The National Art School, The College of Fine Arts, the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA), the Australian School of Film, Radio and Television and the Conservatorium of Music (now part of the University of Sydney). See also NSW Volunteer of the Year States and territories of Australia Territorial evolution of Australia References External links Agriculture - Statistics - New South Wales Australia - Map of South East Australia from Geoscience Australia NSW Official State Website NSW Parliament NSW Police NSW State Law NSW State Library - History of Our Nation NSW Weather and Sydney Weather NSW Directory - from the Open Directory Project WikiTravel - New South Wales | New_South_Wales |@lemmatized australia:37 state:50 territory:7 name:5 new:82 south:87 wale:69 fullname:1 flag:2 svg:1 coatofarms:1 coa:1 png:2 map:2 locator:1 mjc:1 motto:1 orta:1 recens:1 quam:1 pura:1 nites:1 newly:1 rise:3 brightly:1 shine:1 nickname:1 first:7 premier:11 emblems:1 floral:2 waratah:3 telopea:2 speciosissima:2 bird:2 kookaburra:2 dacelo:2 gigas:2 animal:2 platypus:2 ornithorhynchus:2 anatinus:2 fish:3 blue:5 groper:2 achoerodus:2 viridis:2 colour:1 sky:1 pantone:1 capital:6 sydney:50 large:15 city:10 chieftype:1 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1,373 | Snap_(American_and_Canadian_football) | A snap (colloquially called a "hike", "snapback", or "pass from center") starts each American football and Canadian football play from scrimmage. Action Handed snap The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's line of scrimmage in American football; in Canadian football line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard their side of the ball. The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper, and the ball must leave the snapper's hands. The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backwards to a player behind the line of scrimmage (i.e. in the "backfield"). The ball may be handed, thrown, or even rolled, and its trajectory and the ball during that passage are called "the snap". The snapper is almost always the center. The ball is almost always sent between the snapper's legs, but only in Canadian football is that required. Additional rules apply regarding the positioning and stance of the snapper as one of several "line" players in anticipation of the snap. In theory, in most American football codes it is legal and possible for the snapper to roll or slide a snap backward along the ground and, with the ball now in play as a fumble (and a backward one at that), step back, pick the ball up and play it as if he were the quarterback. This has a hidden advantage in that it allows the actual quarterback, who would normally pass the ball, to act as an additional eligible receiver. However, in practice, this is almost never done. Exchange of the snap between the center's legs. For a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his or her head up, facing opponents. For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his or her legs. Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations ("Fed") have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least 7 yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed). However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single "shotgun" formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly. Snap count The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as "hut" voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the "snap count". (A team of deaf players may get the snap timing via the beating of a bass drum near the field.) Therefore they have a considerable advantage over their opponents. The snapper is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the snapper's hands is the beginning of the snap. The snap count is decided on in the huddle, usually expressed as "...on <number>." being the final words spoken by the quarterback after calling the play but before the huddle breaks and the players go to the line of scrimmage. The snap count allows offensive players to have a small head start. The opposing linebacker wants to predict the snap, and build up speed such that he crosses the line of scrimmage exactly as the play begins, so as to increase his chances of getting a tackle for a loss, or a sack. By varying the snap count, a quarterback forces the defensive players to react to the movement of the offensive players, or risk being called for an offsides or encroachment penalty. Unfortunately for the offense, this advantage can sometimes become a disadvantage. When faced by an exceptionally loud stadium, players may be unable to hear the snap count, and are forced to concentrate more on visual cues (silent snap count), or risk false start penalties. The offense must also be mindful of the play clock. If they fail to snap the ball in time they incur a delay of game penalty. Also, with a dwindling play clock, the defense has better chances of guessing when the ball will be snapped. It is easier to predict when the ball will be snapped with 2 seconds left on the play clock, rather than 5 seconds. History and rationale The snap, the set scrummage and ruck in today's Rugby Union, and the play-the-ball in Rugby League have common origins in rugby football. As the rules of rugby's scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap in American football. See "Why the Uncontested Scrimmage". The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage. A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a "snap". Later in the 19th Century the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added. The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th Century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward. The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play which did not work against a prepared defense. Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds -- a throw-in or "fair", and "bounding in" -- existed. Note also that until well into the 20th Century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet. The neutral zone and the right of the snapper not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature. As the 20th Century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time after the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap. Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th Century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three -- a "centre scrimmager" bound on either side by props called "side scrimmagers". The centre scrimmager was later renamed the "snap", and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first. Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the Burnside rules led to the 3-man scrimmage being reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted. In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football. (Though it was technically legal, the hand-to-hand snap was not used on the American side of the border until the 1930s.) Apparently a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the USA, such as the single wing. The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage. In Rugby Union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which Rugby League has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals. In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the snapper) for a fraction of a second. The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively. A muffed snap can be recovered by either team. See also Glossary of American football References | Snap_(American_and_Canadian_football) |@lemmatized snap:48 colloquially:1 call:6 hike:1 snapback:1 pas:1 center:4 start:3 american:11 football:16 canadian:7 play:17 scrimmage:17 action:2 hand:12 ball:35 begin:3 ground:2 long:1 axis:1 parallel:1 sideline:2 field:3 end:2 mark:1 team:5 line:7 without:1 yard:3 side:8 must:3 quick:2 continuous:2 movement:2 one:8 snapper:14 leave:2 various:1 rule:8 code:2 additional:4 requirement:3 effect:2 require:4 go:4 backwards:1 player:16 behind:2 e:1 backfield:2 may:5 thrown:4 even:1 roll:2 trajectory:1 passage:1 almost:3 always:2 send:1 leg:3 apply:1 regard:1 positioning:2 stance:2 several:4 anticipation:1 theory:1 legal:2 possible:1 slide:1 backward:2 along:1 fumble:1 step:1 back:3 pick:1 quarterback:4 hidden:1 advantage:3 allow:4 actual:1 would:1 normally:1 pass:1 act:1 eligible:1 receiver:1 however:4 practice:2 never:1 exchange:1 handed:1 usually:4 head:3 face:2 opponent:5 especially:1 formation:4 wherein:1 different:1 position:4 commonly:1 bend:1 look:1 vulnerability:1 national:3 collegiate:1 athletic:1 association:3 ncaa:3 federation:2 state:2 high:2 school:2 feed:2 adopt:3 provide:2 least:2 neutral:3 zone:3 receive:2 deliberately:1 contact:2 second:4 chance:3 react:2 professional:1 common:3 able:1 single:2 shotgun:1 enough:1 keep:1 toss:1 blindly:1 count:7 entitle:3 know:4 advance:1 moment:1 occur:1 signal:1 include:1 loud:2 sound:1 hut:1 voice:1 time:6 number:4 thus:1 say:1 deaf:1 get:2 timing:1 via:2 beating:1 bass:1 drum:1 near:2 therefore:2 considerable:1 make:1 motion:3 simulate:1 part:1 confident:1 first:4 beginning:1 decide:1 huddle:2 express:1 final:1 word:1 speak:1 break:2 offensive:3 small:1 oppose:1 linebacker:1 want:1 predict:2 build:1 speed:1 cross:1 exactly:1 increase:1 tackle:1 loss:1 sack:1 vary:1 force:2 defensive:2 risk:2 offside:1 encroachment:1 penalty:3 unfortunately:1 offense:2 sometimes:1 become:1 disadvantage:1 exceptionally:1 stadium:1 unable:1 hear:1 concentrate:1 visual:1 cue:1 silent:1 false:1 also:7 mindful:1 clock:3 fail:1 incur:1 delay:1 game:3 dwindle:1 defense:2 good:2 guess:1 easy:1 rather:2 history:1 rationale:2 set:1 scrummage:2 ruck:2 today:1 rugby:7 union:2 league:2 origin:1 write:1 come:1 north:1 america:1 significant:1 flaw:1 correct:1 custom:1 elsewhere:1 invention:1 see:2 uncontested:3 committee:1 right:3 foot:5 direction:1 certain:1 use:4 heel:1 later:2 century:5 option:2 add:1 preserve:1 decade:2 although:1 early:1 restrict:1 kick:2 forward:3 surprise:1 work:1 prepared:1 alternative:1 across:1 bound:2 throw:2 fair:1 bounding:1 exist:1 note:2 well:2 official:1 ready:1 complete:2 custody:1 could:1 required:1 spot:1 instance:1 tackled:1 carrier:1 might:1 feign:1 injury:1 suddenly:1 recumbent:1 yet:1 original:1 feature:1 draw:1 close:1 extend:1 protection:1 case:1 deep:1 unaltered:1 regionally:2 influence:1 limit:1 three:1 centre:3 scrimmager:2 either:2 prop:1 scrimmagers:1 rename:1 intercollegiate:1 give:1 put:2 universally:1 burnside:1 lead:1 man:1 reduce:2 alone:1 commensurately:1 similar:1 addition:1 legs:1 year:1 adoption:1 illegal:1 instead:1 though:1 technically:1 border:1 apparently:1 desire:1 system:1 backheeling:1 eclipse:1 model:1 usa:1 wing:1 design:1 eliminate:1 need:1 provision:1 live:1 retain:1 maul:1 necessitate:1 restriction:1 interval:1 hold:1 fraction:1 possession:1 walter:1 camp:1 point:1 planning:1 opposition:1 respectively:1 muffed:1 recover:1 glossary:1 reference:1 |@bigram line_scrimmage:5 eligible_receiver:1 collegiate_athletic:1 rugby_union:2 |
1,374 | Foreign_relations_of_Cyprus | Cyprus is a member of the United Nations along with most of its agencies as well as the Commonwealth of Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and Council of Europe. In addition, the country has signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Agreement (MIGA). Non-Alignment Cyprus has historically followed a non-aligned foreign policy, although it increasingly identifies with the West in its cultural affinities and trade patterns, and maintains close relations with Greece. The prime originator of Cypriot non-alignment was Makarios III, the first President (1960-1977) of the independent republic of Cyprus. Prior to independence, Makarios - by virtue of his post as Archbishop of Cyprus and head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church - was the Greek Cypriot Ethnarch, or de facto leader of the community. A highly influential figure well before independence, he participated in the 1955 Bandung Conference. After independence, Makarios took part in the 1961 founding meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade. Diplomatic relations of Cyprus. Dark blue: Cyprus; Blue: Embassy level; Light blue: Consulate level. Including parallel accreditation of another Cypriot embassy Cyprus is represented in most of the rest states by embassies of other European Union member states Cyprus, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Reasons for this neutrality may lie in the extreme pressures exerted on the infant Republic by its larger neighbours, Turkey and Greece. Intercommunal rivalries and movements for union with Greece or partial union with Turkey may have persuaded Makarios to steer clear of close affiliation with either side. In any case Cyprus became a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement and retained its membership until its entry into the European Union in 2004. At the non-governmental level, Cyprus has also been a member of the popular extension of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organisation hosting several high-level meetings. Immediately after the 1974 Greek-sponsored coup d'etat and the Turkish invasion, Makarios secured international recognition of his administration as the legitimate government of the whole island. This was disputed only by Turkey, which currently recognises only the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, established in 1983. Since the 1974 crisis, the chief aim of the foreign policy of the Republic of Cyprus has been to secure the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the reunification of the island under the most favourable constitutional and territorial settlement possible. This campaign has been pursued primarily through international forums such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement, and in recent years through the European Union. European Union Cyprus' 1990 application for full EU membership caused a storm in the Turkish Cypriot community, which argued that the move required their consent. Following the December 1997 EU Summit decisions on EU enlargement, accession negotiations began March 31 1998. Cyprus joined the European Union on May 1 2004. To fulfil its commitment as a member of the European Union, Cyprus withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement on accession, retaining observer status. The Government of Cyprus enjoys close relations with Greece. Cyprus is expanding relations with Russia, Israel, and Syria, from which it purchases most of its oil. In the past it had some difficulty with both Israel and Egypt. United Kingdom The continuing British sovereignty of the Dhekelia and Akrotiri areas, has continued to divide Cypriots. The base areas are not under the jurisdiction of the Cypriot government. Several Cypriot villages remain enclaved in the areas, and there have been numerous arrests of anti-British demonstrators over the past few years. These activists assert that the UK should not continue to hold territory in another EU state. Israel Cyprus has frequently expressed concern over Israel's close defense relationship with Turkey. In the case of Israel, Cyprus has occasionally outwardly backed the Palestinians in the Arab-Israeli conflict, to the annoyance of some in the Israeli government. Cyprus, like over 100 other countries, officially recognizes Palestine as a de facto state. The island is also host to a number of Palestinian and Lebanese refugees. However, relations between the two countries suffered when Cypriot first lady Antroulla Vasiliou, the wife of President George Vasiliou, was declared Persona Non Grata in Israel when a delegation she was leading attempted to meet with Yasser Arafat, who was under house arrest. Controversy and public outcry arose in the early 2000s, when members of the Cypriot branch of the Greek Orthodox Church were accused of selling church-owned land in the West Bank to Israeli developers, putting Cypriot commitment to the Palestinian cause at question. The expulsion of two alleged Israeli spies from the island in 1998 also caused tension between the two governments. The two countries now appear to be on good relations, at least commercially with agriculture and tourism. The Cypriot government has also been reported to be making deals with both Israel and Egypt in exploring for oil off the southern Cyprus coast. Turkey Turkey flatly refuses to recognize the government of the Republic of Cyprus, stating that the Republic - as established by the Constitution of 1960 - ceased to exist when the intercommunal violence that commenced in December 1963 ended Turkish Cypriot participation in the Cypriot government. The attempted coup in July 1974 - engineered by Greece - was responded to by Turkey by a full military invasion, which resulted in the northern third of the island being occupied by Turkish military forces. This portion of Cyprus unilaterally declared independence in November 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which Turkey recognizes. Turkey refers to the Republic of Cyprus government as "The Greek Cypriot Administration of South Cyprus". Cyprus takes the view that the TRNC government is a puppet administration, and thus prefers to negotiate with Turkey over the resolution of the Cyprus Problem. Turkey insists that the TRNC government is the institution that the RoC government must refer to in negotiations. Cyprus' accession to the European Union has had a negative impact on Turkey in regards to its own accession negotiations. The refusal of Turkey to allow Cypriot-flaged ships to access Turkish ports has resulted in a partial suspension of its accession negotiations. Egypt Egypt is a close ally, sharing as it does an oilfield with Cyprus. The relationship between the two countries was also strained in February 1978 when Cypriot National Guardsmen shot dead Egyptian Commandos at Larnaca International Airport when the commandos attempted to intervene in a hostage situation. Disputes - international: The 1974 invasion of the Turkish army divided the island nation into two. The internationally recognised Republic of Cyprus currently has effective control in the south of the island (59% of the island's land area) while its area not under its effective control makes up 37% of the island. Turkey utilising the territory occupied during the invasion recognizes a declared separatist Christopher Hitchens, Uncorking the Genie: The Cyprus Question and Turkey's Military Rule MERIP Reports, No. 122, Turkey under Military Rule (Mar. - Apr., 1984), pp. 25-27, doi:10.2307/3011799 UDI of Turkish Cypriots in 1983, contrary to multiple United Nations Security Council Resolutions. The two territories of the Republic are separated by a United Nations Buffer Zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island. Illicit drugs: Cyprus is a minor transit point for heroin and hashish via air routes and container traffic to Europe, especially from Lebanon and Turkey; some cocaine transits as well. The island has also been criticised for supposedly lax arms control legislation. Vietnam Cyprus is represented in Vietnam through its embassy in New Delhi, India. Vietnam is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Algeria–Cyprus relations Algeria is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Beirut (Lebanon). Cyprus is represented in Algeria through its embassy in Paris (France). Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Relations are normal. Argentina is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Tel Aviv (Israel), and Argentina has an honorary consulate in Cyprus. Cyprus is represented in Argentina through its embassy in Madrid (Spain), Cyprus has honorary consulate in Buenos Aires. List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Cyprus (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Argentina 1991 Armenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece). Cyprus is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan. There are around 2,700 people of Armenian descent living in Cyprus. Cyprus was one of the first countries to recognize the Armenian Genocide on April 29, 1982. Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia See Australia–Cyprus relationsSee Austria–Cyprus relationsSee Belarus–Cyprus relationsSee Belgium–Cyprus relationsSee Bosnia and Herzegovina – Cyprus relations Bulgaria has an embassy in Nicosia, and honorary consulate in Limassol. Cyprus has an embassy in Sofia. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with BulgariaSee Canada–Cyprus relationsSee Croatia–Cyprus relationsSee Cyprus – Czech Republic relationsSee Cyprus–Denmark relationsSee Cyprus–Egypt relationsSee Cyprus–Estonia relations1961-09-02 Finland recognized Cyprus on August 16, 1960. Cyprus has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Vantaa. Cyprus embassy in Helsinki Finland has an embassy and 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia. Finish embassy in Nicosia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with FinlandSee Cyprus–France relationsSee Cyprus–Georgia relationsSee Cyprus–Germany relationsSee Cyprus–Greece relationsSee Cyprus–Hungary relationsSee Cyprus–India relationsSee Cyprus–Iran relationsSee Cyprus–Israel relationsSee Cyprus–Italy relationsSee Cyprus–Japan relationsSee Cyprus–Jordan relationsSee Cyprus–Lebanon relations Cyprus has an embassy in Tripoli. Libya has an embassy in Nicosia. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Libya Cyprus is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland). Lithuania is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulate in Nicosia. Lithuanian embassy in Athens (also accredited to Cyprus) Both countries are full members of the European Union. Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Lithuania Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Cyprus (in Lithuanian only) Cyprus is represented to Malta through its accredited embassy in Rome (Italy). Malta is represented to Cyprus through its accredited embassy in Athens (Greece). The two countries are members of the European Union and Commonwealth of Nations. List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus 1960 Cyprus has an embassy in Mexico City and 3 honorary consulates (in Guadalajara, Monterrey and Cancún). Mexico is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulate in Nicosia. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Mexico 1992-02-12 Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Cyprus 2007-03-13 Cyprus recognized the Republic of Montenegro on June 16th, 2006. Cyprus is represented in Montenegro through its embassy in Belgrade (Serbia). Establishment of diplomatic relations (Cyprus Ministry Foreign Affairs) Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro (in Montenegrin) Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro Cyprus is represented in Morocco through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal). Cyprus embassy in Lisbon (also accredited to Morocco) Morocco is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through 2 honorary consulates in Larnaca and Latsia. Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: directions of the 2 honorary consulates of Morocco in Cyprus Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. 1960 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1960, after Cyprus independence. Cyprus has an embassy in The Hague. Cyprus embassy in The Hague The Netherlands have an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates in Limassol. Dutch embassy in Nicosia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with the Netherlands Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus (in Dutch) Since 1964, New Zealand has contributed several times to the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP). Cyprus is represented in New Zealand through its high commission in Canberra (Australia) and through an honorary consulate in Christchurch. New Zealand is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and through an honorary consulate in Nicosia. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with CyprusSee Cyprus–Norway relations 1978 Oman is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and through an honorary consulate in Nicosia. Cyprus is represented in Oman through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and through an honorary consulate in Muscat. Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Oman Oman Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with CyprusSee Cyprus–Pakistan relationsSee Cyprus–Paraguay relationsSee People's Republic of China – Cyprus relationsSee Cyprus–Poland relationsSee Cyprus–Portugal relations 1960-08-16 Romania has an embassy in Nicosia since November 1960. Romanian embassy in Nicosia Cyprus has an embassy in Bucharest. Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on May 1, 2004, while Romania joined on January 1, 2007. Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties between Cyprus and Romania Romanian Foreign Ministry about relations with CyprusSee Cyprus–Russia relationsSee Cyprus – Saudi Arabia relationsSee Cyprus–Serbia relations Cyprus is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria). Slovakia has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol. Slovakian embassy in Nicosia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treatis with Slovakia See Cyprus–Slovenia relationsSee Cyprus – South Africa relationsSee Cyprus – South Korea relationsSee Cyprus–Spain relationsSee Cyprus–Sweden relations Cyprus has an embassy in Damascus. Syria has an embassy in Nicosia. Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with SyriaSee Cyprus–Tunisia relations The Cypriot embassy in Berlin (Germany) is also accredited as a non-resident embassy to Ukraine. Cyprus also has 2 honorary consulates in Kiev and in Mariupol. Cyprus honorary consulate in Kiev (in Ukrainian only) Ukraine has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol. Ukrainian embassy in Nicosia Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with UkraineSee Cyprus–United Kingdom relationsSee Cyprus – United States relations See also Diplomatic missions of Cyprus List of diplomatic missions in Cyprus List of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cyprus Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus British-Cypriot relations Cyprus-French relations Cyprus-Maltese relations References | Foreign_relations_of_Cyprus |@lemmatized cyprus:148 member:16 united:7 nation:8 along:1 agency:2 well:3 commonwealth:3 world:1 bank:2 international:5 monetary:1 fund:1 council:2 europe:2 addition:1 country:19 sign:1 general:1 agreement:2 tariff:1 trade:3 gatt:1 multilateral:1 investment:1 guarantee:1 miga:1 non:11 alignment:2 historically:1 follow:2 align:6 foreign:29 policy:2 although:1 increasingly:1 identify:1 west:2 cultural:1 affinity:1 pattern:1 maintain:1 close:5 relation:30 greece:11 prime:1 originator:1 cypriot:21 makarios:5 iii:1 first:3 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1,375 | Brisbane_Broncos | The Brisbane Broncos are an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the city of Brisbane, the capital city of the state of Queensland. The Broncos play in Australasia's elite competition, the National Rugby League (NRL) premiership. They have won six premierships during their twenty years in competition, making them the league's most successful club over the past two decades. The Broncos have one of the largest fan bases in Australia and also records the highest annual revenue of all NRL clubs and sell the second most amount of merchandise behind the Bulldogs. The club records the highest attendance averages of any rugby football club of any code in the world at just over 33,000 a game. The club was founded in 1988 as part of the New South Wales Rugby League premiership's national expansion, becoming, along with the Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, one of Queensland's first two participants in the Winfield Cup. The Broncos later became a dominant force in that competition before playing a significant role in the Super League War of the mid-1990s, then continuing to compete successfully in the reunified National Rugby League competition of today. The Broncos are based in the Brisbane suburb of Red Hill where their training ground and Leagues club are located, but they play their home games at Milton's Suncorp Stadium. They are also the only publicly listed sporting club on the Australian Securities Exchange, trading as Brisbane Broncos Limited (). History Queensland’s success in the 1980s' State of Origin, in addition to the inclusion of a Combined Brisbane team in the mid-week competition, convinced the New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) to invite a Queensland-based team into the competition. After tough competition between the various syndicates for the Brisbane license, the Queensland Rugby League chose the bid of former Brisbane Rugby League (BRL) players, Barry Maranta and Paul "Porky" Morgan. Darren Lockyer playing for the Broncos in 2004. Lockyer made his Broncos debut in 1995 and is the current captain of the team. The Broncos secured the services of Australian Kangaroos captain Wally Lewis and former BRL coach Wayne Bennett. The team made their first grade debut 1988 against NSWRL premiers Manly-Warringah, defeating them 44-10, but after this promising start they failed to make the finals. In 1989 they won the midweek knockout competition, the Panasonic Cup. The club first tasted premiership success in 1992, and again in 1993, defeating the St. George Dragons in both years. In 1995, the Super League War broke out. After threats of expulsion from the NSWRL, the Broncos were one of the first clubs to sign with the new league and all players followed suit. Broncos CEO John Ribot moved to take over the running of the rebel Super League, leading to a perception that the conflict was orchestrated by the club. Brisbane won the only Super League premiership in 1997, before winning the first National Rugby League trophy in the re-unified 1998 competition. 1999 was disappointing for the club with a terrible early-season form hindering their attempt at a third consecutive premiership losing 8 of their first 10 matches. Club legend Allan Langer retired mid-season, perhaps as a result of the team's form. Despite the club's mid-season turnaround, which resulted in qualification for the finals after an 11-match winning streak, the team was eliminated by the Cronulla Sharks in the first week of the finals. However, the Broncos' rebounded in 2000 with their fifth premiership, defeating the Sydney Roosters. The game was the retirement of veterans Kevin Walters and Michael Hancock. The 2006 Grand final at Stadium Australia. Allan Langer returned to the club in 2002 for one season before eventually retiring. 2002 was also the beginning of Brisbane's "post-Origin slump", which has haunted the club in the years since. Many players represent Queensland in the State of Origin series and the extra workload has caused a loss of form for the club immediately after the series. The Broncos average about 7 players out for every Origin game. This was evidenced in 2003 when the ladder-leading Broncos lost 10 of their last 11 games. Despite faring better in 2004 and 2005, the team still struggled in the latter stages of the season, losing all of their finals matches. In 2006, after a strong early and mid-season performance, the Broncos again entered the post-Origin slump, losing 5 consecutive games. However, they reversed this run of form, winning 6 of their last 7 games including the premiership decider against the Melbourne Storm and keeping their perfect Grand Final record intact. After a dismal 2007 season in which they only scraped into the finals, coach Wayne Bennett announced he would leave at the end of 2008 after twenty-one years as coach. Ivan Henjak, a former rugby league player who had been assistant coach with the Broncos since the beginning of 2006, was named their second ever coach for the 2009 season. Season summaries + P=Premiers, R=Runner-Ups, M=Minor Premierships, F=Finals Appearance, W=Wooden Spoons (Brackets Represent Finals Games) Competition GamesPlayed GamesWon GamesDrawn GamesLost LadderPosition P R M F W Coach Captain Main Article 1988 NSWRL Season 22 14 0 8 7 / 16 Wayne Bennett Wally Lewis Brisbane Broncos 1988 1989 NSWRL Season 22 (1) Brisbane Broncos lost a play-off for fifth in 1989, which is counted as a final game. 14 (0) 0 (0) 8 (1) 5 / 16 Brisbane Broncos 1989 1990 NSWRL Season 22 (3) 16 (1) 1 (0) 5 (2) 2 / 16 X Gene Miles Brisbane Broncos 1990 1991 NSWRL Season 22 13 0 9 7 / 16 Brisbane Broncos 1991 1992 NSWRL Season 22 (2) 18 (2) 0 (0) 4 (0) 1 / 16 X X X Allan Langer Brisbane Broncos 1992 1993 NSWRL Season 22 (4) 16 (4) 0 (0) 6 (0) 5 / 16 X X Brisbane Broncos 1993 1994 NSWRL Season 22 (2) 13 (1) 1 (0) 8 (1) 5 / 16 X Brisbane Broncos 1994 1995 ARL Season 22 (2) 17 (0) 0 (0) 5 (2) 3 / 20 X Brisbane Broncos 1995 1996 ARL Season 21 (2) 17 (0) 0 (0) 4 (2) 2 / 20 X Brisbane Broncos 1996 1997 SL Season 18 (2) 14 (2) 1 (0) 3 (0) 1 / 10 X X X Brisbane Broncos 1997 1998 NRL Season 24 (4) 18 (3) 1 (0) 5 (1) 1 / 20 X X X Brisbane Broncos 1998 1999 NRL Season 24 (1) 13 (0) 2 (0) 9 (1) 8 / 17 X Brisbane Broncos 1999 Kevin Walters 2000 NRL Season 26 (3) 18 (3) 2 (0) 6 (0) 1 / 14 X X X Brisbane Broncos 2000 2001 NRL Season 26 (3) 14 (1) 1 (0) 11 (2) 5 / 14 X Gorden Tallis Brisbane Broncos 2001 2002 NRL Season 24 (2) 16 (1) 1 (0) 7 (1) 3 / 15 X Brisbane Broncos 2002 2003 NRL Season 24 (1) 12 (0) 0 (0) 12 (1) 8 / 15 X Brisbane Broncos 2003 2004 NRL Season 24 (2) 16 (0) 1 (0) 7 (2) 3 / 15 X Brisbane Broncos 2004 2005 NRL Season 24 (2) 15 (0) 0 (0) 9 (2) 3 / 15 X Darren Lockyer <center>Brisbane Broncos 2005 2006 NRL Season 24 (4) 14 (3) 0 (0) 10 (1) 3 / 15 X X Brisbane Broncos 2006 2007 NRL Season 24 (1) 11 (0) 0 (0) 13 (1) 8 / 16 X Brisbane Broncos 2007 2008 NRL Season 24 (2) 14 (1) 1 (0) 9 (1) 5 / 16 X Brisbane Broncos 2008 2009 NRL Season 11 8 0 3 2 / 16 current season Ivan Henjak Brisbane Broncos 2009 Emblem and colours The club's original logo, used from 1988 to 1999.It had originally been planned for the Brisbane Broncos to adopt a logo incorporating both a kangaroo and a stylised "Q" which had been featured in the logo for the Queensland Rugby League for many years. However, with the Australian national rugby league team also known as the Kangaroos, this was deemed inappropriate and conflicting. The state flower the Cooktown Orchid and the Poinsettia which had long been used by Brisbane representative teams in the Bulimba Cup and midweek knockout competitions was also ruled out, along with other Australian animals such as the brumby, possum, galah and the kookaburra, which was used on Brisbane's Kookaburra Queen paddleships. Having wanted to continue with the use of alliteration for local sporting teams such as the Brisbane Bullets and Brisbane Bears, the club's directors eventually decided on the nickname Broncos. The original club logo was first featured in the Broncos' inaugural season in the premiership in 1988 and was used until 1999. It used a mostly gold colour scheme, in line with the predominant colour on the team jerseys. In 2000, the club adopted a new logo with a more maroon design, which was much closer to the traditional colour associated with Queensland rugby league and Queensland sport in general. This design continues to be used to date. Traditionally, the colours of the Brisbane Broncos have been maroon, white and gold, which have all long been linked to the history of rugby league in Queensland. Initially, the founders of the club favoured the official blue and gold colours of Brisbane City Council. However, Sydney advertiser John Singleton advised the board that "Queenslanders had been booing players wearing blue for more than three-quarters of a century." As a result, the traditional maroon and white colours of Brisbane Bullimba Cup sides along with gold, symbolising the Queensland sunshine, were adopted as the club's colours. In the inaugural 1988 season, the club's jersey design featured the top third being gold, the middle being alternating hoops of maroon and white and the bottom third being maroon. Although this design featured gold strongly, it did not please everyone as the jersey had to differentiate from the maroon and white of Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles and the maroon of the Queensland State of Origin team. Following a number of design changes in the 1990s including a predominantly white jersey from 1997 to 1998, blue was added to the jersey in 2001 as a minor colour to show the aforementioned historical link with the colours of Brisbane. However, this was later dropped from the design in favour of a mainly maroon jersey with gold trim. At the 1995 Rugby League World Sevens tournament, the club introduced a new combination of jersey colours - mauve, aqua and white. Brisbane Broncos Marketing Manager Shane Edwards stated that it "will become our Sevens strip... but we will never change the Broncos' colours." Bronco! Magazine Issue 1, 1995 In 2001, following the release of the club's predominantly white with navy-blue and maroon away jersey, the National Rugby League ordered the club to produce a third jersey since the new away jersey clashed with the home jerseys of the Penrith Panthers, Melbourne Storm and New Zealand Warriors. An aqua strip using the same design as the jerseys used from 1999 to 2001 was worn, which was much derided by the local media. Following two years of public pressure the club dropped the jersey in favour of the design worn against Newcastle in 2003. Stadium The Brisbane Broncos, at the then-ANZ Stadium (1993-2003). In their first five seasons, the Broncos played their matches at Lang Park, the ground considered to be the home of rugby league in Queensland. However, following ongoing conflict with the Queensland Rugby League and Lang Park Trust, the team relocated to ANZ Stadium in 1993. The club's home match attendance, which had averaged 19,637 at Lang Park, increased to 43,200 at the new ground in the first season following the club's premiership title in the previous season. However, despite the team's second premiership in 1993, crowds gradually declined, with the club failing, until 2002, to register more than the 1996 average of 23,712. View of the current Brisbane Broncos home ground, Suncorp Stadium. With the Queensland Government's $280,000,000 redevelopment of Lang Park, the team moved back to the refurbished and renamed Suncorp Stadium upon its completion in mid-2003. The more centrally-located stadium has begun to attract increasingly higher crowds, with the 2006 average attendance of 31,208 being significantly higher than the Newcastle Knights with 21,848 and about double the regular season competition average of 15,601. The club record attendance for a regular season match is 58,593, set against the St. George Dragons in the final round of the 1993 season. The record attendance for a match at Suncorp Stadium is 50,612, set in the third round of the 2008 season against the North Queensland Cowboys. Statistics and records The Brisbane Broncos are the most successful club in the history of the competition in terms of percentage of total games won, having won 65.80% of their games since their inception. This is more than 5% better than the second-placed club. In their twenty completed seasons, the club has made a total of six Grand Finals, winning each time, and have made the finals for the past sixteen seasons. They are one of only two clubs to have won the World Club Challenge twice, and were the first club to do so on British soil. They also won the now defunct Panasonic Cup in 1989. Current team captain Darren Lockyer holds the record for the most First Grade games for the club. Darren Lockyer holds the record for the most points scored for the club, tallying 1,138 since his debut in 1995. He also holds the club record of 272 points in a season, having achieved this in 1998. Steve Renouf holds the record for the most career tries for the club with 142. Renouf also shares the club record for the most number of tries in a season with Darren Smith at 23. Lote Tuqiri's tally of 26 points from three tries and seven goals in a single match against the Northern Eagles remains the club record for most individual points in a game. Corey Parker holds the record for most goals in a game kicking ten in a round one clash of 2008 breaking the previous mark of nine kicked by Lockyer in 1998 and matched by Michael De Vere in 2001. Parker converted ten from ten goals in the Broncos 48-12 win over the Penrith Panthers in which Parker scored 24 points placing him in equal second place on the most points in a match tally. Six players have scored four tries in a match for the Brisbane Broncos including Steve Renouf, Wendell Sailor, Karmichael Hunt, Justin Hodges, Denan Kemp and Israel Folau. 2006 Official Rugby League Annual. Edited by David Middleton, Published by News Magazines, Surrey Hills, Sydney Renouf achieved this feat five times from 1991 to 1998. The club's biggest winning margin is 65 points, achieved in 2007 in a 71-6 victory over the Newcastle Knights. Their heaviest defeat was a 50–4 loss to the Melbourne Storm in 2005, a record which was equalled when they lost to the Parramatta Eels 68-22 in 2007. Squads The Brisbane Broncos have 30 main signed players for the 2009 season. |} The Brisbane Broncos in action in 2004. Notable players For a full list of Broncos representatives, see Brisbane Broncos Representatives The representative playing list of the Brisbane Broncos has traditionally been extensive due to the club's premiership success and being the dominant Queensland team in the competition for the majority of its participation. Consequently, there have been a large number of Queensland Maroons in the team. In 2007, a 20 man legends team was announced to celebrate the club's 20 year anniversary. Honours Corporate The parent company of the Brisbane Broncos is Nationwide News Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of News Limited, which as of 30 June 2007, owns 68.87% of Broncos shares. John Ribot, a former first grade rugby league player in Queensland and New South Wales, was the club’s original chief executive officer (CEO). Ribot left when he signed to become the CEO of the rebel Australian rugby league competition Super League. (p.24,112) Shane Edwards, the Broncos Marketing Manager at the time, was promoted to CEO and later resigned. Bruno Cullen, who had been with the Broncos' off-field staff since 1989, became the club's third CEO in 2003. WOW Sight and Sound are the major sponsors of the Broncos. Nova 106.9 are the main radio sponsors after taking over from rival station B105 FM in late 2006. Live broadcasts of all Broncos matches are provided by 612 ABC Brisbane except if they play on Monday night, in which case 4MMM do so. Channel Nine Queensland also fully sponsors the Broncos, this is despite the fact former club legend Shane Webcke is signed to rival Seven Queensland. Famous fans, amongst others, include Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd, treasurer Wayne Swan, musicians Bernard Fanning, Julian Hamilton and Kim Moyes, media personality Rod Young, former tennis champion Pat Rafter and Australian cricketer Andrew Symonds. Footnotes External links Official Sites Broncos Official Web Page Broncos Leagues Club Statistics & Information Sites Rugby League Tables RL1908 Broncos History | Brisbane_Broncos |@lemmatized brisbane:52 bronco:63 australian:7 professional:1 rugby:22 league:30 football:2 club:51 base:4 city:3 capital:1 state:6 queensland:21 play:7 australasia:1 elite:1 competition:15 national:6 nrl:14 premiership:13 win:13 six:3 twenty:3 year:7 make:6 successful:2 past:2 two:4 decade:1 one:7 large:2 fan:2 australia:3 also:9 record:14 high:4 annual:2 revenue:1 sell:1 second:5 amount:1 merchandise:1 behind:1 bulldog:1 attendance:5 average:6 code:1 world:3 game:14 found:1 part:1 new:9 south:3 wale:3 expansion:1 become:5 along:3 gold:8 coast:1 tweed:1 giant:1 first:13 participant:1 winfield:1 cup:5 later:3 dominant:2 force:1 significant:1 role:1 super:5 war:2 mid:6 continue:3 compete:1 successfully:1 reunified:1 today:1 suburb:1 red:1 hill:2 training:1 ground:4 locate:2 home:5 milton:1 suncorp:4 stadium:9 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1,376 | Alexander_II_of_Scotland | Alexander the warrior and knight: the reverse side of Alexander II's Great Seal, enhanced as a 19th century steel engraving. Alexander II (Mediaeval Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Uilliam; Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Uilleim) (24 August 1198 – 6 July 1249), King of Scots, was the only son of William the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont. He was born at Haddington, East Lothian, in 1198, and spent time in England (John of England knighted him at Clerkenwell Priory in 1213) before succeeding to the kingdom on the death of his father on 4 December 1214, being crowned at Scone on 6 December the same year. The year after his accession the clans Meic Uilleim and MacHeths, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against John I of England, and led an army into the Kingdom of England in support of their cause. The Scottish Army of Alexander II reached the south coast of England at the port of Dover awaiting the arrival of the French Army under the Dauphin. But King John died and the Pope and the English aristocracy changed their attitude, which meant the French army returned home shortly after taking London and the Scottish army returned to Scotland. Peace between John's youthful son Henry III of England and the French prince Louis VIII of France and Alexander followed. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan of England on 18 June or 25 June 1221. The next year marked the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of Argyll. Royal forces crushed a revolt in Galloway in 1235 without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in 1237. This was the Treaty of York which defined the boundary between the two kingdoms as running between the Solway Firth (in the west) and the mouth of the River Tweed (in the east). Joan died in March, 1238 in Essex, and in the following year, 1239, Alexander remarried. His second wife was Marie de Coucy. The marriage took place on 15 May 1239, and produced one son, the future Alexander III, born in 1241. A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at Newcastle. Alexander now turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which still owed a nominal allegiance to Norway. He successively attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success. Alexander next attempted to persuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to Haakon IV of Norway. Ewen rejected these attempts, and Alexander sailed forth to compel him. But on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of Kerrera in the Inner Hebrides, and died there in 1249. He was buried at Melrose Abbey, Roxburghshire. His son Alexander III succeeded him as King of Scots. Wives 1. Joan of England, (22 July 1210 – 4 March 1238), was the eldest legitimate daughter and third child of John of England and Isabella of Angouleme. She and Alexander II married on 21 June 1221, at York Minster. Alexander was 23. Joan was 11. They had no children. Joan died in Essex in 1238, and was buried at Tarant Crawford Abbey in Dorset. 2. Marie de Coucy, who became mother of Alexander III of Scotland Ancestry Ancestors of Alexander II of Scotland References Tewkesbury Annals Worcester Annals Rotuli Litterarum Patencium Historical fiction Alexander II features in Barbara Erskine's novel "Child of the Phoenix" (1992) | Alexander_II_of_Scotland |@lemmatized alexander:20 warrior:1 knight:2 reverse:1 side:1 ii:6 great:1 seal:1 enhance:1 century:1 steel:1 engrave:1 mediaeval:1 gaelic:2 alaxandair:1 mac:2 uilliam:1 modern:1 alasdair:1 uilleim:2 august:1 july:2 king:3 scot:2 son:5 william:1 lion:1 ermengarde:1 beaumont:1 bear:2 haddington:1 east:2 lothian:1 spent:1 time:2 england:10 john:5 clerkenwell:1 priory:1 succeed:2 kingdom:4 death:1 father:1 december:2 crown:2 scone:1 year:6 accession:1 clan:1 meic:1 macheths:1 inveterate:1 enemy:1 scottish:3 break:1 revolt:2 loyalist:1 force:2 speedily:1 quell:1 insurrection:1 join:1 english:4 baron:2 struggle:1 lead:1 army:5 support:1 cause:1 reach:1 south:1 coast:1 port:1 dover:1 await:1 arrival:1 french:3 dauphin:1 die:4 pope:1 aristocracy:1 change:1 attitude:1 mean:1 return:2 home:1 shortly:1 take:2 london:1 scotland:3 peace:2 youthful:1 henry:4 iii:4 prince:1 louis:1 viii:1 france:1 follow:1 diplomacy:1 far:1 strengthen:1 reconciliation:1 marriage:2 sister:1 joan:5 june:3 next:3 mark:1 subjection:1 hitherto:1 semi:1 independent:1 district:1 argyll:2 royal:1 crush:1 galloway:1 without:2 difficulty:1 invasion:2 attempt:4 soon:2 afterwards:2 exiled:1 leader:1 meet:1 success:2 claim:2 homage:1 draw:1 forth:2 counter:1 northern:1 county:1 two:3 however:1 settle:1 dispute:1 compromise:1 treaty:1 york:2 define:1 boundary:1 run:1 solway:1 firth:1 west:1 mouth:1 river:1 tweed:1 march:2 essex:2 following:1 remarry:1 second:1 wife:2 marie:2 de:2 coucy:2 place:1 may:1 produce:1 one:1 future:1 threat:1 interrupt:1 friendly:1 relation:1 country:1 prompt:1 action:1 anticipate:1 attack:1 disinclination:1 war:1 compel:2 make:1 newcastle:1 turn:1 attention:1 secure:1 western:1 isle:2 still:1 owe:1 nominal:1 allegiance:2 norway:2 successively:1 negotiation:1 purchase:1 persuade:1 ewen:2 duncan:1 lord:1 sever:1 haakon:1 iv:1 reject:1 sail:1 way:1 suffer:1 fever:1 kerrera:1 inner:1 hebrides:1 bury:2 melrose:1 abbey:2 roxburghshire:1 eldest:1 legitimate:1 daughter:1 third:1 child:3 isabella:1 angouleme:1 marry:1 minster:1 tarant:1 crawford:1 dorset:1 become:1 mother:1 ancestry:1 ancestor:1 reference:1 tewkesbury:1 annals:2 worcester:1 rotuli:1 litterarum:1 patencium:1 historical:1 fiction:1 feature:1 barbara:1 erskine:1 novel:1 phoenix:1 |@bigram mediaeval_gaelic:1 await_arrival:1 soon_afterwards:2 inner_hebrides:1 york_minster:1 |
1,377 | GUIDO_music_notation | GUIDO Music Notation is a computer music notation system designed to logically represent all aspects of music in a format which is both computer-readable and easily readable by human beings. It was named after Guido of Arezzo, who pioneered today's conventional musical notation 1,000 years ago. First designed by Holger H. Hoos (then at Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany, now at University of British Columbia, Canada) and Keith Hamel (University of British Columbia, Canada). Later developments have been done by the SALIERI Project by Holger H. Hoos, Kai Renz and Jürgen F. Kilian. GUIDO Music Notation has been designed to represent music in a logical format (with the ability to render to sheet music), whereas LilyPond is more narrowly focused on typesetting sheet music. The basic idea behind the GUIDO design is representational adequacy which means that simple musical concepts are represented in a simple way and only complex notions require more complex representations. GUIDO is not primarily focused on conventional music notation, but has been invented as an open format, capable of storing musical, structural, and notational information. GUIDO Music Notation is designed as a flexible and easily extensible open standard. In particular, its syntax does not restrict the features it can represent. Thus, GUIDO can be easily adapted and customized to cover specialized musical concepts as might be required in the context of research projects in computational musicology. More importantly, GUIDO is designed in a way that when using such custom extensions, the resulting GUIDO data can still be processed by other applications that support GUIDO but are not aware of the custom extensions, which are gracefully ignored. This design also greatly facilitates the incremental implementation of GUIDO support in music software, which can speed up the software development process significantly, especially for research software and prototypes. GUIDO has been split into three consecutive layers: Basic GUIDO introduces the main concepts of the GUIDO design and allows to represent much of the conventional music of today. Advanced GUIDO extends Basic GUIDO by adding exact score-formatting and some more advanced musical concepts. Finally, Extended GUIDO can represent user-defined extensions, like microtonal information or user defined pitch classes. Example of GUIDO Input File The notation is similar to that of the better-known Lilypond, with one obvious difference being that the slash character is required when specifying note lengths. <nowiki> [ \clef<"treble"> \key<"D"> \meter<"4/4"> a1*1/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g a/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g a/2 a b c#2/4 d c#/2 b1 a/1 ] </nowiki> Image:Example1.gif Source Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, and Jürgen Kilian: Representing Score-Level Music Using the GUIDO Music-Notation Format. Computing in Musicology, Vol 12, MIT Press, 2001. Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: The GUIDO Music Notation Format - A Novel Approach for Adequately Representing Score-level Music. Proceedings of ICMC'98, p.451-454, ICMA, San Francisco, 1998. Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: GUIDO Music Notation - Towards an Adequate Representation of Score-level Music. Proceedings of JIM'98, LMA-CNSR, 1998. Algorithms and Data Structures for a Music Notation System based on GUIDO Music Notation by Kai Renz. See also Guido of Arezzo GNU LilyPond External links GUIDO Homepage GUIDO Noteserver - Renders GUIDO to sheet music online Music 253, Stanford University - Classroom introduction and exercises for Guido Music Notation. | GUIDO_music_notation |@lemmatized guido:27 music:22 notation:13 computer:2 system:2 design:8 logically:1 represent:8 aspect:1 format:5 readable:2 easily:3 human:1 name:1 arezzo:2 pioneer:1 today:2 conventional:3 musical:5 year:1 ago:1 first:1 holger:5 h:5 hoos:5 technische:1 universität:1 darmstadt:1 germany:1 university:3 british:2 columbia:2 canada:2 keith:4 hamel:4 later:1 development:2 salieri:1 project:2 kai:5 renz:5 jürgen:4 f:3 kilian:4 logical:1 ability:1 render:2 sheet:3 whereas:1 lilypond:3 narrowly:1 focus:2 typeset:1 basic:3 idea:1 behind:1 representational:1 adequacy:1 mean:1 simple:2 concept:4 way:2 complex:2 notion:1 require:3 representation:2 primarily:1 invent:1 open:2 capable:1 store:1 structural:1 notational:1 information:2 flexible:1 extensible:1 standard:1 particular:1 syntax:1 restrict:1 feature:1 thus:1 adapt:1 customize:1 cover:1 specialized:1 might:1 context:1 research:2 computational:1 musicology:2 importantly:1 use:2 custom:2 extension:3 result:1 data:2 still:1 process:2 application:1 support:2 aware:1 gracefully:1 ignore:1 also:2 greatly:1 facilitate:1 incremental:1 implementation:1 software:3 speed:1 significantly:1 especially:1 prototype:1 split:1 three:1 consecutive:1 layer:1 introduce:1 main:1 allow:1 much:1 advanced:2 extend:2 add:1 exact:1 score:4 formatting:1 finally:1 user:2 defined:1 like:1 microtonal:1 define:1 pitch:1 class:1 example:1 input:1 file:1 similar:1 good:1 know:1 one:1 obvious:1 difference:1 slash:1 character:1 specify:1 note:1 length:1 nowiki:2 clef:1 treble:1 key:1 meter:1 b:3 g:4 c:2 image:1 gif:1 source:1 level:3 compute:1 vol:1 mit:1 press:1 novel:1 approach:1 adequately:1 proceeding:2 icmc:1 p:1 icma:1 san:1 francisco:1 towards:1 adequate:1 jim:1 lma:1 cnsr:1 algorithm:1 structure:1 base:1 see:1 gnu:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 noteserver:1 online:1 stanford:1 classroom:1 introduction:1 exercise:1 |@bigram guido_arezzo:2 h_hoos:5 technische_universität:1 kai_renz:5 san_francisco:1 external_link:1 |
1,378 | New_York_Giants | The New York Giants are a professional American football team based in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The team plays its home games at Giants Stadium, which also serves as its headquarters, and trains at an adjacent practice facility within the Meadowlands Sports Complex. In a unique arrangement, the team shares the stadium with the New York Jets, who also play their home games there but maintain their training complex and headquarters at an off-site location. The Giants are currently members of the Eastern Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). They were one of five teams that joined the NFL in 1925, but the only one admitted that year which still exists. The Giants rank third among all NFL franchises with seven NFL titles: four in the pre–Super Bowl era (1927, 1934, 1938, 1956) and three since the advent of the Super Bowl (Super Bowls XXI (1986), XXV (1990), and XLII (2007)). Their championship tally is surpassed only by the Green Bay Packers (12) and Chicago Bears (9). During their history, the Giants have featured 15 Hall of Fame players, including NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) award winners Mel Hein, Frank Gifford, Charlie Conerly, Y. A. Tittle, and Lawrence Taylor. To distinguish it from the professional baseball team of the same name, the football team was incorporated as the New York Football Giants. Although the baseball team moved to San Francisco after the 1957 season, the football team continues to use "New York Football Giants" as its legal corporate name Hoovers.com Company Profile, Hoovers.com, accessed October 28, 2008. , and is often referred to as such by fans and sportscasters. The team has also gained several nicknames, including "Big Blue," the "G-Men," the "Big Blue Wrecking Crew," "The Road Warriors," and the "Jints," a name seen frequently in the New York Post, originating from the baseball team when they were based in New York. Team history 1925–1932 The Giants played their first game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut, on October 4, 1925. New York First Game & First Home Game Program, prodigy.net, accessed March 16, 2007. New York Pro Eleven Takes Opening Game, The New York Times, October 5, 1925, accessed March 16, 2007. They defeated New Britain 26–0 in front of a crowd of 10,000. The Giants were successful in their first season, finishing with an 8–4 record in 1925. New York Giants (1925 - ), databasefootball.com, accessed January 23, 2007. In just its third season, the team finished with the best record in the league at 11–1–1 and was awarded the NFL title. Championship games 1925-1949, giants.com, accessed January 12, 2007. After a disappointing fourth season (1928) owner Mara bought the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines, principally to acquire star quarterback Benny Friedman, and merged the two teams under the Giants name. In 1930 there were still many who questioned the quality of the professional game, claiming the college "amateurs" played with more intensity. In December 1930, the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City. It was also an opportunity to establish the superiority of the pro game. Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with the stars of his 1924 Championship squad and told them to score early, then defend. Rockne, like much of the public, thought little of pro football and expected an easy win. Neft, Cohen, and Korch. pg. 83 But from the beginning it was a one-way contest, with Friedman running for two Giant touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another. Notre Dame failed to score. When it was all over, Coach Rockne told his team, "That was the greatest football machine I ever saw. I am glad none of you got hurt." New York Giants vs. Notre Dame All Stars December 14, 1930, prodigy.net, accessed March 12, 2007. The game raised $100,000 for the homeless, and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game. 1933-1946 In a fourteen-year span from 1933 to 1946, the Giants qualified to play in the NFL championship game 8 times, winning twice. During the period the Giants were led by Hall of Fame coach Steve Owen, and Hall of Fame players Mel Hein, Red Badgro, and Tuffy Leemans. This period also included the famous "Sneakers Game", where they defeated the Chicago Bears on an icy field in the 1934 NFL championship game, while wearing sneakers for better traction. The Giants were particularly successful from the latter half of the 1930s until the United States entry into World War II. They added their third NFL championship in 1938 with a 23–17 win over the Green Bay Packers. 1947-1963 They did not win another league title until 1956, aided by a number of future Pro Football Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford, all-pro running back Alex Webster, linebacker Sam Huff, and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown. The Giants' 1956 championship team not only included players who would eventually find their way to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, but it also had a Hall of Fame coaching staff. Head coach Jim Lee Howell's staff had Vince Lombardi coaching the offense and Tom Landry coaching the defense. History of the New York Giants, www.sportsecyclopedia.com, accessed September 12, 2006. From 1958 to 1963, the Giants played in the NFL Championship Game five times, but failed to win. Most significantly, the Giants played the Colts in the 1958 NFL Championship Game that is considered a watershed event in the history of the NFL. Neft, Cohen, and Korch. pg. 272 The game, which the Giants lost in overtime 23–17, is often considered one of the most important events in furthering the NFL's popularity in America. The following year, they gave up a 16–9 4th quarter lead to again lose to the Colts in the championship game, 31–16. In 1963 led by league MVP quarterback Y.A. Tittle, who threw an NFL record 36 touchdown passes, the Giants advanced to the NFL Championship Game, where they lost to the Bears 14–10. 1964–1978 From 1964 to 1978, the Giants registered only two winning seasons and were unable to advance to the playoffs. With players such as Tittle and Gifford approaching their mid 30s, the team declined rapidly, finishing 2–10–2 in 1964. They rebounded with a 7–7 record in 1965, before compiling a league-worst 1–12–1 record, 1966 NFL Standings, Stats and Awards, databasefootball.com, accessed March 17, 2007. and allowing more than 500 points on defense in 1966. During the 1969 preseason, the Giants lost their first meeting with the Jets, 37–14, in front of 70,874 fans at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. Wallace, William M. Jets Beat Giants, 37-14; Namath Completes 14 of 16 Passes, 3 for Scores; BATTLE RETURNS PUNT FOR 86 YARDS 70,874 Fans See Jet Rookie Score in Yale Bowl -- Mathis Tallies Two Touchdowns, The New York Times, August 18, 1969, accessed March 18, 2007. Following the game, Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman, Weinraub, Bernard. Fans Show Mixed Emotions; BAD TRADES LAID TO TEAM'S PILOT, The New York Times, September 13, 1969, accessed March 18, 2007. and replaced him with former Giants fullback Alex Webster. In 1967, the team acquired quarterback Fran Tarkenton from the Minnesota Vikings. Despite having several respectable seasons with Tarkenton at quarterback, including a 7–7 finish in 1967 and 9-5 in 1970, the Giants traded him back to the Vikings after the 1971 season when the Giants went 4–10. Fran Tarkenton, vikingupdate.com, accessed March 18, 2007. Tarkenton would go on to lead his team to three Super Bowls and create a Hall of Fame resume, while the Giants suffered through one of the worst stretches in their history. Starting in 1973 the Giants compiled only 23 wins in 6 seasons. Before the 1976 season, the Giants tried to replace retired RB Ron Johnson with future HOF fullback Larry Csonka to revive a weak offense. Csonka was unfortunately often injured and ineffective during his 3 years in New York. The 1977 season also featured the unusual choice of having three rookie quarterbacks on their roster. Katz, Michael. Giants Go With Youth and Cut Ramsey; McVay Draws a Line, The New York Times, September 13, 1977, accessed March 21, 2007. During this period, due to the renovation of Yankee Stadium, which the team shared with baseball's New York Yankees, the Giants were forced to play their home games at the Yale Bowl from 1973 through 1974, and Shea Stadium in Queens, NY in 1975. They finally received their own dedicated state-of-the-art stadium in 1976, when they moved into the Meadowlands in East Rutherford, New Jersey. One of the low points during this period was the so-called "Miracle at the Meadowlands", which occurred in 1978. Katz, Michael. 20 Seconds Left As Eagles Win; Jets Bow; Todd Reinjured, The New York Times, November 20, 1978, accessed March 18, 2007. With the Giants needing only to kneel the ball to secure a certain victory against the Philadelphia Eagles, they chose to call a running play—which resulted in a fumble that was returned for a game-winning touchdown by the Eagles Herman Edwards. 1979–1993 Giants Stadium has been home to the Giants since 1976. In 1979, the Giants began the steps that would, in time, return them to the pinnacle of the NFL. These included the drafting of quarterback Phil Simms in 1979, and linebacker Lawrence Taylor in 1981. In 1981 Taylor won the NFL's Defensive Rookie of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year awards and the Giants made the playoffs for the first time since 1963. Lawrence Taylor, databasefootball.com, accessed February 20, 2007. One of the few bright spots during this time was the team's excellent linebackers, who were known as the Crunch Bunch. Mifflin, Lawrie: New York Times, September 11, 1982-SCOUTING; Crunch Bunch After the strike-shortened the 1982 season, in which they finished 4–5, head coach Ray Perkins resigned to take over the same position at the University of Alabama. In a change that would prove crucial in the coming years, he was replaced by the team's defensive coordinator, Bill Parcells. The Giants struggled in Parcells's initial year and finished with 3–12–1 record. After 9–7 and 10–6 finishes in 1984 and 1985 respectively, the Giants compiled a 14–2 record in 1986 led by league MVP and Defensive Player of the Year Taylor. After defeating the 49ers and Redskins by a combined score of 66–3 in the playoffs, the Giants advanced for the first time to play the Denver Broncos at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena in Super Bowl XXI. Led by Super Bowl MVP Simms who completed 22 of 25 passes for a Super Bowl record 88% completion percentage, they defeated the Broncos 39–20, Championship Games 1950-present, giants.com, accessed January 12, 2007. to win their first championship since 1956. In addition to Simms and Taylor, the team was led during this period by head coach Bill Parcells, tight end Mark Bavaro, running back Joe Morris, and Hall of Fame linebacker Harry Carson. The Giants struggled to a 6–9 record in the strike-marred 1987 season, with the running game in particular struggling. After rushing for 1,526 and 1,336 yards in 1985 and 1986 Morris struggled to 658 yards Joe Morris, databasefootball.com, accessed May 3, 2007. behind an injury-riddled offensive line in 1987. Neft, Cohen, and Korch. pg. 846 The early portion of the 1988 season was marred by a scandal involving Lawrence Taylor. Taylor had abused cocaine and was suspended for the first four games of the season for his second violation of the league's substance abuse policy. Despite the controversy, the Giants finished 10–6, and Taylor recorded 15.5 sacks after his return from the suspension. They surged to a 12–4 record in 1989, but lost to the Los Angeles Rams in their opening playoff game when Flipper Anderson caught a 47-yard touchdown pass to give the Rams a 19–13 overtime win. In 1990, the Giants went 13–3, and set an NFL record for fewest turnovers in a season (14), Neft, Cohen, and Korch. pg. 914 and defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXV. Following the 1990 season Parcells resigned as head coach and was replaced by the team's offensive coordinator Ray Handley. Handley served as coach for two disappointing seasons (1991-92), which saw the Giants fall from Super Bowl champions to a 6-10 record. He was fired following the 1992 season, and replaced by former Denver Broncos' coach Dan Reeves. In the early 1990s, Simms and Taylor, two of the teams' largest figures in the 1980s, played out the last seasons of their career with steadily declining production. The Giants experienced a resurgent season with Reeves at the helm in 1993 however, and Simms and Taylor ended their careers as members of a playoff team. 1994–1998 The Giants initially struggled in the post Simms-Taylor era. After starting 3–7 in 1994, the Giants won their final six games to finish 9–7 but missed the playoffs. 1994 New York Giants, databasefootball.com, accessed March 20, 2007. Quarterback Dave Brown received heavy criticism throughout the season. Berkow, Ira. Sports of The Times; Brown Hopes To Wear Out Giant Fans, The New York Times, October 25, 1994, accessed March 22, 2008. Brown performed poorly the following two seasons, and the Giants struggled to 5–11 and 6–10 records. Reeves was fired following the 1996 season, and replaced by Jim Fassel, former offensive coordinator of the Arizona Cardinals. Fassel named Danny Kanell the team's starting quarterback, and the team finished 10–5–1 and made the playoffs in 1997. After losing in the first round to the Vikings in 1997, the Giants needed four wins to close out the season to finish 8–8 in 1998. 1999–2000 Before the 1999 season Kerry Collins was brought in to help the team. Collins was the first–ever draft choice of the expansion Carolina Panthers in 1995, and led the Panthers to the NFC Championship game in his second season. However, problems with alcohol, conflicts with his teammates and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers. King, Peter. Renewed and revitalized at 28, Collins finally comes clean, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, January 22, 2001, accessed March 21, 2007. The Giants finished 7–9 in 1999. The 2000 season was considered a make-or-break year for Fassel. The conventional wisdom was that Fassel needed to have a strong year and a playoff appearance to save his job. After two back-to-back losses at home against St. Louis and Detroit, the Giants fell to 7–4 New York Giants, pro-football-reference.com, March 21, 2007. and their playoff prospects were in question. At a press conference following the Giants' loss to Detroit, Fassel guaranteed that "[t]his team is going to the playoffs." Rhoden, William C. Sports of The Times; With Season at Crossroads, Fassel Dares His Team, The New York Times, November 27, 2000, accessed May 12, 2007. The Giants responded, winning the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12–4 and earn a bye as the NFC's top seed. The Giants won their first playoff game against the Philadelphia Eagles, 20–10, and defeated the Minnesota Vikings 41–0 in the NFC Championship game. They advanced to play the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV. Though the Giants went into halftime down only 10–0, Super Bowl XXXV recap, NFL.com, accessed May 12, 2007. the Ravens dominated the second half. Their defense harassed Kerry Collins all game long, resulting in Collins completing only 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and 4 interceptions. The Ravens won the game 34–7. 2001–2006 The Giants struggled after their Super Bowl loss and Fassel was replaced by current coach Tom Coughlin in 2004. Although Collins had several solid seasons as the Giants quarterback, he experienced his share of struggles. In 2004, the Giants completed a draft day trade acquiring quarterback Eli Manning out of the University of Mississippi. Magee, Jerry. Nothing personal, San Diego; Eli Manning just didn't want to be a Charger, San Diego Union-Tribune, September 21, 2005, accessed March 21, 2007. Manning has been the team's starting quarterback since the middle of the 2004 season, taking over for Kurt Warner. The early part of Coughlin's tenure also produced inconsistent results (a 25–23 record and two playoff appearances—both losses, before the 2007 season Tom Coughlin coaching profile, espn.com, accessed March 22, 2007. ) and spawned intense media scrutiny concerning the direction of the team. Associated Press. Giants confirm Coughlin to remain coach, USA TODAY, January 10, 2007, accessed March 22, 2007. During this period in their history, standout players include defensive end Michael Strahan, who set the NFL single season record in sacks in 2001, Associated Press. Strahan breaks Gastineau's 17-year-old record, espn.com, January 2001, accessed March 11, 2009. and running back Tiki Barber, who set a team record for rushing yards in a season in 2005. Tiki Barber plans to stay busy after retirement, NFL.com, February 6, 2007, accessed March 22, 2007. 2007 As of 2007, the Giants had made the playoffs in three consecutive seasons. In 2007 the Giants became the third NFL franchise to win at least 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons on Monday Night Football 31-10. For the 2007 season, the NFL scheduled the Giants' road game against the Miami Dolphins on October 28 to be played in London's Wembley Stadium; this was the NFL's first regular-season game to be played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13-10. The Giants finished 10-6, and became NFC Champions after defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Dallas Cowboys, and Green Bay Packers in the NFC Playoffs. They set the record for most consecutive road wins (which ended at 12 after losing to the Cleveland Browns during week 6 of the 2008 season). Super Bowl XLII The Patriots (18-0) had entered the game 12.5-point favorites and went to Glendale, Arizona, undefeated. With a final score of 17–14, the Giants defeated the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLII, in the third biggest upset by betting line in Super Bowl history. (Baltimore was favored by 17 over New York in Super Bowl III, and St. Louis was favored by 14 over New England in Super Bowl XXXVI; New England was favored by only 12.5 over New York.) Opinion: Eli makes sure MVP stays in the family, NBC Sports.com, February 4, 2008, accessed March 17, 2008. Co-owner John Mara described it as "the greatest victory in the history of this franchise, without question." Vacchiano, Ralph. Improbable Super Bowl victory capped incredible Giant season, New York Daily News, February 10, 2008, accessed on November 24, 2008. The victory was mainly in part to New York's final drive, in which on a 3rd-and-5 with the Giants trailing 14 to 10 with 1:15 left, Eli Manning escaped the grasps of several of the Patriot's linemen. He stood up and threw it downfield to little-known wide receiver David Tyree, who leapt up and pinned the ball against his helmet in what is now considered one of the greatest moments in Super Bowl history. Finally, Manning threw a touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress. New England had the ball on New York's 26 with 29 seconds left. Patriots QB threw an incompletion, got sacked, and threw two more incompletions. Eli Manning kneeled away the final second, making the victory official. 2008 In 2008, the Giants won the NFC East with a record of 12-4(also was the number one seed in the NFC), losing to the Philadelphia Eagles in the divisional round of the playoffs. Logos and uniforms With over 80 years of team history, the Giants have used numerous uniforms and logos. Giants' logos include several incarnations of a giant quarterback preparing to throw a football, a lowercase "ny", and stylized versions of the team nickname. Two of the Giants "Giant Quarterbacks" logos; primary logo 1956–60 (top), and secondary logo 2000-current. Giants' jerseys are traditionally blue or red (or white with blue or red accents), and their pants alternate between white and gray. Currently, the Giants wear home jerseys that are solid blue with white block numbering, gray pants with red and blue stripes on the pant legs, and solid blue socks. For road uniforms, they wear a white jersey with red block numbering and Northwest stripes on the sleeves, gray pants with blue and red stripes, and solid red socks. The Giants' current helmet is metallic blue with white block numbers, frontally mounted on either side of a red stripe running down the center. The helmet is adorned on both sides with the lower case "ny" logo and features a gray facemask. Additionally, the Giants have a third jersey which recalls the Giants' solid red home jerseys from the early 50's: a solid red alternate with white block numbers. These jerseys have been used a total of four times. Once in 2004 against the Philadelphia Eagles and three consecutive years; 2005, 2006, and 2007 against the Dallas Cowboys. Financial history and fan base The Giants have had a long, and at times turbulent financial history. The Giants were founded by Tim Mara with an investment of US$500 in 1925 and became one of the first teams in the then five-year-old NFL. History of the New York Giants, giants.com, accessed January 12, 2007. To differentiate themselves from the baseball team of the same name, they took the name "New York Football Giants", which they still use as their legal corporate name. Although the Giants were successful on the field in their initial seasons, their financial status was a different story. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing, and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925. The Giants were in dire financial straits until the 11th game of the season when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town, attracting over 73,000 fans. Neft, Cohen, and Korch. pg. 52 This gave the Giants a much needed influx of revenue, and perhaps altered the history of the franchise. NFL History: 1921-1930, NFL.com/history, accessed May 13, 2007. Carroll. pg. 126 The following year, Grange and his agent formed a rival league and stationed a competing team, led by Grange, in New York. Though the Giants lost $50,000 that season, the rival league folded and was subsumed into the NFL. Pro Football Here to Stay, Says Mara; Giants to Play Next Year Despite Losses -- Game Also to Remain at Ebbets Field., The New York Times, December 19, 1926, accessed June 4, 2007. Following the 1930 season, Mara transferred ownership of the team over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors, and by 1946, he had given over complete control of the team to them. Jack, the older son, controlled the business aspects, while Wellington controlled the on-field operations. After their initial struggles the Giants financial status stabilized, and they led the league in attendance several times in the 1930s and 1940s. Attendance Rises in Pro Football; Grand Total for League Games and Extra Contests in 1939 Placed at 1,575,289 INCREASE 12.3 PER CENT Giants First For Home Crowds With 233,440 During Season --Detroit Places Next, The New York Times, December 17, 1939, accessed June 4, 2007. * Pro Football set Attendance Mark; National League Teams Played to More Than 1,600,000 Fans During 1940 DODGERS DREW 146,229 Washington, Pittsburgh Also Attracted Larger Crowds to Home Games, The New York Times, December 24, 1940, accessed June 4, 2007. * Attendance Gain for Pro Football; Game Average 36.7% Higher -- 1,072,469 at 40 Contests -- 55 Last Year Drew More, The New York Times, December 7, 1943, accessed June 4, 2007. Giants estimated value from 1998 to 2006 according to Forbes magazine. By the early 1960s, the Giants had firmly established themselves as one of the league's biggest attractions. However, rather than continuing to receive their higher share of the league television revenue, the Mara sons pushed for equal sharing of revenue for the benefit of the entire league. Revenue sharing is still practiced in the NFL today, and is credited with strengthening the league. Burke, Monte. Turning $500 Into A $573 Million NFL Team, forbes.com, August 29, 2003, accessed June 1, 2007. After their struggles in the latter half of the 1960s and the entire 1970s, the Giants hired an outsider, George Young, to run the football operations for the first time in franchise history. Anderson, Dave. Sports of the Times; Ten Giant Steps to Superdom, The New York Times, January 25, 1987, accessed March 22, 2008. The Giants' on-field product and business aspects improved rapidly following the move. In 1991, Tim Mara, struggling with cancer at the time, sold his half of the team to Bob Tisch for a reported $80 million. Eskenazi,Gerald. FOOTBALL; Tisch Doesn't Plan to Be A Figurehead for Giants, The New York Times, February 22, 1991, accessed March 22, 2008. This marked the first time in franchise history the team had not been solely owned by the Mara family. In 2005, Wellington Mara, who had been with the team since its inception in 1925 when he worked as a ballboy, died at the age of 89. Goldstein, Richard. Wellington Mara, the Patriarch of the N.F.L., Dies at 89, The New York Times, October 26, 2005, accessed June 4, 2007. His death was followed two weeks later by the death of Tisch. During the 2005 season, it was announced that the New York Giants, New York Jets and the New Jersey Sports and Exhibition Authority had reached an agreement where both teams will work together to build a new stadium adjacent to the current Giants Stadium. The Giants had previously planned a $300 million dollar renovation to the Meadowlands, before deciding in favor of the new stadium which was originally estimated to cost approximately $600 million, before rising to an estimated cost of one billion dollars. One advantage gained by owning the stadium is that the teams will save considerable money in tax payments. The teams plan to lease the land from the state at a cost of $6.3 million per year. The state will pay for all utilities, including the $30 million needed to install them. New York Giants (2004), forbes.com, accessed June 4, 2007. The Giants are currently owned and operated by John K. Mara and Steve Tisch. Forbes magazine estimates the current value of the team at $974 million. NFL Team Valuations, forbes.com, September 13, 2007 accessed August 23, 2008. This ranks them eighth among the 32 teams in the league in terms of estimated value. The value has steadily increased from $288 million in 1998, to their current value. Teams valuation:1998-2005-New York Giants, forbes.com, accessed June 4, 2007. The magazine estimated their revenue in 2006 at $182 million, of which $46 million came from gate receipts. Operating income was $26.9 million, and player salary was $102 million. Current major sponsors include Gatorade, Anheuser Busch, Toyota, and Verizon Wireless. Recent former sponsors include Miller Brewing and North Fork Bank. Game day concessions are provided by Aramark, and the Giants average ticket price is $72. New York Giants (2006), forbes.com, accessed June 4, 2007. The Giants draw their fans from the New York metropolitan area. Since their move to New Jersey in 1976, fans from each state have claimed the team as their own. Associated Press. Two states claim NFC champion Giants as their own, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, January 19, 2001, accessed June 4, 2007. In January 1987, shortly before the team won Super Bowl XXI, then New York City mayor Ed Koch labeled the team "foreigners" and said they were not entitled to a ticker-tape parade in New York City. The city, under current mayor Michael Bloomberg, threw a ticker tape parade in honor of the Giants' Super Bowl XLII victory at the Canyon of Heroes in lower Manhattan on February 5, 2008. Matuszewski, Erik. New York's Giants Victory Parade Set for Tomorrow, bloomberg.com, February 4, 2008, accessed February 4, 2008. According to a team spokesman, in 2001, 49 percent of the Giants' season ticket-holders lived in New Jersey. Most of the remaining ticket holders lived in New York State with some coming from other states. Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Giants boast the second-most enshrined members with twenty-seven. Hall of Famers by Team, profootballhof.com, accessed March 2, 2007. Tim Mara and Mel Hein were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963, while linebacker Harry Carson, the most recent Giant inducted, was a part of the Class of 2006. Numerous members, including Larry Csonka, Ray Flaherty, Joe Guyon, Wilbur "Pete" Henry, Arnie Herber, Cal Hubbard, Don Maynard, Hugh McElhenny, and Jim Thorpe were at one time associated with the New York Giants, however they have been inducted under other teams. New York Giants Hall of FamersNo.PlayerPositionNo.PlayerPosition 17 Morris "Red" BadgroTE -- Tim MaraOwner and founder 79 Roosevelt "Rosey" BrownT -- Wellington MaraCo-owner 53 Harry CarsonLB 13 Don MaynardWR 39 Larry CsonkaFB/RB 13 Hugh McElhennyRB 1 Ray Flaherty Coach 55 Steve OwenT, Coach 6 Benny FriedmanQB 81 Andy RobustelliDE 16 Frank GiffordHB 50 Ken StrongHB -- Joe GuyonRB 10 Fran TarkentonQB 7 Mel HeinC 56 Lawrence TaylorLB -- Wilbur "Pete" HenryOT 31 Jim ThorpeRB, DB 38 Arnie HerberQB 14 Y.A. TittleQB -- Cal HubbardT 45 Emlen TunnellDB 70 Sam HuffLB 73 Arnie WeinmeisterDE 4 Alphonse "Tuffy" LeemansFB Retired numbers New York Giants retired numbersNo.PlayerNo.Player1Ray Flaherty*32Al Blozis4Alphonse "Tuffy" Leemans40Joe Morrison7Mel Hein42Charlie Conerly11Phil Simms50Ken Strong14Y.A. Tittle56Lawrence Taylor16Frank Gifford *Retired in 1935, this was the first number to be retired by any team in major league sports. Brandt, Gil. Scouts reveal their sleepers, NFL.com, August 30, 2005, accessed June 4, 2007. NFL MVP award winners Giants MVP winnersYearPlayer1938Mel Hein1956Frank Gifford1959Charlie Conerly1963Y.A. Tittle1986Lawrence Taylor Super Bowl MVP award winners Giants Super Bowl MVP winnersSBPlayerPositionXXIPhil Simms #11 QuarterbackXXVOttis Anderson #24 Running BackXLIIEli Manning #10 Quarterback All-time first-round draft picks YearPlayerCollege PositionArt LewisOhioTackleEd WidsethMinnesotaTackleGeorge KaramaticGonzagaBackWalt NeilsonArizonaTackleGrenny LansdellUSCBackGeorge FranckMinnesotaBackMerle HapesMississippiBackSteve FilipowiczFordhamBackBilly HillenbrandIndianaBackElmer BarbourWake ForestQuarterbackGeorge ConnorNotre DameTackleVic SchwallNorthwesternBackTony MinisiPennsylvaniaBackPaul PageSMUBackTravis TidwellAuburnBackKyle Rote, 1st selection overallSMUBack1951Jim SpavitalOklahoma A&MBackFrank GiffordUSCBackBobby MarlowAlabamaBackNo SelectionJoe HeapNotre DameBackNo SelectionNo SelectionPhil KingVanderbiltBackLee GrosscupUtahQuarterbackLou CordileoneClemsonTackleNo SelectionJerry HillebrandColoradoEndNo SelectionJoe Don LooneyNebraskaBackTucker FredericksonAuburnBackFrancis PeayMissouriTackleNo SelectionNo SelectionFred DryerSan Diego StateDefensive endJim FilesOklahomaLinebackerRocky ThompsonWest Texas StateWide receiverEldridge SmallTexas A&IDefensive back1972Larry JacobsenNebraskaDefensive endJohn HicksOhio StateOffensive guardNo SelectionNo SelectionTroy ArcherColoradoDefensive endGary JeterUSCDefensive tackleGordon KingStanfordOffensive tacklePhil SimmsMorehead StateQuarterbackMark HaynesColoradoDefensive backLawrence TaylorNorth CarolinaLinebackerButch WoolfolkMichiganRunning backTerry KinardClemsonDefensive backCarl BanksMichigan StateLinebacker1984William Roberts Ohio StateOffensive tackleGeorge AdamsKentuckyRunning back1986Eric DorseyNotre DameDefensive endMark IngramMichigan StateWide receiverEric MooreIndianaOffensive tackleBrian WilliamsMinnesotaOffensive guard1990Rodney HamptonGeorgiaRunning backJarrod BunchMichiganRunning backDerek BrownNotre DameTight endNo SelectionThomas LewisIndianaWide receiverTyrone WheatleyMichiganRunning backCedric JonesOklahomaDefensive endIke HilliardFloridaWide receiverShaun WilliamsUCLADefensive backLuke PetitgoutNotre DameOffensive tackleRon DayneWisconsinRunning backWill AllenSyracuseDefensive backJeremy ShockeyMiami (FL)Tight endWilliam JosephMiami (FL)Defensive tacklePhilip RiversNorth Carolina StateQuarterbackNo Selection2006Mathias KiwanukaBoston CollegeDefensive end2007Aaron RossTexasDefensive back2008Kenny PhillipsMiami (FL)Defensive back2009Hakeem NicksNorth CarolinaWide receiver Coaches of note Current staff Radio and television As of 2008, the Giants' flagship radio station is WFAN 660 AM, the oldest all-sports radio station in the United States. Some games in August and September are moved to WXRK 92.3 FM due to conflicts with the New York Mets baseball team. Since 2008 the broadcast features play-by-play man Bob Papa and color commentator Carl Banks, with Howard Cross reporting from the sidelines and Russ Salzberg and Roman Oben hosting the pregame show. Preseason telecasts not seen nationally air in the area on WNBC, "NBC 4 HD." Past WFAN has produced the Giants' radio broadcasts since the mid '90s, but has not always aired them on the station. The first year of production saw the games airing on the team's flagship station at the time, WOR. For the following season the radiocasts aired simultaneously on both WOR and WFAN, with the games moving solely to the latter the next year. In 1999 WFAN decided to begin airing the Giants broadcast on sister station WNEW-FM, a practice it ended after one season. The Giants' radiocasts moved back to WFAN and have been there ever since. The Giants' longtime radio home was WNEW-AM, where games aired from the mid-1950s until 1993 when the station was bought by Bloomberg L.P. and changed its format. Marty Glickman teamed with Al DeRogatis for a long stretch beginning in the early 1960s on WNEW-AM. Dick Lynch joined Glickman after DeRogatis left to join Curt Gowdy on NBC. After the WNEW split, games began airing on WOR. Jim Gordon was the play-by-play man with Lynch as his analyst. Lynch was an analyst for the Giants from the 1967 to 2007 seasons, with his last game being Super Bowl XLII. Lynch did not return to the booth for 2008 due to illness (leukemia), which took his life in September 2008. Eventually Gordon and Lynch were joined by Karl Nelson, a former lineman for the Giants. Gordon and Nelson were fired after the 1994 season, after which Papa took over the play-by-play (after being studio host) and led a two-man booth with Lynch. The broadcast team would not have another third member until Dave Jennings was fired from his job as radio analyst for the Jets in 2002. Jennings was moved to the pregame show after the 2006 season and was replaced by Carl Banks. After WFAN began airing games Richard Neer served as pregame and postgame host. Eventually, Sid Rosenberg served as pregame and postgame host for home games. They were replaced by Chris Carlin, who in turn was replaced by Salzberg for 2008. The Giants were carried on the DuMont Network, then CBS (New York's Channel 2) in the early TV days of the NFL, when home games were blacked out within a 75-mile radius of New York City. Chris Schenkel was their play-by-play announcer in that early era when each team was assigned its own network voice on its regional telecasts. At the time, there were few if any true national telecasts until the NFL championshipship game, which was carried by NBC. Schenkel was joined by Jim McKay, later Johnny Lujack through the 1950s and the early 1960s. As Giants players retired to the broadcast booth in the early and 1960s, first Pat Summerall, then Frank Gifford took the color analyst slot next to Schenkel. As the 1970 merger of the NFL and AFL approached, CBS moved to a more generic announcer approach and Schenkel was off the broadcasts. Giants regular-season Sunday telecasts moved to Fox when that network took over NFC telecasts in 1994. Notes References Carroll, John Martin. Grange and the Rise of Modern Football, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999 ISBN 0252071662 Neft, David S., Cohen, Richard M., and Korch, Rick. The Complete History of Professional Football from 1892 to the Present, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994 pg. 113 ISBN 0312114354 External links Official website of the New York Giants New York Giants News | New_York_Giants |@lemmatized new:73 york:58 giant:135 professional:6 american:1 football:27 team:67 base:3 east:3 rutherford:2 jersey:11 play:24 home:13 game:53 stadium:11 also:11 serve:4 headquarters:2 train:1 adjacent:2 practice:3 facility:1 within:2 meadowlands:4 sport:9 complex:2 unique:1 arrangement:1 share:4 jet:7 maintain:1 training:1 site:1 location:1 currently:3 member:5 eastern:1 division:1 national:4 conference:2 nfc:10 league:18 nfl:37 one:15 five:3 join:5 admit:1 year:21 still:4 exist:1 rank:2 third:7 among:2 franchise:6 seven:2 title:3 four:5 pre:1 super:24 bowl:28 era:3 three:5 since:10 advent:1 xxi:3 xxv:2 xlii:5 championship:15 tally:2 surpass:1 green:3 bay:4 packer:3 chicago:3 bear:4 history:19 feature:4 hall:12 fame:9 player:12 include:11 valuable:1 mvp:9 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1,379 | Library_of_Alexandria | Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. c.AD 79), which confirms that the Library of Alexandria must have existed in some form in the first century. The Royal Library of Alexandria, or Ancient Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest libraries of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and likely existed at least until the period of Rome's rule over Egypt. Generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the third century BCE, the library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II. Plutarch (AD 46–120) wrote that during his visit to Alexandria in 48 BC, Julius Caesar accidentally burned the library down when he set fire to his own ships to frustrate Achillas' attempt to limit his ability to communicate by sea. According to Plutarch's account, this fire spread to the docks and then to the library. However, this version of events is not confirmed in contemporary accounts of Caesar's visit. In fact, it has been reasonably established that the library, or at least segments of its collection, were destroyed on several occasions before and after the first century BCE. Intended both as a commemoration and an emulation of the original, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002 near the site of the old library. Bibliotheca Alexandrina website. The Library of Alexandria as a research institution The Ancient Library of Alexandria. According to the earliest source of information, the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas, the library was initially organized by Demetrius of Phaleron, Letter of Aristeas, 9–12. a student of Aristotle under the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Built in the Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in the style of Aristotle's Lyceum, adjacent to and in service of the Musaeum Entry Μουσείον at Liddell & Scott (a Greek Temple or "House of Muses", hence the term "museum"), the library comprised a Peripatos walk, gardens, a room for shared dining, a reading room, lecture halls and meeting rooms. However, the exact layout is not known. This model's influence may still be seen today in the layout of university campuses. The library itself is known to have had an acquisitions department (possibly built near the stacks, or for utility closer to the harbour), and a cataloguing department. The hall contained shelves for the collections of scrolls (as the books were at this time on papyrus scrolls), known as bibliothekai. Carved into the wall above the shelves, a famous inscription read: The place of the cure of the soul. Manguel, Alberto. The Library at Night. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. Page 26. The first known library of its kind to gather a serious collection of books from beyond its country's borders, the Library at Alexandria was charged with collecting all the world's knowledge. It did so through an aggressive and well-funded royal mandate involving trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens Erksine, Andrew. 1995. "Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria". Greece & Rome, 2nd ser., 42(1), 38-48. and a (potentially apocryphal or exaggerated) policy of pulling the books off every ship that came into port. They kept the original texts and made copies to send back to their owners. This detail is informed by the fact that Alexandria, because of its man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcomed trade from the East and West, and soon found itself the international hub for trade, as well as the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books. Other than collecting works from the past, the library was also home to a host of international scholars, well-patronized by the Ptolemaic dynasty with travel, lodging and stipends for their whole families. As a research institution, the library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences and other subjects. It was at the Library of Alexandria that the scientific method was first conceived and put into practice, and its empirical standards applied in one of the first and certainly strongest homes for serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their veracity. Once ascertained, canonical copies would then be made for scholars, royalty and wealthy bibliophiles the world over, this commerce bringing income to the library. The editors at the Library of Alexandria are especially well known for their work on Homeric texts. The more famous editors generally also held the title of head librarian. These included, among others, Whibley, Leonard; A Companion to Greek Studies 1916 pp. 122–123. Zenodotus (early third century BC) Callimachus, (early third century BC), the first bibliographer and developer of the Pinakes - the first library catalog. Apollonius of Rhodes (mid-third century BC) Eratosthenes (late third century BC) Aristophanes of Byzantium (early second century BC) Aristarchus of Samothrace (late second century BC). Collection The Greek term "biblioteke", used by many historians of the time, refers to the [royal] "Collection of Books", not to the building itself, nor to the social networks which sustained and operated the collection, which complicates the history and chronology of its destruction. The Royal Collection can be viewed as having begun in the Royal Quarter's building, commonly known as "The Great Library." Scholars, particularly twenty-first century Arab/Muslim scholars contest an ambiguous statement regarding Alexander's role in the creation of the library: Alexander, although picking the site and planning the general layout of the city, died before he could have a hand in the erection of the library or academy that was created in his name. Already famous in the ancient world, the library's collection became even more storied in later years. However, it is now impossible to determine the collection's size in any era. Papyrus scrolls comprised the collection, and although parchment codices were used predominantly as a more advanced writing material after 300 BC, the Alexandrian Library is never documented as having switched to parchment, perhaps because of its strong links to the papyrus trade. (The Library of Alexandria in fact had an indirect cause in the creation of writing parchment - due to the library's critical need for papyrus, little was exported and thus an alternate source of copy material became essential.) A single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls, and this division into self-contained "books" was a major aspect of editorial work. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library. Tarn, W.W. 1928. Ptolemy II. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 14(3/4), 246-260. Mark Antony supposedly gave Cleopatra over 200,000 scrolls (taken from the great Library of Pergamum) for the library as a wedding gift, but this is regarded by some historians as a propagandist claim meant to show Antony's allegiance to Egypt rather than Rome. Carl Sagan, in his series Cosmos, states that the library contained nearly one million scrolls, though other experts have estimated a smaller number (he also gives a speculative description of its destruction, linking it to the death of Hypatia, again without corroboration). No index of the library survives, and it is not possible to know with certainty how large and how diverse the collection may have been. For example, it is likely that even if the Library of Alexandria had hundreds of thousands of scrolls (and thus perhaps tens of thousands of individual works), some of these would have been duplicate copies or alternate versions of the same texts. A possibly apocryphal or exaggerated story concerns how the library's collection grew so large. By decree of Ptolemy III of Egypt, all visitors to the city were required to surrender all books and scrolls, as well as any form of written media in any language in their possession which, according to Galen, were listed under the heading "books of the ships". Official scribes then swiftly copied these writings, some copies proving so precise that the originals were put into the library, and the copies delivered to the unsuspecting owners. James Burke related this story in Episode 2 of Connections Series 1, "Death in the Morning". This process also helped to create a reservoir of books in the relatively new city. According to Galen, Ptolemy III requested permission from the Athenians to borrow the original scripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents as guarantee. Ptolemy happily paid the fee but kept the original scripts for the library. This story may also be constructed erroneously to show the power of Alexandria over Athens. Destruction of the Library Ancient and modern sources identify four possible occasions for the destruction of the Library of Alexandria: Julius Caesar's Fire in The Alexandrian War, in 48 BC The attack of Aurelian in the third century AD; The decree of Theophilus in AD 391; The Muslim conquest in AD 642 or thereafter. The ancient accounts by Plutarch, Aulus Gellius Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights book 7 chapter 17. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/7*.html , Ammianus Marcellinus, and Orosius agree that Caesar accidentally burned the library down during his visit to Alexandria in 48 BC. Although not confirmed in the accounts of contemporary historians, these accounts do suggest that the library was a thing of the past when Plutarch was writing around AD 100. Caesar's conquest in 48 BC Plutarch's Parallel Lives, written at the end of the first or beginning of the second century, describes a battle in which Caesar was forced to burn his own ships: {{cquote|when the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to divert that danger by setting fire to his own ships, which, after burning the docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library.<ref name="Plutarch">Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 49.3.</ref>}} William Cherf argued that this scenario had all the ingredients of a firestorm and in turn set fire to the docks and then the library, destroying it. This would have occurred in 48 BC, during the fighting between Caesar and Ptolemy XIII. In the second century AD, the Roman historian Aulus Gellius wrote in his book Attic Nights that the Royal Alexandrian Library was burned by mistake when some of Caesar’s soldiers started a fire. Furthermore, in the fourth century, both the pagan historian Ammianus Marcellinus and the Christian historian Orosius wrote that the Bibliotheca Alexandrina had been destroyed by Caesar's fire. The anonymous author of the Alexandrian Wars writes that the fires Caesar's soldiers had set to burn the Egyptian navy in the port of Alexandria went as far as burning a store full of papyri located near the port. Caesar, de bello alexandrino (the Alexandrian Wars) However, the geographical study of the location of the historical Bibliotheca Alexandrina in the neighborhood of Bruchion suggests that this store cannot have been the Great Library. Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria - Jewel of Egypt, p.43 It is most probable here that these historians confused the two Greek words bibliothekas, which means “set of books”, with bibliotheka, which means library. As a result, they thought that what had been recorded earlier concerning the burning of some books stored near the port constituted the burning of the famous Alexandrian Library. In any case, whether the burned books were only some books found in storage or books found inside the library itself, the Roman stoic philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC – AD 65) refers to 40,000 books having been burnt at Alexandria. Seneca, De Tranquillitate Animi (On Tranquility of Mind) During Marcus Antonius' rule of the eastern part of the Empire (40-30 BC), he plundered the second largest library in the world (that at Pergamon) and presented the collection as a gift to Cleopatra as a replacement for the books lost to Caesar's fire. Theodore Vrettos describes the damage caused by the fire: "The Roman galleys carrying the Thirty-Seventh Legion from Asia Minor had now reached the Egyptian coast, but because of contrary winds, they were unable to proceed toward Alexandria. At anchor in the harbor off Lochias, the Egyptian fleet posed an additional problem for the Roman ships. However, in a surprise attack, Caesar's soldiers set fire to the Egyptian ships, and the flames, spreading rapidly in the driving wind, consumed most of the dockyard, many structures near the palace, and also several thousand books that were housed in one of the buildings. From this incident, historians mistakenly assumed that the Great Library of Alexandria had been destroyed, but the Library was nowhere near the docks...The most immediate damage occurred in the area around the docks, in shipyards, arsenals, and warehouses in which grain and books were stored. Some 40,000 book scrolls were destroyed in the fire. Not at all connected with the Great Library, they were account books and ledgers containing records of Alexandria's export goods bound for Rome and other cities throughout the world." Vrettos, Theodore. "Alexandria, City of the Western Mind". New York: The Free Press, 2001, pp. 93-94 However, the Royal Alexandrian Library was not the only library located in the city. There were at least two other libraries in Alexandria: the library of the Serapeum Temple and the library of the Cesarion Temple. The continuity of literary and scientific life in Alexandria after the destruction of the Royal Library, as well as the flourishing of the city as the world’s center for sciences and literature between the first and the sixth centuries AD, depended to a large extent on the presence of these two libraries and the books and references they contained. Thus, while it is historically recorded that the Royal Library was a private one for the royal family as well as for scientists and researchers, the libraries of the Serapeum and Cesarion temples were public libraries accessible to the people. Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria - Jewel of Egypt, p.41 Furthermore, while the Royal Library was founded by Ptolemy II Philadelphus in the royal quarters of Bruchion near the palaces and the royal gardens, it was his son Ptolemy III who founded the Serapeum temple and its adjoined library in the popular quarters of Rhakotis. Later, the Serapeum library became known as the Daughter Library, because it contained copies of the original versions found in the Royal Library. The next account we have is Strabo's Geographia in 28 BC, which does not mention the library specifically, but does mention--among other details--that he is unable to find a map in the city that he saw when on an earlier trip to Alexandria, pre-fire. Some scholars have used this account to infer the library was destroyed to its foundations and the collection destroyed (Abbadi). Certainty in this conclusion is shaken when one considers the context. The adjacent Museion was, according to the same account, fully functional--which requires the dubious assumption that one building could be perfectly fine while its neighbor was completely destroyed. Also, we do know that at this time the Daughter Library at the Serapeum was thriving and untouched by the fire, and as Strabo does not mention the library by name we can assert that for Strabo omission does not necessarily denote absence. Finally, as mentioned above, Strabo confirms the existence of the "Museion", of which the Great Library was the royal collection--and in his other mentions of the Sarapeum and Museion he and other historians are inconsistent in their descriptions of the entire compound or the temple buildings specifically. So we may not infer that by mentioning the father institute of the Museion, but not the library arm specifically, that it had in fact been demolished. Finally, as one of the world's leading geographers it is entirely possible that in the twenty-plus years since his last visit to the library, the map he was referencing--quite possibly a rare esoteric map considering his expertise and the vast collection of the library--that might have been either part of the library that was partially destroyed or just simply a victim of twenty years of wear, tear and disrepair in a library which no longer had the funds it once did to recopy and preserve its collection. Therefore, the Royal Alexandrian Library may have been burned after Strabo’s visit to the city (25 BC) but before the beginning of the second century AD when Plutarch wrote. Otherwise Plutarch and later historians would not have mentioned the incident and mistakenly attributed it to Julius Caesar. It is also most probable that the library was destroyed by someone other than Caesar, although the later generations linked the fire that took place in Alexandria during Caesar’s time to the burning of the Bibliotheca. Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria - Jewel of Egypt, p.18 Some believe that the most likely scenario was the destruction that accompanied the wars between Zenobia of Palmyra and the Roman Emperor Aurelian, in the second half of the third century (see below). Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria - Jewel of Egypt, p.44 Attack of Aurelian, third century The library seems to have been maintained and continued in existence until its contents were largely lost during the taking of the city by the Emperor Aurelian (270–275), who was suppressing a revolt by Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. Staff Report: "What happened to the great Library of Alexandria? The Straight Dope, 6 December 2005 The smaller library located at the Serapeum survived, but part of its contents may have been taken to Constantinople to adorn the new capital in the course of the fourth century. However, Ammianus Marcellinus, writing around AD 378 seems to speak of the library in the Serapeum temple as a thing of the past, and he states that many of the Serapeum library's volumes were burnt when Caesar sacked Alexandria. As he says in Book 22.16.12-13: Fifth century scroll which illustrates the destruction of the Serapeum by Theophilus. While Ammianus Marcellinus may be simply reiterating Plutarch's tradition about Caesar's destruction of the library, it is possible that his statement reflects his own empirical knowledge that the Serapeum library collection had either been seriously depleted or was no longer in existence in his own day. Decree of Theodosius, destruction by Theophilus in 391 In 391, Christian Emperor Theodosius I ordered the destruction of all "pagan" (non-Christian) temples, and the Christian Patriarch Theophilus of Alexandria complied with this request. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 28. Socrates Scholasticus provides the following account of the destruction of the temples in Alexandria in the fifth book of his Historia Ecclesiastica, written around 440: The Mithraeum was an underground temple for worship of the god Mithras. Hundreds of such temples have been discovered throughout Europe, northern Africa, the Near East, and Great Britain. The Serapeum once housed part of the Great Library, but it is not known how many, if any, books were contained in it at the time of destruction. Notably, the passage by Socrates Scholasticus, unlike that of Ammianus Marcellinus, makes no clear reference to a library or library contents being destroyed, only to religious objects being destroyed. The pagan author Eunapius of Sardis witnessed the demolition, and though he detested Christians, and was a scholar, his account of the Serapeum's destruction makes no mention of any library. Paulus Orosius admitted in the sixth book of his History against the pagans: However, Orosius is not here discussing the Serapeum, nor is it clear who "our own men" are (the phrase may mean no more than "men of our time," since we know from contemporary sources that pagans also occasionally plundered temples). As for the Museum, Mostafa El-Abbadi writes in Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria (Paris 1992): John Julius Norwich, in his work Byzantium: The Early Centuries, places the destruction of the library's collection during the anti-Arian riots in Alexandria that transpired after the imperial decree of 391 (p.314). Amr ibn al 'Aas conquest in 642 Several historians told varying accounts of an Arab army led by Amr ibn al 'Aas sacking the city in 642 after the Byzantine army was defeated at the Battle of Heliopolis, and that the commander asked the caliph Umar what to do with the library. He gave the famous answer: "They will either contradict the Koran, in which case they are heresy, or they will agree with it, in which case they are superfluous." It is said that the Arabs subsequently burned the books to heat bathwater for the soldiers. from Alfred J. Butler's Arab Conquest of Egypt. The Free Copts - Who Burned the Historic Bibliotheca Alexandrina? It was also said that the Library's collection was still substantial enough at this late date to provide six months' worth of fuel for the baths. Straight Dope Staff Report: "What happened to the great Library of Alexandria?" However, this account has been dismissed by some as a legend. While the first Western account of the supposed event was in Edward Pococke's 1663 translation of History of the Dynasties, it was dismissed as a hoax or propaganda as early as 1713 by Fr. Eusèbe Renaudot. Over the centuries, numerous succeeding scholars have agreed with Fr. Renaudot's conclusion, including Alfred J. Butler, Victor Chauvin, Paul Casanova and Eugenio Griffini. More recently, in 1990, Middle East scholar Bernard Lewis argued that the original account is not true, but that it survived over time because it was a useful myth for the great twelfth century Muslim leader Saladin, who found it necessary to break up the Fatimid caliphate's collection of heretical Isma'ili texts in Cairo following his restoration of Sunnism to Egypt. Lewis proposes that the story of the caliph Umar's support of a library's destruction may have made Saladin's actions seem more acceptable to his people. Lewis, Bernard. "The Vanished Library". The New York Review of Books. 37(14). 27 September 1990. Recent underwater excavations in the harbor of modern Alexandria have also lent credence to the idea that several catastrophic earthquakes between the third and fifth centuries AD may have played a role in the decline and/or destruction of the library (as well as the city itself). See also Bibliotheca Alexandrina - The modern library in Alexandria Notes References Brundige, Ellen. The Decline of the Library and Museum of Alexandria, 10 December 1991. Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (chapter: "Destruction of Paganism", "The temple of Serapis at Alexandria" and "Its final destruction, A.D. 389" subchapters). Jochum, Uwe. "The Alexandrian Library and Its Aftermath" from Library History vol), p. 5-12. Parsons, Edward. The Alexandrian Library. London, 1952. Relevant online excerpt. Stille, Alexander: The Future of the Past'' (chapter: "The Return of the Vanished Library"). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. p. 246-273. External links Ellen N. Brundige: The Library of Alexandria. James Hannam: The Mysterious Fate of the Great Library of Alexandria. Kenneth Humphreys: Murder of Hypatia, End of Classic Scholarship in Egypt. History Magazine: The Great Library. Papyrus fragment (P.Oxy.1241): An ancient list of head librarians. The Straight Dope Straight Dope Staff Report: "What happened to the great Library of Alexandria?" 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1,380 | Classical_liberalism | Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism Brad Stetson, Human Dignity and Contemporary Liberalism (Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood, 1998), 26. , laissez-faire liberalism Ian Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 20. , and market liberalism Kirkpatrick, Jerry. Montessori, Dewey, and Capitalism. TLJ Books, 2008, p. 35 or, outside Canada and the United States, sometimes simply liberalism) is a form of liberalism stressing individual freedom, free markets, and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, individual freedom from restraint, equality under the law, constitutional limitation of government, free markets, and a gold standard to place fiscal constraints on government McNeil, William C. Money and Economic Change. Columbia History of the Twentieth Century. Columbia University Press. 2000. p. 284 as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, Ludwig von Mises, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. As such, it is the fusion of economic liberalism with political liberalism of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The "normative core" of classical liberalism is the idea that laissez-faire economics will bring about a spontaneous order or invisible hand that benefits the society, Razeen Sally, Classical Liberalism and International Economic Order: Studies in Theory and Intellectual History (London: Routledge, 1998), 17 (ISBN 0-415-16493-1). "Hence the normative core of classical liberalism is the approbation of economic freedom or laissez-faire—Adam Smith's 'obvious and simple system of natural liberty'—out of which spontaneously emerges a vast and intricate system of cooperation in exchanging goods and services and catering for a plenitude of wants." though it does not necessarily oppose the state's provision of some basic public goods with what constitutes public goods being seen as very limited. Eric Aaron, What's Right? (Dural, Australia: Rosenberg Publishing, 2003), 75. The qualification classical was applied retroactively to distinguish it from more recent, 20th-century conceptions of liberalism and its related movements, such as social liberalism. James L. Richardson, Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001), 52. "The term classical liberalism was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier nineteenth-century liberalism from the new or modern liberalism, here termed social liberalism, of Green and Hobhouse. It is taken here to include the political economists' laissez-faire within a broader political philosophy whose central value was securing of individual freedom against arbitrary state power." Classical liberals are suspicious of all but the most minimal government Anthony Quinton, "Conservativism", in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1995), 246. and object to the welfare state Alan Ryan, "Liberalism", in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1995) . Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek, and Milton Friedman, are credited with influencing a revival of classical liberalism in the twentieth century after it fell out of favor beginning in the late nineteenth century and much of the twentieth century. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s.v. "Liberalism" (by Harry K. Girvetz and Minogue Kenneth), p. 16 (accessed May 16, 2006). "With modern liberalism seemingly powerless to boost stagnating living standards in mature industrial economies, the more energetic response to the problem turned out to be a revival of classical liberalism. The intellectual foundations of this revival were primarily the work of the Austrian-born British economist Friedrich von Hayek and the American economist Milton Friedman." David Conway, Classical Liberalism: The Unvanquished Ideal (New York: St. Martin's), 8. "After falling into almost complete intellectual disrepute towards the end of the nineteenth century, classical liberalism was rescued from oblivion and revived in the twentieth century by such notable thinkers as Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek." In relation to economic issues, this revival is sometimes referred to, mainly by its opponents, as "neoliberalism". The German "ordoliberalism" has a whole different meaning, since the likes of Alexander Rüstow and Wilhelm Röpke have advocated a more interventionist state, as opposed to laissez-faire liberals Alexander Rüstow, Das Versagen des Wirtschaftsliberalismus (1950). Wilhelm Röpke, Civitas Humana (Erlenbach-Zürich: E. Rentsch, 1944). . Classical liberalism has some commonalities with modern libertarianism, with the terms being used almost interchangeably by minarchist libertarians. Raimondo Cubeddu, preface to "Perspectives of Libertarianism", Etica e Politica (Università di Trieste) V, no. 2 (2003). "It is often difficult to distinguish between 'Libertarianism' and 'Classical Liberalism.' Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those whom we may call libertarians of a minarchist persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a state is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights." Steffen W. Schmidt, American Government and Politics Today (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004), 17. Overview In the United States, liberalism took a strong root because it had little opposition to its ideals, whereas in Europe liberalism was opposed by many reactionary interests. From the time of the industrial revolution through the Great Depression liberalism in America saw its first ideological challenges. Eric Voegelin, Mary Algozin, and Keith Algozin, "Liberalism and Its History", Review of Politics 36, no. 4 (1974): 504-20. By the time of the Great Depression, liberalism in America had changed its definition to describe its former opposition, for example in the opinion of Arthur Schlesinger Jr.: when the growing complexity of industrial conditions required increasing government intervention in order to assure more equal opportunities, the liberal tradition, faithful to the goal rather than to the dogma, altered its view of the state," and "there emerged the conception of a social welfare state, in which the national government had the express obligation to maintain high levels of employment in the economy, to supervise standards of life and labor, to regulate the methods of business competition, and to establish comprehensive patterns of social security. Arthur Schelesinger Jr., "Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans", in The Politics of Hope (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). In Europe, especially, except in the British Isles, liberalism had been fairly weak and unpopular relative to its opposition, like socialism, and therefore no change in meaning occurred. By the 1970s, however, lagging economic growth and increased levels of taxation and debt spurred a revival of a new classical liberalism. Friedrich von Hayek and Milton Friedman argued against government intervention in fiscal policy and their ideas were embraced by conservative political parties in the US and the United Kingdom beginning in the 1980s. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s.v. "Liberalism" (by Harry K. Girvetz and Minogue Kenneth), p. 16 (accessed May 16, 2006). In fact, Ronald Reagan credited Bastiat, Ludwig von Mises, and Hayek as influences. Ronald Reagan, "Insider Ronald Reagan: A Reason Interview", Reason, July 1975. [A]t the heart of classical liberalism", wrote Nancy L. Rosenblum and Robert C. Post, is a prescription: "Nurture voluntary associations. Limit the size, and more importantly, the scope of government. So long as the state provides a basic rule of law that steers people away from destructive or parasitic ways of life and in the direction of productive ways of life, society runs itself. If you want people to flourish, let them run their own lives." Nancy L. Rosenblum and Robert C. Post, Civil Society and Government (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 26 (ISBN 0-691-08802-0). Classical liberalism places a particular emphasis on the sovereignty of the individual, with private property rights being seen as essential to individual liberty. This forms the philosophical basis for laissez-faire public policy. The ideology of the original classical liberals argued against direct democracy "for there is nothing in the bare idea of majority rule to show that majorities will always respect the rights of property or maintain rule of law." Alan Ryan, "Liberalism", in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1995), 293. For example, James Madison argued for a constitutional republic with protections for individual liberty, over a pure democracy, reasoning that in a pure democracy, a "common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole...and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party...." James Madison, Federalist No. 10 (November 22, 1787), in Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, The Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United States, ed. Henry Cabot Lodge (New York, 1888), 56. According to Anthony Quinton, classical liberals believe that "an unfettered market" is the most efficient mechanism to satisfy human needs and channel resources to their most productive uses: they "are more suspicious than conservatives of all but the most minimal government." Anthony Quinton, "Conservativism", in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1995), 246. Anarcho-capitalist Walter Block claims, however, that while Adam Smith was an advocate of economic freedom he also allowed for government to intervene in many areas. Jeet Heer, "Adam Smith and the Left", National Post, December 3, 2001. Classical liberals' advocacy of an "unregulated free market" is founded on an "assumption about individuals being rational, self-interested and methodical in the pursuit of their goals." Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences, s.v. "Classical Liberalism" (by Robert Drilane and Gary Parkinson). Classical liberalism holds that individual rights are natural, inherent, or inalienable, and exist independently of government. Thomas Jefferson called these inalienable rights: "...rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others. I do not add 'within the limits of the law', because law is often but the tyrant’s will, and always so when it violates the rights of the individual." Thomas Jefferson, letter to Isaac H. Tiffany, 1819. For classical liberalism, rights are of a negative nature—rights that require that other individuals (and governments) refrain from interfering with individual liberty, whereas social liberalism (also called modern liberalism or welfare liberalism) holds that individuals have a right to be provided with certain benefits or services by others. David Kelley, A Life of One's Own: Individual Rights and the Welfare State (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 1998). Unlike social liberals, classical liberals are "hostile to the welfare state." They do not have an interest in material equality but only in "equality before the law." Chandran Kukathas, "Ethical Pluralism from a Classical Liberal Perspective," in The Many and the One: Religious and Secular Perspectives on Ethical Pluralism in the Modern World, ed. Richard Madsen and Tracy B. Strong, Ethikon Series in Comparative Ethics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 61 (ISBN 0691099936). Classical liberalism is critical of social liberalism and takes offense at group rights being pursued at the expense of individual rights. Mark Evans, ed., Edinburgh Companion to Contemporary Liberalism: Evidence and Experience (London: Routledge, 2001), 55 (ISBN 1-57958-339-3). Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism: the "British tradition" and the "French tradition". Hayek saw the British philosophers David Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, Josiah Tucker, Edmund Burke and William Paley as representative of a tradition that articulated beliefs in empiricism, the common law, and in traditions and institutions which had spontaneously evolved but were imperfectly understood. The French tradition included Rousseau, Condorcet, the Encyclopedists and the Physiocrats. This tradition believed in rationalism and the unlimited powers of reason, and sometimes showed hostility to tradition and religion. Hayek conceded that the national labels did not exactly correspond to those belonging to each tradition: Hayek saw the Frenchmen Montesquieu, Constant and Tocqueville as belonging to the "British tradition" and the British Thomas Hobbes, Godwin, Priestley, Richard Price and Thomas Paine as belonging to the "French tradition". F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (London: Routledge, 1976), 55-56. Hayek also rejected the label "laissez faire" as originating from the French tradition and alien to the beliefs of Hume, Smith and Burke. History Adam Smith Modern classical liberals trace their ideology to ancient Greek and medieval thought. They cite the 16th century School of Salamanca in Spain as a precursor, with its emphasis on human rights and popular sovereignty, its belief that morality need not be grounded in religion, and its moral defense of commerce. Other Renaissance thinkers such as Erasmus and Niccolò Machiavelli represent the rise of humanism in place of the religious tradition of the Middle Ages. Rationalist philosophers of the 17th Century, such as Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza developed further ideas that would become important to liberalism, such as the social contract. However, liberalism's classic formulation came in The Age of Enlightenment. John Locke's Two Treatises of Government argued that legitimate authority depended on the consent of the governed, while Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations rejected mercantilism, which advocated state interventionism in the economy and protectionism, and developed modern free-market economics. These early liberals saw mercantilism as enriching privileged elites at the expense of well being of the populace. Another early expression is the tradition of a Nordic school of liberalism set in motion by a Finnish parliamentarian Anders Chydenius. Classical liberalism, free trade, and world peace Several liberals, including Adam Smith, and Richard Cobden, argued that the free exchange of goods between nations could lead to world peace. Modern American political scientists including Dahl, Doyle, Russet, and O'Neil, recognize that early liberals believed free trade could lead to peace. Dr. Gartzke, of Columbia University states, "Scholars like Montesquieu, Adam Smith, Richard Cobden, Norman Angell, and Richard Rosecrance have long speculated that free markets have the potential to free states from the looming prospect of recurrent warfare". Erik Gartzke, "Economic Freedom and Peace," in Economic Freedom of the World: 2005 Annual Report (Vancouver: Fraser Institute, 2005). American political scientists John R. Oneal and Bruce M. Russett, well known for their work on the democratic peace theory, state: The classical liberals advocated policies to increase liberty and prosperity. They sought to empower the commercial class politically and to abolish royal charters, monopolies, and the protectionist policies of mercantilism so as to encourage entrepreneurship and increase productive efficiency. They also expected democracy and laissez-faire economics to diminish the frequency of war. Adam Smith argued in the Wealth of Nations that as societies progressed from hunter gatherers to industrial societies the spoils of war would rise, but the costs of war would rise further, making war difficult and costly for industrialized nations. Michael Doyle, Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (New York: Norton, 1997), 237 (ISBN 0393969479). ...the honours, the fame, the emoluments of war, belong not to [the middle and industrial classes]; the battle-plain is the harvest field of the aristocracy, watered with the blood of the people...Whilst our trade rested upon our foreign dependencies, as was the case in the middle of the last century...force and violence, were necessary to command our customers for our manufacturers...But war, although the greatest of consumers, not only produces nothing in return, but, by abstracting labour from productive employment and interrupting the course of trade, it impedes, in a variety of indirect ways, the creation of wealth; and, should hostilities be continued for a series of years, each successive war-loan will be felt in our commercial and manufacturing districts with an augmented pressure. Richard Cobden Edward P. Stringham, "Commerce, Markets, and Peace: Richard Cobden's Enduring Lessons", Independent Review 9, no. 1 (2004): 105, 110, 115. When goods cannot cross borders, armies will. Frederic Bastiat Daniel T. Griswold, "Peace on Earth, Free Trade for Men", Cato Institute, December 31, 1998. By virtue of their mutual interest does nature unite people against violence and war…the spirit of trade cannot coexist with war, and sooner or later this spirit dominates every people. For among all those powers…that belong to a nation, financial power may be the most reliable in forcing nations to pursue the noble cause of peace…and wherever in the world war threatens to break out, they will try to head it off through mediation, just as if they were permanently leagued for this purpose - Immanuel Kant, the Perpetual Peace. Cobden believed that military expenditures worsened the welfare of the state and benefited a small but concentrated elite minority. Summing up British imperialism, which he believed was the result the economic restrictions of mercantilist policies. To Cobden, and many classical liberals, those who advocated peace must also advocate free markets. Classical liberalism and freedom Hayek was an important figure in revival of classical liberalism and argued strongly for protection of personal freedom. Executive Director of The Objectivist Center and libertarian David Kelley states that classical liberals had a concept of freedom that is entirely at odds with the modern liberal conception. While classical liberals argued for free trade and a limited central authority modern liberals have redefined freedom and human rights to include expanded government authority over property, labor, and capital. Adam Smith argued that in order to best serve human welfare, individuals should be left free to follow their own interests, which were to "sustain life and to acquire goods" and that a government should abstain "from interference in free enterprise, putting checks only on undue strife and competition." See Adam Smith, introduction to Wealth of Nations, Great Minds Series (1776; repr., Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991) (ISBN 0879757051). On the classical liberal concept of freedom the Edinburgh Review wrote in 1843: Be assured that freedom of trade, freedom of thought, freedom of speech, and freedom of action, are but modifications of one great fundamental truth, and that all must be maintained or all risked; they stand and fall together. Richard Epstein, Principles for a Free Society (Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1998), 322. Kelley also suggests that classical liberals understood liberty to be a negative freedom—a freedom from the coercive actions of others. Modern liberals include positive freedoms in liberty, which are rights to the provision of goods. Modern understandings of positive freedom are opposite the classical thinking of negative freedom. Theory of classical liberalism appropriated most of classical republicanism theorists due to their dedication to the issue of liberty. Redefinition of liberalism from laissez-faire form to interventionist form The cause(s) of the shift in liberalism in the United States "between 1877 and 1937...from laissez-faire constitutionalism to New Deal statism, from classical liberalism to democratic social-welfarism" has been a subject of study among scholars. William J. Novak, "The Not-So-Strange Birth of the Modern American State: A Comment on James A. Henretta's 'Charles Evans Hughes and the Strange Death of Liberal America'", Law and History Review 24, no. 1 (2006). In the 19th century, the voting franchise in most democracies was extended, and these newly enfranchised citizens often voted in favor of government intervention into the economy. Rising literacy rates and the spread of knowledge led to social activism in a variety of forms. Those calling themselves social liberals, called for laws against child labor and laws requiring minimum standards of worker safety. The laissez faire economic liberals considered such measures to be an unjust imposition upon liberty, as well as a hindrance to economic development. Thus, 19th century social liberalism marked a split from "classical liberalism." In 1911, L. T. Hobhouse published Liberalism, which outlines a "new liberalism" which includes qualified acceptance of government intervention in the economy, and the collective right to equality in dealings, what he called "just consent". So different from classical liberalism did Hayek see Hobhouse's book that he commented that it would have been more accurately titled Socialism instead. F. A. Hayek, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism (University of Chicago Press, 1991), 110. (Hobhouse called his beliefs "liberal socialism".) In Australia the major centre-right or "conservative" party is called the Liberal Party of Australia, where "liberal" was chosen to refer back to the old Commonwealth Liberal Party and also to distinguish it from the "socialist" Labor Party. However, because of familiarity with contemporary US usage, the term "liberal" can take on a variety of meanings ranging from member or supporter of the Liberal party, to classical liberal, to "liberal" in the contemporary American sense (i.e. social liberalism). Disputes over whether social liberalism is derived from classical liberalism Whether social liberalism is founded upon the philosophy of classical liberalism is a subject of dispute. Scholar Leonard Liggio (a self-described classical liberal) holds that social liberalism does not share the same intellectual foundations as classical liberalism. He says, Classical liberalism is liberalism, but the current collectivists have captured that designation in the United States. Happily they did not capture it in Europe, and were glad enough to call themselves socialists. But no one in America wants to be called socialist and admit what they are. He believes that this is why liberalism means something different in Europe from in America. Leonard Liggio, "Christianity, Classical Liberalism are Liberty's Foundations", Religion & Liberty (Acton Institute), September-October 2003. Proponents of the Austrian School, such as Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich von Hayek, and the Chicago school of economics (sometimes called neo-classical economics), such as Milton Friedman, also reject claims that social liberalism represents a continuous development from classical liberalism. Benjamin Kohl and Mildred Warner, "Scales of Neoliberalism," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 28 (2004): 1. Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: An Introduction (Houndmills: Macmillan Press, 1998), 93. According to Friedman, Beginning in the late nineteenth century, and especially after 1930 in the United States, the term liberalism came to be associated with a very different emphasis, particularly in economic policy. It came to be associated with a readiness to rely primarily on the state rather than on private voluntary arrangements to achieve objectives regarded as desirable. The catchwords became welfare and equality rather than freedom. The nineteenth century liberal regarded an extension of freedom as the most effective way to promote welfare and equality; the twentieth century liberal regards welfare and equality as either prerequisites of or alternatives to freedom. In the name of welfare and equality, the twentieth-century liberal has come to favor a revival of the very policies of state intervention and paternalism against which classical liberalism fought. In the very act of turning the clock back to seventeenth-century mercantilism, he is fond of castigating true liberals as reactionary! Milton Friedman, introduction to Capitalism and Freedom, with the assistance of Rose D. Friedman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). Hayek argued that he was not a conservative because he was a liberal, and had refused to give up that label to what he considered to be modern usurpers. He also had certain philosophical differences with conservatism's reliance upon moral and religious ideals, as well as certain strains of conservatism that eschewed global perspectives in favor of nationalism. F. A. Hayek, "Why I Am Not a Conservative," in The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). Joseph Schumpeter stated, "As a supreme, if unintended compliment, the enemies of the system of private enterprise have thought it wise to appropriate its label," implying that social liberals have "stolen" the word and given it a definition opposite its original meaning. Daniel Yergin, a Pulitzer prize winning author, and Joseph Stanislaw write on the subject of the changed meaning of liberalism in America, In the 1920s, the New York Times criticized "the expropriation of the time-honored word 'liberal'" and argued that "the radical red school of thought...hand back the word 'liberal' to its original owners." Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: Battle for the World Economy (New York: Touchstone Books, 2001), xv. Following from this New York Times criticism, they argue that leading Progressive writers used the word liberal as a "substitute for progressivism, which had become tarnished by its association with their fallen hero, Theodore Roosevelt". They also concur with F.A. Hayek view (in his essay "Why I Am Not a Conservative") that Franklin D. Roosevelt adopted the term to "ward off accusations of being left-wing" [with Roosevelt] declaring that liberalism was "plain English for a changed concept of the duty and responsibility of government toward economic life." Social liberals, beginning perhaps with T. H. Green in late 19th century Britain (and anticipated in their criticisms though not their prescriptions by historical classical liberals such as John Stuart Mill), have replied that their liberalism was consistent with the central values of classical liberalism as opposed to the ways those values had often been applied. Their position can be summarized as follows: 1) coercion of the individual could come not only from government but also from private industry despite the pretence of contractual agreement, so limits to the power of private industry were needed just as they were for government; 2) liberalism was concerned ultimately not with freedom from constraint—i.e., negative freedom—but with individual autonomy—i.e., positive freedom—to which negative freedom vis a vis the state was but a means rather than an end in itself, and that means was insufficient and in some cases actually an obstacle to the maximizing of freedom for all through conditions of reduced economic and social inequalities. John McGowan, professor of the humanities, asserts that the modern liberalism in the United States evolved from the liberalism of the Founding Fathers. McGowan claims that the Founding Fathers were willing to have government regulate the economy, with laissez faire capitalist ideology not becoming as prominent as in Europe until the Gilded Age. The willingness of American liberals can be traced to the desire to distribute power as widely as possible and keep all power within a system of checks and balances. Modern American liberals seek to prevent the accumulation of power in the hands of an economic elite and balance the power of market forces and businesses against that of government, so that no source of power may go unchecked. Moreover, modern American liberals see government regulation of certain aspects of the economy as essential towards providing positive freedom. John McGowan, American Liberalism: An Interpretation for Our Time, H. Eugene and Lillian Youngs Lehman Series (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007). Modern-day American liberalism is a descendant of progressivism. A segment of modern-day American conservatism is the direct descendant of classical liberalism. The term fiscal conservative usually refers to free-market–oriented people who use classical liberalism as their conception of understanding economics. Fiscal conservatism is only one of several types of American conservatism; an individual may subscribe to one or more of these types. Criticism of neo-classical economists as classical liberals Some have rejected the claim describing neo-classical economists as "right-wing economic liberals", "liberal conservatives" and as the "new right", viewing their efforts at co-opting the term as ignoring the political side of early liberalism and only focusing on the work of the classical economists such as Smith and Ricardo. Michael H. Lessnoff, Political Philosophers of the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999). Heywood, Political Ideologies, 155. Matthew Festenstein and Michael Kenny, eds., Political Ideologies: A Reader and Guide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) (ISBN 0199248370). Furthermore, it has been argued that "Hayek's view of classical liberal principles is a peculiar one" which ignores the work of pre-eminent thinkers such as Locke and Mill. Andrew Gamble, Hayek: The Iron Cage of Liberty (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), 106. However, Hayek cites Mill 51 times in his political books (ranking third out of all political thinkers Hayek refers to) and Locke 32 times. Alan Ebenstein, Friedrich Hayek: A Biography (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 187. "Classical liberalism" and libertarianism Raimondo Cubeddu of the Department of Political Science of the University of Pisa says "It is often difficult to distinguish between 'libertarianism' and 'classical liberalism'. Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those we may call libertarians of a 'minarchist' persuasion—scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a state is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights". Raimondo Cubeddu, preface to "Perspectives of Libertarianism", Etica e Politica [Università di Trieste] 5, no. 2 (2003). Libertarians see themselves as sharing many philosophical, political, and economic undertones with classical liberalism, such as the ideas of laissez-faire government, free markets, and individual freedom. Nevertheless, others reject this as a mere "superficial" resemblance: Libertarianism's resemblance to liberalism is superficial; in the end, libertarians reject essential liberal institutions. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against, the doctrine of private political power that underlies feudalism. Like feudalism, libertarianism conceives of justified political power as based in a network of private contracts. It rejects the idea, essential to liberalism, that political power is a public power to be impartially exercised for the common good. Samuel Freeman, "Illiberal Libertarians: Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View", Philosophy & Public Affairs 30, no. 2 (2001): 107. Those who emphasize the distinction between classical liberalism and libertarianism point out that some of the key thinkers of classical liberalism were far from libertarian: Adam Smith should be seen as a moderate free enterpriser who appreciated markets but made many, many exceptions. He allowed government all over the place. Jeet Heer, "Adam Smith and the Left", National Post, December 3, 2001. For example, Adam Smith supports public roads, canals and bridges. However, he favored that these goods should be paid proportionally to their consumption (e.g., putting a toll). In the mid-1800s, Abraham Lincoln followed the Whig version of economic liberalism which included state provision and regulation of railroads. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 provided the development of the First Transcontinental Railroad. Further, some argue that libertarianism and liberalism are fundamentally incompatible because the checks and balances provided by liberal institutions conflict with the support for complete economic deregulation offered by most libertarians. Alan Haworth, Anti-libertarianism: Markets, Philosophy and Myth (New York: Routledge, 1994), 27. However, arguments over the similarities are made difficult by the large number of factions in both classical liberalism and libertarianism. For example, minarchist libertarians are not necessarily in favor of complete economic deregulation in the first place and often support tax-funded provision of a select few public goods. Alan Ryan, a former professor of Politics at Princeton University, argues that the claim from contemporary libertarians...that they are classical liberals...is not wholly true. There is at least one strain of libertarian thought represented by Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State and Utopia that advocates the decriminalization of 'victimless crimes' such as prostitution, drug-taking and unorthodox sexual activities. There is nothing of that in John Locke or Adam Smith. See also Liberalism Contributions to liberal theory Libertarianism Liberalization Manchesterism Austrian School Liberalism (book) The Economist Social liberalism Conservatism References External links A Guide to Classical-Liberal Think Tanks by Joseph L. Bast What is Classical Liberalism? by John C. Goodman Ludwig von Mises Institute - A research and educational center for classical liberalism based on the Austrian School of economics. Also includes libertarian political philosophy and anarcho-capitalism. The Free Marketeers Network The networking site for Free Marketeers around the world The Institute for Humane Studies at George Mason University A unique organization that assists undergraduate and graduate students worldwide with an interest in individual liberty Classical Liberal Historical Timeline, Belmont University LockeSmith Institute. 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1,381 | Politics_of_Ethiopia | Politics of Ethiopia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. The Judiciary is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature. Political developments In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) defeated the government of Mengistu regime. In July 1991, the TPLF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), which consisted of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In June 1992 the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition left the government. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), an ally in the fight against the Mengistu regime, assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government. Eritrea achieved full independence on May 24, 1993. President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The first election for Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly-chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections. There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so. The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi has promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically-based authorities. Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government, Ethiopians enjoy greater political participation and freer debate than ever before in their history, although some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are, in practice, somewhat circumscribed. Zenawi's government was re-elected in 2000 in Ethiopia's first multi-party elections. The incumbent President is Girma Wolde-Giorgis. Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and World Bank. In 2004, the government began a resettlement initiative to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages. Ethiopia held another general election in May 2005, which drew a record number of voters, with 90% of the electorate turning out to cast their vote. While the election was deemed by the European Union election observer team to fall short of international standards for fair and free elections, other teams drew different conclusions. The African Union report on September 14 commended "the Ethiopian people's display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals On 2005 Ethiopian elections and on September 15 the US Carter Center concluded that "the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions". The US Department of State said on September 16, "these elections stand out as a milestone in creating a new, more competitive multi-party political system in one of Africa's largest and most important countries." Even the EU preliminary statement of 2005 also said "...the polling processes were generally positive. The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases, and very good in 24%". The opposition complained that the ruling EPRDF engaged in widespread vote rigging and intimidation, alleging fraud in 299 constituencies. All allegations were investigated by the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia in cooperation with election monitors, a process which delayed the release of the final results. In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of university students protested these alleged discrepancies, encouraged by supporters of the Coalition for Unity opposition party, despite a ban on protests imposed by the government. On June 8, 26 people were killed in Addis Ababa as a result of rioting, which led to the arrest of hundreds of protesters. On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results, which confirmed that the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but showed that opposition parties had increased their share of parliamentary seats, from 12 to 176. The Coalition for Unity and Democracy won all the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament and the City Council. Street protests broke out again when the opposition called for a general strike and boycotted the new Parliament, refusing to accept the results of the election. The police forces once again attempted to contain the protests, and this time, 42 people were killed in Addis Ababa, including seven policemen, and another of whom later died because of fatal injuries caused by a hand grenade detonation. Thousands were arrested, and were taken to various detention centers across the country. By February 2006, six hundred remained in custody, facing trial in March. On 14 November, the Ethiopian Parliament passed a resolution to establish a neutral commission to investigate the incidents of June 8 and November 1 and 2. In February 2006, UK Prime Minister Blair, acknowledging that the EPRDF has won the election, said he wanted to see Ethiopia resolve its internal problems and continue on a democratic path. Current politics Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and the World Bank. In 2004, the government began a drive to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages. Ethiopia held another general election in May 2005, which drew a record number of voters, with 90% of the electorate turning out to cast their vote. While the European Union election observer team of Ana Maria Gomes deemed the elections to have fallen short of international standards for fair and free elections, other teams drew totally different conclusions. The African Union report on September 14 commended "the Ethiopian people's display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals", and on September 15 the US Carter Center concluded that "the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions". However, it was noted that foreign election observers (including Gomes) were not given the authority and/or documentations in order to travel and monitor rural areas of the country. Even worse, these delays occurred a couple of days before the election day and some have indicated the governments role in these delays, but couldn't provide substantial proof for their accusations. Still, the US Department of State said on September 16, "these elections stand out as a milestone in creating a new, more competitive multi-party political system in one of Africa's largest and most important countries." Even the EU preliminary statement of 2005 said that "...the polling processes were generally positive. The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases, and very good in 24%." The opposition complained that the ruling EPRDF engaged in widespread vote rigging and intimidation, alleging fraud in 299 constituencies. The ruling party complained that the main opposition party CUD's AEUP sub party had engaged in intimidation. All allegations were investigated by the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia in cooperation with election monitors, a process which delayed the release of the final results. In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of opposition supporters protested these alleged discrepancies despite a one month ban on protests imposed by the government. The government said that if there are no protests for one month, it would ease the high political tension in Ethiopia. Street protests broke out again later in the year when the CUD opposition called for a general strike and boycotted the new Parliament, refusing to accept the results of the election. The police forces once again attempted to contain the protests and this time forty-two people were killed in Addis Ababa, including seven policemen, and another of whom later died because of fatal injuries caused by a hand grenade detonation. Thousands were arrested, and were taken to various detention centers across the country. On 14 November, the Ethiopian Parliament passed a resolution to establish a neutral commission to investigate the incidents of June 8 and November 1 and 2. On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results in which confirmed that the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but showed that opposition parties had increased their share of parliamentary seats, from 12 to 176. The Coalition for Unity and Democracy won all but one of the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament and the City Council. Now half of CUD, including Medhin have joined the parliament. In February 2006, UK Prime Minister Tony Blair, acknowledging that the EPRDF had won the election, said he wanted to see Ethiopia resolve its internal problems and continue on a democratic path. By February 2006, hundreds remained in custody, facing trial in March. About 119 people are currently facing trial, including journalists for defamation and opposition party leaders for treason. Human rights organisations have raised concerns over the well-being of some of these prisoners. However 8,000 prisoners have already been freed. Concerns about the implications of these trials for the freedom of the press have also been raised. Executive branch |President |Girma Wolde-Giyorgis Lucha |Independent |8 October 2001 |- |Prime Minister |Meles Zenawi |EPRDF |August 1995 |} The president is elected by the House of People's Representatives for a six-year term. The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections. The Council of Ministers, according to the 1995 constitution, is comprised by the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Minister, various Ministers and other members as determined and approved by the House of People's Representatives. At the current time, these Ministers include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Ministry of Water Resources, the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of the Environment. Legislative branch The Federal Parliamentary Assembly has two chambers: the Council of People's Representatives (Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet) with 547 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat constituencies; and the Council of the Federation (Yefedereshn Mekir Bet) with 110 members, one for each nationality, and one additional representative for each one million of its population, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections. Many opposition parties are represented in the Ethiopia Parliament where representatives from Oromia state hold the most positions and representatives from the Amhara State hold the second most position, in correlation with the population order of the corresponding states. Various opposition parties -- including the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces, United Ethiopian Democratic Party-Medhin Party, Somali People's Democratic Party, EDL, Gambela People's Democratic Movement, All Ethiopian Unity Party, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement, Oromo People's Congress, and the Benishangul-Gumuz People's Democratic Unity Front -- hold many positions in the parliament. Political parties and elections Some other political pressure groups include the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) Beyene Petros and the Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) [Beyene Petros]. Judicial branch The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the House of People's Representatives for appointment. In May 2007, the Ethiopian Federal courts received “Technology in Government in Africa” (TIGA) Awards that is provided by Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and the Canadian e-Policy Resource Center (CePRC). . Ethiopian federal court receives TIGA award The courts received the awards for their provision of efficient service for the public through the use of modern Information Communication Technologies (ICT).During the awarding ceremony held here, TIGA Executive Director Eric Davis said ICT plays a major role in achieving the development goals Africa has set to accomplish. The award is given in four categories and the Addis Ababa Revenue Agency and the Ethiopian Federal courts were given special awards for their activities on integrated revenue collection and courts reform program respectively. Administrative divisions Ethiopia is divided into 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (astedader akababiwach, singular — astedader akabibi) and 2 chartered cities*: Addis Ababa*; Afar; Amhara, Benishangul/Gumaz; Dire Dawa*; Gambela; Harar; Oromia; Somali; Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region; Tigray International organization participation ACP, AfDB, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU,WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO Royalists and government in exile A group of Ethiopian royalists continue to operate The Crown Council of Ethiopia as a government in exile. 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1,382 | Balmoral_Castle | Balmoral Castle Balmoral Castle is a large estate house situated in the area of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, known as Royal Deeside. The estate was purchased by Queen Victoria's consort Prince Albert, and remains a favourite summer royal residence. The Balmoral estate has been passed down the generations and has gradually expanded to more than 260 square kilometres (65,000 acres). www.balmoralcastle.com Today it is a working estate, employing 50 full time staff and 50 to 100 part time. Early history Balmoral Castle, painted by Queen Victoria in 1854 during its construction. The Balmoral Estate began as a home built by Sir William Drummond in 1390. The estate was formerly owned by King Robert II (1316–1390), who had a hunting lodge in the area. After Drummond, the estate was sold to Alexander Gordon, the 3rd Earl of Huntly, in the 15th century. The estate remained in the family's hands until it was sold in 1662 to the Farquharsons of Invery, who sold the estate in 1798 to the 2nd Earl of Fife. The estate formed part of the coronation activities of King George IV in 1822. Royal residence Balmoral, c.1890-1900. Balmoral is today best known as a royal residence, the summer retreat of Queen Elizabeth II and The Duke of Edinburgh. Its history as a royal residence dates back to 1848, when the house was rented to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert by the trustees of Sir Robert Gordon (who had obtained a long-term lease of the castle in 1830 and died in 1847). They very much enjoyed their stay in the house, and they paid just over £30,000 for full ownership in 1852. Prince Albert immediately started making plans with William Smith to extend the existing 15th century castle, and make a new and bigger castle fit for the royal family. The new building Prince Albert ordered to be built within a hundred yards of the old castle was planned and designed partly by himself and completed in 1856. The foundation stone for Balmoral Castle was laid by Queen Victoria on 28 September 1853 and can be found at the foot of the wall, adjacent to the West face of the entrance porch. Before the foundation stone was placed in position Queen Victoria signed a parchment recording the date. This parchment, together with an example of each of the current coins of the realm, were placed in a bottle, which was inserted into a cavity below the site prepared for the stone. www.balmoralcastle.com Along with Sandringham House, Balmoral is the private property of the Queen and is not part of the (government-owned) royal estate. Ownership of Balmoral, Sandringham and other such real estate became an issue when Edward VIII abdicated. As private property, it was inherited by Edward VIII upon the death of his father, George V and his subsequent abdication had no effect upon his ownership rights. His brother, George VI had to buy them in order to keep them as homes of the monarch. Balmoral Castle was also the birthplace of Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. The Estate The estate is still a working estate, occupying over 20,000 hectares (about 50,000 acres) of land. The estate comprises 18,659 hectares owned between Balmoral, Birkhall and Glen Doll, 2,940 hectares of grouse moor at Corgarff and 4,688 hectares of sporting rights rented from a neighbour. 3,000 hectares are forested and 222 hectares are arable or pasture, with 100 Highland cattle, and The Queen's Highland, Fell and Haflinger ponies. It provides for and works with the local community. The Royal Family employs around 50 full-time and 50–100 part-time staff to maintain the estate and look after the animals. The part-time staff are used particularly when the Queen makes her annual visit. Farming is difficult because of the nature of the ground and the climate - there are seven Munros (mountains over 1,000m/3,000 ft) and most of the land lies over 300 m above sea level. At present about 100 hectares are farmed in hand and 75 hectares let to neighbouring farmers. One of the estate's most ecologically important areas is the roughly 1,000 hectare (2,500 acre) Ballochbuie Forest. Bought in 1878 by Queen Victoria to save it from a timber merchant, Ballochbuie now contains one of the largest remnants of native Caledonian Pine forest left in the country. Thirty years ago, a small area of the forest known as 'the tennis court' was enclosed in a regeneration trial suggested by the Duke of Edinburgh. In 1979, when the success of the experiment was clear, a further block of about 20 hectares (50 acres) was enclosed. This in turn showed such encouraging signs of regeneration that the enclosed area was expanded to about 300 hectares (750 acres) in 1992. The enclosed area is thoroughly monitored by the Institute for Terrestrial Ecology (ITE). In addition to Ballochbuie, a further 2,000 hectares of the estate (nearly 5,000 acres) are planted with trees, which also provide shelter for Red Deer. More than 20 Highland, Fell and Haflinger ponies are kept for trekking and deer retrieval during the stalking season. The Queen founded the Balmoral fold of Highland Cattle in 1953 and it now has 29 cows. The Balmoral Estate also contributes to the local tourism industry. About 4,000 people are employed in the tourist industry on Deeside and the surrounding area and Balmoral is one of the major attractions for visitors. Some 85,000 people visit the castle and gardens each year, and many others walk amidst the spectacular scenery which forms part of the estate. In 1974 the estate designated the area around Loch Muick and Lochnagar as a wildlife reserve under the management of the Scottish Wildlife Trust, and built and equipped a visitors' centre to host the increasing numbers of people coming to enjoy the natural beauty of the area. The East Grampians and Lochnagar Visitor Survey, carried out for Scottish National Heritage by Aberdeen University in 1995, showed that up to 180,000 hill walkers and other visitors use the open countryside and hills on and adjoining Balmoral Estate each year. The estate maintains and restores eroded footpaths with grant assistance from Scottish National Heritage. Around £250,000 has been invested in footpath repairs over the last seven years. The estate also supports Scotland's concordat on access and freedom of access for responsible walking and climbing. A full-time ranger service has been provided for nearly 30 years and the four rangers conduct public walks during the summer to sites of interest on the estate. Rangers also guided visitors on special routes during the 1998 and 1999 Ballater Walking Weeks. The estate maintains climbing bothies for use by a wide range of clubs and associations. Mountain rescue teams also train regularly on the estate, and in April 1998 and 1999 road running races for international athletes were held on estate roads. World record times were set each year. More than 40,000 vehicles a year use the single-track access road which leads to the visitors' centre at the Spittal of Muick. Public access must therefore be balanced against protection of the environment, particularly the habitats for which the estate is well known (for instance an area of Lochnagar is the second most important Dotterel breeding ground in the United Kingdom). To this end, in September 1996 the consultancy firm Environmental Resources Management (ERM) was engaged by the Lochnagar Adviser Committee - an oversight body formed by Balmoral Estate and comprising representatives of government bodies, the local community and recreational interests to address current and future visitor management issues - to undertake a visitor strategy for the Glen Muick, Lochnagar and Ballater area. The Upper Deeside Access Trust was subsequently established to implement the visitor strategy. The trust assists with the conservation, management and upkeep of the countryside and footpaths in the whole of Upper Deeside. The designation in 1998 by the Secretary of State for Scotland of the areas of Lochnagar and Ballochbuie as 'Special Protection Areas' under the European Birds Directive, and his recommendation to the European Union that Ballochbuie should be designated a 'Special Area of Conservation' under the European Habitats Directive, are testimony to the Royal family's excellent long-term conservation and environmental husbandry record. The estate is also a founder member of the East Grampian Deer Management Group and has taken a lead in establishing a deer population model, which is at the forefront of the Deer Management Commission for Scotland's programme to manage the deer population and restore heather habitat. About 3,300 red deer were counted on the estate in spring 1998. The intention is to maintain a population of about 2,700. In May 1999, only 1,650 red deer were counted, illustrating the difficulties of managing such a mobile population. In 1997 the estate made a provisional application to the Forestry Authority to plant about 200 hectares (500 acres) of new woodland (rowan, birch, willow, scrub oak and Scots Pine) on an area of open heath hillside at Glen Gelder. This is currently the subject of an environmental impact assessment by the Institute for Terrestrial Ecology. The extension of native woodland is a government policy and the application has been made for environmental, not commercial, reasons. The annual expenditure of the estate amounting to over 3 million is completely spent locally. There has been some speculation that Balmoral Castle may have been earmarked as a royal refuge in the event of nuclear war. In the 1960s, war plans apparently envisaged evacuating the Sovereign to the Royal Yacht Britannia, but this might not have been practical, and a land-based refuge would have been desirable. It would appear that, contrary to persistent rumour, there were no plans for the Sovereign to join the Prime Minister at the Corsham bunker complex known variously as Hawthorn, Subterfuge, Site 3, Burlington, or Turnstile. Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle would both have been too vulnerable, the former as being in the heart of London — a major target in its own right — and Windsor because of its proximity to Heathrow Airport. In popular culture The Queen was in residence at Balmoral at the time of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. Her initial decision not to return to London or to mourn more publicly was much criticised at the time. Her private discussions with Prime Minister Tony Blair are dramatised in Stephen Frears' film The Queen (2006). The estate has also been featured in the 1997 film Mrs. Brown, although it was substituted by Duns Castle on the Scottish Borders. Balmoral also features in the Doctor Who Episode: Tooth and Claw. It Also Features in Television Movies: The Lost Prince, Bertie and Elizabeth and Victoria and Albert. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119280/locations Banknotes Since 1987 an illustration of the castle has featured on the reverse side of £100 notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland. See also Crathie Kirk Castles in Scotland References Buckingham Palace, Press Room, London Touristik Führer Schottland, kennen und lieben, 1990 LN Verlag Lübeck, ISBN 3-87498-402-8 Highlands, Kilts und Dudelsäcke, Reisehandbuch Schottland, Iwanoski’s Reiseverlag, Dormagen 1997, ISBN 3-923975-50-3 Scotland – When will you go?, Scottish Tourist Board, Edinburgh, 1998 Schottland – Sehenswürdigkeiten, British Tourist Authority, London, 1998 HB Bildatlas, Schottland, Springer Verlag, Hamburg, 2005 External links Balmoral Castle - Official site Royal Deeside - Official site Tom Weir visits Balmoral - video from ScotlandonTV | Balmoral_Castle |@lemmatized balmoral:22 castle:16 large:2 estate:36 house:4 situate:1 area:15 aberdeenshire:1 scotland:7 know:5 royal:13 deeside:5 purchase:1 queen:15 victoria:9 consort:1 prince:5 albert:5 remain:2 favourite:1 summer:3 residence:5 pass:1 generation:1 gradually:1 expand:2 square:1 kilometre:1 acre:7 www:3 balmoralcastle:2 com:3 today:2 working:2 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1,383 | FIFA | The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (French for International Federation of Association Football), commonly known by its acronym, FIFA (usually ), is the international governing body of association football. Its headquarters are in Zürich, Switzerland, and its current president is Sepp Blatter. FIFA is responsible for the organization and governance of football's major international tournaments, most notably the FIFA World Cup, held since 1930. FIFA has 208 member associations, which is 16 more than the United Nations and three more than the International Olympic Committee, though five fewer than the International Association of Athletics Federations. History The need for a single body to oversee the worldwide game became apparent at the beginning of the 20th century with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. FIFA was founded in Paris on 21 May 1904—the French name and acronym remain, even outside French-speaking countries. Its first president was Robert Guérin. FIFA presided over its first international competition in 1906, but this met with little approval or success. This, in combination with economic factors, led to the swift replacement of Guérin with Daniel Burley Woolfall from England, by now a member association. The next tournament staged, the football competition for the 1908 Olympics in London was more successful, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA. Membership of FIFA expanded beyond Europe with the application of South Africa in 1909, Argentina and Chile in 1912, and Canada and the United States in 1913. FIFA, however, floundered during World War I, with many players sent off to war and the possibility of travel for international fixtures severely limited. Post-war, following the death of Woolfall, the organisation was run by Dutchman Carl Hirschmann. It was saved from extinction, but at the cost of the withdrawal of the Home Nations (of the United Kingdom), who cited an unwillingness to participate in international competitions with their recent World War enemies. The Home Nations later resumed their membership. The FIFA collection is held by the National Football Museum in England. Structure Map of the World with the six confederations. FIFA is an association established under the Laws of Switzerland. Its headquarters are in Zürich. FIFA's supreme body is the FIFA Congress, an assembly made up of representatives from each affiliated member association. The Congress assembles in ordinary session once every year and, additionally, extraordinary sessions have been held once a year since 1998. Only the Congress can pass changes to FIFA's statutes. Congress elects the President of FIFA, its General Secretary and the other members of FIFA's Executive Committee. The President and General Secretary are the main officeholders of FIFA, and are in charge of its daily administration, carried out by the General Secretariat, with its staff of approximately 280 members. FIFA's Executive Committee, chaired by the President, is the main decision-making body of the organization in the intervals of Congress. FIFA's worldwide organisational structure also consists of several other bodies, under authority of the Executive Committee or created by Congress as standing committees. Among those bodies are the Finance Committee, the Disciplinary Committee, the Referees Committee, etc. Aside from its worldwide institutions (presidency, Executive Committee, Congress, etc.) there are confederations recognised by FIFA which oversee the game in the different continents and regions of the world. National associations, and not the continental confederations, are members of FIFA. The continental confederations are provided for in FIFA's statutes. National associations must claim membership to both FIFA and the confederation in which their nation is geographically resident for their teams to qualify for entry to FIFA's competitions (with a few geographic exceptions listed below): AFC—Asian Football Confederation in Asia and Australia CAF—Confédération Africaine de Football in Africa CONCACAF—Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football in North America and Central America CONMEBOL—Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol in South America OFC—Oceania Football Confederation in Oceania UEFA—Union of European Football Associations in Europe. Nations straddling the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia have generally had their choice of confederation. As a result, a number of transcontinental nations including Russia, Turkey, Cyprus, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have chosen to become part of UEFA despite the bulk of their land area being in Asia. Israel, although lying entirely within Asia, joined UEFA in 1994, after decades of its football teams being boycotted by many Arab and predominantly Muslim AFC countries. Kazakhstan moved from the AFC to UEFA in 2002. Australia was the latest to move from the OFC to AFC in January 2006. Guyana and Suriname have always been CONCACAF members despite being South American countries. No team from the OFC is offered automatic qualification to the World Cup. In recent World Cup qualifying cycles, the winner of their section had to play a play-off against a CONMEBOL side, a hurdle at which Australia have traditionally fallen. In an effort to improve their national and domestic teams Australia moved to the AFC in 2006. This allows Australia to play in Asian tournaments of a much higher standard (as well as being more numerous) such as the AFC Asian Cup and the Asian Champions League. Australia successfully qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup by winning just such a playoff in a penalty shootout against Uruguay, just a few months after the clearance to move was granted. Initially, the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification cycle was planned to provide the winner of OFC qualifying with a place in the final AFC qualification group, but this was scrapped in favour of a playoff between the OFC winner and an AFC team for a World Cup place. In total, FIFA recognises 208 national associations and their associated men's national teams as well as 129 women's national teams; see the list of national football teams and their respective country codes. Curiously, FIFA has more member states than the United Nations, as FIFA recognises several non-sovereign entities as distinct nations, most notably the four Home Nations within the United Kingdom. The FIFA World Rankings are updated monthly and rank each team based on their performance in international competitions, qualifiers, and friendly matches. There is also a world ranking for women's football, updated four times a year. Recognitions and awards FIFA awards, each year, the title of FIFA World Player of the Year to the most prestigious player of the year, as part of its annual awards ceremony which also recognises team and international football achievements. In 1994 FIFA published the FIFA World Cup All-Time Team. In 2002 FIFA announced the FIFA Dream Team, an all-time all-star team chosen by fans in a poll. As part of its centennial celebrations in 2004, FIFA organised a "Match of the Century" between France and Brazil Governance and game development Laws of the Game The laws that govern football, known officially as the Laws of the Game, are not solely the responsibility of FIFA; they are maintained by a body called the International Football Association Board (IFAB). FIFA has members on its board (four representatives); the other four are provided by the football associations of the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, in recognition of their contribution to the creation and history of the game. Changes to the Laws of the Game must be agreed by at least six of the eight delegates. Discipline of national associations FIFA frequently takes active roles in the running of the sport and developing the game around the world. One of its unique policies is to suspend teams and associated members from international competition when a government interferes in the running of FIFA's associate member organisations or if the associate is not functioning properly. A recent high-profile suspension was of the Greek Football Federation for political interference. BBC SPORT | Football | Internationals | Greece given suspension by Fifa Another recent suspension was on the Kenya Football Federation because it was not running the game in Kenya properly SI.com - Soccer - FIFA orders Kenya to adopt 18-team league - Saturday March 17, 2007 12:15PM and also of Iraq. The Asia wing of FIFA, the AFC is soon to force 22 leading associations in Asia to increase transparency, competition, quality training and a proper league structure with relegation, promotion and a 2nd division. Suspension will be imposed on any associate which doesn't co-operate with the reform outlines. Notably, one of the associations being targeted is that of Australia, a country whose professional sport leagues are all organised on the model of franchised teams and closed league membership, a system most commonly identified with North America. Taipei Times - archives A 2007 FIFA ruling that a player can be registered with a maximum of three clubs, and appear in official matches for a maximum of three, in a year measured from July 1 to June 30 has led to controversy, especially in those countries whose seasons cross that date barrier, as in the case of two former Ireland internationals. The Iraq national team was suspended in May 2008, due to government interference with independent national sports authorities. Soccer's FIFA Drops Iraq from Competition : NPR However the decision was overturned by FIFA on May 29, 2008, since the Iraqi government reversed its earlier decision in dissolving the Iraq Football Association. Socceroos qualifier against Iraq to proceed, The Age, May 29, 2008. FIFA altitude ban La Paz|La Paz, Bolivia. 3,600 m (12,000 ft) above sea level FIFA attempted to address the issue of extreme altitude in May 2007, ruling that no future international matches could be played at an altitude over 2500 m (8200 ft). The FIFA altitude ban would most notably have affected the national teams of Andean countries. Under this proposal, Bolivia would no longer be able to play international matches in La Paz (3,600 m), Ecuador would be unable to play in Quito (2,800 m), and Colombia could no longer play in Bogotá (2,640 m). However, FIFA soon backed away from the proposal after international condemnation, New York Sun: "FIFA's Altitude Ban Draws Fire From South America" and under political pressure from the CONMEBOL countries, first extending the maximum altitude to 2,800 m (9,190 ft) in June 2007, which made Bogotá and Quito viable international venues once again, and then waiving the restriction for La Paz in July 2007. The ban was reintroduced in December 2007 by FIFA for matches 2,750 metres above sea level, unless players were allowed to acclimatize. However, the ban was again suspended by FIFA in May 2008. Allegations of financial irregularities In May 2006 British investigative reporter Andrew Jennings' book Foul (Harper Collins) caused controversy within the football world by detailing an alleged international cash-for-contracts scandal following the collapse of FIFA's marketing partner ISL, and revealed how some football officials have been urged to secretly repay the sweeteners they received. The book also exposed the vote-rigging that went on behind closed doors in the fight for Sepp Blatter's continued control of FIFA. Nearly simultaneous with the release of Foul was a BBC television expose by Jennings and BBC producer Roger Corke for the BBC news programme Panorama. In this hour-long programme screened on June 11, 2006, Jennings and the Panorama team submit that Sepp Blatter is being investigated by Swiss police over his role in a secret deal to repay more than £1m worth of bribes pocketed by football officials. All testimonies offered in the Panorama expose were provided through a disguised voice, appearance, or both, save one; Mel Brennan, formerly a lecturer at Towson University in the United States (and from 2001–2003 Head of Special Projects for CONCACAF, a liaison to the e-FIFA project and a FIFA World Cup delegate), became the first high-level football insider to go public with substantial allegations of greed, corruption, nonfeasance and malfeasance by CONCACAF and FIFA leadership. During the Panorama expose, Brennan—the highest-level African-American in the history of world football governance—Jennings and many others exposed allegedly inappropriate allocations of money at CONCACAF, and drew connections between ostensible CONCACAF criminality and similar behaviours at FIFA. Brennan's book, The Apprentice: Tragicomic Times Among the Men Running—and Ruining—World Football is due out in 2009. FIFA Anthem Since the 1994 FIFA World Cup like the UEFA Champions League FIFA has adopted an anthem composed by the German composer Franz Lambert. The FIFA Anthem or Hymn is played at the beginning of FIFA structured matches and tournaments such as international friendlies, the FIFA World Cup, FIFA Women's World Cup, FIFA U-20 World Cup and FIFA Club World Cup. YouTube - FIFA anthem See also 6+5 rule References Further reading Paul Darby, Africa, Football and Fifa: Politics, Colonialism and Resistance (Sport in the Global Society), Frank Cass Publishers 2002, ISBN 0-7146-8029-X John Sugden, FIFA and the Contest For World Football, Polity Press 1998, ISBN 0-7456-1661-5 Jim Trecker, Charles Miers, J. Brett Whitesell, ed., Women's Soccer: The Game and the Fifa World Cup, Universe 2000, Revised Edition, ISBN 0-7893-0527-5 External links FIFA web site Document on alleged FIFA corruption FIFA Laws of the Game be-x-old:ФІФА | FIFA |@lemmatized fédération:1 internationale:1 de:3 football:30 association:19 french:3 international:21 federation:4 commonly:2 know:2 acronym:2 fifa:76 usually:1 governing:1 body:7 headquarters:2 zürich:2 switzerland:2 current:1 president:5 sepp:3 blatter:3 responsible:1 organization:2 governance:3 major:1 tournament:4 notably:4 world:26 cup:15 hold:3 since:4 member:11 united:7 nation:9 three:3 olympic:1 committee:9 though:1 five:1 athletics:1 history:3 need:1 single:1 oversee:2 worldwide:3 game:11 become:3 apparent:1 beginning:2 century:2 increase:2 popularity:1 fixture:2 found:1 paris:1 may:7 name:1 remain:1 even:1 outside:1 speaking:1 country:8 first:4 robert:1 guérin:2 preside:1 competition:8 meet:1 little:1 approval:1 success:1 combination:1 economic:1 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1,384 | Oxide | Oxides, such as iron(III) oxide or rust, Fe2O3, form when oxygen combines with other elements An oxide is a chemical compound contaning at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides. Oxides result when elements are oxidized by oxygen in air. Combustion of hydrocarbons affords the two principal oxides of carbon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials that are considered to be pure elements often contain a coating of oxides. For example, aluminium foil has a thin skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen (or simply air), some elements - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, strontium and barium - react rapidly, even dangerously, to give the hydroxides. In part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i.e., native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, and solutions of potassium and sodium, so called NaK are used to deoxygenate and dehydrate some organic solvents. The surface of most metals consist of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a thin film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal, slowing further corrosion. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising. Although solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP, they, like most metals, will burn in air, generating very high temperatures. As a consequence, finely grained powders of most metals can be dangerously explosive in air. In dry oxygen, iron readily forms iron(II) oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−2x(OH)x, that mainly comprise rust, typically requires oxygen and water. The production of free oxygen by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the economically-important iron ore hematite. Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. So-called noble metals (common examples: gold, platinum) resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, and substances like gold(III) oxide must be generated by indirect routes. Insolubility in water The oxide ion, O2−, is the conjugate base of the hydroxide ion, OH−, and is encountered in ionic solid such as calcium oxide. O2− is unstable in aqueous solution − its affinity for H+ is so great (pKb ~ −22) that it abstracts a proton from a solvent H2O molecule: O2− + H2O → 2 OH− Nomenclature In the 18th century, oxides were named calxes or calces after the calcination process used to produce oxides. Calx was later replaced by oxyd. Oxides are usually named after the number of oxygen atoms in the oxide. Oxides containing only one oxygen are called oxides or monoxides, those containing two oxygen atoms are dioxides, three oxygen atoms makes it a trioxide, four oxygen atoms are tetroxides, and so on following the Greek numerical prefixes. In the older literature and continuing in industry, oxides are named by contracting the element name with "a." Hence alumina, magnesia, chromia, are, respectively, Al2O3, MgO, Cr2O3. Two other types of oxide are peroxide, O22−, and superoxide, O2−. In such species, oxygen is assigned higher oxidation states than oxide. There is another type of nomenclature: The oxides of an element that contains highest number of oxygen atoms is named with the suffix -ate,and when one oxygen atom is removed from this compound it is named with the suffix -ite and after all the oxygen atoms are removed then the compound is named by using the prefix -ide. For example - H2SO4 is named as hydrogen sulphate H2SO3 is named as hydrogen sulphite H2S is named as hydrogen suphide Types of oxides Oxides of more electropositive elements tend to be basic. They are called basic anhydrides; adding water, they may form basic hydroxides. For example, sodium oxide is basic; when hydrated, it forms sodium hydroxide. Oxides of more electronegative elements tend to be acidic. They are called acid anhydrides; adding water, they form oxoacids. For example, dichlorine heptoxide is acid; perchloric acid is a more hydrated form. Some oxides can act as both acid and base at different times. They are amphoteric. An example is aluminium oxide. Some oxides do not show behavior as either acid or base. The oxides of the chemical elements in their highest oxidation state are predictable and the chemical formula can be derived from the number of valence electrons for that element. Even the chemical formula of O4, tetraoxygen, is predictable as a group 16 element. One exception is copper for which the highest oxidation state oxide is copper(II) oxide and not copper(I) oxide. Another exception is fluoride that does not exist as expected as F2O7 but as OF2. Fully Exploiting the Potential of the Periodic Table through Pattern Recognition Schultz, Emeric. J. Chem. Educ. 2005 82 1649. Since F is more electronegative than O, OF2 does not represent an oxide of fluorine, but instead represents a fluoride of oxygen. Phosphorus pentoxide, the third exception is not properly represented by the chemical formula P2O5 but by P4O10. List of all known oxides sorted by oxidation state Element in -1 oxidation state Oxygen difluoride (OF2) Element in multiple oxidation states Antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4) Cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4) Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4) Lead tetroxide (Pb3O4) Manganese(II,III) oxide (Mn3O4) Silver(I,III) oxide (AgO) Element in +1 oxidation state Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) Dicarbon monoxide (C2O) Dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O) Lithium oxide (Li2O) Potassium oxide (K2O) Rubidium oxide (Rb2O) Silver(I) oxide (Ag2O) Thallium oxide (Tl2O) Sodium oxide (Na2O) Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O) Element in +2 oxidation state Aluminium monoxide (AlO) Barium oxide (BaO) Beryllium oxide (BeO) Cadmium oxide (CdO) Calcium oxide (CaO) Carbon monoxide (CO) Cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) Copper(II) oxide (CuO) Iron(II) oxide (FeO) Lead(II) oxide (PbO) Magnesium oxide (MgO) Mercury(II) oxide (O) Nickel(II) oxide (NiO) Nitrogen oxide (NO) Palladium(II) oxide (PdO) Strontium oxide (SrO) Sulphur monoxide (SO) Tin(II) oxide (SnO) Titanium(II) oxide (TiO) Vanadium(II) oxide (VO) Zinc oxide (ZnO) Element in +3 oxidation state Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) Bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) Boron oxide (B2O3) Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) Erbium(III) oxide (Er2O3) Gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd2O3) Gallium(III) oxide (Ga2O3) Holmium(III) oxide (Ho2O3) Indium(III) oxide (In2O3) Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) Lanthanum(III) oxide (La2O3) Lutetium(III) oxide (Lu2O3) Nickel(III) oxide (Ni2O3) Phosphorus trioxide (P4O6) Promethium(III) oxide (Pm2O3) Rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3) Samarium(III) oxide (Sm2O3) Scandium(III) oxide (Sc2O3) Terbium(III) oxide (Tb2O3) Thallium(III) oxide (Tl2O3) Thulium(III) oxide (Tm2O3) Titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3) Tungsten(III) oxide (W2O3) Vanadium(III) oxide (V2O3) Ytterbium(III) oxide (Yb2O3) Yttrium(III) oxide (Y2O3) Element in +4 oxidation state Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon trioxide (CO3) Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2) Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) Germanium dioxide (GeO2) Hafnium(IV) oxide (HfO2) Lead(IV) oxide (PbO2) Manganese(IV) oxide (MnO2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Plutonium dioxide (PuO2) Rhodium(IV) oxide (RhO2) Ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2) Selenium dioxide (SeO2) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) Thorium dioxide (O2) Tin dioxide (SnO2) Titanium dioxide (TiO2) Tungsten(IV) oxide (WO2) Uranium dioxide (UO2) Vanadium(IV) oxide (VO2) Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) Element in +5 oxidation state Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5) Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5) Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) Niobium pentoxide Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) Tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5) Vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) Element in +6 oxidation state Chromium trioxide (CrO3) Molybdenum(VI) oxide (MoO3) Rhenium trioxide (ReO3) Selenium trioxide (SeO3) Sulphur trioxide (SO3) Tellurium trioxide (TeO3) Tungsten trioxide (WO3) Uranium trioxide (UO3) Xenon trioxide (XeO3) Element in +7 oxidation state Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) Manganese(VII) oxide (Mn2O7) Rhenium(VII) oxide (Re2O7) Technetium(VII) oxide Element in +8 oxidation state Osmium tetroxide (OsO4) Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4) Xenon tetroxide (XeO4) See also Other oxygen ions ozonide, O3−, superoxide, O2−, peroxide, O22− and dioxygenyl, O2+. Suboxide Oxyanion See :Category:Oxides for a list of oxides. References | Oxide |@lemmatized oxide:109 iron:8 iii:28 rust:2 form:8 oxygen:25 combine:1 element:24 chemical:7 compound:3 contaning:1 least:2 one:5 atom:8 well:2 earth:2 crust:1 consist:2 result:1 oxidize:1 air:5 combustion:1 hydrocarbon:1 afford:1 two:3 principal:1 carbon:6 monoxide:7 dioxide:16 even:3 material:1 consider:1 pure:1 often:1 contain:4 coating:1 example:7 aluminium:8 foil:3 thin:2 skin:1 protect:1 corrosion:2 virtually:1 burn:2 atmosphere:1 rich:1 environment:1 presence:2 water:6 simply:1 lithium:2 sodium:5 potassium:3 rubidium:2 caesium:2 strontium:2 barium:2 react:2 rapidly:1 dangerously:2 give:2 hydroxide:5 part:1 reason:1 alkali:1 alkaline:1 metal:6 find:1 nature:1 metallic:1 e:1 native:1 reactive:1 use:4 getter:1 vacuum:1 tube:1 solution:3 call:5 nak:1 deoxygenate:1 dehydrate:1 organic:1 solvent:2 surface:1 know:2 coat:1 film:1 passivates:1 slow:1 layer:1 build:1 great:2 thickness:1 process:2 electrolytic:1 anodising:1 although:1 solid:2 magnesium:2 slowly:1 stp:1 like:2 generate:2 high:5 temperature:1 consequence:1 finely:1 grain:1 powder:1 explosive:1 dry:1 readily:1 ii:15 formation:1 hydrated:2 ferric:1 oh:3 x:1 mainly:1 comprise:1 typically:1 require:1 production:1 free:1 photosynthetic:1 bacteria:1 billion:1 year:1 ago:2 precipitate:1 ocean:1 economically:1 important:1 ore:1 hematite:1 due:1 electronegativity:1 bond:1 almost:1 corresponding:1 noble:1 common:1 gold:2 platinum:1 resist:1 direct:1 combination:1 substance:1 must:1 indirect:1 route:1 insolubility:1 ion:3 conjugate:1 base:3 encounter:1 ionic:1 calcium:2 unstable:1 aqueous:1 affinity:1 h:1 pkb:1 abstract:1 proton:1 molecule:1 nomenclature:2 century:1 name:10 calx:3 calcination:1 produce:1 later:1 replace:1 oxyd:1 usually:1 number:3 three:1 make:1 trioxide:15 four:1 tetroxide:7 follow:1 greek:1 numerical:1 prefix:2 old:1 literature:1 continue:1 industry:1 contract:1 hence:1 alumina:1 magnesia:1 chromia:1 respectively:1 mgo:2 type:3 peroxide:2 superoxide:2 specie:1 assign:1 oxidation:14 state:14 another:2 suffix:2 ate:1 remove:2 ite:1 ide:1 hydrogen:4 sulphate:1 sulphite:1 suphide:1 electropositive:1 tend:2 basic:4 anhydride:2 add:2 may:1 hydrate:1 electronegative:2 acidic:1 acid:5 oxoacids:1 dichlorine:3 heptoxide:2 perchloric:1 act:1 different:1 time:1 amphoteric:1 show:1 behavior:1 either:1 predictable:2 formula:3 derive:1 valence:1 electron:1 tetraoxygen:1 group:1 exception:3 copper:5 fluoride:2 exist:1 expect:1 fully:1 exploit:1 potential:1 periodic:1 table:1 pattern:1 recognition:1 schultz:1 emeric:1 j:1 chem:1 educ:1 since:1 f:1 represent:3 fluorine:1 instead:1 phosphorus:3 pentoxide:7 third:1 properly:1 list:2 sort:1 difluoride:1 multiple:1 antimony:3 cobalt:2 lead:3 manganese:3 silver:2 dicarbon:1 thallium:2 alo:1 bao:1 beryllium:1 beo:1 cadmium:1 cdo:1 cao:1 co:1 coo:1 cuo:1 feo:1 pbo:1 mercury:1 nickel:2 nio:1 nitrogen:2 palladium:1 pdo:1 sro:1 sulphur:2 tin:2 sno:1 titanium:3 tio:1 vanadium:4 vo:1 zinc:1 zno:1 arsenic:2 bismuth:1 boron:1 chromium:3 dinitrogen:3 erbium:1 gadolinium:1 gallium:1 holmium:1 indium:1 lanthanum:1 lutetium:1 promethium:1 rhodium:2 samarium:1 scandium:1 terbium:1 thulium:1 tungsten:3 ytterbium:1 yttrium:1 cerium:1 iv:9 chlorine:1 germanium:1 hafnium:1 plutonium:1 ruthenium:2 selenium:2 silicon:1 sulfur:1 tellurium:2 thorium:1 uranium:2 zirconium:1 niobium:1 tantalum:1 v:1 molybdenum:1 vi:1 rhenium:2 xenon:2 vii:3 technetium:1 osmium:1 see:2 also:1 ozonide:1 dioxygenyl:1 suboxide:1 oxyanion:1 category:1 reference:1 |@bigram earth_crust:1 carbon_monoxide:2 carbon_dioxide:2 aluminium_foil:2 sodium_potassium:1 potassium_rubidium:1 rubidium_caesium:1 alkali_alkaline:1 reactive_oxygen:1 vacuum_tube:1 potassium_sodium:1 organic_solvent:1 aluminium_oxide:4 photosynthetic_bacteria:1 iron_ore:1 hydroxide_ion:1 aqueous_solution:1 electropositive_element:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 acid_anhydride:1 acid_perchloric:1 perchloric_acid:1 valence_electron:1 periodic_table:1 magnesium_oxide:1 nitrogen_oxide:1 zinc_oxide:1 arsenic_trioxide:1 boron_oxide:1 oxide_dinitrogen:2 cerium_iv:1 dinitrogen_tetroxide:1 germanium_dioxide:1 nitrogen_dioxide:1 silicon_dioxide:1 sulfur_dioxide:1 titanium_dioxide:1 osmium_tetroxide:1 |
1,385 | Communications_in_Colombia | Since being liberalized in 1991, the Colombian telecommunications sector has added new services, expanded coverage, improved efficiency, and lowered costs. The sector has had the second largest (after energy) investment in infrastructure (22 percent) since 1997. However, the economic downturn between 1999 and 2002 adversely affected telecommunications. During this period, Colombia’s telecommunications industry lost US$2 billion despite a profit of US$1 billion in local service. In June 2003, the government liquidated the state-owned and heavily indebted National Telecommunications Company (Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones—Telecom) and replaced it with Colombia Telecomunicaciones (Colombia Telecom). The measure enabled the industry to expand rapidly, and in 2004 it constituted 2.8 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Telefónica of Spain acquired a 50 percent share in the company in 2006. Colombia country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (February 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. As a result of increasing competition, Colombia has a relatively modern telecommunications infrastructure that primarily serves larger towns and cities. Colombia’s telecommunication system includes INTELSAT, 11 domestic satellite Earth stations, and a nationwide microwave radio relay system. Telephones The country’s teledensity (the density of telephone lines in a community) is relatively high for Latin America (17 percent in 2006). However, there is a steep imbalance between rural and urban areas, with some regions below 10 percent and the big cities exceeding 30 percent. Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali account for about 50 percent of telephone lines in use. By the end of 2005, the number of telephone main lines in use totaled 7,851,649. Colombia Telecom accounted for only about 31 percent of these lines; 27 other operators accounted for the rest. Colombia’s mobile market is one of the fastest-growing businesses in the country. In mid-2004 mobile telephones overtook fixed lines in service for the first time. By 2005 Colombia had the highest mobile phone density (90 percent) in Latin America, as compared with the region’s average density of 70 percent. The number of mobile telephone subscribers totaled an estimated 31 million in 2007, as compared to 21.8 million in 2005 and 6.8 million in 2001. Radio and television In late 2004, Radio Televisión Nacional de Colombia (RTVC) replaced the liquidated Instituto Nacional de Radio y Televisión (Inravisión) as the government-run radio and television broadcasting service, which oversees three national television stations and five radio companies (which operate about a dozen principal networks). Colombia has about 60 television stations, including seven low-power stations. In 2000 the population had about 11.9 million television receivers in use. Of the approximately 515 radio stations, 454 are AM; 34, FM; and 27, shortwave. Internet Colombia is still far behind Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina in terms of online usage. It had an estimated total of 900,000 Internet subscribers by the end of 2005, a figure that equated to 4,739,000 Internet users, or 11.5 percent of the 2005 population (10.9 per 100 inhabitants). Colombia had 581,877 Internet hosts in 2006. Although as many as 70 percent of Colombians accessed the Internet over their ordinary telephone lines, dial-up access is losing ground to broadband. In 2005 Colombia had 345,000 broadband subscriber lines, or one per 100 inhabitants. In 2006 the number of personal computers per 1,000 people increased to an estimated 87 per 1,000 inhabitants, a rate still below that in other large Latin American economies. The internet country code is .co. Addresses Colombia uses a unique system of addressing in order to combat the need for postal codes. In every city (with the notable exception of Cartagena de Indias), streets are numbered. North-south streets are called calle, while east-west streets are called carrerra. South-west to north-east streets are called diagonal, while south-east to north-west streets are called transversal. It is fair to say that calles and carrerras do not always line up in a grid pattern. House numbers are another matter. Rather than simply numbering the houses from 1 onwards, they are numbered by the first "crossing" street, and then the number of meters away from that street the front door is. This goes on until there is another "crossing" street, at which point the houses on the next block go up in number. As an example, a typical house number in Bogotá could be: Calle 52 N° 42-18, Bogotá. This would indicate that the particular house in question is on Calle 52, approximately 18 meters in from Carrerra 42. To further the example, if the block closest to Carrerra 42 was only 100 meters long, the closest house to the next "crossing" street, Carrerra 43, could be numbered N° 43-05. Sometimes letters are added to the street numbers to differentiate actual streets from alleys or dead ends. Accuracy isn't the focus of the design of the addresses, therefore, numbers simply alternate on opposite sides of the street. References External links Colombian Ministry of Communications Coldecon, Internet Provider | Communications_in_Colombia |@lemmatized since:2 liberalize:1 colombian:3 telecommunication:6 sector:2 add:2 new:1 service:4 expand:2 coverage:1 improved:1 efficiency:1 lower:1 cost:1 second:1 large:3 energy:1 investment:1 infrastructure:2 percent:12 however:2 economic:1 downturn:1 adversely:1 affected:1 period:1 colombia:15 industry:2 lose:2 u:2 billion:2 despite:1 profit:1 local:1 june:1 government:2 liquidate:1 state:1 heavily:1 indebted:1 national:2 company:3 empresa:1 nacional:3 de:4 telecomunicaciones:2 telecom:3 replace:2 measure:1 enable:1 rapidly:1 constitute:1 gross:1 domestic:2 product:1 gdp:1 telefónica:1 spain:1 acquire:1 share:1 country:4 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 february:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:1 result:1 increase:2 competition:1 relatively:2 modern:1 primarily:1 serve:1 town:1 city:3 system:3 include:2 intelsat:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:5 nationwide:1 microwave:1 radio:7 relay:1 telephone:7 teledensity:1 density:3 line:8 community:1 high:2 latin:3 america:2 steep:1 imbalance:1 rural:1 urban:1 area:1 region:2 big:1 exceed:1 bogotá:3 medellín:1 cali:1 account:3 use:4 end:3 number:13 main:1 total:3 operator:1 rest:1 mobile:4 market:1 one:2 fast:1 grow:1 business:1 mid:1 overtake:1 fix:1 first:2 time:1 phone:1 compare:2 average:1 subscriber:3 estimate:3 million:4 television:5 late:1 televisión:2 rtvc:1 liquidated:1 instituto:1 inravisión:1 run:1 broadcasting:1 oversee:1 three:1 five:1 operate:1 dozen:1 principal:1 network:1 seven:1 low:1 power:1 population:2 receiver:1 approximately:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 internet:7 still:2 far:1 behind:1 brazil:1 mexico:1 argentina:1 term:1 online:1 usage:1 figure:1 equate:1 user:1 per:4 inhabitant:3 host:1 although:1 many:1 access:2 ordinary:1 dial:1 ground:1 broadband:2 personal:1 computer:1 people:1 rate:1 american:1 economy:1 code:2 co:1 address:3 unique:1 order:1 combat:1 need:1 postal:1 every:1 notable:1 exception:1 cartagena:1 india:1 street:12 north:3 south:3 call:4 calle:3 east:3 west:3 carrerra:4 diagonal:1 transversal:1 fair:1 say:1 calles:1 carrerras:1 always:1 grid:1 pattern:1 house:6 another:2 matter:1 rather:1 simply:2 onwards:1 cross:2 meter:3 away:1 front:1 door:1 go:2 crossing:1 point:1 next:2 block:2 example:2 typical:1 could:2 n:2 would:1 indicate:1 particular:1 question:1 closest:1 long:1 close:1 sometimes:1 letter:1 differentiate:1 actual:1 alley:1 dead:1 accuracy:1 focus:1 design:1 therefore:1 alternate:1 opposite:1 side:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 communication:1 coldecon:1 provider:1 |@bigram economic_downturn:1 adversely_affected:1 heavily_indebted:1 gross_domestic:1 mobile_phone:1 instituto_nacional:1 fm_shortwave:1 external_link:1 |
1,386 | Balkan_Wars | The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first captured Ottoman-held remaining part of Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorporation of Roumania this time. Background The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. Serbians had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated the formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three as well as Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Roumelia, comprising Eastern Roumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace (see map). Policies of the Great Powers Throughout the 19th Century, the Great Powers had different aims over the "Eastern Question", the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wished for access to the "warm waters" of the Mediterranean and followed a pan-Slavic foreign policy, supporting Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished to deny Russia access to the "warm waters" and supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of the empire was no longer possible. France wished to strengthen its position in the region, especially in the Levant. Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were multinational entities ruled by a small elite and thus the collapse of the one would affect the other as well. Also, in the eyes of the Habsburg Empire, with its large Serbian and Croatian populations, the strengthening of Serbia was highly undesirable. While it has been argued that Italy from that time already wished to recreate the Roman empire, its main aim at the time seems to have been primarily the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea of another major sea power. Germany in turn, under the "Drang nach Osten" policy, aspired to turn the empire into its own de-facto colony, and thus supported its integrity. Bulgaria and Greece sent armed bands inside the Empire (in Macedonia and Thrace) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, to protect their own nationals from the "forced Bulgarization" or "Hellinization". Low intensity warfare had broken out inside Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian bands and the Ottoman army after 1904 in the Struggle for Macedonia. After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908, the situation changed somewhat drastically. The Young Turk revolution It is no surprise that the "Young Turk" revolution occurred in the troubled European provinces of the Empire. There the threat to its integrity was the most pronounced, and the need for reforms was most evident. When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire, and forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the long defunct Ottoman constitution of 1877, ushering the Second Constitutional Era. Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy, and elections were held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament. However, following the Sultan's attempted counter-coup, the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant. At the same time, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de jure Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 (see Bosnian Crisis), and Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom. The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan state proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect. Reaction in the Balkan States Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1923, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York (The map does not reflect the results of the 1923 population transfer between Greece and Turkey. Nor does it recognise the Macedonians as a separate ethno-linguistic group from the Bulgarians or allocate any territory to them - a controversial issue both then and now.) Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia with its 975,000 Orthodox Serbs (and many more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo). On August 15, 1909, the Military League a group of Greek officers took action against the government to reform their country's national government and reorganize the army. The league found itself unable to create a new political system, till the league summoned the Cretan politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens as its political adviser. Venizelos persuaded the king to revise the constitution and asked the league to disband in favor of a National Assembly. In March 1910 the Military League dissolved itself. "Military League", Encyclopædia Britannica Online Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In March 1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo which was covertly supported by the young Turks. In August 1910 Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom. The Balkan League Bulgarian forces waiting to commence their assault on Adrianople Following Italy's victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912 the Young Turks fell from power after a coup. The Balkan countries saw this as an opportunity to attack and fulfill their desires of expansion. With the initial encouragement of Russian agents, a series of agreements was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912. Military victory against the Ottoman empire would not be possible while it could bring reinforcements from Asia. The condition of the Ottoman railways of the time was primitive, so most reinforcement would have to come by sea through the Aegean. Greece was the only Balkan country with a navy powerful enough to deny use of the Aegean to the Ottomans, thus a treaty became necessary between Greece and Bulgaria which signed in May 1912. Montenegro concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria later that year. Bulgaria signed treaties with Serbia to divide between them the territory of northern Macedonia, but such an agreement was clearly denied to Greece. Bulgaria's policy then was to use the agreement to limit Serbia's access to Macedonia, while at the same time denying any such agreement with Greece, believing that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of Aegean Macedonia and the important port city of Thessaloniki before the Greeks. The resulting alliance between Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro became known as the Balkan League; its existence was undesirable for all the Great Powers. The league was loose at best, though a secret liaison officer was exchanged between the Greek and the Serbian army after the war began. Greece delayed the start of the war several times in the summer of 1912, in order to better prepare her navy, but Montenegro declared war on October 8 (September 25 O.S.). Following an ultimatum to the Ottomans, the remaining members of the alliance entered the conflict on October 17. The First Balkan War Territorial changes as a result of the First Balkan war, as of April 1913 showing the prewar agreed line of expansion between Serbia and Bulgaria No formal plan existed between the Balkan allies on how to wage the war, except for some cooperation between Serbia and Montenegro over Novi Pazar. The war was practically four different wars fought against the same enemy, at the same time, and in the same region. The Ottoman plans called for the use of an army from Syria to be transferred in the Balkans as part of the defence. But this was depended over the result of the naval fighting with the Greek Navy. The Turks raised their normal forces and in order to make up for the shortfall they raised the Army of Axios, which proved to be of low quality. Before the ultimatum Montenegro first declared war on October 5. The main thrust was towards Shkodra, with secondary operations in the Novi Pazar area. Bulgaria attacked towards Eastern Thrace, being stopped only at the outskirts of Constantinople at the Çatalca line. Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Monastir. Meeting the Greek army later, they turned west towards the Adriatic. Greece landed forces in the Halkidiki peninsula while the main force of the army attacked from Thessaly into Macedonia through the Sarantaporo strait. After the invasion of Thessaloniki on 12 November (on 26 October 1912, O.S.) the Greek army linked up with the Serb army to the north, and turned west. Another Greek army had attacked into Epirus, and forces were deployed to that front. Balkan Wars Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The Turkish fleet twice exited the Dardanelles but was twice defeated from the Greek Navy in the battles of Elli and Lemnos. These naval battles assured the importance of the presence of the Greek Navy in the Allied Forces because with the Greek domination in Aegean Sea became impossible for the Ottomans to fulfill their plans in transferring troops in the Macedonian and Thracian fronts from the Middle East. After that the Greek Navy was also free to liberate the islands of the Aegean. "History of Greece" Encyclopædia Britannica Online In January after a coup, Turkey decided to continue the war. Bulgarian forces with the help of the Serbian Army managed to conquer Adrianople while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after defeating the Ottomans in the battle of Bizani. The war was ended with the Treaty of London on May 17, 1913. Second Balkan War Cholera was common among the soldiers Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries. The Second Balkan War broke out on 16 June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in the First Balkan War, Serbia and Greece, while Montenegro, Romania and the Ottoman Empire intervened later against Bulgaria. When the Greek army entered Thessaloniki in the First Balkan War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a day, they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a Greek unit to enter the city of Serres. The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out to be a brigade instead of a battalion and caused concern among the Greeks, who viewed it as an attempt to establish a condominium over the city. Due to the urgently needed reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian Headquarter agreed to remove it (along with the Greek unit from Serres) by mutual treaty and was transported to Dedeağaç (modern Alexandroupolis), but it left behind a battalion which soon became a regiment starting fortifying its positions. Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-occupied territory, since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of this railroad towards Thrace. In confirmation to the Greek concerns, Bulgaria not satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia, asked Greece to relinquish its control over Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria, effectively to hand over all Aegean Macedonia. These unacceptable demands together with the Bulgarian, refusal to demobilize its army after the Treaty of London had ended the common war against the Ottomans, alarmed Greece, which decided also to maintain its army's mobilization. Similarly, in northern Macedonia, the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to later aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between the nearby Armies, prompting Serbia to maintain its army's mobilization. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by one fourth, as a first step to facilitate a peaceful solution but Bulgaria rejected it.Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1922, Racial Map Of Europe by Hammond & Co. Seeing the omens Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty of mutual defense against an attack from Bulgaria and Austro-Hungaria on May 19/June 1, 1913. With this treaty, a mutual border was created between the two, together with an agreement for mutual diplomatic support. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the upcoming conflict on June 8, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion, caused Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902). On June 16, 1913 General Savov under the direct orders of the tsar Ferdinand I, issued attacking orders against both Greece and Serbia without consulting the Bulgarian government and without any official declaration of war. That day is to be called in Bulgarian history "the day of criminal madness". During the night of June 17, 1913 they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then the Greek army in Nigrita. The Serbian army amazingly resisted the sudden night attack, while most of soldiers did not even know who they are fighting with, as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbians and were considered allies. Montenegro forces were just a few kilometers away. Buglarian attack was halted. Greek army was also successful. Retreating according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of remaining Bulgarian regiment, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the Bulgarians at Kilkis-Lahanas. However, the Greek army did not enter the city of Serres in time to prevent it being razed by irregular Bulgarian units. The Greek army then divided their forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded east and occupied Western Thrace. The rest of the Greek army advanced up the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles and continued its advance to the north towards Sofia. In the Kresna straits the Greeks were ambushed by the Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Army newly arrived from the Serbian front that had already taken defensive positions there. By 30 July the Greek army outnumbering by the now counterattacking Bulgarian Armies was facing a defeat in a Cannae-type battle. The battle was continued for eleven days, between July 29 and August 9 over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion. The Greek King, realizing that the units he fought were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front ahead them was now thinner, but the Serbs, already under Russian pressure rejected it. After that, King Constantine listened to Eleftherios Venizelos' proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for armistice as this was communicated through Romania. Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on June 27 as it had from June 15 officially warned Bulgaria that it will not remain neutral in a new Balkan war, due to the Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra as promised before the First Balkan war, in exchange for the Romanian neutrality. They encountered little resistance from the Bulgarians, and by the time of the ceasefire they were only 30 kilometers from Sofia. Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army the Ottomans also decided to intervene. They attacked and find no opposition, they managed to retake Adrianople which had historic significance for the Turks, being a former Ottoman capital city. The Ottomans also managed to recover eastern Thrace, which had largely been lost in the First Balkan War, and thus regained a land mass in Europe which was only slightly larger than the present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey. Aftermath Ethnic exchanges & expulsions during the Balkan Wars The wars were an important precursor to World War I, to the extent that Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory and regional status. This concern was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia. Serbia's rise in power thus contributed to the two Central Powers' willingness to risk war following the assassination in Sarajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria in June 1914. Urlanis estimated in Voini I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi (1960) that in the first and second Balkan wars there were 122,000 killed in action, 20,000 dead of wounds, and 82,000 dead of disease. See also Since the area has been referred to as the Balkans, notable conflicts have included: The Ottoman wars in Europe The Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885) The Balkan campaigns of World War I (1914–1918) The Balkan campaigns of World War II (1940–1945) The Yugoslav wars (1991–1999) Balkan ethnic conflict in the 1940s Notes External links Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 1912-1913, by Jacob Gould Schurman US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars The Balkan crises, 1903–1914 Military uniforms and insignia of the Balkan Wars Balkan Wars: An Overview The New Student's Reference Work/The Balkans and the Peace of Europe Facts and historical notes about Macedonia and Bulgaria, contemporary historians obejectivism issues, etc. Balkan Wars from a Turkish perspective be-x-old:Балканскія войны | Balkan_Wars |@lemmatized balkan:36 war:42 two:5 south:3 eastern:6 europe:5 course:1 league:10 bulgaria:29 montenegro:10 greece:22 serbia:22 first:10 capture:1 ottoman:27 held:1 remain:4 part:5 thessaly:3 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1,387 | Adam_of_Bremen | Adam of Bremen (also: Adamus Bremensis) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. He is most famous for his chronicle Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church). Background Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen (Latin Misnia) in Saxony. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on October 12 of an unknown year (Possibly 1081, latest 1085). Gathering from his chronicles, he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of Magister Adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the Magdeburger Domschule. In 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg to join the Church of Bremen , since Adalbert believed he would improve the literary reputation of the diocese. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the cathedral's school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his Gesta. His position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather all kinds of information on the history and the geography of northern Germany. A stay at the court of Svend Estridson gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark, and the Scandinavian countries. Bremen was a major trading town, and ships, traders and missionaries went from there to many different locations. The earlier archbishopric seat in Hamburg had been attacked and destroyed several times, and thereafter the sees of Hamburg and Bremen were combined for protection. For three hundred years, beginning with bishop Ansgar, the Hamburg-Bremen archbishopric had been designated as the "Mission of the North" and had jurisdiction over all missions in Scandinavia, North-Western Russia, Iceland and Greenland. Then the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen had a falling-out with the pope and in 1105 a separate archbishopric for the North was established in Lund. Gesta Adam of Bremen's best-known work is the Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church), which he began only after the death of the archbishop Adalbert. It consists of four volumes about the history of the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, and the isles of the north. The first three mainly consist of history and the last one is mainly on geography. Adam based his works in part on Einhard, Cassiodorus, and other earlier historians, as he had the whole library of the church of Bremen at his fingertips. The first edition was completed in 1075/1076, but he continued to revise and update it until his death in the 1080s. The first book gives a history from 788 onwards of the Church in Hamburg-Bremen, and the Christian mission in the North. This is the chief source of knowledge of the North until the thirteenth century. The second book continues the history, and also deals with German history between 940 and 1045. The third book is about the deeds of archbishop Adalbert and is considered a milestone in medieval biographical writing. The fourth book, Descriptio insularum Aquilonis, completed approximately in 1075, is about the geography, people and customs of Scandinavia, as well as updates of the progress of Christian missionaries there. Adam was a supporter of converting the Northern people. Scandinavia had only just recently been explored by missionaries, and since the fourth book was perhaps created to inspire and guide future missionaries, its detailed descriptions make it one of the most important sources about pre-Christian Scandinavia. It is also the first known European record (in chapter 38) that mentions Vinland (Winland) island (insulam), a land centuries later possibly identified as Newfoundland, Canada, North America. See also Vinland Chronicon Slavorum Temple at Uppsala Birca Terra Feminarum Sources Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, English translation by F.J. Tschan, Columbia UP, 2002, ISBN 0-231-12575-5. Edition of the Gesta by Bernhard Schmeidler, Digitale Bibliothek der Monumenta Germaniae Historica 1917, including current edition of the Latin text Adam of Bremen, History of Hamburg's Bishops, short online text. English. Adam of Bremen, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, online text. German. Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, online text. 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1,388 | Labour_law | Labour law concerns the inequality of bargaining power between employers and workers. Labour law (also known as employment or labor law) is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees. In Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no such distinction is made. However, there are two broad categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work and through the contract for work. The labour movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labour rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the industrial revolution. Labour law history Labour law arose due to the demands of workers for better conditions, the right to organize, and the simultaneous demands of employers to restrict the powers of workers' many organizations and to keep labour costs low. Employers' costs can increase due to workers organizing to win higher wages, or by laws imposing costly requirements, such as health and safety or equal opportunities conditions. Workers' organizations, such as trade unions, can also transcend purely industrial disputes, and gain political power - which some employers may oppose. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of, and a component of, struggles between different interests in society. Contract of employment The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer between one another are mediated through the contract of employment between the two. This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism and is the core reality of modern economic relations. Many terms and conditions of the contract are however implied by legislation or common law, in such a way as to restrict the freedom of people to agree to certain things in order to protect employees, and facilitate a fluid labour market. One example in many countries e.g. In the European Union, Directive 91/533 is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the essentialia negotii (Latin for essential terms) to an employee. This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect and is expected; in terms of wages, holiday rights, notice in the event of dismissal, job description and so on. An employer may not legally offer a contract in which the employer pays the worker less than a minimum wage. An employee may not for instance agree to a contract which allows an employer to dismiss them unfairly. There are certain categories that people may simply not agree to because they are deemed categorically unfair. However, this depends entirely on the particular legislation of the country in which the work is. In the US, under the National Labor Relations Act, a worker has no right to organize where he is considered a manager, see NLRB v. Kentucky River Community Care, 532 U.S. 706 (2001) Minimum wage There may be law stating the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour. Australia, Canada, China, Belgium, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States and others have laws of this kind. The minimum wage is usually different from the lowest wage determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market, and therefore acts as a price floor. Each country sets its own minimum wage laws and regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimum wage, many developing countries have not. Minimum wage laws were first introduced nationally in the United States in 1938, India in 1948, France in 1950, and in the United Kingdom in 1999. In the European Union, 18 out of 25 member states currently have national minimum wages. Eurostat (2005): Minimum Wages 2005: Major Differences between EU Member States (PDF) Working time Before the Industrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours. With the growth of industrialism and the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, with 14-15 hours being the norm, and 16 not at all uncommon. Use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of persons working in the new water-powered textile factories were children. Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills The eight-hour movement's struggle finally led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England, limiting miners to 12 hours, and children to 8 hours. The 10-hour day was established in 1848, and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter. The 1802 Factory Act was the first labour law in the UK. After England, Germany was the first European country to pass labour laws; Chancellor Bismarck's main goal being to undermine the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). In 1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists continued gaining seats in the Reichstag. The Chancellor, then, adopted a different approach to tackling socialism. In order to appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms, which became the first type of social security. The year 1883 saw the passage of the Health Insurance Act, which entitled workers to health insurance; the worker paid two-thirds, and the employer one-third, of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while old age pensions and disability insurance were established in 1889. Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government. In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841. However, it limited only under-age miners' hours, and it was not until the Third Republic that labour law was effectively enforced, in particular after Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 law legalizing trade unions. With the Matignon Accords, the Popular Front (1936-38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacations for workers and the law limiting to 40 hours the workweek (outside of overtime). Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), a notorious, and now defunct case by the US Supreme Court that regulation of working time (for bakeries) to limit workers to a 10 hour day. Health and safety Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers. The earliest English factory law was drafted in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health of child textile workers. Anti-discrimination This clause means that discrimination against employees is morally unacceptable and illegal, on a variety of grounds, in particular racial discrimination or sexist discrimination. Unfair dismissal Convention no. 158 of the International Labour Organisation states that an employee "can't be fired without any legitimate motive" and "before offering him the possibility to defend himself". Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the French First Employment Contract (CPE), the Longjumeau (Essonne) conseil des prud'hommes (labour law court) judged the New Employment Contract (CNE) contrary to international law, and therefore "illegitimate" and "without any juridical value". The court considered that the two-years period of "fire at will" (without any legal motive) was "unreasonable", and contrary to convention no. 158, ratified by France. Child labour Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan "Abolish child slavery!!" at the 1909 May Day parade in New York City Child labour is the employment of children under an age determined by law or custom. This practice is considered exploitative by many countries and international organizations. Child labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only becoming a disputed issue with the beginning of universal schooling and the concepts of labourers' and children's rights. Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, having one's own small business (for example selling food), or doing odd jobs. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work as waiters). Other children are forced to do tedious and repetitive jobs such as assembling boxes, or polishing shoes. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour occurs in the informal sector, "selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny." Collective labour law Collective labour law concerns the tripartite relationship between employer, employee and trade unions. Trade unions, sometimes called "labour unions" are the form of workers' organization most commonly defined and legislated on in labour law. However, they are not the only variety. In the United States, for example, workers' centers are associations not bound by all of the laws relating to trade unions. Trade unions The law of some countries place requirements on unions to follow particular procedures before certain courses of action are adopted. For example, the requirement to ballot the membership before a strike, or in order to take a portion of members' dues for political projects. Laws may guarantee the right to join a union (banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect. Some legal codes may allow unions to place a set of obligations on their members, including the requirement to follow a majority decision in a strike vote. Some restrict this, such as the 'right to work' legislation in some of the United States. Strikes Strikers gathering in Tyldesley in the 1926 General Strike in the U.K. Strike action is the weapon of the workers most associated with industrial disputes, and certainly among the most powerful. In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of conditions. Among them may be that: The strike is decided on by a prescribed democratic process. (Wildcat strikes are illegal). Sympathy strikes, against a company by which workers are not directly employed, may be prohibited. General strikes may be forbidden by a public order. Certain categories of person may be forbidden to strike (airport personnel, health personnel, police or firemen, etc.) Strikes may be pursued by people continuing to work, as in Japanese strike actions which increase productivity to disrupt schedules, or in hospitals. A boycott is a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business who is generally believed by the participants in the boycott to be doing something morally wrong. Throughout history, workers have used tactics such as the go-slow, sabotage or just not turning up en-masse in order to gain more control over the workplace environment, or simply have to work less . Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it. Pickets Picketing is a tactic which is often used by workers during strikes. They may congregate outside the business which they are striking against, in order to make their presence felt, increase worker participation and dissuade (or prevent) strike breakers from entering the place of work. In many countries, this activity will be restricted both by labour law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or sometimes by injunctions on particular pickets. For example, labour law may restrict secondary picketing (picketing a business not directly connected with the dispute, such as a supplier of materials), or flying pickets (mobile strikers who travel in order to join a picket). There may be laws against obstructing others from going about their lawful business (scabbing, for example, is lawful); making obstructive pickets illegal, and, in some countries, such as Britain, there may be court orders made from time to time against pickets being in particular places or behaving in particular ways (shouting abuse, for example). Workplace involvement Workplace consolation statutes exist in many countries, requiring that employers consult their workers on issues that concern their place in the company. Industrial democracy refers to the same idea, but taken much further. Not only that workers should have a voice to be listened to, but that workers have a vote to be counted. Co-determination Originating in Germany, some form of co-determination (or Mitbestimmung) procedure is practiced in countries across continental Europe, such as Holland and the Czech Republic. This involves the rights of workers to be represented on the boards of companies for whom they work. The German model involves half the board of directors being appointed by the company trade union. However, German company law uses a split board system, with a 'supervisory board' (Aufsichtsrat) which appoints an 'executive board' (Vorstand). Shareholders and unions elect the supervisory board in equal number, except that the head of the supervisory board is, under co-determination law, a shareholder representative. While not gaining complete parity, there has been solid political consensus since the Helmut Schmidt social democrat government introduced the measure in 1976. In Britain, the similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced named the Bullock Report (Industrial democracy). This was released in 1977 by the James Callaghan Labour government. This proposal involved a similar split on the board, but its effect would have been even more radical. Because U.K. company law requires no split in the boards of directors, unions would have directly elected the management of the company. Furthermore, rather than giving shareholders the slight upper hand as happened in Germany, a debated 'independent' element would be added to the board, reaching the formula 2x + y. However, no action was ever taken as the U.K. slid into the winter of discontent. This tied into the European Commission's proposals for worker participation in the 'fifth company law directive', which was also never implemented. International labour law One of the crucial concerns of workers and those who believe that labour rights are important, is that in a globalizing economy, common social standards ought to support economic development in common markets. However, there is nothing in the way of international enforcement of labour rights, with the notable exception of labour law within the European Union. At the Doha round of trade talks through the World Trade Organization one of the items for discussion was the inclusion of some kind of minimum standard of worker protection. The chief question is whether, with the breaking down of trade barriers in the international economy, while this can benefit consumers it can also make the ability of multinational companies to bargain down wage costs even greater, in wealthier Western countries and developing nations alike. The ability of corporations to shift their supply chains from one country to another with relative ease could be the starting gun for a "regulatory race to the bottom", whereby nation states are forced into a merciless downward spiral, not only slashing tax rates and public services with it but also laws that in the short term cost employers money. Countries are forced to follow suit, on this view, because should they not foreign investment will dry up, move places with lower "burdens" and leave more people jobless and poor. This argument is by no means uncontested. The opposing view suggests that free competition for capital investment between different countries increases the dynamic efficiency of the market place. Faced with the discipline that markets enforce, countries are incentivized to invest in education, training and skills in their workforce in order to obtain a comparative advantage. Government initiative will be spurred, because rational long term investment will be perceived as the better choice to increasing regulation. This theory concludes that an emphasis on deregulation is more beneficial than not. That said, neither the International labour organization, nor the European Union takes this view. International Labour Organization The International Labour Organization (ILO), whose headquarters are in Geneva, is one of the oldest surviving international bodies, and the only surviving international body set up at the time of the League of Nations following the First World War. Its guiding principle is that "labour is not a commodity" to be traded in the same way as goods, services or capital, and that human dignity demands equality of treatment and fairness in dealing within the workplace. See the article International Labour Law or the whole Globalization and Workers' Rights section at the Actrav Distance Learning Project of the International Labour Organization The ILO has drawn up numerous conventions on what ought to be the labour standards adopted by countries party to it. Countries are then obliged to ratify the Conventions in their own national law. However, there is no enforcement of this, and in practice most conventions are not agreed to, even if they are adhered to. European labour law The European Working Time Directive limited the maximum length of a working week to 48 hours in 7 days, and a minimum rest period of 11 hours in each 24 hours. Like all EU Directives, this is an instrument which requires member states to enact its provisions in national legislation. Although the directive applies to all member states, in the UK it is possible to "opt out" of the 48 hour working week in order to work longer hours. In contrast, France has passed more strict legislation, limiting the maximum working week to 35 hours (but optional hours are still possible). The controversial Directive on services in the internal market (aka "Bolkestein Directive") was then passed in 2006. National labour law Australian labour law British labour law The Factory Acts (first one in 1802, then 1833) and the 1832 Master and Servant Act were the first laws regulating labour relations in the United Kingdom. The vast majority of employment law before 1960 was based upon the Law of Contract. Since then there has been a significant expansion primarily due to the "equality movement" and the European Union. There are three sources of Law: Acts of Parliament called Statutes, Statutory Regulations (made by a Secretary of State under and Act of Parliament) and Case Law (developed by various Courts). The first significant modern day Employment Law Act was the Equal Pay Act of 1970 although as it was a somewhat radical concept it did not come into effect until 1972. This act was introduced as part of a concerted effort to bring about equality for women in the workplace. Since the election of the Labour Government in 1997, there have been many changes in UK employment law. These include enhanced maternity and paternity rights, the introduction of a National Minimum Wage and the Working Time Directive which covers working time, rest breaks and the right to paid annual leave. Discrimination law has also been tightened, with protection from discrimination now available on the grounds of age, religion or belief and sexual orientation as well as gender, race and disability. Canadian labour law In Canadian law, 'labour law' refers to matters connected with unionized workplaces, while 'employment law' deals with non-unionised employees. Chinese labour law Labour Law in China has become a very hot issue with the soaring numbers of factories and the fast pace of urbanization. The basic labour laws are the Labour Law of People's Republic of China (promulgated on 5 July 1994) and the Law of the People's Republic of China on Employment Contracts (Adopted at the 28th Session of the Standing Committee of the 10th National People's Congress on June 29, 2007, Effective from January 1, 2008). The administrative regulations enacted by the State Council, the ministerial rules and the judicial explanations of the Supreme People’s Court stipulate detailed rules concerning the various aspects of the employment relationship. Labour Union in China is controlled by the government through the All China Federation of Trade Unions, which is also the sole legal labour union in Mainland China. Strike is formally legal, but in fact is strictly forbidden. French labour law In France the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limiting the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise.<ref>fr:section syndicale d'entreprise December 27, 1968 law</ref> The minimum wage was also increased by 25%. fr:SMIG In 2000 Lionel Jospin's government then enacted the 35-hour workweek, down from 39 hours. Five years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE). Addressing the demands of employers asking for more flexibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked criticism from trade unions and opponents claiming it was lending favour to contingent work. In 2006 he then attempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE) through a vote by emergency procedure, but that it was met by students and unions' protests. President Jacques Chirac finally had no choice but to repeal it. Iranian labour law Mexican labour law Mexican labor law governs the process by which workers in Mexico may organize labor unions, engage in collective bargaining, and strike. Current labor law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers, the labor confederation officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI), which ruled Mexico under various names for more than seventy years. While the law, on its face, promises workers the right to strike and to organize, in practice it makes it difficult or impossible for independent unions to organize while condoning the corrupt practices of many existing unions and the employers with which they deal. United States labor law An American builder In the United States, employers generally accepted the 8-hour day as of 1912. The Wages and Hours Act of 1938 set the maximum standard work week to 44 hours, and in 1950 this was reduced to 40 hours. The green cards entitle legal immigrants to work permits, although an illegal alien may often work in the States because of compartmentalization of various bureaucratic entities. Despite the 40-hour standard maximum work week, some lines of work require more than 40-hours to complete the tasks of the job. For example, if you prepare agricultural products for market you can work over 72 hours a week, if you want to, but you cannot be required to. If you harvest products you must get a period of 24 hours off after working up to 72 hours in a seven-day period. There are exceptions to the 24 hours break period for certain harvesting employees, like those involved in harvesting grapes, tree fruits and cotton. Professionals, clerical (administrative assistants), technical, and mechanical employees can not be terminated for refusing to work more than 72 hours in a workweek. The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate. The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution. The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of "life, liberty, or property," without due process of the law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the laws. The Fourteenth Amendment explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection. Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a "liberty," like the right to free speech, or a property interest. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older. This Act was created to promote employment of older persons based on their ability rather than age; to prohibit arbitrary age discrimination in employment; to help employers and workers find ways of meeting problems arising from the impact of age on employment because in the face of rising productivity and affluence, older workers find themselves disadvantaged in their efforts to retain employment, and especially to regain employment when displaced from jobs; the setting of arbitrary age limits regardless of potential for job performance has become a common practice, and certain otherwise desirable practices may work to the disadvantage of older persons; the incidence of unemployment, especially long-term unemployment with resultant deterioration of skill, morale, and employer acceptability is, relative to the younger ages, high among older workers; their numbers are great and growing; and their employment problems grave; and the existence in industries affecting commerce, of arbitrary discrimination in employment because of age, burdens commerce and the free flow of goods in commerce. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labor organizations, training programs and employment agencies based on race or color, religion, sex, and national origin. Retaliation is also prohibited by Title VII against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available to Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to jury trial. See also Collective bargaining Contingent work Labour market flexibility Industrial relations Legal working age and child labour Labour movement Master and Servant Act Right-to-work law Social security Sweat shops Unfair labor practice Union Organizer Vicarious liability Weekends WorkChoices Workplace Fairness Notes Further reading Norman Selwyn, Selwyn's Law of Employment (2008) Oxford University Press Simon Honeyball, Honeyball and Bowers' Textbook on Employment Law (2008) Oxford University Press Keith Ewing, Aileen McColgan and Hugh Collins, Labour Law, Cases, Texts and Materials (2005) Hart Publishing Simon Deakin and Gillian Morris, Labour Law (2005) Hart Publishing ISBN 9781841135601 Keshawn Walker and Arn Morell, "Labor and Employment: Workplace Warzone''", Georgetown University Thesis (2005) External links Labour Legislation page from 1911 Encyclopedia.org, Encyclopedia Brittanica's 1911 edition Employment, Labor Laws Faith Community and The Law, ISBN 978-1-4092-0952-2 British employment law at emplaw.co.uk Overview article on Austrian labour law Overview article on Georgian labour law at Getsadze & Pateishvili Law Office Summary of Dutch labour law in English Other articles on Austrian labour law (mainly in German language) Labor and Worklife Program at Harvard Law School Repression Against the IWW FindUSLaw United States Employment Law California Labor Code Foreign Countries - Labor, Employment & Income Data, Policy & Law Research Guide from the Mississippi State University Libraries Labor and Employment Law Subject Guide from Catherwood Library, ILR School, Cornell University British Employment Law Training Employment Law Advice Employment Law Training All China Federation of Trade Unions Labour Related Laws and Regulations of P.R.China | Labour_law |@lemmatized labour:78 law:110 concern:7 inequality:1 bargain:2 power:6 employer:21 worker:37 also:11 know:2 employment:41 labor:15 body:3 administrative:3 ruling:1 precedent:1 address:2 legal:8 right:24 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1,389 | Bakassi | Bakassi is the peninsular extension of the African territory of Calabar into the Atlantic Ocean. It is currently ruled by Cameroon following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring Nigeria Full ownership transferred as a result of a judgment by the International Court of Justice. On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate rejected the transfer, since the Green Tree Agreement ceding the area to Cameroon was contrary to Section 12(1) of the 1999 Constitution. Regardless, the territory was formally transferred to Cameroon on August 14 2008. The Nigeria-Cameroon border region on the coast from a 1963 map, with Bakassi peninsula in the middle Geography and economy The peninsula lies roughly between latitudes 4°25' and 5°10'N and longitudes 8°20' and 9°08'E . It consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665 km². The population of Bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000 and 300,000 people. Bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea, where the warm east-flowing Guinea Current (called Aya Efiat in Efik) meets the cold north-flowing Benguela Current (called Aya Ubenekang in Efik). These two great ocean currents interact creating huge foamy breakers which constantly advance towards the shore, and building submarine shoals rich in fish, shrimps, and an amazing variety of other marine life forms. This makes the Bakassi area a very fertile fishing ground, comparable only to Newfoundland in North America and Scandinavia in Western Europe. Most of the population make their living through fishing. The peninsula is commonly described as "oil-rich", though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have yet been discovered. However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of rich reserves of high grade crude oil elsewhere in Nigeria. At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula and its offshore waters. History A kingdom was founded in Bakassi around 1450 by the Efik of coastal southeastern Nigeria, and was incorporated within the political framework of Calabar Kingdom along with Southern Cameroons. During the European scramble for Africa, Queen Victoria signed a Treaty of Protection with the King and Chiefs of Calabar on 10 September 1884. This enabled the United Kingdom to exercise control over the entire territory of Calabar, including Bakassi. The territory subsequently became de facto part of the republic of Nigeria, although the border was never permanently delineated. Interestingly, even after Southern Cameroons voted in 1961 to leave Nigeria and became a part of Cameroon, Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgement of 2002. The Bakassi Story Bakassi People Bakassi people are mainly the Calabar people, the people of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, including the Efut, Efik, Ibibio, Annang, etc. Political status Bakassi is currently administered by Cameroon after the end of Nigerian occupation. The current Monarch of Bakassi is Etinyin Etim Okon Edet an EFUT man of Nigeria. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2007/11/mil-071115-irin05.htm Territorial dispute Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years, leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In 1981 the two countries went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around Lake Chad, at the other end of the two countries' common border. More armed clashes broke out in the early 1990s. In response, Cameroon took the matter to the International Court of Justice on 29 March 1994. http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/earticles/equatorial_guinea_and_the_bakass.htm The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years. Nigeria relied largely on Anglo-German correspondence dating from 1885 as well as treaties between the colonial powers and the indigenous rulers in the area, particularly the 1884 Treaty of Protection. Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of 1913, which defined spheres of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the 1970s between Cameroon and Nigeria. These were the Yaoundé II Declaration of 4 April 1971 and the Maroua Declaration of 1 June 1975, which were devised to outline maritime boundaries between the two countries following their independence. The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, thereby implying Cameroonian ownership over Bakassi. However, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force. ICJ verdict The ICJ delivered its judgment on 10 October 2002, finding (based principally on the Anglo-German agreements) that sovereignty over Bakassi did indeed rest with Cameroon. It instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality. Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare. http://nigeriaworld.com/articles/2002/dec/273.html The verdict caused consternation in Nigeria. It aroused vitriolic comments from Nigerian officials and the Nigerian media alike. Chief Richard Akinjide, a former Nigerian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice who had been a leading member of Nigeria's legal team, described the decision as "50% international law and 50% international politics", "blatantly biased and unfair", "a total disaster", and a "complete fraud". The Nigerian newspaper The Guardian went further, declaring that the judgment was "a rape and unforeseen potential international conspiracy against Nigerian territorial integrity and sovereignty" and "part of a Western ploy to foment and perpetuate trouble in Africa". The outcome of the controversy was a de facto Nigerian refusal to withdraw militarily from Bakassi and transfer sovereignty. The Nigerian government did not, however, openly reject the judgment but instead called for an agreement that would provide "peace with honour, with the interest and welfare of our people." http://www.thisdayonline.com/archive/2002/10/30/20021030news03.html The ICJ judgment was backed up by the United Nations, whose charter potentially allowed sanctions or even the use of force to enforce the court's ruling. Secretary-General Kofi Annan stepped in as a mediator and chaired a tripartite summit with the two countries' presidents on 15 November 2002, which established a commission to facilitate the peaceful implementation of the ICJ's judgement. A further summit was held on 31 January 2004. This has made significant progress, but the process has been complicated by the opposition of Bakassi's inhabitants to being transferred to Cameroon. http://www.wwenglish.com/en/voa/stan/2006/08/2006080813544.htm Bakassian leaders threatened to seek independence if Nigeria renounced sovereignty. This secession was announced on 9 July 2006, as the "Democratic Republic of Bakassi". The decision was reportedly made at a meeting on 2 July 2006 and The Vanguard newspaper of Nigeria reported the decision to secede. The decision was reportedly made by groups of militants including Southern Cameroons under the aegis of Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), Bakassi Movement for Self-Determination (BAMOSD), and the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). http://www.postnewsline.com/2008/07/rebels-declare.html Resolution On 13 June 2006, President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria and President Paul Biya of Cameroon resolved the dispute in talks led by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in New York City. Obasanjo agreed to withdraw Nigerian troops within 60 days and to leave the territory completely in Cameroonian control within the next two years. Annan said, "With today's agreement on the Bakassi peninsula, a comprehensive resolution of the dispute is within our grasp. The momentum achieved must be sustained." allAfrica.com: Cameroon: Presidents Obasanjo And Biya Shake Hands On Disputed Bakassi Peninsula (Page 1 of 1) Withdrawal Nigeria began to withdraw its military, comprising some 3000 troops, beginning 1 August 2006, and a ceremony on 14 August marked the formal handover of the northern part of the peninsula. The remainder will stay under Nigerian civil authority for two more years. BBC NEWS | Africa | Nigeria hands Bakassi to Cameroon Nigeria Senate ruled on November 22, 2007 that the hand over of Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon is illegal. The federal government is yet to take action. The government handed the final parts of Bakassi over to Cameroon on 14 August 2008 as planned, but a court had stated this should be delayed until all accommodations for resettled Bakassians had been settled; the government did not seem to plan to heed this court order, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7537020.stm and did set the necessary mechanisms into motion to override it. Fishermen displaced from Bakassi had been settled in a landlocked area called New Bakassi, which they claim is already inhabited and not suitable for fishermen like them but only for farmers. http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90777/90855/6464970.html References External links International Court of Justice, press release on decision Nigerian Government official statement in response to the ruling[Adey] BBC News report on handover, 8 August 2006 BBC News report on handover, 14 August 2008 Archive of Articles on the Bakassi conundrum | Bakassi |@lemmatized bakassi:29 peninsular:1 extension:1 african:1 territory:5 calabar:6 atlantic:1 ocean:2 currently:2 rule:2 cameroon:23 follow:2 transfer:7 sovereignty:5 neighbour:1 nigeria:22 full:1 ownership:2 result:1 judgment:5 international:6 court:7 justice:4 november:3 nigerian:13 senate:2 reject:2 since:1 green:1 tree:1 agreement:6 cede:1 area:7 contrary:1 section:1 constitution:1 regardless:1 formally:1 august:6 border:3 region:2 coast:1 map:1 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1,390 | Elementary_event | In probability theory, an elementary event or atomic event is a subset of a sample space that contains only one element. It is important to note that an elementary event is still a set containing an element of the sample space, not that element itself. However, elementary events are often written as elements rather than sets for simplicity, where this is unambiguous. Examples of sample spaces, S, and elementary events include: If objects are being counted, and the sample space S = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} (the natural numbers), then the elementary events are all sets {k}, where k ∈ N. If a coin is tossed twice, S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}, H for heads and T for tails, and the elementary events are {HH}, {HT}, {TH} and {TT}. If X is a normally distributed random variable, S = (-∞, +∞), the real numbers, and the elementary events are all sets {x}, where x ∈ R. This example shows that a continuous probability distribution is not determined by the probabilities assigned to atomic events, since all of those are zero. Elementary events may have probabilities that are strictly positive, zero, undefined, or any combination thereof. For instance, any discrete probability distribution is determined by the probabilities it assigns to what may be called elementary events. In contrast, all elementary events have probability zero under any continuous distribution. Mixed distributions, being neither entirely continuous nor entirely discrete, may contain atoms, which can be thought of as elementary (that is, atomic) events with non-zero probabilities. Under the measure-theoretic definition of a probability space, the probability of an elementary event need not even be defined, since mathematicians distinguish between the sample space S and the events of interest, defined by the elements of a σ-algebra on S. | Elementary_event |@lemmatized probability:10 theory:1 elementary:12 event:15 atomic:3 subset:1 sample:5 space:6 contain:3 one:1 element:5 important:1 note:1 still:1 set:4 however:1 often:1 write:1 rather:1 simplicity:1 unambiguous:1 example:2 include:1 object:1 count:1 natural:1 number:2 k:2 n:1 coin:1 toss:1 twice:1 hh:2 ht:2 th:2 tt:2 h:1 head:1 tail:1 x:3 normally:1 distributed:1 random:1 variable:1 real:1 r:1 show:1 continuous:3 distribution:4 determine:2 assign:2 since:2 zero:4 may:3 strictly:1 positive:1 undefined:1 combination:1 thereof:1 instance:1 discrete:2 call:1 contrast:1 mixed:1 neither:1 entirely:2 atom:1 think:1 non:1 measure:1 theoretic:1 definition:1 need:1 even:1 define:2 mathematician:1 distinguish:1 interest:1 σ:1 algebra:1 |@bigram coin_toss:1 distributed_random:1 random_variable:1 probability_distribution:2 σ_algebra:1 |
1,391 | Hawick | Hawick () is a town in the Scottish Borders in the south east of Scotland. It is best-known for its annual Common Riding. It is one of the farthest towns from the sea in Scotland, in the heart of Teviotdale and the largest town in the former county of Roxburghshire. It is also known for quality knitwear production. Hawick has distinctive sandstone buildings with slate roofs. Communications View along Hawick High Street. Hawick lies in the valley of the Teviot at the point where the River Slitrig joins it. The A7 Edinburgh to Carlisle road passes through the town, with main roads also leading to Berwick upon Tweed (the A698) and Newcastle upon Tyne (the A6088, which joins the A68 at the Carter Bar, south-east of Hawick). Despite a great deal of local opposition the town lost its rail service in 1969, as part of the controversial Beeching Axe and is now said to be the farthest large town from a railway station in the United Kingdom. However there is a regular bus service to the railway station at Carlisle, away. There are plans to reinstate the line. The nearest airports are at Edinburgh and Newcastle. Local Traditions The town host the annual Common Riding, which combines the annual riding of the boundaries of the town's common land with the commemoration of a victory of local youths over an English raiding party in 1514. In March 2007 this was described by the Rough Guide tourism guide as one of the best parties in the world. People from Hawick call themselves "Teries", after a traditional song which includes the line "Teribus ye teri odin". Sports The town is the home of Hawick Rugby Football Club and a senior football team, Hawick Royal Albert, who currently play in the East of Scotland Football League. Rivalry between the small Border towns is generally played out on the rugby union field and the historical antagonism continues to this day, Hawick's main rival being the similarly-sized town of Galashiels. Ba game The Hawick Baw game was once played here by the 'uppies' and the 'doonies' on the first Monday after the new moon in the month of February. The river of the town formed an important part of the pitch. Although no longer played at Hawick, it is still played at nearby Jedburgh. Teri Talk Many Hawick residents speak the local dialect of Border Scots which is informally known as "Teri Talk". It is similar (but not identical by any means) to the dialects spoken in surrounding towns, especially Jedburgh, Langholm and Selkirk. The speech of this general area was described in "Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland" (1873) by James Murray, this being considered the first systematic study of any dialect. The Hawick tongue retains many elements of Old English, together with particular vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation, these peculiarities arising from the relative isolation of the town. Town twinning Hawick's French twin town is Bailleul, in the Nord département. References External links Hawick News Visit Scotland's page Further reading Murray, James (1870-72, 1873) The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, London: Philological Society. See also Dame Isobel Baillie Sir Chay Blyth Brian Bonsor John Brunton Daykins VC Jimmie Guthrie Nigel Griffiths Hawick Rugby Football Club Hawick Royal Albert F.C. James Paris Lee Bill McLaren James Murray Wilfred Pickles Anne Redpath Henry Scott Riddell Francis George Scott Kirsten Scott Thomas Andrew Smith David Wallace James Wilson Wilson, Keppel and Betty Sir John Blackwood McEwen Scocha - a popular folk-rock band from the town. External links Hawick Website The Online Resource for Hawick Hawick News Hawick Legion F.C. Hawick Waverley F.C. Hawick Common Riding Website Hawick Callants Club Visit Scotland Southern Scots Old Photographs Of Hawick And The Scottish Borders Photos Of Hawick Picture of the ba game at Hawick dated 1904 Letter to the Editor of 'The Times' on the Hawick Ba game (1928) A Hawick Wordbook - Douglas Scott | Hawick |@lemmatized hawick:29 town:17 scottish:2 border:4 south:2 east:3 scotland:7 best:2 know:3 annual:3 common:4 riding:3 one:2 farthest:2 sea:1 heart:1 teviotdale:1 large:2 former:1 county:3 roxburghshire:1 also:3 quality:1 knitwear:1 production:1 distinctive:1 sandstone:1 building:1 slate:1 roof:1 communication:1 view:1 along:1 high:1 street:1 lie:1 valley:1 teviot:1 point:1 river:2 slitrig:1 join:2 edinburgh:2 carlisle:2 road:2 pass:1 main:2 lead:1 berwick:1 upon:2 tweed:1 newcastle:2 tyne:1 carter:1 bar:1 despite:1 great:1 deal:1 local:4 opposition:1 lose:1 rail:1 service:2 part:2 controversial:1 beeching:1 axe:1 say:1 railway:2 station:2 united:1 kingdom:1 however:1 regular:1 bus:1 away:1 plan:1 reinstate:1 line:2 near:1 airport:1 tradition:1 host:1 combine:1 boundary:1 land:1 commemoration:1 victory:1 youth:1 english:2 raid:1 party:2 march:1 describe:2 rough:1 guide:2 tourism:1 world:1 people:1 call:1 teries:1 traditional:1 song:1 include:1 teribus:1 ye:1 teri:3 odin:1 sport:1 home:1 rugby:3 football:4 club:3 senior:1 team:1 royal:2 albert:2 currently:1 play:5 league:1 rivalry:1 small:1 generally:1 union:1 field:1 historical:1 antagonism:1 continue:1 day:1 rival:1 similarly:1 sized:1 galashiels:1 ba:3 game:4 baw:1 uppies:1 doonies:1 first:2 monday:1 new:1 moon:1 month:1 february:1 form:1 important:1 pitch:1 although:1 long:1 still:1 nearby:1 jedburgh:2 talk:2 many:2 resident:1 speak:2 dialect:5 scot:2 informally:1 similar:1 identical:1 mean:1 surround:1 especially:1 langholm:1 selkirk:1 speech:1 general:1 area:1 southern:3 james:5 murray:3 consider:1 systematic:1 study:1 tongue:1 retain:1 element:1 old:2 together:1 particular:1 vocabulary:1 grammar:1 pronunciation:1 peculiarity:1 arise:1 relative:1 isolation:1 twin:2 french:1 bailleul:1 nord:1 département:1 reference:1 external:2 link:2 news:2 visit:2 page:1 far:1 reading:1 london:1 philological:1 society:1 see:1 dame:1 isobel:1 baillie:1 sir:2 chay:1 blyth:1 brian:1 bonsor:1 john:2 brunton:1 daykins:1 vc:1 jimmie:1 guthrie:1 nigel:1 griffith:1 f:3 c:3 paris:1 lee:1 bill:1 mclaren:1 wilfred:1 pickle:1 anne:1 redpath:1 henry:1 scott:4 riddell:1 francis:1 george:1 kirsten:1 thomas:1 andrew:1 smith:1 david:1 wallace:1 wilson:2 keppel:1 betty:1 blackwood:1 mcewen:1 scocha:1 popular:1 folk:1 rock:1 band:1 website:2 online:1 resource:1 legion:1 waverley:1 rid:1 callants:1 photograph:1 photo:1 picture:1 dated:1 letter:1 editor:1 time:1 wordbook:1 douglas:1 |@bigram upon_tyne:1 rugby_union:1 external_link:2 |
1,392 | Atomic_orbital | An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. The term may also refer to the physical region defined by the function where the electron is likely to be. Specifically, atomic orbitals are the possible quantum states of an individual electron in the electron cloud around a single atom, as described by the function. Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals (left) is arranged by increasing energy (see Madelung rule). Note that atomic orbits are functions of three variables (two angles, and the distance from the nucleus, r). These images are faithful to the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely representative of the orbital as a whole. The term "orbital" was coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932. However, the idea that electrons might revolve around a compact nucleus with definite angular momentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier by Niels Bohr, and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic behavior as early as 1904. Explaining the behavior of these electron "orbits" was one of the driving forces behind the development of quantum mechanics. Atomic orbitals are typically described as hydrogen-like wave functions over space, indexed by the n, l, and m quantum numbers or by the names used in electron configurations, as shown on the right. Despite the obvious analogy to planets revolving around the Sun, electrons cannot be described as solid particles and so atomic orbitals rarely, if ever, resemble a planet's elliptical path. A more accurate analogy might be that of a large and often oddly-shaped atmosphere (the electron), distributed around a relatively tiny planet (the atomic nucleus). Because of the difference from classical mechanical orbits, the term "orbit" for electrons in atoms, has been replaced with the term orbital. The orbital names (s, p, d, f) are derived from the characteristics of their spectroscopic lines: sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental, the rest being named in alphabetical order. Orbital names Orbitals are given names in the form: where X is the energy level corresponding to the principal quantum number n, type is a lower-case letter denoting the shape or subshell of the orbital and it corresponds to the angular quantum number l, and y is the number of electrons in that orbital. For example, the orbital 1s2 (pronounced "one ess two") has two electrons and is the lowest energy level (n = 1) and has an angular quantum number of l = 0. In X-ray notation, the principal quantum number is given a letter associated with it. For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ....., the letters associated with those numbers are K, L, M, N, O .... respectively. Formal quantum mechanical definition In quantum mechanics, the state of an atom, i.e. the eigenstates of the atomic Hamiltonian, is expanded (see configuration interaction expansion and basis (linear algebra)) into linear combinations of anti-symmetrized products (Slater determinants) of one-electron functions. The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called atomic orbitals. (When one considers also their spin component, one speaks of atomic spin orbitals.) In atomic physics, the atomic spectral lines correspond to transitions (quantum leaps) between quantum states of an atom. These states are labelled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated to particular electron configurations, i.e. by occupations schemes of atomic orbitals (e.g. 1s2 2s2 2p6 for the ground state of neon -- term symbol: 1S0). This notation means that the corresponding Slater determinants have a clear higher weight in the configuration interaction expansion. The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated to a given transition. For example, one can say for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital. Nevertheless one has to keep in mind that electrons are fermions ruled by Pauli exclusion principle and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one-determinantal wave function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is large. Fundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wavefunction, even though most electrons do not exist in one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often given an orbital vision which (even if it is not spelled out) is heavily influenced by this Hartree–Fock approximation, which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory. Connection to uncertainty relation Immediately after Heisenberg discovered his uncertainty relation, it was noted by Bohr that the existence of any sort of wave packet implies uncertainty in the wave frequency and wavelength, since a spread of frequencies is needed to create the packet itself. In quantum mechanics, where all particle momenta are associated with waves, it is the formation of such a wave packet which localizes the wave, and thus the particle, in space. In states where a quantum mechanical particle is bound, it must be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the packet and its minimum size implies a spread and minimal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momentum and energy. In quantum mechanics, as a particle is localized to a smaller region in space, the associated compressed wave packet requires a larger and larger range of momenta, and thus larger kinetic energy. Thus, the binding energy to contain or trap a particle in a smaller region of space, increases without bound, as the region of space grows smaller. Particles cannot be restricted to a geometric point in space, since this would require an infinite particle momentum. In chemistry, Schrödinger, Pauling, Mulliken and others noted that the consequence of Heisenberg's relation was that the electron, as a wave packet, could not be considered to have an exact location in its orbital. Max Born suggested that the electron's position needed to be described by a probability distribution which was connected with finding the electron at some point in the wave-function which described its associated wave packet. The new quantum mechanics did not give exact results, but only the probabilities for the occurrence of a variety of possible such results. Heisenberg held that the path of a moving particle has no meaning if we cannot observe it, as we cannot with electrons in an atom. In the quantum picture of Heisenberg, Schrödinger and others, the Bohr atom number n for each orbital became known as an n-sphere in a three dimensional atom and was pictured as the mean energy of the probability cloud of the electron's wave packet which surrounded the atom. Although Heisenberg used infinite sets of positions for the electron in his matrices, this does not mean that the electron could be anywhere in the universe. Rather there are several laws that show the electron must be in one localized probability distribution. An electron is described by its energy in Bohr's atom which was carried over to matrix mechanics. Therefore, an electron in a certain n-sphere had to be within a certain range from the nucleus depending upon its energy. This restricts its location. Hydrogen-like atoms The simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron, such as the hydrogen atom. In this case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen Hamiltonian. They can be obtained analytically (see hydrogen atom). An atom of any other element ionized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the orbitals take the same form. For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are qualitatively similar to those of hydrogen, and in the simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical approximations must be used. A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three quantum numbers: n, l, and ml. The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table. The stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbital. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending "mixtures" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method. The quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model. It determines, among other things, the distance of the electron from the nucleus; all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same distance. Modern quantum mechanics confirms that these orbitals are closely related. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of n are said to comprise a "shell". Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of l are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a "subshell". Qualitative characterization Limitations on the quantum numbers An atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers, and each set of the three quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital, but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values. The rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows: The principal quantum number n is always a positive integer. In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with each value of n; these orbitals together are sometimes called electron shells. The azimuthal quantum number is a non-negative integer. Within a shell where n is some integer n0, ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation . For instance, the n = 1 shell has only orbitals with , and the n = 2 shell has only orbitals with , and . The set of orbitals associated with a particular value of are sometimes collectively called a subshell. The magnetic quantum number is also always an integer. Within a subshell where is some integer , ranges thus: . The above results may be summarized in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of available in that subshell. Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist. 1 2 3 4 ... 2 0 -1, 0, 1 3 0 -1, 0, 1 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 4 0 -1, 0, 1 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 5 0 -1, 0, 1 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Subshells are usually identified by their - and -values. is represented by its numerical value, but is represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may speak of the subshell with and as a '2s subshell'. The shapes of orbitals The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px,2py, and 2pz. The colors show the wavefunction phase. Any discussion of the shapes of electron orbitals is necessarily imprecise, because a given electron, regardless of which orbital it occupies, can at any moment be found at any distance from the nucleus and in any direction due to the uncertainty principle. However, the electron is much more likely to be found in certain regions of the atom than in others. Given this, a boundary surface can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found anywhere within the surface, and all regions outside the surface have low values. The precise placement of the surface is arbitrary, but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of , the square of the wavefunction. This boundary surface is what is meant when the "shape" of an orbital is mentioned. Generally speaking, the number determines the size and energy of the orbital: as increases, the size of the orbital increases. Also in general terms, determines an orbital's shape, and its orientation. However, since some orbitals are described by equations in complex numbers, the shape sometimes depends on also. The single -orbitals () are shaped like spheres. For n=1 the sphere is "solid" (it is most dense at the center and fades exponentially outwardly), but for n=2 or more, each single s-orbital is composed of spherically symmetric surfaces which are nested shells (i.e., the "wave-structure" is radial, following a sinusoidal radial component as well). The -orbitals for all n numbers are the only orbitals with an anti-node (a region of high wave function density) at the center of the nucleus. All other orbitals (p, d, f, etc.) have angular momentum, and thus avoid the nucleus (having a wave node at the nucleus). The three -orbitals have the form of two ellipsoids with a point of tangency at the nucleus (sometimes referred to as a dumbbell). The three -orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as determined by their respective values of . Four of the five -orbitals look similar, each with four pear-shaped balls, each ball tangent to two others, and the centers of all four lying in one plane, between a pair of axes. Three of these planes are the -, -, and -planes, and the fourth has the centres on the and axes. The fifth and final -orbital consists of three regions of high probability density: a torus with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its axis. There are seven -orbitals, each with shapes more complex than those of the -orbitals. For each s, p, d, f and g set of orbitals, the set of orbitals which composes it forms a spherically symmetrical set of shapes. For non-s orbitals, which have lobes, the lobes point in directions so as to fill space as symmetrically as possible for number of lobes which exist. For example, the three p orbitals have six lobes which are oriented to each of the six primary directions of 3-D space; for the 5 d orbitals, there are a total of 18 lobes, in which again six point in primary directions, and the 12 additional lobes fill the 12 gaps which exist between each pairs of these 6 primary axes. The shapes of atomic orbitals in one-electron atom are related to 3-dimensional spherical harmonics. Orbitals table This table shows all orbital configurations for the real hydrogen-like wave functions up to 7s, and therefore covers the simple electronic configuration for all elements in the periodic table up to radium. s (l=0)p (l=1)d (l=2)f (l=3) m=0 m=0m=±1 m=0m=±1m=±2 m=0m=±1m=±2m=±3 s pz px py dz2 dxz dyz dxy dx2-y2 fz3 fxz2 fyz2 fxyz fz(x2-y2) fx(x2-3y2) fy(3x2-y2)n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .n=6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .n=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orbital energy In atoms with a single electron (hydrogen-like atoms), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons in the orbital) is determined exclusively by . The orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. Each successively higher value of has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as increases. For high , the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom. In atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital, but also on its interactions with the other electrons. These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution, and so the energy levels of orbitals depend not only on but also on . Higher values of are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2p state is higher than the 2s state. When = 2, the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the s-orbital in the next higher shell; when = 3 the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher. The energy sequence of the first 24 subshells is given in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell with and given by its row and column indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the sequence. Empty cells represent sublevels that do not exist. 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 7 4 6 8 10 13 5 9 11 14 17 21 612 15 18 22 26 716 19 23 27 31 820 24 28 32 36 Electron placement and the periodic table Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (electron configuration). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the Pauli exclusion principle). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals, as well as s, or spin quantum number. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of . However, only two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital. Additionally, an electron always tends to fall to the lowest possible energy state. It is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this condition is unstable. The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a photon) and drop into the lower orbital. Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above. This behavior is responsible for the structure of the periodic table. The table may be divided into several rows (called 'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods. If a certain period has number , it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the th shell. The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same -state (but the associated with that -state depends upon the period). For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell. The number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the atomic number. The electrons in the outermost shell, or valence electrons, tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties. Relativistic effects For elements with high atomic number Z, the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high Z atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison to corresponding s and d electrons in lighter elements in the same column of the periodic table); this results in 6s valence electrons becoming lowered in energy. Examples of significant physical outcomes of this effect include the lowered melting temperature of mercury (which results from 6s electrons not being available for metal bonding) and the golden color of gold and caesium (which result from narrowing of 6s to 5d transition energy to the point that visible light begins to be absorbed). See . In the Bohr Model, an electron has a velocity given by , where Z is the atomic number, is the fine-structure constant, and c is the speed of light. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, therefore, any atom with an atomic number greater than 137 would require its 1s electrons to be traveling faster than the speed of light. The significance of element 137, also known as untriseptium, was first pointed out by the physicist Richard Feynman. Element 137 is sometimes informally called feynmanium (symbol Fy). However, this approximation is wrong in two ways. First, electrons do not actually move in orbits as predicted by the Bohr Model. Secondly, this is not a problem in relativistic quantum mechanics, which would be more accurate, since arbitrarily large momentum does not imply arbitrarily large velocity, and electrons cannot exceed the speed of light no matter what their energy. The drastic effects caused by high electron energy happen only when the electron exceeds an energy of three or more times its rest energy. Under these circumstances (which require Zs in the 150s, higher than can be found except in transient collision of heavy nuclei) the extra energy of the electron may be used to create electron-positron pairs. See also List of Hund's rules Electron configuration Atomic electron configuration table Molecular orbital Energy level Quantum chemistry computer programs References Books External links Guide to atomic orbitals UC Berkeley video lecture on atomic orbitals Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure Animation of the time evolution of an hydrogenic orbital The Orbitron, a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g Grand table Still images of many orbitals David Manthey's Orbital Viewer renders orbitals with n ≤ 30 Java orbital viewer applet What does an atom look like? Orbitals in 3D | Atomic_orbital |@lemmatized atomic:31 orbital:48 mathematical:1 function:12 describe:9 wave:18 like:9 behavior:7 electron:88 atom:36 use:6 calculate:1 probability:8 find:6 specific:1 region:10 around:5 nucleus:12 term:7 may:8 also:12 refer:2 physical:2 define:2 likely:2 specifically:1 orbitals:57 possible:7 quantum:36 state:14 individual:1 cloud:2 single:8 molecular:5 chart:1 leave:1 arrange:1 increase:8 energy:37 see:7 madelung:1 rule:6 note:3 orbit:6 three:12 variable:1 two:13 angle:2 distance:4 r:1 image:2 faithful:1 angular:5 component:4 entirely:1 representative:1 whole:1 coin:1 robert:1 mulliken:2 however:6 idea:1 might:2 revolve:2 compact:2 definite:1 momentum:8 convincingly:1 argue:1 least:1 year:1 earlier:1 niels:1 bohr:7 japanese:1 physicist:2 hantaro:1 nagaoka:1 publish:1 base:1 hypothesis:1 electronic:2 early:1 explain:2 one:19 driving:1 force:1 behind:1 development:1 mechanic:9 typically:1 hydrogen:11 space:8 index:2 n:29 l:10 number:37 name:4 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exceed:2 matter:1 drastic:1 circumstance:1 except:1 transient:1 collision:1 heavy:1 extra:1 positron:1 hund:1 computer:1 program:1 reference:1 book:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 video:1 lecture:1 covalent:1 bond:1 animation:1 evolution:1 hydrogenic:1 orbitron:1 visualization:1 uncommon:1 grand:1 still:1 david:1 manthey:1 viewer:2 render:1 java:1 applet:1 |@bigram atomic_orbitals:13 molecular_orbitals:1 revolve_around:2 angular_momentum:2 niels_bohr:1 quantum_mechanic:8 atomic_nucleus:1 alphabetical_order:1 quantum_mechanical:2 slater_determinant:2 pauli_exclusion:3 exclusion_principle:3 hartree_fock:1 molecular_orbital:3 kinetic_energy:1 probability_distribution:3 hydrogen_atom:2 periodic_table:6 closely_related:2 spherically_symmetric:1 pear_shaped:2 spherical_harmonic:1 outermost_electron:2 electron_outermost:1 outermost_shell:1 valence_electron:3 richard_feynman:1 electron_positron:1 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 covalent_bond:1 |
1,393 | Mehmed_I | Mehmed I Çelebi (Ottoman: چلبی محمد, I.Mehmet or Çelebi Mehmet) (unknown 1373-1391, Bursa May 4/26, 1421, Edirne, Turkey) was a Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Rum) from 1413 to 1421. His nickname He is nicknamed as; Kirişçi (it means bowstring maker or one who supports, who acts as a column), Turkish. Second Founder of Ottoman Empire. Çelebi also means gentleman in Turkish. His ancestors He was one of the sons of Bayezid I and Valide Sultan (1403) Devlet Hatun or Devlet Shah Hatun (who was the daughter of Yakub Shah of Germiyan. He was also the descendant of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi, as Rumi's granddaughter Mutahhara Hatun (the daughter of Sultan Veled) was related to Yakub Shah) . His life His Wives Sheh-Zade Kumru Hatun: The granddaughter of a Pasha from Amasya Valide Sultan Emine Hatun or Sitti Mukrime Hatun, daughter of Suleyman Bey, ruler of Dirkadiroglu state, third consort, which marriage served as an alliance between the Ottoman's and this buffer state, mother of Murad II His reign After the Ottoman Interregnum, when Mehmed stood as victor in 1413, he crowned himself sultan in Edirne. He restored the empire, moved the capital from Bursa to Edirne, and conquered parts of Albania, the Turkish emirate Candaroglu, and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia from the Mamelukes. Taking many of his achievements into consideration, Mehmed is widely known as the "second founder" of the Ottoman Empire. His death Reign of Mehmed I, as Sultan of the re-united empire, had lasted only eight years. But he had been an independent prince for nearly the whole preceding period of eleven years that passed between his father's captivity at Ankara and his own final victory over his brother Musa at Chamurli. He was buried in Bursa, in a mausoleum erected by himself near the celebrated mosque which he built there, and which, from its decorations of green porcelain, is called the Green Mosque. This edifice is said to be the most beautiful specimen of Ottoman architecture and carving that is in existence. Mehmed I also completed the vast and magnificent mosque at Bursa, which his grandfather Murad I. had commenced, but which had been neglected during in reign of Bayezid. It is deserving of mention that Mehmed founded in the vicinity of his own mosque and mausoleum two characteristic institutions, one a school, and one a refectory for the poor both of which he endowed with royal munificence. Opinions about him The reign of this Sultan is cited by Von Hammer as the period total taste for "literature and fondness for poetry first prevailed among the Ottomans". Patronage He was a liberal patron of intellectual merit; and the name of an early literary Turkish politician, Mehiri, is preserved in honorable reputation for having, while Mehmet was Governor of Amasya, and Sehiri his Defterdar or Chancellor of the Exchequer, inspired the young prince with an enduring zeal for the advancement of literature and art, and for the generous patronage of their professors. References Incorporates text from History of Ottoman Turks (1878) | Mehmed_I |@lemmatized mehmed:6 çelebi:3 ottoman:9 چلبی:1 محمد:1 mehmet:3 unknown:1 bursa:4 may:1 edirne:3 turkey:1 sultan:7 empire:5 rum:1 nickname:2 kirişçi:1 mean:2 bowstring:1 maker:1 one:4 support:1 act:1 column:1 turkish:4 second:2 founder:2 also:3 gentleman:1 ancestor:1 son:1 bayezid:2 valide:2 devlet:2 hatun:6 shah:3 daughter:3 yakub:2 germiyan:1 descendant:1 mevlana:1 celaleddin:1 rumi:2 granddaughter:2 mutahhara:1 veled:1 relate:1 life:1 wife:1 sheh:1 zade:1 kumru:1 pasha:1 amasya:2 emine:1 sitti:1 mukrime:1 suleyman:1 bey:1 ruler:1 dirkadiroglu:1 state:2 third:1 consort:1 marriage:1 serve:1 alliance:1 buffer:1 mother:1 murad:2 ii:1 reign:4 interregnum:1 stand:1 victor:1 crown:1 restore:1 move:1 capital:1 conquer:1 part:1 albania:1 emirate:1 candaroglu:1 armenian:1 kingdom:1 cilicia:1 mamelukes:1 take:1 many:1 achievement:1 consideration:1 widely:1 know:1 death:1 united:1 last:1 eight:1 year:2 independent:1 prince:2 nearly:1 whole:1 preceding:1 period:2 eleven:1 pass:1 father:1 captivity:1 ankara:1 final:1 victory:1 brother:1 musa:1 chamurli:1 bury:1 mausoleum:2 erect:1 near:1 celebrate:1 mosque:4 build:1 decoration:1 green:2 porcelain:1 call:1 edifice:1 say:1 beautiful:1 specimen:1 architecture:1 carving:1 existence:1 complete:1 vast:1 magnificent:1 grandfather:1 commence:1 neglect:1 deserve:1 mention:1 found:1 vicinity:1 two:1 characteristic:1 institution:1 school:1 refectory:1 poor:1 endow:1 royal:1 munificence:1 opinion:1 cite:1 von:1 hammer:1 total:1 taste:1 literature:2 fondness:1 poetry:1 first:1 prevail:1 among:1 patronage:2 liberal:1 patron:1 intellectual:1 merit:1 name:1 early:1 literary:1 politician:1 mehiri:1 preserve:1 honorable:1 reputation:1 governor:1 sehiri:1 defterdar:1 chancellor:1 exchequer:1 inspire:1 young:1 endure:1 zeal:1 advancement:1 art:1 generous:1 professor:1 reference:1 incorporate:1 text:1 history:1 turk:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:3 valide_sultan:2 devlet_shah:1 shah_hatun:1 hatun_daughter:3 chancellor_exchequer:1 ottoman_turk:1 |
1,394 | Euphonium | The euphonium is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced brass instrument. It derives its name from the Greek word euphonos, meaning "well-sounding" or "sweet-voiced" (eu means "well" or "good" and phonium means "voice"). The euphonium is a valved instrument; nearly all current models are piston valved, though rotary valved models do exist. A person who plays euphonium is sometimes called a euphophonist, euphoniumist or a euphonist, while British players often colloquially refer to themselves as euphists. Similarly, the instrument itself is sometimes referred to as eupho or euph. Construction and general characteristics The euphonium is pitched in concert B-flat, meaning that when no valves are in use the instrument will produce partials of the B-flat harmonic series. In North America, music for the instrument is usually written in the bass clef at concert pitch (that is, without transposition), though treble clef euphonium parts, transposing down a major ninth, are included in much concert band music. These may be included for the sake of students who have recently switched from the trumpet, or who play trumpet and are doubling on euphonium. Alternatively, students who learn Euphonium in a British Brass Band may also take advantage of this transposed part. In the British-style brass band tradition, euphonium music is always written this way. It can also be written in tenor clef at concert pitch, which is usually done to prevent too many ledger lines in case it is a high part. In continental European music, parts for the euphonium are sometimes written in the bass clef a major second higher than sounding. Professional models have three top-action valves, played with the first three fingers of the right hand, plus a "compensating" fourth valve, generally found midway down the right side of the instrument, played with the left index finger; such an instrument is shown in the above picture. Beginner models often have only the three top-action valves, while some intermediate "student" models may have a fourth top-action valve, played with the fourth finger of the right hand. Compensating systems are expensive to build, and there is in general a wide discrepancy in price between compensating and non-compensating models. For a thorough discussion of the valves and the compensation system, see the article on brass instruments. A euphonium (L) and tuba (R), the two lowest conical-bore instruments The euphonium has an extensive range, potentially from far below the bass clef to F six ledger lines above or even higher in professional hands, though B four ledger lines above the staff is an average cutoff for intermediate players. The lowest notes obtainable depend on the valve set-up of the instrument. All instruments are chromatic down to first ledger-line E below the bass clef, but 4-valved instruments can reach at least down to C below the staff. Non-compensating four-valved instruments suffer from intonation problems from E down to C, and cannot produce the low B-natural; compensating instruments do not have such intonation problems and can play the low B-natural. Thus, only on 4-valved, compensating instruments is a full chromatic scale from the pedal range up possible. From B below the bass clef down lies the "pedal range", i.e. the fundamentals of the instrument's harmonic series. They are easily produced on euphonium as compared to other brass instruments, and the extent of the range depends on the make of the instrument in exactly the same way as just described. Thus, on a compensating four-valved instrument, the lowest note possible is double pedal B, or BBB, six ledger lines below the bass clef. As with the other conical-bore instruments, the cornet, flugelhorn, horn, and tuba, the euphonium's tubing gradually increases in diameter throughout its length, resulting in a softer, gentler tone compared to cylindrical-bore instruments such as the trumpet, trombone, and Baritone horn. While a truly characteristic euphonium sound is rather hard to define precisely, most players would agree that an ideal sound is dark, rich, warm, and velvety, with virtually no hardness to it. On the other hand, the desired sound varies geographically; European players, especially British ones, generally use a faster, more constant vibrato and a more veiled tone, while Americans tend to prefer a more straightforward, open sound with slower and less frequent vibrato. This also has to do with the different models preferred by British and American players. Though the euphonium's fingerings are no different from those of the trumpet or tuba, beginning euphoniumists will likely experience significant problems with intonation, response, and range compared to other beginning brass players. In addition, it is very difficult for students, even of high-school age, to develop the rich sound characteristic of the euphonium, due partly to the instrument models used in schools and partly to the lack of awareness of good euphonium sound models. Popular models of euphonium Very generally speaking, the most popular professional models of euphonium in the United Kingdom are Besson Prestige and Sovereign models. The most popular in the United States are the Willson 2900 and 2950, shown in the picture at the top of this article. In both cases, these models have gained popularity through the use and sponsorship of extremely highly-respected players and teachers; in Britain, by Steven Mead, and in America, by Dr. Brian Bowman. In recent years, the Yamaha YEP-842 Custom has gained popularity in the United States due to similar activities by [Adam Frey]. Most recently, Demondrae Thurman has worked in conjunction with Miraphone to develop the Ambassador 5050. In recent years, the Besson company got into financial difficulties and various aspects of the business and name were acquired by Buffet Crampon of France. The remaining assets were acquired by German company Schreiber-Keilwerth who lost no time in bringing rival instruments, with the York brand name, to market. Other highly-regarded professional models found around the world are the Yamaha 642, the York 4052, the Hirsbrunner Standard, Exclusive, and the Stealth, the Sterling Virtuoso, and the Meinl-Weston 451 and 551. An extremely popular intermediate-model horn for use in middle and high schools in the United States is the Yamaha YEP-321S, which has four valves and is non-compensating (though a removable 5th valve was offered as an option early on, but discontinued due to becoming more popular than their so-called "professional" instruments). Other similar models of euphonium are made by Holton, Bach, and King to name a few. Besson produces a four-valve non-compensating euphonium with the fourth valve on the side. This type of horn is a good transition for high school students who may perform on compensating horns in college. Name recognition and misconceptions The euphonium is possibly the least popularly-known Western instrument of all, probably due to its scarcity of performance venues (see below). Most non-musician members of the general public in the United States do not recognize the name "euphonium" and so it must be described as a small tuba or compared to a baritone horn. Despite great confusion (especially in the United States), the euphonium and the baritone are two different instruments. Nonetheless, the two instruments can be interchanged with no problems whatsoever; the baritone has an identical range but a brighter sound. Some believe that the four-valved instrument is the euphonium, and that the three-valved instrument is the baritone horn, but this is not the case. A baritone, including the American baritone, can likewise have four valves. Baritone horns have much smaller dimension bore than the euphonium. The so-called American baritone, featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved forward-pointing bell, was predominant in American school bands throughout most of the twentieth century, probably because of its weight and shape copacetic to marching. While this instrument is in reality a conical-cylindrical bore hybrid, neither truly euphonium nor baritone, it was almost universally labeled a "baritone" by both band directors and composers; this is probably responsible for much of the confusion—the euphonium, baritone, and American baritone still being similar and having the same range. History and development The serpent, the oldest ancestor of all low brass instruments As a tenor/baritone-voiced brass instrument, the euphonium traces its ancestry to the ophicleide and ultimately back to the serpent. The search for a satisfactory foundational wind instrument that could support masses of sound above it took some time; while the serpent was used for over two centuries dating back to the late Renaissance, it was notoriously difficult to control its pitch and tone quality due to its disproportionately small open finger holes. The ophicleide, which was used in bands and orchestras for a few decades in the early- to mid-nineteenth century, used a system of keys and was an improvement over the serpent but was still unreliable, especially in the high register. With the invention of the piston valve system c. 1818, the construction of brass instruments with an even sound and facility of playing in all registers became possible. The euphonium is alleged to have been invented, as a "wide-bore, valved bugle of baritone range", by Ferdinand Sommer of Weimar in 1843, though Carl Moritz in 1838 and Adolphe Sax in 1843 have also been credited. While Sax's family of saxhorns were invented at almost the same time and the bass saxhorn looks very similar to a euphonium, they are constructed differently. Saxhorns have a nearly cylindrical bore and do not allow the fundamental to be produced; thus, the bass saxhorn is more closely related to the baritone than the euphonium. The "British-style" compensating euphonium was developed by David Blaikley in 1874, and has been in use in Britain ever since; since this time, the basic construction of the euphonium in Britain has changed little. The double-belled euphonium A creation unique to the United States was the double-bell euphonium, featuring a second smaller bell in addition to the main one; the player could switch bells for certain passages or even for individual notes by use of an additional valve, operated with the left hand. Ostensibly, the smaller bell was intended to emulate the sound of a trombone (it was cylindrical-bore) and was possibly intended for performance situations in which trombones were not available. The extent to which the difference in sound and timbre was apparent to the listener, however, is up for debate. Harry Whittier of the Patrick S. Gilmore band introduced the instrument in 1888, and it was used widely in both school and service bands for several decades. Harold Brasch (see "List of important players" below) brought the British-style compensating euphonium to the United States c. 1939, but the double-belled euphonium may have remained in common use even into the 1950s and 60's. In any case, they have become rare (they were last in instrumental catalogues in the late 1960s), and are generally unknown to younger euphonium players. They are chiefly known now through their mention in the song "Seventy-Six Trombones" from the musical The Music Man by Meredith Willson. Performance venues and professional job opportunities The euphonium has historically been and largely still is exclusively a band instrument, whether of the wind or brass variety, where it is frequently featured as a solo instrument. Because of this, the euphonium has been called the "king of band instruments", or the "cello of the band", because of its similarity in timbre and ensemble role to the stringed instrument. Euphoniums typically have extremely important parts in many marches (such as those by John Philip Sousa), and in brass band music of the British tradition. The euphonium may also be found in marching bands, though it is often replaced by its smaller, easier-to-carry cousin, the marching baritone (which has a similar bell and valve configuration to a trumpet). A marching euphonium, similar to the marching baritone, although much larger, is used almost exclusively in drum and bugle corps, and some corps (such as The Blue Devils, Phantom Regiment and Teal Sound) march all-euphonium sections. Depending on the manufacturer, the weight of these instruments can be straining to the average marcher and require great strength to hold during practice and a performance. King marching euphonium Other performance venues for the euphonium are the tuba-euphonium quartet or larger tuba-euphonium ensemble; the brass quintet, where it can supply the tenor voice, though the trombone is much more common in this role; or in mixed brass ensembles. Though these are legitimate performance venues, paid professional jobs in these areas are almost non-existent; they are much more likely to be semi-professional or amateur in nature. Most of the United States's military service bands include a tuba-euphonium quartet made up of players from the band that occasionally performs in its own right. The euphonium is not traditionally an orchestral instrument and has never been common in symphony orchestras. However, there are a handful of works, mostly from the late Romantic period, in which composers wrote a part for baryton (German) or tenor tuba, (most notably, Holst's Planets Suite, which has many solos for baritone and euphonium) and these are universally played on euphonium, frequently by a trombone player. In addition, the euphonium is sometimes used in older orchestral works as a replacement for its predecessors, such as the ophicleide, or, less correctly, the bass trumpet, or the Wagner tuba, both of which are significantly different instruments, and still in use today. At the bottom of the article are some of the well-known orchestral works in which the euphonium is commonly used (whether or not the composer originally specified it). Finally, while the euphonium was not historically part of the standard jazz big band or combo, the instrument's technical facility and large range make it well-suited to a jazz solo role, and a jazz euphonium niche has been carved out over the last 40 or so years, largely starting with the pioneer Rich Matteson (see "List of important players" below). The euphonium can also double on a trombone part in a jazz combo. Jazz euphoniums are most likely to be found in tuba-euphonium groups, though modern funk or rock bands occasionally feature a brass player doubling on euphonium, and this trend is growing. Due to this dearth of performance opportunities, aspiring euphonium players in the United States are in a rather inconvenient position when seeking future employment. Often, college players must either obtain a graduate degree and go on to teach at the college level, or audition for one of the major or regional military service bands. Because these bands are relatively few in number and the number of euphonium positions in the bands is small (2-4 in most service bands), job openings do not occur very often and when they do are highly competitive; before the current slate of openings in four separate bands, the last opening for a euphonium player in an American service band was in May 2004. A career strictly as a solo performer, unaffiliated with any university or performing ensemble, is a very rare sight, but some performers, such as Riki McDonnell, have managed to do it. In Britain the strongest euphonium players are most likely to find a position in a brass band, but ironically, even though they often play at world-class levels, the members of the top brass bands are in most cases unpaid amateurs. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of brass bands in Britain ranging in standard from world class to local bands. Almost all brass bands in Britain perform regularly, particularly during the summer months. A large number of bands also enter contests against other brass bands of a similar standard. Each band requries two euphoniums (principal and 2nd) and consequently there are considerable opportunities for euphonium players. Due to limited vocational opportunities, there are a considerable number of relatively serious, quasi-professional avocational euphonium players participating in many higher-caliber unpaid ensembles. College climate in the United States Unlike a generation or two ago, most colleges with music programs now offer students the opportunity to major in euphonium. However, due to the small number of euphonium students at most schools (2-4 is common), it is possible, and even likely, that they will study with a professor whose major instrument is not the euphonium. Most often tubas and euphoniums will be combined into a studio taught by one professor, and at small schools they may be grouped with trombones as well, taught by one low brass professor. Dr. Brian Bowman, Demondrae Thurman, and Dr. Marc Dickman serve as the only three full time euphonium college professors in the US, with professor like Matt Tropman, also primarily a euphonium player, teaching as a lecturer. Other professors, such as Adam Frey, are adjunct faculty at multiple universities near one another. Usually, of course, universities will require professors in this situation to have a high level of proficiency on all the instruments they teach, and some of the best college euphonium studios are taught by non-euphonium players. Below are some of the United States's largest and most successful college euphonium studios listed alphabetically, along with their teachers. These studios are likely to be larger than most, and either have one or more graduate students or have sent alumni on to graduate study elsewhere. Their professors are usually accomplished and widely respected artists in their own right, and students from these schools will have been invited either to amateur competitions such as the Leonard Falcone International Tuba and Euphonium Festival or the International Tuba-Euphonium Conference, or to the final rounds of recent military band auditions. Dr. Brian Bowman Arizona State University (Sam Pilafian; tuba) Eastman School of Music (Mark Kellogg; trombone and euphonium) George Mason University (Roger Behrend; euphonium) Hartt School of Music (James Jackson; euphonium) Indiana University (Daniel Perantoni; tuba, M. Dee Stewart; euphonium) Louisiana State University (Joe Skillen; tuba) Northwestern University (Rex Martin; tuba and euphonium) Tennessee Technological University (R. Winston Morris; tuba) University of Alabama (Demondrae Thurman; euphonium) University of Arkansas (Benjamin Pierce; euphonium and tuba) University of Georgia (David Zerkel; tuba) University of Michigan (Fritz Kaenzig; tuba) University of North Texas (Brian Bowman; euphonium) University of Wisconsin-Madison (John Stevens) Notable euphoniumists The euphonium world is and has become more crowded than is commonly thought, and there have been many noteworthy players throughout the instrument's history. Traditionally, three main national schools of euphonium playing have been discernible: American, British, and Japanese. Now, euphoniumists are able to learn this specific art in many other countries around the world today. Below are a select few of the players most famous and influential in their respective countries, and whose contributions to the euphonium world are undeniable, in terms of recordings, commissions, pedagogy, and increased recognition of the instrument. A much more complete list featuring euphoniumists from many other countries as well as younger, lesser-known players can be found at List of euphonium players. United States Roger Behrend, soloist with the U.S. Navy Band and professor of euphonium at George Mason University Dr. Brian Bowman, former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1971-75) and U.S. Air Force Band (1976-91); now professor of euphonium at the University of North Texas, co-editor of "Arban's Method for Trombone and Euphonium" Adam Frey, American euphonium soloist, Recording Artist, Professor of Euphonium at Georgia State University and Emory University, Founder of the International Euphonium Institute (IEI), more than 70 commissions and arrangements involving the euphonium. Associate Editor of the Euphonium Source Book David Werden, former soloist with the U.S. Coast Guard Band, former Instructor of Euphonium at the University of Connecticut, current Instructor of Euphonium at the University of Minnesota, first American to be international Euphonium Player of the Year. Steven Mead James E. Jackson III, current U.S. Coast Guard Band Euphonium Soloist and instructor at Hartt School of Music and Professor at the University of Connecticut. First-place winner in the 1995 International T.U.B.A. conference Tuba-Euphonium Quartet competition and first-place winner at the Leonard Falcone International Solo Euphonium Competition in 1994. Demondrae thurman, Demondrae Thurman is quickly becoming one of the most recognized names in a new generation of euphonium soloists. He is a founding member of the highly acclaimed Sotto Voce Tuba Quartet, winner of both international tuba quartet competitions in 1998. Currently, Mr. Thurman teaches at The University of Alabama where he is Assistant Professor of Tuba and Euphonium. Before accepting this position in 2005, he taught at Alabama State University, the University of Montevallo, and Troy State University. United Kingdom Dr. Nicholas Childs Welsh soloist, Director of the Black Dyke Band in England Dr. Robert Childs, brother of Dr. Nicholas Childs, former soloist with the Black Dyke Band; now Director of Brass Bands at the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, Director of the Cory Band David Childs, son of Dr. Robert Childs, principal euphonium of the Cory Band Steven Mead, English euphonium soloist and professor at the Royal Northern College of Music David Thornton, principal euphonium of the Black Dyke Band Michael Dodd, principal euphonium of the Grimethorpe Colliery Band Derick Kane, principal euphonium of the International Staff Band of The Salvation Army Japan Toru Miura, professor of euphonium at the Kunitachi College of Music; soloist and clinician Australia Matthew van Emmerik; Besson Artist soloist and clinician Thom Humphrey; Yamaha Artist soloist and composer New Zealand Riki McDonnell Euphonium literature The euphonium repertoire consists of solo literature and orchestral or, more commonly, band parts written for the euphonium. Since its invention in 1843, the euphonium has always had an important role in ensembles, but solo literature was slow to appear, consisting of only a handful of lighter solos until the 1960s. Since then, however, the breadth and depth of the solo euphonium repertoire has increased dramatically. In the current age, there has been a huge number of new commissions and repertoire development and promotion through Steven Mead’s World of the Euphonium Series and the Beyond the Horizon series from Euphonium.com. There has also been a vast number of new commissions by more and more players and a proliferation of large scale Consortium Commissions that are occurring including current ones in 2008 and 2009 organized by Brian Meixner (Libby Larson), Adam Frey (The Euphonium Foundation Consortium), and Jason Ham (David Gillingham). Upon its invention, it was clear that the euphonium had, compared to its predecessors the serpent and ophicleide, a wide range and had a consistently rich, pleasing sound throughout that range. It was flexible both in tone quality and intonation and could blend well with a variety of ensembles, gaining it immediate popularity with composers and conductors as the principal tenor-voices solo instrument in brass band settings, especially in Britain. It is no surprise, then, that when British composers – some of the same ones who were writing for brass bands – began to write serious, original music for the concert band in the early twentieth century, they used the euphonium in a very similar role. When American composers also began writing for the concert band as its own artistic medium in the 1930s and '40's, they continued the British brass and concert band tradition of using the euphonium as the principal tenor-voiced solo. This is not to say that composers, then and now, valued the euphonium only for its lyrical capabilities. Indeed, examination of a large body of concert band literature reveals that the euphonium functions as a "jack of all trades." Though the euphonium was, as previously noted, embraced from its earliest days by composers and arrangers in band settings, orchestral composers have, by and large, not taken advantage of this capability. There are, nevertheless, several orchestral works, a few of which are standard repertoire, in which composers have called for instruments, such as the Wagner tuba, for which euphonium is commonly substituted today. Amilcare Ponchielli, composer of the first original euphonium solo In contrast to the long-standing practice of extensive euphonium use in wind bands and orchestras, there was until approximately forty years ago literally no body of solo literature written specifically for the euphonium, and euphoniumists were forced to borrow the literature of other instruments. Fortunately, given the instrument's multifaceted capabilities discussed above, solos for many different instruments are easily adaptable to performance on the euphonium. The earliest surviving solo composition written specifically for euphonium or one of its saxhorn cousins is the Concerto per Flicorno Basso (1872) by Amilcare Ponchielli. For almost a century after this, the euphonium solo repertoire consisted of only a dozen or so virtuosic pieces, mostly light in character. However, in the 1960s and '70's, American composers began to write the first of the "new school" of serious, artistic solo works specifically for euphonium. Since then, there has been a virtual explosion of solo repertoire for the euphonium. In a mere four decades, the solo literature has expanded from virtually zero to thousands of pieces. More and more composers have become aware of the tremendous soloistic capabilities of the euphonium, and have constantly "pushed the envelope" with new literature in terms of tessitura, endurance, technical demands, and extended techniques. Finally, the euphonium has, thanks to a handful of enterprising individuals, begun to make inroads in jazz, pop and other non-concert performance settings. Notes References http://lowbrassnmore.com/euponiumhistory.htm Retrieved on 28 January 2008 http://www.nikknakks.net/euphonium/ Retrieved on 28 January 2008 External links Euphonium.com Focused on the IEI, new repertoire, a forum for the euphonium, and the activities of Adam Frey. Euphonium.net Steven Mead's personal website. The International Tuba-Euphonium Association, the foremost professional organization for tubists and euphonists. Tuba News, a free monthly online publication for tuba and euphonium players. Tuba-Euphonium Press, one of the premier publishing houses for new euphonium and tuba music in all genres. Brass-Forum.co.uk, a UK based brass discussion forum. Tuba-Euphonium Forum, a discussion forum specifically for euphonium and tuba. Acoustics of Brass Instruments from Music Acoustics at the University of New South Wales. Euphonium Music Guide A listing of original euphonium literature. | Euphonium |@lemmatized euphonium:150 conical:4 bore:9 tenor:7 voiced:2 brass:27 instrument:54 derive:1 name:7 greek:1 word:1 euphonos:1 mean:4 well:7 sound:15 sweet:1 voice:5 eu:1 good:3 phonium:1 valved:10 nearly:2 current:6 model:16 piston:2 though:12 rotary:1 exist:1 person:1 play:9 sometimes:4 call:5 euphophonist:1 euphoniumist:1 euphonist:1 british:11 player:29 often:7 colloquially:1 refer:2 euphists:1 similarly:1 eupho:1 euph:1 construction:3 general:3 characteristic:3 pitch:4 concert:9 b:8 flat:2 valve:16 use:19 produce:5 partial:1 harmonic:2 series:4 north:3 america:2 music:17 usually:4 write:12 bass:9 clef:8 without:1 transposition:1 treble:1 part:9 transpose:1 major:5 ninth:1 include:5 much:7 band:54 may:8 sake:1 student:9 recently:2 switch:2 trumpet:6 double:7 alternatively:1 learn:2 also:10 take:3 advantage:2 transposed:1 style:3 tradition:3 always:2 way:2 prevent:1 many:8 ledger:5 line:5 case:5 high:9 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1,395 | Discrete_Fourier_transform | In mathematics, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is a specific kind of Fourier transform, used in Fourier analysis. It transforms one function into another, which is called the frequency domain representation, or simply the DFT, of the original function (which is often a function in the time domain). But the DFT requires an input function that is discrete and whose non-zero values have a limited (finite) duration. Such inputs are often created by sampling a continuous function, like a person's voice. And unlike the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), it only evaluates enough frequency components to reconstruct the finite segment that was analyzed. Its inverse transform cannot reproduce the entire time domain, unless the input happens to be periodic (forever). Therefore it is often said that the DFT is a transform for Fourier analysis of finite-domain discrete-time functions. The sinusoidal basis functions of the decomposition have the same properties. Since the input function is a finite sequence of real or complex numbers, the DFT is ideal for processing information stored in computers. In particular, the DFT is widely employed in signal processing and related fields to analyze the frequencies contained in a sampled signal, to solve partial differential equations, and to perform other operations such as convolutions. The DFT can be computed efficiently in practice using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. Since FFT algorithms are so commonly employed to compute the DFT, the two terms are often used interchangeably in colloquial settings, although there is a clear distinction: "DFT" refers to a mathematical transformation, regardless of how it is computed, while "FFT" refers to any one of several efficient algorithms for the DFT. This distinction is further blurred, however, by the synonym finite Fourier transform for the DFT, which apparently predates the term "fast Fourier transform" (Cooley et al., 1969) but has the same initialism. Definition The sequence of N complex numbers x0, ..., xN−1 is transformed into the sequence of N complex numbers X0, ..., XN−1 by the DFT according to the formula: where is a primitive N'th root of unity. The transform is sometimes denoted by the symbol , as in or or . The inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) is given by A simple description of these equations is that the complex numbers represent the amplitude and phase of the different sinusoidal components of the input "signal" . The DFT computes the from the , while the IDFT shows how to compute the as a sum of sinusoidal components with frequency cycles per sample. By writing the equations in this form, we are making extensive use of Euler's formula to express sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials, which are much easier to manipulate. In the same way, by writing in polar form, we immediately obtain the sinusoid amplitude and phase from the complex modulus and argument of , respectively: An important subtlety of this representation, aliasing, is discussed below. Note that the normalization factor multiplying the DFT and IDFT (here 1 and 1/N) and the signs of the exponents are merely conventions, and differ in some treatments. The only requirements of these conventions are that the DFT and IDFT have opposite-sign exponents and that the product of their normalization factors be 1/N. A normalization of for both the DFT and IDFT makes the transforms unitary, which has some theoretical advantages, but it is often more practical in numerical computation to perform the scaling all at once as above (and a unit scaling can be convenient in other ways). (The convention of a negative sign in the exponent is often convenient because it means that is the amplitude of a "positive frequency" . Equivalently, the DFT is often thought of as a matched filter: when looking for a frequency of +1, one correlates the incoming signal with a frequency of −1.) In the following discussion the terms "sequence" and "vector" will be considered interchangeable. Properties Completeness The discrete Fourier transform is an invertible, linear transformation with C denoting the set of complex numbers. In other words, for any N > 0, an N-dimensional complex vector has a DFT and an IDFT which are in turn N-dimensional complex vectors. Orthogonality The vectors form an orthogonal basis over the set of N-dimensional complex vectors: where is the Kronecker delta. This orthogonality condition can be used to derive the formula for the IDFT from the definition of the DFT, and is equivalent to the unitarity property below. The Plancherel theorem and Parseval's theorem If Xk and Yk are the DFTs of xn and yn respectively then the Plancherel theorem states: where the star denotes complex conjugation. Parseval's theorem is a special case of the Plancherel theorem and states: These theorems are also equivalent to the unitary condition below. Periodicity If the expression that defines the DFT is evaluated for all integers instead of just for , then the resulting infinite sequence is a periodic extension of the DFT, periodic with period N. The periodicity can be shown directly from the definition: where we have used the fact that . In the same way it can be shown that the IDFT formula leads to a periodic extension. The shift theorem Multiplying by a linear phase for some integer corresponds to a circular shift of the output : is replaced by , where the subscript is interpreted modulo (i.e., periodically). Similarly, a circular shift of the input corresponds to multiplying the output by a linear phase. Mathematically, if represents the vector x then if then and Circular convolution theorem and cross-correlation theorem The convolution theorem for the continuous and discrete time Fourier transforms indicates that a convolution of two infinite sequences can be obtained as the inverse transform of the product of the individual transforms. With sequences and transforms of length N, a circularity arises: The quantity in parentheses is 0 for all values of except those of the form , where is any integer. At those values, it is 1. It can therefore be replaced by an infinite sum of Kronecker delta functions, and we continue accordingly. Note that we can also extend the limits of to infinity, with the understanding that the and sequences are defined as 0 outside [0,N-1]: which is the convolution of the sequence with a periodically extended sequence defined by: Similarly, it can be shown that: which is the cross-correlation of and A direct evaluation of the convolution or correlation summation (above) requires operations for an output sequence of length N. An indirect method, using transforms, can take advantage of the efficiency of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) to achieve much better performance. Furthermore, convolutions can be used to efficiently compute DFTs via Rader's FFT algorithm and Bluestein's FFT algorithm. Methods have also been developed to use circular convolution as part of an efficient process that achieves normal (non-circular) convolution with an or sequence potentially much longer than the practical transform size (N). Two such methods are called overlap-save and overlap-add T. G. Stockham, Jr., "High-speed convolution and correlation," in 1966 Proc. AFIPS Spring Joint Computing Conf. Reprinted in Digital Signal Processing, L. R. Rabiner and C. M. Rader, editors, New York: IEEE Press, 1972. . Convolution theorem duality It can also be shown that: which is the circular convolution of and . Trigonometric interpolation polynomial The trigonometric interpolation polynomial for even , for odd, where the coefficients Xk /N are given by the DFT of xn above, satisfies the interpolation property for . For even , notice that the Nyquist component is handled specially. This interpolation is not unique: aliasing implies that one could add N to any of the complex-sinusoid frequencies (e.g. changing to ) without changing the interpolation property, but giving different values in between the points. The choice above, however, is typical because it has two useful properties. First, it consists of sinusoids whose frequencies have the smallest possible magnitudes, and therefore minimizes the mean-square slope of the interpolating function. Second, if the are real numbers, then is real as well. In contrast, the most obvious trigonometric interpolation polynomial is the one in which the frequencies range from 0 to (instead of roughly to as above), similar to the inverse DFT formula. This interpolation does not minimize the slope, and is not generally real-valued for real ; its use is a common mistake. The unitary DFT Another way of looking at the DFT is to note that in the above discussion, the DFT can be expressed as a Vandermonde matrix: where is a primitive Nth root of unity. The inverse transform is then given by the inverse of the above matrix: With unitary normalization constants , the DFT becomes a unitary transformation, defined by a unitary matrix: where det() is the determinant function. The determinant is the product of the eigenvalues, which are always or as described below. In a real vector space, a unitary transformation can be thought of as simply a rigid rotation of the coordinate system, and all of the properties of a rigid rotation can be found in the unitary DFT. The orthogonality of the DFT is now expressed as an orthonormality condition (which arises in many areas of mathematics as described in root of unity): If is defined as the unitary DFT of the vector then and the Plancherel theorem is expressed as: If we view the DFT as just a coordinate transformation which simply specifies the components of a vector in a new coordinate system, then the above is just the statement that the dot product of two vectors is preserved under a unitary DFT transformation. For the special case , this implies that the length of a vector is preserved as well—this is just Parseval's theorem: Expressing the inverse DFT in terms of the DFT A useful property of the DFT is that the inverse DFT can be easily expressed in terms of the (forward) DFT, via several well-known "tricks". (For example, in computations, it is often convenient to only implement a fast Fourier transform corresponding to one transform direction and then to get the other transform direction from the first.) First, we can compute the inverse DFT by reversing the inputs: (As usual, the subscripts are interpreted modulo ; thus, for , we have .) Second, one can also conjugate the inputs and outputs: Third, a variant of this conjugation trick, which is sometimes preferable because it requires no modification of the data values, involves swapping real and imaginary parts (which can be done on a computer simply by modifying pointers). Define swap() as with its real and imaginary parts swapped—that is, if then swap() is . Equivalently, swap() equals . Then That is, the inverse transform is the same as the forward transform with the real and imaginary parts swapped for both input and output, up to a normalization (Duhamel et al., 1988). The conjugation trick can also be used to define a new transform, closely related to the DFT, that is involutary—that is, which is its own inverse. In particular, is clearly its own inverse: . A closely related involutary transformation (by a factor of (1+i) /√2) is , since the factors in cancel the 2. For real inputs , the real part of is none other than the discrete Hartley transform, which is also involutary. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors The eigenvalues of the DFT matrix are simple and well-known, whereas the eigenvectors are complicated, not unique, and are the subject of ongoing research. Consider the unitary form defined above for the DFT of length , where . This matrix satisfies the equation: This can be seen from the inverse properties above: operating twice gives the original data in reverse order, so operating four times gives back the original data and is thus the identity matrix. This means that the eigenvalues satisfy a characteristic equation: Therefore, the eigenvalues of are the fourth roots of unity: is +1, −1, +i, or −i. Since there are only four distinct eigenvalues for this matrix, they have some multiplicity. The multiplicity gives the number of linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue. (Note that there are N independent eigenvectors; a unitary matrix is never defective.) The problem of their multiplicity was solved by McClellan and Parks (1972), although it was later shown to have been equivalent to a problem solved by Gauss (Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982). The multiplicity depends on the value of modulo 4, and is given by the following table: Multiplicities of the eigenvalues λ of the unitary DFT matrix U as a function of the transform size N (in terms of an integer m). size N λ = +1 λ = −1 λ = -i λ = +i 4m m + 1 m m m − 1 4m + 1 m + 1 m m m 4m + 2 m + 1 m + 1 m m 4m + 3 m + 1 m + 1 m + 1 m Unfortunately, no simple analytical formula for the eigenvectors is known. Moreover, the eigenvectors are not unique because any linear combination of eigenvectors for the same eigenvalue is also an eigenvector for that eigenvalue. Various researchers have proposed different choices of eigenvectors, selected to satisfy useful properties like orthogonality and to have "simple" forms (e.g., McClellan and Parks, 1972; Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982; Grünbaum, 1982; Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997; Candan et al., 2000; Hanna et al., 2004; Gurevich and Hadani, 2008). The choice of eigenvectors of the DFT matrix has become important in recent years in order to define a discrete analogue of the fractional Fourier transform—the DFT matrix can be taken to fractional powers by exponentiating the eigenvalues (e.g., Rubio and Santhanam, 2005). For the continuous Fourier transform, the natural orthogonal eigenfunctions are the Hermite functions, so various discrete analogues of these have been employed as the eigenvectors of the DFT, such as the Kravchuk polynomials (Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997). The "best" choice of eigenvectors to define a fractional discrete Fourier transform remains an open question, however. The real-input DFT If are real numbers, as they often are in practical applications, then the DFT obeys the symmetry: The star denotes complex conjugation. The subscripts are interpreted modulo N. Therefore, the DFT output for real inputs is half redundant, and one obtains the complete information by only looking at roughly half of the outputs . In this case, the "DC" element is purely real, and for even N the "Nyquist" element is also real, so there are exactly N non-redundant real numbers in the first half + Nyquist element of the complex output X. Using Euler's formula, the interpolating trigonometric polynomial can then be interpreted as a sum of sine and cosine functions. Generalized/shifted DFT It is possible to shift the transform sampling in time and/or frequency domain by some real shifts a and b, respectively. This is sometimes known as a generalized DFT (or GDFT), also called the shifted DFT or offset DFT, and has analogous properties to the ordinary DFT: Most often, shifts of (half a sample) are used. While the ordinary DFT corresponds to a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains, produces a signal that is anti-periodic in frequency domain () and vice-versa for . Thus, the specific case of is known as an odd-time odd-frequency discrete Fourier transform (or O2 DFT). Such shifted transforms are most often used for symmetric data, to represent different boundary symmetries, and for real-symmetric data they correspond to different forms of the discrete cosine and sine transforms. Another interesting choice is , which is called the centered DFT (or CDFT). The centered DFT has the useful property that, when is a multiple of four, all four of its eigenvalues (see above) have equal multiplicities (Rubio and Santhanam, 2005). The discrete Fourier transform can be viewed as a special case of the z-transform, evaluated on the unit circle in the complex plane; more general z-transforms correspond to complex shifts a and b above. Multidimensional DFT The ordinary DFT transforms a one-dimensional sequence or array that is a function of exactly one discrete variable . The multidimensional DFT of a multidimensional array that is a function of discrete variables for in is defined by: where as above and the output indices run from . This is more compactly expressed in vector notation, where we define and as -dimensional vectors of indices from 0 to , which we define as : where the division is defined as to be performed element-wise, and the sum denotes the set of nested summations above. The inverse of the multi-dimensional DFT is, analogous to the one-dimensional case, given by: As the one-dimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of sinusoids, the multidimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of plane waves, or sinusoids. Direction of oscillation in space is . The amplitudes are . This decomposition is of great importance for everything from digital image processing (two-dimensional) to solving partial differential equations in three dimensions (three-dimensional). The solution is broken up into plane waves. The multidimensional DFT can be computed by the composition of a sequence of one-dimensional DFTs along each dimension. In the two-dimensional case the independent DFTs of the rows (i.e., along ) are computed first to form a new array . Then the independent DFTs of along the columns (along ) are computed to form the final result . Alternatively the columns can be computed first and then the rows. The order is immaterial because the nested summations above commute. An algorithm to compute a one-dimensional DFT is thus sufficient to efficiently compute a multidimensional DFT. This approach is known as the row-column algorithm. There are also intrinsically multidimensional FFT algorithms. The real-input multidimensional DFT For input data consisting of real numbers, the DFT outputs have a conjugate symmetry similar to the one-dimensional case above: where the star again denotes complex conjugation and the -th subscript is again interpreted modulo (for ). Applications The DFT has seen wide usage across a large number of fields; we only sketch a few examples below (see also the references at the end). All applications of the DFT depend crucially on the availability of a fast algorithm to compute discrete Fourier transforms and their inverses, a fast Fourier transform. Spectral analysis When the DFT is used for spectral analysis, the sequence usually represents a finite set of uniformly-spaced time-samples of some signal , where t represents time. The conversion from continuous time to samples (discrete-time) changes the underlying Fourier transform of x(t) into a discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which generally entails a type of distortion called aliasing. Choice of an appropriate sample-rate (see Nyquist frequency) is the key to minimizing that distortion. Similarly, the conversion from a very long (or infinite) sequence to a manageable size entails a type of distortion called leakage, which is manifested as a loss of detail (aka resolution) in the DTFT. Choice of an appropriate sub-sequence length is the primary key to minimizing that effect. When the available data (and time to process it) is more than the amount needed to attain the desired frequency resolution, a standard technique is to perform multiple DFTs, for example to create a spectrogram. If the desired result is a power spectrum and noise or randomness is present in the data, averaging the magnitude components of the multiple DFTs is a useful procedure to reduce the variance of the spectrum (also called a periodogram in this context); two examples of such techniques are the Welch method and the Bartlett method. A final source of distortion (or perhaps illusion) is the DFT itself, because it is just a discrete sampling of the DTFT, which is a function of a continuous frequency domain. That can be mitigated by increasing the resolution of the DFT. That procedure is illustrated in the discrete-time Fourier transform article. The procedure is sometimes referred to as zero-padding, which is a particular implementation used in conjunction with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. The inefficiency of performing multiplications and additions with zero-valued "samples" is more than offset by the inherent efficiency of the FFT. As already noted, leakage imposes a limit on the inherent resolution of the DTFT. So there is a practical limit to the benefit that can be obtained from a fine-grained DFT. Data compression The field of digital signal processing relies heavily on operations in the frequency domain (i.e. on the Fourier transform). For example, several lossy image and sound compression methods employ the discrete Fourier transform: the signal is cut into short segments, each is transformed, and then the Fourier coefficients of high frequencies, which are assumed to be unnoticeable, are discarded. The decompressor computes the inverse transform based on this reduced number of Fourier coefficients. (Compression applications often use a specialized form of the DFT, the discrete cosine transform or sometimes the modified discrete cosine transform.) Partial differential equations Discrete Fourier transforms are often used to solve partial differential equations, where again the DFT is used as an approximation for the Fourier series (which is recovered in the limit of infinite N). The advantage of this approach is that it expands the signal in complex exponentials einx, which are eigenfunctions of differentiation: d/dx einx = in einx. Thus, in the Fourier representation, differentiation is simple—we just multiply by i n. A linear differential equation with constant coefficients is transformed into an easily solvable algebraic equation. One then uses the inverse DFT to transform the result back into the ordinary spatial representation. Such an approach is called a spectral method. Polynomial multiplication Suppose we wish to compute the polynomial product c(x) = a(x) · b(x). The ordinary product expression for the coefficients of c involves a linear (acyclic) convolution, where indices do not "wrap around." This can be rewritten as a cyclic convolution by taking the coefficient vectors for a(x) and b(x) with constant term first, then appending zeros so that the resultant coefficient vectors a and b have dimension d > deg(a(x)) + deg(b(x)). Then, Where c is the vector of coefficients for c(x), and the convolution operator is defined so But convolution becomes multiplication under the DFT: Here the vector product is taken elementwise. Thus the coefficients of the product polynomial c(x) are just the terms 0, ..., deg(a(x)) + deg(b(x)) of the coefficient vector With a Fast Fourier transform, the resulting algorithm takes O (N log N) arithmetic operations. Due to its simplicity and speed, the Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm, which is limited to composite sizes, is often chosen for the transform operation. In this case, d should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g. 2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation). Multiplication of large integers The fastest known algorithms for the multiplication of very large integers use the polynomial multiplication method outlined above. Integers can be treated as the value of a polynomial evaluated specifically at the number base, with the coefficients of the polynomial corresponding to the digits in that base. After polynomial multiplication, a relatively low-complexity carry-propagation step completes the multiplication. Some discrete Fourier transform pairs + Some DFT pairs Note Shift theorem Real DFT from the geometric progression formula from the binomial theorem is a rectangular window function of points centered on , where is an odd integer, and is a sinc-like function Derivation as Fourier series The DFT can be derived as a truncation of the Fourier series of a periodic sequence of impulses. Generalizations Representation theory The DFT can be interpreted as the complex-valued representation theory of the finite cyclic group. In other words, a sequence of n complex numbers can be thought of as an element of n-dimensional complex space or equivalently a function from the finite cyclic group of order n to the complex numbers, This latter may be suggestively written to emphasize that this is a complex vector space whose coordinates are indexed by the n-element set From this point of view, one may generalize the DFT to representation theory generally, or more narrowly to the representation theory of finite groups. More narrowly still, one may generalize the DFT by either changing the target (taking values in a field other than the complex numbers), or the domain (a group other than a finite cyclic group), as detailed in the sequel. Other fields Many of the properties of the DFT only depend on the fact that is a primitive root of unity, sometimes denoted or (so that ). Such properties include the completeness, orthogonality, Plancherel/Parseval, periodicity, shift, convolution, and unitarity properties above, as well as many FFT algorithms. For this reason, the discrete Fourier transform can be defined by using roots of unity in fields other than the complex numbers; for more information, see discrete Fourier transform (general). Other finite groups The standard DFT acts on a sequence x0, x1, …, xN−1 of complex numbers, which can be viewed as a function {0, 1, …, N − 1} → C. The multidimensional DFT acts on multidimensional sequences, which can be viewed as functions This suggests the generalization to Fourier transforms on arbitrary finite groups, which act on functions G → C where G is a finite group. In this framework, the standard DFT is seen as the Fourier transform on a cyclic group, while the multidimensional DFT is a Fourier transform on a direct sum of cyclic groups. Alternatives As with other Fourier transforms, there are various alternatives to the DFT for various applications, prominent of which are wavelets. The analog of the DFT is the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). From the point of view of time–frequency analysis, a key limitation of the Fourier transform is that it does not include location information, only frequency information, and thus has difficulty in representing transients. As wavelets have location as well as frequency, they are better able to represent location, at the expense of greater difficulty representing frequency. For details, see comparison of the discrete wavelet transform with the discrete Fourier transform. See also DFT matrix List of Fourier-related transforms FFTW Notes References esp. section 30.2: The DFT and FFT, pp.830–838. (Note that this paper has an apparent typo in its table of the eigenvalue multiplicities: the +i/−i columns are interchanged. The correct table can be found in McClellan and Parks, 1972, and is easily confirmed numerically.) External links Interactive flash tutorial on the DFT Mathematics of the Discrete Fourier Transform by Julius O. Smith III Fast implementation of the DFT - coded in C and under General Public License (GPL) Example of how DFT spectral analysis is used in engineering studies of the Otto Struve 2.1m telescope | Discrete_Fourier_transform |@lemmatized mathematics:3 discrete:32 fourier:45 transform:58 dft:96 specific:2 kind:1 use:23 analysis:6 one:18 function:23 another:3 call:8 frequency:23 domain:10 representation:8 simply:4 original:3 often:14 time:17 require:3 input:17 whose:3 non:3 zero:4 value:11 limit:6 finite:13 duration:1 create:2 sample:8 continuous:5 like:3 person:1 voice:1 unlike:1 dtft:5 evaluate:4 enough:1 component:6 reconstruct:1 segment:2 analyze:2 inverse:17 cannot:1 reproduce:1 entire:1 unless:1 happen:1 periodic:7 forever:1 therefore:5 say:1 sinusoidal:3 basis:2 decomposition:2 property:15 since:4 sequence:21 real:22 complex:26 number:18 ideal:1 process:3 information:5 store:1 computer:2 particular:3 widely:1 employ:4 signal:11 processing:4 related:3 field:6 contain:1 sampled:1 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1,396 | Domino_effect | Domino effect events (Top) Dominoes are standing. (Bottom) Dominoes are in motion. The domino effect is a chain reaction that occurs when a small change causes a similar change nearby, which then will cause another similar change, and so on in linear sequence. The term is best known as a mechanical effect, and is used as an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively small. It can be used literally (an observed series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (complex systems such as global finance, or in politics, where linkage is only a hypothesis). Demonstrations of the effect The classic demonstration involves setting up a chain of dominoes stood on end, and toppling the first domino. That domino topples the one next to it, and so on. In theory, however long the chain the dominoes will still fall. This is because the energy required to topple each domino is less than the energy transferred by each impact, so the chain is self-sustaining. Energy is stored by setting each domino in the metastable upright position, and that energy is what keeps the chain toppling. The mechanics of domino toppling is described by W. J. Stronge as a system with two attractors. Two theories are described: independent action and successtive destabilization by cooperative neighbors. There are many demonstrations of the effect involving more complex systems. Currently popular is the Diet Coke and Mentos film on YouTube, where a chain of Diet Coke and Mentos eruptions is demonstrated. Although apparently complex and lacking the purity of a simple chain, this involves a simple physical linkage whereby each eruption triggers the next. See also Relevant physical theory: Causality Chain reaction Butterfly effect Political theory Domino theory Domino effect in fiction: The Domino Effect, BBC Books novel The Domino Effect, episode of these TV shows: Lockie Leonard, Sex and the City, Doctor Who. References Impact Mechanics, W. J. Stronge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0521602890, ISBN 9780521602891 | Domino_effect |@lemmatized domino:16 effect:9 event:3 top:1 stand:2 bottom:1 motion:1 chain:8 reaction:2 occur:1 small:2 change:3 cause:2 similar:2 nearby:1 another:1 linear:1 sequence:2 term:1 best:1 know:1 mechanical:1 use:2 analogy:1 fall:2 row:1 typically:1 refer:1 link:1 time:1 successive:1 relatively:1 literally:1 observe:1 series:1 actual:1 collision:1 metaphorically:1 complex:3 system:3 global:1 finance:1 politics:1 linkage:2 hypothesis:1 demonstration:3 classic:1 involve:3 set:2 end:1 topple:3 first:1 one:1 next:2 theory:5 however:1 long:1 still:1 energy:4 require:1 less:1 transfer:1 impact:2 self:1 sustaining:1 store:1 metastable:1 upright:1 position:1 keep:1 toppling:2 mechanic:2 describe:2 w:2 j:2 stronge:2 two:2 attractor:1 independent:1 action:1 successtive:1 destabilization:1 cooperative:1 neighbor:1 many:1 currently:1 popular:1 diet:2 coke:2 mentos:2 film:1 youtube:1 eruption:2 demonstrate:1 although:1 apparently:1 lack:1 purity:1 simple:2 physical:2 whereby:1 trigger:1 see:1 also:1 relevant:1 causality:1 butterfly:1 political:1 fiction:1 bbc:1 book:1 novel:1 episode:1 tv:1 show:1 lockie:1 leonard:1 sex:1 city:1 doctor:1 reference:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:2 |@bigram domino_domino:1 self_sustaining:1 diet_coke:2 |
1,397 | Calcium | Calcium () is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. chapter5 Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, where movement of the calcium ion Ca2+ into and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many cellular processes. As a major material used in mineralization of bones and shells, calcium is the most abundant metal by mass in many animals. Notable characteristics Calcium carbonate wetted with hydrochloric acid (thus forming CaCl2) held at a flame and showing red-orange flame color of Ca. Chemically calcium is reactive and soft for a metal (though harder than lead, it can be cut with a knife with difficulty). It is a silvery metallic element that must be extracted by electrolysis from a fused salt like calcium chloride. Pauling, Linus General Chemistry p. 627, 1970 ed. Dover Publications Once produced, it rapidly forms a grey-white oxide and nitride coating when exposed to air. It is somewhat difficult to ignite, unlike magnesium, but when lit, the metal burns in air with a brilliant high-intensity red light. Calcium metal reacts with water, evolving hydrogen gas at a rate rapid enough to be noticeable, but not fast enough at room temperature to generate much heat. In powdered form, however, the reaction with water is extremely rapid, as the increased surface area of the powder accelerates the reaction with the water. Part of the slowness of the calcium-water reaction results from the metal being partly protected by insoluble white calcium hydroxide. In water solutions of acids where the salt is water soluble, calcium reacts vigorously. Calcium, with a specific mass of 1.55 g/cm3, is the lightest of the alkali earth metals; magnesium is heavier (1.74) and beryllium even more heavy (1.84) despite these two elements being lighter in atomic mass. From strontium on the alkali earth metals get heavier along with the atomic mass. Calcium has a higher resistivity than copper or aluminium. Yet, weight for weight, allowing for its much lower density, it is a rather better conductor than either. However, its use in terrestrial applications is usually limited by its high reactivity with air. Calcium salts are colorless from any contribution of the calcium, and ionic solutions of calcium (Ca2+) are colorless as well. Many calcium salts are not soluble in water. When in solution, the calcium ion to the human taste varies remarkably, being reported as mildly salty, sour, "mineral like" or even "soothing." It is apparent that many animals can taste, or develop a taste, for calcium, and use this sense to detect the mineral in salt licks or other sources. Calcium: Taste, Intake, and Appetite - Tordoff 81 (4): 1567 - Physiological Reviews In human nutrition, soluble calcium salts may be added to tart juices without much effect to the average palate. Calcium is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the human body, where it is a common cellular ionic messenger with many functions, and serves also as a structural element in bone. It is the relatively high atomic-numbered calcium in the skeleton which causes bone to be radio-opaque. Of the human body's solid components after drying (as for example, after cremation), about a third of the total mass is the approximately one kilogram of calcium which composes the average skeleton (the remainder being mostly phosphorus and oxygen). Occurrence Calcium is not naturally found in its elemental state. Calcium occurs most commonly in sedimentary rocks in the minerals calcite, dolomite and gypsum. It also occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks chiefly in the silicate minerals: plagioclase, amphiboles, pyroxenes and garnets. See also Calcium minerals. Applications Some uses are: as a reducing agent in the extraction of other metals, such as uranium, zirconium, and thorium. as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarbonizer for various ferrous and nonferrous alloys. as an alloying agent used in the production of aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium alloys. in the making of cements and mortars to be used in construction. in the making of cheese, where calcium ions influence the activity of rennin in bringing about the coagulation of milk. Calcium compounds Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone (usually used in the steel industry); aids in production in the glass industry, also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, for example. Calcium hydroxide solution (Ca(OH)2) (also known as limewater) is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide by being bubbled through a solution. It turns cloudy where CO2 is present. Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide (CaC2) is used: to make acetylene gas (for use in acetylene torches for welding) and in the manufacturing of plastics. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is used: in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, in conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium cyclamate (Ca(C6H11NHSO3)2) was used as a sweetening agent but is no longer permitted for use because of suspected cancer-causing properties. Calcium gluconate (Ca(C6H11O7)2) is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is used: as a swimming pool disinfectant, as a bleaching agent, as an ingredient in deodorant, and in algaecide and fungicide. Calcium permanganate (Ca(MnO4)2) is used in liquid rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent and in dental procedures. Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in commercial production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass, and in dental products. Calcium phosphide (Ca3P2) is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes and flares. Calcium stearate (Ca(C18H35O2)2 is used in the manufacture of wax crayons, cements, certain kinds of plastics and cosmetics, as a food additive, in the production of water resistant materials and in the production of paints. Calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form being more well known as Plaster of Paris. Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) is used in luminous paints, fluorescent lights and in X-ray studies. Hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH), but is usually written Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) makes up seventy percent of bone. Also carbonated-calcium deficient hydroxylapatite is the main mineral of which dental enamel and dentin are comprised. H and K lines In the visible portion of the spectrum of many stars, including the Sun, strong absorption lines of singly-ionized calcium are shown. Prominent among these are the H-line at 3968.5 Å and the K line at 3933.7 Å of singly-ionized calcium, or Ca II. For the Sun and stars with low temperatures, the prominence of the H and K lines can be an indication of strong magnetic activity in the chromosphere. Measurement of periodic variations of these active regions can also be used to deduce the rotation periods of these stars. History Calcium (Latin word meaning "lime") was known as early as the first century when the Ancient Romans prepared lime as calcium oxide. Literature dating back to 975 AD notes that plaster of paris (calcium sulphate), is useful for setting broken bones. It was not isolated until 1808 in England when Sir Humphry Davy electrolyzed a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide. Davy was trying to isolate calcium; when he heard that Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also discovered/isolated sodium, potassium, magnesium, boron and barium. Calcium metal was not available in large scale until the beginning of the 20th century. Compounds Calcium, combined with phosphate to form hydroxylapatite, is the mineral portion of human and animal bones and teeth. The mineral portion of some corals can also be transformed into hydroxylapatite. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made by heating limestone at high temperature (above 825°C) and then carefully adding water to it. When lime is mixed with sand, it hardens into a mortar and is turned into plaster by carbon dioxide uptake. Mixed with other compounds, lime forms an important part of Portland cement. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is one of the common compounds of calcium. It is heated to form quicklime (CaO), which is then added to water (H2O). This forms another material known as slaked lime (Ca(OH)2), which is an inexpensive base material used throughout the chemical industry. Chalk, marble, and limestone are all forms of calcium carbonate. When water percolates through limestone or other soluble carbonate rocks, it partially dissolves the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic stalactites and stalagmites and also forms hard water. Other important calcium compounds are calcium nitrate, calcium sulfide, calcium chloride, calcium carbide, calcium cyanamide and calcium hypochlorite. Isotopes Calcium has four stable isotopes (40Ca and 42Ca through 44Ca), plus two more isotopes (46Ca and 48Ca) that have such long half-lives that for all practical purposes they can be considered stable. It also has a cosmogenic isotope, radioactive 41Ca, which has a half-life of 103,000 years. Unlike cosmogenic isotopes that are produced in the atmosphere, 41Ca is produced by neutron activation of 40Ca. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of the soil column, where the cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. 41Ca has received much attention in stellar studies because it decays to 41K, a critical indicator of solar-system anomalies. 97% of naturally occurring calcium is in the form of 40Ca. 40Ca is one of the daughter products of 40K decay, along with 40Ar. While K-Ar dating has been used extensively in the geological sciences, the prevalence of 40Ca in nature has impeded its use in dating. Techniques using mass spectrometry and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for K-Ca age dating. The most abundant isotope, 40Ca, has a nucleus of 20 protons and 20 neutrons. This is the heaviest stable isotope of any element which has equal numbers of protons and neutrons. In supernova explosions, calcium is formed from the reaction of carbon with various numbers of alpha particles (helium nuclei), until the most common calcium isotope (containing 10 helium nuclei) has been synthesized. Nutrition + Recommended Adequate Intake by the IOM for Calcium: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Calcium Age Calcium (mg/day) 0–6 months 210 7–12 months 2701–3 years5004–8 years8009–18 years130019–50 years100051+ years1200 Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet and a mineral necessary for life. The National Osteoporosis Foundation says, "Calcium plays an important role in building stronger, denser bones early in life and keeping bones strong and healthy later in life." Approximately ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth. Osteoporosis Prevention - Calcium Recommendations The rest of the calcium in the body has other important uses, such as some exocytosis, especially neurotransmitter release, and muscle contraction. Long-term calcium deficiency can lead to rickets and poor blood clotting and in case of a menopausal woman, it can lead to osteoporosis, in which the bone deteriorates and there is an increased risk of fractures. While a lifelong deficit can affect bone and tooth formation, over-retention can cause hypercalcemia (elevated levels of calcium in the blood), impaired kidney function and decreased absorption of other minerals. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and fluoride. Washington DC: The National Academies Press, 1997 High calcium intakes or high calcium absorption were previously thought to contribute to the development of kidney stones. However, a high calcium intake has been associated with a lower risk for kidney stones in more recent research. Curhan G, Willett WC, Rimm E, Stampher MJ. A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med 1993;328:833-8 Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium. Dairy products, such as milk and cheese, are a well-known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of non Indo-European descent, are lactose-intolerant, leaving them unable to consume non-fermented dairy products in quantities larger than about half a liter per serving. Others, such as vegans, avoid dairy products for ethical and health reasons. Fortunately, many good sources of calcium exist. These include seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame); blackstrap molasses; beans; oranges; figs; quinoa; amaranth; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; dandelion leaves; kale; and fortified products such as orange juice and soy milk. (However, calcium fortified orange juice often contains vitamin D3 derived from lanolin, and is thus unacceptable for vegans. ) An overlooked source of calcium is eggshell, which can be ground into a powder and mixed into food or a glass of water. Cultivated vegetables generally have less calcium than wild plants. Original Wild Foods vs. Available Foods Today for Instinctos The calcium content of most foods can be found in the USDA National Nutrient Database. USDA National Nutrient Database Dietary calcium supplements 500 milligram calcium supplements made from calcium carbonate Calcium supplements are used to prevent and to treat calcium deficiencies. Most experts recommend that supplements be taken with food and that no more than 600 mg should be taken at a time because the percent of calcium absorbed decreases as the amount of calcium in the supplement increases. It is recommended to spread doses throughout the day. Recommended daily calcium intake for adults ranges from 1000 to 1500 mg. It is recommended to take supplements with food to aid in absorption. Vitamin D is added to some calcium supplements. Proper vitamin D status is important because vitamin D is converted to a hormone in the body which then induces the synthesis of intestinal proteins responsible for calcium absorption. Combs, G: "The Vitamins", page 161. Academic Press, 2008 The absorption of calcium from most food and commonly-used dietary supplements is very similar. Weaver, CM: "Calcium" in Present Knowledge in Nutrition, 9th Ed., Vol I, page 377. ILSI Press, 2006. This is contrary to what many calcium supplement manufacturers claim in their promotional materials. Milk is an excellent source of dietary calcium because it has a high concentration of calcium and the calcium in milk is excellently absorbed. Calcium carbonate is the most common and least expensive calcium supplement. It should be taken with food. It depends on low pH levels for proper absorption in the intestine. Some studies suggests that the absorption of calcium from calcium carbonate is similar to the absorption of calcium from milk. Zhao, Y. et al.: "Calcium bioavailability of calcium carbonate fortified soy milk is equivalent to cow's milk in young women", J. Nutr., 135(10):2379 http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/6/1345 While most people digest calcium carbonate very well, some might develop gastrointestinal discomfort or gas. Taking magnesium with it can help to avoid constipation. Calcium carbonate is 40% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 400 mg of calcium. However, supplement labels will usually indicate how much calcium is present in each serving, not how much calcium carbonate is present. Antacids, such as Tums, frequently contain calcium carbonate, and are a very commonly-used, inexpensive calcium supplement. Coral Calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs. Coral calcium is composed of calcium carbonate and trace minerals. Calcium citrate can be taken without food and is the supplement of choice for individuals with achlorhydria or who are taking histamine-2 blockers or proton-pump inhibitors. Straub, DA: "Calcium supplementation in clinical practice: a review of forms, doses, and indications", Nutr. Clin. Pract., 22(3):286, 2007. It is more easily digested and absorbed than calcium carbonate if taken on empty stomach and less likely to cause constipation and gas than calcium carbonate. It also has a lower risk of contributing to the formation of kidney stones. Calcium citrate is about 21% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 210 mg of calcium. It is more expensive than calcium carbonate and more of it must be taken to get the same amount of calcium. Calcium phosphate costs more than calcium carbonate, but less than calcium citrate. It is easily absorbed and is less likely to cause constipation and gas than either. Calcium lactate has similar absorption as calcium carbonate Martin, BR: "Calcium absorption from three salts and CaSo4- fortified bread in premenopausal women", J. Agric. Food Chem., 50:3874, 2002. , but is more expensive. Calcium lactate and calcium gluconate are less concentrated forms of calcium and are not practical oral supplements. Calcium chelates are synthetic calcium compounds, with calcium bound to an organic molecule, such as malate, aspartate, or fumarate. These forms of calcium may be better absorbed on an empty stomach. However, in general they are absorbed similarly to calcium carbonate and other common calcium supplements when taken with food. Weaver, CM, et al.: "Absorption of calcium fumarate salts is equivalent to other calcium salts when measured in the rat model.", J. Agric. Food Chem., 50(17):4974, 2002 The 'chelate' mimics the action that natural food performs by keeping the calcium soluble in the intestine. Thus, on an empty stomach, in some individuals, chelates might theoretically be absorbed better. Microcrystalline hydroxyapatite (MH) is marketed as a calcium supplement, and has in some randomized trials been found to be more effective than calcium carbonate. Orange juice with calcium added is a good dietary source for persons who have lactose intolerance. In July 2006, a report citing research from Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington claimed that women in their 50s gained 5 pounds less in a period of 10 years by taking more than 500 mg of calcium supplements than those who did not. However, the doctor in charge of the study, Dr. Alejandro J. Gonzalez also noted it would be "going out on a limb" to suggest calcium supplements as a weight-limiting aid. Prevention of fractures due to osteoporosis Such studies often do not test calcium alone, but rather combinations of calcium and vitamin D. Randomized controlled trials found both positive and negative effects. The different results may be explained by doses of calcium and underlying rates of calcium supplementation in the control groups. However, it is clear that increasing the intake of calcium promotes deposition of calcium in the bones, where it is of more benefit in preventing the compression fractures resulting from the osteoporotic thinning of the dendritic web of the bodies of the vertebrae, than it is at preventing the more serious cortical bone fractures which happen at hip and wrist. Possible cancer prevention A meta-analysis by the international Cochrane Collaboration of two randomized controlled trials found that calcium "might contribute to a moderate degree to the prevention of adenomatous colonic polyps". More recent studies were conflicting, and one which was positive for effect (Lappe, et al.) did control for a possible anti-carcinogenic effect of vitamin D, which was found to be an independent positive influence from calcium-alone on cancer risk (see second study below) for abstract see PMID 17556697 . A randomized controlled trial found that 1000 mg of elemental calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D3 had no effect on colorectal cancer A randomized controlled trial found that 1400–1500 mg supplemental calcium and 1100 IU vitamin D3 reduced aggregated cancers with a relative risk of 0.402. An observational cohort study found that high calcium and vitamin D intake was associated with "lower risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer." Overdose Exceeding the recommended daily calcium intake for an extended period of time can result in hypercalcemia and calcium metabolism disorder. See also Calcium metabolism Calcium in biology Calcium compounds Disorders of calcium metabolism Notes References Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005. 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1,398 | Monasticism | Trappist monk praying in his cell. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote one's life to spiritual work. The origin of the word is from Ancient Greek, and the idea was originally related to Christian monks. In the Christian tradition, those pursuing a monastic life are usually called monks or brethren (brothers) if male, and nuns or sisters if female. Both monks and nuns may also be called monastics. Some other religions also include what could be described as "monastic" elements, most notably Buddhism, but also Taoism, Hinduism, and Jainism, though the expressions differ considerably. Buddhist monasticism The order of Buddhist bhikkus (similar to monks) and original bhikkhunis (similar to nuns) (Sangha) was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under, and was initially fairly eremetic in nature. Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they were needed. Young Buddhist bhikkhus in Tibet. After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis—the Patimokkha—relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada bhikkhus follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns). Buddhist monasticism with its tradition of councils, missions, and being a source of knowledge and literacy spread from India to the Middle East and eventually west, with Christian monasticism following in its footsteps in the areas where Emperor Ashoka sent missions. The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male bhikkhu assembly and the female bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhuss. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. A bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years. The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline. Christian monasticism Monasticism in Christianity provided the origins of the words "monk" and "monastery" which comprises several diverse forms of religious living that are in response to the call of Jesus of Nazareth to follow him. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, modeled upon Old and New Testament examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution in the Scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Christian monasticism is a way of religious living (also called the "counsels of perfection") that is being embraced as a vocation from God out of a desire to attain eternal life in his presence. During his Sermon on the Mount on the Beatitudes (the right way of living according to the law of God), Jesus exhorted the large crowd listening to him to be "perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" (). When speaking to his men, Jesus also extended an invitation to celibacy to those "to whom it has been given" (); and when asked what else is required in addition to observing the Commandments in order to "enter into eternal life", he advised to sell all earthly possessions in favour of the poor and to follow him, "if you wish to be perfect" (cf. = = ). Already in the New Testament there is evidence of Christian monastic living, namely the service rendered by the Widows and the Virgins. Eventually, first in Syria and then in Egypt, Christians began to feel called also to eremitic monastic living (in the spirit of the "Desert Theology" of the Old Testament for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God). Saint Anthony the Great is cited by Athanasius as one of these early "Hermit monks". Starting in Egypt, this gave rise to cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West. Especially in the Middle East eremitic monasticism continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. But not everybody is fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported. The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious; and around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian cenobitic monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable monasteries of the East include: Monastery of Saint Anthony, which is the oldest Christian monastery in the world. Mar Awgin founded a monastery on Mt. Izla above Nisibis in Mesopotamia (~350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China. St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai was founded between 527 and 565 in the Sinai desert by order of Emperor Justinian I.In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the Rule of the Master is problematic; but it has been argued on internal grounds that it antedates the so-called Rule of Saint Benedict created by Benedict of Nursia for his monastery in Monte Cassino, Italy (c. 529), and the other Benedictine monasteries he himself had founded (cf. Order of St Benedict). It would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today. The Augustinian Rule, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the Canons Regular.Around the 12th century, the Franciscan, Carmelite, Dominican, and Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city convents among the people instead of secluded in monasteries. Today new expressions of Christian monasticism, many of which ecumenical, are developing in places such as the Bose Monastic Community in Italy, the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem throughout Europe, and the Taizé Community in France, and the mainly Evangelical Protestant New Monasticism movement of America. Hindu monasticism In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5 A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. R.S. McGregor, The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8 A nun is called a sanyāsini, sadhavi, or swāmini. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs. Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1 It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain. Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5. A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut. A Sadhu's vow of renunciation typically forbids him from: owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aids such as eyeglasses; having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women; eating for pleasure; possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form; maintaining personal relationships. Islam and monasticism While many Muslims do not believe in monasticism (emphasizing the Qur'anic injunction in which Allah rebukes monasticism as a man-made practice that is not divinely prescribed), various Sufi orders, or "tariqas" encourage practices which resemble those of monastic brotherhoods in other faiths. Dervishes — initiates of Sufi orders — believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. Many of the dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in common professions; many Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen. All genuine dervish brotherhoods trace their origins from two of the close companions of Muhammad, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Abu Bakr. They differ from spiritual brotherhoods of Christianity in that they usually do not live together in a 'monastery' setting; it is actually a stipulation that they have families, and earn an ethical living. Whirling dance, which is the practice of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (majdhb) and connection with Allah. Rif'ai, in their mystical states, apparently skewer themselves without engendering any harm. Other groups include the Shadhili, a gnosis based order who practice the 'hadra' or 'presence', a dance-like breathing exercise involving the repetition of divine names. All genuine brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of Qur'an, and must follow the sharia, or Islamic sacred law. Traditionally monks in Islam have been known as fakirs. This term has also been applied to Hindu monks and dried meditating men. Jain monasticism Jainism has two branches, and each has a slightly different take on monasticism. Digambara monks do not wear clothing. Digambaras believe that practice represents a refusal to give in to the body's demands for comfort and private property—only Digambara ascetics are required to forsake clothing. Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd. They also believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. As a result, of the around 6000 Jain nuns, barely 100 are Digambaras. The Shvetambaras are the other main Jainist sect. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures. Monasticism in other religions Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e. celibate male and female acharyas or missionaries) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training. Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism. Judaism does not support the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty, but two thousand years ago taking Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite Jews abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead. However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property; moreover, in most cases a Nazirite vow was for a specified time period and not permanent. In Modern Hebrew, the term Nazir is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics. Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore the elect were probably at least partially monastic. Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org. They work only for the Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church. Sikhism and the Bahá’í Faith both specifically forbid the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh or Bahá’í monk conclaves or brotherhoods. Zoroastrianism holds that active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will, and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of asceticism and monasticism. See also Carmelite Rule of St. Albert "Into Great Silence" The award winning documentary of life within the Carthusian monastery of La Grande Chartreuse by Philip Groning. Matha Order (religious) References Further reading Fracchia, Charles. Living Together Alone: The New American Monasticism. Harper & Row, 1979. ISBN 0060630116. Gruber, Mark. 2003. Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism. Lanham: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2539-8 Johnston, William M. (ed.). 2000. Encyclopedia of Monasticism. 2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. Lawrence, C. H. 2001. Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (3rd Edition). New York: Longmans. ISBN 0-582-40427-4 Zarnecki, George. 1985. "The Monastic World: The Contributions of the Orders". Pp. 36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. The Flowering of the Middle Ages. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. External links Links to Coptic Orthodox Monasteries of Egypt and the world Historyfish.net: texts and articles regarding the Western Christian monastic tradition. Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life. Full Text + Illustrations. Public Domain Photochrom photographs, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Holy Sites and the Holy Land. 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1,399 | Electromagnetic_radiation | Electromagnetic radiation (sometimes abbreviated EMR and often simply called light) is a ubiquitous phenomenon that takes the form of self-propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. It consists of electric and magnetic field components which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation. Electromagnetic radiation is classified into several types according to the frequency of its wave; these types include (in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength): radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. A small and somewhat variable window of frequencies is sensed by the eyes of various organisms; this is what we call the visible spectrum, or light. EM radiation carries energy and momentum that may be imparted to matter with which it interacts. Physics Theory Shows three electromagnetic modes (blue, green and red) with a distance scale in micrometres along the x-axis. Electromagnetic waves were first postulated by James Clerk Maxwell and subsequently confirmed by Heinrich Hertz. Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, revealing the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields, and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. According to Maxwell's equations, a time-varying electric field generates a magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These oscillating fields together form an electromagnetic wave. A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics. Properties Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from right to left. The electric field is in a vertical plane, the magnetic field in a horizontal plane. The physics of electromagnetic radiation is electrodynamics, a subfield of electromagnetism. Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition so that a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field will contribute to the fields present in the same space due to other causes: as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition. For instance, a travelling EM wave incident on an atomic structure induces oscillation in the atoms of that structure, thereby causing them to emit their own EM waves, emissions which alter the impinging wave through interference. These properties cause various phenomena including refraction and diffraction. Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by travelling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields — these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect. In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light disperses into a visible spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of the wavelength dependant refractive index of the prism material (Dispersion). EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (see wave-particle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in a large number of experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. Upon absorption the quantum nature of the light leads to clearly non-uniform deposition of energy. There are experiments in which the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves appear in the same experiment, such as the diffraction of a single photon. When a single photon is sent through two slits, it passes through both of them interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once. Similar self-interference is observed when a single photon is sent into a Michelson interferometer or other interferometers. Wave model White light being separated into its components. An important aspect of the nature of light is frequency. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz, the unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has a spectrum of frequencies which sum together to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction. A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation: where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant. Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy. Particle model Because energy of an EM wave is quantized, in the particle model of EM radiation, a wave consists of discrete packets of energy, or quanta, called photons. The frequency of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of the particle's energy. Moreover, because photons are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, they act as transporters of energy. The energy per photon can be calculated from the Planck–Einstein equation: where E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency. This photon-energy expression is a particular case of the energy levels of the more general electromagnetic oscillator whose average energy, which is used to obtain Planck's radiation law, can be shown to differ sharply from that predicted by the equipartition principle at low temperature, thereby establishes a failure of equipartition due to quantum effects at low temperature Vu-Quoc, L., Configuration integral (statistical mechanics), 2008. . As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites an electron, elevating it to a higher energy level. If the energy is great enough, so that the electron jumps to a high enough energy level, it may escape the positive pull of the nucleus and be liberated from the atom in a process called photoionisation. Conversely, an electron that descends to a lower energy level in an atom emits a photon of light equal to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Together, these effects explain the absorption spectra of light. The dark bands in the spectrum are due to the atoms in the intervening medium absorbing different frequencies of the light. The composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption spectrum. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons. This is manifested in the emission spectrum of nebulae. Today, scientists use this phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is composed of. It is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the red shift. Speed of propagation Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic information about the charge travels at the speed of light. Accurate treatment thus incorporates a concept known as retarded time (as opposed to advanced time, which is unphysical in light of causality), which adds to the expressions for the electrodynamic electric field and magnetic field. These extra terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or other conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. At the quantum level, electromagnetic radiation is produced when the wavepacket of a charged particle oscillates or otherwise accelerates. Charged particles in a stationary state do not move, but a superposition of such states may result in oscillation, which is responsible for the phenomenon of radiative transition between quantum states of a charged particle. Depending on the circumstances, electromagnetic radiation may behave as a wave or as particles. As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity (the speed of light), wavelength, and frequency. When considered as particles, they are known as photons, and each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by Planck's relation E = hν, where E is the energy of the photon, h = 6.626 × 10-34 J·s is Planck's constant, and ν is the frequency of the wave. One rule is always obeyed regardless of the circumstances: EM radiation in a vacuum always travels at the speed of light, relative to the observer, regardless of the observer's velocity. (This observation led to Albert Einstein's development of the theory of special relativity.) In a medium (other than vacuum), velocity factor or refractive index are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum. Thermal radiation and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat The basic structure of matter involves charged particles bound together in many different ways. When electromagnetic radiation is incident on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the situation. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted radiation. It may also get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to thermal equilibrium and manifesting itself as thermal energy in the material. With a few exceptions such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, photochemical reactions and the photovoltaic effect, absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material. This happens both for infrared and non-infrared radiation. Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In addition to infrared lasers, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can also easily set paper afire. Ionizing electromagnetic radiation can create high-speed electrons in a material and break chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms in the material eventually most of the energy gets downgraded to thermal energy, this whole process happening in a tiny fraction of a second. That infrared radiation is a form of heat and other electromagnetic radiation is not, is a widespread misconception in physics. Any electromagnetic radiation can heat a material when it is absorbed. The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is responsible for thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the deposited energy heating the material. Radiation is an important mechanism of heat transfer. The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum radiation entropy. The thermodynamic potentials of electromagnetic radiation can be well-defined as for matter. Thermal radiation in a cavity has energy density (see Planck's Law) of Differentiating the above with respect to temperature, we may say that the electromagnetic radiation field has an effective volumetric heat capacity given by Electromagnetic spectrum Electromagnetic spectrum with light highlighted Legend: γ = Gamma rays HX = Hard X-rays SX = Soft X-Rays EUV = Extreme ultraviolet NUV = Near ultraviolet Visible light NIR = Near infrared MIR = Moderate infrared FIR = Far infrared Radio waves: EHF = Extremely high frequency (Microwaves) SHF = Super high frequency (Microwaves) UHF = Ultrahigh frequency (Microwaves) VHF = Very high frequency HF = High frequency MF = Medium frequency LF = Low frequency VLF = Very low frequency VF = Voice frequency ELF = Extremely low frequency Generally, EM radiation is classified by wavelength into electrical energy, radio, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It is widely used in astrophysics. For example, hydrogen atoms emit radio waves of wavelength 21.12 cm. Light EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when visibility to humans is not relevant. If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off of an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in our visual perception of the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit. At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and our technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data that can be translated into sound or an image. The coding used in such data is similar to that used with radio waves. Radio waves Radio waves can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up; this is exploited in microwave ovens. Derivation Electromagnetic waves as a general phenomenon were predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as Maxwell's equations. If you inspect Maxwell's equations without sources (charges or currents) then you will find that, along with the possibility of nothing happening, the theory will also admit nontrivial solutions of changing electric and magnetic fields. Beginning with Maxwell's equations for free space: where is a vector differential operator (see Del). One solution, , is trivial. To see the more interesting one, we utilize vector identities, which work for any vector, as follows: To see how we can use this take the curl of equation (2): Evaluating the left hand side: where we simplified the above by using equation (1). Evaluate the right hand side: Equations (6) and (7) are equal, so this results in a vector-valued differential equation for the electric field, namely {|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" | |} Applying a similar pattern results in similar differential equation for the magnetic field: {|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" |. |} These differential equations are equivalent to the wave equation: where c0 is the speed of the wave in free space and f describes a displacement Or more simply: where is d'Alembertian: Notice that in the case of the electric and magnetic fields, the speed is: Which, as it turns out, is the speed of light in free space. Maxwell's equations have unified the permittivity of free space , the permeability of free space , and the speed of light itself, c0. Before this derivation it was not known that there was such a strong relationship between light and electricity and magnetism. But these are only two equations and we started with four, so there is still more information pertaining to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. Let's consider a generic vector wave for the electric field. Here is the constant amplitude, is any second differentiable function, is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and is a position vector. We observe that is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words , for a generic wave traveling in the direction. This form will satisfy the wave equation, but will it satisfy all of Maxwell's equations, and with what corresponding magnetic field? The first of Maxwell's equations implies that electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates. The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field. The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of . Not only are the electric and magnetic field waves traveling at the speed of light, but they have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes, , which can be seen immediately from the Poynting vector. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as . From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left; but this picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as polarization. See also Bioelectromagnetism Bolometer Control of electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic pulse Electromagnetic radiation and health Electromagnetic spectrum Electromagnetic wave equation Finite-difference time-domain method Helicon Klystron Light Maxwell's equations Photon polarization Radiant energy Radiation reaction Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation References External links Electromagnetism - a chapter from an online textbook Electromagnetic Radiation - an introduction for electrical engineers Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations on Project PHYSNET. 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