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Golgi cell n.
A neuron with short dendrites and with either a long axon or an axon that breaks into processes a short distance from the cell body.
|a neuron in the cerebral cortex with short dendrites and with either a long axon or a short axon that ramifies in the grey matter [syn: Golgi's cell]|
|a screen or mat covered with a dark material for shielding a camera lens from excess light or glare.|
|a children's mummer's parade, as on the Fourth of July, with prizes for the best costumes.| | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40767000 |
fudge factor definition
A value or parameter that is varied in an ad hoc way to produce the desired result. The terms "tolerance" and slop
are also used, though these usually indicate a one-sided leeway, such as a buffer that is made larger than necessary because one isn't sure exactly how large it needs to be, and it is better to waste a little space than to lose completely for not having enough. A fudge factor, on the other hand, can often be tweaked in more than one direction. A good example is the "fuzz" typically allowed in floating-point
calculations: two numbers being compared for equality must be allowed to differ by a small amount; if that amount is too small, a computation may never terminate, while if it is too large, results will be needlessly inaccurate. Fudge factors are frequently adjusted incorrectly by programmers who don't fully understand their import. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40768000 |
Date: November 16, 2001
Creator: Jurenas, Remy
Description: Agriculture (as measured by share of gross domestic product and employment) is a significant economic sector in seven Central and South Asian countries: Afghanistan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. All of these countries are net food importers. Some have experienced successive years of drought, which has contributed to noticeable declines in agricultural output and the need to increase commodity imports. The United Nations’ World Food Program reports that both Afghanistan and Tajikistan are currently in need of emergency food assistance to cover sizable food deficits. The food outlook in Afghanistan is made uncertain by ongoing military conflict.
Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40772000 |
Creator: Exner, Martin
Description: Global health has in recent years drawn increasing scientific, political and popular attention not only due to global epidemics themselves,but also because of the social activities and environmental conditions that shape health threats and influence those who are affected. The study dealswith the issue of 'Sustainable Global Health'which has evolved from the realization that there will be no alleviation of poverty without success in control of serious public health threats, no economic prosperity and sustainability without a healthy workforce, and no social stability and peace as long as people have to suffer from insufficient health services, from malnutrition, from HIV/AIDS pandemics, or from lack of safe water. The study addresses a broad range of issues related to human health at regional and global levels. It includes the theme of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as a tool for the private sector to exercise responsibility and interest in using the workplaces as a route and as means for education, and for a wide participation of every citizen in securing his or her individual health and well-being. Highlighted throughout the study are integrated approaches towards sustainable health.These approaches shed light on both the importance of multilevel health governance and the ...
Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40773000 |
Stray dogs have learned to use the subway in their search travel for food. They board the trains daily and travel back and forth without paying any fares; quite a feat for supposedly “dumb animals.”
According to Russian biology professor Andrew Poyarkov, dogs in Moscow have learned to use the city's underground rail system. he told the press that he has seen them travel into the center of the city, where they can more easily find food, each morning and travel back to where they live each evening.
In his words:
“They do not just go to the subway station, they actually board the trains. They seem to have learnt how long they need to stay on the train to leave at the right station. Sometimes they fall asleep and miss their stop. Then they get off take another train back to the centre.”
Moscow ecologists believe that this phenomenon began in the early 1990s after the Soviet Union collapsed and Moscow fell into the hands of new class of Russian capitalists. This commercial revolution, which was marked by the removal of Moscow’s industrial complexes that had served as shelters for homeless dogs, eliminated access to habitual feeding places like trash bins. The dogs were forced to make lemons out of lemonade, so to speak, and find new ways to reach different feeding grounds.
It is as if the animals commute in the same manner as their human counterparts; they travel to the center in the morning and back home again in the evening. Amazingly, these dogs have the ability to usually not miss their stop while traveling by subway. Biologists feel this talent relates to an innate sense of timing. They also know to cross the street on a green traffic light, which scientists feel has more to do with the picture that appears on the light rather than the color. The dogs usually choose the first or the last car on the subway, which are generally the least crowded.
Despite their desperate existences, the dogs often play while they travel back and forth. They often jump into the train just seconds before the door closes and risking injury to their tails.
This is a sad commentary on the lot of stray animals but its message is clearly one of survival. The world may be going to the dogs but not without the dogs adjusting to it and marking it with their own particular stamp of animal ingenuity. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40776000 |
Concept 39 A genome is an entire set of genes.
Cross pure-bred pea plants to identify dominant flower color.
HI! One of the first steps in locating a disease gene is screening families with the disease for markers that are linked to the gene. Scientists use short tandem repeats (STR) as markers. These repeats can vary from ten to hundreds of base pairs, and are usually found in multiple copies. Different people will have different numbers of these repeats. In this example, A has two copies and B has four copies of the tandem repeat. The DNA sequences flanking the repeats are unique sequences found in everyone. PCR primers can be made to the unique flanking sequences and the intervening fragments can be amplified. These fragments are different sizes because of the number of repeats present in the individuals. The size difference can be seen when the fragments are electrophoresed on a gel. Assuming that A and B are homozygous for the length of an STR, what would the gel pattern look like for their progeny C? No, if C is the progeny of A and B, then it should have both bands. No, if C is the progeny of A and B, then it should have two bands. No, if C is the progeny of A and B, then it should not have a different size band. A progeny from a cross between A and B will be heterozygous for the length of the STR. In other words, C will have the smaller-size fragment from A and the larger-size fragment from B. The size differences of STRs are markers that can be associated with the occurrence of a disease or genetic trait. Which of the following gels and associated pedigrees shows an STR linked with an autosomal, recessive disease gene? No, two affected individuals have different STR patterns; there is no linkage. No, two unaffected individuals have different STR patterns; there is no linkage. No, both the affected and unaffected parent have the same STR pattern; there is no linkage. In this example, the STR is linked to an autosomal, recessive disorder. Carriers and the affected individual all have the same STR fragment. This is only a very small sample size. Larger, multi-generational analysis can confirm the linkage of this STR with the disease trait. Gene hunters try to find two markers linked to one gene. Which two markers (labeled 1 and 2) will be most useful? Gene hunters look for markers that are tightly linked to the disease gene. This indicates that the gene is nearby. By finding two flanking markers, gene hunters narrow their search to a defined stretch of DNA. Though the flanking markers are relatively close together, there may be a million base pairs and a hundred genes to wade through. Your next step is to find the coding sequences in this region. First you need to clone the DNA between the two markers, and order them with additional markers. If your biggest clone is 150,000 bp, which of the following "clone maps" is most useful in your hunt? No, there are gaps between the clones. No, the clones are too big. Remember, you don't know where the gene is, so you have to clone the entire region. Overlapping clones are needed to put each clone in the proper order. Now, you need to locate the coding sequences on the clones. What method CANNOT be used to identify coding sequences? A) Look for hybridization between cloned DNA and a human cDNA library. (No, human cDNA will identify coding sequences by hybridization.) B) Look for hybridization between cloned DNA and DNA from other species. (No, DNA from other species will identify coding sequences by hybridization if the genes are conserved.) C) Sequence the clones and look for tell-tale signs of coding sequences. (No, common promoter sequences can be used to find the beginnings of coding sequences.) D) Look for hybridization between cloned DNA and DNA from patients with the disease. B and D. (No, only one of these is incorrect.) When using DNA instead of cDNA, hybridization will reveal noncoding as well as coding sequences. Suppose you get lucky, and your analysis only reveals three candidate genes. For each, you compare sequences of unaffected people and disease patients. Candidate Gene #1 No differences found. Candidate Gene #3 Disease patients are missing an exon. Candidate Gene #2 Single nucleotide polymorphisms found in some disease patients. Which candidate is most likely the disease gene? Candidate #1 No differences found. (No, that is incorrect.) Candidate Gene #2 Single nucleotide polymorphisms found in some disease patients. (No, that is incorrect.) Candidate Gene #3 Disease patients are missing an exon. (That is correct) Single nucleotide polymorphisms between the two groups — unaffected and disease individuals — do not always point to a disease gene. Remember, there are redundancies in the codons and some changes are tolerated. However, if an exon is missing, chances are the protein has been altered and this could lead to a disease phenotype. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40785000 |
The fourth volume covers the period of Governor Johnston's administration, the longest known in the annals of North Carolina.
Governor Gabriel Johnston, the successor of Burrington, was a Scotchman by birth, and received his education in the University of St. Andrews. He also spent a few years in studying medicine, after which, still in early manhood, he was made professor of the oriental languages in St. Andrews. Later still, he removed to London, where he employed himself as a political writer with such effect that he was appointed Governor of North Carolina, Spence Compton, Baron of Wilmington, being his chief patron.
His administration began on the 2d November, 1734, when he took the oaths of office at Brunswick, and continued till his death, which occurred on 17th July, 1752.
Unlike his immediate predecessors, Governor Johnston was neither a profane man nor a drunkard, and he has come down to us with the enviable reputation of having done more to promote the prosperity of the colony than perhaps all the other colonial governors put together.
One of our historians goes so far as to say that he deserved the gratitude of every citizen of North Carolina as a statesman, a scholar and a patriot. Another lauds him as a general benefactor of the province and its special patron of learning, declaring that he was so earnest in his efforts to advance the cause of education that he urged its importance upon every Legislature during his stay here. A still later writer says he was the ablest of all the colonial governors, not less distinguished for his energy and prudence than for his extensive classical and scientific attainments. Chalmers, who lived nearer to his time than any other historian, says “he was a man of sufficient knowledge and prudence, but whose experience degenerated a little into cunning.”
It may well be doubted, however, in view of the facts now presented, whether his enviable reputation has a sure foundation. The fact that his brother was the founder of a distinguished and influential family, and that a noted fort and a prominent county in the State have borne his name, and the further fact that the province grew and thrived greatly during his administration, have doubtless had much to do with creating and perpetuating a favorable public opinion in regard to him. But the fact that a county was named after him proves nothing, unless it be that our ancestors were wise in their day and generation, for every royal Governor, save Burrington, was thus honored, just as in the days of the Proprietary Government, the Lords Proprietors were the recipients of such honors. At the breaking out of the Revolution there were four counties in North Carolina named after Royal Governors, viz: Johnston, Dobbs, Tryon and Martin. Wake county, too, may almost be put in the same list, for it was named after Esther Wake, a sister of Governor Tryon's wife. In the course of time, after the Revolutionary fever had reached its height, Dobbs and Tryon counties disappeared, Glasgow and Lenoir in the east and Lincoln and Rutherford in the west taking their places. Wake county came very near sharing the same fate, but when the proposition was made in the Legislature to change its name, it was replied that the county was named after a woman who was as charming in manner as lovely in person, and with one consent, our gallant ancestors declared the name should remain, and it is to be hoped it will ever remain as a memorial, not only of the beauty and attractions of Esther Wake, but of the gallantry of our forefathers.
Neither does the fact that the province advanced rapidly and steadily during his administration prove anything, if it be remembered that the province had already entered upon and was well on the way in a career of prosperity before he landed upon our shores. And in the matter of his efforts to advance the cause of education, the truth seems to be that in all the years he was Governor of the province, Governor Johnston called the attention of the Legislature to the subject only one time—an effort that, made shortly after his arrival, seems to have exhausted his interest in the subject.
Indeed, so far as now appears, if he had any influence whatever upon the province it was to retard its growth. His intentions doubtless were good, and his motives pure enough, but he was exceedingly arbitrary, not to say unscrupulous, in his methods. In one case, according to his own admission, he sought to procure the passage of a bill he favored by calling the Legislature together at a time and place that would prevent its opponents from being present, and, he significantly adds, “some of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent;” but it was all in vain. At another time, using similar means in behalf of another measure, he was more successful, but the “management,” as he called it, was so glaring that the Crown refused to accept the fruits of it, though much desired and much to its advantage.
At still another time, when he wished to move the seat of government from Brunswick to Newton, the place he afterwards named Wilmington, in honor of his patron, the Earl of Wilmington, his course was equally arbitrary, to call it by no harsher name. There were eight members of the Upper House, four of whom voted against the bill for the removal, and four, including the presiding officer, voted for it. The presiding officer, Chief Justice Smith, claimed the right to give a casting vote, and having done so, that is to say, having voted twice in favor of the bill, declared it had passed, and sent it to the Governor. The Governor, thereupon, formally gave his assent to the bill, and announced that he would regard all bills passed in that way as being legally enacted.
At still another time, when he wished to save Chief Justice Smith from impeachment and trial for malfeasance in office, he induced members of the Legislature to absent themselves, and then a quorum not being present he dissolved the Legislature for want of a quorum and sent the members home.
In spite of all his “management,” however, he seems to have been but little if any more successful in controlling the Legislatures of his day than were his predecessors, and was in favor neither with the people in the province nor the government at home in England. One of his first acts as Governor was to initiate a bitter quarrel with the leading men of the Cape Fear on the subject of the Blank Patents, as they were called, in which he alleged that the grossest fraud had been perpetrated. Later,
Governor Johnston was doubtless well enough versed in the learning of the books, and doubtless, too, he was not unacquainted with the learning so easily to be acquired in London under Walpole's administration, as to the “management” of legislative bodies. It not unfrequently happens, however, that a mere scholar is unfitted to grapple with the practical details of daily life. Especially is a mere theorist unfitted to solve the problems that constantly present themselves in frontier life. Had Johnston been a practical man, he would have seen the importance of answering the queries annually propounded to him by the Board of Trade as to the material condition of the province, its resources and development, and we would not have been left so much to conjecture in that regard. Had he been a man of practical business capacity, he would certainly have collected money enough to pay his own salary and the salary of the other officers of the Government. As it was, when he died his salary was thirteen years in arrears—years during which the province had grown greatly in wealth and population. His salary was £1,000 per annum, and he might have paid himself out of the Quit Renis under his Instructions if he had collected them. Had he been a practical man, he would have counted the cost, to say nothing of the chances of success, before entering upon a quarrel like that with the northern counties, the outcome of which he ought to have known would be confusion and anarchy, if not open insurrection, that he was helpless to suppress. But counting the cost and weighing chances of success, he seemed to think not worth considering. Sharp practice, intrigue, “management,” as he termed it, and the manifold devices of a cunning nature, were much more to his taste. But they availed not
But what better could have been expected from a man who, going from the atmosphere of a Scotch University to that of a London political writer at a time when political writings were characterized by “equal animosity and argument,” was suddenly transplanted to the wilds of America and made Governor not because of his fitness for the place, but as a reward for his vigor or his zeal in the defence of his patron?
In a word, our present knowledge of the condition of the province during his administration does by no means justify the impression that he exerted any influence for good on its destinies. Nor does it increase our respect for him as a man, after bringing about a deplorable state of affairs, to find him complaining to the authorities in England, that without help from there he could not much longer maintain even the semblance of a government, a complaint that he had occasion to make more than once during his administration. Nor does it improve one's regard for his memory to find him abusing, as “wild and barbarous,” the people he could not mould to his will.
It is difficult to believe, too, that a man could have exercised a controlling influence in a province without leaving some record showing the fact. Governor Johnston left no such record. In none of the many papers he wrote during the eighteen years he was Governor is there anything by which we may form an estimate of the population of the province or its material growth. Happily, Burrington and Dobbs left us information by which its condition at the beginning and at the end of Johnston's administration may be known.
Of his quarrel about the Blank Patents, that with the northern counties, that with McCulloh, and those about the currency, the King's Quit Rents, about the Chief Justice, about the removal from Brunswick to Wilmington, the records are full enough, but nowhere do we find a word from him to show the condition of the agricultural, commercial or manufacturing interest of the province, and but once any reference to the great tide of population that was so rapidly filling up the western section of the province. In this regard he was inferior to Burrington, and greatly inferior to both Dobbs and Tryon. It may be that, in the later years of his life,
But, perhaps after all, Governor Johnston's great fault was not that of the individual, but the fault of the age in which he lived, an age that regarded a province simply as a mine, to be worked solely for the profit of its owner, the King. Accordingly, never during his whole administration did he seem to think the colonist subjects had any rights that he, as the King's representative, was bound to respect, and so, when he found upon his arrival in the country that of all of the proprietary statutes only six had been confirmed by the Lords Proprietors, as had been required by a practically dead provision of the law, he proceeded to declare all of the unconfirmed laws to be null and void wherever, in his opinion, trenching upon the King's prerogative. To promote the interest of the King and to magnify his prerogative, seemed to have been the mainspring to every action during his administration. Many masters doubtless have had more discreet servants, but none one more zealous than was Johnston.
In 1735, was run the first or eastern part of the boundary line between North and South Carolina. It began at the mouth of Little River, on the seashore, thirty miles below the mouth of Cape Fear River, and was extended in a northwest direction 64½ miles, to a point two miles northwest of one of the branches of Little Pedee. In 1737, the line was extended in the same direction 22 miles, to a stake in a meadow, erroneously supposed to be at the point of intersection with the 35th parallel of north latitude. The Commissioners on the part of North Carolina were Robert Halton, Eleazer Allen, Mathew Rowan, Edward Moseley and Roger Moore.
In 1738, the act was passed appointing sheriffs in the place of the marshal and his deputies in the province, directing the mode of choosing them and prescribing their duties, and providing that the precincts should be called counties.
In September, 1739, “Dugald McNeal, Col. McAlister and several other Scotch gentlemen,” arrived with three hundred and fifty Scotch people, doubtless in the Cape Fear country, and, in 1740, at the ensuing
Resolved that the Persons mentioned in the said Petition, shall be free from payment of any Publick or County tax for ten years next ensueing their Arrival.
Resolved that towards their subsistance the sum of one thousand pounds be paid out of the Publick money, by his Excellency's warrant to be lodged with Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeal, Daniel McNeal, Coll. McAlister and Neal McNeal Esqrs to be by them distributed among the several families in the said Petition mentioned.
Resolved that as an encouragement for Protestants to remove from Europe into this Province, to settle themselves in bodys or Townships, That all such as shall so remove into this Province, Provided they exceed forty persons in one body or Company, they shall be exempted from payment of any Publick or County tax for the space of Ten years, next ensueing their Arrival.
Resolved that an address be presented to his Excellency the Governor to desire him to use his Interest, in such manner, as he shall think most proper to obtain an Instruction for giveing encouragement to Protestants from foreign parts, to settle in Townships within this Province, to be set apart for that purpose after the manner, & with such priviledges and advantages, as is practised in South Carolina.
The Lower House concurred with the several resolves of the Upper House save that relating to the thousand pounds, which was held over till the next Assembly for consideration. This was on the 29th February, 1740. Further consideration was shown to the new comers on the next day by the appointment by the Governor and Council of Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeil, Dan. McNeil, Col. McAlister and Neil McNeil as magistrates for the county of Bladen, being the first Scotch names that appear in the record of magistrates for Bladen county.
Among other charges brought against the Governor was an inordinate fondness for his brother Scotchmen, even Scotch rebels. His partiality
In 1740, England having declared war against Spain, over four hundred men were raised in the Colony, and distributed into four companies for service in the expedition against St. Augustine. Two hundred more could have been easily raised if it had been possible to negotiate bills of exchange so as to get ready money. The troops embarked, some at Cape Fear and some at Edenton. Three of the companies were raised in the northern counties. The Legislature appropriated £1,200 sterling to aid in the expedition. Early in the following year these troops were transported from Florida to Jamaica, and there embarking on board the British fleet, under command of Admiral Vernon, sailed to the harbor of Carthagena, in South America, where they took part in the attack on Fort St. Lazarus.
In 1744, Lord Granville's one-eighth part of Carolina, under the original grants from King Charles, was set off to him by grant from King George, entirely in North Carolina, all that territory lying between the Virginia line on the north and the parallel of 35° 34′ on the south, being thus set off to him. The line ran near or through the old town of Bath, the present towns of Snow Hill and Princeton, along the southern borders of the counties of Chatham, Randolph, Davidson and Rowan, a little below the southern border of Catawba county but not as low down as Lincolnton, and so on west to the Mississippi. In the winter of 1743-'44 the line was run from the coast to the town of Bath, and in the spring of 1746 from Bath to Peter Parker's house, on the west side of Cape Fear River, now the southeast corner of Chatham county. The reason given by the Commissioners for not continuing the line at that
In 1747, several small sloops and barcalonjos crept along the coast from St. Augustine, full of armed men, mostly mulattoes and negroes, their small draught securing them from the attacks of the only ship of war then on our coast. They landed at Ocacock, Core Sound, Bear Inlet and Cape Fear, where they killed several people, burned some ships and small vessels, carried off some negroes and slaughtered a great number of cattle and hogs. These practices were continued all the summer of 1747, and led to the erection of several forts along the coast, one of which, Fort Johnston, still survives.
In 1748, on the 29th September, Samuel Davis, Charles Robinson and Thomas Smith, in behalf of themselves and sundry other inhabitants of the Pedee, exhibited to the Governor and Council a petition setting forth in substance that the inhabitants on the river were some eight hundred to twelve hundred in number, and that the court house of Bladen was about 100 miles from the nearest inhabitant, and the roads at times very bad if not impracticable, and praying that a new county be erected to be called Anson county. The petition was granted and the new county erected, the boundary between it and Bladen being the Little Pedee river, to the head of the main branch of it, and thence a line equi-distant between Haw River and Great Pedee River.
In 1749, on the 11th July, died Colonel Edward Moseley. As has been well said of him,1 : “Of all the men who watched and guarded the tottering footsteps of our infant State, there was not one who, in intellectual ability, in solid and polite learning, in scholarly cultivation and refinement, in courage and endurance, in high Christian morality, in generous consideration for the welfare of others, in all the true merit, in fine, which makes a man among men, could equal Edward Moseley.”
And yet it is to no one of these qualities, nor to all of them, that the great debt of gratitude North Carolina will ever owe to him is due, but to his undying love of free government, and his indomitable maintenance of the rights of the people. Doubtless no man ever more fully realized than he, that eternal vigilance is the price of liberty, nor was there ever upon any watchtower a more faithful sentinel than he. And to him, above all others, should North Carolina erect her first statue, for to him, above all others, is she indebted for stimulating that love of liberty regulated by law, and that hatred of arbitrary government that has ever characterized her people.
In him, arbitrary and oppressive government ever found a bold, prompt and effective opponent. Not a mere brawling demagogue, by any means, but a true patriot, who knew the rights of the people, who knew how to assert them and feared not to do it. Happily for our State, he came to the front in the formative period of her existence, and, so far as her records show, did more than any man ever within her borders to give shape and direction to the character of her people. It was under his lead that the Assembly, in 1716, in a formal resolve, told the Governor and his Council, “that the impressing of the inhabitants or their property under pretence of its being for the public service, without authority from the Assembly, was unwarrantable, and a great infringement of the liberty of the subject.” The man who, at that early day, could formulate that resolve, and the people whose Assembly could fling it in the face of the government, were worthy of each other.
His first appearance upon the records that have come down to us is as a member of the Council in the year 1705, at the meeting at which the county of Bath was divided into three precincts. He was then a house-holder, and the Council met at his house. How long he had been a member of the Council does not appear, this being the first record of that body that has come down to us. From that time to the day of his death he was continuously in the public service, in some high office or employment.
In 1708, he was elected to the Assembly of that year, chosen to decide between the claims of Cary and Glover to the Governorship, and was made Speaker of that body. From that time until 1734, when he became a member of the Council by royal appointment, and as such a
He was also Surveyor General of the Colony, and for near twenty years one of the Commissioners in behalf of North Carolina in her famous controversy with Virginia about their boundary line. He was also one of the commissioners that ran the line between North and South Carolina, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and Associate Justice of the General Court of the Province. He was also for many years Public Treasurer. Meanwhile, he was also the foremost lawyer in the Province, and an active member of the vestry in his Parish and ever a friend of learning. The list of books he gave to found a Provincial Library in Edenton is still extant. He was also one of the Commissioners that ran the line between Lord Granville's possessions and the King's domain in the province. His last public service was as a member of the commission to revise the laws of the Province.
Surely, it is no mean tribute to his character that while he was so beloved by the people, that he received through life every possible mark of their regard and confidence, he was so respected by the Government, also, that upon all important occasions, when honesty, ability, and courage, were required, and the interests of the Province were to be subserved, it too, called his services into requisition.
The name of Moseley will never be without honor in North Carolina so long as time and gratitude shall live.
In October, 1749, the line between Virginia and North Carolina was extended from Peter's Creek, where it stopped in 1728, to Steep Rock Creek, a distance of 90 miles. William Churton and Daniel Weldon were the commissioners on the part of North Carolina, and Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson on the part of Virginia. Governor Johnston says “they crossed a large branch of the Mississippi [New River] which runs between the ledges of the mountains, and nobody ever dreamt of before.” It so happens, however, that no record of this survey has been preserved, and we are to-day without evidence, save from tradition, to ascertain the location of our boundary for ninety miles.
In 1750, by a statute of the British Parliament, the old method of computing time was abolished in all the King's dominions and the new style introduced, under which the years began on the 1st of January instead of the 25th of March. In 1752, the day after the 2d of September was counted the 14th of September, eleven days being omitted.
In 1752, appeared the first printed revisal of the Laws of the Province ever published. The revisal was the work principally of Samuel Swann, Edward Moseley, his colleague on the commission, having died before the completion of the work. The printing was done at New Bern by James Davis, who, in 1749, had carried there the first printing press ever in the province. This revisal was known in common talk in the province as “The Yellow Jacket,” from the color of its covers.
Governor Johnston began the Quit Rent quarrel in less than ninety days after his arrival, by seeking to limit the number of places for the collection of quit rents. The importance of the question at issue will be appreciated when it is remembered that the people of the province did not own their lands in fee simple, as is now the case, but were mere tenants of the Crown, holding the lands upon payment of an annual rent per acre. The people contended that unless they agreed upon a different place, the rents were collectable only upon the land upon which they accrued, and were payable in certain products, or “commoditys,” as they were called, at fixed prices. Governor Johnston held that, as the representative of the King, he had a right to fix not only the place of payment, but how it should be made, and the bill then pending was amended in the Upper House so as to reduce the number of places to four. The House of Burgesses refusing to agree to this view of the case, the bill fell through, and thereupon Governor Johnston issued a proclamation directing where the rents should be collected and the prices at which commodities should be received.
Against this proclamation the House of Burgesses on the 26th February, 1735, made the following respectful protest:
“We are very much concerned to see your Excellency's Proclamation commanding us to pay in Sterling Money or in bills at the difference that your Excellency and Council shall be pleased to assess which we
“Wherefore we humbly pray your Excellency would be pleased to Issue out a proclamation directing the Officers who are appointed to Collect the quit rents to proceed in the said Collections according to the Laws and Customs of this Province and that no distress may be made upon his Majesties poor tenants contrary to the same untill a Law shall be passed directing some other method for collecting the said rents more agreeable to his Majesties Instructions and as much as may be for the ease of his Majesties Tenants which we were in hopes would have been done by the Bill We offered this Session and that your Excellency would be pleased to give a further time for the payment of arrears which does not become due by any default of the Tenants refusing to pay those rents but in the officers neglecting to collect the same.”
The protest had no effect, however, and the Governor's officers proceeded to demand the rents as directed in the proclamation, and to distrain for them when not paid. Thereupon ensued what the Governor called “great confusion and disorder.” On the 7th October, 1736, the Legislature having again met, the House of Burgesses presented the following address to the Governor, viz.:
“We the Members of the Lower House of Assembly humbly beg leave to lay before your Excellency the several grievances represented to us by the Committee appointed for that purpose which are in the words following (vizt)
“On reading the Petition of Perquimons, Bertie and other Precincts and also several other informations complaining of the illegal Proceedings and methods of collecting & receiving the Quit rents, it appears to this Committee, that the Collectors or receivers, have compelled the Inhabitants of this Province, who hold their Land by Grants from the late Lords Proprietors, to carry their Quit rents to certain places appointed, tho' such rents were only demandable and payable on the Lands for which they were due, and had by custom time out of mind been received by the Collectors at the People's respective dwelling Houses; and that they
The Governor paying no attention to this respectful address, and his officers continuing to distrain for the rents, the Assembly ordered the officers into custody.
Thereupon, as the record states, “His Excellency being now come to the Upper House, and having sent a message to command the immediate attendance of the House of Burgesses, they not paying obedience thereto, His Excellency was pleased to send another message to them; but they still neglecting to give their attendance, His Excellency then by and with the advice and consent of His Majesty's Council, prorogued the General Assembly to the first day of March next, then to meet at Newbern.”
But putting an end to the Legislature did not reconcile the people to the collection of the quit rents at unlawful places. Some months thereafter, in 1737, at the General Court at Edenton, a man was imprisoned for insulting the marshal in the execution of his office during the sitting of the Court, and the people of Bertie and Edgecombe precincts, hearing that he was imprisoned about his quit rents, rose in arms to the number of 500, and marched within five miles of the town, intending to rescue him by force, in the meantime cursing the King and uttering a great many rebellious speeches. By this time the man had made his peace with the Court, and the crowd learning the truth, dispersed without doing any mischief, threatening, however, “the most cruel usage to such persons as durst come to demand any quit rents of them for the future,” and the Governor goes on to say further, “how to quell them I cannot tell if they should attempt an insurrection against next collection. ∗ ∗ The people seem here to be persuaded that they may do what they please, and that they are below the notice of the King and his ministers, which makes them highly insolent. They never were of any service to the Lords Proprietors, and if something is not speedily done to convince them that his Majesty will not be so used, I am afraid they will be of as little profit to the Crown.”
This state of things continued until 1739, when the Governor, having become convinced that the collection of the quit rents was impossible except in a way satisfactory to the people, a bill was permitted to pass the Legislature to which all parties agreed.
From the Governor's representation regarding this bill, it would seem that it was also passed in part, at least, by “management,” that is to say, in consideration of an abatement of his demands in the matter of Blank Patents set forth in the bill. He seems, too, to have thought he had overreached the Assembly in the prices at which the commodities agreed upon were rated; at least, he represented to the Board of Trade that the rates were fixed so much below their real value that none of them would be offered in payment. A great concession was that the bill contained a provision, whereby the power of fixing the value of paper money was given to a committee consisting of the Governor and Council and the Attorney General and Receiver General on the one side, and an equal number of the House of Burgesses on the other. Another great concession was as to the number of places at which payment might be made, which he said “it could have been wished were fewer in number, but there was no possibility of avoiding it.” The next year, 1740, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that the vesting the power to regulate the price of money “in any person whatsoever, might be of dangerous consequence, and highly prejudicial to the trade of the nation.”
In 1741, an attempt was made to pass a new Quit Rent Law, but although, as the Governor said, “the Assembly was called in the most southern part of the Province on purpose to keep at home the Northern Members who were most numerous and from whom the greatest opposition was expected and some of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent,” he was obliged to prorogue the Legislature without accomplishing anything.
At the next session of the Legislature, 1744, the Committee on Propositions and Grievances reported, on 29th November, the following resolution, in which the House concurred, viz.:
“Resolved by this Committee that no produce of this province being accepted in payment of quit rents of late years nor the current bills at less than 10 for 1 which is equal to sterling money as this from the
On the 4th December the Governor prorogued the Legislature. In April of next year, 1745, the Legislature met again, but neither side was in better temper than when they parted. In his opening address, the Governor reviled the Assembly for having passed no bills at the last session, and informed them that he had “orders from His Majestie and Lord Carteret to insist on their passing a quit rent law.” The Assembly replied that they had “frequently in former Assemblys had under their consideration matters of consequence recommended by his Excellency but had been unhappily prevented from doing anything therein with effect by unexpected dissolutions and prorogations,” and no quit rent law was passed.
In 1746, in June, the Assembly again declared the refusal to receive “commoditys” in payment of quit rents to be a very great grievance. After this session, the northern counties were not represented in the Legislature during Johnston's administration, and in April, 1749, the Governor succeeded in passing a quit rent law, but in the condition the province was from that time to the end of his administration, it could not have accomplished much.
His quarrel with the Albemarle or northern counties and its consequences deserve a more extended notice, if for no other reason, to show into what gross and unpardonable errors historians can fall upon the most important points. When Governor Johnston came to North Carolina, the precincts of Albemarle county sent five members each to the Lower House of the Legislature, while the precincts of Bath, that is to say, the newer precincts, sent only two. Of course, this gave the older counties controlling influence in the Assembly. Doubtless this was not an equitable representation, and ought to have been changed if possible, but in a legal and fair way. The Governor, however, determined to bring about the change in his own peculiar way, that is to say, in a manner neither legal nor fair. So he called a session of the Legislature to meet on the
In the meanwhile the northern counties sent agents to London to represent matters to the authorities there, and after a full investigation, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that it had been improperly and unfairly obtained, and the order of repeal was brought over by Governor Dobbs. The unequal representation being restored, continued until the Provincial Assemblies of the Revolution came into existence, as appears from the records preserved here from that day to this. To these bodies each county sent five delegates, equality of representation doubtless being considered as a necessary preliminary step to united harmonious action, especially in view of the fact that the bulk of population was then in the west. In spite of the records, both here and in London, the historian Williamson, after reciting the main facts in the case,
When Governor Johnston undertook forcibly and fraudulently to deprive the northern counties of the greater part of their representation in the Legislature, he had been Governor of the province for twelve years, and he must have studied the people over whom he ruled those twelve years to but little purpose if he supposed they would submit to a deprivation of their rights, either by force or by fraud. He must have known, too, that if they did not choose to submit, he was utterly without power to compel them to do so; but in spite of everything, and seemingly regardless of consequences, he pursued a policy that resulted in an open defiance of the law, that he dared not even to attempt to punish. Such a state of things probably never existed in any other province for such a length of time—open, bold resistance and defiance of the constituted authorities for eight years, without an attempt even to enforce obedience.
The population of North Carolina at the beginning of Johnston's administration was near 50,000 in all, and at the close it was somewhere about 90,000, that is to say, just about double the number usually given. Of course this great addition was made up from immigration as well as from natural increase. This immigration came in part from adjacent Virginia counties, covering the northern border generally, west of the Chowan. These immigrants simply followed the tributaries of the Chowan and the Roanoke rivers in their search for “bottom land;” other immigrants came from the adjacent South Carolina counties,
On the 15th February, 1751, Governor Johnston wrote to the Board of Trade that inhabitants flocked in daily, mostly from Pennsylvania and other parts of America already overstocked with people, and some directly from Europe. Many thousand people, he said, had then come in, settling mainly in the west, so that they had nearly reached the mountains.
On the 28th June, 1753, President Rowan wrote, that in the year 1746 he was in the territory composing the counties of Anson, Orange and Rowan, and there were then not above one hundred fighting men in all that country; whereas, at the time he wrote, there were at least three thousand, mostly Irish Protestants and Germans, and their numbers were daily increasing. At these figures this new population must have numbered near twenty thousand. In 1776, their settlements had extended beyond the present State limits.
The route that these immigrants from Pennsylvania took to reach their future homes in North Carolina is plainly laid down on the maps of that day. On Jeffreys' map, a copy of which is in the Congressional Library at Washington City, there is plainly laid down a road called “the Great Road from the Yadkin River thro' Virginia to Philadelphia, distant 435 miles.” It ran from Philadelphia through Lancaster and York to Winchester, thence up the Shenandoah Valley, crossing the Fluvanna River at Looney's Ferry, thence to Staunton River and down the river through the Blue Ridge, thence southward, crossing Dan River below the mouth of Mayo River, thence still southward near the Moravian Settlement to the Yadkin River, just above the mouth of Linville Creek and about ten miles above the mouth of Reedy Creek.
Remembering the route General Lee took when he went into Pennsylvania on the memorable Gettysburg campaign, it will be seen that very many of the North Carolina boys, both of German and Scotch-Irish
The following is a brief statement of the condition of the currency of the province during Governor Johnston's administration:
In 1735, by act of Assembly, bills for £40,000 to be exchanged for the bills issued in 1729. Not a legal tender at any rated exchange.
In the same year, bills for £10,000 for the more immediate discharge of the public debts, not issued at any rated exchange, but for the payment of them a poll tax was laid. The rate of exchange in 1739 was 1000 per cent., and there was outstanding about £50,000.
The above seem to have been redeemed by bills for £21,350 issued in 1747, of which £189.13.3 in April, 1749, and £513.12.0 were burned in April, 1750, leaving in circulation £20,646.14.0 proclamation money, equal to £15,485.1.0 sterling money. These bills maintained the value they were issued at as late as 29th September, 1850.
No question seems to have arisen during Johnston's administration as to the right of the House of Burgesses to control the purse strings—about the only trouble that he seems to have avoided. But that the people for eight years refused to recognize, in any way, the authority of the government under which they lived, because they were not represented in its Legislature, is evidence enough that even at that day they were fully inspired with the principles that underlaid the great American revolution, and foreshadowed plainly enough what their course would be in that great struggle.
1 A Study in Colonial History. Hon. George Davis. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40789000 |
Astrocytoma is type of brain tumor. It is a malignant (cancerous) tumor. This type of tumor begins from small, star-shaped cells in the brain. They are called astrocytes. Astrocytes are one of several types of supporting cells in the brain. These types of cells are called glial cells. An astrocytoma is a type of the larger group of brain tumors called gliomas.
Astrocytoma is the most common form of glioma. It may occur anywhere in the brain. It is most commonly found in:
- The cerebrum in adults—The largest part of the brain
- The cerebellum—A smaller part of the brain in the rear
- Brainstem—Connects the brain to the spinal cord
- Optic nerves in children—Nerve that leads from the brain to the eye
When an astrocytoma is diagnosed, the most important factors are:
- Grade of tumor (how aggressive it looks under a microscope)
- Degree of side effects from the tumor
- Age of the patient
These factors will determine the symptoms, outlook, and treatment.
The exact cause is unknown. Some possible causes of brain tumors include:
- Certain occupations
- Environmental factors
The exact risk factors for astrocytomas have not been identified. Some studies suggest the following risk factors increase your chance of this tumor:
- Genetic disorders (including neurofibromatosis and tuberous sclerosis)
Occupational exposure to:
- Oil refining
- Rubber manufacturing
The first symptoms of any brain tumor can be caused as the tumor grows. The growth can increase pressure in the brain. Symptoms may include:
- Visual changes
- Personality changes
- Problems with memory, thinking, and concentration
- Problems with walking
Symptoms will vary depending on the location of the tumor. For example:
- Frontal lobe—Gradual changes in mood and personality, loss of muscle function on one side of the body
- Temporal lobe—Problems with coordination, speech, and memory
- Parietal lobe—Problems with sensation, writing, or fine motor skills
- Cerebellum—Problems with coordination and balance
- Occipital lobe—Problems with vision, visual hallucinations
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done.
Your doctor may need to look at pictures of your brain. This can be done through:
You may also have biopsy/resection to remove a sample of brain tissue to test it for cancer cells.
A specialist will determine the grade of the tumor. Astrocytomas are graded from I to IV. These grades indicate the outlook and rate of tumor growth.
- Grades I and II—These low-grade astrocytomas grow slowly. They generally stay in an area of the brain. They are more commonly found in younger patients. Grade II astrocytomas can spread.
- Grades III and IV—These high-grade tumors grow rapidly. They can spread throughout the brain and spinal cord. Aggressive treatment is needed. This is the most common type found in adults. Grade III tumors are called anaplastic astrocytoma. Grade IV tumors are called glioblastoma multiforme or GBM.
Treatment is based on the location, size, and grade of the tumor. Treatment may include:
Surgery involves the removal of as much of the tumor as possible. High grade tumors are treated with surgery. Surgery is followed by radiation or chemotherapy to help prevent further spread.
Radiation Therapy (or Radiotherapy)
Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation to kill cancer cells or shrink the tumor. Radiation may be:
- External radiation therapy—Radiation aimed at the tumor from a source outside the body
- Internal radiation therapy (also called brachytherapy)—Radioactive materials placed into the body near the cancer cells
Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be given in many forms including pill, injection, and catheter (IV or port). The drugs enter the bloodstream. They travel through the body killing mostly cancer cells. Some healthy cells are killed as well.
There are no prevention guidelines because the exact cause of astrocytoma is not known. It has been suggested that the electromagnetic waves emitted from high-tension wires or even cell phones may increase the risk of developing brain tumors. There is no scientific evidence supporting this theory.
- Reviewer: Mohei Abouzied, MD
- Review Date: 11/2012 -
- Update Date: 11/08/2012 - | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40791000 |
More women are obtaining Ph.D.’s in science than ever before, but those women — largely because of pressures from having a family — are far more likely than their male counterparts to “leak” out of the research science pipeline before obtaining tenure at a college or university.
That’s the conclusion of a study by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, who warned that the loss of these scientists — together with the increased research capabilities of Asian and European countries — may threaten America’s pre-eminence in science.
The study, “Keeping Women in the Science Pipeline,” found that women who are married with young children are 35 percent less likely to enter a tenure-track position after receiving a Ph.D. in science than are married men with young children and Ph.D.’s in science. Not only that, the married women with young children are 28 percent less likely than women without children to achieve tenure in the sciences.
Moreover, women Ph.D.’s with young children are 27 percent less likely than men with children to receive tenure after entering a tenure-track job in the sciences. The report notes that single women without young children are roughly as successful as married men with children in attaining tenure-track jobs. Read more… | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40805000 |
Ed Home (text) - TRC Home - sciencelines Index
Fermilab Prairie Project organizers teach volunteers to recognize particular plants and then clip the ripe flower heads for seeds. Fermilab uses the seeds to enrich newer prairie tracts at Fermilab and to share with other prairie restoration projects. Although a mechanical harvest is also done, the public harvest is vital for grassland growth. "With mechanical harvesting, prairie keepers can't get as many of the specialized plants as when the volunteers go out," said Bob Lootens, lead grounds- keeper.
"The seed is used to enrich young prairie and help build diversity into the grasslands," Lootens added.
The fall event is becoming increasingly popular, with about 180 people participating last year, including many families and school classes.
Prairies, or native American grasslands, are thriving communities rich with plant and animal life, all interrelating in a complex ecosystem. Tallgrass prairies once blanketed northern Illinois, "The Prairie State." However, during the area's settlement in the 19th century, agriculture consumed all but a tiny remnant of the native grasslands.
Fermilab, the nation's premier high-energy physics laboratory, has a longstanding dedication to restoring the prairie, working for more than 20 years to revive the historical grasslands on its Batavia site. More than 1,000 acres of tallgrass prairie are in various stages of reconstruction, thanks in part to the effort of volunteers who have participated in past seed harvests.
This year's harvest will take place on Saturday, September 28 and Saturday, November 2, from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. Volunteers are welcome to spend as much or as little time as they wish, and refreshments will be provided.
Persons interested in participating should wear field clothing and gloves, and are encouraged to bring pruning shears and paper grocery bags, if possible. On-site directional signs will direct volunteers to harvest sites.
In case of bad weather on the scheduled dates, please call the Fermilab switchboard at 630-840-3000 to see if the harvest is canceled.
For more information, call the Fermilab Public Affairs Office at 630-840-3351.
Additional opportunities for participating in harvesting activities are available through the Kane County Forest Preserve District.
These workdays are hosted by the volunteer stewards and the Forest Preserve staff. Participants learn special techniques related to restoration work and enjoy a tour of the site. New volunteers are especialy encouraged and welcome to these workdays.
September 29, 1 p.m. to 4 p.m., Elburn Woods, 45W061 Route 38, Maple Park. Woodland seed harvesting is fun for the whole family. Learn how the seeds will be used for District natural areas restoration projectss.
November 17, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., Tekakwitha Woods Barn, 35W076 Villa Maria Road, St. Charles. Harvest Fest! Join this final seed processing and mixing day. Come for a few hours, or spend the day! Food and music add to the celebration of harvesting and preparing the mixes for distribution to the various woodland restoration projects.
Weekly seed harvest outings are also coordinated by Grace Koehler, Volunteer Coordinator. District staff lead outings will be held at different preserves on Wednesdays at 10 am. and Fridays at 1 p.m. Locations vary each week. Call Grace at 847-741-9798 to have your name put on a call list for locations the Tuesday prior to the outing day you want to participate. Harvesting begins September 25. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40807000 |
Filed under: Digestive Health
Pancreatic cysts are sac-like pockets of fluid on or within your pancreas. The pancreas is a large organ located behind the stomach. It produces hormones and enzymes that help digest food.
Most pancreatic cysts aren't cancerous, and many don't cause symptoms. In fact, many pancreatic cysts technically aren't cysts at all. Called pseudocysts, these noncancerous (benign) pockets of fluids are lined with scar or inflammatory tissue, not the type of cells found in true cysts.
But some pancreatic cysts can be cancerous. Your doctor may want to take a sample of the pancreatic cyst fluid to determine if cancer cells are present.
Sometimes, your doctor may not be able to tell whether a cyst may become cancerous. Your doctor may recommend monitoring the cyst over time for changes in size or shape that may suggest the need to remove it surgically. Some cysts have a low potential for becoming cancerous, and your doctor may recommend watching them carefully.
Want to know more about this article or other health related issues? Ask your question and we'll post some each week for CNN.com reader to discuss or for our experts to weight in.
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In November the Arabs Said 'No'
There are no uneventful months in the tortured history of the Arab-Israel conflict. November is no exception. It was on November 2, 1917 that Chaim Weizmann won the backing of the British government for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" famously codified by Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930) in his letter to Lord Rothschild, titular head of the British Jewish community, as the Balfour Declaration. And as if to bookend the month, November 29th will mark the 64th anniversary of the UN General Assembly's adoption of the 1947 Partition Plan: the two-state solution that was recklessly spurned by the Arabs; a rebuff that has embodied Arab rejection of a Jewish homeland ever since.
On November 9th the Israel Britain and Commonwealth Association held a gala anniversary dinner in Tel Aviv to mark Balfour's pronouncement. Guests included Britain's ambassador to Israel, the EU head of delegation and ambassadors from several commonwealth countries (including those who reflexively vote against Jerusalem at the U.N.). The Israeli government does not make too much of the occasion though Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu made passing reference to the Balfour Declaration in his September 2011 remarks to the UN General Assembly and Deputy Foreign Minister Danny Ayalon did address the Tel Aviv banquet.
For its part, Hamas makes it a point to issue an annual denunciation of the declaration accompanied this year by a blood-curdling montage. Al-Hayat Al-Jadida, the official daily newspaper of the Palestinian Authority, routinely condemns Balfour claiming his declaration granted rights to "those who had no connection" to the land – meaning the Jewish people.
Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952), then a distinguished chemist living in London, was instrumental in fashioning the Zionist-British alliance that resulted in the declaration. Fittingly, it was in November 60 years ago that Weizmann was re-elected to the presidency of Israel despite failing health. In fact, both Weizmann's 59th yahrzeit and the 137th anniversary of his birth are also commemorated this month.
Weizmann's achievement was never preordained, as Jonathan Schneer, by no means a Zionist sympathizer, notes in his The Balfour Declaration. The early Zionist leader had to overcome influential assimilationists Jews, including Edwin Montagu, who strenuously lobbied their government against cooperating with the Zionists, as well as Grand Sharif Hussein of Mecca and his sons the emirs Abdullah and Feisal who lobbied through British proxies. (The family ultimately lost control of Arabia to the Saudis.)
While the Palestinian Arabs had scarcely any unique identity at the time, Arab intellectuals in Syria pressured against Zionism on the grounds that Palestine was an integral part of Syria and could therefore not be delinked from Britain's magnanimous territorial bequest to the Arabs.
At the end of the day Britain, the preeminent power during and in the aftermath of World War One (1914–1918), promised the Jews a sliver of the Middle East, while the Arabs would get everything else. Even these commitments to the Jews and Arabs would have come to naught had secret talks conducted between Britain and the Ottoman Empire led to a separate peace, according to Schneer.
After World War I, both the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the San Remo Conference (1920) ratified Britain's mandate for Palestine. France's presence in Syria notwithstanding, Britain's role assured that both Arabs and Jews would be on their way to self-determination. Balfour's expectation was that the Arabs would be willing to share a small sliver of the vast Mideast landscape with the Jews. Indeed, on March 3, 1919 Faisal encouragingly wrote Zionist leader Felix Frankfurter: "We Arabs, especially the educated among us look with the deepest sympathy on the Zionist movement."
Tragically, pragmatists like Faisal did not carry the day. Instead, anti-Zionist Arab riots instigated by the fanatical Husseini clan were launched in 1920. London immediately went wobbly and embarked on a series of moves that first backtracked and then reversed its Balfour Declaration commitments.
To assuage Arab demands, Britain brought Abdullah from Arabia to Eastern Palestine in November 1920. This immense area – today's Jordan – comprising four-fifths of the Palestine mandate promised to the Jews by Balfour was ceded to the Arabs by 1921. Put another way, 80 percent of Palestine as defined by the League of Nations was lopped off leaving the Jews only the area between the Jordan River and Mediterranean.
In 1937, in response to intensified Arab violence, Britain's Peel Commission called for further splitting the remaining 20% of Palestine to create an additional Arab state within what was supposed to be Jewish Palestine. The Zionists reluctantly acquiesced; the Arabs said no. By 1939, Neville Chamberlain had completely reneged on the Balfour Declaration and blocked Jewish immigration to Palestine just as the Nazi killing machine was going into lethal gear.
None of this can be blamed on Balfour who deserves to be remembered as a friend of the Jews. Statesmen do not act purely out of altruism and he like other British politicians were partly motivated by an exaggerated sense of Zionist influence in the international arena which they hoped to exploit for the war effort. At the same time, Balfour believed that Christian anti-Semitism had been a "disgrace" and wanted to make amends by providing the Jews with a "small notch" of territory, according to his biographer R.J.Q. Adams. In 1925, he famously helped dedicate the Hebrew University on Mount Scopus. Like Theodor Herzl, Balfour may have assumed that British Jews would either thoroughly assimilate or choose to live in the Jewish homeland.
Ninety-four years after Balfour's declaration the right of the Jewish people to re-establish their national homeland is still rejected by even Palestinian Arab "moderates." The unremitting threat of renewed violence remains the Arabs' default position. Emboldened by the Gilad Schalit deal, Arab violence in Judea, Samaria and Gaza has seen an upswing. Cairo's renewed efforts to bring Hamas leader Khaled Mashaal and Fatah chief Mahmoud Abbas together will perforce necessitate more militancy from Fatah rather than greater flexibility from Hamas. In the words of Mahmoud Zahhar, the notion that Hamas will ever make peace with Israel is "insane."
Sixty-four years after Palestinian Arabs rejected the partition plan, Abbas claims to be having second thoughts. Yet instead of negotiating with the Jewish state he is forging ahead at the UN for unilateral statehood without making peace with Israel.
Sadly, Abba Eban's 1973 quip that the Arabs "never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity" holds stubbornly true. To be fair, time does not stand completely still. Abbas-like moderates are operating only 64 years behind real time though for the "militants" of Hamas it's perpetually 1917.
- ▼ November (5)
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Primitives are objects that you can render. There isn’t really much else in a fluxus scene, except lights, a camera and lots of primitives.
The normal way to create a primitive is to set up some state which the primitive will use, then call it’s build function and keep it’s returned ID (using with-primitive) to modify it’s state later on.
(define myobj (with-state (colour (vector 0 1 0)) (build-cube))) ; makes a green cube (with-primitive myobj (colour (vector 1 0 0))) ; changes its colour to red
So primitives contain a state which describes things like colour, texture and transform information. This state operates on the primitive as a whole – one colour for the whole thing, one texture, shader pair and one transform. To get a little deeper and do more we need to introduce primitive data.
Primitive Data Arrays [aka. Pdata]
A pdata array is a fixed size array of information contained within a primitive. Each pdata array has a name, so you can refer to it, and a primitive may contain lots of different pdata arrays (which are all the same size). Pdata arrays are typed – and can contain floats, vectors, colours or matrices. You can make your own pdata arrays, with names that you choose, or copy them in one command.
Some pdata is created when you call the build function. This automatically generated pdata is given single character names. Sometimes this automatically created pdata results in a primitive you can use straight away (in commands such as build-cube) but some primitives are only useful if pdata is setup and controlled by you.
In polygons, there is one pdata element per vertex – and a separate array for vertex positions, normals, colours and texture coordinates.
So, for example <code>(build-sphere)</code> creates a polygonal object with a spherical distribution of vertex point data, surface normals at every vertex and texture coordinates, so you can wrap a texture around the primitive. This data (primitive data, or pdata for short) can be read and written to inside a with-primitive corresponding to the current object.
(pdata-set! name vertnumber vector)
Sets the data on the current object to the input vector
(pdata-ref name vertnumber)
Returns the vector from the pdata on the current object
Returns the size of the pdata on the current object (the number of vertices).
The name describes the data we want to access, for instance “p” contains the vertex positions:
(pdata-set! “p” 0 (vector 0 0 0))
Sets the first point in the primitive to the origin (not all that useful)
(pdata-set! “p” 0 (vadd (pdata-ref “p” 0) (vector 1 0 0)))
The same, but sets it to the original position + 1 in the x offsetting the position is more useful as it constitutes a deformation of the original point. (See Deforming, for more info on deformations)
pdata-ref procedures are useful, but there is a more powerful way of deforming primitives. Map and fold relate to the scheme functions for list processing, it’s probably a good idea to play with them to get a good understanding of what these are doing.
(pdata-map! Procedure read/write-pdata-name read-pdata-name ...)
Maps over pdata arrays – think of it as a for-every pdata element, and writes the result of procedure into the first pdata name array.
An example, using pdata-map to invert normals on a primitive:
(define p (build-sphere 10 10)) (with-primitive p (pdata-map! (lambda (n) (vmul n -1)) "n"))
This is more concise and less error prone than using the previous functions and setting up the loop yourself.
(pdata-index-map! Procedure read/write-pdata-name read-pdata-name ...)
pdata-map! but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument.
(pdata-fold procedure start-value read-pdata-name read-pdata-name ...)
This example calculates the centre of the primitive, by averaging all it’s vertex positions together:
(define my-torus (build-torus 1 2 10 10)) (define torus-centre (with-primitive my-torus (vdiv (pdata-fold vadd (vector 0 0 0) “p”) (pdata-size)))))
(pdata-index-fold procedure start-value read-pdata-name read-pdata-name ...)
pdata-fold but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument.
Sometimes retained mode primitives can be unwieldy to deal with. For instance, if you are rendering thousands of identical objects, or doing things with recursive graphics, where you are calling the same primitive in lots of different states – keeping track of all the Ids would be annoying to say the least.
This is where instancing is helpful, all you call is:
Will redraw any given object in the current state (immediate mode). An example:
(define myobj (build-nurbs-sphere 8 10)) ; make a sphere (define (render-spheres n) (cond ((not (zero? n)) (with-state (translate (vector n 0 0)) ; move in x (draw-instance myobj)) ; stamp down a copy (render-spheres (- n 1))))) ; recurse! (every-frame (render-spheres 10)) ; draw 10 copies
Built In Immediate Mode Primitives
To make life even easier than having to instance primitives, there are some built in primitives that can be rendered at any time, without being built:
(draw-cube) (draw-sphere) (draw-plane) (draw-cylinder)
(define (render-spheres n) (cond ((not (zero? n)) (with-state (translate (vector n 0 0)) ; move in x (draw-sphere)) ; render a new sphere (render-spheres (- n 1))))) ; recurse! (every-frame (render-spheres 10)) ; draw 10 copies
These built in primitives are very restricted in that you can’t edit them or change their resolution settings etc, but they are handy to use for quick scripts with simple shapes. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40820000 |
Kütahya Tiles and Ceramics
Forms and Motifs
Stylised floral motifs, religious motifs and human and animal figures decorate most of the 18th century tiles and ceramics in the Suna and İnan Kıraç Foundation's Kütahya Tiles and Ceramics Collection. The pieces dating from this period have a white or cream coloured paste, white slip and transparent glaze. The motifs are painted underglaze in green, turquoise, yellow, cobalt blue and, from the mid-18th century onwards, manganese purple, the motifs being outlined in black.
A second group of Kütahya ware consisting of dishes, lemon squeezer, bowls, bottles, plates and cups dating from the 18th century are decorated with stylised flowers, leaves and curling tendrils in cobalt blue, with the occasional addition of yellow, green or turquoise. Ewers and jugs of various shapes and sizes are decorated with cypress tree motifs in relief, circular crosshatched medallions and floral scrolls worked in free brushstrokes.
One of the foremost characteristics of the Ottoman Empire was the tolerant attitude and absence of discrimination on grounds of religion, race or culture. Consequently Muslim and Christian potters work together in Kütahya producing objects designed to meet the needs of both communities. Striking examples in this exhibition are pottery and tiles with motifs relating to the Christian liturgy.
Kütahya's contribution to architectural decoration over the centuries is illustrated by tiles dating from various periods in the last section of the exhibition, showing how Kütahya pottery set its mark to Ottoman society at every level, from coffee cups to monumental building decoration. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40825000 |
A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography/Investigation Paper
Spearman's Rank
This is a concept to find the statistical significance of the correlation between the two variables. First, a null hypothesis needs to be made.
Mann-Whitney U Test
Mann-Whitney U test is a test for difference between 2 data sets. Using a critical values table, the level of confidence in the relationship can be established, and the null hypotheses can be accepted or rejected. There are both advantages and disadvantages which accompany this statistical test for analysis of statistical data. One advantage is that it can compare two data sets that are different sizes. This makes the test much more versatile, and can be applied to a range of different data sets. Secondly, the test is not based on observed values. This means that there are no assumptions made about the distribution of the data. This is particularly useful in geography because most of the data we collect will be either positively or negatively skewed. Finally, Mann-Whitney U uses non-parametric (non-grouped) data. This is an advantage because the trends in the data cannot be generalised, and thus producing a more statistically sound result.
It does however carry some disadvantages with it, one being the fact that it cannot be applied to more than 2 data sets at one time. This is because it is non-parametric data. If the test was done using parametric (grouped) data, you would be able to compare multiple data sets at once. An example of this is the student’s “t” test. This is because parametric data provides a result in proportion to the data, and can therefore be contrasted with many data sets. Also, Mann-Whitney becomes increasingly less effective as the data sets get larger. This reduces its effectiveness because the calculation becomes too long-winded, and it takes a very long time to complete. It also reduces the precision of the result, as with a bigger sample size there is more margin for error.
In conclusion, despite the obvious flaws with the test, it is a very effective way of looking at the differences between 2 pairs of data sets.
Five Sections of Investigation
Pragmatic = essentially safety and accessibility. For example, if a student is carrying out a river investigation they might use pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. It is reliable and practical.
Random = Not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random sample methods either a calculator, grid or computer is needed to generate random statistics that have not been influenced by human decision.
Systematic = This type of technique would be used if progressional change over distance or time was being studied. A transect would be measured and data recorded at regular intervals along said transect, so that change over time or distance could be observed. For example, if a student wished to study psammosere succession, a transect might be measured from the sea to the climax environment (woodland) and at every 25m or so measurements would be taken.
Stratified = To be completed by Magneto and River's landmass.
Statistics: Mode
Most = Mode The most frequent Sample number. This is the sample figure which occurs the most times e.g.7,8,9,5,4,3,5,6,7,5,5,5,5,3,5, 5=mode Comes from the French word "la mode" for fashion
Statistics: Median
This is the middle sample when all the samples are placed in arithmetic Order. e.g. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 5=median
Statistic: Range
The area which the samples stretch from.
Statistics: Standard Deviation
To describe the data regarding an infiltration rate statistically I would use the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of central tendency and dispersion. These two are always used together.
The mean is simply the sum of all values of x (infiltration rate) divided by n (total number of samples)
The standard deviation is more complicated and requires the use of the formula; where x is the individual infiltration rate and
X bar is the mean of x’s (as above)
This is simply done by listing the value of x on a table, and subtracting x bar from each. In the next column, square the subsequent result.
Then add up all the values of (x-xbar) ² (Σ (x-xbar) ². Divide this by n (100 IN THIS CASE), and then square root the answer.
These methods are the most powerful and sensitive, because they include all the values of all the data. They do not exclude any data. However, the data must be (nearly) normally distributed to use them.
Mode and range mealy state the most numerous value of x and the difference between the smallest and largest which is not very useful, as it ignores most of the data. Interquartile deviation and medium rely on the rank order of the data row do not engage with the size of the values for x, and ignore the extremes of the data set. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40830000 |
Daguerreotype of Washington Irving
(modern copy by Mathew Brady,
original by John Plumbe)
April 3, 1783|
New York City, New York
|Died||November 28, 1859
Sunnyside, Tarrytown, New York
|Occupation||Short story writer, essayist, biographer, magazine editor, diplomat|
Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American author, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle", both of which appear in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. His historical works include biographies of George Washington, Oliver Goldsmith and Muhammad, and several histories of 15th-century Spain dealing with subjects such as Christopher Columbus, the Moors, and the Alhambra. Irving served as the U.S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846.
He made his literary debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle, written under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle. After moving to England for the family business in 1815, he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. in 1819. He continued to publish regularly—and almost always successfully—throughout his life, and completed a five-volume biography of George Washington just eight months before his death, at age 76, in Tarrytown, New York.
Irving, along with James Fenimore Cooper, was among the first American writers to earn acclaim in Europe, and Irving encouraged American authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Edgar Allan Poe. Irving was also admired by some European writers, including Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Thomas Campbell, Francis Jeffrey, and Charles Dickens. As America's first genuine internationally best-selling author, Irving advocated for writing as a legitimate profession, and argued for stronger laws to protect American writers from copyright infringement.
Early years
Washington Irving's parents were William Irving, Sr., originally of Quholm, Shapinsay, Orkney, and Sarah (née Sanders), Scottish-English immigrants. They married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy. They had eleven children, eight of whom survived to adulthood. Their first two sons, each named William, died in infancy, as did their fourth child, John. Their surviving children were: William, Jr. (1766), Ann (1770), Peter (1772), Catherine (1774), Ebenezer (1776), John Treat (1778), Sarah (1780), and Washington.
The Irving family settled in Manhattan, New York City, and was part of the city's small, vibrant merchant class when Washington Irving was born on April 3, 1783, the same week city residents learned of the British ceasefire that ended the American Revolution; Irving’s mother named him after the hero of the revolution, George Washington. At age six, with the help of a nanny, Irving met his namesake, who was then living in New York after his inauguration as president in 1789. The president blessed young Irving, an encounter Irving later commemorated in a small watercolor painting, which still hangs in his home today. The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington Irving's birth. The family later moved across the street to 128 William St. Several of Washington Irving's older brothers became active New York merchants, and they encouraged their younger brother's literary aspirations, often supporting him financially as he pursued his writing career.
An uninterested student, Irving preferred adventure stories and drama and, by age fourteen, was regularly sneaking out of class in the evenings to attend the theater. The 1798 outbreak of yellow fever in Manhattan prompted his family to send him to healthier climes upriver, and Irving was dispatched to stay with his friend James Kirke Paulding in Tarrytown, New York. It was in Tarrytown that Irving became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow, with its quaint Dutch customs and local ghost stories. Irving made several other trips up the Hudson as a teenager, including an extended visit to Johnstown, New York, where he passed through the Catskill mountain region, the setting for "Rip Van Winkle". "[O]f all the scenery of the Hudson", Irving wrote later, "the Kaatskill Mountains had the most witching effect on my boyish imagination".
The 19-year old Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802, submitting commentaries on the city's social and theater scene under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle. The name, which purposely evoked the writer's Federalist leanings, was the first of many pseudonyms Irving would employ throughout his career. The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety. Aaron Burr, a co-publisher of the Chronicle, was impressed enough to send clippings of the Oldstyle pieces to his daughter, Theodosia, while writer Charles Brockden Brown made a trip to New York to recruit Oldstyle for a literary magazine he was editing in Philadelphia.
Concerned for his health, Irving's brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806. Irving bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the development of an upwardly mobile young man, to the dismay of his brother William. William wrote that, though he was pleased his brother's health was improving, he did not like the choice to "gallop through Italy... leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right". Instead, Irving honed the social and conversational skills that would later make him one of the world's most in-demand guests. "I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness", Irving wrote, "and when I cannot get a dinner to suit my taste, I endeavor to get a taste to suit my dinner". While visiting Rome in 1805, Irving struck up a friendship with the American painter Washington Allston, and nearly allowed himself to be persuaded into following Allston into a career as a painter. "My lot in life, however", Irving said later, "was differently cast".
First major writings
Irving returned from Europe to study law with his legal mentor, Judge Josiah Ogden Hoffman, in New York City. By his own admission, he was not a good student, and barely passed the bar in 1806. Irving began actively socializing with a group of literate young men he dubbed "The Lads of Kilkenny". Collaborating with his brother William and fellow Lad James Kirke Paulding, Irving created the literary magazine Salmagundi in January 1807. Writing under various pseudonyms, such as William Wizard and Launcelot Langstaff, Irving lampooned New York culture and politics in a manner similar to today's Mad magazine. Salmagundi was a moderate success, spreading Irving's name and reputation beyond New York. In its seventeenth issue, dated November 11, 1807, Irving affixed the nickname "Gotham"—an Anglo-Saxon word meaning "Goat's Town"—to New York City.
In late 1809, while mourning the death of his seventeen-year-old fiancée Matilda Hoffman, Irving completed work on his first major book, A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809), a satire on self-important local history and contemporary politics. Prior to its publication, Irving started a hoax akin to today's viral marketing campaigns; he placed a series of missing person adverts in New York newspapers seeking information on Diedrich Knickerbocker, a crusty Dutch historian who had allegedly gone missing from his hotel in New York City. As part of the ruse, Irving placed a notice—allegedly from the hotel's proprietor—informing readers that if Mr. Knickerbocker failed to return to the hotel to pay his bill, he would publish a manuscript Knickerbocker had left behind.
Unsuspecting readers followed the story of Knickerbocker and his manuscript with interest, and some New York city officials were concerned enough about the missing historian that they considered offering a reward for his safe return. Riding the wave of public interest he had created with his hoax, Irving—adopting the pseudonym of his Dutch historian—published A History of New York on December 6, 1809, to immediate critical and popular success. "It took with the public", Irving remarked, "and gave me celebrity, as an original work was something remarkable and uncommon in America". Today, the surname of Diedrich Knickerbocker, the fictional narrator of this and other Irving works, has become a nickname for Manhattan residents in general.
After the success of A History of New York, Irving searched for a job and eventually became an editor of Analectic Magazine, where he wrote biographies of naval heroes like James Lawrence and Oliver Perry. He was also among the first magazine editors to reprint Francis Scott Key's poem "Defense of Fort McHenry", which would later be immortalized as "The Star-Spangled Banner", the national anthem of the United States.
Like many merchants and New Yorkers, Irving originally opposed the War of 1812, but the British attack on Washington, D.C. in 1814 convinced him to enlist. He served on the staff of Daniel Tompkins, governor of New York and commander of the New York State Militia. Apart from a reconnaissance mission in the Great Lakes region, he saw no real action. The war was disastrous for many American merchants, including Irving's family, and in mid-1815 he left for England to attempt to salvage the family trading company. He remained in Europe for the next seventeen years.
Life in Europe
The Sketch Book
Irving spent the next two years trying to bail out the family firm financially but was eventually forced to declare bankruptcy. With no job prospects, Irving continued writing throughout 1817 and 1818. In the summer of 1817, he visited the home of novelist Walter Scott, marking the beginning of a lifelong personal and professional friendship for both men. Irving continued writing prolifically—the short story "Rip Van Winkle" was written overnight while staying with his sister Sarah and her husband, Henry van Wart in Birmingham, England, a place that also inspired some of his other works. In October 1818, Irving's brother William secured for Irving a post as chief clerk to the United States Navy, and urged him to return home. Irving, however, turned the offer down, opting to stay in England to pursue a writing career.
In the spring of 1819, Irving sent to his brother Ebenezer in New York a set of essays that he asked be published as The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. The first installment, containing "Rip Van Winkle", was an enormous success, and the rest of the work would be equally successful: it was published over the course of 1819–1820 in seven installments in New York and in two volumes in London ("The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" would appear in the sixth issue of the New York edition and the second volume of the London edition).
Like many successful authors of this era, Irving struggled against literary bootleggers. In England, some of his sketches were reprinted in periodicals without his permission, an entirely legal practice as there was no international copyright law at the time. To prevent further piracy in Britain, Irving paid to have the first four American installments published as a single volume by John Miller in London. Irving appealed to Walter Scott for help procuring a more reputable publisher for the remainder of the book. Scott referred Irving to his own publisher, London powerhouse John Murray, who agreed to take on The Sketch Book. From then on, Irving would publish concurrently in the United States and Britain to protect his copyright, with Murray being his English publisher of choice.
Irving's reputation soared, and for the next two years, he led an active social life in Paris and Britain, where he was often feted as an anomaly of literature: an upstart American who dared to write English well.
Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveller
With both Irving and publisher John Murray eager to follow up on the success of The Sketch Book, Irving spent much of 1821 travelling in Europe in search of new material, reading widely in Dutch and German folk tales. Hampered by writer's block—and depressed by the death of his brother William—Irving worked slowly, finally delivering a completed manuscript to Murray in March 1822. The book, Bracebridge Hall, or The Humorists, A Medley (the location was based loosely on Aston Hall, occupied by members of the Bracebridge family, near his sister's home in Birmingham) was published in June 1822.
The format of Bracebridge was similar to that of The Sketch Book, with Irving, as Crayon, narrating a series of more than fifty loosely connected short stories and essays. While some reviewers thought Bracebridge to be a lesser imitation of The Sketch Book, the book was well-received by readers and critics. "We have received so much pleasure from this book," wrote critic Francis Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review, "that we think ourselves bound in gratitude . . . to make a public acknowledgement of it." Irving was relieved at its reception, which did much to cement his reputation with European readers.
Still struggling with writer's block, Irving traveled to Germany, settling in Dresden in the winter of 1822. Here he dazzled the royal family and attached himself to Mrs. Amelia Foster, an American living in Dresden with her five children. Irving was particularly attracted to Mrs. Foster's 18-year-old daughter Emily, and vied in frustration for her hand. Emily finally refused his offer of marriage in the spring of 1823.
He returned to Paris and began collaborating with playwright John Howard Payne on translations of French plays for the English stage, with little success. He also learned through Payne that the novelist Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was romantically interested in him, though Irving never pursued the relationship.
In August 1824, Irving published the collection of essays Tales of a Traveller—including the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker"—under his Geoffrey Crayon persona. "I think there are in it some of the best things I have ever written," Irving told his sister. But while the book sold respectably, Traveller was dismissed by critics, who panned both Traveller and its author. "The public have been led to expect better things," wrote the United States Literary Gazette, while the New-York Mirror pronounced Irving "overrated." Hurt and depressed by the book's reception, Irving retreated to Paris where he spent the next year worrying about finances and scribbling down ideas for projects that never materialized.
Spanish books
While in Paris, Irving received a letter from Alexander Hill Everett on January 30, 1826. Everett, recently the American Minister to Spain, urged Irving to join him in Madrid, noting that a number of manuscripts dealing with the Spanish conquest of the Americas had recently been made public. Irving left for Madrid and enthusiastically began scouring the Spanish archives for colorful material.
With full access to the American consul's massive library of Spanish history, Irving began working on several books at once. The first offspring of this hard work, A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, was published in January 1828. The book was popular in the United States and in Europe and would have 175 editions published before the end of the century. It was also the first project of Irving's to be published with his own name, instead of a pseudonym, on the title page. The Chronicles of the Conquest of Granada was published a year later, followed by Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus in 1831.
Irving's writings on Columbus are a mixture of history and fiction, a genre now called romantic history/historical fiction. Irving based them on extensive research in the Spanish archives, but also added imaginative elements aimed at sharpening the story. The first of these works is the source of the durable myth that medieval Europeans believed the Earth was flat. (See Myth of the Flat Earth.)
In 1829, Irving moved into Granada's ancient palace Alhambra, "determined to linger here", he said, "until I get some writings under way connected with the place". Before he could get any significant writing underway, however, he was notified of his appointment as Secretary to the American Legation in London. Worried he would disappoint friends and family if he refused the position, Irving left Spain for England in July 1829.
Secretary to the American legation in London
Arriving in London, Irving joined the staff of American Minister Louis McLane. McLane immediately assigned the daily secretary work to another man and tapped Irving to fill the role of aide-de-camp. The two worked over the next year to negotiate a trade agreement between the United States and the British West Indies, finally reaching a deal in August 1830. That same year, Irving was awarded a medal by the Royal Society of Literature, followed by an honorary doctorate of civil law from Oxford in 1831.
Following McLane's recall to the United States in 1831 to serve as Secretary of Treasury, Irving stayed on as the legation's chargé d'affaires until the arrival of Martin Van Buren, President Andrew Jackson's nominee for British Minister. With Van Buren in place, Irving resigned his post to concentrate on writing, eventually completing Tales of the Alhambra, which would be published concurrently in the United States and England in 1832.
Irving was still in London when Van Buren received word that the United States Senate had refused to confirm him as the new Minister. Consoling Van Buren, Irving predicted that the Senate's partisan move would backfire. "I should not be surprised", Irving said, "if this vote of the Senate goes far toward elevating him to the presidential chair".
Return to America
Washington Irving arrived in New York, after seventeen years abroad, on May 21, 1832. That September, he accompanied the U.S. Commissioner on Indian Affairs, Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, along with companions Charles La Trobe and Count Albert-Alexandre de Pourtales, on a surveying mission deep in Indian Territory. At the completion of his western tour, Irving traveled through Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, where he became acquainted with the politician and novelist John Pendleton Kennedy.
Frustrated by bad investments, Irving turned to writing to generate additional income, beginning with A Tour on the Prairies, a work which related his recent travels on the frontier. The book was another popular success and also the first book written and published by Irving in the United States since A History of New York in 1809. In 1834, he was approached by fur magnate John Jacob Astor, who convinced Irving to write a history of his fur trading colony in the American Northwest, now known as Astoria, Oregon. Irving made quick work of Astor's project, shipping the fawning biographical account titled Astoria in February 1836. In 1835 Irving, Astor and a few others founded the Saint Nicholas Society in the City of New York.
During an extended stay at Astor's, Irving met the explorer Benjamin Bonneville, who intrigued Irving with his maps and stories of the territories beyond the Rocky Mountains. When the two met in Washington, D.C. several months later, Bonneville opted to sell his maps and rough notes to Irving for $1,000. Irving used these materials as the basis for his 1837 book The Adventures of Captain Bonneville.
These three works made up Irving's "western" series of books and were written partly as a response to criticism that his time in England and Spain had made him more European than American. In the minds of some critics, especially James Fenimore Cooper and Philip Freneau, Irving had turned his back on his American heritage in favor of English aristocracy. Irving's western books, particularly A Tour on the Prairies, were well-received in the United States, though British critics accused Irving of "book-making".
In 1835, Irving purchased a "neglected cottage" and its surrounding riverfront property in Tarrytown, New York. The house, which Irving named Sunnyside in 1841, would require constant repair and renovation over the next twenty years. With costs of Sunnyside escalating, Irving reluctantly agreed in 1839 to become a regular contributor to The Knickerbocker magazine, writing new essays and short stories under the Knickerbocker and Crayon pseudonyms.
Irving was regularly approached by aspiring young authors for advice or endorsement, including Edgar Allan Poe, who sought Irving's comments on "William Wilson" and "The Fall of the House of Usher". Irving also championed America's maturing literature, advocating stronger copyright laws to protect writers from the kind of piracy that had initially plagued The Sketch Book. Writing in the January 1840 issue of Knickerbocker, he openly endorsed copyright legislation pending in the U.S. Congress. "We have a young literature", Irving wrote, "springing up and daily unfolding itself with wonderful energy and luxuriance, which... deserves all its fostering care". The legislation did not pass.
Irving at this time also began a friendly correspondence with the English writer Charles Dickens, and hosted the author and his wife at Sunnyside during Dickens's American tour in 1842.
Minister to Spain
In 1842, after an endorsement from Secretary of State Daniel Webster, President John Tyler appointed Irving as Minister to Spain. Irving was surprised and honored, writing, "It will be a severe trial to absent myself for a time from my dear little Sunnyside, but I shall return to it better enabled to carry it on comfortably".
While Irving hoped his position as Minister would allow him plenty of time to write, Spain was in a state of perpetual political upheaval during most of his tenure, with a number of warring factions vying for control of the twelve-year-old Queen Isabella II. Irving maintained good relations with the various generals and politicians, as control of Spain rotated through Espartero, Bravo, then Narvaez. However, the politics and warfare were exhausting, and Irving—homesick and suffering from a crippling skin condition—grew quickly disheartened:
I am wearied and at times heartsick of the wretched politics of this country. . . . The last ten or twelve years of my life, passed among sordid speculators in the United States, and political adventurers in Spain, has shewn me so much of the dark side of human nature, that I begin to have painful doubts of my fellow man; and look back with regret to the confiding period of my literary career, when, poor as a rat, but rich in dreams, I beheld the world through the medium of my imagination and was apt to believe men as good as I wished them to be.
With the political situation in Spain relatively settled, Irving continued to closely monitor the development of the new government and the fate of Isabella. His official duties as Spanish Minister also involved negotiating American trade interests with Cuba and following the Spanish parliament's debates over slave trade. He was also pressed into service by the American Minister to the Court of St. James's in London, Louis McLane, to assist in negotiating the Anglo-American disagreement over the Oregon border that newly elected president James K. Polk had vowed to resolve.
Final years and death
Returning from Spain in 1846, Irving took up permanent residence at Sunnyside and began work on an "Author's Revised Edition" of his works for publisher George Palmer Putnam. For its publication, Irving had made a deal that guaranteed him 12 percent of the retail price of all copies sold. Such an agreement was unprecedented at that time. On the death of John Jacob Astor in 1848, Irving was hired as an executor of Astor's estate and appointed, by Astor's will, as first chairman of the Astor library, a forerunner to the New York Public Library.
As he revised his older works for Putnam, Irving continued to write regularly, publishing biographies of the writer and poet Oliver Goldsmith in 1849 and the 1850 work about the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In 1855, he produced Wolfert's Roost, a collection of stories and essays he had originally written for The Knickerbocker and other publications, and began publishing at intervals a biography of his namesake, George Washington, a work which he expected to be his masterpiece. Five volumes of the biography were published between 1855 and 1859. Irving traveled regularly to Mount Vernon and Washington, D.C. for his research, and struck up friendships with Presidents Millard Fillmore and Franklin Pierce.
He continued to socialize and keep up with his correspondence well into his seventies, and his fame and popularity continued to soar. "I don’t believe that any man, in any country, has ever had a more affectionate admiration for him than that given to you in America", wrote Senator William C. Preston in a letter to Irving. "I believe that we have had but one man who is so much in the popular heart". By 1859, author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. noted that Sunnyside had become "next to Mount Vernon, the best known and most cherished of all the dwellings in our land".
On the night of November 28, 1859, at 9:00 pm, only eight months after completing the final volume of his Washington biography, Washington Irving died of a heart attack in his bedroom at Sunnyside at the age of 76. Legend has it that his last words were: "Well, I must arrange my pillows for another night. When will this end?" He was buried under a simple headstone at Sleepy Hollow cemetery on December 1, 1859.
Irving and his grave were commemorated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his 1876 poem, "In The Churchyard at Tarrytown", which concludes with:
How sweet a life was his; how sweet a death!
Living, to wing with mirth the weary hours,
Or with romantic tales the heart to cheer;
Dying, to leave a memory like the breath
Of summers full of sunshine and of showers,
A grief and gladness in the atmosphere.
Literary reputation
Irving is largely credited as the first American Man of Letters, and the first to earn his living solely by his pen. Eulogizing Irving before the Massachusetts Historical Society in December 1859, his friend, the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, acknowledged Irving's role in promoting American literature: "We feel a just pride in his renown as an author, not forgetting that, to his other claims upon our gratitude, he adds also that of having been the first to win for our country an honourable name and position in the History of Letters".
Irving perfected the American short story, and was the first American writer to place his stories firmly in the United States, even as he poached from German or Dutch folklore. He is also generally credited as one of the first to write both in the vernacular, and without an obligation to the moral or didactic in his short stories, writing stories simply to entertain rather than to enlighten. Irving also encouraged would-be writers. As George William Curtis noted, there "is not a young literary aspirant in the country, who, if he ever personally met Irving, did not hear from him the kindest words of sympathy, regard, and encouragement."
Some critics, however—including Edgar Allan Poe—felt that while Irving should be given credit for being an innovator, the writing itself was often unsophisticated. "Irving is much over-rated", Poe wrote in 1838, "and a nice distinction might be drawn between his just and his surreptitious and adventitious reputation—between what is due to the pioneer solely, and what to the writer". A critic for the New-York Mirror wrote: "No man in the Republic of Letters has been more overrated than Mr. Washington Irving." Some critics noted especially that Irving, despite being an American, catered to British sensibilities and, as one critic noted, wrote "of and for England, rather than his own country".
Other critics were inclined to be more forgiving of Irving's style. William Makepeace Thackeray was the first to refer to Irving as the "ambassador whom the New World of Letters sent to the Old", a banner picked up by writers and critics throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. "He is the first of the American humorists, as he is almost the first of the American writers", wrote critic H.R. Hawless in 1881, "yet belonging to the New World, there is a quaint Old World flavor about him".
Early critics often had difficulty separating Irving the man from Irving the writer—"The life of Washington Irving was one of the brightest ever led by an author", wrote Richard Henry Stoddard, an early Irving biographer—but as years passed and Irving's celebrity personality faded into the background, critics often began to review his writings as all style, no substance. "The man had no message", said critic Barrett Wendell. Yet, critics conceded that despite Irving's lack of sophisticated themes—Irving biographer Stanley T. Williams could be scathing in his assessment of Irving's work—most agreed he wrote elegantly.
Impact on American culture
The surname of his Dutch historian, Diedrich Knickerbocker, is generally associated with New York and New Yorkers, and can still be seen across the jerseys of New York's professional basketball team, albeit in its more familiar, abbreviated form, reading simply Knicks. In Bushwick, Brooklyn, a neighborhood of New York City, there are two parallel streets named Irving Avenue and Knickerbocker Avenue; the latter forms the core of the neighborhood's shopping district.
One of Irving's most lasting contributions to American culture is in the way Americans perceive and celebrate Christmas. In his 1812 revisions to A History of New York, Irving inserted a dream sequence featuring St. Nicholas soaring over treetops in a flying wagon—a creation others would later dress up as Santa Claus. In his five Christmas stories in The Sketch Book, Irving portrayed an idealized celebration of old-fashioned Christmas customs at a quaint English manor, that depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned. He used text from The Vindication of Christmas (London 1652) of old English Christmas traditions, he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories. The book contributed to the revival and reinterpretation of the Christmas holiday in the United States.
The Community Area of Irving Park in Chicago was named in Irving's honor. The Irving Trust Corporation (now the Bank of New York Mellon Corporation) was named after him. Since there was not yet a federal currency in 1851, each bank issued its own paper and those institutions with the most appealing names found their certificates more widely accepted. His portrait appeared on the bank's notes and contributed to their wide appeal.
In his biography of Christopher Columbus, Irving introduced the erroneous idea that Europeans believed the world to be flat prior to the discovery of the New World. Borrowed from Irving, the flat-Earth myth has been taught in schools as fact to many generations of Americans.
The American painter John Quidor based many of his paintings on scenes from the works of Irving about Dutch New York, including such paintings as Ichabod Crane Flying from the Headless Horseman (1928), The Return of Rip Van Winkle (1849), and The Headless Horseman Pursuing Ichabod Crane (1858).
Washington Irving's home, Sunnyside, is still standing, just south of the Tappan Zee Bridge in Tarrytown, New York. The original house and the surrounding property were once owned by 18th-century colonialist Wolfert Acker, about whom Irving wrote his sketch Wolfert's Roost (the name of the house). The house is now owned and operated as a historic site by Historic Hudson Valley and is open to the public for tours. The Washington Irving Memorial by Daniel Chester French stands near the entrance to Sunnyside in the village of Irvington, which renamed itself from Dearman in his memory, and visitors to Christ Episcopal Church in nearby Tarrytown, where he served as a vestryman in the last years of his life, can see his pew. West, over the Catskills and in the Finger Lakes, Cornell University's oldest continuous student-run organization, The Irving Literary Society, is named for Washington Irving. His name is also frequently mentioned in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 in a recurring theme where his name is signed by other people to documents which triggers several military investigations as to who Washington Irving is. Throughout the United States, there are many schools named after Irving or after places in his fictional works. A Washington Irving Memorial Park and Arboretum exists in Oklahoma.
The city of Irving, Texas gives credit to Washington Irving for the town's name. It is believed by local historians that Irving co-founders Otis Brown and J.O. Schulze decided in 1902 to name the city after the favorite author of Otis Brown's wife, Netta Barcus Brown. Schulze, a graduate engineer from the University of Iowa and member of the Washington Irving Literary Society, also was partial to the name Irving. The Irving City Council officially adopted author Washington Irving as the city's namesake in 1998. The Chicago, Illinois neighborhood of Irving Park is named after him. The town of Knickerbocker, Texas was founded by two of Irving's nephews who named the town in honor of their uncle's literary pseudonym.
List of works
|Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle||1802||Jonathan Oldstyle||Observational Letters|
|Salmagundi||1807–1808||Launcelot Langstaff, Will Wizard||Satire|
|A History of New York||1809||Diedrich Knickerbocker||Satire|
|The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.||1819–1820||Geoffrey Crayon||Short stories/Essays|
|Bracebridge Hall||1822||Geoffrey Crayon||Short stories/Essays|
|Tales of a Traveller||1824||Geoffrey Crayon||Short stories/Essays|
|A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus||1828||Washington Irving||Biography/History|
|The Chronicles of the Conquest of Granada||1829||Fray Antonio Agapida||Romantic history|
|Voyages and Discoveries
of the Companions of Columbus
|Tales of the Alhambra||1832||"The Author of the Sketch Book"||Short stories/Travel|
|The Crayon Miscellany||1835||Geoffrey Crayon||Short stories|
|The Adventures of Captain Bonneville||1837||Washington Irving||Biography/Romantic History|
|The Life of Oliver Goldsmith||1840
|Biography and Poetical Remains
of the Late Margaret Miller Davidson
|Mahomet and His Successors||1850||Washington Irving||Biography|
|Wolfert's Roost||1855||Geoffrey Crayon
|The Life of George Washington (5 volumes)||1855–1859||Washington Irving||Biography|
- Burstein, 7.
- PMI, 1:26, et al.
- PMI, 1:27.
- Jones, 5.
- "The life and letters of Washington Irving" Archive.org
- Warner, 27; PMI, 1:36.
- Jones, 11.
- PMI, 1:42–43.
- Burstein, 19.
- Jones, 36.
- Burstein, 43.
- See Jones, 44–70
- Washington Irving to William Irving Jr., September 20, 1804, Works 23:90.
- Irving, Washington. "Memoir of Washington Allston", Works 2:175.
- Washington Irving to Mrs. Amelia Foster, [April–May 1823], Works, 23:740-41. See also PMI, 1:173, Williams, 1:77, et al.
- Burstein, 47.
- Jones, 82.
- Burrows, Edwin G. and Mike Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. (Oxford University Press, 1999), 417. See Jones, 74–75.
- Jones, 118-27.
- Burstein, 72.
- Washington Irving to Mrs. Amelia Foster, [April–May, 1823], Works, 23:741.
- Oxford English Dictionary.
- Hellman, 82.
- Jones, 121–22.
- Jones, 121.
- Jones, 122.
- Hellman, 87.
- Hellman, 97.
- Jones, 154-60.
- Jones, 169.
- William Irving Jr. to Washington Irving, New York, October 14, 1818, Williams, 1:170-71.
- Washington Irving to Ebenezer Irving, [London, late November 1818], Works, 23:536.
- See reviews from Quarterly Review and others, in The Sketch Book, xxv–xxviii; PMI 1:418–19.
- Burstein, 114
- Irving, Washington. "Preface to the Revised Edition", The Sketch Book, Works, 8:7; Jones, 188-89.
- McClary, Ben Harris, ed. Washington Irving and the House of Murray. (University of Tennessee Press, 1969).
- See comments of William Godwin, cited in PMI, 1:422; Lady Littleton, cited in PMI 2:20.
- Aderman, Ralph M., ed. Critical Essays on Washington Irving. (G. K. Hall, 1990), 55–57; STW 1:209.
- Aderman, 58–62.
- See Reichart, Walter A. Washington Irving and Germany. (University of Michigan Press, 1957).
- Jones, 207-14.
- See Sanborn, F.B., ed. The Romance of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, John Howard Payne and Washington Irving. Boston: Bibliophile Society, 1907.
- Irving to Catharine Paris, Paris, September 20, 1824, Works 24:76
- See reviews in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, Westminster Review, et al., 1824. Cited in Jones, 222.
- Hellman, 170–89.
- Burstein, 191.
- Bowers, 22–48.
- Burstein, 196.
- Jones, 248.
- Burstein, 212.
- Burstein, 225.
- Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. Praeger Paperback, 1997. ISBN 0-275-95904-X
- Washington Irving to Peter Irving, Alhambra, June 13, 1829. Works, 23:436
- Hellman, 208.
- PMI, 2:429, 430, 431–32
- PMI, 3:17–21.
- Washington Irving to Peter Irving, London, March 6, 1832, Works, 23:696
- Jill Eastwood (1967). "La Trobe, Charles Joseph (1801–1875)". Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2. MUP. pp. 89–93. Retrieved July 13, 2007.
- See Irving, "A Tour on the Prairies", Works 22.
- Williams, 2:48–49
- Jones, 318.
- Jones, 324.
- Williams, 2:76–77.
- Jones, 323.
- Burstein, 288.
- Williams, 2:36.
- Jones, 316.
- Jones, 318-28.
- Monthly Review, New and Improved, ser. 2 (June 1837): 279–90. See Aderman, Ralph M., ed. Critical Essays on Washington Irving. (G. K. Hall, 1990), 110–11.
- Burstein, 295.
- Jones, 333.
- Edgar Allan Poe to N. C. Brooks, Philadelphia, September 4, 1838. Cited in Williams, 2:101-02.
- Washington Irving to Lewis G. Clark, (before January 10, 1840), Works, 25:32–33.
- Jones, 341.
- Hellman, 257.
- Washington Irving to Ebenezer Irving, New York, February 10, 1842, Works, 25:180.
- Bowers, 127–275.
- Irving to Thomas Wentworth Storrow, Madrid, 18 May 1844 , Works, 25:751
- Jones, 415-56.
- Jones, 464.
- Hellman, 235.
- Williams, 2:208–209.
- Bryan, William Alfred. George Washington in American Literature 1775–1865. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952: 103.
- William C. Preston to Washington Irving, Charlottesville, May 11, 1859, PMI, 4:286.
- Kime, Wayne R. Pierre M. Irving and Washington Irving: A Collaboration in Life and Letters. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1977: 151. ISBN 0-88920-056-4
- Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 179. ISBN 0-86576-008-X
- PMI, 4:328.
- Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. "In The Churchyard at Tarrytown", quoted in Burstein, 330.
- Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. "Address on the Death of Washington Irving", Poems and Other Writings, J.D. McClatchy, editor. (Library of America, 2000).
- Leon H. Vincent, American Literary Masters, 1906.
- Pattee, Fred Lewis. The First Century of American Literature, 1770–1870. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1935.
- Kime, Wayne R. Pierre M. Irving and Washington Irving: A Collaboration in Life and Letters. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1977: 152. ISBN 0-88920-056-4
- Poe to N.C. Brooks, Philadelphia, September 4, 1838. Cited in Williams 2:101-02.
- Jones, 223
- Jones, 291
- Thackeray, Roundabout Papers, 1860.
- Hawless, American Humorists, 1881.
- Stoddard, The Life of Washington Irving, 1883.
- Wendell, A Literary History of America, 1901.
- See Williams, 2:Appendix III.
- Kelly, Richard Michael (ed.) (2003), A Christmas Carol. p.20. Broadview Literary Texts, New York: Broadview Press, ISBN 1-55111-476-3
- Restad, Penne L. (1995), Christmas in America: a History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-510980-5
- See Stephen Nissebaum, The Battle for Christmas (Vintage, 1997)
- See Irving, 1828; and his 1829 abridged version.
- See Irving, 1829, Chapter VII: "Columbus before the council at Salamanca", pp. 40–47, especially p. 43.
- Grant (Edward), 2001, p. 342.
- Grant (John), 2006, p. 32, in the subsection "The Earth – Flat or Hollow?" beginning at p. 30, within Chapter 1 "Worlds in Upheval".
- Caldwell, John; Rodriguez Roque, Oswaldo (1994). Kathleen Luhrs, ed. American Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Volume I: a Catalogue of Works by Artists Born By 1815. Dale T. Johnson, Carrie Rebora, Patricia R. Windels. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with Princeton University Press. pp. 479–482.
- Roger Panetta, ed. (2009). Dutch New York: the roots of Hudson Valley culture. Hudson River Museum. pp. 223–235. ISBN 978-0-8232-3039-6.
- Irving's publisher, John Murray, overrode Irving's decision to use this pseudonym and published the book under Irving's name—much to the annoyance of its author. See Jones 258-59.
- Composed of the three short stories "A Tour on the Prairies", "Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey", and "Legends of the Conquest of Spain".
- Burstein, Andrew. The Original Knickerbocker: The Life of Washington Irving. (Basic Books, 2007). ISBN 978-0-465-00853-7
- Bowers, Claude G. The Spanish Adventures of Washington Irving. (Riverside Press, 1940).
- Hellman, George S. Washington Irving, Esquire. (Alfred A. Knopf, 1925).
- Grant, Edward. (2001) God & Reason in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80279-2 hardcover; ISBN 978-0-521-00337-7 softcover.
- Grant, John. (2006) Discarded Science: Ideas that seemed good at the time ... [sic], ff&f (Facts, Figures & Fun), publisher, ISBN 978-1-904332-49-7 hardcover.
- Irving, Pierre M. Life and Letters of Washington Irving. 4 vols. (G.P. Putnam, 1862). Cited herein as PMI.
- Irving, Washington. The Complete Works of Washington Irving. (Rust, et al., editors). 30 vols. (University of Wisconsin/Twayne, 1969–1986). Cited herein as Works.
- Irving, Washington. (1828) History of the Life of Christopher Columbus, 3 volumes, 1828, G. & C. Carvill, publishers, New York, New York; as 4 volumes, 1828, John Murray, publisher, London; and as 4 volumes, 1828, Paris A. and W. Galignani, publishers, France.
- Irving, Washington. (1829) The Life and Voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1 volume, 1829, G. & C. & H. Carvill, publishers, New York, New York; an abridged version prepared by Irving of his 1828 work.
- Jones, Brian Jay. Washington Irving: An American Original. (Arcade, 2008). ISBN 978-1-55970-836-4
- Warner, Charles Dudley. Washington Irving. (Riverside Press, 1881).
- Williams, Stanley T. The Life of Washington Irving. 2 vols. (Oxford University Press, 1935). ISBN 0-7812-5291-1
|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Washington Irving|
|Wikisource has original works written by or about:
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Washington Irving|
- Works by or about Washington Irving at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
- Works by Washington Irving at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML)
- Famous Quotes by Washington Irving
- Washington Irving's Sunnyside
- Timothy Hopkins' Washington Irving collection, 1683–1839(5 volumes) is housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries
- Index Entry for Washington Irving at Poets' Corner
- Washington Irving Cultural Route in Spain
|U.S. Minister to Spain
Romulus M. Saunders | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40832000 |
|Nickname(s): City of Jasmin|
|Governorates||Damascus Governorate, Capital City|
|• Governor||Bishr Al Sabban|
|• City||105 km2 (41 sq mi)|
|• Urban||77 km2 (30 sq mi)|
|Elevation||680 m (2,230 ft)|
|Population (2009 est.)|
|Time zone||EET (UTC+2)|
|• Summer (DST)||EEST (UTC+3)|
|Area code(s)||Country code: 963, City code: 11|
|Sources: Damascus city area|
Damascus (Arabic: دمشق Dimashq, Metropolitan Arabic: Dimisheʼ ), commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham (Arabic: الشام ash-Shām) and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine (Arabic: مدينة الياسمين Madīnat al-Yāsmīn), is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo. It borders Quneitra, Daraa and As-Suwayda to the south, Jordan to the east, Homs to the north, and Lebanon to the west. It is also the capital city of one of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of the Levant. The city has an estimated population of 1,711,000 (2009 est.).
Located in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area of 2.6 million people (2004). Geographically embedded on the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range 80 kilometres (50 mi) inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level, Damascus experiences a semi-arid climate due to the rain shadow effect. The Barada River flows through Damascus.
First settled in the second millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries. During the ongoing civil war in Syria, Damascus has witnessed intense anti-government protests and violent government responses in which thousands of people have died.
The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC. The etymology of the ancient name "T-m-ś-q" is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic. It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq (דמשק) in Old Aramaic and Dammeśeq (דמשק) in Biblical Hebrew. The Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name often include an intrusive resh (letter r), perhaps influenced by the root dr, meaning "dwelling". Thus, the Qumranic Darmeśeq (דרמשק), and Darmsûq (ܕܪܡܣܘܩ) in Syriac. The English and Latin name of the city is "Damascus" which was imported from Greek: Δαμασκός, which originated in Aramaic: דרמשק; "a well-watered place". In Arabic, the city is called Dimashqu sh-Shām (دمشق الشام), although this is often shortened to either Dimashq or ash-Shām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbors. Ash-Shām is an Arabic term for "Levant" and for "Syria"; the latter, and particularly historical Greater Syria, is called Bilādu sh-Shām (بلاد الشام / "land of the Levant").
|Ancient City of Damascus|
|Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List|
|Criteria||i, ii, iii, iv, vi|
|UNESCO region||Arab States|
|Inscription||1979 (3rd Session)|
Early settlement
Carbon-14 dating at Tell Ramad, on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC. However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists, although no large-scale settlement was present within Damascus walls until the second millennium BC.
Damascus was part of the ancient province of Amurru in the Hyksos Kingdom, from 1720 to 1570 BC. Some of the earliest Egyptian records are from the 1350 BC Amarna letters, when Damascus-(called Dimasqu) was ruled by king Biryawaza. The Damascus region, as well as the rest of Syria, became a battleground circa 1260 BC, between the Hittites from the north and the Egyptians from the south, ending with a signed treaty between Hattusili and Ramesses II where the former handed over control of the Damascus area to Ramesses II in 1259 BC. The arrival of the Sea Peoples, around 1200 BC, marked the end of the Bronze Age in the region and brought about new development of warfare. Damascus was only the peripheral part of this picture which mostly affected the larger population centers of ancient Syria. However, these events had contributed to the development of Damascus as a new influential center that emerged with the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.
Damascus is mentioned in Genesis 14:15 as existing at the time of the War of the Kings. (However, the verse can also be understood to mean that Damascus existed when Genesis was written – by tradition around the 13th century BC, and several centuries later according to some[who?] scholars – regardless of whether Damascus existed at the time of the War of the Kings.) According to the 1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, Damascus (along with Trachonitis), was founded by Uz, the son of Aram. Elsewhere,[where?] he stated:
Nicolaus of Damascus, in the fourth book of his History, says thus: "Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of Canaan, but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham.
Damascus is not documented as an important city until the arrival of the Aramaeans, Semitic people from Mesopotamia, in the 11th century BC. By the start of the first millennium BC, several Aramaic kingdoms were formed, as Aramaeans abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and formed federated tribal states. One of these kingdoms was Aram-Damascus, centered on its capital Damascus. The Aramaeans who entered the city without battle, adopted the name "Dimashqu" for their new home. Noticing the agricultural potential of the still-undeveloped and sparsely populated area, they established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the river Barada. The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of the city today. The Aramaeans initially turned Damascus into an outpost of a loose federation of Aramaean tribes, known as Aram-Zobah, based in the Beqaa Valley.
The city would gain preeminence in southern Syria when Ezron, the claimant to Aram-Zobah's throne who was denied kingship of the federation, fled Beqaa and captured Damascus by force in 965 BC. Ezron overthrew the city's tribal governor and founded the independent entity of Aram-Damascus. As this new state expanded south, it prevented the Kingdom of Israel from spreading north and the two kingdoms soon clashed as they both sought to dominate trading hegemony in the east. Under Ezron's grandson, Ben-Hadad I (880–841 BC), and his successor Hazael, Damascus annexed Bashan (modern-day Hauran region), and went on the offensive with Israel. This conflict continued until the early 8th century BC when Ben-Hadad II was captured by Israel after unsuccessfully besieging Samaria. As a result, he granted Israel trading rights in Damascus.
Another possible reason for the treaty between Aram-Damascus and Israel was the common threat of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was attempting to expand into the Mediterranean coast. In 853 BC, King Hadadezer of Damascus led a Levantine coalition, that included forces from the northern Aram-Hamath kingdom and troops supplied by King Ahab of Israel, in the Battle of Qarqar against the Neo-Assyrian army. Aram-Damascus came out victorious, temporarily preventing the Assyrians from encroaching into Syria. However, after Hadadzezer was killed by his successor, Hazael II, the Levantine alliance collapsed. Aram-Damascus attempted to invade Israel, but was interrupted by the renewed Assyrian invasion. Hazael ordered a retreat to the walled part of Damascus while the Assyrians plundered the remainder of the kingdom. Unable to enter the city, they declared their supremacy in the Hauran and Beqa'a valleys.
By the 8th century BC, Damascus was practically engulfed by the Assyrians and entered a dark age. Nonetheless, it remained the economic and cultural center of the Near East as well as the Arameaen resistance. In 727, a revolt took place in the city, but was put down by Assyrian forces. After Assyria went on a wide-scale campaign of quelling revolts throughout Syria, Damascus became totally subjugated by their rule. A positive effect of this was stability for the city and benefits from the spice and incense trade with Arabia. However, Assyrian authority was dwindling by 609–605 BC, and Syria-Palestine was falling into the orbit of Pharaoh Necho II's Egypt. In 572, all of Syria had been conquered by the Neo-Babylonians, but the status of Damascus under Babylon is relatively unknown.
Damascus was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires. The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other. Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals, made Antioch the capital of his vast empire, which led to the decline of Damascus' importance compared with new Seleucid cities such as Latakia in the north. Later, Demetrius III Philopator rebuilt the city according to the Greek hippodamian system and renamed it "Demetrias".
In 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey annexed the western part of Syria. The Romans occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the Decapolis because it was considered such an important center of Greco-Roman culture. According to the New Testament, Saint Paul was on the road to Damascus when he received a vision of Jesus, and as a result accepted Him as the Messiah. In the year 37, Roman Emperor Caligula transferred Damascus to Nabataean control by decree. The Nabataean king Aretas IV Philopatris ruled Damascus from his capital Petra. However, around the year 106, Nabataea was conquered by the Romans, and Damascus returned to Roman control.
Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the 2nd century and in 222 it was upgraded to a colonia by the Emperor Septimius Severus. During the Pax Romana, Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper. Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern Arabia, Palmyra, Petra, and the silk routes from China all converging on it. The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries.
Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect. The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) by 750 metres (2,460 ft), surrounded by a city wall. The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate (Bab Sharqi) remains from the Roman period. Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to five meters (16.4 ft) below the modern city.
The old borough of Bab Tuma was developed at the end of the Roman/Byzantine era by the local Eastern Orthodox community. According to the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Paul and Saint Thomas both lived in that neighborhood. Roman Catholic historians also consider Bab Tuma to be the birthplace of several Popes such as John V and Gregory III.
Islamic Arab era
After most of the Syrian countryside was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the reign of Caliph Umar, Damascus itself was conquered by the Muslim-Arab general Khalid ibn al-Walid in September–August 635 CE. His army had previously attempted to capture the city in April 634, but without success. With Damascus now in Muslim-Arab hands, the Byzantines, alarmed at the loss of their most prestigious city in the Near East, had decided to wrest back control of it. Under Emperor Heraclius, the Byzantines fielded an army superior to that of the Rashidun in manpower. They advanced into southern Syria during the spring of 636 and consequently Khalid ibn al-Walid's forces withdrew from Damascus to prepare for renewed confrontation. In August, the two powers met along the Yarmouk River where they a fought a major battle which ended in a decisive Muslim victory, solidifying the latter's rule in Syria and Palestine.
While the Muslims administrated the city, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—Eastern Orthodox and Monophysite—with a growing community of Muslims from Mecca, Medina, and the Syrian Desert. The governor assigned to the city which had been chosen as the capital of Islamic Syria was Mu'awiya I. After the death of Caliph Ali in 661, Mu'awiya was chosen as the caliph of the expanding Islamic empire. Because of the vast amounts of assets his clan, the Ummayads, owned in the city and because of its traditional economic and social links with the Hijaz as well as the Christian Arab tribes of the region, Mu'awiya established Damascus as the capital of the entire Caliphate. With the ascension of Caliph Abd al-Malik in 685, an Islamic coinage system was introduced and all of the surplus revenue of the Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus. Arabic was also established as the official language, giving the Muslim minority of the city an advantage over the Aramaic-speaking Christians in administrative affairs. It is critical to note that, at the time Damascus was conquered by the Muslims, the majority of Arabs were either pagans or Christians. Damascus itself was predominantly Aramaic with Arab speaking people.
Abd al-Malik's successor, al-Walid initiated construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus (known as the Umayyad Mosque) in 706. The site originally had been the Christian Cathedral of St. John and the Muslims maintained the building's dedication to John the Baptist. By 715, the mosque was complete. Al-Walid died that same year and he was succeeded at first by Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Umar II, who each ruled for brief periods before the reign of Hisham in 724. With these successions, the status of Damascus was gradually weakening as Suleiman had chosen Ramla as his residence and later Hisham chose Rusafa. Following the murder of the latter in 743, the Caliphate of the Umayyads—which by then stretched from Spain to India— was crumbling as a result of widespread revolts. During the reign of Marwan II in 744, the capital of the empire was relocated to Harran in the northern Jazira region.
On 25 August 750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the Battle of the Zab in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by Baghdad, the new Islamic capital. Within the first six months of Abbasid rule, revolts began erupting in the city, albeit too isolated and unfocused to present a viable threat. Nonetheless, the last of the prominent Umayyads were executed, the traditional officials of Damascus ostracized, and army generals from the city were dismissed. Afterward, the Umayyad family cemetery was desecrated and the city walls were torn down, reducing Damascus into a provincial town of little importance. It roughly disappeared from written records for the next century and the only significant improvement of the city was the Abbasid-built treasury dome in the Umayyad Mosque in 789. In 811, distant remnants of the Umayyad dynasty staged a strong uprising in Damascus that was eventually put down.
Ahmad ibn Tulun, a dissenting Turkish governor appointed by the Abbasids, conquered Syria, including Damascus, from his overlords in 878-79. In an act of respect for the previous Umayyad rulers, he erected a shrine on the site of Mu'awiya's grave in the city. Tulunid rule of Damascus was brief, lasting only until 906 before being replaced by the Qarmatians who were adherents of Shia Islam. Due to their inability to control the vast amount of land they occupied, the Qarmatians withdrew from Damascus and a new dynasty, the Ikhshidids, took control of the city. They maintained the independence of Damascus from the Arab Hamdanid dynasty of Aleppo and the Baghdad-based Abbasids until 967. A period of instability in the city followed, with a Qarmatian raid in 968, a Byzantine raid in 970, and increasing pressures from the Fatimids in the south and the Hamdanids in the north.
The Shia Fatimids gained control in 970, inflaming hostilities between them and the Sunni Arabs of the city who frequently revolted. A Turk, Alp Takin drove out the Fatimids five years later, and through diplomacy, prevented the Byzantines from attempting to annex the city. However, by 977, the Fatimids under Caliph al-Aziz, wrested back control of the city and tamed Sunni dissidents. The Arab geographer, al-Muqaddasi, visited Damascus in 985, remarking that the architecture and infrastructure of the city was "magnificent", but living conditions were awful. Under al-Aziz, the city saw a brief period of stability that ended with the reign of al-Hakim (996–1021). In 998, Hundreds of Damascene leaders were rounded up and executed by him for incitement. Three years after al-Hakim's mysterious disappearance, the Arab tribes of southern Syria formed an alliance to stage a massive rebellion against the Fatimids, but they were crushed by the Fatimid Turkish governor of Syria and Palestine, Anushtakin al-Duzbari, in 1029. This victory gave the latter mastery over Syria, displeasing his Fatimid overlords, but gaining the admiration of Damascus' citizens. He was exiled by Fatimid authorities to Aleppo where he died in 1041. From that date to 1063, there are no known records of the city's history. By then, Damascus lacked a city administration, had an enfeebled economy, and a greatly reduced population.
Seljuq and Ayyubid rule
With the arrival of the Seljuq Turks in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I starting in 1079 and he was succeeded by his son Abu Nasr Duqaq in 1095. The Seljuqs established a court in Damascus and a systematic reversal of Shia inroads in the city. The city also saw an expansion of religious life through private endowments financing religious institutions (madrasas) and hospitals (maristans). Damascus soon became one of the most important centers of propagating Islamic thought in the Muslim world. After Duqaq's death in 1104, his mentor (atabeg), Toghtekin, took control of Damascus and the Burid line of the Seljuq dynasty. Under Duqaq and Toghtekin, Damascus experienced stability, elevated status and a revived role in commerce. In addition, the city's Sunni majority enjoyed being a part of the larger Sunni framework effectively governed by various Turkic dynasties who in turn were under the moral authority of the Baghdad-based Abbasids.
While the rulers of Damascus were preoccupied in conflict with their fellow Seljuqs in Aleppo and Diyarbakir, the Crusaders, who arrived in the Levant in 1097, conquered Jerusalem, Mount Lebanon and Palestine. Duqaq seemed to have been content with Crusader rule as a buffer between his dominion and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Toghtekin, however, saw the Western invaders as a viable threat to Damascus which, at the time, nominally included Homs, the Beqaa Valley, Hauran, and the Golan Heights a part of its territories. With military support from Sharaf al-Din Mawdud of Mosul, Toghtekin managed to halt Crusader raids in the Golan and Hauran. Mawdud was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque in 1109, depriving Damascus of northern Muslim backing and forcing Toghtekin to agree to a truce with the Crusaders in 1110.
Following Tughtakin's death in 1128, his son, Taj al-Din Buri, became the nominal ruler of Damascus. Coincidentally, the Seljuq prince of Mosul, Imad al-Din Zengi, took power in Aleppo and gained a mandate from the Abbasids to extend his authority to Damascus. In 1129, around 6,000 Isma'ili Muslims were killed in the city along with their leaders. The Sunnis were provoked by rumors alleging there was a plot by the Isma'ilis, who controlled the strategic fort at Banias, to aid the Crusaders in capturing Damascus in return for control of Tyre. Soon after the massacre, the Crusaders aimed to take advantage of the unstable situation and launch an assault against Damascus with nearly 60,000 troops. However, Buri allied with Zengi and managed to prevent their army from reaching the city. Buri was assassinated by Isma'ili agents in 1132; he was succeeded by his son, Shams al-Mulk Isma'il who ruled tyrannically until he himself was murdered in 1135 on secret orders from his mother, Safwat al-Mulk Zumurrud; Isma'il's brother, Shihab al-Din Mahmud, replaced him. Meanwhile, Zengi, intent on putting Damascus under his control, married Safwat al-Mulk in 1138. Mahmud's reign then ended in 1139 after he was killed for relatively unknown reasons by members of his family. Mu'in al-Din Unur, his mamluk ("slave soldier") took effective power of the city, prompting Zengi—with Safwat al-Mulk's backing—to lay siege against Damascus the same year. In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem to resist Zengi's forces. Consequently, Zengi withdrew his army and focused on campaigns against northern Syria.
In 1144 Zengi conquered Edessa, a crusader stronghold, which led to a new crusade from Europe in 1148. In the meantime Zengi was assassinated and his territory was divided among his sons, one of whom, Nur ad-Din, emir of Aleppo, made an alliance with Damascus. When the European crusaders arrived, they and the nobles of Jerusalem agreed to attack Damascus. Their siege, however, was a complete failure. When the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls, and were driven back. By 1154, Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control.
In 1164, King Amalric of Jerusalem invaded Fatimid Egypt, which requested help from Nur ad-Din. The Nur ad-Din sent his general Shirkuh, and in 1166 Amalric was defeated at the Battle of al-Babein. When Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as Saladin, who defeated a joint crusader-Byzantine siege of Damietta. Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt. He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions. In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the Battle of Montgisard, despite his numerical superiority. Saladin also besieged Kerak in 1183, but was forced to withdraw. He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187, and annihilated the crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in July. Acre fell to Saladin soon after, and Jerusalem itself was captured in October. These events shocked Europe, resulting in the Third Crusade in 1189, led by Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, though the last drowned en route.
The surviving crusaders, joined by new arrivals from Europe, put Acre to a lengthy siege which lasted until 1191. After re-capturing Acre, Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf in 1191 and the Battle of Jaffa in 1192, recovering most of the coast for the Christians, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom. The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the Treaty of Ramla in 1192. Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the crusaders to fulfill their vows, after which they all returned home. The native crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities.
Saladin died in 1193, and there were frequent conflicts between different Ayyubid sultans ruling in Damascus and Cairo. Damascus was the capital of independent Ayyubid rulers between 1193 and 1201, from 1218 to 1238, from 1239 to 1245, and from 1250 to 1260. At other times it was ruled by the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt. The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the Silk Road, gave the English language "damask".
Mamluk period
Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1260, and following the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut in the same year, Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire, ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal. The Black Death of 1348–1349 killed as much as half of the city's population.
In 1400 Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, besieged Damascus. The Mamluk sultan dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including Ibn Khaldun, who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal he put the city to sack. The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at Samarkand. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name burj al-ru'us, originally "the tower of heads".
Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until 1516.
Ottoman rule
In early 1516, the Ottoman Turks, wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian Safavids, started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On 21 September, the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on 2 October the khutba in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of Selim I. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On 15 December, he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, tekkiye and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi in al-Salihiyah. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments.
The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great Hajj caravans to Mecca, Damascus was treated with more attention by the Porte than its size might have warranted—for most of this period, Aleppo was more populous and commercially more important. In 1560 the Tekkiye al-Sulaimaniyah, a mosque and khan for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, and soon afterwards a madrasa was built adjoining it.
Under Ottoman rule, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis and were allowed to practice their religious precepts. The Damascus affair that took place in 1840 was an incident in which the accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus. In addition the massacre of Christians in 1860 was also one of the most notorious incidents of these centuries, when fighting between Druze and Maronites in Mount Lebanon spilled over into the city. Several thousand Christians were killed, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile Abd al-Qadir and his soldiers (three days after the massacre started), who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the citadel. The Christian quarter of the old city (mostly inhabited by Catholics), including a number of churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls (mostly Orthodox) were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbours.
American Missionary E.C. Miller records that in 1867 the population of the city was 'about' 140,000, of whom 30,000 were Christians, 10,000 Jews and 100,000 'Mohammedans' with fewer than 100 Protestant Christians.
In the early years of the 20th century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political colouring, largely in reaction to the turkicisation programme of the Committee of Union and Progress government established in Istanbul in 1908. The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha, governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916 further stoked nationalist feeling, and in 1918, as the forces of the Arab Revolt and the British Imperial forces approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.
On 1 October 1918, T. E. Lawrence entered Damascus, the third arrival of the day, the first being the 3rd Australian Light Brigade, led by Major A.C.N. 'Harrry' Olden. Two days later, 3 October 1918, the forces of the Arab revolt led by Prince Faysal also entered Damascus. A military government under Shukri Pasha was named and Faisal ibn Hussein was proclaimed king of Syria. Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new Bolshevik government in Russia revealed the Sykes-Picot Agreement whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the "complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks." The Syrian National Congress in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the Versailles Conference had granted France a mandate over Syria, and in 1920 a French army commanded by the General Mariano Goybet crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the Battle of Maysalun and entered Damascus. The French made Damascus capital of their League of Nations Mandate for Syria.
When in 1925 the Druze revolt in the Hauran spread to Damascus, the French suppressed it brutally, bombing and shelling the city on 9 May 1926. As a result the area of the old city between Al-Hamidiyah Souq and Medhat Pasha Souq was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as al-Hariqa ("the fire"). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armored cars.
On 29 May 1945, the French once more bombed Damascus, but on this occasion British forces intervened and the French agreed to withdraw, thus leading to the full independence of Syria in 1946. Damascus remained the capital.
Syrian civil war
The uprising started with peaceful protests in the spring of 2011 and had grown to a civil war over the past year. On 6 January 2012, a car bomb exploded in Damascus killing over than 26 people, most of them civilians. State media said it was a suicide attack and blamed terrorists. In January 2012, clashes between the regular army and rebels reached the outskirts of Damascus, reportedly preventing people from leaving or reaching their houses, especially when security operations there intensified from the end of January into February.
On 17 March 2012, twin car bombs hit the heart of the city, targeting the Air Force Intelligence Service and the headquarters of the Security Forces killing at least 27 people, most of them civilians. An Islamic Jihadi faction called "Jabhat al-Nusra" claimed responsibility for the bomb attacks. In the early morning of 19 March, firefights and explosions broke out in the West Villas section of the heavily guarded and upscale Mezzeh neighborhood.
By June 2012, bullets and shrapnel shells smashed into homes in Damascus overnight as troops battled the Free Syrian Army in the streets. At least three tank shells slammed into residential areas in the central Damascus neighborhood of Qaboun, according to activist. Intense exchanges of assault-rifle fire marked the clash, according to residents and amateur video posted online.
Since the Battle of Damascus, the city has witnessed a security crackdown. Checkpoints have sprung up in the city, and the sight of red dirt spilling from sandbags and IDs held out the window, of Kalashnikov-toting Shabiha and soldiers have become widespread. Traffic jams, like unemployment, became widespread and countryside refugees sleep in city parks.
Damascus lies about 80 km (50 mi) inland from the Mediterranean, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon mountains. It lies on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level. The city has an area of 105 km2 (41 sq mi), out of which 77 km2 (30 sq mi) is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest.
The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river Barada which is almost dry (3 cm left). To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighborhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures. In the 19th century outlying villages developed on the slopes of Jabal Qasioun, overlooking the city, already the site of the al-Salihiyah neighborhood centred around the important shrine of Sheikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi. These new neighborhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as al-Akrad (the Kurds) and al-Muhajirin (the migrants). They lay two to three kilometres (2 mi) north of the old city.
From the late 19th century on, a modern administrative and commercial centre began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centred on the area known as al-Marjeh or the meadow. Al-Marjeh soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall on it. The courts of justice, post office and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanised residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Marjeh and al-Salihiyah. The commercial and administrative centre of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.
In the 20th century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis. From 1955 the new neighborhood of Yarmouk became a second home to thousands of Palestinian refugees. City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later 20th century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezzeh neighborhood and most recently along the Barada valley in Dummar in the north west and on the slopes of the mountains at Berze in the north-east. Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.
Damascus used to be surrounded by an oasis, the Ghouta region (الغوطة al-ġūṭä), watered by the Barada river. The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, used to provide the city with drinking water. The Ghouta oasis has been decreasing in size with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city and it is almost dry. It has also become polluted due to the city's traffic, industry, and sewage.
Damascus has a hot arid climate (Köppen Bsh), due to the rain shadow effect of the Anti-Lebanon mountains and the prevailing ocean currents. Summers are dry and hot with less humidity. Winters are mild and comparatively rainy, sometimes snowy. Annual rainfall is around 130 mm (5 in), occurring from October to May.
|Climate data for Damascus|
|Record high °C (°F)||21
|Average high °C (°F)||12.6
|Average low °C (°F)||0.4
|Record low °C (°F)||−6
|Precipitation mm (inches)||27.9
|Avg. precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)||7||7||5||3||1||0||0||0||0||2||4||6||35|
|Mean monthly sunshine hours||164.3||182.0||226.3||249.0||322.4||357.0||365.8||353.4||306.0||266.6||207.0||164.3||3,164.1|
|Source #1: BBC Weather|
|Source #2: World Meteorological Organization, Hong Kong Observatory (sun 1961–1990)|
The historical role that Damascus played as an important trade center has changed in recent years due to political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade. Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to Countries of the Arabian peninsula. Damascus also holds an annual international trade exposition in the fall since 1955.
Damascus has the potential for a highly successful tourism industry. The abundance of cultural wealth in Damascus has been modestly employed since the late 1980s with the development of many accommodation and transportation establishments and other related investments. Since the early 2000s, numerous boutique hotels and bustling cafes opened in the old city which attract plenty of European tourists and Damascenes alike.
The real-estate sector is booming in Damascus. Real-estate adviser Cushman & Wakefield listed Damascus office space as the eighth most expensive in the world in 2009. The office market in Damascus is rather immature and the demand for premium office space surpasses supply. However, new supply of office space is expected to be delivered in 2009. Damascus is home to a wide range of industrial activity, such as Textile, food processing, cement and various chemical industries. The majority of factories are run by the state, however. Limited privatization in addition to economic activities let by the private sector were permitted starting in the early 2000s with the liberalization of trade that took place. Traditional handcrafts and artisan copper engraving are still produced in the old city.
The Damascus stock exchange formally opened for trade in March 2009, and the exchange is the only stock exchanges in Syria. It is currently located in the Barzeh district, within Syria's financial markets and securities commission. Its final home is to be the upmarket business district of Yaafur.
The estimated population of Damascus in 2011 was 1,711,000. But Damascus is the centre of an over-crowded metropolitan area with an estimated population of 5 million. The metropolitan area of Damascus includes the cities of Douma, Harasta, Darayya, Al-Tall and Jaramana.
The majority of the population in Damascus came as a result of rural-urban migration.
The majority of the inhabitants of Damascus are Muslims. It is believed that there are more than 2,000 mosques in Damascus, the most well-known being the Umayyad Mosque.[verification needed] Christians represent 10% of the population. There are few Christian districts in the city, such as Bab Tuma, Qassaa and Ghassani, with many churches, most notably the ancient Chapel of Saint Paul. At the suburb Soufanieh a series of apparitions of the Virgin Mary have reportedly been observed between 1982 and 2004.
There is a small Jewish community namely in what is called Haret al-Yahud the Jewish quarter. They are the remnants of an ancient and much larger Jewish presence in Syria, dating back at least to Roman times, if not before to the time of King David.
Historical sites
Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet (2.4 m) below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The Damascus Straight Street (referred to in the conversion of St. Paul in Acts 9:11), also known as the Via Recta, was the decumanus (East-West main street) of Roman Damascus, and extended for over 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Tuma (St. Thomas's Gate). Medhat Pasha Souq is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Midhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria who renovated the Souk. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of Ananias, an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the body of St. John the Baptist. The mausoleum where Saladin was buried is located in the gardens just outside the mosque. Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque, the shrine of the youngest daughter of Husayn ibn Ali, can also be found near the Umayyad Mosque. The ancient district of Amara is also within a walking distance from these sites. Another heavily visited site is Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque, where the tomb of Zaynab bint Ali is located.
Shias, Fatemids and Dawoodi Bohras believe that after the battle of Karbala (680 AD), in Iraq, the Ummayad caliph Yezid brought Imam Husain's head to Damascus, where it was first kept in the courtyard of Yezid Mahal, now part of Umayyad Mosque complex. All other remaining members of Imam Husain's family (left alive after Karbala) along with heads of all other companions, who were killed at Karbala, were also brought to Damascus. These members were kept as prisoners on the outskirts of the city (near Bab al-Saghir), where the other heads were kept at the same location, now called "Raous-us-sohda-e-karbala", visited by all Shias. There is a qibla (place of worship) marked at the place, where Imam Ali-Zain-ul-Abedin used to pray while in captivity .
The walls and gates of Damascus
The Old City of Damascus with an approximate area of 128 hectares is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are seven extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel:
- Bab al-Faradis ("the gate of the orchards", or "of the paradise")
- Bab al-Salam ("the gate of peace"), all on the north boundary of the Old City
- Bab Tuma ("Touma" or "Thomas's Gate") in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name,
- Bab Sharqi ("eastern gate") in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan
- Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate has been closed and turned into Saint Paul Chapel marking this event,
- Bab al-Saghir (The Small Gate)
- Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souk Midhat Pasha, in the south-west.
Churches in the old city
- Chapel of Saint Paul
- House of Saint Ananias
- Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus
- The Roman Catholic Cathedral in Zaitoon (Olive) Alley
- Saint Johnn the Damascene Church
- Saint Paul's Laura
- Saint George's Syriac Orthodox Church
Islamic sites in the old city
Old Damascene houses
Threats to the future of the old City
Due to the rapid decline of the population of Old Damascus (between 1995–2005 more than 20,000 people moved out of the old city for more modern accommodation), a growing number of buildings are being abandoned or are falling into disrepair. In March 2007, the local government announced that it would be demolishing Old City buildings along a 1,400-metre (4,600 ft) stretch of rampart walls as part of a redevelopment scheme. These factors resulted in the Old City being placed by the World Monuments Fund on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world. It is hoped that its inclusion on the list will draw more public awareness to these significant threats to the future of the historic Old City of Damascus.
Current state of old Damascus
- Souk El Atik, a protected buffer zone, was destroyed in three days in November 2006;
- King Faysal Street, a traditional hand-craft region in a protected buffer zone near the walls of Old Damascus between the Citadel and Bab Touma, is threatened by a proposed motorway.
- In 2007, the Old City of Damascus and notably the district of Bab Tuma have been recognized by The World Monument Fund as one of the most endangered sites in the world.
Damascus is the main center of education in Syria. It is home to Damascus University, which is the oldest and largest university in Syria. After the enactment of legislation allowing private higher institutions, several new universities were established in the city and in the surrounding area, including:
- Syrian Virtual University
- International University for Science and Technology
- Syrian Private University
- Arab International University
The institutes play an important rule in the education, including:
- Higher Institute of Business Administration
- Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology
- National Institute of Administration
The main airport is Damascus International Airport, approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) away from the city, with connections to many Asian, European, African, and recently, South American cities. Streets in Damascus are often narrow, especially in the older parts of the city, and speed bumps are widely used to limit the speed of vehicles.
Public transport in Damascus depends extensively on minibuses. There are about one hundred lines that operate inside the city and some of them extend from the city center to nearby suburbs. There is no schedule for the lines, and due to the limited number of official bus stops, buses will usually stop wherever a passenger needs to get on or off. The number of buses serving the same line is relatively high, which minimizes the waiting time. Lines are not numbered, rather they are given captions mostly indicating the two end points and possibly an important station along the line and Taxicab.
Served by Chemins de Fer Syriens, the former main railway station of Damascus was al-Hejaz railway station, about 1 km west of the old city. The station is now defunct and the tracks have been removed, but there still is a ticket counter and a shuttle to Damacus Kadam station in the south of the city, which now functions as the main railway station.
In 2008, the government announced a plan to construct a Damascus Metro with opening time for the green line scheduled for 2015. The green line will be an essential West-East axis for the future public transportation network, serving Moadamiyeh, Sumariyeh, Mezzeh, Damascus University, Hijaz, the Old City, Abbassiyeen and Qaboun Pullman bus station. A four-line metro network is expected be in operation by 2050.
Damascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture. The Arab Capital of Culture is an initiative undertaken by UNESCO, under the Cultural Capitals Program to promote and celebrate Arab culture and encourage cooperation in the Arab region. The preparation for the festivity began in February 2007 with the establishing of the Administrative Committee for "Damascus Arab Capital of Culture" by a presidential decree.
- National Museum of Damascus
- Azem Palace
- Military Museum
- October War Panorama Museum
- Museum of Arabic Calligraphy
- Nur al-Din Bimaristan
Sports and leisure
Popular sports include football, basketball, swimming, tennis, table tennis, equestrian and chess. Damascus is home to many football clubs that participate in the Syrian Premier League including Al-Jaish, Al-Shurta, Al-Wahda and Al-Majd. Many Other sport clubs are located in several districts of the city: Barada SC, Qasioun SC, Nidal SC, al-Muhafaza SC, al-Fayhaa SC, al-Thawra SC, Dummar SC and al-Arin SC.
Damascus has quite busy midnights. Coffeehouses, where —in addition to Arabic coffee and tea— nargileh (water pipes) are served, proliferate Damascus. Card games, tables (backgammon variants), and chess are activities frequented in cafés.
Tishreen Park is one of the largest and popular parks in Damascus. It is home to the yearly-held Damascus Flower Show. Other parks include: al-Jahiz, al-Sibbki, al-Tijara, al-Wahda, etc. Damascus' Ghouta (Oasis) is also a popular weekend-destination for recreation. Many recreation centres operate in the city including sport clubs, swimming pools and golf courses. The Syrian Arab Horse Association in Damascus offers a wide range of activities and services for horse breeders and riders.
Nearby attractions
- Madaya: a small mountainous town well known holiday resort.
- Bloudan: a town located 51 km north-west of the Damascus, its moderate temperature and low humidity in summer attracts many visitors from Damascus and throughout Syria, Lebanon and the Persian Gulf.
- Zabadani: a city in close to the border with Lebanon. Its mild weather along with the scenic views, made the town a popular resort both for tourists and for visitors from other Syrian cities.
- Maaloula: a town dominated by speakers of Western Neo-Aramaic.
- Saidnaya: a city located in the mountains, 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) above sea level, it was one of the episcopal cities of the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch.
Twin towns and sister cities
- Dubai, United Arab Emirates
- Toledo, Spain
- Tripoli, Lebanon
- Córdoba, Spain
- São Paulo, Brazil
- Istanbul, Turkey
- Yerevan, Armenia, since 1997
- Fars Province, Iran
- Ningxia Region, People's Republic of China
- Ankara, Turkey since 2010
- Central Bureau of Statistics in Syria: Chapter 2: Population & Demographic Indicators Table 3: Estimates of Population actually living in Syria in 31 December 2011 by Mohafazat and six (in thousands)
- Albaath.news statement by the governor of Damascus, Syria (Arabic), April 2010
- Central Bureau of Statistics Syria Syria census 2004
- List I, 13 in J. Simons, Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topographical Lists relating to Western Asia, Leiden 1937. See also Y. AHARONI, The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography, London 1967, p147, No. 13.
- "(in Book Reviews) ''Ancient Damascus: A Historical Study of the Syrian City-State from Earliest Times Until Its Fall to the Assyrians in 732 BC.'', Wayne T. Pitard. Review author: Paul E. Dion, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 270, Ancient Syria. (May, 1988), p. 98". Links.jstor.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- "''The Stele Dedicated to Melcarth by Ben-Hadad of Damascus'', Frank Moore Cross. ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 205. (Feb., 1972), p. 40". Links.jstor.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- "Damascus – Wiktionary". En.wiktionary.org. 9 May 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- Moore, A.M.T. The Neolithic of the Levant. Oxford, UK: Oxford University, 1978. 192–198. Print.
- Burns 2005, p. 2
- MacMillan, pp. 30–31
- Burns 2005, pp. 5–6
- Burns 2005, p. 7
- Genesis 14:15 (New International Version). Bible Gateway. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
- Burns 2005, p. 9
- Burns 2005, p. 10
- Burns 2005, pp. 13–14
- Burns 2005, p. 11
- Burns 2005, pp. 21–23
- Burns 2005, pp. 98–99
- Burns 2005, p. 100
- Burns 2005, pp. 103–104
- Burns 2005, p. 105
- Burns 2005, pp. 106–107
- Burns 2005, pp. 110
- Burns 2005, p. 113
- Burns 2005, pp. 121–122
- Burns 2005, pp. 130–132
- Burns 2005, pp. 135–136
- Burns 2005, pp. 137–138
- Burns 2005, p. 139
- Burns 2005, pp. 142
- Burns 2005, p. 147
- Burns 2005, pp. 148–149
- Burns 2005, p. 151
- Phillips, Jonathan (2007). The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom. Yale University Press. pp. 216–227.
- Hans E. Mayer, The Crusades (Oxford University Press, 1965, trans. John Gillingham, 1972), pp. 118–120.
- Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Penguin. p. 350.
- Hamilton, Bernard (2000). The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–136.
- "The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted and Philip Augustus", in A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, ed. R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), pp. 45–49.
- Wolff and Hazard, pp. 67–85.
- Islamic city. Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. page 90. quoting Eli Jones, a Quaker from New England.
- Barker, A. (1998) "The Allies Enter Damascus", History Today, Volume 48
- Roberts, P.M., World War I, a Student Encyclopedia, 2006, ABC-CLIO, p.657
- Blasts Hit Damascus as Syria Gears Up Monitors
- "Public transportation in Damascus is having an uphill go of it"
- Twin bombings in Damascus kill at least 27
- Flashpoint international:Jabhat al-Nusra Claims Credit for Twin Bombings in Damascus
- Barnard, Anne (19 March 2012). "Clashes Rock Mezze, an Upscale Area of Damascus". New York Times.
- "Heavy gunfire in Syria's capital during the weekend". Haaretz. 10 June 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
- Damascus Metropolitan Area Urban Planning and Development: DMA-UPD Discussion Paper Series No.2 October 2009 p.2
- Tyson, Patrick J. (2010). "SUNSHINE GUIDE TO THE DAMASCUS AREA, SYRIA". www.climates.com. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- "Average Conditions Damascus, Syria". BBC Weather. July 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2010.[dead link]
- "World Weather Information Service – Damascus". World Meteorological Organization.
- "Climatological Information for Damascus, Syria". Hong Kong Observatory.
- "Damascus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
- "Damascus International Fair". Retrieved 28 November 2009.
- Cummins, Chip. "Damascus Revels in Its New Allure to Investors". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
- "Report: Office Space Across the World 2009". Cushman & Wakefield. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
- "Inauguration of Damascus Stock Exchange". Syrian Enterprise and Business Center. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
- "AFP: Syria launches first stock exchange". Google.com. 10 March 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). The Great Mosque of Damascus: studies on the makings of an Umayyad visual culture 33. BRILL. p. 12. ISBN 90-04-11638-9, 9789004116382 Check
|isbn=value (help). Retrieved 26 November 2009.
- Sbalchiero in: Laurentin/ Sbalchiero (2007), p. 1093-1097.
- Katz, Ketsi'ah (1981), Masoret ha-lashon ha-'Ibrit shel Yehude Aram-Tsoba (Ḥalab) bi-qri'at ha-Miqra ve-ha-Mishnah (The Hebrew Language Tradition of the Jews of Aleppo in the Reading of the Bible and Mishnah)
- Old Damascus
- The British Syrian Society. The British Syrian Society. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- "Worldmonuments.org". Worldmonuments.org. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- "GHF". Global Heritage Fund. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
- "الخط الأخضر " أهلاً بكم في موقع الخط الأخضر". Damascus-metro.com. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- "دمشق عاصمة الثقافة العربية 2008". Damascus.org.sy. Retrieved 27 December 2012.
- Herbert, Ian; Nicole Leclercq, International Theatre Institute (2003). The World of Theatre: An Account of the World's Theatre Seasons 1999–2000, 2000–2001 and 2001–2002. Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 0-415-30621-3.
- "مجلس الإدارة و المجلس الاستشاري". Damascus.org.sy. 22 October 2007. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- Beatties and Pepper, 2001, p. 102.
- "Syrian Arab Horse Association". Saha-sy.org. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- UAEinteract.com. "Sister Cities delegates praise Dubai 'best practices' UAE – The Official Web Site – News". Uaeinteract.com. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- "Sister Cities". Toledo Turismo (Patronato Municipal de Turismo). Retrieved 16 October 2008.
- Ayuntamento de Córdoba Córdoba City Council Web, sister cities
- "International Relations – São Paulo City Hall – Official Sister Cities". Prefeitura.sp.gov.br. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
- Sister Cities of Istanbul – Turkey. Sister Cities of Istanbul – Turkey. Retrieved 24 November 2009.
- "Yerevan Municipality – Sister Cities". yerevan.am. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
- The Syrian-Iranian Joint Supreme Committee meetings (in Arabic). Alwehda Publications. 8 March 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
- محافظة دمشق ومنطقة نينغيشيا الصينية توقعان على اتفاقية توأمة. Syria News. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
- "Damascus, Ankara become sister cities". Worldbulletin.net. 6 July 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
- Burns, Ross (2005). Damascus: A History. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27105-3, 9780415271059 Check
- Jill, Duchess of Hamilton (2002). First to Damascus: The story of the Australian Light Horse and Lawrence of Arabia. ISBN 0-7318-1071-6..
- Aharoni, Yohanan; Avi-Yonah, Michael (1977). The MacMillan Bible Atlas. Carta Ltd. ISBN 0-7318-1071-6..
- Cammelli, Stefano (2006). Il Minareto di Gesù. Il Mulino..
- ICOMOS Heritage at Risk 2001/2002: Damascus, A Major Eastern Mediterranean Site at Risk
- Syria, Historic Damascus: The Destruction of the Old City
|Look up Damascus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Damascus|
- Philip K. Hitt, The Imperial Capital, 1973, Saudi Aramco World
- Damascus on Virtourist.com
- Interactive 360º virtual tour of Damascus | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40834000 |
A helium–neon laser or HeNe laser, is a type of gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of helium and neon inside of a small bore capillary tube, usually excited by a DC electrical discharge.
History of HeNe laser development
The first HeNe laser emitted at 1.15 μm in the infrared and was the first gas laser. However a laser that operated at visible wavelengths was much more in demand, and a number of other neon transitions were investigated to identify ones in which a population inversion can be achieved. The 633 nm line was found to have the highest gain in the visible spectrum, making this the wavelength of choice for most HeNe lasers. However other visible as well as infrared lasing wavelengths are possible, and by using mirror coatings with their peak reflectance at these other wavelengths, HeNe lasers could be engineered to employ those transitions; this includes visible lasers appearing red, orange, yellow, and green. Lasing transitions are known from over 100 μm in the far infrared to 540 nm in the visible. Since visible transitions at wavelengths other than 633 nm have somewhat lower gain, these lasers generally have lower output powers and are more costly. The 3.39 μm transition has a very high gain but is prevented from lasing in an ordinary HeNe laser (of a different intended wavelength) since the cavity and mirrors are lossy at that wavelength. However in high power HeNe lasers having a particularly long cavity, superluminescence at 3.39 μm can become a nuisance, robbing power from the lasing medium, often requiring additional suppression. The best known and most widely used HeNe laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm in the red part of the visible spectrum. It was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1962, 18 months after the pioneering demonstration at the same laboratory of the first continuous infrared HeNe gas laser in December 1960.
Construction and operation
The gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium and neon gases, in approximately a 10:1 ratio, contained at low pressure in a glass envelope. The gas mixture is mostly helium, so that helium atoms can be excited. The excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms, exciting some of them to the state that radiates 632.8 nm. Without helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non-laser lines. A neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy coupling. Therefore, a HeNe laser that has lost enough of its helium (e.g., due to diffusion through the seals or glass) will most likely not lase at all since the pumping efficiency will be too low. The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by a high voltage electrical discharge passed through the gas between electrodes (anode and cathode) within the tube. A DC current of 3 to 20 mA is typically required for CW operation. The optical cavity of the laser usually consists of two concave mirrors or one plane and one concave mirror, one having very high (typically 99.9%) reflectance and the output coupler mirror allowing approximately 1% transmission.
Commercial HeNe lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity lengths usually ranging from 15 cm to 50 cm (but sometimes up to about 1 meter to achieve the highest powers), and optical output power levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mW.
The red HeNe laser wavelength of 633 nm has an actual vacuum wavelength of 632.991 nm, or about 632.816 nm in air. The wavelength of the lasing modes lie within about 0.001 nm above or below this value, and the wavelengths of those modes shift within this range due to thermal expansion and contraction of the cavity. Frequency-stabilized versions enable the wavelength of a single mode to be specified to within 1 part in 108 by the technique of comparing the powers of two longitudinal modes in opposite polarizations. Absolute stabilization of the laser's frequency (or wavelength) as fine as 2.5 parts in 1011 can be obtained through use of an iodine absorption cell.
The mechanism producing population inversion and light amplification in a HeNe laser plasma originates with inelastic collision of energetic electrons with ground state helium atoms in the gas mixture. As shown in the accompanying energy level diagram, these collisions excite helium atoms from the ground state to higher energy excited states, among them the 23S1 and 21S0 long-lived metastable states. Because of a fortuitous near coincidence between the energy levels of the two He metastable states, and the 3s2 and 2s2 (Paschen notation) levels of neon, collisions between these helium metastable atoms and ground state neon atoms results in a selective and efficient transfer of excitation energy from the helium to neon. This excitation energy transfer process is given by the reaction equations:
- He*(23S1) + Ne1S0 → He(1S0) + Ne*2s2 + ΔE
- He*(21S) + Ne1S0 + ΔE → He(1S0) + Ne*3s2
where (*) represents an excited state, and ΔE is the small energy difference between the energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV or 387 cm−1, which is supplied by kinetic energy. Excitation energy transfer increases the population of the neon 2s2 and 3s2 levels manyfold. When the population of these two upper levels exceeds that of the corresponding lower level neon state, 2p4 to which they are optically connected, population inversion is present. The medium becomes capable of amplifying light in a narrow band at 1.15 μm (corresponding to the 2s2 to 2p4 transition) and in a narrow band at 632.8 nm (corresponding to the 3s2 to 2p4 transition at 632.8 nm). The 2p4 level is efficiently emptied by fast radiative decay to the 1s state, eventually reaching the ground state.
The remaining step in utilizing optical amplification to create an optical oscillator is to place highly reflecting mirrors at each end of the amplifying medium so that a wave in a particular spatial mode will reflect back upon itself, gaining more power in each pass than is lost due to transmission through the mirrors and diffraction. When these conditions are met for one or more longitudinal modes then radiation in those modes will rapidly build up until gain saturation occurs, resulting in a stable continuous laser beam output through the front (typically 99% reflecting) mirror.
The gain bandwidth of the HeNe laser is dominated by Doppler broadening rather than pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow: only about 1.5 GHz full width for the 633 nm transition. With cavities having typical lengths of 15 cm to 50 cm, this allows about 2 to 8 longitudinal modes to oscillate simultaneously (however single longitudinal mode units are available for special applications). The visible output of the red HeNe laser, long coherence length, and its excellent spatial quality, makes this laser a useful source for holography and as a wavelength reference for spectroscopy. A stabilized HeNe laser is also one of the benchmark systems for the definition of the meter.
Prior to the invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, red HeNe lasers were widely used in barcode scanners at supermarket checkout counters. Laser gyroscopes have employed HeNe lasers operating at 0.633 μm in a ring laser configuration. HeNe lasers are generally present in educational and research optical laboratories.
Red HeNe lasers have many industrial and scientific uses. They are widely used in laboratory demonstrations in the field of optics in view of their relatively low cost and ease of operation compared to other visible lasers producing beams of similar quality in terms of spatial coherence (a single mode gaussian beam) and long coherence length (however since about 1990 semiconductor lasers have offered a lower cost alternative for many such applications). A consumer application of the red HeNe laser is the LaserDisc player, made by Pioneer. The laser is used in the device to read the optical disk.
See also
- C. S. Willet "An Introduction to Gas Lasers" Pergamon Press 1974, pages 407–411
- A.D. White and J.D. Rigden, "Continuous Gas Maser Operation in the Visible". Proc IRE vol. 50, p1697: July 1962.
- A. D. White, "Recollections of the First Continuous Visible Laser". Optics and Photonics News vol. 22, p34-39: October 2011.
- Javan, A., Bennett, W.R. and Herriott, D.R.: "Population Inversion and Continuous Optical Maser Oscillation in a Gas Discharge Containing a He-Ne Mixture". Phys. Rev. Lett. 63, 106–110 (1961).
- "Sam's Laser FAQ - Helium-Neon Lasers:".
- Niebauer, TM: Frequency stability measurements on polarization-stabilized He-Ne lasers, Applied Optics, 27(7) p.1285
- Iodine-stabilized helium–neon laser at the NIST museum site
- Javan, A., Bennett, W. R. and Herriott, D. R.: "Population Inversion and Continuous Optical Maser Oscillation in a Gas Discharge Containing a He-Ne Mixture". Phys. Rev. Lett. 6 3, 106–110 (1961).
- Notes on the Paschen notation
- Sam's Laser FAQ | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40835000 |
John C. Stennis Space Center
|John C. Stennis Space Center|
|The B-1/B-2 Test Stand holding space shuttle components (1987)|
|Preceding agencies||Mississippi Test Operations
National Space Technology Laboratories
|Jurisdiction||U.S. federal government|
|Headquarters||Hancock County, Mississippi|
|Agency executive||Dr. Richard J. Gilbrech, director|
|Stennis Space Center home page|
The John C. Stennis Space Center (SSC) is a NASA rocket testing facility. It is located in Hancock County, Mississippi, on the banks of the Pearl River (Mississippi–Louisiana) at the Mississippi–Louisiana border. As of 2012[update], it is NASA's largest rocket engine test facility.
As of 2007[update], British manufacturer Rolls-Royce plc has been operating an outdoor aero-engine test facility within SSC due to noise pollution concerns at its UK testing facility at Hucknall Airfield (near its main UK site at Derby). Rolls-Royce is just one of the over 30 local, state, national, international, private, and public companies and agencies using SSC for their rocket testing facilities.
The initial requirements for NASA's proposed rocket testing facility required the site to be located between the rockets' manufacturing facility at Michoud Assembly Facility in eastern New Orleans, Louisiana and the launch facility at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Also, the site required barge access as the rocket motors to be tested for Apollo were too large for overland transport.
The selected area was thinly populated and met all other requirements; however before construction began, five small communities (Gainesville, Logtown, Napoleon, Santa Rosa, and Westonia), plus the northern portion of a sixth (Pearlington), and a combined population of 700 families had to be completely relocated off the facility. Remnants of the communities, including city streets and a one-room school house, still exist within the facility.
The 13,500 acres (55 km2) site was selected on October 25, 1961 on the Mississippi Test Facility or Pearl River Site. On December 18, 1961 NASA officially designated the facility as NASA Mississippi Test Operations. The test area (officially known as the Fee Area) is surrounded by a 125,000 acres (506 km2) acoustical buffer zone. The facility's large concrete and metal test stands were originally used to test-fire the first and second stages of the Saturn V rockets. All Space Shuttle Main Engines were flight-certified at Stennis. The facility was renamed again to Mississippi Test Facility on July 1, 1965, became a part of the Marshall Space Flight Center on June 14, 1974 and renamed National Space Technology Laboratories a name that continued until May 20, 1988 when it was renamed for Mississippi senator and space program supporter John C. Stennis.
With the end of the Apollo program, use of the base decreased, with economic impact to the surrounding communities. Over the years other government organizations have moved to the facility, providing a major economic benefit to the communities.
In the 1990s, a new test complex named "E" was constructed to test a variety of new engine concepts. A series of tests conducted there eventually led to the commercialization of hybrid rocket motors, one of which was used to power the first privately funded spaceship, Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne.
In 2007 Rolls-Royce plc opened an outdoor aero engine test facility at John C. Stennis. The test stand is built on the old H1 test bed, Rolls-Royce relocated their engine testing facility from Hucknall near its main Derby site in the UK due to noise pollution issues.
Test stands
The Engineering & Science Directorate (ESD) at SSC operates and maintains SSC's rocket test stands.
- The A-1 test stand was originally designed to test the Apollo Saturn V Second Stage (S-II). It supports a maximum dynamic load of 1.7 M lbf.
- The A-2 test stand is used for J-2X Engine testing. It supports a maximum dynamic load of 1.1 M lbf.
- NASA has begun construction of the new A-3 test stand at SSC. The A-3 stand will be used for testing J-2X engines under vacuum conditions simulating high altitude operation. A-3 will also be operable as a sea-level test facility.
- The B-1/B-2 test stand is a dual-position stand supporting a maximum dynamic load of 11M lbf. It was originally built to simultaneously test the five F-1 engines of a complete Saturn-V S1-C first stage. During the shuttle era it was modified to test the Space Shuttle Main Engine(SSME). It is currently under retrofit for SLS main engine testing.
- The E-Complex supports testing of small engine and single/multiple components.
Installation of a 35,000-gallon liquid oxygen tank atop the A-3 Test Stand.
In 2005, the Center was home to over 30 government agencies and private companies. By far the largest of these were elements of the United States Navy with some 3,500 personnel, which was far larger than the NASA civil servant contingent. Some of the prominent resident agencies include:
- The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Data Buoy Center
- A branch of the Naval Research Laboratory
- The Lockheed Martin Mississippi Space and Technology Center
- The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command
- The Naval Oceanographic Office
- Navy Special Boat Team 22 and NAVSCIATTS (Naval Small Craft Instruction and Technical Training School).
- The University of Southern Mississippi's High Performance Visualization Center
- Rolls-Royce Outdoor Engine Testing Centre
- The US Geological Survey Hydrologic Instrumentation Facility
- Mississippi Army Ammunition Plant
The museum and visitor center for the Stennis Space Center was known as StenniSphere, but closed its doors to the public on February 15, 2012. Exhibits focused on the activities of NASA, space, space exploration, science, geography, weather and more. Many of the exhibits from StenniSphere have been moved into the new INFINITY visitor facility.
The INFINITY Science Center officially opened in April 2012 to replace the old StenniSphere visitors center. The new center features state-of-the-art science and space exhibits, including a full-sized International Space Station module.
See also
- Kelley, Mike (September 26, 2012). "Scheuermann appointed new MSFC director". The Huntsville Times. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- "May 1961 speech leads to Stennis facility". Lagniappe. 11 May 2011.
- "A-1 Test Stand". NASA.
- "NASA's Stennis Space Center Marks New Chapter in Space Exploration". NASA.
- "Environmental Assessment for Stennis Space Center A-3 Test Stand". NASA.
- "StenniSphere Museum and Visitor Center to Close" (Press release). NASA. Jan. 30, 2012.
- "History of INFINITY Science Center". NASA. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Stennis Space Center|
- Official website
- Lagniappe official newsletter
- Movie of a test for a 250K hybrid rocket motor
- High Performance Visualization Center homepage
- National Data Buoy Center
- Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command
- Robot Science Group
- INFINITY Science Center at Stennis Space Center | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40837000 |
Leonard Harrison State Park
|Leonard Harrison State Park|
|Pennsylvania State Park
Part of Pine Creek Gorge, a National Natural Landmark
View north of Pine Creek Gorge, Pine Creek, and the Pine Creek Rail Trail from the main lookout area in Leonard Harrison State Park
|Named for: Leonard Harrison|
|Location||Pine Creek Gorge |
|- elevation||1,821 ft (555 m) |
|Area||585 acres (237 ha)|
|Management||Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources|
|IUCN category||V - Protected Landscape/Seascape|
|Website: Leonard Harrison State Park|
Leonard Harrison State Park is a 585-acre (237 ha) Pennsylvania state park in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is on the east rim of the Pine Creek Gorge, also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania, which is 800 feet (240 m) deep and nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) across here. It also serves as headquarters for the adjoining Colton Point State Park, its sister park on the west rim of the gorge. Leonard Harrison State Park is known for its views of the Pine Creek Gorge, and offers hiking, fishing and hunting, whitewater boating, and camping. The park is in Shippen and Delmar Townships, 10 miles (16 km) west of Wellsboro at the western terminus of Pennsylvania Route 660.
Pine Creek flows through the park and has carved the gorge through five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Native Americans once used the Pine Creek Path along the creek. The path was later used by lumbermen, and then became the course of a railroad from 1883 to 1988. Since 1996, the 63.4-mile (102.0 km) Pine Creek Rail Trail has followed the creek through the park. The Pine Creek Gorge was named a National Natural Landmark in 1968 and is also protected as a Pennsylvania State Natural Area and Important Bird Area, while Pine Creek is a Pennsylvania Scenic and Wild River. The gorge is home to many species of plants and animals, some of which have been reintroduced to the area.
Although the Pine Creek Gorge was clearcut in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it is now covered by second growth forest, thanks in part to the conservation efforts of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in the 1930s. The park is named for Leonard Harrison, a Wellsboro lumberman who cut the timber there, then established the park, which he donated to the state in 1922. The CCC improved the park and built many of its original facilities. Since a successful publicity campaign in 1936, the park has been a popular tourist destination and attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Leonard Harrison State Park was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) Bureau of Parks for its "Twenty Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks" list, which praised its "spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge, also known as Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon".
Native Americans
Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10,000 BC. The first settlers were Paleo-Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools. The hunter-gatherers of the Archaic period, which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC, used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts. The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi-permanent villages and horticulture, between 1000 BC and 1500 AD. Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles, burial mounds, pipes, bows and arrows, and ornaments.
Leonard Harrison State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin, the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks. They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses, and "occasionally inhabited" the mountains surrounding the Pine Creek Gorge. Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois, and by 1675 they had died out, moved away, or been assimilated into other tribes.
After this, the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois. The Iroquois lived in long houses, primarily in what is now New York, and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers. They and other tribes used the Pine Creek Path through the gorge, traveling between a path on the Genesee River in modern New York in the north, and the Great Shamokin Path along the West Branch Susquehanna River in the south. The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois believed that Pine Creek Gorge was sacred land and never established a permanent settlement there. They used the path through the gorge and had seasonal hunting camps along it, including one just north of the park near what is now the village of Ansonia. To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks, the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed, including the Shawnee and Lenape (or Delaware).
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin. On November 5, 1768, the British acquired the New Purchase from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, including what is now Leonard Harrison State Park. The Purchase line established by this treaty was disputed, as it was unclear whether the border along "Tiadaghton Creek" referred to present-day Pine Creek or to Lycoming Creek, further to the east. As a result, the land between them was disputed territory until 1784 and the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix. After the American Revolutionary War, Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania, although some isolated bands of Natives remained in Pine Creek Gorge until the War of 1812.
Lumber era
Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682, up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods: more than 31,000 square miles (80,000 km2) of Eastern White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, and a mix of hardwoods. The forests near the three original counties, Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester, were the first to be harvested, as the early settlers used the readily available timber to build homes, barns, and ships, and cleared the land for agriculture. The demand for wood products slowly increased and by the time of the American Revolution the lumber industry had reached the interior and mountainous regions of Pennsylvania. Lumber thus became one of the leading industries in Pennsylvania. Trees were used to furnish fuel to heat homes, tannin for the many tanneries that were spread throughout the state, and wood for construction, furniture, and barrel making. Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces. Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber, as were a wide variety of household utensils, and the first Conestoga wagons.
By the early 19th century the demand for lumber reached the Pine Creek Gorge, where the surrounding mountainsides were covered with Eastern White Pine 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 m) in diameter and 150 feet (46 m) or more tall, Eastern Hemlock 9 feet (2.7 m) in circumference, and huge hardwoods. Each acre (0.4 ha) of these virgin forests produced 100,000 board feet (236 m3) of white pine and 200,000 board feet (472 m3) of hemlock and hardwoods. For comparison, the same area of forest today produces a total of only 5,000 board feet (11.8 m3) on average. According to Steven E. Owlett, environmental lawyer and author, shipbuilders considered pine from Pine Creek the "best timber in the world for making fine ship masts", so it was the first lumber to be harvested on a large scale. Pine Creek was declared a public highway by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on March 16, 1798, and rafts of spars were floated down the creek to the Susquehanna River, then to the Chesapeake Bay and the shipbuilders at Baltimore. The lumbermen would then walk home, following the old Pine Creek Path at the end of their journey. A spar sold for one dollar and three spars up to 90 feet (27 m) long were lashed together to make a ship's mast. The largest spar produced on Pine Creek was 43 inches (110 cm) in diameter 12 feet (3.7 m) above the base, 93 feet (28 m) long, and 33 inches (84 cm) in diameter at the top. By 1840, Tioga County alone produced over 452 such spar rafts with more than 22,000,000 board feet (52,000 m3) of lumber.
As the 19th century progressed, fewer pines were left and more hemlocks and hardwoods were cut and processed locally. By 1810 there were 11 sawmills in the Pine Creek watershed, and by 1840 there were 145, despite a flood in 1832 which wiped out nearly all the mills along the creek. Selective harvesting of pines was replaced by clearcutting of all lumber in a tract. The first lumbering activity to take place close to what is now Leonard Harrison State Park occurred in 1838 when William Dodge and some partners built a settlement at Big Meadows and formed the Pennsylvania Joint Land and Lumber Company. Dodge's company purchased thousands of acres of land in the area, including what is now Colton Point State Park. In 1865 the last pine spar raft floated down the creek, and on March 28, 1871 the General Assembly passed a law allowing splash dam construction and clearing of creeks to allow loose logs to float better. The earliest spring log drives floated up to 20,000,000 board feet (47,000 m3) of logs in Pine Creek at one time. These logs floated to the West Branch Susquehanna River and to sawmills near the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport. Hemlock wood was not widely used until the advent of wire nails, but the bark was used to tan leather. After 1870 the largest tanneries in the world were in the Pine Creek watershed, and required 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of bark to produce 150 pounds (68 kg) of quality sole leather.
In 1883 the Jersey Shore, Pine Creek and Buffalo Railway opened, following the creek through the gorge. The new railroad used the relatively level route along Pine Creek to link the New York Central Railroad with the Clearfield Coalfield. In the surrounding forests, log drives gave way to logging railroads, which transported lumber to local sawmills. There were 13 companies operating logging railroads along Pine Creek and its tributaries between 1886 and 1921, while the last log drive in the Pine Creek watershed started on Little Pine Creek in 1905. The west rim, which became Colton Point State Park, had a logging railroad by 1903, which was able to harvest lumber on Fourmile Run that had been previously inaccessible. The old-growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century and the gorge was stripped bare. Nothing was left except the dried-out tree tops, which became a fire hazard, so much of the land burned and was left barren. On May 6, 1903 the Wellsboro newspaper had the headline "Wild Lands Aflame" and reported landslides through the gorge. The soil was depleted of nutrients, fires baked the ground hard, and jungles of blueberries, blackberries, and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land, which became known as the "Pennsylvania Desert". Disastrous floods swept the area periodically and much of the wildlife was wiped out.
Nessmuk and Leonard Harrison
George Washington Sears, an early conservationist who wrote under the pen name "Nessmuk", was one of the first to criticize Pennsylvania lumbering and its destruction of forests and creeks. In his 1884 book Woodcraft he wrote of the Pine Creek watershed where "A huge tannery ... poisons and blackens the stream with chemicals, bark and ooze. ... The once fine covers and thickets are converted into fields thickly dotted with blackened stumps. And, to crown the desolation, heavy laden trains of 'The Pine Creek and Jersey Shore R.R.' go thundering [by] almost hourly ... Of course, this is progress; but, whether backward or forward, had better be decided sixty years hence." Nessmuk's words went mostly unheeded in his lifetime and did not prevent the clearcutting of almost all of the virgin forests in Pennsylvania.
Sears lived in Wellsboro from 1844 until his death in 1890, and was the first to describe the Pine Creek Gorge. He also described a trip to what became Leonard Harrison State Park: after a 6-mile (9.7 km) buggy ride, he then had to hike 7 miles (11 km) through tangles of fallen trees and branches, down ravines, and over banks for five hours. At least he reached "The Point", which he wrote was "the jutting terminus of a high ridge which not only commands a capital view of the opposite mountain, but also of the Pine Creek Valley, up and down for miles". A Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission (PHMC) state historical marker commemorating Nessmuk was dedicated in the park in 1972.
The creation of the park was the work of Leonard Harrison, a former lumberman and businessman from Wellsboro who owned a substantial amount of land in the Pine Creek Gorge. In the 1890s Harrison operated a sawmill at Tiadaghton in the middle of the gorge, which was supplied with logs, not by train as was most common in that era, but by a log slide built into the side of the gorge. The log slide was used on a year round basis: during the winter the logs slid down on ice; following the snowmelt the slide was greased to ease the descent of the logs. After the village and the mill were destroyed by a fire, Harrison turned his attention to tourism. He purchased 121 acres (49 ha) of land at the site of the current park in 1906, then developed this land, known as "The Lookout", and invited the public to enjoy the beauty of Pine Creek Gorge. Harrison donated the picnic grounds to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1922.
Although the park was donated to the state, the Wellsboro Chamber of Commerce made initial improvements there and operated it for the first two decades. Elsewhere in the gorge the state bought land abandoned by lumber companies, sometimes for less than $2 per acre ($5 per ha). Except for the adjoining Colton Point State Park, this land became the Tioga State Forest, which was officially established in 1925 and lies just north and south of the park. As of 2008 the state forest encompasses 160,000 acres (65,000 ha), mostly in Tioga County.
Modern era
Despite its status as Leonard Harrison State Forest Park, it took time for the park to become more well known. Access to the park over small roads was still difficult. An elderly woman who had lived nearby all her life visited the park for the first time in 1932 and asked, on seeing the gorge, "How long has this been here?"
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) improved access and constructed many of the amenities at Leonard Harrison park from 1933 to 1936, during the Great Depression. Leonard Harrison State Park is one of many examples of the work of the CCC throughout north-central Pennsylvania. The CCC built picnic and comfort facilities, made roads and trails (often following old logging roads), and planted stands of white pine, spruce and larch. Some of the CCC-constructed facilities remain and are still used, and the park has hosted a reunion of former CCC workers each summer since 1990.
In 1936 Larry Woodin of Wellsboro and other Tioga County business owners began a tourism campaign to promote the Pine Creek Gorge as "The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania". Greyhound Bus Lines featured a view of the canyon from a Leonard Harrison lookout on the back cover of its Atlantic Coast timetable. The bus line's Chicago to New York City tour had an overnight stay in Wellsboro and a morning visit to the canyon for $3. More than 300,000 tourists visited the canyon by the autumn of 1936, and 15,000 visited Leonard Harrison over Memorial Day weekend in 1937. That year more visitors came to the Pine Creek Gorge than to Yellowstone National Park. In response to the heavy use of the local roads, the CCC widened the highways in the area, and guides from the CCC gave tours of the canyon. A PHMC state historical marker honoring the CCC's work in the park and county was dedicated on June 3, 1995. Near the lookout over the gorge there is a bronze statue of a "Tioga County CCC Worker", unveiled on August 14, 1999, as a monument to the achievements of the CCC.
After the Second World War the state took over operation of the park, and expanded its size beyond the original land donated by Harrison: six purchases between 1946 and 1949 increased the park's area from 128 acres (52 ha) to 585 acres (237 ha) at a cost of $26,328. The Pennsylvania Geographic Board dropped the word Forest and officially named it Leonard Harrison State Park on November 11, 1954. The park was improved in the following decade with the completion of new latrines (1963) and a new concession stand and visitor center (1968). Pine Creek was named a state scenic river on December 4, 1992, which ensured further protection of Pine Creek Gorge in its natural state. In 1997 the park's Important Bird Area (IBA) was one of the first 73 IBAs established in Pennsylvania. In 2000 the park became part of the Hills Creek State Park complex, an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties. In 2005 the state began a $1.2 million upgrade of park facilities, including a new maintenance building, the replacement of three pit latrines at the overlook and campground, the addition of showers at the campground, and the conversion of all restrooms to flush toilets.
The second half of the 20th century saw great changes in the rail line through the park. Regular passenger service on the canyon line ended after the Second World War, and in 1960 the second set of train tracks was removed. Conrail abandoned the section of the railroad passing through the gorge on September 21, 1988. The right-of-way eventually became the Pine Creek Rail Trail, which follows the path of the former Pine Creek Path. The first section of the rail trail opened in 1996 and included the 1 mile (1.6 km) section in the park: as of 2008 the Pine Creek Rail Trail is 63.5 miles (102.2 km) long.
Leonard Harrison State Park continued to attract national attention in the post-war era. The New York Times featured the park and its "breath-taking views of the gorge" as well as its trails and picnic groves in a 1950 article, and in 1966 praised the whitewater boating on Pine Creek and the park's "outstanding look-out points". The Pine Creek Gorge, including Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and a 12-mile (19 km) section of Tioga State Forest, was named a National Natural Landmark (NNL) in April 1968. The plaque for the entire NNL is on the lookout terrace of Leonard Harrison State Park. Another New York Times article on whitewater canoeing in 1973 noted the damage along the creek done by Hurricane Agnes the year before, and Leonard Harrison's waterfalls.
In the new millennium, the two state parks on either side of the Pine Creek Gorge are frequently treated as one. A 2002 New York Times article called Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks "Two State Parks, Divided by a Canyon" and noted their "overlooks offer the most spectacular views". Leonard Harrison and Colton Point were each part of the twenty-one state parks chosen by the DCNR Pennsylvania Bureau of Parks for its "Twenty Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks" list. They are the only two parks treated as one unit for the list. The DCNR describes the parks together, noting how they "offer spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge, also known as Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon". It goes on to praise their inclusion in a National Natural Landmark and State Park Natural Area, hiking and trails, and the Pine Creek Rail Trail and bicycling.
Pine Creek Gorge
Leonard Harrison State Park lies on the east side of the Pine Creek Gorge, also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania. A sister park, Colton Point State Park, is on the west side, and the two parks combined form essentially one large park that includes parts of the gorge and creek and parts of the plateau dissected by the gorge. Pine Creek has carved the gorge nearly 47 miles (76 km) through the dissected Allegheny Plateau in northcentral Pennsylvania. The canyon begins in southwestern Tioga County, just south of the village of Ansonia, and continues south to near the village of Waterville in Lycoming County. The depth of the gorge in Colton Point State Park is about 800 feet (240 m) and it measures nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) across.
The Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark includes Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and parts of the Tioga State Forest along 12 miles (19 km) of Pine Creek between Ansonia and Blackwell. This federal program does not provide any extra protection beyond that offered by the land owner. The National Park Service's designation of the gorge as a National Natural Landmark notes that it "contains superlative scenery, geological and ecological value, and is one of the finest examples of a deep gorge in the eastern United States."
The gorge is also protected by the state of Pennsylvania as the 12,163-acre (4,922 ha) Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area, which is the second largest State Natural Area in Pennsylvania. Within this area, 699 acres (283 ha) of Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks are designated a State Park Natural Area. The state Natural Area runs along Pine Creek from Darling Run in the north (just below Ansonia) to Jerry Run in the south (just above Blackwell). It is approximately 12 miles (19 km) long and 2 miles (3.2 km) wide, with state forest roads providing all of the western border and part of the eastern border.
Within the park, Pine Creek and the walls of the gorge "visible from the opposite shoreline" are also protected by the state as a Pennsylvania Scenic River. In 1968 Pine Creek was one of only 27 rivers originally designated as eligible to be included in the National Wild and Scenic River system, and one of only eight specifically mentioned in the law establishing the program. Before Pine Creek could be included in the federal program, the state enacted its State Scenic Rivers Act, then asked that Pine Creek be withdrawn from the national designation. However, there was much local opposition to its inclusion on the state's list, based at least partly on mistaken fears that protection would involve seizure of private property and restricted access. Eventually this opposition was overcome, but Pennsylvania did not officially include it as one of its own state Scenic and Wild Rivers until November 25, 1992. The state treated Pine Creek as if it were a state scenic river between 1968 and 1992. It protected the creek from dam-building and water withdrawals for power plants, and added public access points to reduce abuse of private property.
Geology and climate
Although the rock formations exposed in Leonard Harrison State Park and the Pine Creek Gorge are at least 300 million years old, the gorge itself formed only about 20,000 years ago, in the last ice age. Pine Creek had flowed northeasterly until then, but was dammed by rocks, soil, ice, and other debris deposited by the receding Laurentide Continental Glacier. The dammed creek formed a lake near the present village of Ansonia, and the lake's glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam, which caused a reversal of the flow of Pine Creek. The creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the West Branch Susquehanna River.
The park is at an elevation of 1,821 feet (555 m) on the Allegheny Plateau, which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. While the gorge and its surroundings appear mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the "mountainous" terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys.
The land on which Leonard Harrison State Park sits has undergone tremendous change over the last 400 million years. It was once part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America. The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded, causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay, sand and gravel. Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Pine Creek drainage basin: sandstone, shale, conglomerates, limestone, and coal.
Five major rock formations are present in Leonard Harrison State Park, from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. The youngest of these, which forms the highest points in the park and along the gorge, is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation, a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone, siltstone, and shale, as well as anthracite coal. Low-sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the Pine Creek watershed. Below this is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation, which is formed with grayish-red shale, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. Millstones were once carved from the exposed sections of this conglomerate. Together the Pottsville and Mauch Chunk formations are some 300 feet (91 m) thick.
Next below these is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation, which is made of grayish-red shale and olive-gray sandstone. This is relatively hard rock and forms many of the ridges. Below this is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation, about 760 feet (230 m) thick and some 375 million years old. This layer is relatively soft and easily eroded, which helped to form the Pine Creek Gorge. Cliffs formed by the Huntley Mountain and Catskill formations are visible north of the park at Barbour Rock. The lowest and oldest layer is the Lock Haven Formation, which is gray to green-brown siltstone and shale over 400 million years old. It forms the base of the gorge, contains marine fossils, and is up to 600 feet (180 m) thick.
The dominant soil in Leonard Harrison State Park is somewhat excessively drained Oquaga channery loam, which is often associated with well drained Lordstown channery loam. Much of the campground near the eastern boundary is supported by Morris gravelly silt loam, which is somewhat poorly drained due to a subsoil fragipan. The Oquaga tends to be very strongly acidic (pH 4.8), Morris is strongly acidic (pH 5.3) and Lordstown is moderately acidic (pH 5.5). All of these soils belong to the Inceptisol soil order.
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate, with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 °F (11 °C) in winter and 26 °F (14 °C) in summer. The mean annual precipitation for the Pine Creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches (914 to 1,070 mm). The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 °F (40 °C) in 1936, and the record low was −30 °F (−34 °C) in 1934. On average, July is the hottest month at Leonard Harrison, January is the coldest, and June the wettest.
|Climate data for Leonard Harrison State Park|
|Average high °F (°C)||30
|Average low °F (°C)||13
|Precipitation inches (mm)||1.88
|Source: The Weather Channel|
Descriptions from early explorers and settlers give some idea of what the Pine Creek Gorge was like before it was clearcut. The forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine, with the rest hardwoods. Many animal species that are now vanished inhabited the area. A herd of 12,000 American Bison migrated along the West Branch Susquehanna River in 1773. Pine Creek was home to large predators such as Wolves, Lynx, Wolverines, Panthers, Fishers, foxes and Bobcats, all save the last three now locally extinct. The area had herds of Elk and deer, and large numbers of Black Bears, River Otters, and Beavers. In 1794, two of the earliest white explorers to travel up Pine Creek found so many rattlesnakes on its banks that they had to sleep in their canoe. Further upstream, insects forced them to do the same.
The virgin forests cooled the land and streams. Centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the creeks and runs, so they flowed more evenly year-round. Pine Creek was home to large numbers of fish, including trout, but dams downstream on the Susquehanna River have eliminated the shad, salmon, and eels once found in the creek. The clearcutting of forests destroyed habitat for animals, but there was also a great deal of hunting, with bounties paid for large predators.
State Natural Area and wildlife
While Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and parts of the surrounding Tioga State Forest are now the Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark, it is their status as part of a Pennsylvania State Natural Area that provides the strongest protection for them. Within this Natural Area, all logging, mining, and oil and gas drilling are prohibited, and only foot trail access is allowed. In 1988 the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, precursor to the DCNR, described it as "... about 95% State owned, unroaded, and designated the Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area. It is a place of unique geologic history and contains some rare plant communities, an old growth hemlock stand, ... active bald eagle nest[s] ... and is a major site of river otter reintroduction. Departmental policy is protection of the natural values of the Canyon from development and overuse, and restoration of the area to as near a natural condition as possible."
The gorge has over 225 species of wildflowers, plants and trees, with scattered stands of old growth forest on some of its steepest walls. The rest of the gorge is covered with thriving second growth forest that can be over one hundred years old. However, since clearcutting, nearly 90 percent of the forest land has burnt at least once. Typical south-facing slopes here have Mountain Laurel below oak and hickory trees, while north-facing slopes tend to have ferns below hemlocks and hardwoods. Large chestnuts and Black Cherry can also be found.
The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania is known for its fall foliage, and Leonard Harrison State Park is a popular place to observe the colors, with the first three weeks of October as the best time to see the leaves in their full color. Red leaves are found on Red Maple, red oak, and Black Cherry, while orange and yellow leaves are on Black Walnut, Sugar Maple, aspen, birch, Tulip Poplar and Chestnut Oak, and brown leaves are from beech, white oak, and Eastern Black Oak trees. Plants of "special concern" in Pennsylvania that are found in the gorge include Jacob's ladder, wild pea, and hemlock parsley.
There are over 40 species of mammals in the Pine Creek Gorge. Leonard Harrison State Park's extensive forest cover makes it a habitat for "big woods" wildlife, including White-tailed Deer, Black Bear, Wild Turkey, Red and Gray Squirrels. Less common creatures include Bobcats, Coyote, Fishers, River Otters, and Timber Rattlesnakes. There are over 26 species of fish in Pine Creek, including trout, suckers, Fallfish, and Rock Bass. Other aquatic species include crayfish and frogs.
Several species have been reintroduced to the gorge. White-tailed Deer were imported from Michigan and released throughout Pennsylvania to reestablish what had once been a thriving population. The current population of deer in Pennsylvania are descended from the original stock introduced beginning in 1906, after the lumberman had moved out of the area. The deer population has grown so much that today they exceed their carrying capacity in many areas. River Otters were successfully reintroduced in 1983 and now breed in the gorge. Despite the fears of anglers, their diet is only 5 percent trout.
Fishers, medium-sized weasels, were reintroduced to Pine Creek Gorge as part of an effort to establish a healthy population of Fishers in Pennsylvania. Prior to the lumber era, Fishers were numerous throughout the forests of Pennsylvania. They are generalized predators and will hunt any smaller creatures in their territory, including porcupines. Elk have been reintroduced west of the gorge in Clinton County and occasionally wander near the west rim of the canyon. Coyotes have come back on their own. Invasive insect species in the gorge include Gypsy moths, which eat all the leaves off trees, especially oaks, and Hemlock Woolly Adelgids, which weaken and kill hemlocks. Invasive plant species include Purple Loosestrife and Japanese Knotweed.
Important Bird Area
Leonard Harrison State Park is part of Important Bird Area #28, which encompasses 31,790 acres (12,860 ha) of both publicly and private held land. State managed acreage accounts for 68 percent of the total area and includes Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks and the surrounding Tioga State Forest lands. The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has designated all 585 acres (237 ha) of Leonard Harrison State Park as part of the IBA, which is an area designated as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations.
Ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 128 species of birds in the IBA. Several factors contribute to the high total of bird species observed: there is a large area of forest in the IBA, as well as great habitat diversity, with 343 acres (139 ha) of open water that is used by many of the birds, especially Bald Eagles. The location of the IBA along the Pine Creek Gorge also contributes to the diverse bird populations.
In addition to Bald Eagles, which live in the IBA year round and have successfully established a breeding population there, the IBA is home to Belted Kingfishers, Scarlet Tanagers, Black-throated Blue Warblers, Common Mergansers, Blue and Green Heron, Hermit Thrushes, and Wood Ducks. Large numbers of Ospreys use the gorge during spring and fall migration periods. The woodlands are inhabited by the Ruffed Grouse, Pennsylvania's state bird, and Wild Turkeys. Swainson's Thrush breeds in the IBA and the Northern Harrier breeds and overwinters in Pine Creek Gorge.
A variety of warblers is found in Leonard Harrison State Park. The Pennsylvania Audubon Society states that Pine Creek Gorge is "especially rich in warbler species, including Pine, Black-throated Blue, Black-throated Green, Blackburnian, and Black-and-white." Many of these smaller birds are more often heard than seen as they keep away from the trails and overlooks.
Leonard Harrison State Park is a destination for avid hikers, with some challenging hikes in and around the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania. The park has 4.6 miles (7.4 km) of trails that feature very rugged terrain, pass close to steep cliffs, and can be slick in some areas. In 2003, the DCNR reported that 37,775 people used the trails in the park, and another 24,407 bicycled in it.
- Overlook Trail is a 0.6-mile (0.97 km) path to Otter View, a vista looking to the south. This moderately difficult loop passes reminders of the CCC's work in the park, including a plantation of Red Pines and an old incinerator.
- Turkey Path is a difficult trail, 2 miles (3.2 km) long (down and back), that follows Little Fourmile Run down the side of the canyon, descending over 800 feet (240 m) to Pine Creek and the rail trail at the bottom of the gorge. It was originally a mule drag used to haul timber to the creek. There are several waterfalls on the trail, which passes through an environmentally sensitive area and is on a steep slope. Hikers are encouraged to remain on the path to reduce erosion and protect fragile plant life along the trail. In 2006 a hiker who had left the path slipped near a waterfall and fell to his death.
A vista at the halfway point on Turkey Path was constructed in 1978 by the Youth Conservation Corps. Hand rails, steps and observation decks were added to the path in 1993 by the Pennsylvania Conservation Corps. The park website classifies it as a "down and back trail" since there is no bridge across Pine Creek. However, there is also a Turkey Path from Colton Point State Park on the west rim of the gorge down to a point on Pine Creek just upstream of the end of this trail. According to Owlett and the DCNR Pine Creek Rail Trail map, the creek can be forded with care when the water is low, and the Turkey Path connects the two parks.
- Pine Creek Rail Trail is a 63.4-mile (102.0 km) rail trail from Wellsboro Junction, just north of Wellsboro, south through the Pine Creek Gorge to Jersey Shore: 1 mile (1.6 km) of this trail is in Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks. A 2001 article in USA Today said the scenic beauty of the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania made the trail one of "10 great places to take a bike tour" in the world.
Camping and picnics
Camping is a popular pastime at Leonard Harrison State Park, with 3,511 persons using the rustic camping facilities in 2003. The DCNR classifies camping facilities as "rustic" if they do not have flush toilets or showers. The state has renovated the park camping area since 2003, building modern bathrooms with flush toilets and hot showers, and no longer considers it "rustic". The park has updated electric sites for RV campers as well. The campground has picnic tables and fire rings. The park has almost 100 picnic tables for use; seven of these tables are in shelters. The park hosted some 29,150 picnickers in 2003.
Hunting, fishing, and whitewater
Hunting is permitted on about 250 acres (100 ha) of Leonard Harrison State Park: hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania State Game Commission. The common game species are Ruffed Grouse, Eastern Gray Squirrel, Wild Turkey, White-tailed Deer, and Black Bear; however, hunting Groundhog is prohibited. Additional acres of forested woodlands are available for hunting on the grounds of the adjacent Tioga State Forest.
Fishing is permitted at the state park, though anglers must descend the Turkey Path to reach Pine Creek. This has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, which means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season. Other species of fish found in Pine Creek include Smallmouth Bass and some panfish. Several small trout streams are accessible from within the park, which had 2,597 anglers in 2003. Historically, fishermen of note on the stretch of Pine Creek in the park include President Theodore Roosevelt and Pennsylvania Governor William A. Stone.
Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that Pine Creek "is possibly Pennsylvania's most famous canoe stream" and attributes this partly to the thousands who decide to boat on it after they "peer into Pine Creek's spectacular abyss from the overlooks of Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks". The park contains 1 mile (1.6 km) of Pine Creek, which is Class 1 to Class 2 whitewater here. Boaters do not normally start or end their run in the park, which has no launches: it is part of the 16.8-mile (27.0 km) trip from Ansonia (Marsh Creek) south to Blackwell (Babb Creek).
Nearby state parks
Leonard Harrison State Park is mostly in Shippen Township, with a small portion in Delmar Township north of Stowell Run. It is 10 miles (16 km) west of Wellsboro at the western terminus of Pennsylvania Route 660. The following state parks are within 30 miles (48 km) of the park:
- "Leonard Harrison State Park". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. August 30, 1990. Retrieved June 4, 2008.
- Fermata Inc. of Austin, Texas (August 2005). "Pine Creek Valley Early Action Recommendations" (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
- "Find a Park: Twenty Must-see Parks". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved November 26, 2011. Note: Despite the title, there are twenty-one parks in the list, with Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks treated as one.
- Kent, Barry C.; Smith III, Ira F.; McCann, Catherine (Editors) (1971). Foundations of Pennsylvania Prehistory. Anthropological Series of the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. pp. 4, 7–11, 85–96, 195–201. OCLC 2696039.
- Wallace, Paul A. W. (2000) . Indians in Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. pp. 4–12, 84–89, 99–105, 145–148, 157–164. ISBN 978-0-89271-017-1.
Note: For a general overview of Native American History in the West Branch Susquehanna watershed, see Meginness, John Franklin (1892). "Chapter I. Aboriginal Occupation.". History of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania: including its aboriginal history; the colonial and revolutionary periods; early settlement and subsequent growth; organization and civil administration; the legal and medical professions; internal improvement; past and present history of Williamsport; manufacturing and lumber interests; religious, educational, and social development; geology and agriculture; military record; sketches of boroughs, townships, and villages; portraits and biographies of pioneers and representative citizens, etc. etc. (1st ed.). Chicago, IL: Brown, Runk & Co. ISBN 0-7884-0428-8. Retrieved 2008-06-17. Note: ISBN refers to the Heritage Books July 1996 reprint. URL is to a scan of the 1892 version with some OCR typos.
- The earliest written record of contact with the Susquehannocks comes from Captain John Smith of Jamestown, who met members of the tribe near the mouth of the Susquehanna River on Chesapeake Bay in 1608. The tribe controlled the Susquehanna drainage basin and are believed to have lived there for at least a few centuries prior to this contact.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "The Land That Was". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 39, 40, 43, 46, 49, 50. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Donehoo, Dr. George P. (1999) . A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania (PDF) (Second Reprint ed.). Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Wennawoods Publishing. pp. 154–155, 215–219. ISBN 1-889037-11-7. Retrieved 2008-06-17.Note: ISBN refers to a 1999 reprint edition, URL is for the Susquehanna River Basin Commission's web page of Native American Place names, quoting and citing the book.
- Morey, Tim. "Park Spotlight: Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks". Resource: The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- "Leonard Harrison State Park". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved 2006-10-29.
- Wallace, Paul A. W. (1987). Indian Paths of Pennsylvania (Fourth Printing ed.). Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. pp. 66–72, 130–132. ISBN 0-89271-090-X. Note: ISBN refers to 1998 impression
- Sexton Jr., John L. (1883). "Shippen Township". History of Tioga County, Pennsylvania with Illustrations, Portraits and Sketches. New York, New York: W. W. Munsell & Co. pp. 313–326. Retrieved 2008-07-23.
- "The Pennsylvania Lumber Museum – History". Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
- Taber III, Thomas T. (1995). "Chapter Two: The Boom — Making It All Possible". Williamsport Lumber Capital (1st ed.). Montoursville, Pennsylvania: Paulhamus Litho, Inc. pp. 23–34. OCLC 35920715.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "The Death of a Forest". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 53–62. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Dillon, Chuck (2006). "Nessmuk: The Voice for Conservation". Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: A Natural & Human History (2nd ed.). Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: Pine Creek Press. pp. 31–32. (No ISBN)
- Nessmuk (Sears, George Washington) (1884). "CHAPTER VI Camp Cookery—How It Is Usually Done, With A Few Simple Hints On Plain Cooking—Cooking Fire And Outdoor Range". Woodcraft (1920 ed.). New York: Forest and Stream. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
- "PHMC: Historical Markers Program (Tioga County)". Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
- Quoted in Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "The Birth of Pennsylvania's 'Grand Canyon'". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. p. 67. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Forrey, William C. (1984). History of Pennsylvania's State Parks. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Bureau of State Parks, Office of Resources Management, Department of Environmental Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. pp. 14, 90. OCLC 17824084.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "A Pine Creek Odyssey". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "The Birth of Pennsylvania's 'Grand Canyon'". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 65, 67, 68, 72. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (December 2007). A Public Use Map For Pine Creek Rail Trail (Map). 1" = 2 miles. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
- Morey, Tim. "Park Spotlight: Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks (Part 2)". Resource: The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and natural resources. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- Cupper, Dan (1993). Our Priceless Heritage: Pennsylvania’s State Parks 1893–1993. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission for Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of State Parks. pp. 18, 24. ISBN 0-89271-056-X.
- Thomas II, Lee Ed (August 18, 1999). "Statue unveiled at park honoring work of CCC". The Marketplace (Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: The Gazette and Free Press Courier). pp. 1, 16. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
- "Calendar of Event: CCC Reunion Picnic". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. August 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
- "Pennsylvania State Parks: The CCC Years". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
- "CCC Statues". National New Deal Preservation Association. November 2007. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
- Dillon, Chuck (2006). "Protection for Pine Creek". Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: A Natural & Human History (2nd ed.). Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: Pine Creek Press. pp. 51–52. (No ISBN)
- "Audubon names 73 important bird areas in state". Resource: Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 1997-01-07 (Vol. 1 No. 3). Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- "Manager named at Hills Creek Lake". Wellsboro Gazette. 2000-02-02. p. 6. Retrieved 2009-04-09. Note: the eight parks in the Hills Creek State Park Complex are Cherry Springs, Colton Point, Denton Hill, Hills Creek, Leonard Harrison, Lyman Run, Patterson, and Prouty Place.
- "Governor Rendell Says PA. Investing in the Future with Environmental Grants; Safeguarding Communities, Attracting Business Investment: 140 Critical Projects in 50 Counties First to Receive Funding". Press Release. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. November 2, 2005. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "Rails to Trails". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 87, 88, 92, 94. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Bryan, Curtis Townley (July 16, 1950). "Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: Camps and Picnic Areas Abound in Wilds Along Pine Creek Gorge". The New York Times. p. X19.
- Van Dyne, Ed (March 13, 1966). "Spring Means 'White Water' in Pennsylvania". The New York Times. p. 458.
- "National Natural Landmark: Pine Creek Gorge". National Park Service. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- Ingram, George (June 10, 1973). "Running the Rapids 'Deliverance'-Style in Pennsylvania". The New York Times. p. 542.
- "If You Go: Two State Parks, Divided by a Canyon". The New York Times. November 22, 2002. p. F4.
- "51 Great Places to Hike". USA Today. Retrieved June 25, 2011.
- "Colton Point State Park". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- McGlade, William G. "Pennsylvania Trail of Geology, Leonard Harrison and Colton Point State Parks, The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania, Geologic Features of Interest (Park Guide 5)" (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- "Pine Creek Gorge". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- Fergus, Charles (2002). Natural Pennsylvania: Exploring State Forest Natural Areas. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. pp. 189–193. ISBN 0-8117-2038-1.
- "Natural Areas". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry (PDF). Tioga State Forest (Map). 1 inch is 2 miles. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/FORESTRY/stateforests/images/fd16_map.pdf. Retrieved on September 30, 2008.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "A Wild and Scenic River?". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 75, 76, 80, 82, 84. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- "Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program: Location Map". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "Of Brachiopods and Glaciers". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 27, 28, 31, 34, 36. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Van Diver, Bradford B. (1990). Roadside Geology of Pennsylvania. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. pp. 31–35, 113–115. ISBN 0-87842-227-7.
- Shultz, Charles H. (Editor) (1999). The Geology of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Society and Pittsburgh Geological Society. pp. 372–374, 391, 399, 818. ISBN 0-8182-0227-0.
- Shaw, Lewis C. (June 1984). Pennsylvania Gazetteer of Streams Part II (Water Resources Bulletin No. 16). Prepared in Cooperation with the United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey (1st ed.). Harrisburg, PA: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Environmental Resources. p. 167. OCLC 17150333.
- Berg, T. M. (1981). "Atlas of Preliminary Geologic Quadrangle Maps of Pennsylvania: Tiadaghton" (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- "Map 67: Tabloid Edition Explanation" (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
- "Climate of Pennsylvania" (PDF). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania State Climatologist. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
- "Monthly Averages for Leonard Harrison State Park". The Weather Channel Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2009.
- Dillon, Chuck (2006). "Wealth of the Forests: Lumber". Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: A Natural & Human History (2nd ed.). Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: Pine Creek Press. pp. 23–24. (No ISBN)
- Dillon, Chuck (2006). "Human Issues Affecting the Stream". Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: A Natural & Human History (2nd ed.). Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: Pine Creek Press. p. 46. (No ISBN)
- Early accounts of "salmon" in Pine Creek may have been referring to shad.
- Owlett, Steven E. (1993). "Epilogue". Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 97–98. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2.
- Dillon, Chuck (2006). "The Forest Today". Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon: A Natural & Human History (2nd ed.). Wellsboro, Pennsylvania: Pine Creek Press. pp. 34–36. (No ISBN)
- Audubon Pennsylvania; Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (2004). Susquehanna River Birding and Wildlife Trail (Searchable database). Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. p. 26. Retrieved 2008-07-30.[dead link] Note: This guide is available both as a book (page number given) and website (URL given).
- "Abbreviated History of Pennsylvania’s White-Tailed Deer Management". Pennsylvania Game Commission. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- Serfass, Tom; Mitcheltree, Denise. "Fisher" (PDF). Pennsylvania Game Commission. Archived from the original on April 4, 2006. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
- "From the Wild Bunch: The Fisher". Predator Conservation Alliance. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
- Doug Kibbe (May 2004). "Pennsylvania Important Bird Area #28" (PDF). Pennsylvania Audubon Society. Retrieved 2008-06-17.
- Robinson, Bryan G. (June 23, 2006). "Marine dies at Pennsylvania Grand Canyon". The Wellsboro Gazette. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
- Bly, Laura (July 27, 2001). "10 great places to take a bike tour". USA Today. p. 3D.
- "The Wellsboro Area Chamber of Commerce: Pennsylvania Grand Canyon". Wellsboro Area Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
- Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC). "2008 PFBC County Maps – Tioga County". Retrieved 2008-08-02.
- Gertler, Edward (1985). Keystone Canoeing: A Guide to Canoeable Waters of Eastern Pennsylvania (1st ed.). Silver Spring, Maryland: Seneca Press. pp. 304–308. ISBN 0-9605908-2-X.
- Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (November 2002) (PDF). Leonard Harrison & Colton Point State Parks (Map). 1" = 800 feet. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/STATEPARKS/PARKS/coltonpoint/coltonpoint_mini.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
- "Find a Park by Region (interactive map)". Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
- Michels, Chris (1997). "Latitude/Longitude Distance Calculation". Northern Arizona University. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Bureau of Planning and Research, Geographic Information Division (PDF). "2007 General Highway Map Tioga County Pennsylvania" (Map). 1:65,000. ftp://ftp.dot.state.pa.us/public/pdf/BPR_pdf_files/Maps/GHS/Roadnames/tioga_GHSN.PDF. Retrieved 2007-07-28. Note: shows Leonard Harrison State Park
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Line-of-sight propagation refers to electro-magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation. Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. The rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.
At low frequencies (below approximately 2 MHz or so) radio signals travel as ground waves, which follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. This enables AM radio signals in low-noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has dropped below the horizon. Additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 MHz can be reflected by the F1/F2 Layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach (see shortwave radio), again along multiple deflected straight lines. The effects of multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically "quasi-curved paths".
However, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are significant. Thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna (disregarding the limitations of the eye's resolution) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic of high-frequency radio is called "line-of-sight". The farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon".
In practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal (a function of both the transmitter and the antenna characteristics). Broadcast FM radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 MHz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests.
Radio horizon
The radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the surface of the Earth. If the Earth were a perfect sphere and there were no atmosphere, the radio horizon would be a circle.
The radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase the effective communication range. Antenna heights above 1,000,000 feet (189 miles; 305 kilometres) will cover the entire hemisphere and not increase the radio horizon.
Radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. Simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as:
The simple formulas give a best-case approximation of the maximum propagation distance but are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location.
Earth bulge and atmosphere effect
Earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. It refers to the circular segment of earth profile which blocks off long distance communications. Since the geometric line of sight passes at varying heights over the Earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different propagation conditions over the path. The usual effect of the declining pressure of the atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down toward the surface of the Earth, effectively increasing the Earth's radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around 4/3. This k-factor can change from its average value depending on weather.
Geometric distance to horizon
Assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to horizon from a high altitude transmitter (i.e., line of sight) can readily be calculated.
Let R be the radius of Earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. Line of sight distance d of this station is given by the Pythagorean theorem;
Since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the Earth,
If the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres,
If the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles,
The actual service range
The above analysis doesn’t take the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of the RF signals into consideration. In fact, the RF signals don’t propagate in straight lines. Because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. Thus, the maximum service range of the station, is not equal to the line of sight (geometric) distance. Usually a factor k is used in the equation above
k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. On the other hand, k < 1 means a shorter service range.
Under normal weather conditions k is usually chosen to be 4/3. That means that, the maximum service range increases by % 15
for h in meters and d in km.
for h in feet and d in miles ;
But in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. (In extreme cases k can be less than 1.) That is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in Earth radius and an increase of Earth bulge.
In normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m. with respect to receivers at sea level can be found as,
Line-of-sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio distance measurements
Travel time of radio waves between transmitters and receivers can be measured disregarding the type of propagation. But, generally, travel time only then represents the distance between transmitter and receiver, when line of sight propagation is the basis for the measurement. This applies as well to RADAR, to Real Time Locating and to LIDAR.
This rules: Travel time measurements for determining the distance between pairs of transmitters and receivers generally require line of sight propagation for proper results. Whereas the desire to have just any type of propagation to enable communication may suffice, this does never coincide with the requirement to have strictly line of sight at least temporarily as the means to obtain properly measured distances. However, the travel time measurement may be always biased by multi-path propagation including line of sight propagation as well as non line of sight propagation in any random share. A qualified system for measuring the distance between transmitters and receivers must take this phenomenon into account. Thus filtering signals traveling along various paths makes the approach either operationally sound or just tediously irritating.
Impairments to line-of-sight propagation
Low-powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or snow.
If a direct visual fix cannot be taken, it is important to take into account the curvature of the Earth when calculating line-of-sight from maps.
The presence of objects not in the direct visual line of sight can interfere with radio transmission. This is caused by diffraction effects: for the best propagation, a volume known as the first Fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions.
Reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to cancel out the direct signal. This effect, combined with the free-space r−2 propagation loss to a r−4 propagation loss. This effect can be reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground: the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain.
Mobile telephones
Although the frequencies used by mobile phones (cell phones) are in the line-of-sight range, they still function in cities. This is made possible by a combination of the following effects:
- r−4 propagation over the rooftop landscape
- diffraction into the "street canyon" below
- multipath reflection along the street
- diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building
- reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building
The combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive Rayleigh fading. For mobile phone services these problems are tackled using:
- rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations
- many base stations (a phone can typically see six at any given time)
- rapid handoff between base stations (roaming)
- extensive error correction and detection in the radio link
- sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas
- local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings
Other conditions may physically disrupt the connection surprisingly without prior notice:
- local failure when using the mobile phone in buildings of concrete with steel reinforcement
- temporal failure inside metal constructions as elevator cabins, trains, cars, ships
See also
- Anomalous propagation
- Field strength in free space
- Knife-edge effect
- Non-line-of-sight propagation
- Over-the-horizon radar
- Radial (radio)
- Rician fading, stochastic model of line-of-sight propagation
- Christopher Haslett, Essentials of radio wave propagation, Cambridge University Press, 2008 052187565X pages 119-120
- Mean Radius of the Earth is ≈6.37 x 106 metres = 6370 km. See Earth radius
- R.Busi: Technical Monograph3108-1967 High Altitude VHF and UHF Broadcasting Stations, European Broadcasting Union Brussels,1967
- This analysis is for high altitude to sea level reception. In microwave radio link chains, both stations are high altitudes.
- Article on the importance of Line Of Sight for UHF reception
- Attenuation Levels Through Roofs
- Approximating 2-Ray Model by using Binomial series by Matthew Bazajian | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40841000 |
Mercury (pron.: //; Latin: Mercurius listen (help·info)) is a major Roman god, being one of the Dii Consentes within the ancient Roman pantheon. He is the patron god of financial gain, commerce, eloquence (and thus poetry), messages/communication (including divination), travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery and thieves; he is also the guide of souls to the underworld.
He was considered the son of Maia and Jupiter in Roman mythology. His name is possibly related to the Latin word merx ("merchandise"; compare merchant, commerce, etc.), mercari (to trade), and merces (wages). In his earliest forms, he appears to have been related to the Etruscan deity Turms, with characteristics and mythology subsequently borrowed from the analogous Greek god, Hermes. Latin writers rewrote Hermes' myths and substituted his name with that of Mercury. However, there are at least two myths that involve Mercury that are Roman in origin. In Virgil's Aeneid, Mercury reminds Aeneas of his mission to found the city of Rome. In Ovid's Fasti, Mercury is assigned to escort the nymph Larunda to the underworld. Mercury, however, fell in love with Larunda and made love to her on the way. Larunda thereby became mother to two children, referred to as the Lares, invisible household gods.
Mercury has influenced the name of many things in a variety of scientific fields, such as the planet Mercury, and the element mercury. The word mercurial is commonly used to refer to something or someone erratic, volatile or unstable, derived from Mercury's swift flights from place to place. He is often depicted holding the caduceus in his left hand.
|Practices and beliefs|
Mercury did not appear among the numinous di indigetes of early Roman religion. Rather, he subsumed the earlier Dei Lucrii as Roman religion was syncretized with Greek religion during the time of the Roman Republic, starting around the 4th century BC. From the beginning, Mercury had essentially the same aspects as Hermes, wearing winged shoes (talaria) and a winged (petasos), or hat, and carrying the caduceus, a herald's staff with two entwined snakes that was Apollo's gift to Hermes. He was often accompanied by a cockerel, herald of the new day, a ram or goat, symbolizing fertility, and a tortoise, referring to Mercury's legendary invention of the lyre from a tortoise shell.
Like Hermes, he was also a god of messages, eloquence and of trade, particularly of the grain trade. Mercury was also considered a god of abundance and commercial success, particularly in Gaul, where he was said to have been particularly revered. He was also, like Hermes, the Romans' psychopomp, leading newly-deceased souls to the afterlife. Additionally, Ovid wrote that Mercury carried Morpheus' dreams from the valley of Somnus to sleeping humans.
Archeological evidence from Pompeii suggests that Mercury was among the most popular of Roman gods. The god of commerce was depicted on two early bronze coins of the Roman Republic, the Sextans and the Semuncia.
When they described the gods of Celtic and Germanic tribes, rather than considering them separate deities, the Romans interpreted them as local manifestations or aspects of their own gods, a cultural trait called the interpretatio Romana. Mercury in particular was reported as becoming extremely popular among the nations the Roman Empire conquered; Julius Caesar wrote of Mercury being the most popular god in Britain and Gaul, regarded as the inventor of all the arts. This is probably because in the Roman syncretism, Mercury was equated with the Celtic god Lugus, and in this aspect was commonly accompanied by the Celtic goddess Rosmerta. Although Lugus may originally have been a deity of light or the sun (though this is disputed), similar to the Roman Apollo, his importance as a god of trade made him more comparable to Mercury, and Apollo was instead equated with the Celtic deity Belenus.
In Celtic areas, Mercury was sometimes portrayed with three heads or faces, and at Tongeren, Belgium, a statuette of Mercury with three phalli was found, with the extra two protruding from his head and replacing his nose; this was probably because the number 3 was considered magical, making such statues good luck and fertility charms. The Romans also made widespread use of small statues of Mercury, probably drawing from the ancient Greek tradition of hermae markers.
Names and epithets
Mercury is known to the Romans as Mercurius and occasionally in earlier writings as Merqurius, Mirqurios or Mircurios, had a number of epithets representing different aspects or roles, or representing syncretisms with non-Roman deities. The most common and significant of these epithets included the following:
- Mercurius Artaios, a combination of Mercury with the Celtic god Artaios, a deity of bears and hunting who was worshiped at Beaucroissant, France.
- Mercurius Arvernus, a combination of the Celtic Arvernus with Mercury. Arvernus was worshiped in the Rhineland, possibly as a particular deity of the Arverni tribe, though no dedications to Mercurius Arvernus occur in their territory in the Auvergne region of central France.
- Mercurius Cissonius, a combination of Mercury with the Celtic god Cissonius, who is written of in the area spanning from Cologne, Germany to Saintes, France.
- Mercurius Esibraeus, a combination of the Iberian deity Esibraeus with the Roman deity Mercury. Esibraeus is mentioned only in an inscription found at Medelim, Portugal, and is possibly the same deity as Banda Isibraiegus, who is invoked in an inscription from the nearby village of Bemposta.
- Mercurius Gebrinius, a combination of Mercury with the Celtic or Germanic Gebrinius, known from an inscription on an altar in Bonn, Germany.
- Mercurius Moccus, from a Celtic god, Moccus, who was equated with Mercury, known from evidence at Langres, France. The name Moccus ("pig") implies that this deity was connected to boar-hunting.
- Mercurius Visucius, a combination of the Celtic god Visucius with the Roman god Mercury, attested in an inscription from Stuttgart, Germany. Visucius was worshiped primarily in the frontier area of the empire in Gaul and Germany. Although he was primarily associated with Mercury, Visucius was also sometimes linked to the Roman god Mars, as a dedicatory inscription to "Mars Visucius" and Visucia, Visicius' female counterpart, was found in Gaul.
Mercury's net
Vulcan created a net out of unbreakable steel so that he could catch Venus, the goddess of beauty, and Mars, the god of war, in the act of making love. He was jealous of their relationship, because Venus was his wife. Vulcan managed to catch them but, afterwards, Mercury stole the net from the blacksmith god so that he could catch Cloris, a nymph whom he admired. Cloris was tasked with flying after the sun while it rose and scattering lilies, roses and violets behind it. Mercury lay in wait for at least several days until he caught her wing in the net over an unnamed great river in Ethiopia. Mercury then gave the net to the temple of Anubis at Canopus to protect the sacred spot. In Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, the net is stolen 3,000 years later by Caligorant, who goes on to destroy the temple and the city.
Mercury's temple in the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills, was built in 495 BC. This was a fitting place to worship a swift god of trade and travel, since it was a major center of commerce as well as a racetrack. Since it stood between the plebeian stronghold on the Aventine and the patrician center on the Palatine, it also emphasized the role of Mercury as a mediator.
Because Mercury was not one of the early deities surviving from the Roman Kingdom, he was not assigned a flamen ("priest"), but he did have a major festival on May 15, the Mercuralia. During the Mercuralia, merchants sprinkled water from his sacred well near the Porta Capena on their heads.
Popular Culture
- DC Comics character The Flash borrows some aspects of his appearance and powers from Mercury. The Flash possesses tremendous speed, and similarly to Mercury's helmet and sandals, he wears a winged mask & boots. The original Golden Age Flash, Jay Garrick, wore the same metal winged helmet that Mercury is often depicted wearing.
- The now defunct Mercury car brand was named after the Roman god. The first logo the Mercury brand used was a side profile of Mercury's head, complete with winged helmet.
- The United States' so called Mercury dime, issued from 1916 to 1945, actually features a Winged Liberty and not the god Mercury, but is so named because of the uncanny similarity between the two.
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- Glossary to Ovid’s Fasti, Penguin edition, by Boyle and Woodard at 343
- Rupke, The Religion of the Romans, at 4
- Mike Campbell. "Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Mercury". Behind the Name. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
- “Mercury and hazel” explores the analogies of mercury in mythology, metallurgy and astronomy, and the traditional association of mercury with the fast-growing hazel tree.
- Caesar, Gallic War, at 55
- Littleton, C. Scott (Ed.) (2002). Mythology: The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth and Storytelling (pp. 195, 251, 253, 258, 292). London: Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1-904292-01-1.
- Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town at 295-298
- Sear, David R. (2000). Roman Coins and Their Values - The Millennium Edition. Volume I: The Republic and The Twelve Caesars, 280BC-AD96 (pp. 187-189). London: Spink. ISBN 1 902040 35 X
- De Bello Gallico 6.17
- Germania 9
- Green, Miranda J. (1992). Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Leg,end (pp. 148–149). London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-01516-3.
- Alarcão, Jorge de (1988). Roman Portugal. Volume I: Introduction (p. 93). Warminster: Aris and Phillips.
- Espérandieu, E. (1931). Recueil Général des Bas-relief, Statues et Bustes de la Germanie Romaine. Paris and Brussels.
- Ariosto, Ludovico. Orlando Furioso, Canto XV Lines 47–64. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40842000 |
||This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2011)|
|Ancient Region of Anatolia|
Traditional rural Pontic house
|Ethnic Groups||Pontic Greeks, Laz, Hemşin, Chepni, Turks|
|Historical capitals||Amasya, Neocaesarea, Sinope, Trabzon|
|Notable rulers||Mithradates Eupator|
The modern definition of the Pontus: the area claimed for the "Republic of Pontus" after World War I, based on the extent of the six local Greek Orthodox bishoprics.
Pontus (pron.: //; Greek: Πόντος, "sea") is a historical Greek designation for a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, located in modern-day northeastern Turkey. The name was applied to the coastal region in antiquity by the Greeks who colonized the area, and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea: Πόντος Εύξεινος Pontos Euxeinos ("Hospitable Sea"), or simply Pontos. Having originally no specific name, the region east of the river Halys was spoken of as the country εν Πόντοι en Pontôi, "on the [Euxeinos] Pontos", and hence acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found in Xenophon's Anabasis. The extent of the region varied through the ages, but generally it extended from the borders of Colchis (modern Georgia) until well into Paphlagonia in the west, with varying amounts of hinterland. Several states and provinces bearing the name of Pontus or variants thereof were established in the region in Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine times. Pontus is known for the residence of the Amazons, with the name Amasia not only used for a city (Amasya) but for all of Pontus in Greek mythology.
Mythological Inhabitants
The Amazons were an all female tribe warriors, well known in Greek Mythology. They are said to have lived mainly in Pontus with some also living in Taurica (see Crimea) which is also an important place with Pontic Greeks. Pontus became their area of residence, a kingdom for the Amazon women, as Amasya, a city in Pontus, itself is named after the legendary Amazon women.
Early Inhabitants
Considering that the Anatolian Peninsula lies near to Sinai Peninsula, which is the isthmus across which various species of hominids have migrated out of Africa and into Asia, Pontus in particular has probably been inhabited by known and unknown tribes of various species and ethnicities throughout its history. The Caucasian Kartvelian languages, such as Laz, probably represent the tongues of the earliest-known inhabitants of the area. According to some researchers, one of the early Pontic tribes were called the Leucosyri. Other names for the earliest-known, probably Caucasian, tribes that inhabited the area include the Moskhians, the Mares, the Makrones, the Mossynoikians, the Tibarenians, the Tzans (Armenian: Chaniuk, probably the Laz), and the Chaldians (Armenian: Khaghtik). In light of the strong possibility that Indo-European languages originated in the Anatolian peninsula, tribes speaking Indo-European languages such as Armenian, Hittite, or another Anatolian language may have inhabited the area more or less contemporaneously with tribes speaking Caucasian languages. Regardless of that possibility, though, the historical record makes clear that seafaring Greeks, speakers of a different Indo-European language, began colonizing the area at a later date, displacing Caucasian tribes in the process.
Ancient Greek Colonization
The first travels of Greek merchants and adventurers to the Pontian region occurred probably from around 1000 BC, whereas their settlements would become steady and solidified cities only by the 8th and 7th centuries BC as archaeological findings document. This fits in well with a foundation date of 731 BC as reported by Eusebius of Caesarea for Sinope, perhaps the most ancient of the Greek Colonies in what was later to be called Pontus. The epical narratives related to the travels of Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis, the tales of Heracles' navigating the Black Sea and Odysseus' wanderings into the land of the Cimmerians, as well as the myth of Zeus constraining Prometheus to the Caucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the Gods, can all be seen as reflections of early contacts between early Greek colonists and the local, probably Caucasian, peoples. The earliest known written description of Pontus, however, is that of Scylax of Korianda, who in the 7th century BC described Greek settlements in the area.
Persian Empire Expansion
By the 5th or 6th centuries BC, Pontus had become officially a part of the Achaemenid Empire, which probably meant that the local Greek colonies were paying tribute to the Persians. When the Athenian commander Xenophon passed through Pontus around a century later in 401-400 BC, in fact, he found no Persians in Pontus. Pontus came out from Persian domination when the Kingdom of Cappadocia separated from the Achaemenid Empire, taking Pontus with it as one of its provinces. Subsequently, Pontus itself separated from the Kingdom of Cappadocia under Mithridates I Ktistes ("Ktistes", Κτίστης meaning "The Founder", Constructor in Greek) in 302 BC and became independent. As the greater part of the kingdom he eventually established lay within the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called "Cappadocia towards the Pontus", but afterwards simply "Pontus", the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title.
Kingdom of Pontus
The Kingdom of Pontus extended generally to the east of the Halys River. The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the 4th century BC ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia, with its first known member being Ariobarzanes I of Cius and the last ruler based in the city being Mithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II's son, also called Mithridates, would become Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus.
During the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, Mithridates Ktistes was for a time in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors, and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 BC, to create the Kingdom of Pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same name, until 64 BC. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the Hellenistic world while the main Persian Empire had fallen.
This kingdom reached its greatest height under Mithridates VI or Mithridates Eupator, commonly called the Great, who for many years carried on war with the Romans. Under him, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia. Despite ruling Lesser Armenia, King Mithridates VI was an ally of Armenian King Tigranes the Great, to whom he married his daughter Cleopatra. Eventually, however, the Romans defeated both King Mithridates VI and his son-in-law, Armenian King Tigranes the Great, during the Mithridatic Wars, bringing Pontus under Roman rule.
Roman province
With the subjection of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 BC, in which little changed in the structuring of life, neither for the oligarchies that controlled the cities nor for the common people in city or hinterland, the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change. Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called Pontus and Bithynia: this part included only the seaboard between Heraclea (today Ereğli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica. The larger part of Pontus, however, was included in the province of Galatia.
Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament. The eastern half of the old kingdom was administered as a client kingdom together with Colchis. Its last king was Polemon II.
In AD 62, the country was constituted by Nero a Roman province. It was divided into the three districts: Pontus Galaticus in the west, bordering on Galatia; Pontus Polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capital Polemonium; and Pontus Cappadocicus in the east, bordering on Cappadocia (Armenia Minor). Subsequently, the Roman Emperor Trajan moved Pontus into the province of Cappadocia itself in the early 2nd century AD. In response to a Gothic raid on Trebizond in 457 AD, the Roman Emperor Diocletian decided to break up the area into smaller provinces under more localized administration.
- Galatian Pontus, also called Diospontus, later renamed Helenopontus by Constantine the Great after his mother. It had its capital at Amisus, and included the cities of Sinope, Amasia, Andres, Ibora, and Zela as well.
- Pontus Polemoniacus, with its capital at Polemonium (also called Side), and including the cities of Neocaesarea, Argyroupolis, Comana, and Cerasus as well.
- Cappadocian Pontus, with its capital at Trebizond, and including the small ports of Athanae and Rhizaeon. This province extended all the way to Colchis.
Byzantine province and theme
The Byzantine Emperor Justinian further reorganized the area in 536:
- Pontus Polemoniacus was dissolved, with the western part (Polemonium and Neocaesarea) going to Helenopontus, Comana going to the new province of Armenia II, and the rest (Trebizond and Cerasus) joining the new province of Armenia I Magna with its capital at Justinianopolis.
- Helenopontus gained Polemonium and Neocaesarea, and lost Zela to Armenia II. The provincial governor was relegated to the rank of moderator.
- Paphlagonia absorbed Honorias and was put under a praetor.
By the time of the early Byzantine Empire, Trebizond became a center of culture and scientific learning. In the 7th century, an individual named Tychicus returned from Constantinople to establish a school of learning. One of his students was the early Armenian scholar Anania of Shirak.
Under the Byzantine Empire, the Pontus came under the Armeniac Theme, with the westernmost parts (Paphlagonia) belonging to the Bucellarian Theme. Progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that by the late 10th century, the Pontus was divided into the themes of Chaldia, which was governed by the Gabrades family, and Koloneia. After the 8th century, the area experienced a period of prosperity, which was brought to an end only by the Seljuk conquest of Asia Minor in the 1070s and 1080s. Restored to the Byzantine Empire by Alexios I Komnenos, the area was governed by effectively semi-autonomous rulers, like the Gabras family of Trebizond.
Empire of Trebizond
Following Constantinople's loss of sovereignty to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Pontus retained independence as the Empire of Trebizond under the Komnenos dynasty. Through a combination of geographic remoteness and adroit diplomacy, this remnant managed to survive, until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1461 after the Fall of Constantinople itself. This political adroitness included becoming a vassal state at various times to both Georgia and to various inland Turkic rulers. In addition, the Empire of Trebizond became a renowned center of culture under its ruling Komnenos dynasty.
Ottoman vilayet
|Distribution of Nationalities in Trebizond Vilayet
|Official Ottoman Statistics, 1910||1,047,889
|Ecumenical Patriarchate Statistics, 1912||957,866
Under the subsequent Ottoman rule which began with the fall of Trebizond, particularly starting from the 17th century, some of the region's Pontic Greeks became Muslim through the Devşirme system. But at the same time some valley's inhabited by Greeks converted by own will, most notably those in the Of-valley; and large communities (around 25% of the population) of Christian Pontic Greeks remained throughout the area (including Trabezon and Kars in northeastern Turkey/the Russian Caucasus) until the 1920s, and in parts of Georgia and Armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs and dialect of Greek. One group of Islamicized Greeks were called the Kromli - They numbered between 12,000 and 15,000, were suspected of secretly having remained Christians, and lived in villages including Krom, Imera, Livadia, Prdi, Alitinos, Mokhora, and Ligosti.
A remarkable change during the last period of the Ottoman empire is the creation of "the Republic of Pontus" and the "Ponto-Armenian Federation" that did not take place as it was aimed to be and had as a result the genocide of at least 353,000 Pontian Greeks at the same time that the Armenian genocide took place. The number is based at facts from the relatives of murdered persons, Red Cross, French, and American reports from that period.
Mentioned three times in the New Testament, inhabitants of Pontus were some of the very first converts to Christianity. Acts 2:9 mentions them present during the Day of Pentecost. Acts 18:2 mentions a Jewish couple from Pontus that had converted to Christianity. And 1 Peter 1:1, Peter the Apostle addresses the Pontians in his letter as the "elect" and "chosen ones". As early as the First Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the Metropolitan Bishop of Poti. Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop of Lazica.
Famous Pontians
- Strabo, a Greek historian, geographer, and philosopher.
- Evagrius Ponticus, a Greek theologian/monk of the 4th century
- Chrysanthos Theodoridis Singer
- A.I. Bezzerides, an American novelist and screenwriter. Famous for writing Humphrey Bogart movies, and co-creator of the TV series The Big Valley. Born in Samsun.
- Mike Lazaridis,CEO of Research in Motion and creator of BlackBerry phones.
See also
Notes and references
- Bryer, Anthony A. M. (1980), The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos, London: Variorum Reprints, ISBN 0-86078-062-7
- Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of Augustus (Yale University Press)
- πόντος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- Εὔξεινος, William J. Slater, Lexicon to Pindar, on Perseus
- Meyer, Geschichte d. Königr. Pontos (Leipzig,1879)
- Hewsen, 40-41
- Hewsen, 43
- Hewsen, 46
- Remco Bouckaert; Philippe Lemey, Michael Dunn, Simon J. Greenhill, Alexander V. Alekseyenko, Alexei J. Drummond, Russell D. Gray, Marc A. Suchard, Quentin D. Atkinson (24). "Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family". Science 337 (6097): 957–960. doi:10.1126/science.1219669.
- Hewsen, 39-40
- Hewsen, 39
- Hewsen, 40
- Hewsen, 41
- Hewsen, 41-42
- Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). "Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond". In Richard G. Hovannisian. Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 42, 37–66. ISBN 1-56859-155-1.
- Hewsen, 47
- Hewsen, 49
- Hewsen, 48
- Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6.
- Hewsen, 54 | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40845000 |
Radio music ripping
||This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2008)|
The term ripping (slang term for digital media extraction) can also apply to radio. New software, techniques and cloud services now makes it possible to extract the songs played on the radio and digitally save them on separate audio tracks. Available techniques make it possible to rip the music from Internet radio broadcasts, satellite radio broadcasts and FM radio broadcasts.
Ripping is more than simply recording the audio. The key aspect of ripping is disambiguation. When ripping songs from any source, the songs should be split into separate tracks or files, and the songs should be tagged. Otherwise, you are simply recording or dubbing the audio.
Internet radio
Popular audio formats for internet radio include AAC, AAC+, and MP3. Many AM/FM stations simulcast online use the more efficient AAC format while internet only stations more typically use MP3. The Shoutcast database featured 34,281 online radio stations covering almost every conceivable music genre.
Cloud recording services such as DAR.fm can record from all of these formats. Most PC based internet radio ripping software is built for Shoutcast-style of streams as this MP3 based protocol offers the widest selection of internet radio stations. Such wide selection of music is one of the major advantages for recording songs from internet radio compared to FM and satellite radio as well as the fact that it works with cloud services that do not require a separate audio receiver. The disadvantages may include fairly low audio quality in the saved mp3s, which varies from stream to stream.
To begin the recording process, the software connects to the audio stream over TCP. The stream is then buffered 15–30 seconds ahead. Some internet radio ripping software, utilize special metadata that is being broadcast along with actual song content. These programs are generally more successful in determining the boundaries of songs (providing for a cleaner mp3 cut) as well as correctly identifying the song in question. Such metadata, however, is available for only a subset of internet radio stations, commonly associated with the Shoutcast standard. The existence of open directories of Shoutcast-compliant radio stations such as Shoutcast enables internet radio rippers to provide an abundant selection of recordable radio stations that are reasonably expected to emit detailed song metadata. The metadata also helps avoiding commercials from being recorded along with the songs.
Satellite radio
TimeTrax has developed software that can record the audio broadcast on XM satellite radio. The software saves songs as individual MP3 files after identifying the name and the artist. TimeTrax is both a software and hardware solution: the TimeTrax software can interface with any PC-compatible satellite receiver, and the adapter box is necessary to allow certain receivers to interface with a PC.
The XM PCR was the first device to allow audio stream ripping from XM radio. The device itself is simple enough: an XM "can" (the actual receiver and decoding hardware) is enclosed in a box with a USB interface chip and audio connector. The PCR plugs into a PC USB port and line-in jack. TimeTrax, or some other similar software, then controls the radio and records the incoming audio. After a legal battle, the TimeTrax software is no longer being sold.
To end the problem for good, XM discontinued the XM PCR receiver. However, TimeTrax almost immediately released a hardware companion product that turned virtually any device capable of receiving XM satellite radio AND its primary competitor at the time, Sirius Satellite Radio. Timetrax went on to also include the ability to rip and tag music from the online music streaming services that were being provided by both XM and Sirius.
Notably, TimeTrax went on to extend its technology in a seamless package for FM radio, and further, any music source. It developed this portion of its technology hardware and software offering with Swedish company PopCatcher. TimeTrax was the first company that offered music ripping (aka audio disambiguation, ripping and tagging, de-aggregation) for the 3 largest and widespread music distribution methods: satellite radio, Internet streaming and traditional broadcast.
The original TimeTrax software was developed by Scott MacLean, a Canadian citizen. It went viral and a corporation and formal management team along with funding were brought in the form the enterprise around MacLean's discovery. The company was led by business executive Elliott Frutkin.
FM radio
There are three ways of ripping songs from an FM broadcast.
Radio Data System
Some FM receivers are capable of receiving a data stream known as Radio Data System or RDS. This provides artist and title information that can be shown on the display of a compatible FM receiver. A compatible receiver, connected to the computer, can tag saved audio streams with this data. The disadvantage of RDS is that the title may change before or after the song itself changes, causing the recording process to miss part of the beginning or end of the song.
In the near future RDS will include a new feature called RT+ or Radio Text Plus. As well as providing discrete text fields for Artist, Album & Track Title, RT+ includes 'item running' and 'item toggle' bits which can be used to accurately mark the track transitions and DJ/commercial interruptions, aiding the process of recording, filenaming and ID3 tagging.
Separating music from non-music
Swedish company PopCatcher has patented a technology that enables distinguishing between music, chatter and commercials. It is a self-learning process that first identifies the broadcasting habits of a given radio station. PopCatcher is designed to automatically exclude commercials and DJ patter from the recording, which results in "cleaner" audio files. The process is fully independent from the Internet. However, it does not recognize the names and the artists of the recorded songs.
Manual tagging
Certain recording packages allow you to set markers in the file, which you can use later to split the file into separate tracks. This process can be tedious and time consuming, but has the advantage of being the only truly reliable way to ensure that the song is captured as accurately as possible without cutting off the beginning or end of a track.
Legal issues
This expanding way of ripping music may lead to ‘strong legal debates’ in a near future, even if it is permitted to record music from the radio for private use in most countries. In Germany it is allowed. There even is a campaign to put focus on it. It's called TauschNix, which in essence stands for: no need to download via filesharing. See link below.
European context
The EU passed in May 2001 the Information Society Directive which has since then been transposed into the national laws of most of the Member States. Article 5 – 2/b of the directive states that “[Member States may provide for exceptions or limitations to the reproduction right provided for] in respect of reproductions on any medium made by a natural person for private use and for ends that are neither directly nor indirectly commercial, on condition that the rightholders receive fair compensation which takes account of the application or non-application of technological measures referred to in Article 6 [ie. Digital Rights Management ] to the work or subject-matter concerned”.
In short, copying music from the radio for private use is permissible if the artists receive a “fair compensation”. In case of a lawsuit against radio music ripping technologies, the whole debate will be about the meaning of the term “fair compensation”. It can be argued that Radio stations are already paying a “fair compensation” to artists as they know their songs might be copied. Moreover, in an increasing number of EU member states, importers are charged a private copying levy on the purchase of recordable media (mp3 players, writable CDs or DVDs). The tax or levy is usually administrated by copyright collectives. However, at the time of digital copies, the outcome of such a lawsuit is far from being certain if it should occur.
UK context
Beginning in 1981, the British Phonographic Industry began a campaign against so-called "home taping", or recording songs from the radio onto cassettes, due to fears that home taping would decrease album sales. Iconic of the campaign is a picture of the silhouette of a cassette tape, with two crossed bones underneath, with the words "HOME TAPING IS KILLING MUSIC" written across the top, and the words "AND IT'S ILLEGAL" printed in smaller letters at the bottom.
US context
The doctrine of fair use should make it legal to record songs from the radio for private use.[original research?] Traditionally, the recording industry expressed little or no concern with individuals who recorded music from the radio on a cassette recorder. However, the digital format in this case changes the whole issue since it does not degrade over time and can be easily copied.
That PopCatcher has developed a technology that automatically removes commercials may lead to a legal case similar to ReplayTV’s and SonicBlue’s. In 2001 these DVR manufacturers had issued a Digital Video Recorder equipped with a Commercial Advance feature enabling the automatic removing of commercials from recorded programming. They were sued by 28 companies of the Entertainment Industry in the USA until they ran out of money to pay the expensive litigation. In 2003, they filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The case itself has never been judged.
The Audio Home Recording Act also lays out certain legal rights on the part of consumers.
- "Shoutcast internet radio station database". Retrieved May 14, 2010.
- "DAR radio recording service". Retrieved Oct 27, 2011.
- "RadioGet internet radio recorder". Retrieved May 14, 2010.
- "RadioTracker internet radio recorder". Retrieved May 14, 2010.
- "StreamRipper Open Source Internet Radio Recorder".
- "Total Recorder internet radio recorder". | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40846000 |
|16th Chief Justice of the United States|
September 26, 1986 – September 3, 2005
|Appointed by||Ronald Reagan|
|Preceded by||Warren Burger|
|Succeeded by||John Roberts|
|Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|
January 7, 1972 – September 26, 1986
|Appointed by||Richard Nixon|
|Preceded by||John Marshall Harlan II|
|Succeeded by||Antonin Scalia|
|United States Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel|
|Preceded by||Frank Wozencraft|
|Succeeded by||Ralph Erickson|
|Born||William Donald Rehnquist
October 1, 1924
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.
|Died||September 3, 2005
Arlington, Virginia, U.S.
|Alma mater||Stanford University
William Hubbs Rehnquist (October 1, 1924 – September 3, 2005) was an American lawyer, jurist, and political figure who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and later as the 16th Chief Justice of the United States. Considered a conservative, Rehnquist favored a conception of federalism that emphasized the Tenth Amendment's reservation of powers to the states. Under this view of federalism, the Supreme Court of the United States, for the first time since the 1930s, struck down an Act of Congress as exceeding its power under the Commerce Clause.
Rehnquist served as Chief Justice for nearly 19 years, making him the fourth-longest-serving Chief Justice after John Marshall, Roger Taney, and Melville Fuller, and the longest-serving Chief Justice who had previously served as an Associate Justice. The last 11 years of Rehnquist's term as Chief Justice (1994–2005) marked the second-longest tenure of a single unchanging roster of the Supreme Court, exceeded only between February 1812 and September 1823. He is the eighth longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history.
Early life
Rehnquist was born William Donald Rehnquist in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 1, 1924. He grew up in the suburb of Shorewood. His father, William Benjamin Rehnquist, was a paper salesman; his mother, Margery Peck Rehnquist, was a translator and homemaker. Rehnquist changed his middle name to Hubbs, a family name, because a numerologist told his mother he would be successful with a middle initial of H. His paternal grandparents immigrated from Sweden.
Rehnquist graduated from Shorewood High School in 1942. He attended Kenyon College, in Gambier, Ohio, for one quarter in the fall of 1942, before entering the U.S. Army Air Forces. He served from March 1943 – 1946, mostly in assignments in the United States. He was put into a pre-meteorology program and was assigned to Denison University until February 1944, when the program was shut down. He served three months at Will Rogers Field in Oklahoma City, three months in Carlsbad, New Mexico, and then went to Hondo, Texas for a few months. He was then chosen for another training program, which began at Chanute Field, Illinois, and ended at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. The program was designed to teach the maintenance and repair of weather instruments. In the summer of 1945, he went overseas and served as a weather observer in North Africa.
After the war ended, Rehnquist attended Stanford University with assistance under the provisions of the G.I. Bill. In 1948, he received both a Bachelor of Arts and a Master of Arts degree in political science. In 1950, he attended Harvard University, where he received another Master of Arts, this time in government. He later returned to Stanford, and graduated from the Stanford Law School in the same class as Sandra Day O'Connor, with whom he would later serve on the Supreme Court. They briefly dated at Stanford. It has been said that Rehnquist graduated first in his class, probably based on the fact that he was class valedictorian during graduation ceremonies, but Stanford's official position is that the law school did not rank students in 1952.
Law clerk at the Supreme Court
Rehnquist went to Washington, D.C. to work as a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson during the court's 1952–1953 term. There, he wrote a memorandum arguing against federal court-ordered school desegregation while the court was considering the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education, which was later decided in 1954. Rehnquist's 1952 memo, entitled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases", defended the "separate-but-equal" doctrine. In that memo, Rehnquist said:
I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by "liberal" colleagues, but I think Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed. To the argument that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minority are.
In both his 1971 hearing for Associate Justice and his 1986 hearing for Chief Justice of the United States, Rehnquist alleged that the memorandum reflected the views of Justice Jackson rather than his own views. Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Elsie Douglas, long-time secretary and confidante of Justice Jackson, stated during Rehnquist's 1986 hearings that his allegation was "a smear of a great man, for whom I served as secretary for many years. Justice Jackson did not ask law clerks to express his views. He expressed his own and they expressed theirs. That is what happened in this instance."
At his 1986 hearings for Chief Justice, Rehnquist tried to put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that 'Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed', was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time." However, Rehnquist acknowledged defending Plessy in arguments with fellow law clerks.
Some commentators have concluded that the memo reflected Rehnquist's own views rather than those of Justice Jackson. A biography on Jackson corroborates this explanation, stating that Jackson instructed his clerks to express their own views, not his.
In any event, while later serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the Brown decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent. Rehnquist stated in 1985 that there was a "perfectly reasonable" argument against Brown v. Board and in favor of Plessy, even though he now saw the Court's decision in Brown as correct.
In a memorandum to Justice Jackson about Terry v. Adams, which involved the right of African-Americans to vote in an allegedly private Texas election, Rehnquist wrote:
The Constitution does not prevent the majority from banding together, nor does it attaint success in the effort. It is about time the Court faced the fact that the white people of the south do not like the colored people. The constitution restrains them from effecting this dislike through state action, but it most assuredly did not appoint the Court as a sociological watchdog to rear up every time private discrimination raises its admittedly ugly head.
In another memorandum to Justice Jackson regarding the same case (Terry), Rehnquist wrote:
Clerks began screaming as soon as they saw this that 'Now we can show those damn southerners, etc.' I take a dim view of this pathological search for discrimination and as a result I now have something of a mental block against the case.
Nevertheless, Rehnquist recommended to Justice Jackson that the Supreme Court should agree to hear the Terry case.
After leaving Jackson's employ, Rehnquist wrote an article in the December 13, 1957 U.S. News & World Report arguing that justices' votes are influenced by their law clerks' ideologies. An empirical assessment conducted by Peppers and Zorn in 2008 supported Rehnquist's view.
Private practice
Rehnquist moved to Phoenix, Arizona, where he was in private law practice from 1953 to 1969. During these years, he was active in the Republican Party and served as a legal advisor to Barry Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign, including collaborating with Harry Jaffa on Goldwater's speeches.
Many years later, during the 1971 hearing for Associate Justice and later during the 1986 Senate hearings on his chief justice nomination, several people came forward to complain about what they viewed as Rehnquist's attempts to discourage minority voters in Arizona elections when Rehnquist served as a "poll watcher" in the early 1960s. Rehnquist denied the charges, and "Vincent Maggiore, then chairman of the Phoenix-area Democratic Party, said he had never heard any negative reports about Rehnquist's Election Day activities. 'All of these things', he said, 'would have come through me.'"
Justice Department
When President Richard Nixon was elected in 1968, Rehnquist returned to work in Washington. He served as Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel, from 1969 to 1971. In this role, he served as the chief lawyer to Attorney General John Mitchell. President Nixon mistakenly referred to him as "Renchburg" in several of the tapes of Oval Office conversations revealed during the Watergate investigations.
Because he was well-placed in the Justice Department, Rehnquist was mentioned for many years as a possibility for the source known as Deep Throat during the Watergate scandal. Once Bob Woodward revealed on May 31, 2005, that W. Mark Felt was Deep Throat, this speculation ended. It was William Rehnquist who determined that Government National Mortgage Association guarantees constituted a full faith and credit promise of the United States.
In fall 1971, Nixon received the resignations of two Supreme Court justices, Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II. After compiling an initial list of possible appointees that ran afoul of Chief Justice Burger and the American Bar Association, Nixon considered Rehnquist for one of the slots. Henry Kissinger discussed the possible pick with presidential advisor H.R. Haldeman and asked. "Rehnquist is pretty far right, isn't he?" Haldeman responded, "Oh, Christ! He's way to the right of Buchanan", referring to then-presidential advisor Patrick Buchanan.
Associate Justice
Nixon nominated Rehnquist to replace John Marshall Harlan II on the Supreme Court upon Harlan's retirement, and after being confirmed by the Senate by a 68–26 vote on December 10, 1971, Rehnquist took his seat as an Associate Justice on January 7, 1972. There were two vacancies on the court at the time; Nixon nominated Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. to fill the other, left by the retirement of Hugo Black. Black died September 25, 1971, and Harlan died on December 29 of that year.
On the Burger Court, Rehnquist promptly established himself as the most conservative of Nixon's appointees, taking a narrow view of the Fourteenth Amendment and a broad view of state power. Rehnquist almost always voted "with the prosecution in criminal cases, with business in antitrust cases, with employers in labor cases, and with the government in speech cases". Although Rehnquist was often a lone dissenter in cases early on, his views would later often become the majority view of the Court.
Professor David Shapiro of Harvard Law School suggested that Rehnquist's votes were guided by three basic propositions:
- Conflicts between an individual and the government should, whenever possible, be resolved against the individual (this also holds for conflicts between an individual and an employer, including civil rights litigation).
- Conflicts between state and federal authority should, whenever possible, be resolved in favor of the states.
- Questions of the exercise of federal jurisdiction should, whenever possible, be resolved against such exercise.
In 1977s National League of Cities v. Usery, Rehnquist's majority opinion invalidated a federal law extending minimum wage and maximum hours provisions to state and local government employees. Rehnquist wrote that "this exercise of congressional authority does not comport with the federal system of government embodied in the Constitution."
As Chief Justice, Rehnquist presided over what law professor Erwin Chemerinsky has called a "federalist revolution," during which the Court limited federal power in cases such as New York v. United States, United States v. Lopez, Printz v. United States, and United States v. Morrison. Similarly, Cato Institute scholar Roger Pilon has said that "[t]he Rehnquist court has revived the doctrine of federalism . . . only at the edges and in very easy cases."
Equal protection, civil rights, and abortion
Rehnquist rejected a broad view of the Fourteenth Amendment; he believed that it was meant only as a solution to the problems of slavery, and was misapplied when applied towards abortion rights or prisoner's rights. Rehnquist believed that the Court "had no business reflecting society's changing and expanding values" and argued that this was the domain of the Congress. Rehnquist tried to weave his view of the Amendment into his opinion for Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, but it was rejected by the other justices. Rehnquist later extended what he said he saw as the scope of the Amendment, writing in Trimble v. Gordon: "except in the area of the law in which the Framers obviously meant it to apply – classifications based on race or on national origin".
He voted against the expansion of school desegregation plans and the establishment of legalized abortions, dissenting in Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). Rehnquist expressed his views about the Equal Protection Clause in cases like Trimble v. Gordon:
Unfortunately, more than a century of decisions under this Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment have produced .... a syndrome wherein this Court seems to regard the Equal Protection Clause as a cat-o'-nine-tails to be kept in the judicial closet as a threat to legislatures which may, in the view of the judiciary, get out of hand and pass 'arbitrary', 'illogical,' or 'unreasonable' laws. Except in the area of the law in which the Framers obviously meant it to apply—classifications based on race or on national origin, the first cousin of race—the Court's decisions can fairly be described as an endless tinkering with legislative judgments, a series of conclusions unsupported by any central guiding principle.
Other issues
Rehnquist held a restrictive view of criminals' and prisoners' rights, and held the view that capital punishment is constitutionally permissible. He supported the view that the Fourth Amendment permitted a warrantless search incident to a valid arrest.
In 1977s Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, Rehnquist dissented from a decision upholding the constitutionality of an act that gave a federal agency administrator certain authority over former President Nixon's presidential papers and tape recordings. He dissented solely on the ground that the law was "a clear violation of the constitutional principle of separation of powers."
During oral argument in Duren v. Missouri (1978), the court faced a challenge to laws and practices that made jury duty voluntary for women in that state. At the end of Ruth Ginsburg's oral presentation Rehnquist asked her, "You will not settle for putting Susan B. Anthony on the new dollar, then?"
Rehnquist wrote the majority opinion in Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175 (1981), which began a gradual trend toward overturning the ban on software patents in the United States first established in Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584 (1978). In Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., pertaining to video cassette recorders such as the Betamax system, Justice Stevens again wrote an opinion providing a broad fair use doctrine while Rehnquist joined the dissent, which supported stronger copyrights. Years later, in Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003), Rehnquist was in the majority favoring the copyright holders, with Justices Stevens and Breyer dissenting in favor of a narrower construction of copyright law.
Rehnquist's view of the rational basis test
David Shapiro, professor of law at Harvard University, wrote that while Rehnquist was an Associate Justice he disliked even minimal inquiries into legislative objectives except in the areas of race, national origin, and infringement of specific constitutional guarantees. For Rehnquist, the rational basis test, which is an important part of equal protection jurisprudence, was not a standard for weighing the interests of the government against the individual; rather, it was a label to describe a preordained result. Shapiro in 1978 pointed out that Rehnquist had avoided joining rational basis determinations for years, except in one case, Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld. Rehnquist eschewed the Court majority's approach to equal protection, writing in dissent in Trimble v. Gordon that the state's distinction should be sustained because it was not "mindless and patently irrational". (The court struck down an Illinois law allowing illegitimate children to inherit by intestate succession only from their mothers.)
Shapiro pointed out that Rehnquist seemed content to find a sufficient relationship between a challenged classification and perceived governmental interests "no matter how tenuous or speculative that relationship might be".
A practical result of Rehnquist's view of rational basis can be seen in Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, wherein the Court's majority struck down a school board rule that required every pregnant teacher to take unpaid maternity leave beginning five months before the expected birth of her child. Justice Powell wrote an opinion rested on the ground that the school board rule was too overinclusive to survive equal protection analysis. In dissent, Rehnquist attacked Powell's opinion, saying:
If legislative bodies are to be permitted to draw a line anywhere short of the delivery room, I can find no judicial standard of measurement which says the ones drawn here were invalid.
Shapiro writes that Rehnquist's opinion implied:
That there is no constitutionally significant difference between a classification that encompasses virtually no one outside the scope of its purpose and a classification so overinclusive that the vast majority of those falling within are beyond its intended scope.
Rehnquist's dissent in United States Department of Agriculture v. Murry illuminates his view that a classification should pass muster under the rational basis test so long as that classification is not entirely counter-productive with respect to the purposes of the legislation in which it is contained. Shapiro alleges that Rehnquist's stance "makes rational basis a virtual nullity."
Relations on the Court
Rehnquist built warm personal relations with his colleagues, even with ideological opposites. Justice William Brennan, Jr. "startled one acquaintance by informing him that 'Bill Rehnquist is my best friend up here.'" Rehnquist and Justice William O. Douglas bonded over a shared iconoclasm and love of the west. The Brethren claims that the court's "liberals found it hard not to like the good-natured, thoughtful Rehnquist", despite finding his legal philosophy "extreme", and that Justice Stewart regarded Rehnquist as "excellent" and "a "team player, a part of the group in the center of the court, even though he usually ended up in the conservative bloc".
Since Rehnquist's first years on the Supreme Court, other justices criticized what they saw as his "willingness to cut corners to reach a conservative result", "gloss[ing] over inconsistencies of logic or fact" or distinguishing indistinct cases to reach their destination. In Jefferson v. Hackney, for example, Douglas and Justice Thurgood Marshall charged that Rehnquist's opinion "misrepresented the legislative history" of a federal welfare program. Rehnquist did not correct what The Brethren characterizes as an "outright misstatement, ... [and thus] publish[ed] an opinion that twisted the facts". Rehnquist's "misuse" of precedents in another case "shocked" Justice John Paul Stevens. For his part, Rehnquist was often "contemptuous of Brennan's opinions", seeing them as "bending the facts or law to suit his purposes".
Reluctant to compromise, Rehnquist was the most frequent sole dissenter during the Burger years, garnering the nickname "the Lone Ranger". He usually voted with Chief Justice Burger, and – recognizing "the importance of his relationship with Burger" – often went along to get along, joining Burger's majority opinions even when he disagreed with them, and, in important cases, "tr[ying] to straighten him out".
Chief Justice
When Chief Justice Warren Burger retired in 1986, President Ronald Reagan nominated Rehnquist to fill the position. Although Rehnquist was to the right of Burger, "his colleagues were unanimously pleased and supportive," even his "ideological opposites." The nomination "was met with 'genuine enthusiasm on the part of not only his colleagues on the Court but others who served the Court in a staff capacity and some of the relatively lowly paid individuals at the Court. There was almost a unanimous feeling of joy.'" Justice Thurgood Marshall would later call him "a great Chief Justice."
During confirmation hearings, Senator Edward Kennedy challenged Rehnquist on his unwitting ownership of property that had a restrictive covenant against sale to Jews (such covenants were held to be unenforceable under the 1948 Supreme Court case Shelley v. Kraemer). Despite this and other controversies, including a concern over his membership in the Alfalfa Club (which at the time did not allow women to join), the Senate confirmed his appointment by a 65–33 vote, and he assumed the office on September 26. Rehnquist's seat as an associate justice was filled by newly appointed Antonin Scalia.
In 1999, Rehnquist became the second Chief Justice (after Salmon P. Chase) to preside over a presidential impeachment trial, during the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. In 2000, Rehnquist wrote a concurring opinion in Bush v. Gore, the case that effectively ended the presidential election controversy in Florida. He concurred with four other justices in that case that the Equal Protection Clause barred a "standardless" manual recount of the votes as ordered by the Florida Supreme Court.
In his capacity as Chief Justice, Rehnquist administered the Oath of Office to the following Presidents of the United States:
Leadership of the Court
Rehnquist's predecessor as Chief Justice, Warren Burger, had foundered as a leader, alienating his colleagues with his overbearing manner, his inability to effectively manage the justices' conference sessions, and abuse of his seniority – in particular, his tendency to change his vote on important cases so that he could maintain control over opinion assignments. Rehnquist, in sharp contrast, won over his fellow justices with his easygoing, humorous, and unpretentious personality. He also tightened up the justices' conferences, keeping the justices from going too long or off track and not allowing any justice to speak twice before all had spoken once, and gained a reputation for scrupulous fairness in assigning opinions: Rehnquist assigned no Justice (including himself) two opinions before everyone had been assigned one, and made no attempts to interfere with assignments for cases in which he was in the minority. Most significantly, Rehnquist successfully lobbied Congress in 1988 to give the Court control of its own docket, cutting back on mandatory appeals and certiorari grants in general.
Rehnquist added four yellow stripes to the sleeves of his robe in 1995. He was a lifelong fan of Gilbert and Sullivan operas, and after appreciating the Lord Chancellor's costume in a community theater production of Iolanthe he thereafter appeared in court with the same striped sleeves. (The Lord Chancellor was traditionally the senior member of the British judiciary.) His successor, Chief Justice John Roberts, chose not to continue the practice.
Federalism doctrine
Rehnquist was expected[by whom?] to push the Supreme Court in a more conservative direction during his tenure. One area many commentators expected to see changes was in limiting the power of the federal government and in increasing the power of state governments. However, legal reporter Jan Crawford Greenburg says some of Rehnquist's victories towards the federalist goal of scaling back congressional power over the states had little practical impact.
Chief Justice Rehnquist voted with the majority in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997) and would later refer to that decision as precedent for requiring Congress to defer to the Court as regards interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment (including the Equal Protection Clause) in a number of cases. Boerne held that any statute that Congress enacted to enforce the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment (including the Equal Protection Clause) had to show "a congruence and proportionality between the injury to be prevented or remedied and the means adopted to that end". The Rehnquist Court's congruence and proportionality theory replaced the "ratchet" theory that had arguably been advanced in Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966). According to the "ratchet" theory, Congress could "ratchet up" civil rights beyond what the Court had recognized, but Congress could not "ratchet down" judicially recognized rights. According to the majority opinion of Justice Anthony Kennedy, which Chief Justice Rehnquist joined in Boerne:
There is language in our opinion in Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966), which could be interpreted as acknowledging a power in Congress to enact legislation that expands the rights contained in §1 of the Fourteenth Amendment. This is not a necessary interpretation, however, or even the best one.... If Congress could define its own powers by altering the Fourteenth Amendment's meaning, no longer would the Constitution be 'superior paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means.'
The Rehnquist Court's congruence and proportionality standard made it easier to revive older precedents preventing Congress from going too far[clarification needed] in enforcing equal protection of the laws.
One of the Rehnquist Court's major developments involved reinforcing and extending the doctrine of sovereign immunity, which limits the ability of Congress to subject non-consenting states to lawsuits by individual citizens seeking money damages.
In both Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents (2000) and Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett (2001), the Court held that Congress had exceeded its power to enforce the Equal Protection Clause. In both those cases, Chief Justice Rehnquist was in the majority that held discrimination by states based upon age or disability (as opposed to race or gender) need satisfy only rational basis review as opposed to strict scrutiny.
Though the Eleventh Amendment by its terms applies only to suits against a state by citizens of another state, the Rehnquist Court often extended this principle to suits by citizens against their own states. One such case was Alden v. Maine (1999), in which the Court explained that the authority to subject states to private suits does not follow from any of the express enumerated powers in Article One of the Constitution, and therefore the Alden Court looked to the Necessary and Proper Clause to see if that Clause authorized Congress to subject the states to lawsuits by the state's own citizens. Chief Justice Rehnquist agreed with Justice Kennedy's statement that such lawsuits were not "necessary and proper":
Nor can we conclude that the specific Article I powers delegated to Congress necessarily include, by virtue of the Necessary and Proper Clause or otherwise, the incidental authority to subject the States to private suits as a means of achieving objectives otherwise within the scope of the enumerated powers.
However, the Court acknowledged that various amendments to the Constitution were intended to give Congress power to abrogate sovereign immunity, one of those amendments being the Fourteenth, and thus Congress may authorize suits for money damages pursuant to (for example) its power to enforce the Fourteenth Amendment, which includes the Equal Protection Clause.
Chief Justice Rehnquist also led the Court toward a more limited view of Congressional power under the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution. For example, he wrote for a 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995), striking down a federal law as exceeding congressional power under the Clause.
Lopez was followed by United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000), in which Rehnquist wrote the Court's opinion striking down the civil damages portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 as regulating conduct that does not have a significant direct effect on interstate commerce. Rehnquist's majority opinion in Morrison also rejected an Equal Protection argument on behalf of the Act. All four dissenters disagreed with the Court's interpretation of the Commerce Clause, and two dissenters (Stevens and Stephen Breyer) also took issue with the Court's Equal Protection analysis. Regarding the Commerce Clause, Justice David Souter asserted that the Court was improperly seeking to convert the judiciary into a "shield against the commerce power".
Regarding the Equal Protection Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist's majority opinion in Morrison cited precedents limiting the Clause's scope, such as United States v. Cruikshank (1876), which held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to state actions, not private acts of violence. Dissenting Justice Breyer, joined by Justice Stevens, agreed with the majority that it "is certainly so" that Congress may not "use the Fourteenth Amendment as a source of power to remedy the conduct of private persons". However, Breyer and Stevens took issue with another aspect of the Morrison Court's Equal Protection analysis: they argued that cases that the majority had cited (including United States v. Harris and the Civil Rights Cases regarding lynching and segregation respectively) did not consider "this kind of claim" in which state actors "failed to provide adequate (or any) state remedies". In response, the Morrison majority asserted that the Violence Against Women Act was "directed not at any State or state actor, but at individuals who have committed criminal acts motivated by gender bias".
The federalist trend set by Lopez and Morrison was seemingly halted by Gonzales v. Raich (2005), in which the court broadly interpreted the Commerce Clause to allow Congress to prohibit the intrastate cultivation of medicinal cannabis. Rehnquist, along with O'Connor and Thomas, dissented in Raich.
Rehnquist authored the majority opinion in South Dakota v. Dole (1987), upholding Congress's reduction of funds to states not complying with the national 21-year-old drinking age. Rehnquist's broad reading of Congress's spending power was also seen as a major limitation on the Rehnquist Court's push towards redistribution of power from the federal government to the states.
Stare decisis
Some commentators expected the Rehnquist Court to overrule several controversial decisions broadly interpreting the Bill of Rights. The Rehnquist Court, however, expressly declined to overrule Miranda v. Arizona in its decision in Dickerson v. United States. Rehnquist believed that federal judges should not impose their personal views on the law or stray beyond the intent of the framers by reading broad meaning into the Constitution; he saw himself as an "apostle of judicial restraint". TIME Magazine suggested, however, that Rehnquist violated this belief by overruling many cases, particularly from the Warren Court era. Columbia Law School Professor Vincent Blasi said of Rehnquist in 1986 that "[n]obody since the 1930s has been so niggardly in interpreting the Bill of Rights, so blatant in simply ignoring years and years of precedent". (In the same article, Rehnquist was quoted as retorting that "such attacks come from liberal academics and that 'on occasion, they write somewhat disingenuously about me'".)
Chief Justice Rehnquist was a foe of the Court's 1973 Roe v. Wade decision. In 1992, that decision survived by a 5–4 vote, in Planned Parenthood v. Casey, which relied heavily on the doctrine of stare decisis. Dissenting in Casey, Rehnquist criticized the Court's "newly minted variation on stare decisis", and asserted his belief "that Roe was wrongly decided, and that it can and should be overruled consistently with our traditional approach to stare decisis in constitutional cases".
Rehnquist was not reluctant to apply stare decisis in the fashion he believed appropriate. For example, in Dickerson v. United States (2000), Rehnquist voted to reaffirm the Court's famous decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966) based not only on the notion of adhering to precedent but also on his belief that "the totality-of-the-circumstances test ... is more difficult than Miranda for law enforcement officers to conform to, and for courts to apply in a consistent manner". Shortly after Dickerson was decided, the Court dealt with another abortion case, this time dealing with partial birth abortion in Stenberg v. Carhart (2000). Again, a 5–4 decision, and again a dissent from Rehnquist urged that stare decisis should not be the sole consideration: "I did not join the joint opinion in Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey, 505 U. S. 833 (1992), and continue to believe that case is wrongly decided."
Gay rights
Among the many closely watched decisions during Chief Justice Rehnquist's tenure was Romer v. Evans (1996). Colorado had adopted an amendment to the state constitution ("Amendment 2") that the Court majority said would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to protect homosexual citizens from discrimination on the basis of their sexual orientation. Rehnquist joined the dissent, which argued that the Constitution of the United States says nothing about this subject, so "it is left to be resolved by normal democratic means". The dissent, written by Justice Scalia, argued as follows (some punctuation omitted):
General laws and policies that prohibit arbitrary discrimination would continue to prohibit discrimination on the basis of homosexual conduct as well. This ... lays to rest such horribles, raised in the course of oral argument, as the prospect that assaults upon homosexuals could not be prosecuted. The amendment prohibits special treatment of homosexuals, and nothing more. It would not affect, for example, a requirement of state law that pensions be paid to all retiring state employees with a certain length of service; homosexual employees, as well as others, would be entitled to that benefit.
The dissent mentioned the Court's then-existing precedent in Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), that "the Constitution does not prohibit what virtually all States had done from the founding of the Republic until very recent years—making homosexual conduct a crime". By analogy, the Romer dissent reasoned that:
If it is rational to criminalize the conduct, surely it is rational to deny special favor and protection to those with a self avowed tendency or desire to engage in the conduct.
The dissent listed murder, polygamy, and cruelty to animals as behaviors that the federal Constitution allows states to be very hostile toward, and in contrast the dissent stated: "the degree of hostility reflected by Amendment 2 is the smallest conceivable." The Romer dissent added:
I would not myself indulge in ... official praise for heterosexual monogamy, because I think it no business of the courts (as opposed to the political branches) to take sides in this culture war. But the Court today has done so, not only by inventing a novel and extravagant constitutional doctrine to take the victory away from traditional forces, but even by verbally disparaging as bigotry adherence to traditional attitudes.
With the case of Lawrence v. Texas in 2003, the Supreme Court under Rehnquist went on to overrule Bowers. Rehnquist again dissented along with Scalia and Clarence Thomas. The Court's result in Romer had described the struck-down statute as "a status-based enactment divorced from any factual context from which we could discern a relationship to legitimate state interests". The sentiment behind that statute had led to the court evaluating it with a "more searching" form of review. Similarly, in Lawrence, "moral disapproval" was found to be an unconstitutional basis for condemning a group of people. The Court protected homosexual behavior in the name of liberty and autonomy.
Rehnquist sometimes reached results favorable to homosexuals, for example voting to allow a gay CIA employee to sue for improper personnel practices, voting to allow same-sex sexual harassment claims to be adjudicated, and voting to allow the University of Wisconsin–Madison to require students to pay a mandatory fee that subsidized gay groups along with all other student organizations.
Civil Rights Act
Rehnquist voted with the majority in denying a private right to sue for discrimination based on race or national origin involving a disparate impact under title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, in Alexander v. Sandoval (2001), which involved the issue of whether a citizen could sue a state for not providing driver's license exams in languages other than English. Sandoval cited Cannon v. University of Chicago (1979) as a precedent. The Court voted 5–4 that various facts (regarding disparate impact) mentioned in a footnote of Cannon were not part of the holding of Cannon. The majority also viewed it as significant that §602 of Title VI did not repeat the rights-creating language (race, color, or national origin) in §601.
Religion clauses
In 1985, Rehnquist joined Lee v. Weisman's dissenting opinion that the Free Excercise Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution only forbids government from preferring one particular religion over another. Justice Souter wrote a dissent specifically addressed to Rehnquist on this issue in 1992.
Rehnquist also led the way in allowing greater state assistance to religious schools, writing for another 5-to-4 majority in Zelman v. Simmons-Harris. In Zelman, the Court approved a school voucher program that aided church schools along with other private schools.
In June 2005, Rehnquist wrote the plurality opinion upholding the constitutionality of a display of the Ten Commandments at the Texas state capitol in Austin. The case was Van Orden v. Perry. Rehnquist wrote:
Our cases, Janus like, point in two directions in applying the Establishment Clause. One face looks toward the strong role played by religion and religious traditions throughout our Nation's history.... The other face looks toward the principle that governmental intervention in religious matters can itself endanger religious freedom.
This decision was joined by Justices Scalia, Thomas, Breyer, and Kennedy.
First Amendment
University of Chicago Law School Professor Geoffrey Stone explains that Rehnquist was by an impressive margin the member of the Supreme Court least likely to invalidate a law as violating "the freedom of speech, or of the press". Justice Burger, who was Chief Justice when Rehnquist started as an Associate Justice, was 1.8 times more likely to vote in favor of the First Amendment; Scalia, 1.6 times; Thomas, 1.5 times. Excluding unanimous Court decisions, Rehnquist voted to reject First Amendment claims 92% of the time. In issues involving freedom of the press, Rehnquist rejected First Amendment claims 100% of the time. Stone says:
There were only three areas in which Rehnquist showed any interest in enforcing the constitutional guarantee of free expression: in cases involving advertising, religious expression, and campaign finance regulation.
Fourteenth Amendment
Rehnquist wrote a concurrence agreeing to strike down the male-only admissions policy of the Virginia Military Institute, as violative of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. However, he declined to join the majority opinion's basis for using the Fourteenth Amendment, writing:
This rationale supported facilities separated on the basis of gender:
It is not the 'exclusion of women' that violates the Equal Protection Clause, but the maintenance of an all-men school without providing any—much less a comparable—institution for women.... It would be a sufficient remedy, I think, if the two institutions offered the same quality of education and were of the same overall caliber.
Rehnquist remained skeptical about the Court's Equal Protection Clause jurisprudence; some of his opinions most favorable to equality resulted from statutory rather than constitutional interpretation. For example, in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986), Rehnquist established a hostile-environment sexual harassment cause of action under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, including protection against psychological aspects of harassment in the workplace.
Analysis of tenure as Chief Justice
||This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. (November 2009)|
Professor Charles Fried has described the Rehnquist Court's "project" as being "to reverse not the course of history but the course of constitutional doctrine's abdication to politics." According to legal reporter Jan Crawford Greenburg, the Rehnquist Court's conservatives failed to dig up the foundation cemented by the more left-leaning justices and lower courts. However, in 2005 law professor John Yoo wrote: "It is telling to see how many of Rehnquist's views, considered outside the mainstream at the time by professors and commentators, the court has now adopted." Greenburg says conservative critics noted that the Rehnquist court did little to overturn the left's successes in the lower courts, and in many cases actively furthered them. Rehnquist was unable to build consensus and forge coalitions on key cases, and in his later years often came to care more about case outcomes than legal reasoning, disappointing Justice Scalia. More often than not, on volatile social issues, the Court did not take the conservative path.
A 2012 biography by journalist John A. Jenkins concludes, based on an analysis of Rehnquist's papers, that "Rehnquist’s judicial philosophy was nihilistic at its core, disrespectful of precedent, and dismissive of ... institutions that did not comport with his black-and-white view of the world."
Personal health
After Rehnquist's death in 2005, the FBI honored a Freedom of Information Act request detailing the Bureau's background investigation prior to Rehnquist's nomination as Chief Justice. The files reveal that for a period, Rehnquist had been addicted to Placidyl, a drug widely prescribed for insomnia. Placidyl can be addictive and it was not until he was hospitalized that doctors learned of the depth of his dependency.
Rehnquist was prescribed Placidyl by Dr. Freeman Cary, a physician at the U.S. Capitol, for insomnia and back pain from 1972 through 1981 in doses exceeding the recommended limits. The FBI report concluded, however, that Rehnquist was already taking the drug as early as 1970. By the time he sought treatment, Rehnquist was taking three times the prescribed dose of the drug nightly. On December 27, 1981, Rehnquist entered George Washington University Hospital for treatment of back pain and dependency on Placidyl. There, he underwent a month-long detoxification process. While hospitalized, he had typical withdrawal symptoms, including hallucinations and paranoia. For example, "One doctor said Rehnquist thought he heard voices outside his hospital room plotting against him and had 'bizarre ideas and outrageous thoughts', including imagining 'a CIA plot against him' and seeming to see the design patterns on the hospital curtains change configuration."
For several weeks prior to hospitalization, Rehnquist had slurred his words, but there were no indications he was otherwise impaired. Law professor Michael Dorf has observed that "none of the Justices, law clerks or others who served with Rehnquist have so much as hinted that his Placidyl addiction affected his work, beyond its impact on his speech".
Declining health and death
On October 26, 2004, the Supreme Court press office announced that Rehnquist had recently been diagnosed with anaplastic thyroid cancer. In the summer of 2004, Rehnquist traveled to England to teach a constitutional law class at Tulane University Law School's program abroad. After several months out of the public eye, Rehnquist administered the oath of office to President George W. Bush at his second inauguration on January 20, 2005, despite doubts over whether his health would permit his participation. He arrived using a cane, walked very slowly, and left immediately after the oath itself was administered.
After missing 44 oral arguments before the Court in late 2004 and early 2005, Rehnquist appeared on the bench again on March 21, 2005. During his absence, however, he remained involved in the business of the Court, participating in many of the decisions and deliberations.
On July 1, 2005, Rehnquist's colleague Sandra Day O'Connor announced her impending retirement from her position of Associate Justice, after consulting with Rehnquist and learning that he intended to remain on the Court. Commenting on the frenzy of speculation over his retirement, Rehnquist joked with a reporter who asked if he would be retiring, "That's for me to know and you to find out."
Rehnquist died at his Arlington, Virginia, home on September 3, 2005, just four weeks before his 81st birthday. Rehnquist was the first member of the Supreme Court to die in office since Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1954, and the first Chief Justice to die in office since Fred M. Vinson, in 1953.
On September 6, 2005, eight of Rehnquist's former law clerks, including Judge John Roberts, his eventual successor, served as pallbearers as his casket was placed on the same catafalque that bore Abraham Lincoln's casket as he lay in state in 1865. Rehnquist's body remained in the Great Hall of the Supreme Court until his funeral on September 7, 2005, a Lutheran service conducted at the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington, D.C. Rehnquist was eulogized by President George W. Bush and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, as well as by members of his family. The Rehnquist funeral was the largest gathering of political dignitaries at the cathedral since the funeral of President John F. Kennedy in 1963. Rehnquist's funeral was followed by a private burial service, in which he was interred next to his wife, Nan, at Arlington National Cemetery.
Replacement as Chief Justice
Rehnquist's death, just over two months after O'Connor announced her impending retirement, left two vacancies to be filled by President George W. Bush. On September 5, 2005, Bush withdrew the nomination of Judge John Roberts of the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals to replace O'Connor as Associate Justice, and instead nominated him to replace Rehnquist as Chief Justice. Roberts was confirmed by the U.S. Senate and sworn in as the new Chief Justice on September 29, 2005. Roberts had clerked for Rehnquist in 1980–1981. O'Connor, who had made the effective date of her resignation the confirmation of her successor, continued to serve on the Supreme Court until the confirmation and swearing in of Samuel Alito in January 2006.
Eulogizing his predecessor in the Harvard Law Review, Roberts wrote that Rehnquist was "direct, straightforward, utterly without pretense – and a patriot who loved and served his country. He was completely unaffected in manner."
Family life
Rehnquist's paternal grandparents immigrated separately from Sweden in 1880. His grandfather Olof Andersson, who changed his surname from the patronymic Andersson to the family name Rehnquist, was born in the province of Värmland and his grandmother was born Adolfina Ternberg in Vreta Kloster (parish) in Östergötland. Rehnquist is one of two Chief Justices of Swedish descent, the other being Earl Warren, who had Norwegian-Swedish ancestry.
Rehnquist married Natalie "Nan" Cornell on August 29, 1953. She died on October 17, 1991, after suffering from ovarian cancer. The couple had three children: James, a lawyer and former college basketball star, Janet, a lawyer, and Nancy, who worked as an editor on many of her father's books. At the time of his death Rehnquist was survived by nine grandchildren, one of whom, Natalie Lynch, delivered one of the eulogies at his funeral.
- Rehnquist, William H. (2004). The Centennial Crisis: The Disputed Election of 1876. New York: Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 0-375-41387-1.
- Rehnquist, William H. (1998). All the Laws but One: Civil Liberties in Wartime. New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0-688-05142-1.
- Rehnquist, William H. (1992). Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson. New York: Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 0-679-44661-3.
- Rehnquist, William H. (1987). The Supreme Court: How It Was, How It Is. New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0-688-05714-4.
- Revised edition: Rehnquist, William H. (2001). The Supreme Court: A new edition of the Chief Justice's classic history. New York: Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 0-375-40943-2.
See also
- Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of United States Chief Justices by time in office
- List of U.S. Supreme Court Justices by time in office
- United States Supreme Court cases during the Burger Court
- United States Supreme Court cases during the Rehnquist Court
- Members of the Supreme Court of the United States. Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved April 11, 2010. "The date a Member of the Court took his/her Judicial oath (the Judiciary Act provided “That the Justices of the Supreme Court, and the district judges, before they proceed to execute the duties of their respective offices, shall take the following oath . . . ”) is here used as the date of the beginning of his/her service, for until that oath is taken he/she is not vested with the prerogatives of the office."
- ELCA News Service (September 6, 2005). "U.S. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, Prominent Lutheran, Dies". Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Retrieved 2013-02-14.
- Greenhouse, Linda. Becoming Justice Blackmun. 235–236. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2005.
- Roberts, Jr., John G. (October 24, 2006). "William H. Rehnquist: A Remembrance". Vermont Law Review. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
- Rosen, Jeffrey (2005). "Rehnquist the Great?". The Atlantic. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
- It means, in direct translation to English: reindeer twig.
- Lane, Charles. "Head of the Class: Fresh from service in World War II, William Rehnquist went west unsure of his future. What he found on the Farm changed his life, and the future of the country.", Stanford Magazine, July / August 2005. Accessed September 17, 2007. "So, for the brainy kid they had called "Bugs" back home at suburban Shorewood High School, just outside Milwaukee, weather was a key criterion in selecting a college."
- Christopher L. Tomlins (2005). The United States Supreme Court. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-32969-4. Retrieved October 21, 2008.
- Biskupic, Joan. Sandra Day O'Connor: How the First Woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice. New York: Harper Collins, 2005
- Debbie Kornmiller, "O'Connor's class rank an error that will not die", Arizona Daily Star (July 10, 2005).
- Biskupic, Joan. "Rehnquist left Supreme Court with conservative legacy". USA Today. September 4, 2005.
- William Rehnquist, "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases", S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29–31, and August 1, 1986).
- 1971 confirmation hearings.
- "132 Cong. Rec. 23548 (Speech of Senator Paul Sarbanes)". 1986.
- Justice William O. Douglas wrote: "In the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. Those four were Black, Burton, Minton, and myself." See Bernard Schwartz, Decision: How the Supreme Court Decides Cases, page 96 (Oxford 1996). Likewise, Justice Felix Frankfurter wrote: "I have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters—Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark." Ibid.
- Adam Liptak, "The Memo That Rehnquist Wrote and Had to Disown", NY Times (September 11, 2005)
- "Memos may not hold Roberts's opinions", The Boston Globe, Peter S. Canellos, August 23, 2005 Rehnquist said in 1986 about his conversations with other clerks about Plessy that he:
thought Plessy had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But Plessy had been on the books for 60 years. Congress had never acted, and the same Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools. I saw factors on both sides. I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now, with the statement that "Plessy against Ferguson is right and should be reaffirmed". I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that. Around the lunch table I am sure I defended it. I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it.
- Schwartz, Bernard (1988). "Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice Jackson, and the "Brown" Case". Supreme Court Review 1988 (1988): 245–267. ISSN 0081-9557. JSTOR 3109626.
- Kluger, Richard (1976). Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality. note 4. pp. 606 n.
- "Reagan's Mr. Right". TIME. June 30, 1986. Retrieved March 6, 2009.
- "Cases where Justice Rehnquist has cited Brown v. Board of Education in support of a proposition", S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986).
- Rosen, Jeffery (April 2005). "Rehnquist the Great?". Atlantic Monthly. ("Rehnquist ultimately embraced the Warren Court's Brown decision, and after he joined the Court he made no attempt to dismantle the civil-rights revolution, as political opponents feared he would").
- Terry v. Adams, 345 U.S. 461 (1953)
- Tinsley E. Yarbrough, The Rehnquist Court and the Constitution, pages 2–3 (2000).
- Rehnquist, William H. (2008-12-09). "Who Writes Decisions of the Supreme Court? - US News and World Report". Usnews.com. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
- Peppers, Todd C.; Zorn, Christopher (2008). "Law Clerk Influence on Supreme Court Decision Making: An Empirical Assessment". DePaul Law Review 58: 51. See also Liptak, Adam (December 8, 2008). "Influence on the Supreme Court Bench Could Be an Inside Job". New York Times.
- Gordon, David, Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus, Mises Review (Fall 2001)
- Dennis Roddy, "Just Our Bill", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (December 2, 2000).
- Amy Wilentz, "Through the Wringer", Time (August 11, 1986).
- "LII: US Supreme Court: Justice Rehnquist". Supct.law.cornell.edu. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Jeffrey Rosen (Published: November 4, 2001). "Renchburg's the One! – New York Times". Query.nytimes.com. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "TheHill.com – Was Rehnquist 'Deep Throat'?". Thehill.com. Retrieved September 19, 2008.[dead link]
- "SEC Info – Dean Witter Select Government Trust GNMA Portfolio Series 17 – 485BPOS – On 8/6/98". Secinfo.com. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Perlstein, Rick (2008), p. 605
- Hughes, Ken, "Nixon and the Supreme Court: The Appointment of William H. Rehnquist", Presidential Recordings Program, Miller Center of Public Affairs
- Bob Woodward & Scott Armstrong, The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. 1979. Simon and Schuster. Page 221.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 111.
- Bob Woodward & Scott Armstrong, The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. 1979. Simon and Schuster. Page 222.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 114.
- Chemerinsky, Erwin (March 11, 2005) Keynote Address: Rehnquist Court's Federalism Revolution, 41 Willamette Law Review 827
- Roh, Jane (June 14, 2005) Rehnquist's Legacy: A Balanced Court, Fox News
- Bob Woodward & Scott Armstrong, The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. 1979. Simon and Schuster. Page 411.
- Trimble v. Gordon, 430 U.S. 762 (1977)
- Bob Woodward & Scott Armstrong, The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. 1979. Simon and Schuster. Page 235.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 124.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 122.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 113.
- Von Drehle, David (July 19, 1993). "Redefining Fair With a Simple Careful Assault. Step-by-Step Strategy Produced Strides for Equal Protection". The Washington Post.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 115.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Page 116.
- Friedman, Leon. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volume V. Chelsea House Publishers. 1978. Pages 116–117.
- David Garrow, "The Rehnquist Reins", New York Times, October 6, 1996.
- Undated 2003–04 Charlie Rose Show interview with Rehnquist.
- Woodward & Armstrong, The Brethren 267 (2005) (1979 ed. at __).
- The Brethren, 2005 ed. at 498 (1979 ed. at ___).
- The Bretheren, 2005 ed. at 268, 499 (1979 ed. at 407–8, __)
- Leon Friedman, The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions (1978), page 121.
- The Brethren, 2005 ed. at 268 (1979 ed. at 222).
- See Jefferson v. Hackney, 406 U.S. 535, 554 (1972) (Douglas, J., dissenting).
- The Brethren, 2005 ed. at __ (1979 ed. at 222, 408.
- The Brethren, 2005 ed. at 499.
- The Brethren, 2005 ed. at __ (1979 ed. at 269).
- Eisler, Kim Isaac (1993). A Justice for All: William J. Brennan, Jr., and the decisions that transformed America. Page 272. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-76787-9
- Alan S. Oser, "Unenforceable Covenants are in Many Deeds", New York Times (August 1, 1986).
Mr. Rehnquist has said he was unaware of discriminatory restrictions on properties he bought in Arizona and Vermont, and officials in those states said today that he had never even been required to sign the deeds that contained the restrictions.... He told the committee he would act quickly to get rid of the covenants. The restriction on the Vermont property prohibits the lease or sale of the property to "members of the Hebrew race".... The discriminatory language appears on the first page of the single-spaced document in the middle of a long paragraph filled with unrelated language regarding sewers and the construction of a mailbox.
- "President Asserts He Will Withhold Rehnquist Memos", New York Times, August 1, 1986.
- Woodward, Bob; Armstrong, Scott (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. [page needed]. ISBN 0-671-24110-9.
- Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. New York: Anchor Books, 2007.
- Barrett, John Q. "A Rehnquist Ode on the Vinson Court", The Green Bag, Second Series, vol. 11, no. 3, p. 289, Spring 2008
- McElroy, Lisa Tucker. John G. Roberts, Jr. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co., 2007.
- "Rehnquist's Federalist Legacy". Cato.org. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court. 2007. Penguin Books. Page 29.
- Age Discrimination in Employment Law. Barbara Lindemann and David D. Kadue. Page 699. 2003, Washington DC.
- "Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey". Cornell Law School. June 29, 1992. Retrieved March 5, 2009.
- "Weaver v. Nebo School District". Acluutah.org. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "Lawrence V. Texas". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Webster v. Doe, 486 U.S. 592 (1988).
- Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 US 75 (1998).
- Board of Regents v. Southworth, 529 U.S. 217 (2000).
- Greenhouse, Linda (July 3, 1992). "Souter Anchoring the Court's New Center". New York Times. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
- "University of Chicago Law School > News 09.06.2005: Stone Says Rehnquist's Legacy Does not Measure Up". Law.uchicago.edu. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515 (1996)
- "United States v. Virginia - 518 U.S. 515 (1996) :: Justia US Supreme Court Center". Supreme.justia.com. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
- Charles Freid, Saying What the Law Is 46–7 (2004).
- Yoo, John (April 27, 2005). "He Advocated Limitations of Public Power". Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
- Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court. 2007. Penguin Books. Page 28.
- Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court. 2007. Penguin Books. Pages 27–28.
- American Bar Association, Law News Now, 2012 Sept. 27, "Biographer Doesn’t Pull Punches, Calls Rehnquist’s Judicial Philosophy ‘Nihilistic at its Core,'" http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/biographer_doesnt_pull_punches_calls_rehnquists_judicial_philosophy/?utm_source=maestro&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=weekly_email
- "Rehnquist FBI File Sheds New Light on Drug Dependence, Confirmation Battles". Tony Mauro. Legal Times. January 4, 2007. Accessed January 4, 2007.
- FBI releases Rehnquist drug problem records, Associated Press
- Cooperman, Alan (January 5, 2007). "Sedative Withdrawal Made Rehnquist Delusional in '81". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved March 15, 2008.
- Jack Shafer, "Rehnquist's Drug Habit", Slate, September 9, 2005.
- Michael C. Dorf, "The Big News in the Rehnquist FBI File: There Is None", Findlaw's Writ,_January_15,_2007.
- Nina Totenberg. "Ailing Rehnquist Administers Oath of Office : NPR". Npr.org. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "Online NewsHour: Rehnquist Returns to Bench as Supreme Court Reviews Restraining Order Case – March 21, 2005". Pbs.org. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "FOXNews.com – Chief Justice Rehnquist Returns to Court – U.S.& World". Fox News. March 21, 2005. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "D.C. Wonders When Rehnquist Will Go". FOXNews.com, July 10, 2005.
- Richard W. Stevenson And David Stout (September 6, 2005). "Roberts Hearing Set for Monday; Rehnquist's Coffin Lies in Court". The New York Times. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Lane, Charles (September 8, 2005). "Rehnquist Eulogies Look Beyond Bench". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 3, 2010.
- Weil, Martin; Jackman, Tom (September 5, 2005). "Funeral Set for Wednesday At St. Matthew's Cathedral". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "William H. Rehnquist, Sergeant. United States Army Air Corps – Chief Justice of the United States". Arlingtoncemetery.net. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Christensen, George A., Journal of Supreme Court History Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 – 41 (February 19, 2008), Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited, University of Alabama.
- Adam Liptak And Todd S. Purdum (Published: July 31, 2005). "As Clerk for Rehnquist, Nominee Stood Out for Conservative Rigor – New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Roberts, John G. (November 2005). "In Memoriam: William H. Rehnquist". Harvard Law Review 119 (1): 1. ISSN 0017-811X. Retrieved March 5, 2009.
- "Speech Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist – April 9, 2001". supremecourt.gov. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- "Natalie Cornell Rehnquist". Arlingtoncemetery.net. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
- Lane, Charles (September 6, 2005). "Emotion Overcomes Sober Court". Washington Post. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
- Totenberg, Nina (September 8, 2005). "Family, Peers Pay Respects to Rehnquist". National Public Radio. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
- Levine, Susan and Charles Lane (September 7, 2005). "For Chief Justice, A Final Session With His Court". Washington Post. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
- United Church of Christ
Further reading
- Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3.
- Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7.
- Frank, John P. (1995). In Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4.
- Hudson,, David L. (2006). The Rehnquist Court: Understanding Its Impact and Legacy. New York: raeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-98971-2.
- Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6.
- Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 0-87187-554-3.
- Obermayer, Herman (2009). Rehnquist: A Personal Portrait of the Distinguished Chief Justice of the United States. New York, NY.: Threshold Editions. ISBN 978-1-4391-4082-6.
- Perlstein, Rick (2009). Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-7432-4303-2.
- Schwartz, Herman (2003). The Rehnquist Court: Judicial Activism on the Right. New Hork: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-8074-5.
- Tushnet, Mark (2005). A Court Divided: The Rehnquist Court and the Future of Constitutional Law,. New York: W.W. Norton Co. ISBN 0-393-05868-9.
- Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1.
- Woodward, Robert; Armstrong, Scott (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-671-24110-9.
|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: William Rehnquist|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: William Rehnquist|
- Supreme Court official site with biographies
- Profile at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
- Legal resources at the Law Library of Congress
- Biography and writings at the Legal Information Institute
- Profile at the Oyez Project
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Appearances on Charlie Rose
- Profile at the Internet Movie Database
- Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Works by or about William Rehnquist in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Profile at Notable Names Database
- Booknotes interview with David Savage on Turning Right: The Making of the Rehnquist Supreme Court, June 28, 1992.
- Booknotes interview with Rehnquist on Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson, July 5, 1992.
- Profile at Answers.com
- "In Memoriam: William H. Rehnquist", 119 Harvard Law Review 2005 (tributes to Rehnquist)
- William Rehnquist at Find a Grave
- Original source William Rehnquist FBI file
- 1986 Senate confirmation hearing
- Supreme court official bio (PDF)
- Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions – The Washington Post
- The Legacy of William H. Rehnquist – Majority and Dissenting Opinions in Major Supreme Court Cases
John Marshall Harlan II
|Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
|Chief Justice of the United States | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40847000 |
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago
|Archdiocese of Chicago
|Territory||Counties of Cook and Lake|
|Ecclesiastical province||Archdiocese of Chicago|
|Area||1,411 sq mi (3,650 km2)|
|Established||November 28, 1843|
|Cathedral||Holy Name Cathedral|
|Patron saint||Holy Name of Lord Jesus Christ|
|Archbishop||Archbishop of Chicago|
|Auxiliary Bishop||Francis J. Kane, John R. Manz, Joseph N. Perry, George J. Rassas, Alberto Rojas, Andrew P. Wypych|
|Vicars General||Auxiliary Bishop Francis J. Kane (effective July 1, 2013); Rev. Msgr. John Canary (retiring)|
|Emeritus Bishops||Most Rev. Raymond E. Goedert, D.D., Most Rev. John R. Gorman, D.D., Most Rev. Thad J. Jakubowski, D.D., Most Rev. Timothy Joseph Lyne|
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago was established as a diocese in 1843 and as an archdiocese in 1880. It serves more than 2.3 million Catholics in Cook and Lake counties in Northeastern Illinois, a geographic area of 1411 square miles. The archdiocese is divided into six vicariates and 31 deaneries. This local church is shepherded by Francis Cardinal George, OMI, assisted by six Episcopal Vicars, each responsible for a vicariate (region).
Cardinal George is the first Chicago native to become Archbishop of Chicago. Installed in May 1997, he became the 13th Ordinary for Chicago since its establishment as a diocese. Cardinal George is a member of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate and is the sixth Cardinal to lead the Archdiocese of Chicago.
Diocesan history
Arrival of missionaries
French Jesuit missionary Rev. Jacques Marquette, SJ first explored the area that is now Chicago in the mid-17th century. On December 4, 1674, Father Marquette arrived at the mouth of the Chicago River where he built a cabin to recuperate from his travels. His cabin became the first European settlement in the area now known as Chicago. Marquette published his survey of the new territories, and soon, more French missionaries and settlers arrived.
First priest
In 1795, the Potawatomi tribe signed the Treaty of Greenville that ceded to the United States a tract of land at the mouth of the Chicago River. There in 1804, Fort Dearborn was erected and protected newly arrived Catholic pioneers. In 1822, Alexander Beaubien became the first person to be baptized in Chicago. In 1833, Jesuit missionaries wrote a letter to Most Rev. Joseph Rosati, Bishop of Saint Louis and Vicar General of Bardstown, pleading for the appointment of a resident pastor to serve over one hundred professing Roman Catholics living in Chicago. Rosati appointed a diocesan priest, Rev. John Mary Irenaeus Saint Cyr. Fr. Saint Cyr celebrated his first mass in a log cabin owned by the Beaubien family on Lake Street, near Market Street, in 1833.
First parish
At the cost of four hundred dollars, Father Saint Cyr purchased a plot of land on what is now the intersection of Lake and State Streets and constructed a church building of 25 by 35 feet (7.6 by 11 m). It was dedicated in October 1833. The following year, the Bishop of Vincennes visited Chicago, where he found over 400 Catholics with only one priest to serve them all. The bishop asked permission from Bishop Rosati to send Fathers Fischer, Shaefer, Saint Palais, Dupontavice, and Joliet from Vincennes to tend to the needs of the Chicago region. In 1837, Fr. Saint Cyr was allowed to retire and was replaced by Chicago's first English-speaking priest, Rev. James Timothy O'Meara. Father O'Meara moved the church built by Fr. Saint Cyr to what is now the intersection of Wabash Avenue and Madison Street. When Fr. O'Meara left Chicago, Saint Palais tore down the church and replaced it with a new brick structure.
Diocesan establishment
The First Plenary Council of Baltimore concluded that the Roman Catholic population of Chicago was growing exponentially and was in dire need of an episcopal see of its own. With the consent of Pope Gregory XVI, the Diocese of Chicago was canonically erected on November 28, 1843. In 1844, William Quarter of Ireland was appointed as the first Bishop of Chicago. Upon his arrival, Quarter summoned a synod of 32 Chicago priests to begin the organization of the diocese. One of Quarter's most important achievements was his successful petitioning for the passage of an Illinois state law in 1845 that declared the Bishop of Chicago an incorporated entity, a corporation sole, with power to hold real and other property in trust for religious purposes. This allowed the bishop to pursue mass construction of new churches, colleges and universities to serve the needs of Chicago's Roman Catholic faithful. After four years of service as Bishop of Chicago, Bishop Quarter died on April 10, 1848.
Fire of 1871
Archdiocese establishment
The southern section of the state of Illinois split from Chicago diocese in 1853, becoming the Diocese of Quincy. The Quincy diocese was renamed the Diocese of Alton in 1857, and eventually became Diocese of Springfield. The Diocese of Peoria was established in 1877 from another territorial split from the Chicago diocese.
From 1844 to 1879, the residential bishop of the Diocese of Chicago held the title Bishop of Chicago. With the elevation of the diocese to an archdiocese in 1880, the residential bishop held the title Archbishop of Chicago. Since 1915, all Archbishops of Chicago have been honored in consistory with the title of Cardinal Priest and membership in the College of Cardinals. The archbishops also have responsibilities in the dicasteries of the Roman Curia. All but two residential bishops were diocesan priests before assuming the episcopacy in Chicago. Two came from religious institutes: the Society of Jesus and the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate.
Our Lady of the Angels fire
The Our Lady of the Angels School Fire occurred at the Our Lady of Angels School on December 1, 1958 in the Humboldt Park area of western Chicago. The school, which was operated by the Archdiocese, lost 92 students and three nuns in five classrooms on the second floor.
Archbishop's Residence
The Archbishop's Residence at 1555 North State Parkway is the official home of the Archbishop of Chicago and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Built in 1885 by Most Rev. Patrick Feehan, first Archbishop of Chicago, the Archbishop's Residence is a three-story, red brick building and is one of the oldest structures in the Astor Street District, according to the Landmarks Preservation Council.
When Pope John Paul II visited Chicago in 1979, he became the first Pontiff to stay at the Residence. Two previous popes stayed at the Residence as cardinals: Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, who became Pope Pius XII; and Giovanni Cardinal Montini, who became Pope Paul VI.
Before the establishment of the Archbishop's Residence, the Bishops of Chicago were in residence at a home on LaSalle Street and North Avenue.
Diocesan bishops
- William J. Quarter (1844–1848)
- James Oliver Van de Velde, SJ (1848–1853)
- Anthony O'Regan (1854–1858)
- James Duggan (1859–1880)
- Patrick Augustine Feehan (1880–1902)
- James Edward Quigley (1903–1915)
- Cardinal George Mundelein (1915–1939)
- Cardinal Samuel Stritch (1939–1958)
- Cardinal Albert Gregory Meyer (1958–1965)
- Cardinal John Cody (1965–1982)
- Cardinal Joseph Bernardin (1982–1996)
- Cardinal Francis George, OMI (1997–present)
Coadjutor bishops (who did not become diocesan bishop)
Current Auxiliary Bishops
- See Auxiliary bishop
- John R. Manz (March 5, 1996 – present)
- Joseph N. Perry (June 29, 1998 – present)
- Francis J. Kane (March 19, 2003 – present)
- George J. Rassas (February 2, 2006 – present)
- Andrew Peter Wypych (August 10, 2011 – present)
- Alberto Rojas (August 10, 2011 – present)
Retired Auxiliary Bishops
Deceased Auxiliary Bishops
- Alfred Leo Abramowicz - January 27, 1919 – September 12, 1999
- Nevin William Hayes, O. Carm - February 17, 1922 – July 12, 1988
Bishops who once were priests of the Archdiocese of Chicago
The following men began their service as priests in Chicago before being appointed bishops elsewhere:
- Edward Braxton, Bishop of Belleville, Illinois
- Edward Egan, Archbishop Emeritus of New York
- Wilton D. Gregory, Archbishop of Atlanta
- James Patrick Keleher, Archbishop Emeritus of Kansas City in Kansas
- Gerald Frederick Kicanas, Bishop of Tucson
- Jerome Edward Listecki, Archbishop of Milwaukee
- Thomas J. Paprocki, Bishop of Springfield in Illinois
- Gustavo Garcia-Siller, M.Sp.S., Archbishop of San Antonio in Texas
- Edward James Slattery, Bishop of Tulsa
- John George Vlazny, Archbishop of Portland in Oregon
- Donald Martin Carroll, Roman Catholic priest, appointed bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rockford in 1956, but resigned before his consecration due to ill health
Structure of the Archdiocese
Francis Cardinal George, O.M.I., is the Archbishop of Chicago. The Archdiocese Pastoral Centers are Archbishop Quigley Center, 835 North Rush Street and Cardinal Meyer Center, 3525 South Lake Park Avenue, both in Chicago.
Administrative Council to the Archbishop
Rev. Msgr. John F. Canary, Vicar General
Rev. Peter Snieg, Moderator of the Curia
Mr. Jimmy M. Lago, Chancellor
Most Rev. Francis J. Kane, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicare, Vicariate II
Most Rev. John R. Manz, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicar, Vicariate IV
Most Rev. Joseph N. Perry, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicar, Vicariate VI
Most Rev. George J. Rassas, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicar, Vicariate I
Most Rev. Alberto Rojas, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicar, Vicariate III
Most Rev. Andrew P. Wypych, Auxiliary Bishop, Episcopal Vicar, Vicariate V
Rev. Thomas A. Baima, Vice Rector for Academic Affairs, University of St. Mary of the Lake / Mundelein Seminary
Rev. Msgr. Michael M. Boland, Director, Department of Human Services
Mr. Christopher J. Cannova, Department of Personnel Services
Mr. Raymond P. Coughlin, Director, Department of Human Services
Ms. Colleen H. Dolan, Director, Department of Communications and Public Relations
Rev. Msgr. Richard P. Hynes, Director, Department of Parish Life and Formation
Mr. Kevin J. Marzalik, Director, Department of Financial Services
Sr. Mary Paul McCaughey, O.P., Superintendent, Archdiocesan Board of Catholic Education
Departments, agencies and offices include:
Office of Catholic Schools
The Office of Catholic Schools operates, manages, and supports diocesan and Catholic primary and secondary schools. Catholic education in the Chicago area began on June 3, 1844 with the opening of a boys' school. Chicago parochial schools served various ethnic groups, including Irish, Germans, Poles, Czechs and Bohemians, French, Slovaks, Lithuanians, African Americans, Italians, and Mexicans. Many local nuns living in convents established and operated Catholic schools.
The school construction boom ended when Cardinal John Cody, the archbishop at the time, decided to limit construction of Catholic schools in Lake County and suburban areas in Cook County. Due to changes in demographics, the archdiocese has since closed more than half of its urban schools since 1966.
Between 1984 and 2004, the Office of Catholic Schools closed 148 schools and 10 school sites. An August 17, 2000 article by the Chicago Sun-Times refers to the Archdiocese of Chicago Office of Catholic Schools as the largest private school system in the United States.
- University of Saint Mary of the Lake (Mundelein Seminary) - major seminary
- St. Joseph College Seminary - undergraduate seminary program of the Archdiocese of Chicago (affiliated with Loyola University Chicago)
- Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary -high-school seminary (closed 2007)
Province of Chicago
See also
- Category:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago
- The Catholic New World, the official newspaper of the Archdiocese
- Our Lady of Perpetual Help (Glenview, Illinois), one of the largest parishes in the Archdiocese
- Polish Cathedral style churches of Chicago
- St. Anne Catholic Community, another of the largest parishes in the Archdiocese
- Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Chicago
- Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Chicago
- List of the Roman Catholic bishops of the United States
- List of the Roman Catholic cathedrals of the United States
- List of the Roman Catholic dioceses of the United States
- United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
- Shrine#United States (re Christ the King, Sovereign Priest, Shrine of; in Chicago, Illinois)
- "Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online". Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Archdiocese of Chicago". Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Father O'Meara biography". Archived from the original on March 10, 2007. Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago". Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Bishop William Quarter (1806-1848)". Archived from the original on January 5, 2006. Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Chicago Encyclopedia". Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago history". Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- "Departments and Agencies" (shtm). Retrieved April 29, 2006.
- http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/218.html School System
- http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20000817/ai_n13867054. Missing or empty
- Shrine of Christ the King Sovereign Priest
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago| | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40848000 |
A three-CCD camera is a camera whose imaging system uses three separate charge-coupled devices (CCDs), each one taking a separate measurement of the primary colors, red, green, or blue light. Light coming into the lens is split by a trichroic prism assembly, which directs the appropriate wavelength ranges of light to their respective CCDs. The system is employed by still cameras, telecine systems, professional video cameras and some prosumer video cameras.
Compared to cameras with only one CCD, three-CCD cameras generally provide superior image quality through enhanced resolution and lower noise. By taking separate readings of red, green, and blue values for each pixel, three-CCD cameras achieve much better precision than single-CCD cameras. By contrast, almost all single-CCD cameras use a Bayer filter, which allows them to detect only one-third of the color information for each pixel. The other two-thirds must be interpolated with a demosaicing algorithm to 'fill in the gaps', resulting in a much lower effective resolution.
The combination of the three sensors can be done in the following ways:
- Composite sampling, where the three sensors are perfectly aligned to avoid any color artifact when recombining the information from the three color planes
- Pixel shifting, where the three sensors are shifted by a fraction of a pixel. After recombining the information from the three sensors, higher spatial resolution can be achieved. Pixel shifting can be horizontal only to provide higher horizontal resolution in standard resolution camera, or horizontal and vertical to provide high resolution image using standard resolution imager for example. The alignment of the three sensors can be achieved by micro mechanical movements of the sensors relative to each other.
- Arbitrary alignment, where the random alignment errors due to the optics are comparable to or larger than the pixel size.
Three-CCD cameras are generally more expensive than single-CCD cameras because they require three times as many elements to form the image detector, and because they require a precision color-separation beam-splitter optical assembly.
Some design goals for a prism assembly are:
- That the light path lengths for the three colors are the same (with correction for the different index of refraction of the glass at different colors).
- That the separation works regardless of the polarization of the incoming light; this polarization is quite challenging in practice, and there are various strategies for dealing with the resulting polarization-dependent color separation.
- That the output images are oriented the same way around (in the case of CCD image sensors). In the prism assembly illustrated above, where the red light is the direct path, the blue path is reflected once and the resultant image is not laterally inverted, unlike the red and green. In cameras using vacuum tube video pickup devices this was solved by merely reversing the connections for the line scan coils; with CMOS imagers, the row or column address sequence is simply reversed. But with CCD sensors it is necessary to build a mirror image sensor for one channel. The Philips prism assembly (center right) has all three color channels laterally inverted and can thus use three similar CCDs.
The concept of cameras using three image pickups, one for each primary color, was first developed for color photography on three glass plates in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1960s through 1980s was the dominant method to record color images in television, as other possibilities to record more than one color on the video camera tube were difficult.
Three-CCD cameras are often referred to as "three-chip" cameras; this term is actually more descriptive and inclusive, since it includes cameras that use CMOS active pixel sensors instead of CCDs. Camcorders with three chips were called "3CCD" earlier and some are still called "3MOS" (derived from 3xCMOS, Panasonic) today.
Dielectric mirrors can be produced as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop filters. In the example shown, a red and a blue mirror reflect the respective bands back, somewhat off axis. The angles are kept as small as practical to minimize polarization-dependent color effects. To reduce unwanted reflections, air-glass interfaces are minimized; the image sensors may be attached to the exit faces with an index-matched optical epoxy, sometimes with an intervening color trim filter. The Philips type prism includes an air gap with total internal reflection in one light path, while the other prism shown above does not. A typical Bayer filter single-chip image sensor absorbs at least two-thirds of the visible light with its filters, while in a three-CCD sensor the filters absorb only stray light and invisible light, and possibly a little more for color tuning, so that the three-chip sensor has better low light capabilities.
See also
- Cliff Wootton (2005). A Practical Guide to Video and Audio Compression: From Sprockets and Rasters to Macroblocks. Elsevier. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-240-80630-3.
- "3 CCD with Pixel Shift Technology". GL2 Digital Camcorder.
- Diagram of the Philips prism and variations
- Prism-Based Color Separation for Professional Digital Photography | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40850000 |
Page:Popular Science Monthly Volume 23.djvu/236
By GORDON A. STEWART.
THE worst of our social evils, personal wrongs, and political sins arise from the ununiform operation of our marriage and divorce laws. The loose manner in which a contract of marriage may he entered into and the reckless facility with which a marriage contract may be dissolved are a disgrace to our high civilization and professed Christianity. However learned commentators and jurists may differ as to the correct definition of marriage, it is not only a partially executed agreement to marry, but is a contract continuous in its obligations governing the status of the parties, until it is dissolved by the death of one of the parties, or by one of them obtaining a divorce for some wrongful or invalidating act committed by the other.
In nearly all of the States marriage is recognized as a civil contract only, and has no ecclesiastical obligation so far as society and the State are concerned. The contracting parties are subjects of the law. The person performing the ceremony by which the contract is publicly acknowledged by the parties, whether he be magistrate, parson, or layman, becomes a civil officer by authority of the law for that occasion. Generally, however, the marriage contract is solemnized by a clergyman, agreeably to the rules and regulations of the religious denomination to which he belongs, and for which one or the other of the parties has a religious attachment or preference; or, because a religious solemnization in church gives a better opportunity to gratify the desire for social rivalry and display. But perhaps most persons, especially when young and looking forward to a long future of connubial happiness, consider the act of marriage more as a religious rite than a civil contract, and hence the forms and ceremonies of the Church accord more agreeably with the sentiment of love and affection than the business-like and informal words of the magistrate, who, in response to their acknowledgment of intention to marry, simply pronounces them man and wife. This sentiment, no doubt, is largely the result of a lingering belief in marriage as a divine institution and a sacrament of the Church, as taught when the ecclesiastical court had exclusive jurisdiction of marriage and divorce. It is perhaps not until later, not until they have become dissatisfied with the conditions of the solemn obligation they had agreed to faithfully perform through life, that they discover it is simply a civil contract that binds them, and from which the law has generously provided unlimited means of escape.
Lawful marriage is the basis of the family relation, and the family relation is the fundamental principle of association upon which the superstructure of society and the State is built. And yet there is no | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40853000 |
Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
double-dip (plural double-dips)
- (informal) An ice cream cone with two scoops of ice cream.
- We each got double-dips with chocolate on top and strawberry on the bottom.
- (roller coasters) A hill that levels off for a while about halfway down.
- (informal) To dip a piece of food (e.g. a chip) into a communal sauce container after already having taken a bite of the food.
- I don't mind double-dipping when eating with my family, but I'd be embarrassed to do it when out with friends.
- (informal) To be illegitimately compensated a second time for the same activity.
- He got caught double-dipping by billing the government directly as well as the primary contractor.
- 2006, Wulf Kansteiner, In pursuit of German memory: history, television, and politics after Auschwitz
- They worried about the possibility that some forced laborers, in particular Jewish survivors, might be double-dipping, that is, that they might be collecting compensation for their work as forced laborers while continuing to receive payments as Holocaust survivors and thus absorbing funds that should be directed toward other groups of victims...
- (informal) To draw a government pension or benefit for one job while also working in the government at another job or to draw two pensions at the same time as a result of reaching the retirement criteria twice for the same entity.
- (entertainment industry) To re-release a movie or TV series, sometimes as a compilation or with additional features.
- (US, finance) To use a single debt instrument to obtain interest tax expense (and therefore a lower tax base) in two or more tax jurisdictions. As long as the practice follows the tax law of each jurisdiction, the practice is legal and can be likened to the use of a tax loophole.
- (softball) To defeat a team twice in the finals.
- SPC Ladies double dipped the Sudbury Storm in the NSA Canadian World Series. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40854000 |
Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
From Middle English solein, from Anglo-Norman solein (“alone”), from sole (“single, sole, alone”), from Latin sōlus (“by oneself alone”). The change in meaning from "single" to morose occurred in Middle English.
having a brooding ill temper
sullen (plural sullens) | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40855000 |
Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway
The Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway (S&DJR) was an English railway company jointly owned by the Midland Railway and the London and South Western Railway. The railway linked Bath in north east Somerset to Bournemouth in south east Dorset. The railway had branch lines to Burnham-on-Sea, Wells and Bridgwater.
The Somerset and Dorset Railway was formed by the merger of the Dorset Central Railway and the Somerset Central Railway. The word 'Joint' was added to the company name, when the railway was let on a 999 year lease to the Midland Railway and the London and South Western Railway in 1875.
At first, the Midland maintained the engines and the LSWR the rolling stock, track and signalling. Eventually the rolling stock was divided between the two owners, leaving only the locomotives displaying the company name. On grouping in 1923 the Midland was absorbed into the London Midland and Scottish Railway, and the LSWR into the Southern Railway. The S&DJR continued as a separate concern until 1928 when the remaining engines were taken in to stock by the LMS. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40856000 |
A recent headline in the New York Times blared, "India Asks, Should Food Be a Right for the Poor?" [Jim Yardley, 9 August 2010]. Before examining Yardley's article, I'm going to answer the question about feeding the poor using information from Children's HealthWatch ["Why food matters," Washington Post, 12 December 2009].
"Studies show that growing up in a home without adequate food can damage children in many ways. Even if they are not hungry themselves, babies and toddlers in households with slight food shortages are more likely to be hospitalized, at risk for developmental delays and to be raised by mothers who are depressed. While not all children develop these problems, here are some of the other effects researchers have found can be associated with food shortages:
-- Slower brain and cognitive development by age 3.
-- Less ready for school by age 5.
-- Lower academic performance ages 6 to 17.
-- Slower physical, mental and social development through age 17.
-- Worse social skills and behavior, and greater chance of mental health problems, ages 6 to 17.
-- Children report themselves as less happy ages 6 to 17."
If those results don't convince you that feeding poor children is important, consider the broader effects on the family.
"Research shows that hunger and poor nutrition among children are rooted in a complex web of strains on poor families, not just a shortage of food. This is because parents must make hard trade-offs in how they spend scarce money, and groceries sometimes suffer when other bills mount. Here are some specific effects:
-- Children whose families are on waiting lists for government housing subsidies are eight times more likely to be underweight than those whose families already are getting housing assistance.
-- In poor families that do not get the government's main form of energy assistance, ... babies and toddlers are nearly one-quarter more likely than those who get the help to be underweight and one-third more likely to have been hospitalized."
Even people who are opposed to welfare programs in general understand that poverty can perpetuate and exacerbate future problems that inevitably become an economic drain on society. Addressing challenges like hunger can mitigate some long-term effects and are therefore cost-effective. Returning to Yardley's article, India does not dispute the importance of good nutrition for its poor; what they are questioning is how best to meet their needs. Yardley explains:
"For the governing Indian National Congress Party, which has staked its political fortunes on appealing to the poor, [the] persistent inability to make government work for [impoverished] people ... has set off an ideological debate over a question that once would have been unthinkable in India: Should the country begin to unshackle the poor from the inefficient, decades-old government food distribution system and try something radical, like simply giving out food coupons, or cash? The rethinking is being prodded by a potentially sweeping proposal that has divided the Congress Party. Its president, Sonia Gandhi, is pushing to create a constitutional right to food and expand the existing entitlement so that every Indian family would qualify for a monthly 77-pound bag of grain, sugar and kerosene. Such entitlements have helped the Congress Party win votes, especially in rural areas. To Ms. Gandhi and many left-leaning social allies, making a food a legal right would give people like Mr. Bhuria a tool to demand benefits that rightfully belong to them. Many economists and market advocates within the Congress Party agree that the poor need better tools to receive their benefits but believe existing delivering system needs to be dismantled, not expanded; they argue that handing out vouchers equivalent to the bag of grain would liberate the poor from an unwieldy government apparatus and let them buy what they please, where they please. 'The question is whether there is a role for the market in the delivery of social programs,' said Bharat Ramaswami, a rural economist at the Indian Statistical Institute. 'This is a big issue: Can you harness the market?' India’s ability, or inability, in coming decades to improve the lives of the poor will very likely determine if it becomes a global economic power, and a regional rival to China, or if it continues to be compared with Africa in poverty surveys."
Frankly, I side with those who are pushing to let markets help deliver social programs. Certainly there needs to be government oversight to help reduce corruption, but markets are generally much better at distribution than governments. One program that politicians in India might want to keep an eye on is being implemented in Kenya ["Exploring a market-based approach to malnutrition," by Sarah Murray, Financial Times, 27 January 2010]. Murray reports:
"Soon, low-income families in Kenya will be able to add to their diet a pre-cooked porridge product that is rich in proteins and vitamins and supplies the nine essential amino acids required by the human body. The porridge will not be delivered under the auspices of an aid agency or a government-funded programme. Most families will buy it as part of a revenue-based approach to attacking malnutrition. The market-based approach to malnutrition is something being explored by large companies such as Unilever, PepsiCo and Danone, as awareness grows of the need to address malnutrition – something that affects not only the poorest communities but also higher income populations – and the potential of doing so through for-profit products. However, some believe that there is a role for smaller entrepreneurs in coming up with hybrid models that can address what is often known as 'hidden hunger'. It is for this reason that Acumen Fund – a New York-based social venture fund that provides financing to enterprises using market-based approaches to addressing poverty – has invested in Insta Products, a Kenya-based private company that supplies organisations such as the World Food Programme and Unicef with emergency relief food. 'The majority of their revenue is going to come from the big aid contracts,' says Omer Imtiazuddin, health portfolio manager at Acumen Fund, which is working on these types of food products with the Geneva-based Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, a non-profit group that promotes public-private partnerships to fight malnutrition. 'But for Insta this could be a significant source of revenue.' The food product Insta is developing – known locally as uji – is particularly well suited to Kenyan tastes, as the porridge is eaten by 80 to 90 per cent of the local population across all age groups and income segments. ... Acumen Fund’s investment will, over the next six years, allow Insta to establish a local factory to produce and distribute up to 12,600 tonnes of the porridge a year. It will also help pay for product launches and marketing campaigns. The porridge will be priced so that it is affordable for low-income families, with 25 US cents buying a 100-gramme packet that provides a nutritional meal for four."
Returning to India, I agree with Yardley that India sits at crossroad. One path will take it into a much more prosperous future and the other will keep it mired in bureaucracy, red tape, and poverty. Agriculture will play a significant role in deciding which path India takes. Yardley continues:
"India vanquished food shortages during the 1960s with the Green Revolution, which introduced high-yield grains and fertilizers and expanded irrigation, and the country has had one of the world’s fastest-growing economies during the past decade. But its poverty and hunger indexes remain dismal, with roughly 42 percent of all Indian children under the age of 5 being underweight. The food system has existed for more than half a century and has become riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Studies show that 70 percent of a roughly $12 billion budget is wasted, stolen or absorbed by bureaucratic and transportation costs. Ms. Gandhi’s proposal, still far from becoming law, has been scaled back, for now, so that universal eligibility would initially be introduced only in the country’s 200 poorest districts, including here in Jhabua, at the western edge of the state of Madhya Pradesh."
Although Yardley claims that India "vanquished food shortages" with the "Green Revolution" begun in the 1960s and 1970s, some analysts are concerned that the revolution is over ["Green Revolution in India Wilts as Subsidies Backfire," by Geeta Anand, Wall Street Journal, 22 February 2010]. Anand reports:
"Government efforts to continue [the Green Revolution] miracle by encouraging farmers to use fertilizers have backfired, forcing the country to expand its reliance on imported food. India has been providing farmers with heavily subsidized fertilizer for more than three decades. The overuse of one type—urea—is so degrading the soil that yields on some crops are falling and import levels are rising. So are food prices, which jumped 19% last year. The country now produces less rice per hectare than its far poorer neighbors: Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Agriculture's decline is emerging as one of the hottest political issues in the world's biggest democracy. ... The setback of the Green Revolution matters enormously to India's future. The country of 1.2 billion has positioned itself as a driver of global growth and as a significant commercial power in coming decades. India likely will struggle to get there, and to return to the heady days of 9% economic growth, unless it figures out how to reinvigorate its agricultural sector, on which the majority of its citizens still rely for a living. ... India spends almost twice as much on food imports today as it did in 2002, according to the Ministry of Agriculture. Wheat imports hit 1.7 million tons in 2008, up from about 1,300 tons in 2002. Food prices rose 19% last year."
Keeping hungry populations fed is not just a challenge for India and African countries; hunger and food security are topics that will increasingly engage governments around the world ["Global hunger forces itself to the top of political agenda," by Javier Blas, Financial Times, 10 November 2009]. Blas reports:
"Hunger and food security used to be the staple talking points of agriculture and development officials. But the food crisis of 2007-08 ... elevated the issue to the highest level of government. 'Massive hunger poses a threat to the stability of governments, societies and borders,' [said] Hillary Clinton, US secretary of state. ... 'Food security is not just about food. But it is all about security – economic security, environmental security, even national security.' The move to involve the 'whole of the government', as officials describe it, signals how food security has become a global political preoccupation as the number of chronically hungry people tops 1bn and agricultural commodity prices soar. Policymakers are concerned that high food prices will steadily increase the number of those chronically hungry, triggering political instability in developing countries or forced migration towards rich nations. ... The emergence of food security as a key policy topic reverses almost 30 years of neglect, during which time the share of official development aid devoted to agriculture plunged; by 2006 it had sunk to 3.8 per cent, down from 17 per cent in 1980. ... Food accounts for 50-85 per cent of household spending in emerging markets, far higher than the 10 per cent seen in rich countries. ... The impact of higher prices is being compounded by the urbanisation of developing countries such as Pakistan and Ethiopia. City dwellers spend far more buying food than rural people. ... A straw poll among business executives, policymakers and agronomists at a recent conference held at the FAO found that 85 per cent feared further spikes in food commodities prices, and a third doubted the world could feed itself by 2050."
As recent events in Russia and Pakistan have demonstrated, climate change and natural disasters can result in unanticipated negative consequences. Although there is not a global shortage of wheat, for example, fires that devastated Russia's wheat crops resulted in increases in global wheat prices ["No Wheat Shortage, but Prices May Rise," by Graham Bowley and Andrew Martin, New York Times, 6 August 2010]. Although The Economist agrees that food security has risen to the top of the international agenda and that investment dollars have begun to flood the agricultural sector, it also believes that there are some worrying trends being seen that could undermine global agricultural trade ["If words were food, nobody would go hungry," 19 November 2009]. The magazine reports:
"Alongside the increases in investment and attention is something more insidious: a turn away from trade, markets and efficiency. Depending on how far this goes, the trend could undo much of the benefits of new investment. ... When Thailand and Vietnam, the world’s two largest rice exporters, banned exports, the Philippines, the world’s largest importer, concluded that the international grain trade could no longer be trusted to supply its needs. Fearing what might happen as a result of India’s poor harvest, ... the Philippines ... concluded contracts to buy 1.5m tonnes of rice—equivalent to 5% of the total annual trade in the grain. This is panic buying driven by mistrust. In turn, India is negotiating directly with Thailand and Vietnam for rice, which would further reduce the tradable supply of an already thinly traded commodity. The large 'land grabs' in Africa and Asia are also signs of distrust in world markets. Food importers which can afford it—like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, China, South Korea—have opted to grow food on land they own or control abroad rather than import it through international trade. ... Trust in world grain markets seems weak among industrial countries, too. Western countries share the blame for the failure to complete the Doha round of trade talks. They have done little to reduce subsidies to biofuels, which have taken large quantities of maize out of food markets and put it into petrol tanks. ... And just as distrust of world trade seems to be growing, so confidence in domestic markets seems to be falling. According to a review of national farm policies by the FAO, around two-thirds of developing countries have undertaken some sort of non-market-based measures to support farmers since 2007, including input subsidies and price interventions. ... Perhaps the most striking trend is the move from 'food security' towards 'food self-sufficiency' as a goal of national policy. The first means ensuring everyone has enough to eat; the second, growing it yourself. ... This shift towards self-sufficiency coincides with growing scepticism about world trade, examples of price controls and more extensive government involvement. The FAO has even suggested the shift may amount to “a change of paradigm” in farming. Such a shift could undermine the hopes raised by new investment because farmers would get bogus price signals, efficiency would be compromised and because, says IFAD’s head of operation, 'it’s harder to do good projects where the policy environment is poor.' Food policy has never been free. For the past 20 years, agriculture in developing countries has been dominated by a gradual decline in investment and a shift towards a somewhat more liberal policy environment. The first trend is now being reversed, for the better. The worry is that the second trend will be reversed, too—for the worse."
I agree with The Economist that policies that undermine global agricultural trade are not beneficial for the future. The world is going to have to pull together to meet the food needs of a growing worldwide population. Although I believe that regionalization of agricultural trade will probably be the dominant pattern in the future, global food transshipments are also going to be necessary. If predictions are correct that the population will peak around 2050, the world will need every able-bodied individual to keep the global economy growing beyond that time. We can't afford to devalue the world's most valuable resource -- its people -- by denying them sufficient nutrition. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40865000 |
Highlighting the history of French radio astronomy. 3: the Wurzburg antennas at Marcoussis, Meudon and Nancay
Orchiston, Wayne, Lequeux, James, Steinberg, Jean-Louis, and Delannoy, Jean (2007) Highlighting the history of French radio astronomy. 3: the Wurzburg antennas at Marcoussis, Meudon and Nancay. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 10 (3). pp. 221-245.
|PDF (Published Version) - Repository staff only - Requires a PDF viewer such as GSview, Xpdf or Adobe Acrobat Reader|
View at Publisher Website: http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/mathphys/as...
During the 1940s and 1950s ex-World War II 7.5m WOrzburg radar antennas played a crucial role in the early development of radio astronomy in a number of European nations. One of these was France, where three different antennas began to be used during the late 1940s. Two of these were associated with the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris, and were in itially sited at Marcoussis, near Paris, before being transferred to the Nan9ay field station in 1957. The third WOrzburg antenna was used by staff from the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, and was installed at Meudon Observatory on the outskirts of Paris. This paper describes the three antennas, lists the personnel involved. discusses the observations made, evaluates the significance of this research in a national and international context, and comments on their current whereabouts.
|Item Type:||Article (Refereed Research - C1)|
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage
|Keywords:||astronomical history; radio astronomy|
|FoR Codes:||02 PHYSICAL SCIENCES > 0299 Other Physical Sciences > 029999 Physical Sciences not elsewhere classified @ 100%|
|SEO Codes:||97 EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE > 970102 Expanding Knowledge in the Physical Sciences @ 100%|
|Deposited On:||07 May 2009 15:59|
|Last Modified:||10 Nov 2011 18:02|
Last 12 Months: 0
Repository Staff Only: item control page | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40866000 |
ESRL Science Making a Difference in Real-time GPS Positioning
Scientists at ESRL's Global Systems Division (GSD) are known for transferring their advances in science and technology to operations and have made exciting progress with a product called NOAATrop. NOAATrop was developed to improve GPS positioning, navigation and timing accuracy using real-time weather data. The California Spatial Reference Center (CSRC) at Scripps Institution of Oceanography recently started using NOAATrop for real-time engineering applications in southern California. "This is the first known operational application of a weather model being used to improve high accuracy GPS surveying," said Seth Gutman, NOAA scientist whose years of research at ESRL's Global Systems Division in Boulder have made this advancement possible.
Almost everyone has heard of GPS - the satellite Global Positioning System. GPS was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense to tell us basically three things - where we are, how to get where we want to be, and what time it is right now. This is commonly referred to as "PNT" which stands for positioning, navigation, and timing. GPS is a "dual-use" system in that it has both military and civilian applications. To facilitate the development of civilian applications, the U.S. Government makes the radio signals broadcast by the GPS satellites available to every user free of fees. As a result of this policy, a multi-billion dollar industry has developed to exploit the benefits of GPS for civilian applications. For example, a commercial GPS navigation system in your car tells you where you are on an electronic map that is constantly updated as you move. Computer software in the navigation system tells you the best route to take to get to your destination. Wireless communications between your navigation system and a traffic management system tell you the best route to take to avoid delays or hazards.
According to Gutman, "The largest source of PNT error comes from the slowing and bending of the GPS radio signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere" Scientists involved in using GPS for very high accuracy positioning applications, like the ones at NOAA's National Geodetic Survey, developed techniques to treat the atmosphere as a source of noise or measurement error and remove it to improve their GPS positioning accuracy. Gutman continued, "We realized that most of the "noise" actually comes from water vapor in the lower atmosphere, and that improved ways to monitor water vapor would lead to improved weather forecasts and climate monitoring." The operational use of this new and heretofore unavailable water vapor information by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (Figure 1) has resulted in substantial improvement in U.S. weather forecast accuracy in recent years.
It did not take long for ESRL scientists to realize that if they could use GPS data to improve weather forecasts, then improved weather model assimilating GPS observations could probably be used to estimate and correct for the atmospheric signal delays that are a major source of GPS PNT error. To verify this, they developed NOAATrop, a model that uses the ESRL Rapid Update Cycle (RUC) weather prediction model to calculate real-time atmospheric correctors for high accuracy GPS positioning applications.
Figure 2 is a map of the Continental U.S. highlighting three regions where the use of the NOAATrop model has been independently evaluated by three universities. The Table in this figure compares GPS positioning accuracy using the NOAATrop model with the accuracy achieved using a conventional correction method known as the Saastamoinen model. This model does not use information about the atmosphere per se, but uses information about how the atmosphere changes on average over North America. The smallest improvement in real-time positioning accuracy (about 9%) is seen in the Southeast U.S. where moisture variability is high and terrain relief is low. The largest improvement (about 25%) is seen in the Western U.S. (California) where moisture variability is low but terrain relief is high. In between is the Great Lakes Region (Michigan) where terrain and moisture variability vary widely. The improvement here is better than 16%.
The RUC forecast model is reinitialized every hour using the latest observations including approximately 300 GPS precipitable water vapor measurements made every half-hour over the United States. "RUC is the highest frequency NOAA weather model and particularly well suited for this unique real-time application," stated Gutman. Figure 3 illustrates how it works.
Initial tests in California using NOAATrop as part of the CSRC Height Modernization project were very positive, yielding 15-25% improvement in accuracy with the greatest improvement shown in height measurements made during rapidly changing weather conditions. "From CSRC's perspective, using NOAATrop increases the accuracy and productivity of field surveys for its user community," said Yehuda Bock, Director of CSRC. Based on their experience, the NOAATrop is currently being used in the Central Valley as a way to increase accuracy and productivity of their road and infrastructure surveys.
Gutman highlighted his lab's cooperation with several agencies on the NOAATrop project. One in particular, the Nationwide Differential GPS Service, has served as part of the nationwide backbone for high accuracy surveys like the ones in California. The exciting thing is that the new development of applications for NOAATrop extends beyond these surveys and leads to cooperation with a number of external partners. "The potential for this product doesn't stop here", said Gutman. National Resources Canada (NRCan) Canadian Geological Survey is working with the California Spatial Reference Center at Scripps on NOAATrop applications to
serve another valuable societal need. By using NOAATrop, scientists who study changes in the land surface due to earthquakes can continuously monitor the positions of GPS receivers in real time with unprecedented accuracy. This has potential application in tsunami warnings along the Pacific Coast on the US and Canada.
ESRL research efforts have helped attain milestones within the surveying community and the laboratories look forward to broader applications of this technology within and outside of NOAA in the future. They continue to support NOAA's mission goal to serve society's needs for weather and water information as well as the goal to support our nation's commerce with information for safe, efficient, and environmentally sound transportation. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40878000 |
This page is part of the EmailServer article.
Switch to Postfix
We need to switch from the
To switch, do the following:
# yum -t install postfix
# yum -t install system-switch-mail
The first 2
You will be presented with a choice on screen, go for
Let's first make a backup copy of these config files, just in case:
# cp master.cf master.cf.ORIGINAL
# cp main.cf main.cf.ORIGINAL
Now, edit the
myorigin = $mydomain
This says that mail sent from your server will take the form [email protected].
Note that by default, $myhostname and $mydomain are automatically derived from your machine's name. This name should be a Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDM) like mail.example.com.
mydestination = $myhostname localhost.$mydomain localhost $mydomain
Defines which domains you want to receive mail for. We should always allow the variations of localhost so the server can accept mail sent to itself, and $myhostname and $mydomain ensure that you will get mail sent to both mail.example.com and example.com.
mynetworks_style = subnet
Allows people on the local network to be able to use the server to relay their emails. People from outside the subnet (outside of the IP addresses defined by your network's netmask, such as 255.255.255.0) will not be able to use the server to send email. This is safe, you never want unknown people from the Internet to be able to relay their mail through your server: it would only take a few minutes for your machine to become a spam hub.
relay_domains = $mydestination
Authorises people from the outside to send email that is supposed to be for us.
notify_classes = resource, software
Defines what sort of information should be sent to the postmaster when there is a problem. There are more options to that, but using too many could flood your mailbox.
Confirms we're not using any external relays as we want the server to deliver our emails directly to other servers. If your ISP doesn't let you send emails by yourself (some block port 25), then you can put their own email server there [mail.isp.com] (including the brackets). Any mail you sent through your server will be given to your ISP's email server for delivery. Note that this is not very reliable as ISP have usually no guarantee that your email will be delivered to its destination: you're in effect sending your mail through a black hole.
proxy_interfaces = 22.214.171.124
Is only needed if your server is not directly connected to the Internet but is for instance behind a firewall that uses Port Forwarding to redirect traffic to it on a local subnet (for instance, your server address is 192.168.0.1 or another reserved LAN IP Class). In that case, you have to tell Postfix what is the outside address of the mail server (replace 126.96.36.199 by whatever is your real IP). Note though that if you don't have a fixed IP, this can be a bit annoying and you may be better off with connecting the server directly to the Internet and using iptables as a good internal firewall.
inet_interfaces = all
Makes Postfix listen to all interfaces for email.
message_size_limit = 20971520
Limits the size of emails. Here we set it to 20MB which should be more than enough for most systems. It's a good idea to set a limit. I've have users trying to send 150MB emails to people who only had a dial-up connection (since delivery to the server from the local network is fast, people tend not to notice much the size of the emails they send).
masquerade_domains = $mydomain
Ensures that mail from other hosts being sent through the server gets rewritten with our domain name correctly appended. this means that if [email protected] sends an email through the server, it will be rewritten as [email protected].
mail_name = MyOwnPostOffice
Optional and replaces the default name returned by Postfix. It's not a bad idea to replace the default string as it is par of the messages exchanged every time an email is being delivered. Potentially, it could allow someone to use that information to exploit a known security hole (the default string contains the full version number of Postfix).
home_mailbox = email/
If that directive is present, it will tell Postfix to deliver messages to the
Note: you do not need to create the directories: Postfix will do that for you if they don't exist.
As we've discussed before, ensuring that your server is locked down is vital if you don't want to become the next spam relay.
SASL is a way of authenticating users when they are trying to send mail. It uses a variety of methods and it's fairly flexible, at the expense of being simple.
To ensure proper SASL authentication, add the following to your
smtpd_sasl_auth_enable = yes
broken_sasl_auth_clients = yes
The first line enables authentication for email being sent through the server from the outside (allowing roaming users to send email from the Internet).
For security reasons, Postfix runs as an unprivileged user, meaning that it doesn't have access to your password files.
Fortunately, this is already installed on Fedora and probably on most distributions as well. Just to be sure, do the following from the prompt:
# yum -t install cyrus-sasl
The only configuration that tells
mech_list: plain login
Note: on other Linux systems, this file may be missing or may be located under
Make sure you restart the
The minimum alias that must be set-up is for the postmaster who will receive errors and warnings issued by Postfix:
The administrator user must have been created and you should probably the one using that account regularly to check for issues.
Note: after every modification of the alias file, you must run
To add more aliases, just add them to
Don't forget to run
Aliases are ok, but not very powerful, especially if you're hosting multiple domains and want a mail sent to [email protected] be redirected to john while a mail to [email protected] should go to suzan.
In that case, edit the
Here, anything sent to any variation of Susan's email address will be redirected to Susan's account, regardless of the domain they were sent to: [email protected] and [email protected] will be dropped into Susan's mailbox.
For email sent to sales, Suzan will be the recipient for example.com and John for myhome.com.
Any other email sent to invalid addresses (one that does not have a defined account, alias or virtual entry defined on the system) at example.com will be sent to John. This is a catch-all definition, but it is generally preferable to use a separate account for it as it will receive all spam sent to the servers to accounts that do not exist. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40879000 |
Editor's note: African Voices is a weekly show that highlights Africa's most engaging personalities, exploring the lives and passions of people who rarely open themselves up to the camera.
(CNN) -- Inside the Gahaya Links workshop on the outskirts of Kigali, Rwanda's capital, a group of women sit side by side against a brightly-painted wall. Using natural fibers and grasses, they pool their weaving skills to create exquisite hand-made baskets, inspired by the eastern African country's art and tradition.
Seeing these women talking, laughing and working together, it's hard to imagine that many of them were once enemies, belonging to warring tribes during the 1994 Rwanda genocide.
"[It's] really amazing to see how a small piece of work, how culture can restore values in people, how healing comes through a small basket," says Janet Nkubana, co-founder of Gahaya Links, the company that has made Rwanda's hand-woven baskets internationally famous.
"And then people open up, forgive one another and get back together. They say hello, they interact, they visit, they share what they used to share before," adds Nkubana, a master weaver herself.
Women in Rwanda have been handcrafting baskets for centuries, using them as containers to carry food and transport goods or as decorations during weddings and baby christenings.
Today, Gahaya Links' baskets have been coined "peace baskets," an embodiment of reconciliation and healing in a country torn by conflict.
"If you just meet someone on the streets and go - you don't really heal from what you went through," says one of the women at the workshop. "But through this kind of association where we meet everyday, spending all day together, it makes you understand one another and forgive one another."
An estimated 800,000 Tutsis and politically-moderate Hutus were murdered in just 100 days during the Rwanda genocide nearly two decades ago. After the violence ended, many Rwandan women whose husbands, fathers and sons were killed found themselves thrust into the unfamiliar role of being sole breadwinners for their families.
At the same time, Rwandans who had fled the genocide and earlier internal conflicts started returning in droves from neighboring countries.
One of them was Nkubana -- decades ago, she had fled to Uganda where she grew up in a refugee camp.
Upon her return to the country, Nkubana opened a hotel with her elder sister in Kigali. Many traumatized women and children would often come to the hotel to beg for food.
"One thing that struck me one day was [that] after you give somebody food, they would be scared to come back," remembers Nkubana. "A lady walked in with a basket and said, 'can you take this basket and give me something to eat.'"
That prompted Nkubana to start encouraging the distressed women to bring their woven baskets to the hotel so they could sell them to the hotel guests.
"We started organizing women and we started trying to make the baskets so fine so that they suit in the market," says Nkubana. "And in that sense, they restored their dignity."
Nkubana's efforts to empower the underprivileged women of Rwanda cultivated to the creation of Gahaya Links -- the company started operations in 2004 with only 27 women. Today, it has over 4,500 artisans in more than 40 cooperatives across the country.
Through Gahaya Links, Nkubana has taken the traditional basket from Rwanda to the shelves of high-end U.S. stores. Under the "Africa Growth and Opportunity Act," which allows Nkubana's products duty-free entrance into the U.S. market, Gahaya Links sells its handicrafts in American department stores such as Macy's, Kate Spade, Anthropologie and Same Sky.
The company has helped to break the cycle of poverty for thousands of rural families, by turning a traditional handicraft into a profit-making venture.
"Once you earn an income," says Nkubana, "you are economically empowered. You are given a voice, you can argue your values, you can argue your point, you can argue your rights."
See also: Teaching 'reconciliation over revenge'
At the same time, it has helped to improve the quality of life in the homes of the women
"Where we have married couples, men are embracing it with dignity and appreciation that my wife is really working hard," says Nkubana.
"When you look at what women are doing, it is like what men used to do. Because now they earn an income, they provide for homes...It also reduces what we call the domestic violence.
"It is a pride for her and she feels respected, she feels dignified and then they feel that it has restored their value as mothers in the house." | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40885000 |
Pashtunwal - the Code of the Pashtuns
In the Pashto language, "-wal" is a suffix that most strongly resembles "-ness" in English. Pashtunwal, sometimes jokingly translated as "Pashtunity", is the traditional code of ethics and behavior for ethnic Pashtuns.
The Pashtuns have a dubious and likely impenetrable ancient history. Oral tradition post-Islam is that the Pashtuns are a lost tribe of Israel, and will compose the most important part of the Mahdi army during the end times. Interestingly enough, there are a few shreds of genetic evidence to support the claim, but nothing conclusive. Scattered accounts of various tribes of the region in the histories of Herodotus and his predecessors seem to indicate that the ancestors of today's Pashtuns have existed largely unchanged for thousands and thousands of years.
It should be no surprise then, that an extremely tribal society based on the ideal of the warrior-poet should not fail to produce a fairly consistent and rigid code of behavior, even without the advantage of a written language. Pashtunwal, sometimes called a code of honor, is passed down not just as a set of stories, but as the fabric of Pashtun society.
There are several general principles that show up with consistent emphasis. They are, in English alphabetical order: Aitbar; Badal; Jirga; Melmastia; Nanawatey; Namus; Nang; Saz; and Tor.
There are of course many, many more parts and sub-parts, some of which will be detailed along with the major points.
, or "to trust", is an acknowledgement and systemization of the reality of conducting contractual business without a written language. The customs of Aitbar
include the public swearing of oaths, and conducting contractual business like the sale of land with respected witnesses
, usually tribal elders and members of family.
translates variously to "exchange", "reciprocation", and "retribution", depending on the context. It is chiefly the latter with which the idea of Badal
in the context of Pashtunwal is concerned. In fact, Badal
is often translated as "vengeance". Badal
takes many forms, practically speaking, but is generally seen in the form of long-held grudges and feuds.
There is a very strong tradition of retribution in kind, particularly for injuries or murders, and the problem can very quickly escalate without intervention, usually in the form of formalized apologies and blood money. In fact, large parts of Pashtunwal deal specifically with mitigation of, and satisfaction of, Badal.
Many famous and longstanding blood feuds started in distant memory over things as simple as an offhand remark. The remark demanded a similar slander, which was in turn taken as an offense, which demanded Badal of its own, tempers flared, and two hundred years later, there are two villages that periodically shoot each other up as soon as they've stockpiled enough bullets to do so. It's enough to make the Hatfields and McCoys scratch their heads.
Jirga is a meeting of elders for the purpose of making decisions. This tradition is in fact codified in current Afghan law, and has roots going back beyond recorded history.
Most people don't realize it, but Pashtuns have been using representative democracy for a few thousand years.
A Jirga can be held on as small a scale as a single village, and on as large a scale as a Loya Jirga, a gathering of representatives from every nook and cranny of the Pashtun tribes. Jirgas are composed of spingheri, or "white beards", a respectful term for an elder or village headman. A Jirga will hear disputes, make laws (known as Badnarr, or prohibitions, and Tarr, or accords), and generally function as both a legislative and judicial system.
They resolve everything from land disputes to blood feuds, and very often mediate. As noted under Badal, one of the more important functions of the Jirga is known as Teega, or "stone", which refers to the symbolic placing of a stone in a public place as an ad-hoc monument to a temporary truce in bloodshed. The tradition carries with it a story regarding the mythical "first Jirga", where a stone was placed to end a legendary feud with the words "Until I move this stone, no more blood may be shed." Teega is usually placed only in the direst of circumstances, and after deliberation both within the Jirga and with both parties.
The primary reason for the placing of a Teega is to allow a cooling-off period for both parties, so that negotiations and Tarr can be done with a clearer head. It is also important to note that "temporary" can be a very flexible amount of time; there are accounts of Teega still physically in place in villages that have outlived the original dispute by generations, but are still considered inviolate.
Violation of Teega carries severe penalties; not only would any right to Badal or other resulting grievances be forfeit, but the offenders would also be subject to the primary punitive tool of a Jirga, a Nagha, or fine. A Nagha is any forfeiture ordered by the Jirga, usually as restitution to the wronged party.
Should the hypothetical offender refuse to obey a Badnarr or Tarr, violate Teega, or refuse a Nagha, among other infractions, the Jirga can resort to its most potent powers, the raising of Lashkar. A Lashkar is basically a posse, empowered and drafted by the authority of the Jirga and commanded to fulfill specific purposes, such as seizing property, killing an outlaw, escorting a protected party, and in some cases, making war.
Melmastia, or "hospitality", is probably the most famous component of Pashtunwal. Made famous by the factual account "Lone Survivor", by US Navy Seal Marcus Luttrell, Pashtun hospitality is one of the most interesting parts of Pashtunwal and frequently makes foreigners wonder how it could possibly work.
Aside from the absolute imperative to be as generous a host as is physically possible, certain facets of Melmastia extend to obligations not typically encountered in any other culture, such as the sheltering of even your worst enemies and the obligation to die in their defense.
Essentially, upholding Melmastia requires that one shelter and aid anybody who asks for assistance, with no exceptions and no reluctance. It was illustrated to me this way: If President Bush (this was when he was still in office) knocked on Mullah Omar's door and asked for shelter, Mullah Omar would have to take him in, feed him, put him in the best bed in the house, and do so indefinitely, even to the extent that Mullah Omar would be required to take up arms in his guest's defense against any comer.
The host does, however, have recourse. If the host feels that Melmastia is being abused in any way, he can petition the Jirga, who may elect to relocate the guest, order the guest to leave, or even punish the guest. Petitioning a Jirga is not something you would do to, say, boot out a freeloading inlaw, but it definitely keeps the more serious possibilities from ever happening.
Notably, the requirement even extends to fugitives from the law. Even if the host knows that the fugitive is fleeing justice, he will still offer full Melmastia until the situation is clarified by a Jirga or one of its representatives.
A humorous story regarding Melmastia: Mullah Nasruddin (a common butt of jokes in Pashtun culture - typically very dimwitted or ignorant) goes for a visit at his cousin's house. His cousin prepares a huge feast, and everybody is happy. The second night, another huge feast. The third night, another huge feast. The fourth night, his cousin serves a side of dal (a bland mush of lentils, typically seen as the food of the abjectly poor and not well liked) with the lamb. The fifth night, his cousin serves only dal. The sixth night, cold dal. Mullah Nasruddin, on the seventh night, seeing dal again on the table, says "What's wrong with this place? All the time, it's dal, dal, dal!"
The joke here is that Mullah Nasruddin is too thick to see the polite, unspoken, but increasingly pointed suggestion that he has overstayed his welcome. A Pashtun would never directly ask a guest to leave, though it would be very clear to the guest if they had overstayed their welcome with signals even more discrete than a side of dal. The other part of the joke is that Mullah Nasruddin is so abrasive that his cousin was only willing to have him for three days; visits of friends and even acquaintances commonly extend for weeks at a time, though may only happen once a year or even less frequently, due to logistics.
Very closely related to Melmastia is the concept of Nanawatey, or "going in". Nanawatey takes different forms in different places, but it is the ritual asking of pardon for grievances. There are several common rituals, some of which are directly dependent on Melmastia.
A person (let us call him the 'trespasser') may wish to end a feud or clear the air with an enemy or rival (the 'wronged'), and will present himself as a guest at the wronged person's home, staying under Melmastia until his host relents and pardons him. This happens even in extreme cases, such as a blood feud or similarly "capital offenses". Bear in mind that the wronged will have a strong case to make with the Jirga to have the guest evicted, depending on the severity of the grievance.
The trespasser may also rush to a funeral for the relatives of the wronged and beg to be a pallbearer, or as a last ditch effort, may publicly throw himself on the mercy of the wronged. One utterly outdated, but interesting form of this public obeisance is that the trespasser will appear in public with a lead around his neck and a piece of grass in his mouth, and press the lead into the hand of the wronged - a potent symbol, essentially saying "I am like livestock to you, below even a servant".
Another regional ritual for Nanawatey is for the women of the trespasser's household to approach the home of the wronged literally under cover of a Quran, and ask in the name of the holy book to have the grievances aired. The women of the two households will typically negotiate amongst themselves either as a form of initial contact, an icebreaker if you will, or sometimes even to the extent of forming a Tarr between the families to end the hostilities.
It is unthinkable to deny a woman's request under such circumstances to be at least heard, even if it is not entertained; to slight her honor, or even worse, to physically harm her, would be a violation of Namus, or the integrity of the honor of Pashtun women. A dispute involving violations of Namus is never settled by anything less than letting Badal run its full course, or through Tor.
A Jirga is not typically involved in Nanawatey, but it can be. For instance, in the case of extremely grave trespasses, or a particularly hostile wronged party, the trespasser may ask a Jirga to arrange a meeting for Nanawatey, though the inverse is never the case - the wronged party would never directly ask, or petition a Jirga, to arrange Nanawatey.
As previously mentioned, Namus is the integrity of the honor of one's female relations. Both men and women "have" Namus. Families also have Namus, and one's Namus can be damaged either by the trespass of another, or one's own transgressions.
The concept of Namus is pre-Islamic, and has a widely varying set of interpretations throughout the whole Mid-East and Southwest Asia. Under Pashtunwal, violations of Namus are some of the most grave offenses, as they are not eligible for reconciliation by Nanawatey or by direct intervention by a Jirga, and unless resolved separately (see "Tor" below), must be avenged by unrelenting Badal.
The simplest translation for Nang is "honor". Nang is something like "face" in Eastern cultures, something like the Western notion of workmanlike pride, and something like the idea of chivalrous honor. It is all of this, more or less - and then some.
Nang is at the root of all of Pashtunwal. It is the principle that a Pashtun should always strive to do right, speak right, and think right; to uphold the Nang of oneself and ones' kin, to obey the law, and to be righteous in all dealings, even and perhaps especially in Badal. If there was such a thing as an untranslatable word, Nang would be it. However, it's not untranslatable, it just requires quite a bit of illustration and explication.
One's Nang would be preserved by killing a rival's son in retaliation for the death of one's own son even if it meant escalating an exchange of Badal. One's Nang would be utterly destroyed by killing, accidentally, in the course of Badal, or otherwise, a rival's daughter.
One's Nang would be preserved by the ritual murder or forced suicide of one's own daughter who sullies her own Namus by sneaking off with a boy. One's Nang would be tarnished perhaps beyond repair by covering the incident up and trying to backdate a marriage proposal with the boy's family.
In the incident above, the boy's own Nang would be severely damaged, and in fact, his life is probably forfeit to preserve the Nang and Namus of his family and avoid Badal. (for this particular instance, see "Tor" below)
One's Nang would be strengthened by accepting the Nanawatey and blood money from the person who accidentally killed your brother. One's Nang would be restored for offering Nanawatey and paying the blood price for accidentally killing someone's brother.
One's Nang would be ruined for not carrying out Badal, or, on the flipside, for letting Badal drag on to the detriment of the family or tribe when one is originally at fault.
Also known as "swarah", Saz is compensation for murder, often known in English as blood money. It is sometimes money or other tangibles, but also often takes the form of intermarriage; one who is penitent for murder, or wishes to go beyond Nanawatey will approach the Jirga and make the offer to pay Saz. This is sometimes a direct offer, and sometimes the result of the Jirga's mediation, and will be very much driven by individual circumstance and standards.
The acceptance of Saz by the wronged party carries with it complete forgiveness and in the case of intermarriage, usually very close future ties between the families in question. Intermarriage for grievances is usually a very complex social and political game; the severity of the grievance, the social standing of both families, the available matches, and more will all go into determining the match. In some instances, the marriage of one's best daughter to the other's finest son is just barely sufficient; in other cases, having one's least desirable daughter marry off to the wronged party's distant cousin is enough.
Tor literally translates as "black", but is used in the Pashto language to mean many things, including blame, accusation, wrongdoing, guilt, and shame. As a concept relating to Pashtunwal, Tor is the absolute and inflexible treatment of violations of Namus.
Given that description, in a typically contradictory and paradoxical fashion, Tor is situation-dependent. For example, If a couple elopes without permission, but are officially married (usually by a sympathetic or unwitting outside mullah) they may only face essential exile from their entire extended families, with the families both suffering a good deal of embarrassment.
However, in the case of adultery or premarital relations of any sort, even between a couple who is formally betrothed, the punishment is almost always death for both, to cleanse the Namus of both families and avoid Badal.
In the case of rape, the woman is traditionally not held responsible, though there is usually unfortunately a social stigma. Instead, the rapist is handed over, usually by his own family, to the woman's family.
The woman's family has, essentially, two options: They can kill him, or hand him over to the Jirga, who will almost always sentence him to death in any case. If he is handed over to the Jirga, his family avoids Badal by disowning the son prior to his execution. If the woman's family kills him, the family is effectively exiled from the community.
In the event that the rapist's family refuses to hand him over, or he flees justice, the woman's family has the right to kill the rapist's brother or father, and in some cases the entire male line. Even if the rapist's brother or father are killed in his place, his life is still considered forfeit and it is not uncommon for the male relatives of the woman to hunt him down later.
One saying regarding tor is "یوازی مړ تور اوسپین بدل کیږی" - "Only death changes Tor to Spin (white)."
The pitfalls of writing oral tradition
This is all pretty well according to oral tradition, which is subject to variations in emphasis and application based on region. Sometimes the "region" in question is as small as a cluster of buildings that barely qualifies as a village; sometimes, it's a diaspora community relying on retellings of stories about the olden days; sometimes, it's a variation in both space and time.
A quick Internet perusal of information regarding "Pashtunwal" will turn up different names for the same concepts, different levels of regard, different customs, and different organizations and sub-headings. Some people consider Namus to be the feminine version of Nang. Some people put Pashtun wedding traditions under the heading of Bota (ransoming, something I didn't cover here) and consider them to be integral to Pashtunwal. Just like fairytales, everybody has their own version, but it's easy to trace the consistencies.
Don't expect this to get you integrated into a village somewhere in the Hindu Kush, but also consider it a good baseline, and food for thought the next time you run into mentions of tribal politics, power brokers, and infighting in the Pashtun regions of Afghanistan.
Many thanks to clockmaker for help with organization, clarity, trimming, and proofreading! | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40887000 |
XIX. THE BITE OF THE ADDER
by Friedrich Nietzsche
One day had Zarathustra fallen asleep under a fig-tree, owing to the heat,
with his arms over his face. And there came an adder and bit him in the
neck, so that Zarathustra screamed with pain. When he had taken his arm
from his face he looked at the serpent; and then did it recognise the eyes
of Zarathustra, wriggled awkwardly, and tried to get away. Not at all,
said Zarathustra, as yet hast thou not received my thanks! Thou hast
awakened me in time; my journey is yet long. Thy journey is short, said
the adder sadly; my poison is fatal. Zarathustra smiled. When did ever
a dragon die of a serpent's poison?--said he. But take thy poison back!
Thou art not rich enough to present it to me. Then fell the adder again
on his neck, and licked his wound.
When Zarathustra once told this to his disciples they asked him: And
what, O Zarathustra, is the moral of thy story? And Zarathustra answered
The destroyer of morality, the good and just call me: my story is
When, however, ye have an enemy, then return him not good for evil:
that would abash him. But prove that he hath done something good to you.
And rather be angry than abash any one! And when ye are cursed, it
pleaseth me not that ye should then desire to bless. Rather curse a little
And should a great injustice befall you, then do quickly five small ones
besides. Hideous to behold is he on whom injustice presseth alone.
Did ye ever know this? Shared injustice is half justice. And he who can
bear it, shall take the injustice upon himself!
A small revenge is humaner than no revenge at all. And if the
be not also a right and an honour to the transgressor, I do not like your
Nobler is it to own oneself in the wrong than to establish one's right,
especially if one be in the right. Only, one must be rich enough to do so.
I do not like your cold justice; out of the eye of your judges there always
glanceth the executioner and his cold steel.
Tell me: where find we justice, which is love with seeing eyes?
Devise me, then, the love which not only beareth all punishment, but also
Devise me, then, the justice which acquitteth every one except the judge!
And would ye hear this likewise? To him who seeketh to be just from
heart, even the lie becometh philanthropy.
But how could I be just from the heart! How can I give every one his
Let this be enough for me: I give unto every one mine own.
Finally, my brethren, guard against doing wrong to any anchorite. How
could an anchorite forget! How could he requite!
Like a deep well is an anchorite. Easy is it to throw in a stone: if it
should sink to the bottom, however, tell me, who will bring it out again?
Guard against injuring the anchorite! If ye have done so, however, well
then, kill him also!--
Thus spake Zarathustra.
the first thought of Zarathustra | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40888000 |
Can mono be cured?
No, there isn't a cure for mono. But the virus will go away on its own. Symptoms usually last about 4 weeks.
How is mono treated?
The main goal of treatment is to relieve your symptoms. The following list includes tips on treatment:
- Rest. Sleep helps your body fight infection.
- Drink plenty of fluids. They help prevent dehydration.
- If you have a sore throat, gargle with salt water or suck on throat lozenges, hard candy or flavored frozen desserts (such as Popsicles).
- You may want to take acetaminophen (one brand name: Tylenol) or ibuprofen (some brand names: Advil, Motrin, Nuprin) to relieve pain and fever. Do not give aspirin to children. Aspirin should be avoided because it has been associated with a disease called Reye's syndrome in children. Reye's syndrome is a serious illness that can lead to death.
Do I need an antibiotic?
Antibiotics are not effective against mono. Mono is caused by a virus and antibiotics don't work against viruses. If you have a bacterial infection in addition to having mono (such as strep throat), your doctor may give you an antibiotic to treat that infection.
What about sports and exercise?
Avoid sports, physical activities or exercise of any kind until your doctor tells you it's safe. Moving around too much puts you at risk of rupturing your spleen, especially if it is enlarged. You need to avoid physical activities and contact sports for about 3 to 4 weeks after you've had mono.
Written by familydoctor.org editorial staff | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40892000 |
Thuringia - Sachsen Weimar - Eisenach – Herzogtum (duchy)Edit This Page
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Research Problems and Strategies
When children were born illegitimately and the father’s name is not known what research strategy is suggested?
1. Check who the witnesses were at birth of child. Likelihood is that there might be a relationship
There might exist a separate section in the church book for illegitimate births.
2. Check whether the mother marries the father later and the child became legitimized by the father’s acknowledgment .
3. Check confirmation records.
4. Find school records to see if school fees were paid for the child and by whom (Search in School records . One possibility “Kirchenvisitationen”, “Schülerverzeichnis”)
5. Was the child adopted? (Search in court records, key word: “ Adoptionen”, “Vormundschaft”)
6. See if a will exists in which the child was bequeathed money or property. (Search in court records for “Testamente”)
When parents came from a city unknown what would be the research strategy?
1. Check the witnesses at the children’s baptisms. Witnesses might be relatives and there may be a place name which could give a clue.
2. Check citizenship records of present residence (Search for” Bürgerrolle”, “Bürgerbuch”, “Bürgerliste”,” Bürgerverzeichnis”, “Einwohnermeldeverzeichnis”)
3. Check for journeymen or servants records (Search for “Geburtsbriefe”, “Gesindebuch”, “Heimatscheine”, “Wanderbücher”, “Gutsarchiv” records)
4. Check census records. Search for “Volkszählungen”.
5. Check guild records. Search for “Innungen”
6. Check neighboring church records to see if parents appeared as witnesses.
When given and surnames are present more than once in a parish and additional persons cannot easily be assigned to each other, what would be the research strategy?
1. Establish whole families. See who has married whom and had what children.
2. Compare findings in church books with court records. 90% of the population in Germany were dependent farmers. They did not own their farms but had usufruct , for which they were taxed and recorded in administrative records. Parents would bequeath, sell , lease or retire, and children inherit personal property. All such actions were recorded in court records. ( Search in archival records, such as ”Schuld- und Pfandprotokolle”)
3. Check tax lists. Twice a year people were required to pay taxes. See if the same heads of family pay each time. If the head of household dies, the widow continues to pay taxes until her child becomes of age and takes over or she remarries. (Search for “Steuerlisten”, “Steuerrollen”, “Amtsrechnungen”).
When different spellings exist for a family name what would be the research strategy?
1. Be aware that spelling rules are not set until the early 1900s. Dialects can apply when writing official records. Some consonants and vowels are interchangeable. The name Triebenbach can be spelled Driebenbach, Treubenbach, Drübenbach.
2. Names can be Latinized: The name Keller becomes Cellarius, names can sound as if they are Latin, such as Debelius.
3. The priest simply made a mistake
4. Consider looking at neighboring parish registers
5. Always compare the spelling of a name with other documents available for the time period. (The most common ones are taxlists, in German “Steuerlisten”, “Steuerrollen”).
When church records from a parish cannot be located what should be the research strategy?
1. Check if the correct parish was chosen. A good source to check is a gazetteer.
2. Have parish jurisdictions changed?
3. Check with the diocese (Bistum) or deanery (Dekanat) if a duplicate record does exist and where it was deposited.
For Evangelical records check here (Evangelische Kirche in Thüringen)
Catholic church (Adressen, Gemeinden, Dekanate)
When church books no longer exist because they were destroyed what should the research strategy be?
Gather information from other records:
1. Tax records (Steuerlisten, Schatzungslisten) – located in state archives
2. Debt registers, citizenship records, fire insurance registers (Schuldenregister, Löscheimerlisten, Brandregister, Bürgerlisten) – located in city archives, mayor‘s office
3. Guild records, notary records, land records (Innungslisten, Zunftbücher, notarielle Akten, Grundbuchsachen – state archives
4. Kataster, Bannbücher (cadastral , absolvent books) – state archives, cadastral offices, finance departments
5. Tax records of parishes (Lagerbücher) – church archives
6. House lists, address books, house ownership lists, military records, vaccination records (Häuserlisten, Adressbücher, Hauswirtslisten, Stammrollen, Impflisten) – city archives
7. News papers (Zeitungen, Amtsblätter) - city archive, state archive
8. Emigration records, census records, Wählerlisten (Auswanderungsakten, Volkszählungen,
voting records) – state archive
9. Cemetery records (Gräber, Gottesacker) – city archive
Check out the archive list available for Thüringen
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(Your text or images here, or use the table below:)
Things you can do
(In order to make this wiki a better research tool, we need your help! Many tasks need to be done. You can help by:
- This page was last modified on 28 November 2012, at 22:55.
- This page has been accessed 395 times. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40895000 |
Biofuel crops are not the only sources of renewable energy that farmers can cultivate. A National Geographic Magazine article discusses the emerging practice of constructing wind turbines on Mid-western farmland and the implications for crop productivity. According to research cited in the article, wind turbines could help mitigate extreme temperatures on the farm, keeping crops from overheating or freezing. But this area of study is still in its infancy, and scientists say that more data is needed to present a complete picture of the trade-offs for farmers. If wind farms turn out to be a beneficial fixture on farms, the U.S. Corn Belt could soon be producing a new crop for the market – wind energy.
As the International Year of Forests winds to a close, a new FAO study released this week shows how plants and fruits from Amazonian forests can be used to improve people’s diets and livelihoods. Written in easy-to-grasp language, Fruit Trees and Useful Plants in Amazonian Life seeks to take science out of the ivory tower and put it to work on the ground, in the hands of people.
While we’re on the subject of forest food, check out what’s cooking in chef Heinz Beck’s kitchen in this video from our friends at the International Year of Forests:
In celebration of its 50th anniversary, the World Wildlife Fund U.S. recently held its sixth annual Kathryn Fuller Science for Nature Symposium. Themed Conservation Forward: Ideas that Work and how Science can Effect Change, the two-day event covered many topics from alternative mechanisms to promote conservation to ways to communicate environmental challenges. The first two speakers, Lester Brown from the Earth Policy Institute and Jon Foley of the University of Minnesota, focused much of their talks on food security and global change.
Lester Brown began the symposium revisiting the drought in Russia in the summer of 2010, during which the country lost 40% of its grain harvest from wild fires. He posited that if instead, the major grain exporting “U.S. had lost 40% of its grain harvest of 400 million tons,” there would have been resounding impacts on the price, trade and consumption of food. Citing the collapse of past civilizations such as the Mayans, Brown noted that ”for a long time I’ve rejected that food could be the weak link in our society…but now I think it is.” Following this assertion, he outlined three indicators of future food security:
- Economic: price of grain
- Social: number of hungry people
- Political: number of failed states
Jon Foley built upon this foundation by laying out three big challenges for agriculture:
- Meeting current demands for food
- Meeting future demands for food, with more people and shifting diets
- Becoming truly sustainable, with agriculture encompassing 40% of the Earth’s land surface under cultivation, 80-90% of water consumption, and at least 35% of greenhouse gas emissions.
One of his papers in the journal Nature lays out five recommendations for moving towards addressing these challenges. However, he ultimately concluded by arguing for a new type of agriculture – “terraculture” – in which agriculture and food security are approached holistically.
Watch videos of all the presentations on the symposium website.
According to USAID, the auction, which runs through 18 December, “features exclusive items and experiences from MTV artists and show talent” such as Snooki, Rob Dyrdek, Nick Jonas and Kelly Clarkson.
Proceeds will go to a group of eight organizations, including the American Refugee Committee, CARE, Catholic Relief Services, Mercy Corps, Save the Children, World Vision, UNICEF USA, and World Food Program USA.
The auction is part of the USAID and Ad Council FWD (Famine, War, Drought) Campaign. Launched in September, it is aimed at raising awareness of the crisis in the Horn of Africa and linking Americans to actions that can help those in need.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture has moved to improve the management of the application of nutrients on farm land, which could save money and yield environmental benefits.
The step came 13 December as USDA revised its national conservation practice standard on nutrient management. The department said, proper application of nitrogen and phosphorus can save producers money and offers protection or improvement of ground and surface water, air quality, soil quality and agricultural sustainability.
Staff of the department’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NCRS) – which offers technical and financial assistance to producers to plan and implement nutrient management plans or to help meet federal, state or other environmental regulations – use the nutrient management conservation practice to help farmers and ranchers apply nutrients more effectively.
Proper management of nitrogen and phosphorus, including use of such organic nitrogen sources as manure, legumes and cover crops, can save money, and the standard offers a roadmap to assist producers in applying nutrient sources in the right amount, from the right source, in the right place, at the right time for the best agricultural and environmental benefits.
The standard was developed with the help of universities, nongovernmental organizations, industry and others. Key changes include expanding the use of technology to speed the nutrient management process and allowing states more flexibility in providing site-specific nutrient management planning using local information.
NCRS staff offices will have until the beginning of 2013 to comply with erosion, nitrogen and phosphorus criteria for their state nutrient management standards.
The revised standard comes as the NCRS is working with other entities to address nutrient concerns identified in three recent studies assessing the effectiveness of conservation practices in the Upper Mississippi Basin, the Chesapeake Bay Watershed and the Great Lakes Basin.
The studies all pointed to loss of nitrogen and phosphorus from cropland as a significant concern. Most nitrogen losses are attributed to nitrate leaching through the soil to groundwater, while most phosphorus is lost because of erosion, as phosphorus attaches itself to soil particles that are carried by runoff to waterways.
Improved nutrient management and effective erosion control reduce loss of nutrients from agricultural land, improving downstream water quality. The revised standard will provide tools and strategies to help producers address the natural resource concerns relating to excess nutrients on agricultural land.
Meat consumption is projected to rise nearly 73 percent by 2050 – but how will the world deal with the greenhouse gas emissions and groundwater pollution that will result from intensive livestock production?
A new FAO report – World Livestock 2011 – proposes measures to make intensive production “more environmentally benign”.
While many young people in the United States have been leaving family farms behind, and the average age of farmers continues to rise, NPR’s All Things Considered explores a surge in interest in organic farming among young people. Read more or listen to the story: Who are the Young Farmers of ‘Generation Organic‘.
Residual biomass energy sources – such as manure and corn “stover” (cobs, leaves, etc.) or other byproducts of farming or other activities – could be an important energy source for the U.S. Midwest, according to a report sponsored by the Chicago Council on Global Affairs.
Harnessing the Power of Biomass Residuals: Opportunities and Challenges for Midwestern Renewable Energy is partly based on the hope that such residual biomass might be less controversial than biofuels, which raise environmental concerns or issues related to competition with food needs.
Among the study’s findings are that ecologically sustainable residual biomass could produce 17 percent of regional gasoline needs or 14 percent of electricity requirements, that these resources are concentrated in certain areas, that a broad “landscape-based” framework should be used to evaluate the costs and benefits of bioenergy use, and that non-energy benefits may be as important as energy benefits in using these resources.
The report also found that technology now exists to produce bioenergy from animal manure, while technology to produce ethanol from corn stover and similar feedstocks is not yet ready for the market.
In addition, it said, most bioenergy systems using residuals are not competitive, and subsidies and other public actions will be needed if they are to become practical.
The study recommended that manure resources be utilized by increasing farms’ use of anaerobic digesters – which produce bioenergy while helping to eliminate odors and providing other benefits – and developing watershed-based nutrient trading systems.
It also called for regional corn farmers to be prepared to participate in a cellulose market by increased research on stover harvesting and how different tillage systems affect grain and stover production.
Finally, it recommended that a landscape-based perspective be used to analyze biofuel feedstock potential.
News21′s Food Safety Project has provided an opportunity for journalism students and fellows at Arizona State University and University of Maryland to investigate different facets of food safety in the country. Topics range from high-risk foods to inspection and regulation to local food systems, presented with videos, articles, and interactive infographics. Citing recent outbreaks of food-borne illness, the project introduces shortcomings and new innovations to ensure food safety.
Check out the News21 Food Safety Project. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40896000 |
Heaney, et al. 2011. Fieldiana Life and Earth Sciences, 2: 34. Type Locality: 3.5 km SW Mt. Cetaceo peak, Cagayan Province, Luzon Island, Philippines, elevation 1400 m (17.69561d N, 122.01683d E)
© The Field Museum. Photograph by L Heaney and A Niedzielski.
English common names: Sierra Madre apomys, Sierra Madre forest mouse
Total length: 262-296 mm; tail: 124-154 mm; hind foot: 34-39 mm; ear: 18-21 mm; weight: 73-110 g. In the Sierra Madre range, Apomys sierrae has dorsal fur that is dark brown with rusty-reddish tints, while on Mt. Palali (Caraballo Mountains), the dorsal fur is medium brown with a yellow tint. Also, the skin of the ears and feet of this latter group is paler than in the individuals from the Sierra Madre. Ventral fur is medium to pale gray at the base and white or white washed with pale ochraceous at the tips. The tail, which is about equal to head and body length, is distinctly bicolored—dark brown dorsally and, usually, white ventrally; only a few individuals have a white tip. The dorsal surface of the hind foot is white with scattered dark hairs.Apomys minganensis has longer, denser and darker dorsal fur and also many dark hairs on the dorsal surface of the hind foot. Apomys sierrae is usually smaller than A. magnus, and the dorsal fur of the former is dark brown with rusty reddish tones or rich rusty orange-brown as opposed to the dark brown with prominent black guard hairs of the latter. Apomys magnus has ventral fur that is paler gray at the base and nearly white at the tip. Apomys sierrae has a reddish tint in its dorsal fur as opposed to the more yellow tint of A. aurorae; otherwise, they are quite similar externally. Also, A. sierrae tends to have a longer hind foot, although other measurements are similar. Apomys sierrae is smaller than A. zambalensis in almost all measurements, and the dorsal pelage of A. zambalensis is a bright rusty umber, rather than dark brown with rusty-red tints. Apomys microdon and A. musculus occur sympatrically in some areas; both are much smaller with proportionately longer tails.
Known from Palaui Island (FMNH), the northern Sierra Madre range in Cagayan Province (USNM); Mt. Lataan and Mungiao Mountains, Quirino Province (FMNH); and Mt. Palali, Caraballo Mountains, Nueva Viscaya (FMNH), Luzon Island (Heaney et al., 2011).
© The Field Museum
Habitat and Ecology:
Currently documented from ca. 475 to 1800 m on Luzon, although it was found at 153 m on Palaui Island, where the maximum elevation is approximately 300 m. On an elevational survey of Mt. Palali, Apomys sierrae was the most frequently captured species of non-volant small mammals in all the collection sites: 780 m, 900 m, 1040 m, 1300 m, 1420 m, and 1707 m. The forest type at these elevations included lowland disturbed agro-forest, regenerated dipterocarp forest, transitional lowland/lower montane forest, mature montane forest, and mossy forest. On an elevational survey of Mt. Cetaceo, A. sierrae was the most abundant non-volant small mammal at all four survey localities: 1300 m, 1400 m, 1500 m and 1550 m. These elevations represent lower montane forest, montane forest, and old-growth mossy forest. Apomys sierrae forages on the ground at night nocturnally, searching for earthworms and seeds. Apomys microdon and A. musculus both occur sympatrically over parts of its range; both are small, primarily arboreal species.
Apomys sierrae from Mt. Cetaceo. © The Field Museum. Illustration by V Simeonovski.
Apomys sierrae from Mt. Palali. © The Field Museum. Illustration by V Simeonovski.
Widespread and abundant.
Comments:Surveys in the area of where the Caraballo Mountains and the Central Cordillera come together, a potential overlap in the distribution of Apomys sierrae, A. abrae, and A. datae, could produce interesting data as to the comparative habitat usage and interactions of these species. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40898000 |
Alphabet > Letter
K > Kite
K is for Kite
Letter K > Activity >
Color & Decorate a Kite
Holidays & Events
*April > Kite Month
*May 12th > Kite Day
*June 15 > Fly a Kite Day
*June 30th > Sky Day
Toys and Games > Kite
Online Story time > Fly
Weather > Windy
2 to 6 years old
Activity #1: Literacy: Read
Fly a Kite an online story (or the book version) ages 3+
* A fantasy day story with grandpa flying a
Here are topics and themes to discuss after reading the online
Climate and Weather Conditions:
* Ask what helps the kite fly? Wind.
* Could the kite fly without wind?
Shapes & Colors
* Discuss the shape of the kite?
The diamond shape - the diamond shape is
the perfect shape for a kite, it helps it fly.
* What other shape can you see inside the kite:
* What color is the kite, etc.
Activity #2: Kite
Safety, history of kites, multicultural celebrations: Visit
this Kite theme lesson plan to learn about kite flying safety,
view real images of kites around the world, and assemble an easy
homemade kite that flies!
Activity #3: Alphabet
Activities: K is for Kite Activities (Ages 3 - 6)
Choose activity #4 or #5 or conduct each one on separate days to
reinforce Letter K practice.
Activity #4: Decorating
A Kite: All ages (Reinforce Letter K)
* Print this kite coloring
page, write a large and bold letter K and the word kite
somewhere in somewhere in the margin. Suggestion:
Print onto light blue paper for a sky background.
* Prepare a container with
a variety of materials to decorate: crayons, pencils, cut-up construction
paper, tissue paper, stickers, s.
*Shapes: Discuss the kite is a diamond
shape. Identify and count the six triangles that form
the bows in the kite's tail.
Activity #5: Printable
Print this adorable craft from dltk-holidays.com in your choice of color
or coloring version. Practice counting the pieces, scissor
cutting skills, colors and more.
* Print this Kite
coloring page on white or light blue paper (for a blue sky
Something to color or paint with.
* Cut-up construction paper or tissue paper in several colors
* glue or glue stick
* spring, summer or autumn related stickers | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40903000 |
- Join The Movement
- Media & More
- About Us
Types of Builds
Millard Fuller used to say that a home is the foundation on which human development occurs. It is also an important, positive step in working on a safer, healthier and more responsible future. Many people struggling to put food on the table, pay bills, purchase school supplies and clothing and maintain transportation to work are not thinking about repairing their homes, even though those homes might be dangerous, literally crumbling around them and their children.
The Fuller Center is an organization devoted to partnership, renewed opportunity and providing a hand up instead of a hand out. The construction and rehabilitation of simple, decent houses are the two basic ways we do this.
The work of The Fuller Center allows the elderly to live out their rest of their days comfortably in their own homes, gives families a fresh start, enables the handicapped to maintain a level of independence in accessible homes and, in some cases, transforms entire neighborhoods. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40925000 |
Can you identify the first computer virus?
a. Elk Cloner
Scroll down for the answer.
Answer: Creeper, named for a character on the “Scooby Doo” cartoon show, is generally recognized at the first computer virus. It was written in 1971 by Bob Thomas of BBN Technologies and spread through DEC PDP-10 computers on ARPAnet, displaying the message, "I'm the creeper, catch me if you can!"
Elk Cloner, written in 1982 by then-15-year-old Rich Skrenta of Pittsburgh, was a boot-sector virus designed to infect Apply II computers and was the first to be detected in the wild.
Brain, created in Pakistan in 1986, was the first PC virus to be found in the wild.
And the first antivirus program? Reaper, which was created to delete Creeper.
BBN Technologies, by the way, was the proud owner of the second domain name to be registered on the Internet, as we found out in last week’s question. Which was the first? Click here.
Posted on Aug 11, 2011 at 7:05 PM | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40932000 |
Welcome to the Safe Routes to School Online Guide.
This guide is a comprehensive online reference manual designed to support the development of Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs. It provides links to other SRTS publications and training resources. Readers of the online guide can pick and choose specific topics based on their interests and needs, such as guidelines for adult school crossing guards, tools to create school route maps, and ways to include children with disabilities in SRTS initiatives.
One of the basic tenets of pedestrian and bicycle safety is that to be effective, safety programs must be comprehensive – involving engineering, education, enforcement and evaluation. The online guide supports that premise by providing “one-stop shopping” on all aspects of SRTS. Plus it adds additional elements that apply to school programs, such as motivating students to walk and bicycle to school – or “encouragement”.
This online guide contains several chapters. Each chapter is subdivided into sections. The sections within each chapter are easily identified with sub-links. Simply click on each sub-link within a chapter and you will enter a particular section.
To learn more about SRTS programs, select a link from the navigation bar on the left.
Guide last updated June 6, 2012. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40949000 |
Posted Aug 24, 2003 by Joe Otten
The thing that has always puzzled me about black holes is what happens to the entropy of objects that fall into them?
By its description, a single infinitely dense point seems to have a very low entropy. But if we then let a high entropy object fall into a black hole, we appear to have a contradiction to the second law of thermodynamics.
This topic is an active one in the field of astrophysics and quantum gravitation. In general, however, it is required of a black hole that its event horizon always increase, much like the total entropy of a closed system (i.e. - the universe). This thought lead to the hypothesis that a black hole's entropy is proportional to its event horizon's surface area. This came to be the Bekenstein-Hawking Formula:
If a black hole has an entropy, then it follows all the other laws of thermodynamics and has a temperature, also. So the black hole will radiate energy. This is where things start getting fuzzy. How can something that is impossible to escape radiate anything? I'm afraid I don't know much about what's new in that field of thought.
Thanks for that.
There is Hawking radiation, but I guess that is not what you are talking about. Could it be a mistake to consider a black hole demarcated by its event horizon to be an object, and thus to apply thermodynamic principles to that object.
After all the event horizon is not a physical structure and need not be in the same place from one moment to the next. (That episode of Voyager where the ship was stuck inside the event horizon of a black hole, looking for a crack to get out would have been hilarious if it had been slightly less obtuse.)
The natural answer is that the laws of physics break down in a black hole. The entropy just vanishes. Entropy is a property of the universe, and all properties of the universe break down at the event horizo of a black hole.
Please note that Not Panicking Ltd is not responsible for the content of any external sites listed. The content on h2g2 is created by h2g2's Researchers, who are members of the public. Unlike Edited Guide Entries, the content on this page has not necessarily been checked by a h2g2 editor. In the event that you consider anything on this page to be in breach of the site's House Rules, please | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40950000 |
|Subject: Naked eye galaxies.|
Posted May 17, 2001 by Civilian
In the article you claim that the milky way is the only galaxy that can be seen with the naked eye. This is not entirely true. Our milky way is surrounded by a group of small galaxies known as the local group. Although most of these simply resemble bright stars to the naked eye, two stand out.
In the Southren hemisphere we have the pleasure of being able to see both of them. On a clear, dark night you will notice two large bright blobs slightly to the south of the milky way. These are Galaxies, known as the "Clouds of Magellan". They are visible with the naked eye and they are almost impossible to miss unless you find yourself in a bright city. If you happen to be in the southren hemisphere, look south. If the southren cross is to the left of the Celestial pole then the clouds will be on the right of it. If that doesnt help try this:
On a southren Autumn night, quite early (say 8pm) look south (if you see Leo youre looking the wromg way). Find the milky way. Got it? Good. Now find the southren cross. once you have it. scan your eyes right until you find Carina (the keel). once that is done scan your eyes down slowly. Viola..
Yes, and you can catch M30 if it's dark enough and clear enough. It doesn't look like much, as you can't resolve it at all without a telescope, but it can been seen naked-eye.
Sorry, that should be M31.
You are right - this article needs some small tweaking! The galaxy I was referring to was M31, and it is commonly known that it is possible to see it with the naked eye, so long as your eyesight is good of course. I will try to make some much needed corrections to this article in December.
Please note that Not Panicking Ltd is not responsible for the content of any external sites listed. The content on h2g2 is created by h2g2's Researchers, who are members of the public. Unlike Edited Guide Entries, the content on this page has not necessarily been checked by a h2g2 editor. In the event that you consider anything on this page to be in breach of the site's House Rules, please | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40951000 |
[Privatier] wrote in to let us know about lxardoscope, his project that lets you use an Arduino as hardware input for a Linux-based oscilloscope display. This implementation offers two channels with about 3000 samples per second from each. He touts some of the GUI options like vertical resolution between 2mV and 10V per division. That part kind of stumps us because we don’t see how a measurement of 10V (or more) can be taken using the schematic included. But you’re comprehension may surpass ours so do take a look yourself.
He is using an Arduino Uno for his testing. But to get around some issues he’s experienced with other USB-based solutions he implemented a serial port connection instead. You’ll need to remove the ATmega chip from the Arduino board after flashing the code to it, and then build a circuit around it which includes a power source where -2.5V is ground and 2.5V is VCC. All in all, you’ll need a 16 Mhz crystal, HEF4069 hex inverter, ATmega8-family microcontroller, and a few passive components to build this on a breadboard. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40954000 |
What is campylobacteriosis?
Campylobacteriosis is an infection of the gut caused by Campylobacter bacteria. These bacteria are a frequent cause of food poisoning.
How do you get it?
You get campylobacteriosis by eating foods or by drinking water contaminated with the bacteria. You can also get it from infected people or pets especially kittens and puppies.
Persons at highest risk of getting the disease are workers who handle animal products, agricultural and wildlife workers, and veterinarians who handle infected animals. Infection usually occurs while processing animal products, either by direct contact with the contaminated raw material or by indirect contact in a contaminated environment. The bacteria are resistant to drying and disinfection, and can remain alive in contaminated soil for years after the death of the animal.
What are the symptoms?
The symptoms of campylobacteriosis include mild to severe diarrhea (often bloody), stomach pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting.
When do symptoms start?
The symptoms usually start 2 to 5 days after infection with the bacteria and may continue for a week.
For how long is a person contagious?
Infected people will shed the bacteria in their stools for a few days to as much as a week or more.
Should an infected person stay home from school or work?
Students with diarrhea should stay home from school until the diarrhea stops. Food handlers, day care workers and health care workers should not return to work until they have their doctor’s permission.
What is the treatment for campylobacteriosis ?
Most persons with campylobacteriosis will recover without treatment. Severe diarrhea and/or vomiting over a long time may cause the body to lose fluid too quickly. Lost fluids should be replaced by drinking liquids such as fruit juices, soups, and special fluids called oral rehydration salts. A doctor can prescribe medications for severe cases or to shorten the length of illness. This may be important for food handlers, health care workers, and children in day care.
How can you keep from getting it?
Wash your hands thoroughly after using the toilet, after changing diapers, after touching pets or cleaning up after them, and especially before preparing or eating food. After changing diapers, wash the child’s hands as well as your own.
Do not drink untreated water (ponds, streams, rivers).
Do not drink unpasteurized (raw) milk or eat raw or undercooked meat, and refrigerate foods promptly after purchase.
Always treat raw poultry and other meats as if they were contaminated. Keep food that will be eaten raw, such as vegetables, from becoming contaminated by animal products. Do not lick your fingers, touch other foods, or smoke a cigarette before washing your hands after handling raw meat.
Wash cutting boards thoroughly after contact with each food, so that the boards do not contaminate the next food prepared
Cook poultry and meats to an even inner temperature (usually 165°F or higher), especially when using a microwave. Check food temperatures with a thermometer
Avoid sexual practices that may permit fecal-oral transmission | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40959000 |
MONDAY, Nov. 19 (HealthDay News) -- Children who regularly attend daycare are more likely to be overweight than those who stay at home with a parent, but the reasons for this difference are unknown, according to a new study.
Canadian researchers looked at more than 1,600 families in Quebec with children born in 1997 or 1998. Mothers were interviewed about the care of their children at one and a half, two and a half, three and a half and four years of age.
"We found that children whose primary-care arrangement between one and a half and four years was in a daycare center or with an extended family member were around 50 percent more likely to be overweight or obese between the ages of 4 and 10 years compared to those cared for at home by their parents," study leader Dr. Marie-Claude Geoffroy said in a University of Montreal news release.
"This difference cannot be explained by known risk factors such as socioeconomic status of the parents, breastfeeding, body-mass index of the mother or employment status of the mother," she added. The study also uncovered only an association between daycare attendance and overweight, not a cause-and-effect relationship.
The study was published this month in the Journal of Pediatrics.
Diet and physical activity levels are among the areas that need to be examined in order to determine why children who go to daycare are more likely to gain weight, noted study co-director Dr. Sylvana Cote.
"Parents don't have to worry; however, I suggest to parents they ensure their children eat well and get enough physical activity, whether at home or at daycare," she said in the news release.
The researchers said daycare has the potential to reduce weight problems in children, through methods such as encouraging physical activity and healthy eating.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services explains how to keep children at a healthy weight.
Copyright © 2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40963000 |
The Threat of Metabolic Syndrome
Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of risk factors that greatly raises your risk for heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
If you have three or more of these factors, you are said to have metabolic syndrome:
A high level of triglycerides, or more than 150 mg/dL
A low level of HDL ("good") cholesterol, or below 40 mg/dL for men or 50 mg/dL for women
Abdominal obesity, or a waist circumference of greater than 40 for men, or greater than 35 for women
High blood pressure, or 130/85 mmHg or greater
High blood sugar that is classified as prediabetes, 100 mg to 125 mg/dL, or diabetes, 126 mg/dL or casual blood sugar greater than 200 mg/dL
According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, if you have metabolic syndrome, you are two times more likely to have develop heart disease. Your risk of developing type 2 diabetes is five times greater if you have metabolic syndrome.
Yet there's good news. Lifestyle changes can prevent or reverse some of these risk factors, if you are among the 35 percent of adults who already has metabolic syndrome.
Although you can't change how genes contribute to your risk factors, you can do a lot to lower your risk. Eat a low-fat diet rich in fruits and vegetables, for instance, and most days get 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise that raises your heart rate. Get to and maintain a healthy weight. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40965000 |
WEDNESDAY, July 18 (HealthDay News) -- While many people don't know it, there's more than one kind of AIDS virus. Besides the HIV-1 strain that's common throughout the world, a type known as HIV-2 is found in some parts of Africa. Now, a new study finds that people infected with HIV-2 and later with HIV-1 appear to be better equipped to fight off the virus.
Double-infected people can still go on to develop AIDS, and there's no indication that anyone infected with HIV-1 should go out in search of HIV-2.
However, "this study should prompt researchers to take a fresh look at HIV-2 infection" and why it seems weaker, and the potential implications for a vaccine, said Sarah Rowland-Jones, an AIDS specialist and professor of immunology at John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford, England.
The big questions, she said, are these: Is there something about the HIV-2 virus that makes it less dangerous to the human body's immune system defenses? Or is it perhaps the other way around, and the body's defenses are the key?
"If we understood this, it would have a lot of relevance for HIV vaccine design," said Rowland-Jones, who's familiar with the new study's findings.
The HIV-2 strain is largely found in West Africa and hasn't spread much beyond there, although there have been cases reported in Europe, India, Japan and the United States, Rowland-Jones said. Many people who are infected with the HIV-2 virus develop AIDS and die, but some live normal lives, she said.
The new study looked at West Africans in the country of Guinea-Bissau and focused on 223 people who first became infected with HIV-2 and then with HIV-1 or those who only got the HIV-1 strain.
The researchers tracked the patients for about 20 years. They found that it took an average of 104 months (nine years) for those with dual infections to develop AIDS, but just 68 months (nearly six years) for those infected solely with the HIV-1 virus.
"Those infected with HIV-2 first seem to be better prepared to handle the more aggressive HIV-1 infection and thereby have a longer progression time to AIDS," said study lead author Joakim Esbjörnsson, a postdoctoral researcher at Lund University, in Sweden.
"It is clear that the effect is huge," Esbjörnsson said, and it probably affects death rates, too.
Esbjörnsson emphasized that the research only looked at people who became infected with HIV-2 first: "People already single-infected with HIV-1 should under no circumstances try to get infected with HIV-2," he said.
Phyllis Kanki, an AIDS specialist and professor of immunology and infectious diseases at the Harvard School of Public Health, suggested that people who get infected with HIV-2, which affects the body more slowly, may develop better defenses against the virus. That, in turn, could help them more effectively fight the HIV-1 strain, she said.
The study appears in the July 19 issue of The New England Journal of Medicine.
To learn more about HIV, visit the U.S. National Library of Medicine.
SOURCES: Sarah Rowland-Jones, AIDS specialist and professor of immunology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, England; Joakim Esbjörnsson, Ph.D., Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Phyllis Kanki, DVM, AIDS specialist and professor of immunology and infectious diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston; July 19, 2012, New England Journal of Medicine
Copyright © 2013
HealthDay. All rights reserved.
HealthDayNews articles are derived from
various sources and do not reflect federal policy. healthfinder.gov
does not endorse opinions, products, or services that
may appear in news stories. For more information on
health topics in the news, visit
Health News on healthfinder.gov. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40966000 |
It may seem like sleep and diabetes have nothing to do with each other but studies are now showing that a lack of sleep can prevent you from maintaining a healthy weight and can lead to diabetes. Here’s what Dr. Michael J. Breus reported over at The Huffington Post:
While sleep may not seem like it belongs in the same category as words that revolve around weight, it actually has everything to do with weight and whether or not you’re at risk for diabetes. Two fascinating studies that just came out to further prove it:
1. One study out of a sleep lab at Penn State College showed that insomniacs who slept only five to six hours a night had greater odds of developing diabetes.
2. The other study, this one from the University of Chicago and published in this month’s Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, demonstrated that sleep deprivation mixed with sedentary living and free access to food can change the body’s physiology to the point it resembles that of a prediabetic. In other words, the body’s insulin resistance and glucose tolerance shifts, leaning toward a dangerous condition that’s a precursor to full-blown diabetes.
I don’t know about you, but I think that’s pretty remarkable…and scary. This change in physiology, by the way, in the second study happened over the course of just two weeks as healthy adults were forced to get by on only five hours a night.
Getting in those extra hours of sleep has never meant more now. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40971000 |
The Sampling check generates a set of features from one or more layers that you can step through to visually inspect. The sample is generated from the feature classes you choose to include based on what is loaded in the map. You can also assign weights to the feature classes, which increases or decreases the number of features for the feature classes that are included in the sample. A value of 1 is the highest weight; 5 is the lowest.
The sample is calculated based on one of the following methods:
- A fixed number of features
- A percentage of all the features in the specified extent
- A number derived from a calculation based on the confidence level, margin of error, and acceptance level
- A polygon grid that is loaded in the map or from a geodatabase
You can choose to run this check on any of the extents that are usually available with checks, such as the selection set, current extent, or the full database.
Once you have defined the criteria for the check, you can configure the notes and a severity rating. The notes allow you to provide a more specific description for the feature that has been written to the Reviewer table and are copied to the Notes field in the Reviewer table. The severity rating allows you to indicate how important the results from a check are in terms of your quality assurance/quality control processes. The lower the number, the greater the priority the check's results have.
- Start ArcMap.
- Open a map document or load data in the map.
- On the main menu, click Customize > Toolbars > Data Reviewer.
- Start a Reviewer session in one of the following:
- Click the Select Data Check drop-down arrow on the Data Reviewer toolbar, click the plus sign next to Advanced Checks, then click Sampling Check.
The Sampling Check Properties dialog box appears. All the visible layers that are currently loaded in the map appear in the Choose Layers list.
- If necessary, type a unique name for the check in the Check Title text box.Note:
The check title can be used to describe the conditions you are looking for with the check. This is useful when you have multiple instances of the same check to validate the same feature classes or tables but with different validation parameters.
- Uncheck the check boxes next to the names of the layers you do not want to include in the sample.
By default, all the visible layers are included in the sample.Tip:
You can click Select All or Clear All to check or uncheck all the check boxes next to the layer names, respectively.
- To adjust the weight, or the significance of the layer in the sample, right-click the layer name in the Choose Layers list and choose a weight option.
- Weight 1 (highest)—The layer is going to have more features included in the sample than other layers with weight values of 2, 3, 4, or 5.
- Weight 2—The layer is going to have more features included in the sample than other layers with weight values of 3, 4, or 5.
- Weight 3—The layer is going to have more features included in the sample than other layers with weight values of 4 or 5.
- Weight 4—The layer is going to have more features included in the sample than other layers with a weight value of 5.
- Weight 5—The layer is going to have the fewest features included in the sample.
- Chose a method for generating the sample.
- Number—A specified number of features from the feature classes chosen in the Choose Layers list is included in the sample.
- Percentage—A specified percentage of the features from the feature classes chosen in the Choose Layers list are included in the sample.
- Auto Calculate—The number of features included in the sample is determined by the following:
- Confidence Level—The level of confidence that the sample size is statistically significant. The default value is 95%, but you can also choose 90%, 98%, or 99%
- Margin Of Error—The acceptable margin of error in the confidence level. The default value is 4%, but you can also choose other values that range from 1% to 10%.
- Acceptable Error—Indicates the acceptable error ratio. The default value is 2%, but you can also choose 1%, 5%, or 10%.
- Do one of the following to configure the calculation method:
To create the sample based on a specific number of features
Click the Number option, then type the number of features you want to include in the sample in the text box.
To create the sample based on a percentage
Click the Percentage option, then type the value that represents the percentage of all the features you want to include in the sample in the text box.Note:
The value specified for the percentage is divided by 100. For example, if you want to sample 50 percent of the features, type 50 not .5.
To create the sample based on automatic calculation
Click the Auto Calculate option, then click the Confidence Level drop-down arrow to choose the confidence level for the data, click the Margin Of Error drop-down arrow to choose the acceptable margin of error for the data, or click the Acceptable Error drop-down arrow and choose the acceptable level of error for the sample.
To create the sample using a polygon grid
Click the Use Grid option. Click the drop-down arrow in the Grid Parameters area to choose the polygon grid or click Browse to load one. Click the Unique ID Field drop-down arrow and choose the field that contains the field you want to use to identify the grid cell. Type the number of cells you want to use in the sample in the Number of grids to sample text box.Tip:
The value you choose from the Unique ID Field drop-down list populates the QC_GRID cell in the Reviewer table.
- If necessary, type descriptive text for the check results in the Notes text box in the Reviewer Remarks area.
If necessary, click the Severity drop-down arrow and choose a value that indicates the priority of the check's results in the Reviewer Remarks area.
The severity indicates the importance of the check result. The values range from 1 to 5, with 1 being the highest priority and 5 being the lowest.
Click the Run Data Check button on the Data Reviewer toolbar.
The Features to Validate dialog box appears.
Choose an option in the Features to Validate area.
- Selection Set—The check is run on the features that are currently selected in the map.
- Current Extent—The check is run on the current map extent, which is controlled by the map scale.
- Definition Query—The check is run on the features that are displayed based on definition queries that have been created for the feature class.
- Full Database—The check is run on all the features in the feature class.
To run the check only on features that have been edited in a versioned workspace, check the Changed Features Only check box.
The Changed Features Only option is available only for a versioned database.
- Click OK.
A progress window appears while the sample is being generated. The results dialog box appears once the check is finished running.
- Choose the Write to Reviewer Table option.
- Click OK.
The sampling check records are written to the Reviewer table. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40972000 |
The school says my child needs Ritalin; where do I get it?
Can't find what you're looking for? Our health information specialists are here to help. Contact us at 800-233-4050 or online.
School personnel do not have the medical training necessary to tell parents to place their children on medication. CHADD and the National Resource Center on ADHD believe that it is inappropriate for individual professionals to offer advice outside their field of training, expertise, or licensing. While teachers and other school personnel play a critical role in identifying potential education problems, they are not qualified either to diagnose a medical condition or suggest specific treatments for addressing that medical condition.
In general, only a physician (M.D. or D.O.) who is properly licensed may prescribe medications used to treat ADHD (prescribing privileges are regulated by state law for other professions, including nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and, in two states [New Mexico and Louisiana] Ph.D. psychologists with with advanced training in psychopharmacology). Because ADHD is a medical condition, it should be diagnosed by a pediatrician, neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist, clinical social worker, or other properly licensed mental health provider who has experience evaluating and treating individuals with ADHD. Because some symptoms of ADHD may be symptoms of other conditions, it is essential that you consult a trained professional and obtain a thorough evaluation and formal diagnosis for your child before beginning any particular course of treatment. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40973000 |
Catalan common name : Celebérrima quència. Quèntia.
Spanish common name : Kentia.
General distribution : Australiana
Life-forms : Macrophanerophyte.
Habitat : Gardens.
Observations : It prefers to live in semi shade, but also prospers in the sun.
Origen : Illa de Lord Howe (Oceania)
Location on-campus UIB : Poc freqüent, es pot observar al Claustre de l'edifici Ramón Llull.
Description : A monoecious palm tree; it has one single trunk which can reach up to 10m in height and up to 14-15cm in width. The trunk is cylindrical, and does not widen at the base; it is green at first and has rings. The leaves are pinnate, erect, dark green and have horizontal leaflets which hang down only at the end. The inflorescence is branched and hangs down under the leaves. The fruits are brown and ovoid. It can be distinguished at first sight from Howea belmoreana by its leaflets, which are not erect, but v-shaped. The fruits are slightly larger than in Howea belmoreana. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40978000 |
Handwaved answer to your first question is that the national identity as a Big Thing likely emerged as a result of a 30-year-war (more specifically, Peace of Westphalia), with nation-state being an efficient unit for maintaining balance of power that the Westphalian system demanded.
To quote from Wiki:
The edicts agreed upon during the signing of the Peace of Westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation-state.
Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. In earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. Now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular.
Why has national identity or being part of a country, become so important, as opposed to being part of a neighborhood, a city or the whole world?
As far as why not whole world, it's not an easy question. The best answer probably lies in the fact that anything beyond a nation usually has has too divergent interests, AND is too large to effectively govern long term absent a strong central tyrant (see Alexander's empire, or Ghengizids).
You can see it happening in EU issues in 2011 - Greeks and Germans just can't exist as a single unit, since either one culture will feel as if they are being taken advantage of (Germans don't want to pay for "lazy not-working-enough Greeks" social spending), or some strong central power - which doesn't exist in Europe - must mandate and enforce uniform rules.
As far as "why not city/neighborhood" - because the modern system of the world, both military and industrial and economy, makes things much more efficient when unification synergies are realized, and make the world uniform enough (due to literacy/printing press, among other things - thus Peace of Westphalia as a start) that uniting many cities into a nation doesn't present THAT much of a conflict of interest.
Answer to your second question is "absolutely yes". As a random example, plenty of immigrants from USSR to USA feel 100% American and zero percent either Soviet or Russian. If you want a reference to specific example, you are reading his writing this second. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40985000 |
Five days after the “victory” at Antietam, Lincoln changed the purpose of the Civil War with his issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. With these few words, Lincoln changed the reason for fighting from the legalistic “preservation of the Union” to the moral and ethical imperative of “freedom and emancipation.” Frankly, many in Congress felt that Lincoln should have definitively rejected slavery much sooner, and there was the danger that Congress would act on this impulse whether Lincoln agreed or not.
As you read, consider the following questions:
1. What would have happened to slaves living in areas NOT in rebellion against the government, i.e. the Border States like Missouri, under the terms of this proclamation?
2. Why does Lincoln specifically list the areas to which this proclamation applied? Why are the areas of emancipation so tightly defined? Why were some counties (counties are called “parishes” in Louisiana) excluded?
3. Lincoln first wrote a draft of the proclamation in July of 1862. Why didn’t he issue it then? (Think– what was going on in the war at the time?)
The Emancipation Proclamation
Abraham Lincoln, September 22, 1862
By the President of the United States of America: A PROCLAMATION
Whereas on the 22nd day of September, A.D. 1862, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit:
“That on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.
“That the executive will on the 1st day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof, respectively, shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that any State or the people thereof shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such States shall have participated shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States.”
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-In-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for supressing said rebellion, do, on this 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days from the first day above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States the following, to wit:
Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Palquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebone, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Morthhampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are for the present left precisely as if this proclamation were not issued.
And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons.
And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and I recommend to them that, in all case when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages.
And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service.
And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God.
Link for further information:
Freedom at Antietam
The Antietam Battlefield | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40986000 |
Medical scientists have developed a controversial IVF technique that could cure deadly genetic diseases.
This is incredible and scary at the same time! Doctors in the reproductive medicine department at Newcastle University in the UK have asked an expert panel from the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority to review a new fertility treatment that could prevent the some genetic diseases.
The technique would involve not two, but technically THREE biological parents.
Around one in 6,500 children are born with serious diseases caused by faulty mitochondrial DNA, including liver and heart failure and neurological disorders. This new in-vitro treatment would use a “second mother” in order to cancel out the mitochondrial DNA that would lead to these genetic diseases.
This “bad” mitochondrial DNA is passed on exclusively by the mother and located in every human cell. Mitochondria act as the “power houses” and provide energy for each cell. Mitochondrial DNA is not located in the nucleus of fertilized eggs, so doctors have decided to test this new technique to see if they could prevent genetic disorders completely.
First, scientists would take the mother’s egg and the father’s sperm to create an embryo. Then they would remove the nucleus containing the parent’s DNA and transfer it to a donor embryo — whose nucleus has already been disposed off. The donor embryo – which acts as a kind of surrogate carrier –contains healthy mitochondria.
The baby will have 98 percent of the DNA from its parents and 2 percent DNA from the donor woman.
“We are not ready to do this in patients now, but the science is progressing very rapidly and we need to get Parliament to discuss this again now,” Alison Murdoch, head of the department of reproductive medicine at Newcastle University tells the Daily Mail. “We anticipate that the process of review could take about a year so we are asking for this process to start now.”
Although this kind of genetic engineering is VERY risky, it could help end the death rate of babies with genetic diseases, as in the case of Sharon and Neil Bernardi‘s seven kids. The English couple lost six of their babies and recently lost their 21-year-old son Edward to Leigh’s Disease, caused by a mitochondrial defect.
So HollyMoms, do you agree with this kind of science?
Get more HollyBaby news and gossip! Friend us on Facebook, Follow us on Twitter and Subscribe to our Newsletter! | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40988000 |
A bit of gyan (knowledge)
The internet is maturing at an extremely fast rate day-by-day, and the world-wide-web (www) has become a central hub for information available worldwide. Nowadays, communication between the far ends of the world has become trivial. The dot-com boom happened in the mid-1990′s and companies have started depending hugely on the internet since then. This has paved way to a huge number of possibilities, along with risks. Companies and customers and retailers can buy and sell online and e-commerce has become substantially important because of this.
What I’ve found is that however fast technology grows, people’s minds don’t change. No matter how secure you tend to keep your transaction between the client and server, e-commerce’s growth has not increased very much because of the constant fear in people’s minds – “How can I trust this fellow when I cannot even see him? What if I pay online but don’t get my package?”. A typical example is the huge number of credit card frauds over the decades, which has just increased the fear in people’s minds.
Each time a vulnerability is discovered on a particular website, it has been exploited and has incurred huge losses for the company hosting that website. Time and again, people have tried to keep websites as secure as possible. Theoretically, algorithms (used in security) have been proven to be secure (till date) and yet, attackers have always found ways and means to breach security.
In my opinion, it is just plain ignorance of the designer to ignore the security aspects to make his work easier. Though development of technology is rapidly increasing and we learn new things everyday, secure coding practices are not learnt in the process. This in turn leads to security holes in the implementation of software, which are then exploited by attackers causing huge losses to companies.
Let’s try to answer some simple questions:
- How do you host webpages over the world-wide-web?
- In most cases, web pages are accessed using the http(s) or (s)ftp protocols. If a person wants to host a website over the world-wide-web, (s)he has to first register his/her domain name. This means that the domain name will get mapped to a particular IP address which is reachable from anywhere in the world (called as ‘public ip’). Next, the person has to enable the website to be accessible from the machine having the assigned IP address, which is generally done using a web server to host his/her website. Now, the website is available to anyone who either knows the public IP or the registered domain name.
- What programming language can be used while implementing the same?
- There are a huge number of scripting languages available, which designers can use to create websites. Examples are PHP, JSP, ASP, etc. Programming constructs differ in each language, but end up doing the same things. There is also CGI (common gateway interface) where you can use scripting languages such as Python, Perl, Ruby, etc. to do the same job.
- What should one do to make my web application secure?
- This question cannot be answered in one paragraph. Anyway, I’ll try listing a few:
- Firstly, it requires a good knowledge of the exact working of the code which designers write. Talking with an example, it means that knowing that “strcpy()” function copies one string to another is not enough, but rather the programmer needs to know how exactly it copies and why it is made so.
- Secondly, the programmer who implements the software needs to have deep knowledge about secure coding practices – what, why and how. Secure coding practices try to ensure that there are minimal security holes in software being designed, thus ensuring safety, security and stability of software. Other factors such as reliability, integrity tag along if these conditions are met.
Now, based on the three questions answered above, we can come to a standpoint as to what factors determine how secure a website is. In decreasing order of importance and difficulty:
- Knowledge of the programmer.
- Network layout being used.
- Configurations being used in software.
We know that the only way to access a website hosted on a public IP is through the internet. Without the internet, the world-wide-web becomes a big joke. When we look at how the internet is designed, we see that networking plays a huge role. Hence, the protocols being implemented during transfer of data have to be secure. No matter how secure the application is, if the networking protocols being implemented are insecure, security is threatened. This is one basic fact that all web designers have to understand. Most of the devices used in the internet today, use the 5 layer hybrid protocol stack. This protocol stack is known to be insecure, and is prone to MITM attacks (DNS cache poisoning, ARP spoofing, IP spoofing, etc.)
Management of a website is normally done through configuration settings. These configuration settings determine how users of the website can access data and with what level of permissions. These configuration settings for the website can be divided into two parts – configurations of web server and the configurations of the user who is accessing the website. Configurations of the web server mean those configurations which affect all users accessing the website, whereas user-specific configurations apply to single users accessing the website. An example of a web-server configuration is the “Directory Listing” option, where a user can list the contents of a directory accessible through the website, without a webpage displaying it. An example of a user-specific configuration is the access control being specified to each user, controlled by an ACL (Access Control List). Programming languages sometimes influence how these user-specific configurations are specified.
Can we make the world-wide-web ‘entirely’ secure?
A simple answer would be “Entirely secure?! I don’t think so!”. But there are a lot of factors to consider while answering this question. Let’s look at some of them.
Firstly, the programmer implementing the software has a good knowledge of secure coding practices. He/she has to know exactly how the code is being implemented and how secure it is. This is where programming languages play an important role. Some programming languages provide very high-level programming constructs to make the job easier for the programmer, but this actually blinds the programmer from the inner implementation of the constructs and how secure they are. Thus security does not only rely on how the the programmer codes, but also how the code is being implemented by the compiler/interpreter of that particular programming language. The programmer has to take care of this, carefully considering the programming language that is being used and how it is actually being implemented.
There isn’t much that can be done about the security level of the entire protocol stack. This is because if we have to modify the protocols in the protocol stack to make it secure (below the application layer), then we would have to change the firmware in every hub, switch, router and computer all around the world. For a long time, people have been changing the protocols at the application layer to secure ones (such as SSL), trying to prevent MITM attacks at the application layer. But then we have to understand that whatever is done on the application layer is specific only to that layer. The security mechanisms used in the application layer are totally blind to attacks happening at the lower layers. Thus, if we actually would have to make the network layout totally secure, that wouldn’t be possible. But what we can do is to provide more encryption mechanisms at the application layer, hoping for the best. So from the network point of view, the world-wide-web is still insecure and will continue to be until the entire protocol stack can be made secure.
In most of today’s websites, vulnerabilities arise due to insecure configurations being used. The programmer is lazy, thus leaving insecure configurations on the website, paving way for information leak and potential exploits. Though this is relatively easier to handle when compared to the other factors, it is important when it comes to security of a website.
The very need of security arises because of the fact – all of us are not responsible citizens. There would be no need for policemen if there were no thieves. But this is definitely not achievable, because changing hardware and software is a lot easier than changing people! There is a reason that I’ve said that “knowledge of the programmer” is more important and harder to achieve than “making the network layout secure”. What I mean is that it is easier to change all the hubs, switches, routers and computers all over the world to achieve security, than to strive to achieve that every programmer has to have the knowledge of secure coding practices!
During my under-graduation, a professor had once said “It is a never-ending race between designers, attackers and security experts”. Designers keep developing technology, while attackers keep finding security holes in the implementation of that technology, and security experts try to come up with workarounds to patch these holes. This seems to be true, not only with computers, but with any technology used in this world!
We have to do best with what we have. We know that there are attackers prowling in the wild, looking for vulnerable websites to deface, or probably steal data from. So it is our responsibility to secure our data, no matter what. We have talked about some of the factors influencing security, so we will have to look deeper into the same and try to come up with an effective, yet secure implementation. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-40996000 |
New Page Books | 2005-02-15 | ISBN: 1564147959 | 312 pages | PDF | 3,2 MBA handbook of Atlantean information for general readers and specialists alike!
This is an invaluable, one-of-a-kind reference. Unlike most other books on the subject, The Atlantis Encyclopedia offers fewer theories and more facts. Although it does not set out to prove the sunken capital actually existed, The Atlantis Encyclopedia musters so much evidence on its behalf, even skeptics may conclude that there must be at least something factual behind such an enduring, indeed global legend. You’ll learn:
* What was Atlantis? * Where was it located? * How long ago did it flourish? * How was it destroyed? * What became of its survivors? * Have any remains of Atlantis ever been found? * Will Atlantis ever be found? * Did Atlantis have any impact on America? | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41001000 |
The theme of 4AoS is Big Stuff - Astronomy - and Small Stuff - Macro and Microscopy - and anything else that takes my fancy in between.
The title, The Four Ages Of Sand, is taken from a speech by the great Douglas Adams in 1998:
"There are some oddities in the perspective with which we see the world. The fact that we live at the bottom of a deep gravity well, on the surface of a gas covered planet going around a nuclear fireball 90 million miles away and think this is perfectly normal is obviously some indication of how skewed our perspective tends to be, but we have done various things over intellectual history to slowly correct some of our misapprehensions. Curiously enough, quite a few of these have come from sand, so let's talk about the four ages of sand..."
We use sand to make glass, glass to make lenses, and lenses to make telescopes. Through Astronomy, we discovered the Universe was a very different place than we expected, and so began the First Age of Sand.
Next we used lenses to make microscopes and discovered that life itself was very different to what we had believed.
Then we discovered something else we can make from sand: silicon chips. The computer is the basis of the next stage in our intellectual evolution; The Third Of Sand.
What else can we make from sand? Fibre-optics. Fibre-optics allowed us to connect computers together, and the Fourth Age Of Sand - the Internet - was born. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41005000 |
As shown in the previous section, the table expression in the SELECT command constructs an intermediate virtual table by possibly combining tables, views, eliminating rows, grouping, etc. This table is finally passed on to processing by the select list. The select list determines which columns of the intermediate table are actually output.
The simplest kind of select list is * which emits all columns that the table expression produces. Otherwise, a select list is a comma-separated list of value expressions (as defined in Section 4.2). For instance, it could be a list of column names:
SELECT a, b, c FROM ...
The columns names a, b, and c are either the actual names of the columns of tables referenced in the FROM clause, or the aliases given to them as explained in Section 188.8.131.52. The name space available in the select list is the same as in the WHERE clause, unless grouping is used, in which case it is the same as in the HAVING clause.
If more than one table has a column of the same name, the table name must also be given, as in:
SELECT tbl1.a, tbl2.a, tbl1.b FROM ...
When working with multiple tables, it can also be useful to ask for all the columns of a particular table:
SELECT tbl1.*, tbl2.a FROM ...
(See also Section 7.2.2.)
If an arbitrary value expression is used in the select list, it conceptually adds a new virtual column to the returned table. The value expression is evaluated once for each result row, with the row's values substituted for any column references. But the expressions in the select list do not have to reference any columns in the table expression of the FROM clause; they can be constant arithmetic expressions, for instance.
The entries in the select list can be assigned names for subsequent processing, such as for use in an ORDER BY clause or for display by the client application. For example:
SELECT a AS value, b + c AS sum FROM ...
If no output column name is specified using AS, the system assigns a default column name. For simple column references, this is the name of the referenced column. For function calls, this is the name of the function. For complex expressions, the system will generate a generic name.
The AS keyword is optional, but only if the new column name does not match any PostgreSQL keyword (see Appendix C). To avoid an accidental match to a keyword, you can double-quote the column name. For example, VALUE is a keyword, so this does not work:
SELECT a value, b + c AS sum FROM ...
but this does:
SELECT a "value", b + c AS sum FROM ...
For protection against possible future keyword additions, it is recommended that you always either write AS or double-quote the output column name.
Note: The naming of output columns here is different from that done in the FROM clause (see Section 184.108.40.206). It is possible to rename the same column twice, but the name assigned in the select list is the one that will be passed on.
After the select list has been processed, the result table can optionally be subject to the elimination of duplicate rows. The DISTINCT key word is written directly after SELECT to specify this:
SELECT DISTINCT select_list ...
(Instead of DISTINCT the key word ALL can be used to specify the default behavior of retaining all rows.)
Obviously, two rows are considered distinct if they differ in at least one column value. Null values are considered equal in this comparison.
Alternatively, an arbitrary expression can determine what rows are to be considered distinct:
SELECT DISTINCT ON (expression [, expression ...]) select_list ...
Here expression is an arbitrary value expression that is evaluated for all rows. A set of rows for which all the expressions are equal are considered duplicates, and only the first row of the set is kept in the output. Note that the "first row" of a set is unpredictable unless the query is sorted on enough columns to guarantee a unique ordering of the rows arriving at the DISTINCT filter. (DISTINCT ON processing occurs after ORDER BY sorting.)
The DISTINCT ON clause is not part of the SQL standard and is sometimes considered bad style because of the potentially indeterminate nature of its results. With judicious use of GROUP BY and subqueries in FROM, this construct can be avoided, but it is often the most convenient alternative. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41008000 |
David Lynn, Instructor/Partner | Georgia Institute of Technology | Laughing Dog Design Studio, LLC
From the very beginnings of automotive design in the late 1800s, automotive design education has relied heavily on oral tradition, or correspondence, as in the case of Andrew Johnson, and personal relationships not unlike those between master and apprentice. The tools and skills of automotive design have been taught by experienced practitioners to eager students primarily via demonstration and word of mouth. This method has produced a rich heritage but perhaps at the expense of innovation and broader understanding of the field outside of a relatively small circle of professionals. Although the number of practitioners of automotive design is small, the influence is great; over 60 million cars a year are built (McElroy, 2005). The introduction of computer-based design tools, along with the ongoing recognition of additional fields that are integral to modern automotive design (product planning, branding, marketing, ergonomics, interface, aerodynamics, design engineering, materials science, and manufacturing to name a few) has opened great opportunities and the need for automotive design education to evolve in response.
The profession currently enjoys unprecedented influence within the automotive industry. Design is widely recognized as an efficient means to distinguish one vehicle from another and increase market share via the superior design of otherwise similar competing products. Market analyst AutoPacific Inc. estimates that by 2009, there will be 277 distinct models of cars and light trucks offered in the U.S. (Vlasic, 2006). Competing in numerous niche markets requires a greater number of vehicle models, each tailored for a specific market and each requiring its own design. The proliferation of models and ever-shrinking development times mean that there is more design work to be done and less time to accomplish it. Phil Mertens, former group vice president for product creation, Ford Motor Company, points out that “design is increasingly more important due to fragmentation of the global market and required technology and amenities.” (McElroy, 2005) “The only thing that is going to separate our company from the rest is great design,” declares J Mays, Ford’s group vice president of design (Fonda, 2006). As competitive economic forces require companies to run leaner, the training and hiring of the best young designers becomes increasingly critical. Industry is demanding graduates ready to perform fresh out of school and is no longer in a position to take time to train new hires. This responsibility is falling ever more heavily upon academic design programs. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41009000 |
The 1950s: Doing it right.
Eastern Russia, where the temperatures can drop so far that even polar bears are in danger of freezing or starving
The few inhabitants of the area at the time, even though they couldn't afford to give much, would feed the mother bears so that they could produce enough milk for their cubs.
A common donation was tins of condensed milk
Just FYI, this is how much nope is stored in a polar bear's face
Obligatory reference to balls large enough to have their own gravitational pull
Ah yes, an outing with the kids. How grand.
Without their help, many of the cubs wouldn't have survived
And Coca-Cola would have needed a new mascot
So, well done, Russia. Good on you.
If you made it this far: congratulations! Here is a squirrel with some port.
- comments sorted by | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41014000 |
As soon as they lay their eggs, the female cichlids scoop them up into their mouths and incubate them until they hatch.
R. Buckminster Fuller was a twentieth century scientist, philosopher, inventor, and was also named a great architect.
Frogs also aren’t fussy eaters: any live prey will do. Some large species of frogs can gulp up a mouse, bat, or small snake in one mouthful, which is fortunate, because frogs can’t chew. If they have any teeth at all, they’re usually only good for holding onto the prey. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41018000 |
The subjects of evisceration and enucleation of the eyeball are just now commanding more attention than in the past, especially in view of the fact that they are to be made the subjects of special inquiry at the next meeting of the International Medical Congress at Paris. Barring special conditions and indications, both enucleation and evisceration have their advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages of the former are a rapid healing of the wound with the minimum of local reaction, and the absolute certainty that it will not be followed by sympathetic inflammation in the other eye. Its disadvantages are that it is more radical than necessary, in that it removes too much tissue and leaves a very poor stump for an artificial eye.
The disadvantages of evisceration are just the opposite of the advantages of enucleation, viz., a considerable local reaction and an occasional case of sympathetic inflammation. Though the | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41038000 |
Is Copy and Paste Programming Really a Problem?
But it’s also a natural way to get stuff done – find something that already works, something that looks close to what you want to do, take a copy and use it as a starting point. Almost everybody has done in at some point. This is because there are times when copy and paste programming is not only convenient, but it might also be the right thing to do.
First of all, let’s be clear what I mean by copy and paste. This is not copying code examples off of the Internet, a practice that comes with its own advantages and problems. By copy and paste I mean when programmers take a shortcut in reuse – when they need to solve a problem that is similar to another problem in the system, they’ll start by taking a copy of existing code and changing what they need to.
Early in design and development, copy and paste programming has no real advantage. The code and design are still plastic, this is your chance to come up with the right set of abstractions, routines and libraries to do what the system needs to do. And there’s not a lot to copy from anyways. It’s late in development when you already have a lot of code in place, and especially when you are maintaining large, long-lived systems, that the copy and paste argument gets much more complicated.
Why Copy and Paste?
Programmers copy and paste because it saves time. First, you have a starting point, code that you know works. All you have to do is figure out what needs to be changed or added. You can focus on the problem you are trying to solve, on what is different, and you only need to understand what you are going to actually use. You are more free to iterate and make changes to fit the problem in front of you – you can cleanup code when you need to, delete code that you don’t need. All of this is important, because you may not know what you will need to keep, what you need to change, and what you don’t need at all until you are deeper into solving the problem.
Copy and paste programming also reduces risk. If you have to go back and change and extend existing code to do what it does today as well as to solve your new problem, you run the risk of breaking something that is already working. It is usually safer and less expensive (in the short term at least) to take a copy and work from there.
What if you are building a new B2B customer interface that will be used by a new set of customers? It probably makes sense to take an existing interface as a starting point, reuse the scaffolding and plumbing and wiring at least and as much of the the business code as makes sense, and then see what you need to change. In the end, there will be common code used by both interfaces (after all, that’s why you are taking a copy), but it could take a while before you know what this code is.
Finding a common design, the right abstractions and variations to support different implementations and to handle exceptions can be difficult and time consuming. You may end up with code that is harder to understand and harder to maintain and change in the future – because the original design didn’t anticipate the different exceptions and extensions, and refactoring can only take you so far. You may need a new design and implementation.
Changing the existing code, refactoring or rewriting some of it to be general-purpose, shared and extendable, will add cost and risk to the work in front of you. You can’t afford to create problems for existing customers and partners just because you want to bring some new customers online. You’ll need to be extra careful, and you’ll have to understand not only the details of what you are trying to do now (the new interface), but all of the details of the existing interface, its behavior and assumptions, so that you can preserve all of it.
It’s naïve to think that all of this behavior will be captured in your automated tests – assuming that you have a good set of automated tests. You’ll need to go back and redo integration testing on the existing interface. Getting customers and partners who may have already spent weeks or months to test the software to retest it is difficult and expensive. They (justifiably) won’t see the need to go through this time and expense because what they have is already working fine.
Copying and pasting now, and making a plan to come back later to refactor or even redesign if necessary towards a common solution, is the right approach here.
When Copy and Paste makes sense
In Making Software’s chapter on “Copy-Paste as a Principled Engineering Tool”, Michael Godfrey and Cory Kapser explore the costs of copy and paste programming, and the cases where copy and paste make sense:
- Forking – purposely creating variants for hardware or platform variation, or for exploratory reasons.
- Templating –some languages don’t support libraries and shared functions well so it may be necessary to copy and paste to share code. Somewhere back in the beginning of time, the first COBOL programmer wrote a complete COBOL program – everybody else after that copied and pasted from each other.
- Customizing – creating temporary workarounds – as long as it is temporary.
practice of “clone and own” to solve problems in big development
organizations. One team takes code from another group and customizes it
or adapts it to their own purposes – now they own their copy. This is a
common approach with open source code that is used as a foundation and
needs to be extended to solve a proprietary problem.
When Copy and Paste becomes a Problem
When to copy and paste, and how much of a problem it will become over time, depends on a few important factors.
First, the quality of what you are copying – how understandable the code is, how stable it is, how many bugs it has in it. You don’t want to start off by inheriting somebody else’s problems.
How many copies have been made. A common rule of thumb from Fowler and Beck`s Refactoring book is “three strikes and you refactor”. This rule comes from recognizing that by making a copy of something that is already working and changing the copy, you’ve created a small maintenance problem. It may not be clear what this maintenance problem is yet or how best to clean it up, because only two cases are not always enough to understand what is common and what is special.
But the more copies that you make, the more of a maintenance problem that you create – the cost of making changes and fixes to multiple copies, and the risk of missing making a change or fix to all of the copies increases. By the time that you make a third copy, you should be able to see patterns – what’s common between the code, and what isn’t. And if you have to do something in three similar but different ways, there is a good chance that there will be a fourth implementation, and a fifth. By the third time, it’s worthwhile to go back and restructure the code and come up with a more general-purpose solution.
How often you have to change the copied code and keep it in sync – particularly, how often you have to change or fix the same code in more than one place.
How well you know the code, do you know that there are clones and where to find them? How long it takes to find the copies, and how sure you are that you found them all. Tools can help with this. Source code analysis tools like clone detectors can help you find copy and paste code – outright copies and code that is not the same but similar (fuzzier matching with fuzzier results). Copied code is often fiddled with over time by different programmers, which makes it harder for tools to find all of the copies. Some programmers recommend leaving comments as markers in the code when you make a copy, highlighting where the copy was taken from, so that a maintenance programmer in the future making a fix will know to look for and check the other code.
Copy and Paste programming doesn’t come for free. But like a lot of other ideas and practices in software development, copy and paste programming isn’t right or wrong. It’s a tool that can be used properly, or abused.
Brian Foote, one of the people who first recognized the Big Ball of Mud problem in software design, says that copy and paste programming is the one form of reuse that programmers actually follow, because it works.
It’s important to recognize this. If we’re going to Copy and Paste, let's do a responsible job of it.
(Note: Opinions expressed in this article and its replies are the opinions of their respective authors and not those of DZone, Inc.) | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41041000 |
Average annual precipitation for the basin ranges from 31 inches in the northern part of the basin to 35 inches in the southern portion of the basin (USDA-SCS 1982). The greatest amount of precipitation usually occurs during June, while the least amount of precipitation generally occurs during the months of January and February (Figure Hy01). The basin is covered primarily in glacial till, and due to the clay content, movement of water to the subsurface is greatly diminished (Detroy and Skelton 1983). Thus, most rainfall runs off the surface rather than percolating into the soil. Streams in the basin show rapid flow increases in conjunction with rains, but quickly return to low flow conditions shortly after runoff ceases (MDNR 1995). Average annual runoff ranges from five inches in the northern portion of the basin to seven inches in the southern part of the basin (USDA-SCS 1982).
United States Geological Survey (USGS) Gage Stations
There are five active and 26 inactive USGS water gage stations throughout the Platte River basin (Table Hy01). Two of the active gage stations are located on the 102 River in Iowa, near the towns of Gravity (crest station) and Bedford (Figure Hy02). The remaining three active stations are located in Missouri. One station is located on Little Platte River 2.4 miles below Smithville Reservoir, one is located at Smithville Reservoir in the dam, and the remaining one is located on the Platte River at Sharps Station (Figure Hy02). Discharges at these active gaging stations are presented in Table Hy02.
Permanency of flow in streams within the Platte River basin is best illustrated on USGS 7.5 minute topographic maps. The USGS identified perennial reaches of streams (defined as having water 12 months of the year during years of normal precipitation) on these maps with solid blue lines. Intermittent streams (defined as having water less than 12 months of the year) were indicated with broken blue lines. A listing of the 7.5 minute quadrangle maps covering each of the 435 third order and larger streams within the Platte River basin is provided in Table Hy03 (Figure Hy03).
Funk (1968) classified Missouri streams as permanent if they maintained flow during drought. Intermittent streams were defined as those that maintained permanent pools when flow ceased during drought periods. Based on these criteria, Funk (1968) determined that the entire 138 miles of the Platte River in Missouri had permanent flow. In addition, the entire 70 miles of the 102 River in Missouri maintained permanent flow as well (Table Hy04). Information on the permanence / intermittence of flows in smaller tributaries within the basin is presented in Table Hy04.
Average annual discharge for the Platte River at Sharps Station, which is 3.3 miles below the confluence of the Little Platte River in Platte County at river mile 25.1 (98% of the drainage basin), is 1,925 cfs (Table Hy02). Examination of the flow duration curve for the Platte River at Sharps Station shows that temporal discharge variability within the basin is high (Figure Hy04). The highest instantaneous daily flow was 37,800 cfs recorded on July 26, 1993, while the lowest instantaneous daily flow was 12 cfs recorded on August 7, 8, 13, and 14, 1989. Stream flows within the basin are generally lowest in January, while peak flows occur during May, June, and July (Figure Hy05), and these flows coincide with monthly precipitation values. Low flows in the Little Platte River below Smithville Dam are maintained at 8 cfs. Hauth (1974) presented flood magnitudes at various recurrence intervals for several locations within the Platte River basin, and these are presented in Table Hy05.
Skelton (1976) noted that low-flow characteristics of streams vary among physiographic regions in Missouri, and that the low-flow potential of most streams in the Dissected Till Plains region is poor because of the low hydraulic conductivity of the clays and shales in the area. Skelton (1976) estimated that the 7-day Q2 would be zero for drainage basins less than 100 miles2. In addition, about 60% of streams with drainage basins of 100 to 200 miles2 would have 7-day Q2 values of zero, and the remaining streams of this size would have 7-day Q2 values ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 cfs. Skelton (1976) also estimated that the 7-day Q10 would be zero for drainage basins less than 200 miles2 in this region, with about 70% of the streams with drainage basins of 200 to 1,000 miles2 having 7-day Q10 values of zero. The remaining 30% would have 7-day Q10 values ranging from 0.1 to 1.5 cfs. Data from the Platte River basin for seven day low-flows at two and ten year intervals were reported in Skelton (1970) and Skelton (1976), and these are presented in Table Hy06. The slope index (the ratio of the 7-day Q2 to 7-day Q20) for the Platte River at Agency was 73.3, and this high value indicates extremely high variability in annual low flows and poor groundwater supply. The average slope index for ten streams within the Dissected Till Plains region was 25 (Todd et al. 1994), and ranged from 8.7 in the Grand River near Gallatin to 73.3 for the Platte River. Channelization and watershed modifications were attributed to the wide range in slope index values within northern Missouri (Todd et al. 1994).
Dam and Hydropower Influences
Smithville Lake, a 7,190-acre impoundment on the Little Platte River, and Mozingo Lake, a 1,000-acre impoundment on Mozingo Creek, are the two largest impoundments within the basin. In 1984, there were 59 impoundments greater than two surface acres within the Missouri portion of the basin, and these totaled 635 acres (MDNR 1995). Although no information exists on the total number of impoundments within the Iowa portion of the basin, ten public impoundments totaling 1,042 acres were identified. Undoubtedly, the number of impoundments greater than two acres has increased dramatically throughout the basin since 1984 in association with PL 83-566, SALT, EARTH, and other erosion control projects. Concern exists on what effects these impoundments have on low flow conditions because they intercept runoff and provide little or no provisions for maintenance of stream flows. There are no hydropower facilities within the Platte River basin. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41042000 |
One of the most nagging problems in
manufacturing is the deburring of cross-drilled holes. Burrs are always created
where the crossholes exist. Getting at the burrs, let alone removing them, can be
a real challenge.
A handful of methods are commonly employed for dealing with these burrs:
sandblasting, extrude hone, and of course, manual deburring with knives,
abrasive stones, brushes, burs, etc. While effective to varying degrees,
these methods have their drawbacks. They're all off-line processes, i.e. they are a
separate operation. Parts need to be handled and/or moved from machining to deburring.
Often deburring is an out-sourced operation. The extra handling, movement, queue, transport,
etc. represent non-value added operations. Sandblasting, extrude hone, and similar devices
involve capital investment, often substantial, or again, outsourcing. Manual deburring, as
everyone knows, is very labor intensive, as well as craft sensitive. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41055000 |
Podcasts & RSS Feeds
Fri November 18, 2011
Climate Panel: More Extreme Weather On The Way
Brace yourself for more extreme weather. A group of more than 200 scientists convened by the United Nations says in a new report that climate change will bring more heat waves, more intense rainfall and more expensive natural disasters.
These conclusions are from the latest effort of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change — a consensus statement from researchers around the world.
And since this is a consensus, the conclusions are carefully couched. Take, for example, the issue of rainfall. "It is likely that the frequency of heavy precipitation will increase in the 21st century over many regions," says the report, which defines "likely" as more than a 66 percent chance.
You might expect heavy rainfall would lead to flooding, but the report is reluctant to make that strong a link. One of the authors, David Easterling from the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, N.C., says dams and flood-control projects in some places can handle the heavier bursts of rain, so it's not automatically the case that downpours lead to flooding.
Another example of this deliberate, cautious approach is evident in the report's conclusions about hurricanes and typhoons (hurricanes' equivalent in the Western Pacific). The science suggests strongly that hurricanes will eventually become more powerful, "but we won't really be able to detect an increase for another 30 to 40 years," Easterling tells NPR. "It may be there, but the increases are not huge. It's not like you'll see a doubling of wind speeds, but [storms are] expected to become more intense."
That said, the report finds no compelling evidence that hurricanes and typhoons will become more frequent as a result of climate change.
Much clearer is the trend about who is vulnerable to disaster. The report finds that 95 percent of the lives lost to natural disasters are in the developing world, where people often lack the infrastructure and resources to cope with calamity. Most of the financial costs are borne by the developed world, where valuable property is in harm's way. And that's not simply because of natural disasters — it's principally because of the deliberate choices we've made to develop along vulnerable coastlines and floodplains.
You don't have to look far for evidence of those costs. This year "has been one of the most costly from extreme weather events, with more billion-dollar events than ever before," says Mindy Lubber, president of Ceres, a nonprofit that helps businesses and investors adapt to climate change. "The drought and wildfires in the Southwest and Southern Plains, for example, cost more than $9 billion in direct damage to cattle, agriculture and infrastructure." And Hurricane Irene, which killed at least 45 people, cost an additiional $7 billion.
"Perhaps these multibillion-dollar events that are coming at us fast and furious will be enough to get policymakers to sit up and listen and realize we've got to change — and we have to move quickly," Lubber says.
And perhaps a report that trips over itself to be extra cautious — as the IPCC's tangled jargon frequently does — will also garner more credibility for the statements it does make with confidence. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41057000 |
Sledding has been a winter ritual for generations. Anywhere there's snow and a hillside, you can find people sledding. Your grandparents probably did it, as did your parents, and someday your kids will do it, too. Why? It's tons of fun, and it doesn't require any special skills or equipment other than a sled and a helmet.
But sledding can also cause injuries, some of them pretty serious. To keep yourself safe, follow these tips.
Why Is Sledding Safety Important?
Though it may seem like harmless fun, sledding injuries send tens of thousands of people to hospital emergency rooms each year. More than half of all sledding injuries are head injuries, which can be very serious and even deadly. Sledders are actually more likely to be injured in collisions than skiers or snowboarders.
Choose the Right Hill
When hills get coated with snow, they may all look like great locations for sledding. But not all hills are safe. Choose yours carefully. Here are a few guidelines to follow:
Select a hill that is not too steep and has a long flat area at the bottom for you to glide to a stop.
Avoid hillsides that end near a street or parking lot.
Avoid hillsides that end near ponds, trees, fences or other hazards.
Make sure the hill is free of obstacles such as jumps, bumps, rocks, or trees before you begin sledding.
Choose hills that are snowy rather than icy. If you fall off your sled, icy slopes make for hard landings.
Try to sled during the daytime, when visibility is better. If you go sledding at night, make sure the hillside is well lit and all potential hazards are visible.
Dress for Success
Since sledding involves playing in the snow outdoors during wintertime, chances are it's going to be cold. Frostbite and even hypothermia are potential dangers. So is hitting your head. Be sure to wear the proper clothing to stay warm and safe.
Wear sensible winter clothing — hats, gloves or mittens, snow pants, winter jacket, snow boots — that is waterproof and warm, and change into something dry if your clothes get wet.
Avoid wearing scarves or any clothing that can get caught in a sled and pose a risk of strangulation.
Wear a helmet designed for winter sports. If you don't have a ski or winter sports helmet, at least wear the helmet you use for biking or skateboarding.
The best sleds can be steered by their riders and have brakes to slow them down. Avoid sleds that can't be steered, such as saucers or plastic toboggans, and never use a sled substitute like an inner tube, lunch tray, or cardboard box. Good sleds are relatively cheap to buy and are well worth the extra money.
Follow These Simple Safety Rules
You've got the right kind of sled and a helmet, you're dressed warmly, and you've picked out a perfect hill. You're ready to go. Follow these rules to keep yourself and other sledders safe:
Designate a go-to adult. In the event someone gets injured, you'll want an adult on hand to administer first aid and, if necessary, take the injured sledder to the emergency room.
Always sit face-forward on your sled. Never sled down a hill backwards or while standing, and don't go down the hill face-first, as this greatly increases the risk of a head injury.
Young kids (5 and under) should sled with an adult, and kids under 12 should be actively watched at all times.
Go down the hill one at a time and with only one person per sled (except for adults with young children). Piling more than one person on a sled just means there are more things on the hill that you can collide with.
Never build an artificial jump or obstacle on a sledding hill.
Keep your arms and legs within the sled at all times, and if you fall off the sled, move out of the way. If you find yourself on a sled that won't stop, roll off it and get away from it.
Walk up the side of the hill and leave the middle open for other sledders.
Never ride a sled that is being pulled by a moving vehicle.
While it's unlikely that you'll be injured while sledding, the possibility definitely exists. Just take a little extra time to dress properly and make sure you're following these safety guidelines, and you'll have a better time knowing you have less to worry about. Sledding is supposed to be fun. Stay safe and warm, and you'll ensure that it is! | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41061000 |
(En español: Exhalar)
Put one hand on your chest and take a deep breath . . . hold it! Now let the air out. Do you know why your chest seems to get smaller? It's called exhaling. This means you're pushing the air you breathed in out of your body. Your lungs are kind of like balloons, and when you breathe in (inhale), they get bigger. Then when you exhale and let that air back out, they get smaller. That's why your chest goes up and down when you breathe. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41062000 |
My 6-year-old daughter is undergoing tests at our local hospital to see if she's in puberty. How can this be happening so early? - Joy
Puberty, the time when kids develop physically and emotionally into young adults, usually begins around 8 to 15 years of age. But for some kids it can happen much earlier. The medical term for this early development is precocious puberty.
Precocious puberty might be the result of a problem in the brain or a hormonal imbalance, but more often there's no specific underlying health issue. Some kids just have an early timer.
A doctor who specializes in early puberty can help distinguish between normal early development and a medical issue, and can help with treatment if it is needed.
Going through puberty early can be difficult on any child emotionally and socially, but can be even more difficult if that child is too young to understand what's happening. Give your daughter a simple, truthful explanation about what's happening, and keep her informed about what can be expected along the way.
Although we can't reply personally, you may see your question posted to this page in the future. If you're looking for medical advice, a diagnosis, or treatment, consult your doctor or other qualified medical professional. If this is an emergency, contact emergency services in your area. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41063000 |
Can a Girl Get Pregnant if She Has Sex During Her Period?
Can a girl get pregnant if she has sex during her period? - Jamie*
Yes. A lot of people think that if a girl has sex during her period, she can't get pregnant. But it is possible for a girl to get pregnant while she is bleeding. This can happen for a couple of reasons:
Not all vaginal bleeding is a menstrual period. Sometimes a girl will have a small amount of vaginal bleeding at the time of — the time when she is most fertile. Girls who are ovulating sometimes have some vaginal bleeding that can be mistaken for a period.
Sometimes ovulation can happen before the bleeding from a girl's period has stopped or within a few days after her period is over. All girls can ovulate at different points from cycle to cycle, making it impossible for a girl to know exactly when she is most fertile. Because sperm can fertilize an egg for 72 hours (3 days) after ejaculation, having sex during a girl's period is risky.
Having unprotected sex at any time is risky: Along with the chance of getting pregnant, you can also get a sexually transmitted disease (STD), such as chlamydia, genital warts, or HIV. The only way to prevent pregnancy and STDs is abstinence. If you do have sex, use a condom every time to protect against unplanned pregnancy and STDs. And talk to your doctor about additional forms of contraception. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41066000 |
Blood Test: Basic Metabolic Panel
What Is a Basic Metabolic Panel and Why Is it Done?
A basic metabolic panel (BMP) is a group of blood tests that provide doctors with clues about how the body is working. Doctors usually order this as part of a routine physical or as a way to help diagnose a medical problem.
Although the basic metabolic panel tests for several different things, you should only need to get blood taken once. The lab uses the same blood sample to run all the tests.
The BMP test looks at:
- Glucose. The body uses this type of sugar for energy. Abnormal glucose levels can indicate diabetes or hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).
- Calcium. This mineral plays an important role in muscle contraction, transmitting messages through the nerves, and the release of hormones. Elevated or decreased calcium levels may be a sign of a hormone imbalance or problems with the kidneys, bones, or pancreas.
- Sodium, potassium, carbon dioxide, and chloride. These electrolytes help balance the body's fluid levels, among other things. They also play a role in regulating heart rhythm, muscle contraction, and brain function. Abnormal levels of these electrolytes may be a sign of heart disease, kidney disease, or dehydration.
- Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine. These waste products are filtered out of the blood by the kidneys. High levels in the blood may be a sign that the kidneys aren't working as well as they should.
In an emergency, the basic metabolic panel can be done without any special preparation. But the results are more accurate when a person has been fasting. So your doctor may ask you not to eat or drink for 8 to 12 hours before having your blood taken.
You should tell your doctor about any medications you're taking (including over-the-counter medicines or herbal supplements) because certain drugs might alter the test results.
It can help to wear a T shirt or other short-sleeve top on the day of the test to make things faster and easier for the technician who will be drawing the blood.
A health professional will usually draw the blood from a vein in your arm — most often on the inside of the elbow, but sometimes on the back of the hand. The technician cleans the skin surface with antiseptic and ties an elastic band (tourniquet) around the upper arm so the veins swell with blood and are easy to see.
Next, it's time for the needle. It should feel like a quick pinprick. Occasionally, it can be hard to find a vein so a nurse, doctor, or technician may need to try more than once. That's not the norm, though — most people's veins are easy to find.
It's best to try to relax and stay still during the procedure since tensing muscles can make it harder and more painful to draw blood. And if you don't want to watch the needle being inserted or see the blood collecting, you don't have to. Look the other way and maybe relax by focusing on saying the alphabet backwards, doing some breathing exercises, thinking of a place that makes you happy, or listening to your favorite music.
The technician will draw the blood so it collects in a vial or syringe. Collecting blood will only take a few minutes. Once the technician has enough blood, he or she removes the needle and covers the area with cotton or a bandage to stop the bleeding. After the test, you may notice some bruising — that's normal and it should go away in a few days. Don't be afraid to ask the technician if you have any questions about the blood draw.
A blood test is a safe procedure and there are no real risks. Some people may feel faint or lightheaded during a blood test. And, while nobody really loves needles, a few teens have a strong fear of them. If that's you, talk to your doctor since there are ways to make the procedure easier for you.
The blood sample will be processed by a machine. It usually only takes a few hours or a day or so for your doctor to get the results. If your doctor has any concerns after the test results are in, he or she may want to do additional tests.
Reviewed by: Steven Dowshen, MD
Date reviewed: February 2011
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Note: All information on TeensHealth® is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor.
© 1995- The Nemours Foundation. All rights reserved. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41067000 |
Pub. date: 2008 | Online Pub. Date: May 28, 2008 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412963930 | Print ISBN: 9781412941655 | Online ISBN: 9781412963930| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia
Immigration, United States
Often described as a nation of immigrants, the United States had a foreign-born population of 12.4 percent in 2005. Before the 19th century, however, people rarely used the term immigrant. Instead, the foreign-born came as settlers, pioneers, slaves, or indentured servants. The Naturalization Act of 1790 first established a centralized process for becoming a citizen, originally open to any free white individual who could demonstrate residence in the country for 2 years. In the mid-19th century, the short-lived Know-No thing movement emerged as a reaction to a surge in immigration, particularly of Irish Catholics after the potato famine of 1845–1851. No national legislation, however, was enacted in response. Immigration was, for the most part, welcomed as a route to national development until the late 19th century. This changed with the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese from entering the country and excluded those already in ... | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41070000 |
About this Base Converter
Base-2 to base-62 are accepted. "A" stands for 10, "Z" for 35, "a" (lower-case) for 36 and "z" (lower-case) for 61. Decimals are supported. This is a custom function because PHP's base_convert() doesn't accept decimals and only goes up to base-36. It's only as precise as PHP is, so don't blindly copy the smallest decimal thinking it will always be correct.
Is there any standard for displaying numbers higher than base-36? I've used lowercase letters to go up to base-62, but I couldn't find if that's what is commonly done. (Then again, I guess nothing is commonly done, since anything beyond base-16 doesn't really have much use, to my knowledge.)
Fun game: Enter your name and supply base-36 (or higher) as the starting base and see what number you get in another base. My first name in base-38 for instance returns EPKCO in base-42.
What's this about?
A base is the system with which numbers are displayed. If we talk about base-n, the system has n characters (including 0) available to display a number. Numbers are represented with digits which are smaller than n. Therefore, 3 in base-3 is 10: because that system doesn't have a "3", it starts over (1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, etc.).
The base we usually use is base-10, because we have 10 (when including 0) digits until we start over again (8,9,10). In base-2 (binary), we only have 2 characters, i.e. 0 and 1, until we start over again. Following this example, the binary number 10 is 2 in our (base-10) system.
Does it make sense that a finite fraction ("decimal") is infinite in another base?
It totally does. If you want to convert 645 from base-8 to base-10, you do 6*82 + 4*81 + 5*80 = 421. After the comma you keep on decrementing the exponent, meaning that if you have 21.35 in base-7 you get to its base-10 equivalent by doing 2*71 + 1*70 + 3*7-1 + 5*7-2. 7-1 (= 1/7), however, is 0.142857... in base-10, while it's simply written as 0.1 in base-7. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41072000 |
From time to time in the workplace, it is up to us to provide feedback to others. Perhaps to your mentee, a colleague or teammate, or even your boss.
How can you make sure your words are well received, while also honest and effective? Follow the simple guidelines below, and you’ll do fine.
Don’t be vague or speak in generalities. Instead, a specific example, such as, “When you gave the presentation, you spent 5 minutes giving background before telling us why you were speaking, or the goal you wanted to achieve. Instead, next time, could you start with one or two sentences that give context and tell the team precisely what you want from us? In this way, people will be more inclined to listen to the rest of what you say. Does this make sense to you?”
You want to specify what the problem is, why it was a problem (in your opinion) and a specific suggestion as to how it could be resolved. Finally, you want to ask for the other person’s input and understanding.
Keep it Confined to One Instance or Event
Stay focused on the clear difference you would like to see in their actions from this most recent event.
Phrases like, “You always…” or “You never…” are not helpful, and tend to put one on the defensive.
When giving critique, make sure to focus on precisely what happened, and how it needs to be improved, for the one example you are going to offer.
Be Timely (But Don’t Give Critique When You’re Angry, or Emotional)
Make sure and give feedback near to the time of the event that you’re critiquing. Not only will the event be fresh in your mind, it will also be more relevant and helpful to the person receiving the feedback.
You don’t want to wait too long, or the impact of your input will be lost.
On the other hand, if you are upset about what happened, make sure you give yourself time to calm down, so the criticism you give can be objective and helpful.
State What You Want (Not Only What You Don’t)
It’s important that critique be useful and give someone a place to go. Simply telling someone that they blew it isn’t helpful.
Moreover, saying, “Don’t do this, and don’t do that” tells your recipient what you DON’T want, but doesn’t tell them what you DO want.
Instead, give concrete ideas for what could have been done differently, and why you think it would be better that way.
Ask for Understanding and Reflection
When giving critique, it is important that the person giving feedback be open to hearing that the input was given without a whole understanding of the facts, or was somehow misplaced.
You want to be clear about your version of events, and why you think there is a situation that needs to be resolved, but you want to be open to hearing another version of the events, as well.
Remember you’re going for true communication. You want to share your ideas, but you need to be able to hear from the other side. The idea is not to bully the other side into submission, but rather that everyone have a better understanding of what happened, and how you can work together to do better next time.
If you follow the above guidelines, your criticism should be well received, and effective.
Giving critique can be tough, so go slow, learn to do it well, and be open to hearing it as well. And never forget, your critique will be so much better received if you’re also verbal with your praise.
When was the last time you had to give critique, and what happened?
Aurelia Flores is Senior Counsel at a Fortune 500 company and former Fulbright Fellow who graduated from Stanford Law School. Her website, PowerfulLatinas.com, offers stories of success, along with resources and programs focused on Latino empowerment. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41090000 |
The definite article the is the most frequent word in English.
We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to.
• because there is only one:
The Pope is visiting Russia.
The moon is very bright tonight.
The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979.
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective:
He is the tallest boy in the class.
It is the oldest building in the town.
• because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:
|We live in a small village next to the church.||=||(the church in our village)|
|Dad, can I borrow the car?||=||(the car that belongs to our family)|
|When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day.||=||(the beach near my grandmother’s house)|
|Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there.||=||(the boy I am pointing at)|
• because we have already mentioned it:
A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell while climbing.
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men walking on the peak were killed in a fall.
We also use the definite article:
• to say something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)
We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments:
Joe plays the piano really well.(= George can play any piano)
She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar)
• to refer to a system or service:
How long does it take on the train.
I heard it on the radio.
You should tell the police.
• With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people:
Life can be very hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more taxes.
She works for a group to help the disabled.
The definite article with names:
We do not normally use the definite article with names:
William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Paris is the capital of France.
Iran is in Asia.
But we do use the definite article with:
• countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
the United Kingdom; the kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the People’s Republic of China.
• countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the Netherlands; the Philippines
• geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals:
the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal.
The Times; The Washington Post
• well known buildings or works of art:
the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers
the United Nations; the Seamen’s Union
• hotels, pubs and restaurants*:
the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the King’s Head; the Déjà Vu
*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner, e.g.,Brown’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.
the Obamas; the Jacksons
Tags for teachers
A - Z of Content
- 1 de 6 | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41094000 |
Simple Example (click to enlarge the two pictures)
Here is a great, simple example of
Pedagogical Elements. Take two, almost identical pictures of Earth. The first is made up just of accurate simulation elements (if you ignore the corners). Click on it and see if you can make out the details. The second picture adds just a bit of pedagogy. Now click on it, and see how much richness a little pedagogy adds. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41095000 |
Genealogy: Cracking the Soundex Code
There are some nuances to Soundex coding that affect names that may be on your lists. Men and women in religious orders were usually coded as if Sister, Brother, or Mother were their surnames. Indian and Hawaiian names may be coded as if they had a surname. Running Bear may be coded as B600 and then alphabetically as if his first name were “Running.” For more information about special situations, consult Kathleen Hinckley's Your Guide to the Federal Census and Tony Burroughs article “The Original Soundex Instructions,” published in the National Genealogical Society Quarterly.
Names that sound the same, but begin with different letters such as Courll and Kurl, or Fillip and Phillip, can give researchers problems because they will be coded differently. In cases like these you may need to use both codes to be successful.
Daitch-Mokotoff Soundex System is a modification of the Soundex System used to accommodate Eastern European names in some indexes, but not those for the census.
Eastern European names did not always fit the Soundex coding system. Same-sounding names might be spelled differently enough to code differently, making it difficult to find the individual sought in indexes. Names such as Moskowitz and Moskovitz sound the same, but their codes are M232 and M213, respectively. To remedy this situation, two researchers devised a modification of the Soundex known as the Daitch-Mokotoff Soundex System. It is not used for the federal census indexes, but reading about the system may provide new ideas on what variations of your surnames you need to know for successful census searches.
Many genealogy programs will generate the Soundex codes for every surname in your database. Also, there are Soundex code generators online in which you enter a surname and the code is generated for you. One (http://resources.rootsweb.com/cgi-bin/soundexconverter) is a RootsWeb page that will return not only the code for surname you enter, but also a list of other names with the same code. Some online code generators such as www.stevemorse.org/census/soundex.html will return the surnames with both the Soundex and Daitch Mokotoff Soundex codes.
Math teachers often express concern when students use calculators for all their arithmetic work, wondering if they understand the underlying concepts. The same is true of using these generators. They are convenient to use, but it is important to understand the basic systems of coding as well.
Soundex Codes and Online Indexes
Although Soundex codes are not necessary to use online indexes to censuses, understanding the Soundex and applying it to the surnames on your list is still important. You may be unable to find your surnames with a simple alphabetical search, in which case you will want to use the Soundex code search option. Also, other online indexes, particularly those for ships' passenger lists, use Soundex codes to increase the chances of success in finding the person whose name was not spelled the way you thought it was.
More on: Family History and Genealogy
Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Genealogy � 2005 by Christine Rose and Kay Germain Ingalls. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
To order this book visit the Idiot's Guide web site or call 1-800-253-6476. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41102000 |
Arabian Spiny Mouse (English), Eastern Spiny Mouse (English), فأر سيناء الشوكى (Arabic)
Eastern spiny mouse has coarse, dark tan and spine-like fur on the upperparts of the body extended from behind the shoulder onto rump. Body color varies from pale-brown to brown in color on the upperparts especially mid-dorsum while the underparts and feet white. The ear is large with white patches. Whitish suborbital region. Tail long, slender, hairless except on closer inspection has short bristles, shorter than the head and body length, upper surface of the tail pale grayish brown and buff or white on the ventral surface. Palm and sole of the feet buff and without hairs. Claws whitish.
Status in Egypt
Largely nocturnal mammal. Sociable species, living in large groups. Omnivorous, feeding on snails, insects, scorpions, spiders, and also various plant parts. Eastern spiny mice can survive without food or water for nearly nine days and can erect its dorsal spines to enlarge its size and hence deceive predators. The tail and large patches of dorsal skin come off easily when handled; also act as an anti-predator device. Eastern spiny mice breed throughout the year with peak in breeding activity from February to July and female gives birth to a litter of two to five young after a gestation period of around 42 days.
Body length: 93–125 mm. Tail length: 85–123 mm. Weight: 37–48 gm.
Ecology and Distribution
Distribution in Egypt
Localized (South Sinai).
Spiny mice inhabits in mountains, wadis near wild plants, and in Bedouin gardens.
- Mus dimidiatus Cretzschmar, 1826 (synonym)
- Acomys flavidus Thomas, 1917 (synonym)
- Acomys cahirinus (Cretzschmar, 1826) ssp. dimidiatus (synonym) | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41105000 |
by Gina Trapani
Everyone's got files they'd like to keep out the the hands of intruders or casual passerby. Ever concerned you'll lose the thumb drive where you backed up four years of post-graduate research? Every worried your 5-year-old will accidentally open the um, grownup files just meant for Mommy and Daddy? Worry no more. Today we'll go over a simple way to encrypt sensitive files or entire external disk drives to protect them from prying eyes.
Recently-featured TrueCrypt is a free, open source encryption application that works on Windows and Linux. Given the right credentials, TrueCrypt will create a virtual hard drive that will read and write encrypted files on the fly. Huh-wha? Fear not; this'll make sense once we get it set up. Let's get started.
Set up the encrypted volume location
- Download TrueCrypt, install and launch.
- Hit the "Create Volume" button to launch the wizard that prepares the encrypted drive location. Choose "Create a Standard TrueCrypt Volume" and hit Next. Hit the "Select File" button and navigate to a location to store your encrypted files and type a name for it. I'm going with "C:\Documents and Settings\gina\My Documents\gtrapani.4meonly" as shown. (Click to enlarge.)
(That .4meonly extension is my own creation; your file can have any - or no - extension.) Keep in mind that this isn't the file you want to encrypt; it's a big file container that will store the files you want encrypted all scrambled up like eggs inside it. Hit Next.
- Choose your encryption algorithm. The curious can flip through the dropdown and view info on each option, but you pretty much can't go wrong here; the default AES selection will work for most purposes. (Hey, if it works for Top Secret government files, it probably will work for you.) Hit Next. Choose the size of the virtual drive - for example, 100MB, as shown. (Click to enlarge.)
Yes, it's a pain to have to commit to a size beforehand, but the advantage here is that the file will always look like it's exactly 100MB, giving no hint to the actual size of its contents. Hit Next.
- Choose your volume password. TrueCrypt wants something totally badass, like 20 characters with letters and numbers mixed together, something hard to crack. The whole point here is to keep snoopers at bay, so make your password reasonably difficult to crack or guess.
- Format the "volume." This part is cool: TrueCrypt gathers random information from your system - including the location of your mouse pointer - to format the file drive location with random data to make it impossible to read. Hit the Format button to go ahead with this operation, which may slow down your computer for a few seconds. (And don't be scared by the word "Format"; you're not erasing your hard drives or anything, you're just formatting the drive location file - in this example, the gtrapani.4meonly file - you just created.)
Congrats! Your encrypted volume location is ready for use.
Store and retrieve files from the encrypted volume
Now you've got a TrueCrypt file that can hold all your highly-sensitive data files locked up tight as a drum. Here's how to get to it.
- From TrueCrypt, choose "Select File" and navigate to the volume file you created above, as shown. (Click to enlarge.)
- Select an available drive letter from the list in TrueCrypt, like Z:. Hit the "Mount" button, and enter the volume password you created above.
- If you enter the correct password, the virtual drive Z: will be mounted. Go to My Computer and listed alongside all the other drives on your computer, there will be a new one listed "Local Disk Z:." Drag and drop all your sensitive data to this drive and work from it as if you would any other disk.
- Once you're finished working with the data, in TrueCrypt, select the mounted drive (like Z:) and hit the "Dismount" button. The Z: drive will no longer be available, and all you'll have left is the gtrapani.4meonly file you created, which can be dropped onto a thumb drive, emailed to yourself, burned to CD or placed on your iPod, totally encrypted.
Note: Using TrueCrypt you can secure an entire drive - like a USB thumb drive. To do so, instead of hitting "Select File," use "Select Device" and choose your thumb drive.
Alternate Method: OpenSSL
The downside to TrueCrypt is that
it has to be installed everywhere you want to access the passworded files, and it's not compatible with Mac OS X. (Note: Reader pmhesse says you can carry around the TrueCrypt files on a thumb drive and use it from there instead of installing the whole app on every computer you need it.)
For those of you comfortable on the command line, there's an alternative way to password a file using the free utility OpenSSL. Say you want to password protect a tar archive of documents called unencrypted-data.tar.
From the command line, type:
$ openssl des3 -salt -in unencrypted-data.tar -out encrypted-data.tar.des3 enter des-ede3-cbc encryption password: Verifying - enter des-ede3-cbc encryption password: $
That command will encrypt the unencrypted-data.tar file with the password you choose and output the result to encrypted-data.tar.des3. To unlock the encrypted file, use the following command:
$ openssl des3 -d -salt -in encrypted-data.tar.des3 -out unencrypted-data.tar enter des-ede3-cbc encryption password: $
This method works with Cygwin on Windows, OS X and Linux.
How do you keep your sensitive files from getting into the wrong hands? Let us know in the comments or to tips at lifehacker.com.
Gina Trapani, the editor of Lifehacker, is currently encrypting all the terrible poetry and humiliating love stories she's ever written. Her semi-weekly feature, Geek to Live, appears every Wednesday and Friday on Lifehacker. Subscribe to the Geek to Live feed to get new installments in your newsreader. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41106000 |
Tuesday, April 19, 2011
Three Billion Years B.C.
As we turn back the cosmic clock the rate of accumulation of material increases. The pockmarked lunar surface has served as a proxy for reconstructing the history of asteroidal and cometary impact on the Earth. Without an atmosphere or significant geophysical activity the Moon has an excellent memory of impacts, while the Earth had eroded and resurfaced itself in continual reinvention. This record has indicated that during a period between about 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago the Earth must have been subject to a particularly brutal pummeling. A substantial fraction of the outer shell of our planet could have been laid down during what has become known as the Late Heavy Bombardment.
It's a fascinating time in the history of our world. The first indications that microbial life might have been at work come not so very long after this quite cataclysmic episode ended.
The reason for this infall of material seems likely to be connected to a period of dynamical evolution in the outer planets. Models suggest that both Neptune and Uranus could have migrated outwards and dug into a rich belt of outer, Kuiper or trans-Neptunian objects. Many of those distant small bodies would have been pushed into orbital paths that would eventually lead to passage through the inner solar system and collision with the Earth. At the same time, Jupiter and Saturn would have migrated inwards and could have scattered material from the asteroid belt onto inbound trajectories. Once the dynamical reorganization of the giant planets was finished the Late Heavy Bombardment would have tailed off. A settling planet Earth then gave rise to the tentative steps of biochemistry and single-celled organisms.
Or so we thought. New evidence is emerging from the terrestrial rock record that the Earth actually continued to be pounded by very significant impacts from 3.8 billion years ago all the way up to around 2.5 billion years ago. "Life Killer" type asteroid impacts seem to have happened roughly every 40 million years during this timespan, rather than every 500 million years as had previously been thought.
So what gives? Where did these chunks of material come from? W. Bottke and colleagues have studied the gravitational dynamics of the teenage solar system and suggest that a now-depleted inner belt of material between Mars and Jupiter could have been scattered onto an inclined set of orbits - out of the plane of the planets. This population would then slowly "leak" into Earth-crossing paths, thereby greatly extending the tail of the Late Heavy Bombardment over another billion years or so. The leftovers of these bodies are still there, known as the Hungaria asteroids.
It all looks to fit rather well. The dynamics are believable, and provide a mechanism for the impacts that littered the planet with the molten globs of rock that geologists find in layers of ancient strata. There's just one teensy question. What are the implications for the evolution of life on Earth? While evidence of microbe-built structures like stromatolites from 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago remain a little controversial, the presence of a diverse planet-wide biosphere is pretty incontrovertible in the 3 to 2.5 billion year ago span. Apparently microbial life not only dealt with continual destructive asteroid impacts but really did rather well for itself.
This raises another intriguing issue. As W. Bottke and colleagues point out, this prolonged period of heavy impacts does effectively stop around 2.5 billion years ago. That is suspiciously coincident with the first signs of a rising oxygen content in the Earth's atmosphere (the "Great Oxidation Event"), and the eventual emergence of multi-cellular life somewhere around 1.6 to 2 billion years ago. Is there a connection? Could the continual accumulation of planetary material have held back the full-on evolutionary party of early life? It's highly speculative, but one is tempted to think that this might be further evidence for the incredible resilience of life and its near-relentless nature once it becomes entrenched on a planet. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41108000 |
"Anthology of Menominee Sayings" is the result of seven years of field work (conducted during the 1980's) with about half a dozen speakers of one of Wisconsin's indigenous Algonquian languages. The anthology, consisting of some 450 short pieces of Menominee oral tradition, contains weather rules, conventions and taboos surrounding hunting and fishing, wisdom on the conduct of life, and omens predicting good or ill. The texts, therefore, tell of the community's interest in the contour of life from its inception to its preservation and eventual demise. Each text is accompanied by an English translation and, where necessary, explanatory linguistic and cultural notes.
The notes take Bloomfield's grammatical description and lexicon of Menominee as a point of comparison, and indicate phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic departures from the state of the language as described by him. The text is useful to students of culture, folklore, Native American studies, as well as historical and descriptive linguistics. The volume concludes with a short descriptive grammar focusing on phonology, morphology and syntax. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41111000 |
The 2011 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to a trio of women's rights activists: President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee of Liberia, and Tawakkul Karman of Yemen.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded this year's Nobel Peace Prize to three women for promoting women’s rights through peacebuilding work in Liberia and Yemen, and passed over contenders from the launching pads of the Arab uprisings – Tunisia and Egypt.
The award, which had only been bestowed on a dozen women before today, was shared between Liberia’s Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Africa’s first democratically elected female president; Leymah Gbowee, who mobilized women across ethnic and religious lines to bring an end to war in Liberia; and Tawakkul Karman, head of Women Journalists Without Chains, who played a leading part in the struggle for women’s rights and democracy and peace in Yemen.
Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland acknowledged the widespread expectation that the award would be given to at least one Arab Spring activist, but said that the committee's larger goal was to highlight that the freedom and rights of women was an important prerequisite to a society becoming truly democratic.
“We have included the Arab Spring in this prize, but we have put it into a particular context and I think the most important context maybe," said Mr. Jagland. "If we fail to include the women in the revolutions of democracy, there will be no real democracy. This is the most important issue in all of the Arab world, namely the oppression of women." | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41135000 |
I have no excuse for not remembering my daughter’s birthday, which is Sept. 18. While waiting in the hospital room for her delivery a couple of decades ago, there was a near constant stream of the orange and black monarch butterflies that would approach the building, climb the additional floors to clear the roof and continue their southward migration to Mexico. Every year since then, when I see the monarch migration beginning, I know that her birthday is rapidly approaching.
Unlike the more familiar bird migrations, monarch migration is a multi-generational endeavor. The butterflies that we see coming back north in Missouri next spring will be the descendants of the ones that are passing through here now. On their way back here next spring, they’ll produce a brood in Texas or Oklahoma and those offspring will be our first monarchs of 2012. Here in Missouri, broods are produced in summer and fall. The life cycle from egg to caterpillar to chrysalis to adult only takes a little over a month to complete. Adults live for only four or five weeks, except for the last generation each year that can live for seven to eight months, reaching Mexico in the fall and coming part of the way back north in the spring.
If you’re spending much time outside, or staring out hospital windows, you have probably observed the recent increasing number of monarchs in the air or visiting flowering plants for nectar. Because monarchs don’t fly at night, a few lucky Missourians may also discover night roosts, where the insects will mass on trees for a night or two of rest before resuming their southward flight.
Along with the autumnal equinox, which is this Friday, the annual monarch migration through Missouri marks the seasonal change from summer to fall. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41138000 |
Cholera infections are ten times higher than the number of cases reported to the World Health Organisation (WHO), according to new estimates of the global disease burden.
Cholera is caused by eating food or drinking water contaminated with the Vibrio cholera bacterium. The disease causes watery diarrhoea and severe dehydration that can be fatal.
In a study published in the Bulletin of the World Health Organisation this month (1 March), researchers from the International Vaccine Institute, in South Korea found a more accurate estimate of the global cholera burden is nearly three million cases a year, and around 93,000 deaths — the majority in children under the age of five.
These figures are ten times higher than those reported to the WHO, and suggest that many governments are unable to provide reliable figures or are deliberately under-reporting outbreaks despite an international law requiring them to do so.
To reach this conclusion, the team used data on cholera reported to the WHO, but also incorporated information from previous multi-country studies, alternative disease monitoring systems, and media and government reports. They evaluated each country surveyed individually in order to estimate the disease's likely extent.
The study's authors said several factors were to blame for the official underestimation of the disease burden, including poor in-country surveillance, but also a reluctance on the part of many governments to conduct cholera surveillance or report cases because it could result in losses to trade and tourism.
"Unless the magnitude of the problem is reported, we will not know how to solve [it]," Mohammad Ali, who led the study, told SciDev.Net.
Under-reporting of cholera is a major problem in India, according to G. Balakrish Nair, executive director of the country's Translational Health Science and Technology Institute.
"The moment you say cholera, there is a certain political connotation. It is clear indicator that there is lack of hygiene or a mix up of drinking and sewage water, which is a reflection of poor governance," he told SciDev.Net.
He also said the resources were not always available to diagnose cholera, especially in remote areas.
Access to resources and funding are more of a problem than under-reporting in Africa, according to Martin Mengel, project coordinator for Africhol, which aims to improve cholera prevention and treatment in Africa.
"Many countries simply can't afford it," he said.
Worldwide, around 1.4 billion people are at risk of cholera — mostly in China, India, Indonesia, and on the African continent.
A cheap vaccine is available and, along with water and sanitation improvements, researchers hope the disease can be contained or even eliminated within ten years.
Ali is now leading a study in collaboration with the WHO to assess the roll-out of a cheap vaccine across the Zanzibar Islands where the disease is endemic. If successful, the programme could be used as a model for other countries, he said. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41139000 |
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Home > Explore! > Bedrock Geology > Field Localities > Two Lights > Figure 2
Figure 2. Light brown quartzite beds and dark gray phyllite beds of the Kittery Formation at Two Lights. This nearly vertical exposure shows beds that are about 10 centimeters thick and gently inclined.
Last updated on October 6, 2005 | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41147000 |
Decimals: Terminating or Repeating?
Date: 01/26/2001 at 15:10:31 From: Seegee Subject: How to tell if decimals are terminating or repeating? How can you tell just by looking at a fraction whether, in decimal form, it will terminate or repeat? My math teacher said there was a way, but I don't see how. Please help.
Date: 01/26/2001 at 15:49:23 From: Doctor Greenie Subject: Re: How to tell if decimals are terminating or repeating? Hi, Seegee - If a decimal fraction terminates, then it has a name like one of the following: " ____ tenths" " ____ hundredths" " ____ thousandths" " ____ ten-thousandths" ... " ____ millionths" ... " ____ ten-billionths" ... etc., etc. When you write these numbers as common fractions, what is special about the denominators? The answer to that question should be a big hint toward the answer to your question, but it won't give the complete answer. For example, here are a couple of fractions whose decimal representations terminate but that don't have names from the "infinite" list above: 3/4 (= .75) and 5/8 (= .625). So why do these two have terminating decimals, while a fraction like 1/3 does not? It is because the first two can be written as equivalent fractions with names from the list above, while the fraction 1/3 cannot: 3/4 = 75/100 = seventy-five hundredths 5/8 = 625/1000 = six hundred twenty-five thousandths but you can't write 1/3 = a/10 or = b/100 or = c/1000 or .... where a, b, c, or any other of the numerators are integers. I have still only hinted at the precise answer to your question. If you can't quite figure out the whole answer after studying what I've written, you can find the complete answer in the Dr. Math archives. Click on the "Search the Archives" link on the main Dr. Math page and use "repeating decimal" or "terminating decimal" as the phrase to search for (do not use quotation marks, but be sure to click on the button that makes the search engine look for the entire phrase instead of the individual words). The search will provide you with links to several pages where this question is discussed. - Doctor Greenie, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
Date: 01/26/2001 at 15:32:14 From: Doctor Rob Subject: Re: How to tell if decimals are terminating or repeating? Thanks for writing to Ask Dr. Math, Seegee. The fraction will terminate if and only if the denominator has for prime divisors only 2 and 5, that is, if and only if the denominator has the form 2^a * 5^b for some exponents a >= 0 and b >= 0. The number of decimal places until it terminates is the larger of a and b. The proof of this lies in the fact that every terminating decimal has the form n/10^e, for some e >= 0 (e is the number of places to the right that the decimal point must be moved to give you an integer, and n is that integer), and every fraction of that form has a terminating decimal found by writing down n and moving the decimal point e places to the left. Now when you cancel common factors from n/10^e = n/(2*5)^e = n/(2^e*5^e), it may reduce the exponents in the denominator, but that is all that can happen. - Doctor Rob, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
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This is my first time posting. I'm working on a statistics problem that I'm having difficulty understanding. Here is the problem:
The Praxis II test was given to a sample of 1573 prospective teachers. The mean of these scores was 1053 and the standard deviation was 92.
a.) Give a 95% confidence interval (μ ± 2ơ) for the mean (average) score in the population of all young women.
b.) Suppose that a sample of 300 prospective teachers had produced the same mean and standard deviation. Again, give the 95% confidence interval (μ ± 2ơ) for the mean (average) score in this case.
I have gone over and over but I'm not understanding something because it feels like information is missing based on what I have been doing. I appreciate any help with understanding the problem. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41160000 |
The first televised presidential debate in 1960 gave rise to an enduring media myth — the notion that television viewers and radio listeners interpreted the encounter quite differently.
Vancil and Pendell noted that reports of viewer-listener disagreement in the first of four debates between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon in 1960 typically were impressionistic and anecdotal.
Moreover, they wrote, the few surveys that hinted at a viewer-listener disconnect were too small and unrepresentative to allow confident or sweeping judgments.
Vancil and Pendell also challenged the notion that Nixon’s haggard appearance and sweaty brow contributed powerfully to television viewers’ perceptions about the debate, which took place September 26, 1960.
“Appearance problems, such as Nixon’s perspiring brow, could have had a negative impact on viewer perceptions,” Vancil and Pendell wrote, “but it is also possible for viewers to be sympathetic to such problems, or to interpret them as evidence of attractive or desirable qualities.”
They also wrote that “the inference that appearance problems caused Nixon’s loss, or Kennedy’s victory [in the debate] is classic post hoc fallacy.”
Their debunking notwithstanding, the myth of viewer-listener disagreement tends to resurface at or near the anniversaries of the first Kennedy-Nixon debate.
The commentary describes the first Kennedy-Nixon debate as “a bellwether” and asserts that “listeners tuning in via radio considered the debate a draw or even a slight win for Nixon. But the 65 million who tuned in by TV saw something very different. Kennedy appeared vigorous yet relaxed, while Nixon looked pale and nervous. … Those viewing the debate on television judged Kennedy as the clear winner.”
But as Vancil and Pendell reported years ago, there is no persuasive, compelling evidence to support such claims.
Not only that, but contemporaneous evidence, including public opinion polls, offer scant support for the notion that television audiences “judged Kennedy as the clear winner.”
To be sure, not all observers saw it that way in late September 1960. In its post-debate editorial, the Washington Post declared, for example:
“Of the two performances Mr. Nixon’s probably was the smoother.
“He is an accomplished debater with a professional polish, and he managed to convey a slightly patronizing air of a master instructing a pupil.”
And the Los Angeles Times said in an editorial (beneath the headline “A slow fight to a draw”) that most television viewers of the debate probably “felt as we did: they were disappointed because (a) they could not pick a winner and (b) they could not find that any single issue had been sharpened up by the abrasives of debate.”
The nationally prominent columnist, James Reston, wrote in the New York Times after the debate:
“This TV program did not do any of the dramatic things predicted for it. It did not make or break either candidate. … Who took the first round is a matter of individual opinion. My own view is that Kennedy gained more than Nixon, but it was a fielder’s choice, settling nothing.”
A Gallup poll released in October 1960 reported that 43 percent of the debate’s viewers and listeners thought Kennedy “did the better job.” Twenty-three percent thought Nixon’s performance was better, and 29 percent said the candidates were about the same. Five percent offered no opinion.
But opinions about the debate did not translate into a decisive advantage for Kennedy. The same survey reported Kennedy was narrowly ahead in the race, by 49 percent to 46 percent, with 5 percent undecided.
That result represented a modest change from Gallup’s poll taken just before the debate, which reported Nixon leading narrowly, by 47 percent to 46 percent.
But Gallup described the post-debate shift as too slight to be meaningful.
“The prudent reader can see,” George Gallup, head of the polling organization, wrote in describing the results, “that polling accuracy has not reached the degree of accuracy required to say with certainty which candidate is ahead in a close race such as the present one.”
Recent or related:
- Recalling George Romney’s ‘brainwashing’ — and Gene McCarthy’s ‘light rinse’ retort
- Kennedy-Nixon debate myth certain to circulate anew
- Indulging in myth on debate’s 50th anniversary
- Appearance decisive in politics? Revisiting the Kennedy-Nixon debate
- On Gingrich, JFK, and the appearance factor in presidential politics
- Why history is badly taught, poorly learned
- On media myths and the ‘golden age’ fallacy
- The Washington Post ‘wrecked’ Nixon’s life? Sure it did
- Fast and loose: ‘Kennedys’ miniseries and Bay of Pigs history
- A sort-of correction from the NYTimes
- A debunker’s work is never done
- ‘Getting It Wrong’ goes Majic | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41168000 |
The Franciskan cloister in Hamburg was demolished in 1806-07 and nobody really know what it looked like. Recent archaeological excavations have however resulted in remarkable findings. As the history behind the cloister is rather fascinating, the archaeologist are exited. The story goes:
In 1231 Count Adolph IV von Schauenburg won a decisive victory over a Danish army headed by the King, Valdemar Sejr. The story behind is that a German Count Heinrich von Schwerin kidnapped the king and his son in 1223. In a Danish chronicle the incident was described as follows:
“1223. King Valdemar was together with his son treacherously kidnapped, while they were lying in their beds, by count Heinrich at the island of Lyø of the 6th of May. They were taken to the castle of Schwerin. There they had to stay the next three years, while the Danes ransomed them for 60.000 mark Lübish. But the horses, clothes and other things, which were captured by the Saxons that year was worth the double. Notice reader, that the Germans never or very seldom have won and triumphed without deceit and treason, as it is in their nature, which is apparent from the kidnapping of the two kings and from many other incidents.” (Rydårbogen).
From other sources it appears that the count was the vassal of the king and had taken part at both the hunt and the following party. His plan was to deliver the two kings into the hands of the holy Roman Emperor. Unfortunately the Pope intervened and threa-tened with ban if the king was not returned unharmed. The emperor held back, but the German counts continued to pursue a heavy ransom. After some warring it ended at Christmas 1225 with the release of the king and at Easter 1226 with that of his son. The ransom was extremely heavy. All in all it consisted of 45.000 mark plus the je-wels of the queen Berengaria plus equipment of dresses and horses for 100 knights. Added to this was the loss of all the land between the rivers Ejdern and Elbe (the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein) plus the Slavic provinces captured in the endless wars along the Baltic and Northern German seashore. Well at home, the Danish king mustered an army in order to pursue the aggressors and regain the lost. July 1227 the two armies met at Bornhöved in Holstein where the army of the king was routed. Although he lost an eye, the king barely escaped.
One of the counts, which took part in the politics and the battle of Bornhöved was Adolph IV, the count of Schauenburg. According to the legend he prayed to God and promised to found a cloister if the Germans won the battle. Miraculously the weather shifted, the Danes lost and the Franciscans got their new Maria Magdalena cloister in Hamburg. In 1239 the count himself withdrew to live according to the Franciscan rule and in 1244 he was ordained a priest in Rome. His last years were however spent in another Franciscan cloister in the city of Kiel (which he also founded).
The new archaeological findings consist of foundation stones of the church as well as graves.
Read more at Hamburgs Archaeological Museum | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41172000 |
- Discuss with your merit badge counselor the history of the game of chess. Explain why it is considered a game of planning and strategy.
- Discuss with your merit badge counselor the following:
- a. The benefits of playing chess, including developing critical thinking skills, concentration skills, and decision-making skills, and how these skills can help you in other areas of your life
- b. Sportsmanship and chess etiquette
- Demonstrate to your counselor that you know each of the following. Then, using Scouting's Teaching EDGE, teach the following to a Scout who does not know how to play chess:
- a. The name of each chess piece
- b. How to set up a chessboard
- c. How each chess piece moves, including castling and en passant captures
- Do the following:
- a. Demonstrate scorekeeping using the algebraic system of chess notation.
- b. Discuss the differences between the opening, the middle game, and the endgame.
- c. Explain four opening principles.
- d. Explain the four rules for castling.
- e. On a chessboard, demonstrate a "scholar's mate" and a "fool's mate."
- f. Demonstrate on a chessboard four ways a chess game can end in a draw.
- Do the following:
- a. Explain four of the following elements of chess strategy: exploiting weaknesses, force, king safety, pawn structure, space, tempo, time.
- b. Explain any five of these chess tactics: clearance sacrifice, decoy, discovered attack, double attack, fork, interposing, overloading, overprotecting, pin, remove the defender, skewer, zwischenzug.
- c. Set up a chessboard with the white king on e1, the white rooks on a1 and h1, and the black king on e5. With White to move first, demonstrate how to force checkmate on the black king.
- d. Set up and solve five direct-mate problems provided by your merit badge counselor.
- Do ONE of the following:
- a. Play at least three games of chess with other Scouts and/or your merit badge counselor. Replay the games from your score sheets and discuss with your counselor how you might have played each game differently.
- b. Play in a scholastic (youth) chess tournament and use your score sheets from that tournament to replay your games with your merit badge counselor. Discuss with your counselor how you might have played each game differently.
- c. Organize and run a chess tournament with at least four players, plus you. Have each competitor play at least two games.
Please report any issues with this page. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41175000 |
Samuel Colt (1814–1862) was one of the most famous and successful American inventors and entrepreneurs of the early industrial age. By patenting the first mass-produced multishot revolving firearms, Colt achieved worldwide fame and a vast personal fortune. His introduction of precise machine-made weapons and his promotion of the interchangeability of parts were innovations that transformed the arms industry. Colt actively promoted sales through advertising and displays at international fairs, and by presenting deluxe arms to men of influence, including heads of state. His precise and reliable standard-model revolvers were highly valued by soldiers and frontiersmen. His more elaborately embellished exhibition and presentation arms appealed as functional objects of beauty.The Museum’s revolver is considered one of Colt’s finest. Apparently, it was created as part of a set of three pairs of gold-inlaid revolvers that Colt took with him to Europe in 1854. That year saw the outbreak of the Crimean War, which pitted Russia against Turkey and her allies, Great Britain and France. Colt aggressively marketed arms to both sides. In November 1854, he presented three gold-inlaid revolvers, one example from each pair, to Czar Nicholas I of Russia. Of these, the Third Model Dragoon serial number 12407 (now in The Hermitage, Saint Petersburg) is actually the mate to the Museum’s pistol, serial number 12406. The gift clearly demonstrated the technical and artistic aspects of Colt’s product, while its patriotic motifs proudly proclaimed its American origin. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41176000 |
Turning from coal means more demand for nuclear and alternative energy sourcesby Stephanie Hemphill, Minnesota Public Radio
Minnesota utilities are planning to invest in wind and and other renewable sources, but they're also taking another look at nuclear power. And that could mean expanded or even new nuclear plants in Minnesota down the road.
St. Paul, Minn. — Every two years electric companies file plans with the state, showing how they intend to meet the ever-increasing demand for electricity in Minnesota.
The Next Generation Energy Act of 2007 is forcing a second look at those plans. The law requires Minnesota to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent by 2050.
For Xcel Energy, the biggest electricity supplier in the state, that means no more coal-fired power plants, given the limitations of existing technology, according to Beth Engelking, manager of resource planning and bidding for Xcel.
"Three years ago in our resource plans in Minnesota and Colorado, we both contemplated constructing new coal plants. We now have a CEO who says that we will not construct a coal plant that doesn't capture and sequester carbon," Engelking says.
Xcel is already on track to reduce carbon emissions, Engelking says. The company is converting two plants in the Twin Cities to natural gas, and works with customers to reduce demand by operating more efficiently.
But she says Xcel also plans to boost production at its nuclear plants in Monticello and Prairie Island. That means more fuel storage at Prairie Island, an issue that's bound to generate resistance. But concern about climate change is prompting some legislators to view nuclear power more favorably, Engelking says.
"As a company right now, we're not looking at new nuclear plants. But we do expect that our policymakers are going to take the carbon factor into account when they consider whether or not to extend the lives of our current plants," she says.
Many environmentalists in Minnesota continue to oppose expansion of nuclear plants in the state. J. Drake Hamilton with St.Paul-based Fresh Energy is one of them.
"There will be additional nuclear waste storage needs, it's highly toxic, and we haven't seen any information to suggest that it will ever leave Minnesota. So we will have to isolate that from the biosphere for many thousands of years," Hamilton says.
The state's new goal of reducing 1.5 percent of its electricity use every year should level out the need for new power plants, Hamilton says.
Not so, says Jon Brekke, vice president for member services for Great River Energy, the second largest utility in Minnesota. He says in 20 years, Great River will likely look for a partner to build a new nuclear plant.
"Homeowners are putting new loads in their homes all the time. They're buying new computers, new televisions, they're putting in a second refrigerator," says Brekke. "Those things are all adding to the sales (of electricity); meanwhile we've got efficiency that's reducing the sales. There's no great way to measure how much of the sales increase is caused by new loads in homes versus how much savings is by putting in CFLs."
CFLs are compact fluorescent lights. Great River Energy is asking its customers to switch five regular light bulbs to CFLs. That could save 6.5 percent of the energy demand from its residential customers. It will take years to achieve that goal, Brekke says.
Besides conservation and carbon emission reduction goals, Minnesota is now requiring its utilities to use renewable sources for 25 percent of their electricity by 2025.
For Xcel, that means nearly three times as much wind power as previously planned. Since wind is intermittent, the company will need plants that can fill in to meet peak demand. And the company will probably turn to natural gas plants for that power.
Building renewable sources of energy has taken on added urgency as recent research indicates climate change is happening faster than many scientists had predicted as recently as five years ago.
- Morning Edition, 10/29/2007, 7:20 a.m. | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41179000 |
This entire site is designed for you. Whether it is human biology, health, or even economics, this information is ready to use in the classroom.
Drug education or Drug-proofing, as I call it, is required by California state law on a yearly basis, at the minimum. If we don't give them the information, their friends will.
PLEASE USE AND SHARE THESE POWERPOINTS!
Major Points to
One time use of methamphetamine can result in addiction.
There is very little “casual use” of methamphetamine. Addiction progresses rapidly with significant adverse results.
over time causes permanent brain changes.
Effects of long-term
methamphetamine use can still be evident up to two years after discontinuing the
Most methamphetamine users are poly-drug
abusers (more than one).
Where is Meth Coming From?
Major suppliers in the West and
Southwest are Mexican criminal gangs cooking in superlabs and bringing the
product over the border for distribution.
Local gangs and some private cookers are main suppliers in our community.
Methamphetamine is a money maker for our local gangs and is often used in recruitment of members.
Signs of Possible Meth Use
Poor hygiene, chemical smell, tremors, Bruxism (teeth grinding), acne, scabs or scratches, especially on face and arms, sleeping in class or complaints of being tired, burnt fingertips, lowered grades/academics, attendance issues such as cutting class and truancy (Most policies are 5-6 days undocumented absences or 3 tardies= truancy), verbal expressions of inability to be with other students in class often with a push to move to home school or another alternative setting, drug language and paraphernalia such as pipes, burnt foil, small baggies, symptoms of depression, symptoms of anxiety, flushed look when high and poor color, wearing sunglasses indoors, dilated pupils, darting eyes, weight loss.
Students Into Treatment
Students under the influence of methamphetamine are not thinking clearly and are not motivated for treatment.
Parents who use: “What’s the problem?”
Parents in denial: “What’s the problem?”
Students who have been neglected or abused have trust issues. Students are used to running their own lives with no consistent reasonable limits set by adults.
These kids have trouble giving up
control. They often fight moving to a shelter or foster home because of rules
and fear of abandonment. Treatment is scary and perceived as loss of control.
Only outpatient treatment is available
for adolescents who are substance abusers in our county. County Mental Health
and New Morning have a 30-day wait for outpatient services.
Placement in group homes outside our county often means no reciprocity for the other county for mental health, medical, or recovery services.
Students Into Treatment
Teenage methamphetamine abusers typically enter treatment through the juvenile justice system. They are prosecuted for crimes related to their substance abuse such as possession of drugs and paraphernalia, sales, burglary, and assault.
Treatment is mandated as part of their
probation. While incarceration in Juvenile Hall is not ideal, it is one way to
insure a methamphetamine abusing child refrains from using meth.
Adolescence is a time of crisis with wide ranges of physical and emotional maturity levels.
Major mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder often are first seen during adolescence. Meth use symptoms often mimic these disorders.
Shortage of health care providers and facilities designed to treat dual diagnoses in teens, especially in rural areas where meth use is most common.
Methamphetamine addiction requires intervention from a variety of health care providers such as medical, dental, psychiatric, and recovery providers.
Addicts often have legal issues, housing issues, and employment issues and require extensive social services assistance.
Practitioners with middle-class values are often very uncomfortable hearing about the life styles of substance abusing patients.
Many antidepressants are not ruled safe for use in teens. Use of antidepressants in teens associated with some risk for suicide.
One Girl’s Diagnoses Over a Two-Year
Poly Drug Abuse
Borderline Personality Disorder
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Meth Can Cause Extreme Disorganization of Behavior
Young women getting into stranger’s cars for a hit of meth.
Prostitution for methamphetamine (whether for money or the drug).
Jumping out of a second story window to avoid talking to a family member.
Hanging around dangerous adults, some who carry weapons or are abusive because these adults will supply the drug.
Criminal behavior to earn money to purchase drugs.
Aggressive behavior. Family members assaulted.
Hallucinations and delusions that are very frightening. (Strangers perceived as FBI agents who are after the meth user. One young man peeked out of his blinds 7 hours straight as he was worried someone was after him.)
Running away from home, sometimes days at a time.
Unplanned pregnancy with lack of prenatal
care. Continuing meth use during the pregnancy resulted in a positve tox baby.
There is a high risk of domestic violence and child abuse in households where meth is used. Parents who use often expose children to dangerous drugs, dangerous people, and dangerous situations.
Tweakers are never seen at school. Kids
who are binging on meth will do so away from school and sleep it off, sometimes
Attendance records will show this pattern
until the student stops coming to school.
A person who is tweaking can be very
dangerous. He/she will often be paranoid and delusional.
Set up your office with your safety in mind. Sit closest to the door; bathrooms that lock should have a key to open them from outside. Hard chairs are easier to get out of than soft chairs.
Be observant to details.
Reduce stimuli any way possible: don’t
stand too close, keep light low, lower voice, slow speech, move slowly, keep
Keep the person talking. Silence may mean
the person’s delusions have taken over and the current environment incorporated
in the delusion.
Back-up help is always welcome!
Do not confront!
Adverse Childhood Experiences A Study By
Vincent J. Felitti, MD and Robert Anda, MD
17,421 patients of Kaiser Permanente’s Department of Preventive Medicine in San Diego.
80% White, 10% Black, 10% Asian, generally in their fifties, middle class.
Detailed biomedical, psychological, and social evaluations done.
The study measured effects of adverse childhood experiences on adult health status a half century after they occurred.
ACE scores ran from 0-8.
Adverse Childhood Experiences
Recurrent physical abuse
Recurrent severe emotional abuse
Contact sexual abuse
Household member in prison
Mother treated violently in household
Alcoholic or drug abuser in household
Household member chronically depressed, mentally ill, or suicidal
Biological parent lost during childhood regardless of cause
Results of ACE
Adverse childhood experiences are more common than previously believed.
Adverse childhood experiences have a powerful relation to adult health.
Health risk behaviors such as smoking, overeating, and drug use are actually coping mechanisms to deal with ACE.
Slightly more than half experienced one or more categories of ACE.
One in four exposed to two categories of
One in sixteen exposed to four categories
Exposure to one category increases
likelihood of exposure to another category by 80%.
Physical diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hepatitis, sexually transmitted disease, tobacco use, and IV drug abuse all showed progressive dose response with every increase in ACE score.
Other diseases with a graded response to
ACE score were heart disease, fractures, diabetes, obesity, unintended
pregnancy, and alcoholism.
Depression and suicide attempts had a
similar strong relationship to ACE score. A patient with an ACE score of 4 or
more was 460% more likely to be depressed and 1,220% more likely to attempt
suicide. Between 66% and 80% of all suicide attempts could be attributed to ACE.
22% of Kaiser patients were sexually abused (28% women and 16% men).
A male child with an ACE score of 6 has a 4,600% increase in likelihood to be an IV drug user compared to a male child with an ACE score of 0.
ACE scores above 4 had a 3000%-5,100% increase in attempted suicide over the group with an ACE core of 0.
It is important to ask questions routinely in intakes to elicit information about possible adverse childhood experiences.
Dr. Felitti recommends asking after an
ACE is confirmed, “How do you think this experience affects your adult health?”
Dr. Felitti reported a 35% reduction in
office visits after a biopsychosocial approach adopted at the clinic.
Prevention is of
Prevention of ACE is of great importance for optimum adult health.
5 million children a year are exposed to traumatic events.
Dr. Bruce Perry, M.D., Ph. D, a Fellow of the Child Trauma Academy uses the term “neuroarcheology” to describe how our experiences change our brains.
His research on trauma and neglect in children demonstrates that the traumas we experience in childhood can permanently limit our ability to react appropriately to our environment.
Dr. Perry states:
“Childhood maltreatment has profound effect on the emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and physical functioning of children. Developmental experiences determine the organizational and functional status of the mature brain and, therefore, adverse events can have a tremendous negative impact on the development of the brain. In turn, these neurodevelopmental effects may result in significant cost to the individual, their family, community, and ultimately, society. In essence, childhood maltreatment alters the potential of a child and, thereby, robs us all.”
of Brain Development
We each have a set of genes that makes us unique; the full expression of our gene potential is through interaction with the environment.
A brain develops in sequence and hierarchically from least to most complex (brainstem to limbic to cortex). Rapidly organizing brain systems are more sensitive to insults than slower organizing brain systems.
The brain organizes in a use-dependent way; undeveloped neural systems are dependent upon environmental and micro-environmental cues to organize.
There are windows of opportunity and vulnerability in brain development. There are times when a developing neural system is more sensitive to environment than others. The unique demands of the environment create from a broad genetic potential those characteristics that best fit the environment.
“Hot zones” are sensitive periods
when an area of the brain is rapidly organizing. The brainstem which controls
basic body functions like breathing, must be developed by birth. The hot zone
for the brainstem is the prenatal period. The neocortex which controls
reasoning, problem-solving, abstraction, and sensory organization develops over
a long period of time, from childhood to adulthood.
There is a shifting of the vulnerability of the brain to experience. An infant or child whose brain is more malleable to experience than an adult, is also more vulnerable.
It is easier to influence the function of a developing brain system than to alter the functioning of a developed system. A baby’s development and ultimate ability to function is much more affected by lack of stimulation than an adult’s ability.
Permanent changes in the brain, i.e. lack of neural connections and pathways may permanently limit the child’s ability to develop normally.
Children’s Brain Development
Just as lack of sensory stimuli can permanently limit a brain’s development, so can traumatic stress such as the adverse childhood experiences in Felitti’s study.
External threat is met by significant and persistent neurophysiologic systems designed to respond to the threat.
The longer the activation of a threat response, the more likely a use-dependent change in neural systems will occur.
It is adaptive for a child growing up in a chronically stressed environment to be hypersensitive to stimuli and hyper vigilant in an environment.
Neural systems will adapt to this kind of state and literally organize around it.
While adults with PTSD have cue-specific stimuli relating to a specific traumatic event that set off stress responses, children develop a generalized hypersensitivity to all cues that activate the stress-response.
Trauma on Children’s Behavior
As Dr. Perry states about children exposed to chronic trauma: “These children are hyper vigilant; they do not have a core abnormality of their capacity to attend to a given task. These children have behavioral impulsivity, and cognitive distortions all of which result from a use-dependent organization of the brain. During development, these children spent so much time in a low-level state of fear, that they consistently were focusing on non-verbal but not verbal cues.”
Often these kids are not able to operate on a cognitive level. The hyper arousal of the brainstem and limbic system must be addressed.
The child’s ability to participate in treatment must be assessed. A developmental assessment is most useful.
Modalities such as dance therapy and a supportive positive environment are most effective initially.
The Big Problem
As mentioned before, there is little casual use with methamphetamine. There comes a time with escalating use when behavior becomes more disorganized and the teenager is at high risk for terrible consequences yet does not qualify for commitment.
How do we keep these kids safe?
Where do we put them?
Who treats them?
California Healthy Kids Survey Most
Recent Performance Indicators, El Dorado high School, 2004-2005.
CAPRI* Concerned Advocates for Perinatal
Related Issues. Handout from Presentation for the Perinatal Council of El
Dorado, EMS Conference Room, Placerville, California. February 17, 2004.
Dansie, Roberto. “Anger, Pain, and
Healing in the Native American Indian Community.” February 24, 2006 <http://www.robertodansie.com/articles/anger.htm>.
Dube, Shanta R. MPH; Felitti, Vincent J. MD; Dong, Maxia, MD, PhD; Chapman, Daniel P., PhD; Giles, Wayne H., MD; Anda, Robert F. , MD. “Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and Household Dysfunction and the Risk of Illicit Drug Use: The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study.” Pediatrics. March 2003.
February 2, 2006 <http://pediatrics.aappublication.org/cgi/content/full/111/3/564>.
El Dorado County Meth Awareness and
Prevention Project (MAPP). Handout.
Felitti, Vincent J. MD. Presentation
Given to Healthy Start and After School Program Coordinators. Hilton Hotel.
Napa, California. January 26,2006.
Felitti, VJ. English Translation of
“Belastungen in der Kindheitund Gesundheit im Erwachsenenalter: die Verwandlung
von Gold in Blei.” Z Psychom Med Psychother. 2002; 48(4): 359-369.
Perry, Bruce MD, PhD. “The
Neuroarcheology of Childhood Mistreatment The Neurodevelopmental Costs of
Adverse Childhood Events.” July 27, 2000. February 2, 2006 <http://www.ChildTrauma.org/>.
Perry, Bruce MD, PhD. Presentation “The
Power of Community: How Healthy Communities Create Healthy Children.” Sponsored
by Placer County Health and Human Services, California State Department of
Health Services, and First Five Commission of Placer County. Sierra Bible
Church. Sonora, California. March 31, 2005.
Perry, Bruce MD, PhD. Presentation
“Working with Children Exposed to Trauma and Violence.” Sponsored by The
Perinatal Multidisciplinary Team of Tuolumne County, The Tuolumne County YES
Partnership, with support from the California Attorney General’s Office-Safe
from the Start Initiative. Sierra Bible Church. Sonora, California. September 1,
Copyright 2006 Dr. Mitchell A. Goodis, DDS | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41180000 |
Sunday, February 14, 2010
Norwegian Emigration to SA
Immigrants from countries other than Britain also chose South Africa as their destination.
In 1879, the year of the Anglo-Zulu War, a group of 47 Norwegians left Bergen to establish a colony on an atoll in the Indian Ocean, Aldabra. The Debora Expedition, as the venture is known, didn’t work out as planned; some of its members remained in Madagascar and others decided to settle in the British Colony of Natal. They were the first Norwegian immigrants to settle at Port Natal (later called Durban).
You can read everything there is to know about the fascinating Debora Expedition at
http://salbu.co.za/debora/ Also visit companion pages at http://salbu.co.za/
Until about 1880, America had been the favoured destination of Norwegian emigrants, but reports sent back by Norwegian missionaries in South Africa encouraged interest, particularly in the Colony of Natal. The farming community around Aalesund, Norway, made contact with the Natal Immigration Agent, Walter Peace, in London and a scheme for government-assisted immigration was set in place.
This resulted in 32 families sailing first to England from Norway in July 1880, then continuing on to Natal on C.H.M.S. Lapland. They were settled on land between the Umzimkulu and Izotsha rivers on the south coast of Natal.
Although some of these immigrants found conditions in Natal disappointing, later returning to Norway, many remained to form the nucleus of a thriving community. Descendants of the Marburg settlers, as they are generally called, still live in Natal. So do descendants of early Norwegian missionaries to the Colony.
www.norsettler.co.za/history.htm Norwegian Settlers Association of Marburg | fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-41185000 |
Subsets and Splits