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When writing a compare-and-contrast paper in MLA format, note that MLA has specific guidelines for writing numbers and abbreviations as well as referencing sources. Following these guidelines will provide a unified style for your paper and make it easy for your reader to see where you found your information. MLA papers should be written in a legible, 12-point font, such as Times New Roman, and be printed on 8.5-by-11-inch paper with 1-inch margins. Titling and Introduction On the top of your first page, formatted to the left margin, type your name, the name of your professor, the name of your class and the date of the paper. The entirety of your paper, including this information, must be double-spaced. The next line should be the title of your paper, centered. Once you've provided this information, begin your paper with an introduction paragraph, which should include a thesis statement, outlining the basic argument you are making using your sources. For a compare-and-contrast paper, your introductory paragraph should also include one sentence that briefly describes each of the sources of items you're addressing. In MLA format, you can split your essay into multiple numbered and titled sections. This provides a convenient format for organizing a compare-and-contrast paper. The first two sections of your paper after your introduction can cover the two items that you are comparing and contrasting separately. Once you have these defined and described, spend one or two sections comparing and contrasting. Each section, apart from the introduction, is titled with a roman numeral and the section name, for example: 1. Douglas's "Primitive Pollution" 2. Markus's "Ritual as Rationale" 3. Contrasting Form and Function 4. Theoretical Intersections MLA In-Text Citations A compare-and contrast-paper will likely draw on information from at least two sources. When you quote, paraphrase or reference the information from these sources in your paper's text, include an in-text citation to note where that information comes from. The in-text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence and contains the name of the source's author and the page number the information is taken from, for example: "Pollution" is, by this definition, a danger that occurs only when "lines of structure, cosmic or social, are clearly defined" (Douglas 140). However, this can be troubled by the fact that "pollution itself represents the terms of defining social institutions" (Markus 7). If you mention the author by name in the sentence, you do not need to include their name in the citation: Douglas notes that "primitive" peoples "justify their ritual actions in terms of aches and pains" (40), but Markus counters that "physical sensation is a psychosomatic result of ritual" (12). Works Cited List After the final page of your paper, and any endnotes, create a separate page to collect all the sources you reference in your paper. Type "Works Cited" -- without bolding, quotes or italics -- centered at the top of this page. List all the sources used in alphabetical order by the author's last name. For each source, list the author's name, title of the source, publisher's information, year and medium of publication. For example, a book could be cited as follows: Sacks, Oliver. A leg to stand on. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. Print. Depending on the type of work you are citing, you may have to include additional information. Each citation is double-spaced, and each line past the first of a citation should be indented. Do not skip spaces between citations.
An asteroid bombardment of Earth nearly 4 billion years ago may have actually been a boon to early life on the planet, instead of wiping it out or preventing it from originating, a new study suggests. Asteroids, comets and other impactors from space have been suggested as the causes behind some of the world's great mass extinctions, including the disappearance of the dinosaurs. Impact evidence from lunar samples, meteorites and the pockmarked surfaces of the inner planets paints a picture of a violent environment in the solar system during the Hadean Eon 4.5 to 3.8 billion years ago, particularly through a cataclysmic event known as the Late Heavy Bombardment about 3.9 million years ago. No such record exists for Earth because tectonic processes have folded ancient craters back into the interior, but scientists assume our planet took the same pummeling. Although many believe the bombardment would have sterilized Earth, the new study uses a computer model to show it would have melted only a fraction of Earth's crust, and that microbes — if any existed in the first 500 million years or so of Earth's existence — could well have survived in subsurface habitats, insulated from the destruction. "These new results push back the possible beginnings of life on Earth to well before the bombardment period 3.9 billion years ago," said CU-Boulder Research Associate Oleg Abramov. "It opens up the possibility that life emerged as far back as 4.4 billion years ago, about the time the first oceans are thought to have formed." Modeling the bombardment Because physical evidence of Earth's early bombardment has been erased by weathering and plate tectonics over the eons, Abramov and his colleagues used data from Apollo moon rocks, impact records from the moon, Mars and Mercury, and previous theoretical studies to build three-dimensional computer models that replicate the bombardment. The researchers plugged in asteroid size, frequency and distribution estimates into their simulations to chart the damage to the Earth during the Late Heavy Bombardment, which is thought to have lasted for 20 million to 200 million years. The 3-D models allowed the researchers to monitor temperatures beneath individual craters to assess heating and cooling of the crust following large impacts in order to evaluate habitability, said Abramov. The study, detailed in the May 21 issue of the journal Nature, indicated that less than 25 percent of Earth's crust would have melted during such a bombardment. The team even cranked up the intensity of the asteroid barrage in their simulations by 10-fold — an event that could have vaporized Earth's oceans. "Even under the most extreme conditions we imposed, Earth would not have been completely sterilized by the bombardment," Abramov said. Instead, hydrothermal vents may have provided sanctuaries for extreme, heat-loving microbes known as "hyperthermophilic bacteria" following bombardments, said study team member Stephen Mojzsis. Even if life had not emerged by 3.9 billion years ago, such underground havens could still have provided a "crucible" for life's origin on Earth, he added. The modeling work was supported by the NASA Astrobiology Program's Exobiology and Evolutionary Biology Department and the NASA Postdoctoral Program. Dawn of life The researchers concluded subterranean microbes living at temperatures ranging from 175 degrees to 230 degrees Fahrenheit (79 degrees to 110 degrees Celsius) would have flourished during the Late Heavy Bombardment. The models indicate that underground habitats for such microbes increased in volume and duration as a result of the massive impacts. Some extreme microbial species on Earth today — including so-called "unboilable bugs" discovered in hydrothermal vents in Yellowstone National Park — thrive at 250 F (120 C). Geologic evidence suggests that life on Earth was present at least 3.83 billion years ago, Mojzsis said. "So it is not unreasonable to suggest there was life on Earth before 3.9 billion years ago," he added. "We know from the geochemical record that our planet was eminently habitable by that time, and this new study sews up a major problem in origins of life studies by sweeping away the necessity for multiple origins of life on Earth." The results also support the potential for microbial life on other planets like Mars and perhaps even rocky, Earth-like planets in other solar systems that may have been resurfaced by impacts, Abramov said. "Exactly when life originated on Earth is a hotly debated topic," says NASA's Astrobiology Discipline Scientist Michael H. New. "These findings are significant because they indicate life could have begun well before the [Late Heavy Bombardment], during the so-called Hadean Eon of Earth's history 3.8 billion to 4.5 billion years ago."
The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses accurate, stable atomic clocks in satellites and on the ground to provide world-wide position and time determination. These clocks have gravitational and motional frequency shifts which are so large that, without carefully accounting for numerous relativistic effects, the system would not work. This paper discusses the conceptual basis, founded on special and general relativity, for navigation using GPS. Relativistic principles and effects which must be considered include the constancy of the speed of light, the equivalence principle, the Sagnac effect, time dilation, gravitational frequency shifts, and relativity of synchronization. Experimental tests of relativity obtained with a GPS receiver aboard the TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite will be discussed. Recently frequency jumps arising from satellite orbit adjustments have been identified as relativistic effects. These will be explained and some interesting applications of GPS will be discussed.
Slow wave sleep, also called deep sleep, is an important stage in the sleep cycle that enables proper brain function and memory. While most adults are aware that they should aim for between 7 and 9 hours of sleep each night, the science of sleep is quite complex. The two main categories of sleep are called rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM sleep, and each has important stages. Humans cycle through these stages in a somewhat regular pattern as they sleep, and a full night’s rest means cycling through these stages a few times before waking up. There may be some ways to get both better sleep and more deep sleep each night, allowing a person to wake up feeling more rested and refreshed. The body first cycles through the three non-REM stages of sleep: The first stage of the sleep cycle is a transition period during which the body and brain shift from a state of wakefulness to one of sleep. This period is relatively short, lasting only a few minutes, and the sleep is fairly light. People may wake up from this stage of sleep more easily than from other stages. During stage one, the body starts to slow its rhythms down. The heart rate and breathing rate slow down, and the eyes begin to relax. The muscles also relax but may occasionally twitch. The brain unwinds along with the body. The brain waves start slowing down as brain activity and sensory stimulation decrease. The second stage of non-REM sleep is another lighter stage of sleep that occurs as the body starts transitioning to deeper sleep. As the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke note, humans spend most of their time during the sleep cycle in this stage of sleep. In the body, the heart rate and breathing rate slow down even more. The muscles relax further, and eye movements stop. The body temperature also goes down. Although the brain waves slow down further, this stage also includes small bursts of electrical signals in the brain. Deep sleep or slow wave sleep is the third stage of non-REM sleep. Although the body completes a few cycles throughout the night, the third stage occurs in longer periods during the first part of the night. In the body, the heart rate and breathing rate are at their lowest during this part of the sleep cycle. The muscles and eyes are also very relaxed, and the brain waves become even slower. It may be very difficult to wake someone from this stage of sleep, which is when sleep disorders, such as sleepwalking, occur. REM sleep is the fourth and final stage of the sleep cycle. The body first goes into REM sleep about 90 minutes after falling asleep. During this stage of sleep, the eyes dart back and forth behind the closed eyelids. This state is closer to the wakeful state than the other stages of sleep. In REM sleep, the brain waves start to resemble the brain waves of the wakeful state. The heartbeat and breathing rate speed up. The REM stage is also when most dreaming occurs. The brain temporarily paralyzes the arms and legs to prevent the body from acting out these dreams. While a person needs all the stages of sleep, deep sleep is especially important for brain health and function. Deep sleep helps the brain create and store new memories and improves its ability to collect and recall information. This stage of sleep also helps the brain rest and recover from a day of thinking, allowing it to replenish energy in the form of glucose for the next day. Deep sleep also plays a role in keeping the hormones balanced. The pituitary gland secretes human growth hormone during this stage, which helps tissues in the body grow and regenerate cells. Importantly, a person has to get enough deep sleep for these functions to take place. The amount of deep sleep that a person has will relate to how much overall sleep they get. Sleeping 7 to 9 hours is the recommendation for most adults, which will usually give the body plenty of time in the deeper states of sleep. If the body does not get enough deep sleep one day, it will compensate the next time it can get sleep by quickly moving through the cycles to reach the deepest levels of sleep faster and stay there longer. However, if the person regularly does not get enough deep sleep, this may start to affect the brain. As deep sleep plays a role in memory, the body may have difficulty making new memories or retaining information if it does not get enough sleep. There may be a few ways to increase the amount of deep sleep that a person gets each night. As the American Sleep Association note, the most important thing that a person can do to increase the amount of deep sleep that they get each night is to set aside more time for sleep. Doing so allows the body to go through more sleep cycles, which makes it possible to have more deep sleep. Other practices may help promote deep sleep and good sleep in general, such as: - doing vigorous exercise, such as swimming, jogging, or running, early in the day rather than before bedtime - making diet changes that include eating fewer carbohydrates and more healthful fats - warming up the body in a spa or hot sauna Additionally, some antidepressants may help people get deeper sleep, although this is not the case for everyone. Pink noise may also increase the effectiveness of a person’s deep sleep. Pink noise is random noise with more low-frequency components than white noise. A study in the journal Frontiers in Human Neuroscience looked into the effects of using sound stimulation, such as pink noise, on deep sleep. The findings indicated that listening to these sounds might enhance a person’s deep sleep state, leading to better memory function when they wake up. Some general healthful sleep habits may also help promote better sleep overall, including: - avoiding blue lights, such as smartphones or computers near bedtime - keeping the room as dark as possible by shutting windows and turning off lights from alarm clocks - avoiding caffeine later in the day - avoiding big meals before bedtime - reducing stress - setting a sleep schedule and trying to fall asleep at the same time each night Deep sleep is an important part of the overall sleep process, but it is just one aspect of a good night’s sleep. There may be some ways to promote deeper sleep, such as tiring the body through exercise or listening to pink noise while falling asleep. The best way to get more deep sleep may be as simple as setting aside more time to sleep each night.
Intensity images are of limited use in terms of estimation of surfaces. Pixel values are related to surface geometry only indirectly. Range images encode the position of surface directly. Therefore, the shape can be computed reasonably easy. Range images are a special class of digital images. Each pixel of a range image expresses the distance between a known reference frame and a visible point in the scene. Therefore, a range image reproduces the 3D structure of a scene. Range images are also referred to as depth images, depth maps, xyz maps, surface profiles and 2.5D images. Range images can be represented in two basic forms. One is a list of 3D coordinates in a given reference frame (cloud of points), for which no specific order is required. The other is a matrix of depth values of points along the directions of the x,y image axes, which makes spatial organisation explicit. Range images are acquired with range sensors. In computer vision normally optical range sensors are used. We can distinguish between active and passive range sensors. Active range sensors project energy (e.g. light) on the scene and detect its position to measure or exploit the effect of controlled changes of some sensor parameters (e.g. focus). On the other hand passive range sensors rely only on intensity images to reconstruct depth. Active range sensors exploit a variety of physical principles. The most common sensor techniques are triangulation, radar/sonar, moiré interferometry and active focusing/defocusing. Triangulation uses a light projector and an intensity camera, which is placed at a certain distance from the projector. The projector emits a light pattern. The most common patterns are planes and single beams. We shall use a projected plane for illustration. The intersection of the plane with the scene surface is a planar curve called the strip, which is observed by the camera. By using triangulation we get the depth map of the surface points under the strip. Radar/sonar uses a short electromagnetic or acoustic wave and detect the return (echo) reflected from surrounding surfaces. Distance is obtained as a function of the time taken by the wave to hit a surface and come back. Moiré sensors project two gratings with regularly spaced patterns onto the surface and measure the phase differences of the observed interference pattern. Other phase difference sensors measure the phase shift of the observed return beam. Distance is a function of the phase difference. Active focusing/defocusing sensors use two or more images of the same scene, which are acquired under varying focus settings. Once the best focused image is determined, a model linking focus values and distance yields the distance.
To identify QueenVictoria and place the Victorian period in relation to otherperiods of British history. To infer information from a portrait.To consider what life was like for children in the past. Who were theVictorians and when did they live? Show the children apicture of Queen Victoria and her family. Discuss what they thinkthey can tell from the picture, eg status of the family,lifestyle, when the person was alive. Ask the children to placethe Victorian period on a time line. Discuss with the children whatlife may have been like for Victorias children, and whether allchildren would have had similar experiences. Ask the children towork in groups and share what they already know about the periodand then feed back to the rest of the class what they think lifemight have been like for children. To collect informationfrom a range of sources and draw conclusions about the Victorianperiod. To understand that ways of life differed greatly acrossVictorian society. To write a narrative using historical detail. Tounderstand that there are many representations of the Victorianperiod. What was life like for apoor child in the 1840s? Show the children an extract froma video about life for the poor in the nineteenth century. Discussthe extract and what sources of information the film-maker mighthave used and what other sources might be used to find out more.Provide a range of sources,eg extracts from contemporary authors (Kingsley, Dickens),reports on factories or mines, engravings. Ask the children to makea list of what they can infer about the life of poor children fromthe sources and present it to class. Provide some information onthe numbers of working children, their hours of work, the types ofjobs they did and their lack of education. Discuss why childrenworked in Victorian times. Ask the children to imagine they are aVictorian child working in a factory and write an extract from afactory report describing the work a child of their age wasdoing. To understand that thework of individuals can change aspects of society. To find outabout important figures in Victorian times. To present theirfindings in different ways. Who helped toimprove the lives of Victorian children? Ask the children what they thinkneeded to be done for Victorian children. Talk about LordShaftesbury and Dr Barnardo and how they helped children, placingkey events on the time line. Ask the children to find out about thework of these men, and the way that they changed some childrenslives using a variety of written sources and pictures. Ask thechildren to present their work using freeze-frames, briefrole-plays, cartoons, extended writing or oral and visualpresentations. To compare modern andVictorian schooling. To communicate through drama theirunderstanding of the nature of school life in Victoriantimes. What was it likegoing to school at the end of the nineteenth century? Show the children pictures ofschool life at the end of the nineteenth century and discuss howschool appears different from today, eg uniforms, architectureand interiors of classrooms. Referring to the time line, talkbriefly about the 1870 Education Act, and how schooling was notfree until 1891. Use sources to illustrate aspects of school lifeat this time, eg extracts from stories, school logbooks,inspection reports. Ask the children to produce a conversationbetween two children, one established in school and the other a newarrival who had been working in a factory, mill or mine for years.Select children to present their work to the class. Lead adiscussion on the differences in the views of school and work andwhy the children in the nineteenth century would have interpretedschool life differently. Toconsider how attitudes to children and childhood changed overtime. How diddifferent Victorian children use their spare time? Discuss ways of spending spare time,and ask the children to list their interests and those of others intheir families. Ask them to consider which would have been possiblein 1890 and which not, giving reasons. Discuss with the childrenwhat leisure interests may have been available. Give the children a range of sourceson Victorian leisure pursuits, eg artefacts, textbooks,contemporary paintings, pictures. Ask the children to complete atable listing each leisure pursuit and describing it. Tell the children aboutlate-Victorian attitudes, eg that childhood was a time forprotection from immoral aspects of adult life and for learningfamily values and moral principles. Ask the children to compareVictorian attitudes with those of today. Ask the children touse the sources of information to help them produce advertisementsor a poster advertising the benefits of a new toy or pursuit, andhighlighting what they have been told about Victorianattitudes. To recall information about thelife of children in Victorian times. To select appropriate materialand present it in a way that shows their understanding of theVictorian period. How did lifechange for children living in Victorian Britain? Refer to the time line to recapthe main events, dates and figures to help the children recall someof the main changes to the lives of children during the Victorianperiod. Discuss with the children why the changes took place andwho benefited from them. Tell the children that a large number ofchildren were still working in 1901. Provide the children with arange of sources and ask them to summarise what they have found outin ways that provide a sense of the Victorian period.
In this maths video lecture for jee mains specially designed for IIT-JEE mains advance 2018 aspirants, students will learn about the topic differentiation. This topic was first devised by the famous mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton. Apart from this differential calculus, integrals etc are also his famous contributions. Differentiation can be basically called as the process of finding a derivative. If f(x) is continuous and defined over an interval [a,b] and c belongs to [a,b]. Then the derivative of a function at x=c will be denoted by f ′ (c). The first principle or ab-initio method of finding differential calculus is the most important in this video lecture. These JEE mathematics video lectures on differentiation provide you formulas and respective illustrations also. Always remember to practice as many as practical examples on the basis of the concepts given. This will always help you to remember the concepts clearly. Now suppose with the help of first principle, we need to find the following: y= sinx , y+dy = sin (x+dx). In this case the value of dy = sin (x+dx) – sinx. In case need to find the differential calculus, the value will be dy/dx = limit dx tending to 0, [sin ( x+dx )n – sin x ]/ dx. In this concept you have to remember what is to substituted and where. You will be ever to find the complete illustration by watching the complete JEE differentiation video lecture. With the help of this mathematics video lecture, you will also be able to find out the rate of change in y with respect to x expresses in terms of a ratio. In this way you can find the same for any function. Differentiation is also one of the simple topics that helps you in scoring marks in your maths examination. However, throughout the video lecture, you need to maintain the flow of understanding and practice the illustrations after learning the concepts. These video lectures on IIT-JEE mathematics series will always serve as a value-add to all your learning materials. Make sure to follow every video one after the other and prepare notes in case possible. Differentiation as a JEE maths topic is crucial for all the students to learn and score maximum possible marks.
The study of economic history reveals a number of different patterns when it comes to agricultural production and the standard of living of a given population in a region. Let’s think about the issue in very simple terms. Imagine that the standard of living for a population in a region is determined by the amount of grain that each household is able to acquire in a time period. Grain is produced on farms using labor and technology (water, traction, fertilizer, pesticides, harvest tools). Output is influenced by the existing agricultural technology and the quantity of labor expended in the farming process. At a given level of technology and a given practice of labor use, a certain quantity of grain Q can be produced for the population P (farmers and their families). If population is stable and if land area, technology, and labor use remain constant, then the total amount of grain produced remains constant as well and the standard of living remains level at Q/P. Now several things can begin to change. First, consider a steady population increase over time. If land, technology and labor remain constant, then the standard of living falls, since Q remains constant while P increases. So how can this population sustain and perhaps improve its standard of living? It needs to increase the output of grain at a rate at least equal to the rate of increase in population. And this can be done in several ways. First, the population can bring more land into cultivation. Population increase leads to more farm labor; more farmers can farm the additional land; and if agricultural technologies and practices are unchanged, then output will increase proportionally to the increase in population; so the standard of living will remain constant. This assumes, however, that the new land is of equal productivity to existing land; but as the physiocrats observed, generally new land is of lower productivity. So in this scenario, output would increase more slowly than population, and the standard of living would slowly decline. We might call this extensive growth; technique and labor practices remain constant, but the arable land area increases (at the cost of deforestation and loss of common lands). Second, more labor can be applied to the process of cultivation to increase output, using traditional farming practices. More frequent weeding and destruction of pests takes time, but it increases output. So if population is rising and land extent and productivity are constant, it is possible to offset the tendency for average output to fall, by applying more labor to the process. Family labor, including children, can be expended more and more intensively in order to achieve additional gains in output. But, of course, the marginal product of these additional hours of labor is small. This process is familiar from the history of agriculture; Chayanov calls it “self-exploitation” (The Theory of Peasant Economy) and Clifford Geertz calls it “agricultural involution” (Agricultural Involution: The Processes of Ecological Change in Indonesia). The standard of living may remain fairly constant, but the work load for the farm family increases over time. Naturally, this process reaches a limit; eight hours a day of farm labor is sustainable; twelve hours is difficult; and eighteen hours is unsupportable. (Here is an explanation and application of Chayanov’s theory to the circumstances of Sri Lanka; link.) We can call this involutionary growth or labor-intensive growth. A third possibility is somewhat more positive for the standard of living and quality of life. Intelligent farmers can recognize opportunities for improving and refining existing techniques and practices. A better kind of sacking material may do a better job of protecting the harvest from rats; a bicycle-powered irrigation pump may increase the amount of water available for crops, thus increasing the harvest; a different form of labor cooperation across households may permit more effective seeding during the appropriate season. So the traditional practices can be refined, permitting an increase of output with a constant quantity of land and labor. This is what Mark Elvin refers to as “refinement of traditional practices” in his pathbreaking analysis of the “high-level equilibrium trap” (The Pattern of the Chinese Past). It is an incremental process through which the productivity of the traditional farming system is increased through a series of small refinements of practice and technique. Improvement in productivity permits an improvement in output per person; but if population continues to increase, then soon these gains are erased and the standard of living begins to decline again. A fourth possibility is even more dramatic. The fundamental technologies in use may be qualitatively improved: manure may be replaced by bean curd, which in turn may be replaced by chemical fertilizers; seed varieties may be significantly improved through selective breeding; electric-powered pumps may improve the availability of irrigation; small tractors may replace oxen and many person-hours of labor. This kind of improvement in productivity can be represented as a jump from one of the heavy curves above to a higher “production possibility frontier.” And this enhancement of agricultural productivity can result in massive increases in the quantity of grain relative to the farming population — thereby permitting a significant improvement in the standard of living for the farming population. This can be referred to as modern technological productivity growth. Two problems arise at this point, however. First is Elvin’s fundamental point about Chinese agriculture: these significant technological improvements require a significant social investment in scientific and technical research. And if a population has already approached a subsistence trap — a level of population at which intensive labor and existing farm technology only permits a near-subsistence diet for the population — then there is no source of social surplus that can fund this research investment. (This is the core of his theory of the high-level equilibrium trap: farming techniques and practices have been refined to the maximum degree possible, and population has increased to the point of subsistence.) Another problem is equally important. The sorts of productivity improvements described here are “labor-expelling”: the size of the labor force needs to fall (unless more land is available). So the standard of living may rise for the farm population; but there will be a “surplus population” that is excluded from this improvement in productivity. (This is a process that James Scott describes in Green-Revolution Malasia in Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance.) And at this point, the only hope for improvement of the standard of living for this segment of the population is for economic growth in another sector — manufacturing or service — where the labor of displaced farmers can be productively used. So there are three large patterns, with several structural alternatives among the growth scenarios.
Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. ... Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores. They are typically 0.2–10 cm (0.1–3.9 in) tall, though some species are much larger. Mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have common names that include the word "moss" (e.g., "reindeer moss" or "iceland moss”) The moss life-cycle starts with spores that germinates to produce a either a mass of thread-like filaments or flat and thallus-like. Massed moss protonemata, a thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage in the life cycle of mosses and liverworts and typically look like a thin green felt, and may grow on damp soil, tree bark, rocks, concrete, or almost any other reasonably stable surface. This is a transitory stage in the life of a moss, but from the protonema grows the gametophore ("gamete-bearer") that is structurally differentiated into stems and leaves. Dense moss colonies in a cool coastal forest Moss with sporophytes on brick A closeup of moss on a rock Young sporophytes of the common moss Tortula muralis (wall screw-moss) Retaining wall covered in moss A small clump of moss. Moss requires enough sunlight to perform photosynthesis. Shade tolerance varies by species, just as it does with higher plants. In most areas, mosses grow chiefly in areas of dampness and shade, such as wooded areas and at the edges of streams; but they can grow anywhere in cool damp cloudy climates, and some species are adapted to sunny, seasonally dry areas like alpine rocks or stabilised sand dunes. Choice of substrate varies by species as well. Moss species can be classed as growing on: Exposed mineral soil Waterfall spray areas, Shaded humusy soil Tree trunk bases Upper tree trunks, and tree branches Moss species growing on or under trees are often specific about the species of trees they grow on, such as preferring conifers to broadleaf trees, oaks to alders, or vice versa. Mosses are never parasitic on the tree. Mosses are also found in cracks between paving stones in damp city streets, and on roofs. Some species adapted to disturbed, sunny areas are well adapted to urban conditions and are commonly found in cities. Wherever they occur, mosses require liquid water for at least part of the year to complete fertilisation. Many mosses can survive desiccation, sometimes for months, returning to life within a few hours of rehydration. It is generally believed that in northern latitudes, the north side of trees and rocks will generally have more luxuriant moss growth on average than other sides. This is assumed to be because the sun on the south side creates a dry environment. In boreal forests, some species of moss play an important role in providing nitrogen for the ecosystem due to their relationship with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria colonizes moss and receives shelter in return for providing fixed nitrogen. Moss releases the fixed nitrogen, along with other nutrients, into the soil "upon disturbances like drying-rewetting and fire events," making it available throughout the ecosystem. Moss collections are quite often begun using samples transplanted from the wild in a water-retaining bag. However, specific species of moss can be extremely difficult to maintain away from their natural sites with their unique requirements of combinations of light, humidity, substrate chemistry, shelter from wind, etc. Moss and its use in Bonsai For our use in Bonsai we must take into account the area where the moss is collected and where the substrate and humidity are a good match for type and soil mix of our bonsai to be planted. It will be noted that when Bonsai are seen at shows that moss has been transplanted, often with may varieties across the surface of the pot. This may look attractive to the eye and for the duration of the show but will inevitably result in the lost of all the moss within matter of weeks. Growing moss from spores is even less controlled. Moss spores fall in a constant rain on exposed surfaces; those surfaces which are hospitable to a certain species of moss will typically be colonised by that moss within a few years of exposure to wind and rain. Materials which are porous and moisture retentive, such as brick, wood, and certain coarse concrete mixtures are hospitable to moss. Surfaces can also be prepared with acidic substances, including buttermilk, yogurt, urine, and gently puréed mixtures of moss samples, water and ericaceous compost. The above method can work extremely effectively and the best course of action is to remove some of the naturally occurring moss on our Bonsai soil when spores are being produced (is very effective) and using this as the “seeding” process for our own cultivation, making a note of the soil mix and bonsai type the moss was naturally occurring on. It should be noted that trays of mixed moss types that have been collected from woods, bogs or stone areas may work on only specific cultures and probably will die due to the conditions they are moved to. Moss spores can be purchased for use with Bonsai from Willowbog Bonsai “Our Moss Spores are of a variety commonly termed 'Kyoto' Moss, as is prevalent at the Kyoto Gardens in Japan. The beautiful, bright green velvet appearance is weed free, since it is greenhouse-grown in sterilized soil. Shelf life is indefinite, as spores are packed in a zip-lock bag within the envelope. A detailed growing guide is included. Covers up to 3 square feet.” Inhibiting moss growth Vigorous moss growth can inhibit seedling emergence and penetration of water and fertiliser to the plant roots. Moss growth can be inhibited by a number of methods: Decreasing availability of water through drainage. Increasing direct sunlight. Increasing number and resources available for competitive plants like grasses. Increasing the soil pH with the application of lime. Manually disturbing the moss bed Application of chemicals such as ferrous sulphate (e.g. in lawns) or bleach (e.g. on solid surfaces). The application of products containing ferrous sulphate or ferrous ammonium sulphate will kill moss; these ingredients are typically in commercial moss control products and fertilisers. Sulphur and Iron are essential nutrients for some competing plants like grasses. Killing moss will not prevent regrowth unless conditions favourable to their growth are changed. The growth of Moss onto our Bonsai Nebari and bark of pines can be damaging as the bark softens and rots due to the large water retention of the moss. As can be seen from our notes above the pH is critical to the moss so a very effective way of clearing the moss from Bark is with a localised wash of Vinegar, ordinary Vinegar is painted on the areas to be killed. Vinegar is also a good method of killing the algae on branches and particularly on clogged Juniper leaves. A solution of 10% has been found to be affective. Further reading can be found in this useful pdf. This article was adapted from article from wikipedia with Bonsai specific information added. Young sporophytes of the common moss Tortula muralis (wall screw-moss) Red moss capsules, a winter native of the Yorkshire Dales moorland
The advancement and widespread adoption of quantum computing hinges on the ability to overcome its current limitations, one of the most major of these being the issue of stability. A team of quantum engineers at the University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, has potentially created a solution to address this limitation. In a paper published this month in the journal Nature Communications, the team describes how they developed artificial atoms in silicon quantum dots, an innovation that may provide the necessary improved stability for quantum computing. Overcoming Instability Issues to Advance Quantum Computing Quantum computing is rapidly gaining attention, not only in the fields of hard science but also in the public arena. People are becoming increasingly interested in the technology that is being hailed as the future of computing that will be used to help us solve problems in all industries, achieving complex computations that lie far outside of the capabilities of classical computers. The technology had been in theoretical stages for a number of years when in 2019 Google’s scientists announced that in a world-first, it had created a quantum computer that had successfully completed a task that would be impossible for a classical computer to complete. It is evident that the technology is already reaching the stage where it is beginning to be able to accomplish the impressive tasks that theory has predicted. However, before we can be confident that quantum computing will evoke a profound shift in the technologies and capabilities of future innovations, several major obstacles must be overcome. One major hindrance being the issue that only a minimal level of environmental interference is needed to impact the quantum state, therefore affecting the computer’s ability to retain information. Scientists need to develop a way of vastly improving the stability of quantum machines while also providing an effective method of controlling electrons in order to secure the future of useable quantum computers. The team at UNSW set up to accomplish this by developing a system that uses artificial atoms to offer this enhanced stability. Establishing an Electrostatically Confined Quantum Dot In quantum computing, qubits take the place of the bits used in classical computing. Bits store information in binary, as 0s or 1s, whereas qubits can store information as 0s, or 1s, or both. This is where the expansion of computing possibilities lies. The team at UNSW established a method of creating artificial atoms in silicon ‘quantum dots’, where the dot’s electrons are used as qubits, offering enhanced stability. In revealing the periodic properties of elements, scientists can define the chemical behavior in terms of the valence of atoms. The Australian quantum engineers recognized that this could be extended to quantum dots, to the result of performing quantum computation by managing the outer-shell electrons of dot-based qubits. Unfortunately, previous methods of devising quantum computers had relied on semiconductor materials that had presented imperfections that had prevented the systematic many-electron arrangement. However, the team at UNSW was able to establish an electrostatically confined quantum dot with a defined shell structure. The team were able to demonstrate that it is not necessary to operate quantum dot qubits at single-electron occupancy, the research showed that robust spin qubits can be generated in multielectron quantum dots up to the third valence shell at least, which vastly improves the stability of the qubits, as well as the reliability and performance of the quantum computers built from these multi-electron qubits. These new artificial atom qubits overcome the limitation of instability in quantum computing and will likely open the door to the widespread adoption of the technology in various applications. They will help enable the establishment of quantum computing in the various uses that up until this point have remained theoretical.
For all its apparently domestic character, evidence for rituals and beliefs is a key feature of the Iron Age, both on and off-site. The on-site evidence is critical to understanding both the material record from sites and the societies involved; the off-site finds (especially hoards) provide a link into wider concepts of landscape, the understood world and cosmography. Evidence of how Iron Age societies dealt with death is at last beginning to accrue, revealing a bewildering complexity. The popular and previously dominant academic paradigm of a widespread Celtic religion is questionable as it conflates sources distant in time and space from the Scottish Iron Age (Fitzpatrick 1991; Hingley 1992). Recognising ritual practice has always proved difficult and there has been a reliance on a classical model of gods, temples, iconography, mythology and formalised burial rites (Webster 1991). Inferring beliefs is the hardest inference of all (Hawkes 1954). Analogy often relies on ‘primitive’ anthropological theory such as natural religion/animism (Tylor 1871), fertility (Frazer 1924) and more recently shamanism (Aldhouse-Green 2004) How then can correlations and similarities with wider British, Irish and European archaeological evidence for ritual and religion be explained? What are the mechanisms for the transmission and maintenance of common patterns of practice? How can this be addressed from archaeological evidence alone? What is the role of analogy and is an enhanced cooperation with philology/Celtic studies a necessary step towards a fuller understanding? A comprehensive survey based solely on Scottish archaeological evidence that synthesises recent data is needed to address these issues. On-site ritual practice The focus of Iron Age studies has often been on the apparent domestic nature of the evidence. The quest for an archaeology of everyday practice hoped to find patterns of structured behaviour behind the deposition of artefacts on site (Fitzpatrick 1997; Parker Pearson 1996; Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999). Scepticism of cosmological interpretations can still allow the production of interpretations directed at ceremony and ritual (Pope 2007). The work of Hill (1995) in particular highlighted the existence of patterns behind the deposition of objects, human and animal remains in pits in Wessex which had previously been seen as rubbish, and the existence of certain features, such as pits, ditches and post-occupation deposits rich in cultural material is increasingly identified as the result of complex but poorly understood episodes of deposition. These may be linked to specific important events in a community’s life, and careful consideration of patterns and associations could provide models for testing (e.g. Campbell 2001). The deposition of material such as smashed or intact querns is often linked to concepts of ensuring fertility, at moments connected with the life-cycles of houses, as they often occur in foundation or abandonment deposits (e.g. Barrett 1989; Hingley 1992; Brück 1999). However, this does require demonstration (in the form of recurring patterns of deposition) rather than assumption because it happens to be a current theory. This impacts directly on field practice, in the detailed recording of object location and position. Formation processes on site need to be carefully considered for the recognition of ritualised practice. Off-site deposition and hoarding Spectacular artefacts that are rarely found on inhabited sites were recovered during early modern agricultural improvements – this includes most of the pieces of ‘Celtic art’ in Scotland. They have often been treated as stray finds as they frequently lack contextual information but collection and synthesis of data will allow meaningful patterns to be explored in terms of objects, associations and locations (e.g. Hunter 1997). This could be supplemented by modern study of the environment and setting of these finds: landscape and peoples’ perception of place is one gateway to understanding these practices. The lack of structures and perception of a use of natural places may be more apparent than real as few have been investigated (e.g. excavation of the findspot of the gold torcs at Blair Drummond in 2009 revealed a timber circular structure (house? shrine?) at the site of the hoard). Wet places, springs, wells (which Minehowe would appear to be), rivers, mires and lakes all appear to have liminal associations at this time. There is also an emerging trend in the Iron Age for subterranean sites and features as ritual foci (e.g. High Pasture Cave, Minehowe) and it is tempting to view this as an ‘underworld’ component of the Iron Age cosmological landscape. It is important to bear in mind that assemblages of a ceremonial character may have been deposited instantaneously, but may equally have accrued over a very long period of time. Excavation at recent findspots such as Fiskerton (Lincs) and Snettisham (E Anglia) has shown how complex the practices could be (Field & Parker Pearson 2003; Stead 1991), while other classic ritual sites have seen increasingly complex reinterpretations (e.g. Llyn Cerrig Bach, Macdonald 2007; La Tène, Müller 1992, 2007). Excavation of future and past findspots is a priority to understand the processes taking place at them. The last synthesis of Iron Age burial in Britain had a very sparse Scottish section (Whimster 1981). This could now be expanded considerably, thanks in large measure to the more routine dating of unaccompanied inhumation burials, and technical developments allowing the direct dating of cremations; this has revealed a considerable number of Iron Age burials (e.g. DES 2005, 148 (Pollochar); 2003, 169). Exceptional discoveries have also changed the picture: the site of the Knowe of Skea on Westray has revealed over 200 burials, the vast majority of infants. This itself poses severe problems of interpretation – is this number more typical of what would be expected from a long-lived community, and if so why have more such sites not been found? And is such high infant mortality typical? Ongoing PhD research on these remains should help to answer this. Yet overall the number of burials remains very small, given the time span and population involved, and especially in contrast to large parts of the Continent at this time or to the Scottish early Bronze Age record. Iron Age Scotland fits the general pattern for Britain, which has only sporadic formalisation of burial rites at certain times and in certain places; formal burial was the exception, and there is increasing evidence for a variety of non-normative burial rites and manipulation of human remains (Armit and Ginn 2007; Shapland and Armit 2011). This included (but was not limited to) fragmentation of individuals, partial burial, and the retention of certain skeletal elements (often skull parts) on domestic sites; it is not at all clear what led to the treatment of individuals in specific ways, although careful osteological study (for evidence of trauma) allied with scientific evidence (isotopic study to ascertain whether they are local or not, and perhaps ultimately DNA work when it is more reliable) offer ways forward. The recognition of cremated human bone within midden material at Phantassie, East Lothian (Lelong 2008, 195), offers a possible reason why routine disposal of the dead is all but invisible, although the results have yet to be replicated on other sites. Whether it is possible to know what happened to the majority of bodies of Iron Age people remains a question that innovative techniques or methodologies might help answer. Why burial is apparently more common in some areas (e.g. East Lothian) than others is another interesting question. Is this primarily conditioned by area where bone survives, or are there wider patterns at work? Belief impacts on all the other aspects of Relations between people, and can be used as a lens through which to explore them. For example, in terms of individual and group identities, can hoarding at natural boundaries be used as evidence for regional identities or territory? Prestige metalwork has been used as indicators of status, with objects interpreted as symbols of individual authority (high status ornaments) or symbols of community (vessels). Does deposition therefore indicate a rejection of the authority represented by the objects? More sophisticated anthropological theory could provide a number of analogies against which the Scottish data could be tested. This stands more chance of success as long as ritual evidence is integrated with other more substantial bodies of evidence for Iron Age societies. For social structure, the increase in deposition in the Later Iron Age could be used to theorise increasingly hierarchical changing societies who could afford to participate in the conspicuous consumption of deposition or in the need for its demonstrative nature to emphasise rank. How can this be tested? The apparent rarity of burial in the earlier Iron Age and increase in Later and Roman Iron Age may indicate steeper social stratification but can this correlation be supported by other evidence? A focus on settlement and on-site ritual practice is one of the recurring features of Iron Age society, with the demise of circular architecture at the end of the Iron Age fitting theories of major social change at the end of this period – how does evidence for Iron Age belief correlate with this? In terms of the interaction between groups, prestige metalwork is often exotic and therefore demonstrates evidence for the movement of materials objects, ideas and people. Again, does deposition of these exotic objects imply the rejection of alien and ritually polluting material/symbols of distant authority or a reinforcement of existing authority through demonstration of access to these materials, and can this be explored through case studies of e.g. Roman material on indigenous sites? Wider issues include environmental change and how the ‘nature’ of the landscape features chosen for ritual practices can be understood. For example, how did ritual activity fit into the inhabited, agricultural landscape of Iron Age Scotland? Visibility is a problem for hoarding and ritual sites, as the most spectacular finds were chance finds and fieldwork is needed to contextualise these. How are patterns of practice recognised and at what scale: locally, regionally, Scottish or British? Can other ritual sites be located or recognised? Are there pan-European or at least international trends in ritual that can be legitimately recognised? How much is Iron Age domesticity a product of modern rationalisation of the evidence? The occurrence of structured deposits is relatively well researched in Atlantic Scotland, but less so elsewhere (Haselgrove et al. 2001, 8-9). The evidence would benefit from a national and regional review and synthesis. Are there regional differences to ritual practice? Excavation of any fresh hoard finds is critical – but is excavation the only way to reveal ephemeral structures, pits, platforms, walkways, logboats and organic deposits? What potential is there for remote sensing? Background research into find spots and understanding the processes of recovery through agricultural improvement may provide further information on context. Why were certain sites chosen for hoards? There is potential to characterise these sites that suffer from a distinct lack of contextual information. Environmental deposits and ecofactual information may be locked in the waterlogged contexts that produced prestige metalwork or other ceremonial deposits. Renewed synthesis of the expanded range of burial evidence is a desideratum The human remains, both from burials and non-burial contexts, merit detailed osteological and scientific study to extract the maximum of information on their date, origins and fate.
Collapsing dams are a staple of disaster films, but the form that these take in natural systems is also surprisingly varied. Streams and rivers can be blocked by a range of rapid and gradual inputs. One of the lesser-known causes of stream blockage is through the accumulation of large woody debris – tree trunks and large branches – to form a log jam. The impact of these jams on river geomorphology can be varied, but in some extreme cases, when they break, large flood waves can wash out huge downstream areas. This kind of hazard is often poorly understood, so a new study exploring how logjams in Bolivia can drive downstream flooding published in Earth System Dynamics by Umberto Lombardo provides an important addition to our understanding. To form a log-jam, tree trunks and other large woody debris needs to end up in the river through erosion and transport processes. The majority of the rivers in the assessed area meander back and forth, which encourages erosion of the river banks; this can topple trees into the river. This bank erosion provides the source of the woody debris which then gets stuck in the channel, beginning the construction of a log-jam. Once the jam is formed there is potential for flooding, which has important consequences for the surrounding forest. Behind the dam, silt and sand accumulates, and once the river either breaks the dam or redirects around it, sediment is also distributed downstream, along with the woody debris. Using satellite imagery, Lombardo explores a chunk of the Bolivian part of the Amazon rainforest to look for the effects of log-jam induced flooding on forest dynamics. He shows in this study that the sudden influx of mud and silt onto the forest floor characteristically results in the die-off of much of the vegetation. Where floods occur repeatedly, the dense rainforest ecosystem is replaced by a drier, more savannah-like ecosystem. The flood-induced ecosystem change is not an isolated one, either; in the study area, the amount of forest killed by floods is nearly as great as the amount lost to deforestation for agricultural growth, and the near-annual recurrence of these events in many rivers means that it is a consistent cause of ecological shifts. From a human perspective, these log-jams are a risk that may not be appreciated. Recent studies have shown that human driven deforestation can accelerate the rate at which river banks in tropical regions erode; so while the removal of trees may initially reduce the propensity for log-jams in extensively managed stretches of river, the faster rate of meandering may also lead to log-jam formation further down the line sooner than we might think. A clearer understanding of such river systems, where log-jam formation and coupled flooding is part of the normal evolution of the stream system, would serve us well in rapidly developing tropical countries that rely on forest ecosystems. While the dynamics of log-jams have been studied in more temperate regions, this study represents a significant step into the unknown in tropical regions. The Amazon as a whole is a crucial component of the global carbon cycle, so a clearer understanding of the feedbacks between rivers, erosion, and the forest ecosystem will allow us to create more nuanced models of the rainforest dynamics. The more scientists study forests, the clearer it becomes that these ecosystems regularly undergo significant disturbances simply as part of their natural cycles. Forest fires and pest outbreaks can disrupt a given stand of forest; log-jams are another example of a disturbance, this time closely associated with river dynamics. Forests renew and regenerate themselves at a range of scales, from individual trees to whole swathes of woodland, and log-jams provide an additional mechanism that can lead to die-off of mature forest and replacement by new growth. By Robert Emberson, a science writer based in Canada Lombardo, U.: River logjams cause frequent large-scale forest die-off events in southwestern Amazonia, Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 565-575, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-565-2017, 2017
Some native plants are protected by California law. Important California laws for native plant protection are the California Endangered Species Act (CESA), the Native Plant Protection Act (NPPA), the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), the Natural Community Conservation Planning Act (NCCPA), the California Desert Native Plants Act (CDNPA), and California Penal Code Section 384a. CESA was enacted in 1984 to parallel the federal Endangered Species Act and allows the Fish and Game Commission to designate species, including plants, as threatened or endangered. CESA makes it illegal to import, export, “take”, possess, purchase, sell, or attempt to do any of those actions to species that are designated as threatened, endangered, or candidates for listing, unless permitted by CDFW. “Take” is defined as “hunt, pursue, catch, capture, or kill, or attempt to hunt, pursue, catch, capture, or kill.” There are 156 species, subspecies, and varieties of plants that are protected as threatened or endangered under CESA. Under CESA, CDFW may permit take or possession of threatened, endangered, or candidate species for scientific, educational, or management purposes, and may also permit take of these species that is incidental to otherwise lawful activities if certain conditions are met. Some of the conditions for incidental take are that the take is minimized and fully mitigated, adequate funding is ensured for this mitigation, and that the activity will not jeopardize the continued existence of the species. The Native Plant Program coordinates CDFW’s plant listing activities under CESA, prepares evaluation reports, and provides recommendations to the Fish and Game Commission. If you are considering petitioning the Fish and Game Commission to list a plant species pursuant to CESA, please email [email protected]. Native Plant Protection Act The NPPA was enacted in 1977 and allows the Fish and Game Commission to designate plants as rare or endangered. There are 64 species, subspecies, and varieties of plants that are protected as rare under the NPPA. The NPPA prohibits take of endangered or rare native plants, but includes some exceptions for agricultural and nursery operations; emergencies; and after properly notifying CDFW for vegetation removal from canals, roads, and other sites, changes in land use, and in certain other situations. Please see Fish and Game Code section 1900 et seq. for more information. California Environmental Quality Act CEQA is a law that requires public agencies to analyze and publicly disclose the environmental impacts from projects they approve, and adopt feasible alternatives and mitigation measures to mitigate for the significant impacts they identify. During CEQA review, public agencies must evaluate and disclose impacts to the 220 plant species protected under CESA and the NPPA, and in most cases must mitigate all significant impacts to these species to a level of less than significance. In addition, during the CEQA process, public agencies must also address plant species that may not be listed under CESA or the NPPA, but that may nevertheless meet the definition of rare or endangered provided in CEQA. CDFW works in collaboration with the California Native Plant Society and with botanical experts throughout the state to maintain an Inventory of Rare and Endangered Plants, and the similar Special Vascular Plants, Bryophytes, and Lichens List. Species on these lists may meet the CEQA definition of rare or endangered. As the trustee agency for the wildlife of California, which includes plants, ecological communities and the habitat upon which they depend, CDFW advises public agencies during the CEQA process to help ensure that the actions they approve do not significantly impact such resources. CDFW often advises that impacts to plant species with a California Rare Plant Rank in the Inventory be disclosed by the lead agency during project review to ensure compliance with CEQA. The NCCPA allows for the development of broad-based ecosystem-level plans for the protection and perpetuation of biological diversity. The primary objective of Natural Community Conservation Plans prepared under the NCCPA is to conserve natural communities at the ecosystem level while accommodating compatible land use. Plants protected under an approved Natural Community Conservation Plan may be “taken” by activities covered under the plan, but also typically receive a large amount of conservation and protection. The purpose of the CDNPA is to protect certain species of California desert native plants from unlawful harvesting on both public and privately owned lands. The CDNPA only applies within the boundaries of Imperial, Inyo, Kern, Los Angeles, Mono, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties. Within these counties, the CDNPA prohibits the harvest, transport, sale, or possession of specific native desert plants unless a person has a valid permit or wood receipt, and the required tags and seals. The appropriate permits, tags and seals must be obtained from the sheriff or commissioner of the county where collecting will occur, and the county will charge a fee. More information on the CDNPA, including the species protected under the law, is available by reading the provisions of the law. Under California Penal Code Section 384a a person shall not willfully or negligently cut, destroy, mutilate, or remove plant material that is growing upon state or county highway rights-of-way. In addition, a person shall not willfully or negligently cut, destroy, mutilate, or remove plant material that is growing upon public land or upon land that is not his or hers without a written permit from the owner of the land, signed by the owner of the land or the owner’s authorized agent. In addition, removing or damaging plants from property that a person does not own without permission may constitute trespass and/or petty theft.
Life on the planet started astonishingly early. The first living organisms, in the current model of evolution, are thought to be Prokaryotes1. The oldest known fossilised prokaryotes have been dated to approximately 3.5 billion years ago, only 1 billion years after the formation of the Earth's crust. Eukaryotes2 are more advanced organisms with complex cell structures, each of which contains a nucleus. Although incredibly hard to determine their origin, they are thought to have developed 1.6–2.1 billion years ago, although some research2 suggests eukaryotes being present even earlier than this. Around 1.1 billion years ago multicellular3 organisms are thought to have started to develop, most likely similar in form to plants such as green algae. 200 million years later true multicellularity had also evolved in animals similar in nature to today's sponges, which are organisms which can reassemble themselves. Animals4, in the most basic sense of the word, are considered to have evolved from Eukaryotes. Fossils of early sponges have been discovered in 665 million year old rock. Later on, around 560 million years ago, some highly significant fossils of an organism which was named Charnia4.1 were discovered. These enigmatic early animals were anchored to the sea floor where they are thought to have absorbed nutrients. Around 450 million years ago, during the Ordovician Period, land plants appeared, although new evidence may suggest that complex photosynthetic plants developed over 1000 million years ago. Studies of fossils from the Devonian Period 416–359 Ma5.1 indicate that land plants had evolved features we recognise today, such as leaves, roots, and secondary wood. Towards the end of this time seeds had evolved. The dominance of the Dinosaurs6 lasted for over 160 million years, from around 230 Ma, to their ultimate demise at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago. The extinction of most dinosaur species occurred during the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event6.1. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved within theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period. Some of them survived the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, including the ancestors of all modern birds. The first Mammals7 are our most direct ancestors, they evolved from Amniotes7.1 which were a group of tetrapod vertebrates (four-limbed animals with backbones or spinal columns). All mammals posses the same characteristics; they are warm-blooded vertebrate animals of a class that is distinguished by the possession of hair or fur, the secretion of milk by females, and (typically) the birth of live young. One of the earliest known mammals was Eozostrodon7.2 which lived during the late Triassic and the early Jurassic, about 210 million years ago. The genus Homo gave rise to modern humans8, Homo sapiens, us. It is estimated we have been around for 2.3–2.4 million years, coinciding with the first evidence of stone tool usage. Incredibly, recent evidence from Ethiopia8 places the earliest signs of stone tool usage at before 3.39 million years ago. Modern humans have evolved into highly intelligent beings who posses the power, and desire, to understand who we are, where we came from, and how the natural world works. We have even become ambitious enough to try and help each other to understand these amazing things through ever more advancing visual communication!
Many people believe wormholes only exist in the realm of science fiction. But some astronomers think these phenomena could be real. To find out for sure, a group of researchers based in China and the US are looking at objects near Sagittarius A, the supermassive black hole at the centre of our Milky Way. The aim is to find out whether the black hole might actually be a wormhole instead. We talk to Professor Dejan Stojkovic, of the University at Buffalo, New York, who is taking part in the research. What is a wormhole? A wormhole is an object connecting two distant parts of the same universe, or two different universes altogether. It is a hypothetical object that has never been observed so far, but it is a legitimate solution to Einstein’s equations. As such, there is a great chance that it is realised somewhere in nature. How did you get interested in wormholes? In my research, I always pay most of my attention to interesting problems at the very boundary of our knowledge. Wormholes certainly fit into this description. Read more about black holes: Can you explain your new technique for finding wormholes? A traversable wormhole allows for particles and fields to travel through it. Gravitational perturbations caused by massive objects on the other side of the wormhole would affect the motion of objects, for example stars, on our side. We calculated these perturbations and applied them to the motion of stars we observe around the centre of the Milky Way [where the supermassive Sagittarius A black hole is located]. How would studying the stars around a black hole help determine whether there is a wormhole? A black hole has a point of no return, called an ‘event horizon’, and something called a ‘singularity’ [a point of infinite density] at the centre. A wormhole is regular and allows for a smooth travel from one side to another. Since we cannot send probes and spacecraft through a wormhole or a black hole in order to see the difference, the only way to distinguish them is to observe motion of objects around them. In your wormhole research, You studied the star S2, which is orbiting Sagittarius A*. Why did you pick this star? It is the best-studied star orbiting what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Galaxy. We know the motion and orbit of S2 with great precision. Deviations from the expected orbit could indicate that the supermassive central object might be something as exotic as a wormhole. How does a wormhole stay open? You need some form of repulsive gravity to prevent its collapse. Either some exotic form of negative energy density, or some elaborate setup that serves the same purpose: to provide repulsion. What’s next for your research? The gravitational perturbations of S2 could be caused by some other invisible objects on our side, say smaller black holes. If the deviations are observed, we would have to do more careful modelling to pinpoint the source of perturbations. That is what we are concentrating on right now. I expect that within a decade, we will have the necessary precision to exclude the most generic wormhole scenario for the centre of the Galaxy. This, however, would not exclude their existence somewhere else in our Universe. The same techniques we proposed can be applied to any other black hole and star binary system.
Getting kids to share isn’t always easy, but a new study suggests babies may show altruistic qualities early in life. Researchers at the Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences at the University of Washington studied nearly 100 19-month-old babies. The babies had a delicious snack in front of them, but instead of eating it, they gave it to the adults next to them. Researchers believe this indicates babies can show altruistic behavior at this stage of their life. Psychologist Christina Fiorvanti, Ph.D., at Montefiore Health System in New York, agrees. “Altruistic helping behavior is likely one way that babies interact with others and watch to see the impact of their actions,” Fiorvanti tells Parentology. “When adults respond in positive ways to what an infant or toddler does, children are much more likely to repeat the behavior.” Fiorvanti says babies learn through engaging with their environments and watching those around them. Studying Altruistic Behavior in Babies As part of the study, researchers put babies into two groups. The control group had a piece of fruit placed on a tray. The babies could reach it, but the adults couldn’t. Babies in the control group were with researchers who did nothing else with the food. For the babies in the test group, researchers appeared to accidentally toss the piece of fruit and pretended they couldn’t reach it. More than half the babies in the test group saw the adults struggle, picked up the fruit and handed it to them. Researchers repeated the test with another group of babies at mealtime, thinking it would affect how generous they were if they were hungry. While babies in the control kept the fruit for themselves, 37% of those in the test group still gave the fruit to the adults. Does Environment Play a Role in a Baby’s Altruistic Behavior? Researchers also discovered that children with siblings and those from certain cultural backgrounds were especially likely to help an adult. Fiorvanti tells Parentology, “Parents tend to be selfless when it comes to their children and may not expect young children to share with them, whereas expecting a child to share with a sibling is much more likely.” The environment that surrounds children can also impact their behavior greatly. Fiorvanti says families and homes where everyone is kind to one another through their actions are most likely to encourage the same traits in their children. Culture can also play an important role in teaching children what behaviors are important. “Children raised in societies where an emphasis is placed on how everyone supports one another and helps the community as a whole would be expected to display more altruistic behaviors themselves,” Fiorvanti says. Since babies tend to learn a lot from social interactions, seeing their parents display generous behavior can have a greater impact than parents just telling their kids to be nice. Promoting Altruism in Kids There are myriad opportunities where parents can promote altruism in kids, many of which involve paying attention to someone else’s feelings. Fiorvanti says parents can talk about other’s feelings with their children as well as their own feelings. “When a child starts to notice that another person is sad…and connect that to their own feelings of sadness, they can begin to act in an altruistic way to do something to help make that person feel better,” Fiorvanti says. As kids get older, there are more opportunities to promote altruism. These include exposing them to people in need, modeling kindness, and remaining positive. By exposing your kids to people in need they can see others’ struggles first-hand. This can include a volunteer trip to a homeless shelter or soup kitchen. By being a positive role model, your kids can see how kindness always counts and wins, no matter what age they are.
A group of NASA scientists have discovered a new mineral of space origin in one of the most historically significant celestial objects – a meteorite found in Antarctica in 1969. The new mineral was discovered by NASA scientists inside the meteorite known as Yamato 691, according to NASA’s official report. The meteorite was among the first nine meteorites discovered by the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition in the ice-fields of Antarctica in 1969. The analysis has shown that it is over 4.5 billion years old and originated from an asteroid orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. Latest discoveries by NASA scientists and their co-researchers from Japan and South Korea revealed small inclusions of an unknown mineral in the meteorite specimen. It was discovered surrounded by other materials of unidentified nature that are now being investigated as well. The newly discovered mineral is made up of sulfur and titanium molecules that form an intricate crystal lattice. The characteristics of the lattice have yet to be defined. The mineral makes up only a tiny fraction of the sample (50 x 450 nanometers, or less than one-hundredth width of human hair). Yet it is an important integral part of its chemical composition. The finding was named Wassonite in honor of Prof. John Wasson (UCLA) known for his unrivaled achievements in meteorite research. The research team, headed by NASA scientist Keiko Nakamura-Messenger, added the mineral to the list approved by the International Mineralogical association. Wassonite is unlikely to be found on Earth; therefore the discovery is quite outstanding. Wassonite is probably not the only mineral that for billions of years has remained unknown to scientists. Meteorites from Antarctica hold many mysteries that fascinate researchers worldwide. ‘More secrets of the universe can be revealed from these specimens using 21st century nano-technology,’ said Nakamura-Messenger, once again emphasizing the pivotal role of the nano-technology equipment available at NASA facilities. All in all the searches in Antarctica resulted in recovering over 40,000 specimens of celestial materials including Martian and Lunar meteorites. The co-discoverer of Wassonite, Lindsay Keller underlined the importance of studying meteorites for further research on formation of our solar system: ‘Through these kinds of studies we can learn about the conditions that existed and the processes that were occurring then’. Meteorites have been constantly providing geologists with research material. Extreme conditions are created when meteorites pass the Earth’s atmosphere and collide with the surface. This results in the appearance of new chemical elements on the surface of meteorites. Lonsdaleite is one example of such elements. Being almost two times harder than diamonds, it is one of the hardest minerals known to scientists.
Shaping Goals For Sustainable Future Sustainable Development Goals Often referred to as Global goals, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), are universal strategies deployed in a bid to end poverty, provide planet protection and ensure that every individual has access to prosperity and peace. SDGs do work in the spirit of pragmatism and partnership to improve life for future generations in a sustainable way. They also provide clear targets and guidelines to be adopted by all countries, as well as tackling the root causes of poverty, hence uniting people to make a positive change internationally. A sustainable economy is one which is able to live within its own means. It means the economy as a whole spending income from the natural resources available, rather than utilizing more resources than the environment can manage to replenish. A sustainable economy should also not be a liability, but ought to leave a legacy. This means that pollution should be limited to a level that any environment can absorb without damaging its health and function. Three Key Steps To A More Sustainable Economy: Imagining And Building The Future Economy We definitely need to transform our industrial system. If this is not soon put into action, carbon dioxide will continuously build in the atmosphere, and fossil carbon will stop being removed from the ground. This means that the use of raw material, which is crucial to our global economy, will be reduced and the economy will consequently be affected. SDGs, as discussed earlier, will provide an opportunity to think about what we want and how to achieve it. Acknowledge Developing Country Constraints Delivery on development is usually the first priority for developing countries. Irrespective of the recipe used, industrial production is inevitable, and the sustainable environment has to be provided by these governments, which includes investment in infrastructure. Governments in developing countries, therefore, have to be supported technically and financially in order to participate in a low-carbon transition economy. Sustained Policy Commitment Most organization’s accounts do not have a commitment to preventing future generations damages, which is one of the most important benefits for a sustainable economy. As a standard recommendation, external damages should be internalized using a price. But this has its own limits in that, start-up investors advocating for low-carbon technology has to rely on suppliers who are still using carbon-rich fuels. A sustainable economy is one that is self-sufficient and lives depending on its own means; usually, it leaves not a liability but a legacy instead. In order to achieve it, humans should use natural resources that the environment can replenish without depleting them, whereas the pollution should be limited to a point that the environment […] Generally, when real output increases steadily over time, Economic growth is said to have occurred. This real output is measured at constant prices by the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Sustainable economic growth, therefore, means a rate of economic growth which can be kept constant, without creating any further problems in the economy that can affect […]
By Christopher Zoukis A Brief History According to Julia Dunn, a gang “is an interstitial group, originally formed spontaneously, and then integrated through conflict.” Image courtesy pbs.org The term ‘interstitial’ refers to a culturally isolated or marginalized group of individuals, who, because of external circumstances (racism, lack of education, unemployment), have been left behind. These individuals adopt a ‘strength through numbers’ attitude, assume collective standards of behavior, develop ad hoc structures of hierarchy and esprit de corps. They identify with others of similar circumstances and exhibit territorial tendencies. After World War I, African-American enclaves sprouted up in the urban areas of major cities with the United States. In the 1920s, Los Angeles encompassed large black enclaves, where unemployment was prevalent and poverty was the norm. Within these enclaves, family members and friends banded together into loose, unorganized associations that were, for the most part, non-violent. For lack of a better term, these associations came to be known as gangs. The gangs of this historical time were non-territorial. The primary function of such gangs was to present a ‘tough guy’ image and facilitate the accumulation of easy money by means of prostitution, forgery and theft.
Breast cancer is one of the deadliest forms of cancer for women in the United States, right behind lung cancer. About one in eight women will develop breast cancer according to the American Cancer Society, which means there’s a good chance somebody you know and love has been affected by the disease. Over the last 30 years, medical science has made incredible advancements in breast cancer treatment, early detection and increased awareness, all of which have led to improved outcome rates. Who's at risk for breast cancer? Both women and men can develop breast cancer. Though it’s generally considered a woman’s disease, up to 2,500 new cases of invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in men this year. There are several risk factors that may increase your chance of developing breast cancer. These include: - Gender: The female hormones estrogen and progesterone can promote the growth of breast cancer cells. - Age: The older you get, the more your cancer risk increases. Two out of three breast cancers are found in women over 55, while one in eight are found in women under 45. - Genetics: Five to 10 percent of breast cancer cases are thought to be hereditary. - Family history: A woman’s risk of developing breast cancer more than doubles if she has a mother, sister or daughter with cancer. - Race and ethnicity: Most breast cancers develop in Caucasian women, though African American women are more likely to die from the disease. - Birth control: Oral contraceptives may slightly increase breast cancer risk. - Hormone therapy: Women who undergo hormone therapy after menopause may have a greater risk of developing breast cancer. - Drinking alcohol: Alcohol consumption has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer. - Being overweight or obese: Women who are overweight or obese after menopause have a higher risk of developing breast cancer. Breast cancer screening and detection When breast cancer is diagnosed early, the chances of effective treatment are higher. The best ways to detect breast cancer early are through mammograms and breast self-exams. Breast self-awareness: Forty percent of breast cancer cases are detected by women who feel a lump, according to Johns Hopkins Medical Center. If you notice any changes in your body, notify your healthcare provider. Check your breasts on a regular basis, but also be aware of your body as you shower and get dressed. It’s then you’ll likely notice if something feels or looks different than usual. Breast self-awareness can help empower you to know your body and when you should seek medical attention. Mammogram: A mammogram is an X-ray of the breast, and it's the main test recommended by the American Cancer Society for the early detection of breast cancer. A breast MRI is recommended for women who are at high risk for breast cancer. The American Cancer Society recommends that women with an average risk of breast cancer have an annual mammogram from ages 45 to 54, then every other year if they are healthy. These guidelines don’t apply to women who are at high risk for developing breast cancer. Consult your primary care physician to determine when you should begin annual breast cancer screenings. To learn more about Goshen Center for Cancer Care and our advanced approach to cancer treatment, call our Cancer Care Help Line at (888) 492-HOPE. Posted: 10/03/2017 by Filed under: Cancer Care
Learning about the seasons helps children understand the passage of time and teaches them about change. While some seasonal changes are more obvious (like changes in the weather), there are many important subtle differences related to each season, like changes in the type of food that is available. For example, in some parts of the world, winter means shorter days, cooler temperatures, and little or no plant growth. In contrast, spring is full of new life with flowers budding and gardens beginning to grow. The book “Fletcher and the Falling Leaves” by Julia Rawlinson captures the magic of the changing seasons with stunning illustrations. “Hi, Koo” by Jon J. Muth is another great book that addresses the many changes of the season.
The uniformity coefficient (Cu), curvature coefficient (Cc) and the effective size (D10) are the grading characteristics of the soil. These are the geometric properties of a grading curve that describe a particular type of soil. The features and determination of uniformity coefficient, curvature coefficient and the effective size is described in this article. Grade Curve Characteristics A grade size distribution curve is analyzed by using different particle sizes : D60, D30, and D10. The curve is the graph plotted between the percentage finer in y-axis to the particle size in x-axis in logarithmic scale. This is plotted based on the observations from sieve analysis conducted on the soil sample. Also Read: Sieve Analysis of Soil In the graph, the different particle sizes D10, D30 and D60 are represented as shown in figure-1 above. D10 is called as effective particle size. This means that 10% percent of the particles are finer and 90% of the particles are coarser than D10. This is the size at 10% finer by weight. Similarly, D60 is the particle size at which 60% of the particles are finer and 40% of the particles are coarser than D60 size. D30 is the size at which 30% is finer by weight and remaining 70% particles are coarser than D30 size. Hence, D10, D30 and D60 are used to determine the measures of gradation. Measures of Gradation The uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc) are the measures of soil gradation. These coefficients help to classify the soil as well graded or poorly graded ones. Uniformity Coefficient (Cu) The uniformity coefficient (Cu) is defined as the ratio of D60 to D10. A value of Cu greater than 4 to 6 classifies the soil as well graded. When Cu is less than 4, it is classified as poorly graded or uniformly graded soil. Uniformly graded soil has identical particles with Cu value approximately equal to 1. A uniformity coefficient value of 2 or 3 classifies the soil as poorly graded. Beach sand comes under this category. Higher value of Cu indicates that the soil mass consists of soil particles with different size ranges. Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) Coefficient of curvature is given by the formula: For the soil to be well graded, the value of Cc must range between 1 and 3. For any single sized soil mass, the value of both Cu and Cc is 1.
by Kate-Elaine Fazekas, Kaileigh Gobeille, Kimberly Kirby and Molly Wilson Our teaching tool is an interactive graphic organizer that categorizes, illustrates and explains the different modes and tenses of some commonly-used verbs in the French language. Developed using the cloud-based software program called Prezi, the on-line tool is appropriately designed for secondary school students registered in French Immersion as well as applied and academic Core French classes. The Prezi tool is versatile in that students can access the web presentation for general review purposes, clarification reasons or an introduction to French verbs. The primary objective of the technological tool is to assist students who struggle with comprehending what, when, why and how certain French verb tenses and modes are used in sentences; seeing as proper grammar is important in French reading, writing and oral communication. Perhaps one of the most helpful qualities of the tool is that it contains English translations and thus caters to Core French students who usually experience difficulty understanding and communicating in their second language. From a differentiated learning standpoint, the presentation accommodates students who grasp material visually, textually and kinaesthetically. Firstly, the tool is constructed as a timeline intended to graphically organize the content material in a chronological way so as to help learners visualize the purposes of different French verbs in the past, present and future. Animations and illustrations also contribute to an aesthetically appealing and engaging learning experience. Secondly, there is an abundance of text in both French and English to explain each verb tense and mode in addition to the related examples. Thirdly, the tool gives the user the ability to navigate the interface at their discretion. With full control, the student can zoom in and out of brackets and choose which verb mode and/or tense they’d like to study. Therefore, the presentation incorporates a practical element for those learners who prefer connecting with the material hands-on. To conclude, our innovative educational tool responds to the learning needs of pre-teen and adolescent students in FSL and Immersion programs. Access our teaching tool here! –> “Les temps des verbes” Multiliteracies Project: Praxis Paper Connecting theoretical tenets to practice is essential in order to create and subsequently implement effective and engaging lesson plans -especially when delivering differentiated instruction aimed to meet the various learning needs of students. As is demonstrated by our Prezi presentation titled “Les temps des verbes”, graphic organizers are fundamental learning tools designed to classify and communicate content material ideas in a clear and structured way. In fact, the course textbook Content Area Reading: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum consistently advocates the use of graphic organizers to help students grasp material more quickly and easily. As the print resource highlights, graphic organizers such as charts, tables and graphs serve to outline the important information that students learn during a lesson. In particular, the authors state that, “Outlining helps students clarify relationships. Developing an outline is analogous to fitting together the pieces in a puzzle. Think of a puzzle piece as a separate idea and a text as the whole.” (Vacca, Vacca & Mraz 318) For this reason, we decided to format our online project into a Prezi timeline with the objective to illustrate verb tenses and modes commonly used in the French language. With regard to the learning expectations stated in the Ontario curriculum, our teaching tool would most likely be integrated into a Grade 10 Academic Core French (FSF2D) lesson. However, our timeline of French verb tenses and modes could undoubtedly be used across all secondary school grade levels because it acts as a helpful review tool for all students learning French grammar. While learning the different French verb tenses and modes separately can be difficult and confusing for students (especially in the applied stream), thus our group thought that organizing the subject matter into a visually-appealing timeline would be a more holistic approach. By teaching the verb tenses and modes using context rather than strictly theory, students would better comprehend the concepts. Furthermore, by incorporating a kinesthetic feature whereby students can zoom in and out of sections, our presentation offers students the opportunity to tangibly explore the different French verb tenses and modes and how they are used; especially with regard to the claim that “the research base for graphic organizers shows that when students learn how to use and construct graphic organizers, they are in control of a study strategy that allows them to identify what parts of a text are important, how the ideas and concepts encountered in the text are related, and where they can find specific information to support more important ideas” (318). Therefore, our Prezi teaching tool is interactive since we combine textual information with visual cues such as pictures and video clips. As it is stated in the textbook, “with new literacies, students have at their command the ability to think and learn with content not only using print but also graphics, sound, and video” (43), and this is precisely what our presentation achieves. Lastly, the presentation moves in a linear fashion that mimics how the verb tenses and modes are used with regard to real time. It is our hope that by presenting the information in this manner, students would better comprehend the material. To conclude, our teaching tool is not only suitable for educators to use in their classrooms but could also be a public resource for learners whereby students would be given a URL and be able to conveniently access the Prezi presentation whenever necessary. Here are the links to our formal lesson plan and the two handouts: Vacca, Richard T., Vacca, Jo Anne L., & Mraz, Maryann. Content Area Reading: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum, Eleventh Edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2013. Print.
Cargo ships account for a massive amount of carbon emissions each year, so reducing emissions is a global priority. One of the easiest ways to do that is to reduce the weight of said cargo ships. A group of EU researchers have developed a new material that is tough, lighter than water and could cut ships’ weight by as much as 30 to 50 percent while maintaining the payload capability. That would take the equivalent of 55 to 60 trucks’ worth of CO2 out of the equation per ship. The material developed by the researchers is a lightweight aluminum foam that expands like a sponge when exposed to high heat. The material is sandwiched between two sheets of steel and sealed with heat, resulting in a very lightweight and tough building material. Under stress, the material bends but doesn’t break, making it ideal for traveling even through dangerous ice-packed waters.
There are more than 100,000 species of moths. They are related to butterflies and in some parts of the world both moths and butterflies are a component of daily diets. Moths also produce the silk worm larvae along with the Gypsy moth larvae – two examples of beneficial and destructive moths. Indian Meal Moth This primarily pantry moth is easily identified by the copper colored band across the wings. The larvae of this insect can infest a wide variety of dried foods such as dog food, cereal, bread, rice, pasta, flour spices, dried fruit and nuts. They are often found in bird and grass seed. It is not unusual to have adults flying in one part of the home while they are reproducing in the garage or pantry; so inspection is the key to control. Once the source of the infestation is found and removed, trapping and disposing of the adults before they lay more eggs will eliminate the problem. As with the Indian Meal moth, the larvae of the clothes moth does the damage. The adult moth lays eggs on a suitable fabric (animal or plant based) and when the eggs hatch they use that fabric as their food source. They build cocoons (cases) and discovery of these cases or the actual holes in clothing is what alerts humans to a problem. By the time the damage is discovered a garment or rug can be ruined. Expensive Oriental rugs are often of target of these destructive pests. Sanitation is important in preventing damage from these moths. Frequent vacuuming of closets and baseboards can remove this insect. Rotating seasonal clothing in sealed plastic bags can keep them out. Moths are attracted to light. Keeping doors closed and windows properly screened may help in keeping moths away. There is some evidence that swapping white outdoor lighting for yellow lighting may discourage moth attraction. Color – Vary in color Length – Vary in size and shape Diet – Some moths prefer anything that’s dried: nuts, grain, cereal, seeds, corn meal or other dried goods. Other moths prefer to feed on fabrics that have been made from natural fibers like silk or wool. Habitat – Usually found in places where dried foods are being stored. Impact – Moths can contaminate the food they contact by leaving behind their waste, while others can damage wool or silk clothing.
In order to view the content, you must install the Adobe Flash Player. Please click here to get started. The term "pink eye" is often used to refer to any or all types of conjunctivitis. Signs and symptoms of conjunctivitis The hallmark sign of conjunctivitis is a pink or reddish appearance to the eye due to inflammation and dilation of conjunctival blood vessels. Depending on the type of conjunctivitis, other signs and symptoms may include a yellow or green mucous discharge, watery eyes, itchy eyes, sensitivity to light and pain. How can you tell what type of pink eye you have? - Viral conjunctivitis. Usually causes excessive eye watering and a light discharge. - Allergic conjunctivitis. Affects both eyes and causes itching and redness in the eyes and sometimes the nose, as well as excessive tearing. - Bacterial conjunctivitis. Often causes a thick, sticky discharge, sometimes greenish. - Giant papillary conjunctivitis. Usually affects both eyes and results in contact lens intolerance, itching, a heavy discharge, tearing and bumps on the underside of the eyelids. What causes conjunctivitis? Conjunctivitis may be caused by a virus, an allergic reaction (to dust, pollen, smoke, fumes or chemicals) or, in the case of giant papillary conjunctivitis, a foreign body on the eye, typically a contact lens. Other causes include exposure to infected persons and bacterial and viral infections elsewhere in the body. Treatment of conjunctivitis - Avoidance. Your first line of defense is to avoid the cause of conjunctivitis. Both viral and bacterial conjunctivitis, which can be caused by airborne sources, spread easily to others. - Medication. Topical antibiotics, steroids, antihistamines, and/or vasoconsrictors can be used to treat conjunctivitis. - Palliative. Cool compresses and unpreserved artificial tears can decrease symptoms and increase comfort for most types of conjunctivitis. - Change contact lenses. If you develop giant papillary conjunctivitis while wearing contact lenses, your eye docor may recommend that you switch to a different type of contact lens. Usually conjunctivitis is a minor eye problem. However, the disease can develop into a more serious condition if it is not treated properly. If you think you have conjunctivitis, see your eye doctor for a medical diagnosis before using any eye drops in your medicine cabinet. Though conjunctivitis can affect people of any age, it is especially common in preschoolers and school children. Because young children often are in close contact in day care centers and school rooms, it can be difficult to avoid the spread of bacteria causing conjunctivitis. However, these tips can help concerned parents, day care workers and teachers reduce the possibility of a conjunctivitis outbreak in institutional environments: - Adults in school and day care centers should wash their hands frequently and encourage children to do the same. Soap should always be available for hand washing. - Personal items, including hand towels, should never be shared at school or at home. - Encourage children to use tissues and cover their mouths and noses when they sneeze or cough. - Discourage eye rubbing and touching, to avoid spread of bacteria and viruses. - For about three to five days, children (and adults) diagnosed with conjunctivitis should avoid crowded conditions where the infection could easily spread. - Use antiseptic and/or antibacterial solutions to clean and wipe surfaces that children or adults come in contact with, such as common toys, table tops, drinking fountains, sink/faucet handles, etc.
The concept of culture is very important in determining the behaviors of communities. This is because from a general perspective, culture is the way of living of a community. Scholars have defined culture as a collective and learned figurative system of policies, values, morals, viewpoints and thoughts that shape and influence perspicacity and conducts of individuals. The ways through which a particular culture makes a live have diversified effects on other aspects of culture in the community. Studies on culture have been expanded by the way ideas and thoughts are organized and interpreted. Whether a culture is classified as forager, horticulturalist, pastoralist, agriculturalist, and/or industrialist has some direct influences on the other cultural behaviors which include; social organization, kinship, economic organization, social change, gender relations, political organizations, and beliefs and values among others. This study will look at how primary modes of subsistence of Huaorani of Ecuador's culture influence other aspects of culture (Woods, 1975). The Huaorani people also called Waorani are the indigenous Amerindians who reside in the Amazon region of Ecuador country in South America. These people have distinct characteristics from other tribes of Ecuador. The general population of this community is appropriately 4,000 who speak Huaorani language. Studies have indicated that the language spoken by the Huaorani people is totally unrelated to other languages in this country. The Huaorani community has their ancestral lands located between the Curaray and Napo rivers a landscape which is heavily threatened by the practices of oil trapping and logging which are illegal in the country. Importantly, the Huaorani community is well known for its efforts in protecting their culture from indigenous enemies and other settlers (Naylor, 1996). In the past, the Hauorani community was hunters and gatherers who lived in forest hunting animals as a means of subsistence. This practice has changed drastically as a result of advancement in technology and interaction. Presently, this community lives in forest as their permanent settlements. The Hauorani community is comprised of five groups namely; the Tagaeri, the Huinatare, the Onamenane, and the two groups of the Taromenane. These groups have isolated themselves from other people in the outside world (Zeppel, 2006). According to the belief systems of the Huaorani people, the whole world was once a forest and hence they consider the forest as their home while the outside world is considered as very unsafe. As result of this, this community has isolated itself from other communities that live outside the forest. According to them, the aspect of living in the forest offered protection from witchcraft and other attacks from their enemies. Just like many of the hunters and gatherers, the forest and rivers are considered as the most significant aspect in life among the Huaorani. Cultural anthropologists who have studied the Huaorani community have put forward that, animals and plants according to the beliefs of the Huaorani people have a spiritual as well as a physical existence. Importantly, there is a concept of respecting animals even though they are hunted in the Huaorani community because these people believe that when people die they return to earth as animals and more specifically termites. The Huaorani people hunt animals as their means of survival but they still believe that the spirits of the dead animals have to be placated otherwise they will cause harm to the humans. In their hunting practices, they put a lot of considerations in snakes and jaguar. This is because snake is considered to be the most evil force in this community's cosmology while the jaguar is considered as the most significant majestic marauder. The Huaorani community possesses a lot of knowledge concerning the botanical and medicinal values of plants in the forest. In this case, plants are considered as part of the life of this community and portray their characteristics (Woods, 1975). Studies have indicated that the Huaorani people are widely known for their complete isolation from other people by completely staying in the forest. This practice has been brought about by the belief that the forest is their protector from their enemies and predictors. As a result of this, the outside world is considered as very unsafe. Importantly, this aspect of complete staying within the forest explains clearly their mode subsistence which is hunting and gathering. There are set of beliefs and values that influence the practice of hunting and also eating habits. In this case, the Huaorani people believe that when people die they are guarded by a large python and all those people who are not able to escape the trail of the snake are unable to enter into the spirit world. On this basis, these people get back to the earth inform of animals. This has resulted to hunting taboos where some animals are not supposed to be hunted. These limitations in hunting practices influence their modes of subsistence as they are limited to hunt and eat certain animal species and avoid others (Surralles & Hierro, 2005). Additionally, the Huaorani people are not supposed to hunt jaguar and hence are restricted from eating its meat. This is because jaguar is considered in this community as the most significant and magnificent forecaster in the Oriente. History of the Huaorani community has it that these people descended from a mating between a jaguar and an eagle. Elders metaphorically adopted ‘jaguar sons' who were able to communicate both medical and spiritual knowledge. As a result of this belief the Huaorani people highly respect the jaguar and hence they should not be hunted. Anyone who kills a jaguar has killed a prophet of the forest. This would result into a calamity as the spirits are angered by this act (Naylor, 1996). Get Research Paper, Essay & Term Paper Writing Service.
- Количество слайдов: 7 East Asian world between 1400 and 1800 Consisted of several powerful kingdoms and dynasties. ► The Chinese Ming and Qing dynasties; ► The reunification of Japan and the Tokugawa shogunate; ► The kingdom of Korea; and the emergence of other kingdoms in Southeast Asia. ► The Ming Dynasty ► Began an era of greatness in Chinese society v. Created an effective system of government v. Created national schools v. Increasing industry and trade. v. Economic expansion, art and literature reached a high point in China v. Improved the infrastructure v. Architects built the Imperial (Forbidden) City The Qing Dynasty ► History v non-Chinese dynasty that succeeded in ruling China v In 1644 the Manchus, from Manchuria, defeated the Ming dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. v Ordered all Chinese males to shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a pigtail called a queue to identify rebels who opposed Manchu rule ► Economy v Chinese economy was chiefly agricultural. A new, faster growing species of rice was cultivated due to a large increase in the population v China initially encouraged foreign trade but eventually tried to limit European access to China, resulting in a decline in the economy. v When the British demanded access to more Chinese cities for trading, the Qing ruler responded by giving them even less access. Qing Dynasty Family ► Chinese Society was organized around the family unit ► Children raised their own families in the homes of their parents ► Focus on family helped China to survive because family members took care of one another Arts: ► Chinese authors printed novels ► Ming era porcelain style was perfected ► Europeans collected Chinese porcelain because of its great beauty. Japan ► Reunification v. Took place under three powerful political figures: v. Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu. v. By restraining foreign trade for many years, the Japanese remained isolated from European invasion v Society became increasingly divided by class v Intermarriage between classes was prohibited v The rights of women were restricted. Japan ► Tokugawa Era v. Tokugawa completed the restoration of central authority in Japan vallowed trade and industry to flourish. vfostered many new styles of art, including the new Kabuki, a form of entertainment that emphasizes action, music, and dramatic gestures vtheater genre. v. Used the hostage system to control and diminish the power of the daimyo. The Kingdoms of Korea and Southeast Asia Ø Korea v In the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded northern Korea, where they governed harshly. v In 1392, Yi Song-Gye established the Yi dynasty, which was loosely styled after the Chinese government. v A series of invasions first by the Japanese and later by the Manchu caused Korean rulers to- limit contact with foreign countries. v Like Japan, Korea enforced isolationist foreign policies, resisting foreign trade in order to protect itself from invasion earning the name: “The Hermit Kingdom. ” v Keeping its own alphabet separate from the Chinese alphabet helped the Yi dynasty maintain- a distinctive Korean identity.
Discipline is one of the most important gifts a parent can give to their child. The number one gift is love. While providing love to your child seems so simple, providing discipline can be complicated. Discipline actually means “to teach.” The ultimate goal of disciplining your child is to instill a sense of self-discipline. Consider what your child will need to become the person you hope he or she will be. This guidance system will last their whole lifetime and will become a part of who he is. Discipline is different than punishment, which has a more negative connotation in our society as in “corporal punishment.” First and foremost, discipline is based on a positive relationship with your child more so than using the “right techniques.” As the parent you know your child best. You are the expert on your child. Your child is secure in his/her relationship with you and you build your relationship through play. Your routines at home are responsive to your child’s individual development. Here are some tips for discipline: - Be consistent - Tell your child specifically what to do, rather than what not to do - Catch your child being “good” - Create an environment for good behavior - Use nonverbal techniques –eye contact, gestures, shake your head - Be a role model - Listen actively (turn off or put away distractions) - Offer choices - Distract and divert your child’s attention - Allow children to experience natural consequences - Teach your child logical consequences - Try the “when/then” strategy (when we put away the toys then we can go outside) Discipline or providing guidance is a developmental process that takes time to master for your child and you. Teaching your child at a young age is difficult, but essential to build a foundation for self-discipline. The guidance you give your child now will influence his/her actions in the future. To find out more, check out the variety of resources available at your library.
The JAPANESE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD (旧石器時代, _kyūsekki jidai_) is the period of human inhabitation in Japan that lasted from around 40,000 BCE to 14,000 BCE, which corresponds to the beginning of the Mesolithic Jōmon period . The 35,000 BCE date is most generally accepted: Any date of human presence before 35,000 BCE is controversial, with artifacts supporting a pre-35,000 BCE human presence on the archipelago being of questionable authenticity. GROUND STONE AND POLISHED TOOLS The Japanese Paleolithic is also unique in that it incorporates the earliest known ground stone tools and polished stone tools in the world, dated to around 30,000 BCE, a technology typically associated with the beginning of the Neolithic , around 10,000 BCE, in the rest of the world. It is not known why such tools were created so early in Japan, although the period is associated with a warmer climate worldwide (30,000–20,000 before present), and the islands may have particularly benefited from it. Because of this originality, the Japanese Paleolithic period in Japan does not exactly match the traditional definition of Paleolithic based on stone technology (chipped stone tools). Japanese Paleolithic tool implements thus display Mesolithic and Neolithic traits as early as 30,000 BCE. _ This article NEEDS ADDITIONAL CITATIONS FOR VERIFICATION . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)_ _(Learn how and when to remove this template message )_ The Paleolithic populations of Japan, as well as the later Jōmon populations, appear to relate to an ancient Paleo-Asian group which occupied large parts of Asia before the expansion of the populations characteristic of today's people of China , Korea , and Japan . Skeletal characteristics point to many similarities with other aboriginal people of the Asian continent. Dental structures belong to the Sundadont group, mainly distributed in ancient populations of South-East Asia (where current populations belong to a mixture of Sunadont and Sinodont groups). Skull features tend to be stronger, with comparatively recessed eyes. The aboriginal populations of the Ainu , today mostly confined to the northern island of Hokkaidō , and the Ryukyuan people , mostly in southern Japan, appear to be the descendants of these Paleolithic populations, and display features that have, in the past, been interpreted as Caucasoid , but today tend to be considered more generally as part of that early Paleolithic human stock and are genetically closer to Southeast Asians. Genetic analysis on today's populations is not clear-cut and tends to indicate a fair amount of genetic intermixing between the earliest populations of Japan and later arrivals (Cavalli-Sforza ). It is estimated that 10 to 20% of the genetic capital of the Japanese population( Yamato people ) today derives from the aboriginal Paleolithic-Jōmon ancestry, with the remainder coming from later migrations from the continent, especially during the Yayoi period . ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD The study of the Paleolithic period in Japan was not begun until quite recently: the first Paleolithic site was discovered right after the end of World War II . Due to the previous assumption that humans did not live in Japan before the Jōmon period , excavations usually stopped at the beginning of the Jōmon stratum (14,000 BC), and were not carried on further. However, since that first Paleolithic find by Tadahiro Aizawa , around 5,000 Paleolithic sites have been discovered, some of them at existing Jōmon archaeological sites. The study of the Japanese Paleolithic period is characterized by a high level of stratigraphic information due to the volcanic nature of the archipelago: large eruptions tend to cover the islands with levels of ash , which are easily datable and can be found throughout the country as a reference. A very important such layer is the AT (Aira - Tanzawa ) pumice , which covered all Japan around 21,000–22,00
American Revolutionary War \|\|This article may have too many red links. (June 2013)\| The American Revolutionary War was a war fought between Great Britain and the original 13 British colonies in North America. The war took place from 1775 to 1783. The Continental Army (army of the colonies), led by George Washington, defeated the armies of the British Empire. After the war ended, the Thirteen Colonies became independent, which meant that the British Empire was no longer in charge of them. They together became the first 13 states of a new country called the United States of America. Background and causes[change \| change source] The war started after years of problems between the British Empire and the colonists of North America after the French and Indian War. People in the Thirteen Colonies disliked many of the actions of the British Government, such as the Intolerable Acts. For many years the British government decided which countries could trade with the colonies, instead of the colonies deciding it themselves. Many colonists wanted free trade. In 1765, the British Parliament needed money for the French and Indian War, and passed a Law called the Stamp Act. This law said that colonists had to buy stamps for legal papers, newspapers, and even playing cards, as other British people did. The money from the stamps went to the King. The colonies did not follow this law. The colonies kept refusing to do what the King wanted. The Boston Tea Party and Boston Massacre caused people to become more angry about the situation. The British sent more soldiers (Red Coats) to keep control of the colonies and they sometimes had to fight. In 1774, the British passed the Intolerable Acts. Not all colonists wanted to leave the British Empire. The Loyalists, or Tories, stayed loyal to Great Britain. They were not going to change their views. The Patriots, or Whigs, wanted independence. Before the Revolutionary War, most people in America were Loyalists; but after it, most people were Patriots. Many colonists wrote letters showing how they felt. Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense, a famous pamphlet about independence from Britain. Other colonial leaders, such as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson wanted independence. Northern battles[change \| change source] The first battles of the American Revolutionary War were Lexington and Concord. One of the first major battles was the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. After that, the British controlled Boston. Around that time, the Second Continental Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III (which he rejected) and named George Washington head of the army. Early in 1776, Washington's army drove the British out of Boston. A few months later the Continental Army and British troops under William Howe fought the New York and New Jersey Campaign. During the New York battles, the British started using Hessian troops, who were from Germany. Though the colonists lost New York (the British would hold it for the rest of the war), Washington was able to hold onto most of his army. Over Christmas, 1776-77, Washington crossed the Delaware River and defeated the Hessians at Trenton and the British at Princeton. In 1777, the British attacked the city of Philadelphia, then the American capital. Two battles were fought over Philadelphia: Brandywine and Germantown. Again, the Americans lost a major city, but Washington was able to keep most of his army. Around this time, the Frenchman Lafayette joined the American Army. In 1778, the British left Philadelphia. Between 1778 and 1781, most battles between Washington and the British were inconclusive (they did not have any major effect militarily). One of the most important battles was the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. American soldiers under Horatio Gates forced a British surrender under John Burgoyne. This led to France and Spain joining the war on the side of Americans. These powerful countries fought the British around the world. From 1778 to 1780, there was fighting in the West. Southern battles[change \| change source] In 1779 major fighting shifted to Georgia and South Carolina. As fighting spread northward, General Nathanael Greene led the Rebel campaign. He caused many people in the South to be Patriots instead of Loyalists, and won several battles against the British. In 1781, Washington and French general Jean Rochambeau led an offensive against British troops in Yorktown, Virginia. This was called the Battle of Yorktown. When their soldiers lost this battle, the British surrendered. End of the war[change \| change source] The American Revolutionary War came to an end in 1783 when a peace treaty was signed in Paris, France. In the Treaty of Paris, the British King, George III accepted the independence of the colonies and recognized the newly-created nation as the United States of America. The treaty also gave all the land Britain said it owned which was west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River to the new country. This land would eventually become part of the US, and lead to the creation of 35 new states (some of which later rebelled as part of the Confederate States of America) that now make up the contiguous United States. Many Loyalists fled to Canada. References[change \| change source] Other websites[change \| change source] \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Category:American Revolutionary War.\| - American Revolution, military history -Citizendium
We aim to foster in pupils a sense of wonder at the beauty of the world around them. We stimulate their interest in their surroundings and in the variety of human and physical conditions on the Earth’s surface. We use the new National Curriculum, Key Stage 2 as a starting point; however, our schemes of work develop ideas and tasks that exceed the statutory requirements. We promote a sense of enquiry which, along with important geographical skills, enables pupils to develop knowledge of places, an awareness of patterns and processes, and an understanding of environmental change and sustainable development. We are also passionate about helping pupils develop an informed concern about the quality of the environment and the future of the human habitat, as it is through an understanding of these issues that they will grow in their sense of responsibility for the care of the Earth and its people. - Learning journey Pupils begin by learning about maps and plans, settlements and seasons. In due course they explore weather and climate, water and the landscape, the mountain environment, some specific countries around the world and environmental issues. We develop their geographical knowledge over time, increasing their spatial awareness of the world around them, progressively developing map work skills and gradually building their analytical skills (covering basic statistics in Year 6). Pupils learn how to use appropriate geographical vocabulary, fieldwork techniques and instruments, atlases, globes, and maps at a range of scales, and how to find and interrogate secondary sources of information. By Years 5 and 6 pupils are acquiring presentation and project skills, and using appropriate software to support that. We also encourage them to use photography as part of their work. Pupils complete project-based homework that enables them to explore issues in more depth and from different perspectives, as well as develop their own interests. Projects are practical and include a diverse range such as making weather instruments, information leaflets and contour models. - Beyond the classroom Young explorers and representatives from organisations like the Scott Polar Institute visit to inspire pupils. Year 5 pupils take part in a morning of geography activities at the Upper. We run regular geography competitions, often asking pupils to apply their knowledge creatively to create models, pop-up books, topographical cakes and even a restaurant menu for a country they are studying!
Conservatism.Conservatism as an ideology and political trend did not appear in Ukraine until the 19th century, but conservative attitudes—firm adherence to traditional forms of community life and respect for established authority—were evident from earliest times. They contributed to the preservation of a Ukrainian identity after the Union of Lublin (1569) had placed the country under Polish rule and exposed it to strong Polonizing pressure. An elemental conservatism was the driving force behind the defense of the ‘old faith,’ Orthodoxy, against Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Uniate challenges. This led to a revival of the Orthodox church and a strengthening of the traditions of Kyivan Rus’ among Ukrainian ecclesiastical and secular elites in the first half of the 17th century. The Khmelnytsky revolution (1648) (see Cossack-Polish War) derived its strength from popular grievances, but Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky enlisted the services of numerous noblemen and followed a basically conservative social policy. Departing from the frontier democracy of the Zaporozhian Sich, he gave his rule an authoritarian, monarchical character and tried to make the hetman's office hereditary. Such attempts were repeated by several later hetmans (Ivan Samoilovych, Ivan Mazepa, Kyrylo Rozumovsky). The Cossack Hetman state of the second half of the 17th and the 18th century evolved into a hierarchical system of estates, and the Cossack starshyna (officer) stratum crystallized into a new landed aristocracy. The political thinking of that class combined a liberal tendency towards representative institutions with a conservative historical legitimism. Declaring the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 a constitutional charter, the Cossack elite defended on that platform the autonomous status of the country against Muscovite encroachments and their own corporate ‘rights and liberties.’ The Russian government, however, was able to capitalize on the spontaneous conservatism of the Cossack and peasant masses and their reverence for the tsar's monarchical charisma. This facilitated Ukraine's absorption into a centralized Russian Empire. 19th century. Aspirations for the restoration of the autonomous Cossack state survived in the circles of the nobility in Left-Bank Ukraine until the middle of the 19th century. Some steps in that direction were undertaken in connection with Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion in 1812 and the Polish Insurrection of 1830–1. The ideology of Ukrainian historical legitimism and state rights was eloquently formulated in the influential Istoriia Rusov (History of the Rus' People), an anonymous treatise written in about 1800 and widely circulated from the 1820s. Similar ideas existed also among segments of the Polish-Ukrainian nobility in Right-Bank Ukraine. The modern Ukrainian national movement, which originated in the 1840s with the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, was from the outset motivated by a radical democratic-populist philosophy. Populism became the dominant outlook of the Ukrainian intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century; it increasingly assumed a socialist character. Having adopted an ethnic concept of nationality, the Ukrainian intelligentsia had no use for historical legitimism. A vocal, though isolated, contemporary critic of populist ideology was Panteleimon Kulish, a former Cyrillo-Methodian turned conservative. He pointed to the destructiveness of elemental popular revolts and stressed the importance of elitist cultural values. The weakness of Ukrainian conservatism resulted from conditions under tsarist autocracy, which polarized society between the extremes of reaction and revolution, while depriving moderate elements of channels of independent political action. Consequently, Ukrainian conservatives could express themselves only in non-political ways. Civic-minded landowners and industrialists sponsored cultural and educational institutions (museums, libraries, private schools, scholarly journals, etc) or worked in the zemstvo self-government. Ukrainian culture owes much to these efforts, although, because of tsarist proscriptions, they had to take place mostly in a Russian linguistic garb. Representative conservative personalities of the second half of the century are Hryhorii Galagan, Vasyl V. Tarnovsky, and Hryhorii Myloradovych. In the next generation came Fedir Umanets, Vasyl Horlenko, the brothers Andrii V. Storozhenko and Mykola V. Storozhenko, and Dmytro Doroshenko. The future hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky also originated from this milieu. Members of the Ukrainian upper classes easily assimilated into the tsarist establishment, taking up careers in the imperial army and civil service without necessarily losing awareness of their ethnic origin and a sense of Ukrainian territorial patriotism (eg, General Mikhail Dragomirov). This Russified Ukrainian conservatism at times degenerated into a reactionary pan-Russian chauvinism. Examples include Mikhail Yuzefovich (the instigator of the anti-Ukrainian Ems Ukase, 1876), the circle around the Kyivan daily Kievlianin (editors: Dmitrii Pikhno and Vitalii Shulgin), and, after the Revolution of 1905, the Kyiv Club of Russian Nationalists, the Union of the Russian People, and other reactionary organizations of the Black Hundreds operating in Ukraine. A spokesman for a distinctly national Ukrainian conservatism during the last pre-First World War years was Viacheslav Lypynsky. In contrast to populists and socialists, whose tendency was to restrict Ukrainian nationality to the common people, he advocated the formation of a socially diversified, all-class, national community as a precondition of political independence. Lypynsky's objective was the reintegration of the elites into Ukrainian national life; under his inspiration a group of ‘Roman Catholic Ukrainians’ came into existence among the Polonized Right-Bank nobility. In Galicia the Greek Catholic church was the central institution of Ukrainian life, and until well into the second half of the century the clergy was the only educated class. Ukrainian priests were family men, different from the celibate Latin-rite Catholic clergy; in their lifestyle they resembled a lesser gentry. During the Revolution of 1848–9 in the Habsburg monarchy clergymen made up the leadership of the emerging Ukrainian (Ruthenian) nationality and its political representative, the Supreme Ruthenian Council. The council followed a conservative, pro-Habsburg policy, opposed Hungarian and Polish insurgents, and called for the formation of a separate Ruthenian crown land within the Austrian Empire. The conservative, mostly clerical, circle that dominated the Galician scene from 1848 through the 1870s was known as the Old Ruthenians or sviatoiurtsi (the ‘Saint George's Coterie,’ after Saint George's Cathedral in Lviv). The circle included Mykhailo Kuzemsky, Mykhailo Malynovsky, B. Didytsky, and Antin Petrushevych. Identifying nationality with religious denomination, they emphasized the Eastern form of Christianity, which visibly demarcated Ukrainians from the Roman Catholic Poles. Out of regard for traditional Church Slavonic, they scorned efforts to introduce the vernacular as the literary language. Their attitude towards the peasantry can be described as benevolent paternalism, and they showed little understanding of social problems and the need for popular political participation. In their struggle against the Poles, the Old Ruthenians leaned on the Austro-German centralists. This policy collapsed when Vienna turned over the control of Galicia's administration to the Polish aristocracy in 1867. Feeling betrayed by Austria, some prominent Old Ruthenians (Ivan Naumovych, Yakiv Holovatsky, and others) reoriented themselves towards Russia. The transformation of conservative Old Ruthenians into reactionary Russophiles brought about the stagnation and disintegration of their party. By the 1880s the leadership of Galician Ukrainian society had passed to the rival populist, or Ukrainophile, trend. The Galician populists, however, remained moderate, adhering to strictly non-revolutionary, legal methods. A strong moderating factor was the continued influence of the Uniate church. As the ranks of the populists were swelled by the influx of former Old Ruthenians, they assumed a more conservative and clerical hue. The leading personalities among them were Stepan Kachala, Yuliian Lavrivsky, Danylo Taniachkevych, the brothers Volodymyr Barvinsky and Oleksander Barvinsky, Omelian Ohonovsky, Anatol Vakhnianyn, and Yuliian Romanchuk. By their grass-roots educational and organizational work the populists laid the foundations of modern Ukrainian nationalism in Galicia. But their conformism and ‘respectability’ made them unacceptable to the younger generation, who in 1890 founded the Ukrainian Radical party, with a socialist and anticlerical program. In 1890 the conservative populists entered into an agreement with Galicia's ruling Polish aristocracy. This so-called New Era lapsed after a few years, but it led to the establishment of Oleksander Barvinsky's conservative Christian Social Movement, which never enjoyed a wide appeal because of its collaboration with the Austro-Polish regime. The National Democratic party, a new political force (from 1899), was a coalition whose spectrum extended from near-socialists to conservatives. United on a platform of nationalism and progressive political and social reforms, they insisted on ‘organic work’ and parliamentary methods, professed loyalty to the Habsburg monarchy, and maintained cordial relations with the Uniate church hierarchy. Ukrainian conservatism since 1917. The mainstream of the struggle for independence (1917–20) in central and eastern Ukraine was leftist and socialist, but right-wing forces also asserted themselves during that period. In May 1917, in Lubny, Poltava gubernia, M. Boiarsky, Serhii Shemet, and L. Klymov founded the Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party, whose program, drafted by Viacheslav Lypynsky, was based on the principles of national independence and private land ownership. A similar tendency found expression in the movement of Free Cossacks, a paramilitary organization for the defense of public order. At the congress in Chyhyryn, 16–20 October 1917, the Free Cossacks elected General Pavlo Skoropadsky as commander (otaman). After the Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the presence of German and Austro-Hungarian military units in Ukraine offered an opportunity to elements dissatisfied with the Central Rada's radical social, especially agrarian, policies. With German backing the Congress of Landowners, on 29 April 1918, proclaimed Pavlo Skoropadsky hetman; the name of the country was changed from Ukrainian National Republic to Ukrainian State. The 1918 Hetman government, which appealed to the tradition of the 17th–18th century Cossack Hetman state, represented the conservative strand in Ukraine's struggle for independence. It had the support of the proprietary classes and of conservative and moderate political groups. Its position, however, remained precarious, owing to Bolshevik subversion, the boycott by Ukrainian socialist parties, and the pressure of Russian and Russophile circles that wished to use Ukraine as a cornerstone for the rebuilding of an imperial Russia. In November–December 1918, after the defeat of the Central Powers, the government was overthrown by a popular uprising, and the Ukrainian National Republic was restored. The Western Ukrainian National Republic, established on 1 November 1918 in formerly Austrian eastern Galicia, possessed a coalition government in which the National Democratic party played the leading role. It avoided extreme social experiments and maintained a high level of law and order, which under the circumstances gave it a comparatively conservative color. During the interwar era Ukrainian conservatism could exist overtly only among Ukrainians outside the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Pavlo Skoropadsky's émigré supporters (Viacheslav Lypynsky, Dmytro Doroshenko, Oleksander Skoropys-Yoltukhovsky, M. Kochubei) founded in Vienna, in 1920, the Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists, later renamed the Ukrainian Union of Hetmanites-Statists. The leader and ideologist of the movement was Lypynsky. In his theoretical writings he advocated a hereditary hetmanate with a corporate constitution (‘labor monarchy’); his conservative conception was opposed equally to liberal democratic republicanism and to fascist-type dictatorship. Through his brilliant historical works Lypynsky initiated the ‘statist school’ in Ukrainian historiography, whose adherents included Stepan Tomashivsky, Doroshenko, Vasyl Kuchabsky, Ivan Krypiakevych, and Teofil Kostruba; its impact could be felt also among Soviet Ukrainian historians. A group of conservative émigré scholars was associated with the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Berlin. In the 1920s the hetmanite movement spread to Ukrainian communities in North America (the Sich societies in the United States and Canada), and it had supporters and sympathizers among conservative and clerical circles in Western Ukraine (eg, Osyp Nazaruk's newspaper, Nova zoria). However, the rift between Viacheslav Lypynsky and Pavlo Skoropadsky in 1930 caused a serious setback. By the 1930s the hetmanite movement had been overtaken by the more dynamic integral-nationalist movement, and the ‘turn to the right’ among non-Soviet Ukrainians was diverted from conservative into nationalist-authoritarian channels (see Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists). Since the Second World War monarchist (hetmanite) organizations have played only a marginal role in the political life of the Ukrainian diaspora. Their decline has been hastened by the extinction of the Skoropadsky line. The Lypynsky East European Research Institute in Philadelphia continues to serve as a conservative studies and publication center. Some conservative traits, partly derived from Lypynsky's theoretical legacy, are to be found in the thinking of democratic émigré groups. In th 1980s a return to traditionalist, conservative values has been noticeable in the writings of certain Soviet Ukrainian dissidents (eg, Valentyn Moroz). Barvins'kyi, O. Spomyny z moho zhyttia, 2 vols (Kolomyia 1913) Khliborobs'ka Ukraïna, 5 vols (Vienna 1920–5) Andriievs'kyi, V. Do kharakterystyky pravykh ukraïns'kykh partii (Berlin 1921) Tomashivs'kyi, S. Pid kolesamy istoriï (Berlin 1922; repr, New York 1962) Doroshenko, D. Moï spomyny pro nedavnie-mynule, 4 vols (Lviv 1923–4; 2nd edn, Munich 1969) Lypyns'kyi, V. Lysty do brativ-khliborobiv (Vienna 1926; repr, New York 1954) Kutschabskyj, W. Die Westukraine im Kampfe mit Polen und dem Bolschewismus in den Jahren 1918–23 (Berlin 1934) Nazaruk, O. Halychyna i Velyka Ukraïna (Lviv 1936) Za velych natsiï (Lviv 1938; repr, New York 1955) Ohloblyn, O. Liudy staroï Ukraïny (Munich 1960) Doroshenko, D. History of Ukraine 1917–1923. Vol 2: The Ukrainian Hetman State of 1918 (Winnipeg 1973) Korovyts'kyi, I. (ed). Lysty Dmytra Doroshenka do Viacheslava Lypyns'koho (Philadelphia 1973) Lysiak-Rudnytsky, I. (ed). Lysty Osypa Nazaruka do Viacheslava Lypyns'koho (Philadelphia 1976) Edelman, R. Gentry Politics on the Eve of the Russian Revolution: The Nationalist Party 1907–1917 (New Brunswick, NJ 1980) Motyl, A.J. The Turn to the Right: The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919–1929 (Boulder, Colo 1980) Luckyj, G. Panteleimon Kulish: A Sketch of His Life and Times (Boulder, Colo 1983) Helei, Stepan; Kuchabs’ky, Iurii. Vasyl’Kuchabs’kyi: Naukova spadshchyna. Storinky zhyttia (Lviv 1998) Ivan Lysiak Rudnytsky [This article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 1 (1984).] Encyclopedia of Ukraine
Early Childhood/Preschool Education Early childhood education programs have flourished over the past few decades as more and more parents come to believe in the benefits of starting children's education as early as possible and find themselves in need of daycare. Federally funded programs like Head Start have been credited with narrowing the achievement gaps that can appear between low-income or minority students and more privileged or majority students. Early childhood education curriculum aims to encourage growth in all six developmental domains, though actual curriculum content can vary between programs Keywords Behaviorism; Child Development; Day Care; Developmental Domains; Direct Instructional System for Teaching and Remediation (DISTAR); Early Childhood Education; Early Reading First; Head Start; Maturationism; Montessori Method; National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC); Play; Preschool Education; Universal Early Childhood Program Early Childhood Education: Early Childhood/Preschool Education Society has slowly shifted its focus from starting children in school at the age of six to beginning children in school as early as possible. This societal shift can be contributed to the changes in the workforce, child advocating, and legislation (Gallagher, 2007). In today's family, both parents are often employed outside of the home, even when the household includes very young children. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2010, 55% of women who had given birth in the past year were in the labor force, a slight decrease from 57% in 2008. This preponderance of dual income families has had a direct impact on the increased need for childcare services. While the numbers of married women working outside of the home has increased, the number of single parent families in the workforce has also increased and necessitated the need for early childhood education. Another contributing factor to the increased demand for early childhood education is the recognition that families feel that education at an early age provides a child with an advantage once they begin school. Also, early intervention services for children with disabilities has influenced parents of children without disabilities to understand that the earlier a child is enrolled in early childhood education the better the educational outcomes will be for the individual child. Politicians and child advocates cite another factor that has contributed to the growth of early childhood education. It serves as a mechanism to decrease the achievement gaps in K-12 programs which is well documented in the literature (Gallagher, 2007; Kartal, 2007).For instance, Lamy (2013) notes that there is a substantial body of research demonstrating that children from low-income households often arrive at elementary school less prepared to learn and succeed in an academic environment than children from middle- and high-income households, and that preschool can play a crucial role in closing this gap. Influence of Federal Programs Federal programs, such as Head Start, have aimed at helping children from low socioeconomic or diverse cultures gain the early skills necessary to be successful in school (Henry, Gordon, & Rickman, 2006). Due to the wide variety and limited availability of quality educational programs, achievement gaps between children from low socioeconomic or diverse cultures and other groups can be traced back to the lack of availability of early childhood or preschool programs. The Institute for Educational Sciences, in a 2011 report , Synthesis of IES Research on Early Intervention and Early Childhood Education, noted that young children in the U.S. face different social conditions than many of the children who took part in preschool programs in the 1960s and 1970s. Among these differences are the facts that today, preschool children are more likely to be poor, to have developmental delays, to have a home language other than English, and to have mothers who are employed outside the home. In addition, the IES report notes that the population of preschool children is more variable than it was in the 1960s and 1970s, when early childhood educational programs such as Head Start were pioneered. increasing the challenge of providing appropriate services for the entire population of preschool children. According to a 2011 report from the Census Bureau,School Enrollment in the United States: 2011, about 5 million children (age 3 and older) are enrolled in nursery school, representing about about 48% of all 3- and 4-year-olds; this percentage that has been stable for the past five years, but represents a substantial increase over the 10 percent enrolled in nursery school in 1965. Most enrolled students attend a part-day nursery school, and over half (59 percent) attend a public nursery school. Higher family income, higher maternal education, and having a mother in the work force are all factors that increase the probability that a child will be enrolled in nursery school. In addition, about 4.2 million children are enrolled in kindergarten, with 77% of children attending full-day kindergarten, a substantial increase both from the 8% enrolled in full-day kindergarten in 1967, and the 37% attending full-day kindergarten in 1987. The increasing demand for quality early childhood education services, higher education and other educational training institutions are finding it hard to attract and provide qualified teachers in order to keep up with the demand. Pianta (2007) suggested "universal pre-K programs for 4-year-olds will require at least 200,000 teachers, with estimates of 50,000 additional teachers needed by 2020" (p. 44). Research continues to focus on how to best train new teachers in early childhood education practices (Pianta, 2007), and in the most effective classroom practices for early childhood education. The July 2013 report Synthesis of IES Research on Early Intervention and Early Childhood Education, published by the Institute for Educational Sciences (IES), summarizes key results from research funded by the IES, and identifies some principles and techniques that have proven successful in early childhood education, while also identifying areas in which further research is required. The latter areas include minimum quality thresholds for effective classrooms, more knowledge of how to match instruction to the specific capabilities and needs of individual children, and more information about how to help teachers improve the quality of classroom instruction. Terms Related to Early Childhood Education In 1996, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) defined early childhood as age birth to eight years of age. During the developmental period of birth to approximately two years of age, children are learning skills congruently in the areas of social, emotional, cognitive, language, and physical development. Adults during this time period should recognize that children learn through play and experience, not in fragmented parts. One of the older early childhood educational terms is day care. Day care has been used synonymously to mean nursery school, kindergarten, or preschool. Other terms that have been used to describe early childhood education include: • Early education, • Early childhood learning, or • Early learning. Regardless of the term used, early childhood education means providing education for children aged two to five years of age. Generally, this age group represents children who have not yet begun the formal education process. Within these ages, children experience rapid growth and development. Therefore, providing programs to encourage or enhance this developmental time is highly encouraged in the United States. Preschool/Early Childhood Education In spite of the push for early childhood programs, educators continue to emphasize that parents are the child's first teacher and the best resource for development and/or education prior to the formal school period. Research has focused on parents and the provision of time/effort given to the child and environment (Cole, Jenkins, Mills, & O'Conner, 1993; Kartal, 2007; Ramey, Campbell, Burchinal, Skinner, Gardner, & Ramey, 2000; Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2001). The basic agreement in the research literature is that parents are the best teachers in helping a child adjust to situations or new environments. The use of the term early childhood education does not imply that the parent or primary caregiver does not provide the experience. However, in the United States the term frequently means that someone other than the parent or primary caregiver is providing the experiences. For the purposes of this paper, the terms early childhood education and preschool education will be used interchangeably. In the United States, the focus of early childhood programs is to encourage: • The development of children in the areas of personal, social and emotional development; • Communication (i.e., listening and speaking); • World knowledge; • Motor development; and • Cognitive development (Kartal, 2007; Pianta, 2007). Each of the above developmental areas is frequently referred to as a developmental domain. Each domain correlates or interacts with the others and can limit or facilitate development in the others. A brief description of each area is provided below. • Motor or Physical Development refers to physical growth and the development of gross (e.g. walking) and fine (e.g., finger movement) motor control of the body. • Perception and Sensory Development concerns the development of the senses and the ability to process information obtained from the senses. • Language Development includes both verbal and nonverbal communication skills as well as listening and speaking skills. • Cognitive Development refers to how an individual thinks and reacts to his or her environment. • Emotional Development includes how a child controls and expresses his or her feelings in response to the environment. • Social Development concerns how a child establishes and maintains relationships within a social context. All stakeholders (i.e., parents, caregivers, teachers) must have knowledge of the broad aspects of typical development in the early childhood period but also be able to identify the variations in development that can negatively impact the child. The knowledge of developmental areas, the theoretical, and/or educational viewpoints of administrators, teachers, or parents can influence the types of preschool programs that are available to all children. Types of Preschool Programs In understanding the focus of early childhood education, the need exists for discussion of the types of different educational systems available. The age span of early childhood education contributes to the complexity of designing quality early childhood education services. Intertwined in the issue of the age span is the factor of where and how early childhood education programs provide services and the need for appropriately trained educators (Kinch & Schweinhart, 2004). In the United States, it is hard to identify what constitutes a quality day care due to the large number of licensed and unlicensed facilities as well as the informal family arrangements in providing care. Currently, the research defines quality childhood educational services as having qualified teachers, low adult to student ratios, and using developmentally... (The entire section is 5229 words.)
Floating point numbers are utilized in most calculations performed in Matlab and other programming languages. Often misunderstood, floating-point arithmetic can cause many confounding problems in addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, comparison, and other types of calculations. In this series of posts, I would like to describe the basics of floating point numbers that conform to IEEE Standard 754 , introduce several Matlab functions that provide information about floating point numbers, provide a pair of functions that convert between the decimal and binary floating point representations, present some examples of how to view floating point numbers in different formats, and demonstrate how to handle some common problems with their arithmetic. In this post, I will give a brief overview of floating point numbers, introduce several Matlab functions that handle floats, and delve into detail of one of these functions named eps. Basics of floating point numbers The goal of the floating point number scheme is to represent real numbers in a fixed amount of memory in a way that maximizes the range of encodable numbers while maintaining a high degree of precision. A floating point number is the equivalent of scientific notation in a computer. Thus, a floating point number with base β, precision p, and exponent e can be represented as follows: d0 . d1 d2 … d(p-1) × β^-e Digit d0 is the leading digit, followed by digits d1 to d(p-1), which are the less significant digits. For example, a decimal number (base 10) with a precision of 4 is shown here: 7.201 × 10^5 The digits in the first part of the floating point number are collectively called the significand or the mantissa. To encode decimal numbers into a binary format, the numbers of bits used for the sign, exponent, and significand must be specified. Matlab uses IEEE Standard 754, the most common standard, to construct floating point numbers in both single- and double-precision. For a single-precision number, this standard specifies one sign bit, 8 exponent bits, and 23 significand bits, for a total of 32 bits or 4 bytes. For a double-precision number (Matlab’s default numerical data type), this standard specifies one sign bit, 11 exponent bits, and 52 significand bits, for a total of 64 bits or 8 bytes. The leading digit in this format is assumed to be 1, which allows the encoding of numbers with 24 and 53 significant binary digits for single- and double-precision floats, respectively. In order to represent both negative and positive exponents, the exponents of single-precision (single) and double-precision (double) floating point numbers are biased by 127 and 1023, respectively. The following diagram displays the structure of an IEEE 754 floating point number. The sign bit is on the left, followed the exponent, and the significand. The least significant digits in the exponent and significand are located in the rightmost bits. Matlab functions handling floats Matlab includes some basic functions that provide information about its floating point number scheme. Functions realmin and realmax display the minimum and maximum positive normalized numbers, respectively, that can be represented in Matlab doubles. To find these values for singles, include “single” as a parameter to realmin or realmax. For doubles, the values of realmin and realmax correspond to 2^-1022 and (2-2^-52)^1023 in binary, respectively. >> format long >> realmin ans = 2.22507385850720e-308 >> realmax ans = 1.79769313486232e+308 >> realmin("single") ans = 1.17549435082229e-38 >> realmax("single") ans = 3.40282346638529e+38 In IEEE Standard 754, there are several types of numbers that have special binary representations: normal numbers, subnormal numbers, signed zeros, infinities, and NaNs. Normal numbers can be represented with an assumed leading 1 in the significand. These include all the numbers between realmin and realmax, inclusively. Additionally, there are subnormal numbers (also called “denormal” numbers), which have leading zeros in the significand. A subnormal number is the equivalent of 0.0123 × 10^-2 in scientific notation, for example. These numbers are allowed in IEEE Standard 754 to fill the “underflow gap” between the smallest normal number and zero. The smallest subnormal number can be obtained with the eps function in Matlab. This function returns the spacing between its argument and the next highest floating point number. Its default argument is 1. This function effectively computes the value of the “unit in the last place” (ulps) for a floating point number, a quantity that is often mentioned in literature relating to floating point numbers. >> eps ans = 2.22044604925031e-16 >> eps(0) ans = 4.94065645841247e-324 The value of eps(0) is equal to 2^-1074, which is the absolute lowest positive value that can be represented as a 64-bit floating point number in Matlab, in accordance with IEEE Standard 754. The smallest positive value for singles is 2^-149. The value that eps returns increases with the second power of the floor of its argument minus the smallest value that the significand can assume, which produces a step-wise function: eps(x) = 2^(floor(x)-52), for x = [realmin, realmax] eps(x) = 2^-1074, for x < realmin As shown in the figure below, the log-log plot of eps(x) vs. x is a step-wise function, and its y-intercept is at eps(1) = 2^-52. The function is step-wise because as the floating point numbers increase in magnitude, their exponent increases every power of 2. The smallest increment, eps, is equal to the number corresponding to the least significant digit in the significand multiplied by the exponent. As the magnitude of a float increases, it must be represented by a larger exponent, which places a lower limit on the value of least significant digit in the significand. This has direct consequences for the sparseness of floating point numbers. Because there are 52 bits in the significand, there are 2^52 numbers for each exponent. Consequently, for every range of numbers between adjacent powers of 2, there are an equal number of floats, and floating point numbers become more sparse as they increase in magnitude. As shown in the next figure, the spacing of the floats becomes constant from 2^-1074 to 2^-1023 when the exponent reaches its minimum value (-1022), and consequently, the difference between every value is the last digit of the significand (2^-52) multiplied by 2 to the power of the minimum exponent (2^-1022), which equals 2^-1074. Special floating point numbers also include signed zeros, infinities, and NaNs. Signed zeros are values of zero (-0 and +0) that have all of their exponent and significand bits set to zero but have different sign bits. This small difference in sign has ramifications in calculations performed near zero or infinity, as well as in complex arithmetic. Positive and negative infinity can also be represented as floating point numbers, which is useful for differentiating between the results of calculations such as 1/0 and -1/0. The use of infinity avoids an overflow error, which increases program stability. NaN (not a number) is another value that was developed to increase program stability and accommodate undefined results. NaN is produced by the following calculations: ∞ – ∞, 0 × ∞, 0/0, ∞/∞, rem(∞,n), rem(n,∞), and any calculation involving NaN. It is important to remember that whereas infinities are equivalent (Inf = Inf), NaNs are not (NaN != NaN). Additionally, there are two types of NaNs, “quiet” and “signalling”, which behave differently during computations. Quiet NaNs (QNaNs) allow a computation to finish and merely record that the results of the operation are undefined, whereas signalling NaNs (SNaNs) are used to raise exceptions and halt program flow. In this post, I gave a brief overview of floating point numbers, introduced several Matlab functions that handle floats, and delved into detail of eps, the function that returns the distance to the next floating point number. In future posts, I will provide some functions that convert between the decimal and binary floating point representations, present some examples that show how to view floating point numbers in different formats, and demonstrate how to avoid some common problems in floating point arithmetic.
Earlier this year, NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) captured an image of a crater with a block dot in the center on the slopes of the Pavonis Mons volcano. Mission managers decided to have another look, this time with the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE). The black dot turned out to be a skylight 35 meters across leading into a cavern below. The cavern is likely a lava tube located beneath the surface of the volcano. Based on the shadow, the floor is about 20 meters below the skylight. Speculation centers on the formation of the crater. It could be a sink hole formed from the loose dust on the volcano flowing into the cavern when the roof collapsed. In this closeup, one can see how the walls of the crater have slumped and material has flowed into the cavern below. The hole might also be from a small meteorite that punched a hole through the lava tube. There does not seem to be much (if any) rim from a meteorite strike and the crater it would have created. Then, there is speculation that the underground cavern is a former ice deposit that has been exposed and sublimated into the Martian atmosphere. Later this year, the HiRISE mission plans another image of the crater, creating a stereo picture that may help resolve the mystery.
What is a Table? A Table is a way to arrange information into rows and columns. There are many different ways to present information in tables, but in accessible HTML, this is limited to only certain uses. \|Captions\|\|Tables have captions. The caption for this table is Example Table\| \|Summary\|\|Tables have summaries. These are not usually visible.\| \|Headers\|\|The headers may be the First Row, First Column, or Both.\| \|Layout\|\|Tables should not be used for layout purposes.\| When to Use and Not Use Tables Tables can be used for both simple and complex presentation of data. However, the complexity of tables on a website should be kept as simple as possible due to potential accessibilty issues. Tables should not be used for layout. That is, do not use tables to make information appear in certain parts of the screen or with certain effects. Accessibility and Tables Accessibility limits the potential flexibility of tables because tables are often used for visual effects and such concepts may not exist for non-sighted users. For this reason, accessibility provides additional tools to communicate what is going on to allow for more complexity and these tools must be used. The following rules should be followed when creating tables: Tables must have a caption. - Captions are essentially a heading for the table itself. Tables must have a summary. - The summary describes what is listed in the table and for complex tables it describes how to navigate the table. - By always providing a summary, understanding the flow of and navigating the table should be made easier. The summary and caption may not be identical. - Do not use the same exact words for the caption and the summary. Do not use tables for layout. - Tables can make the presentation and flow of information for a sighted user easier, but this makes it harder for any other use. - There are other ways to have the same effect as a table without being a table. Alternatives to Tables There are better ways to create layout than using tables. Tables communicate specific information about content that does not apply to data tables. This alternative functionality is currently being improved on the website and this section will be updated to better explain the alternatives.
UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS The Transformation of the U.S. Electricity System Why are coal-fired power plants closing? An increasing number of old and inefficient coal plants are no longer able to compete with cleaner, more cost-effective energy sources such as natural gas and wind power. Over the coming decades, as more coal plants reach the ends of their lifespans and are retired, they will likely be replaced by more cost-competitive energy sources. Why is nuclear power projected to decline so dramatically? Nuclear power is expected to drop significantly over the coming decades as existing nuclear plants reach the ends of their lifetimes and are retired. Few new U.S. nuclear plants are expected to come online in the future, in large part because nuclear power is not currently economically competitive with other energy sources. Why is natural gas expected to provide the majority of U.S. electricity by 2050? Domestic supplies of natural gas have increased dramatically in recent years, due in large part to the development and expansion of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) drilling techniques. This increased supply – which is expected to continue for years – has lowered prices for natural gas, making it very cost-competitive compared to other energy sources. The Climate Risks of Natural Gas Natural gas burns cleaner than coal, so why don’t carbon emissions decline with a natural gas-dominated electricity system? Compared to coal, natural gas produces approximately half of the carbon emissions per unit of electricity generated. But natural gas is expected to replace not just declining coal power in the future, but also a significant portion of low-carbon nuclear power. Electricity demand is also projected to rise nearly 30 percent from 2012 to 2050 – increasing from 4,054 to 5,222 Terrawatt-hours. Much of the additional needed electricity is projected to come from natural gas, creating more emissions in the process. To effectively address climate change, how much do we need to reduce emissions from the electricity sector? The electric power sector is the largest contributor to U.S. global warming emissions and currently accounts for approximately one-third of the nation’s total emissions. To limit some of the worst consequences of climate change, the National Research Council (NRC) recommends an economy-wide carbon budget that would cut U.S. power sector carbon emissions 90 percent from current levels by 2050. The electricity sector has a range of low- and zero-carbon technologies that could contribute to this carbon budget including energy efficiency, renewable energy, nuclear power, and coal or natural gas plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS). However, UCS analysis shows that scenarios including high levels of CCS and nuclear power for reducing emissions are more expensive than scenarios that rely on energy efficiency and renewables. Learn more. Are there additional climate risks associated with natural gas? Yes. Methane – a primary component of natural gas – leaks from drilling sites and pipelines. It is 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide at trapping heat. An estimated one to nine percent of all natural gas produced escapes into the atmosphere, equivalent to the global warming emissions from 26 – 231 typical-sized coal power plants (600 megawatts). This methane leakage poses additional climate risks and erodes the climate benefits of replacing coal with natural gas. Learn more. About the Union of Concerned Scientists “The Union of Concerned Scientists is the leading science-based nonprofit working for a healthy environment and a safer world. UCS combines independent scientific research and citizen action to develop innovative, practical solutions and to secure responsible changes in government policy, corporate practices, and consumer choices.”
Tasty Math Cakes: An Art Lesson Students will be drawing a sweet treat with a heavy filling of math integration. Educators will heavily rely on the integration of third grade math curriculum, the Common Core State Standards, and the National Art Standards to help students create a piece of artwork inspired by the artist Wayne Thiebaud. - Identify and describe different types of angles, including right angles, actuate angles, and obtuse angles. - Understand and use key terms related to angles. - Use math vocabulary to describe lines. - Understand the relationship between pairs of lines. - Recognize the properties of lines and line segments. - Use Art History as a means for inspiration in an art piece. - Handout (download here) 1. Students will be introduced to the work of Wayne Thiebaud, specifically the cake pieces of work. Discussion will be led deeper into how artists create perspective in art, and how it is important to use correct angles for our work to look correct. 2. The teacher then does a directed line drawing going slowly through each step first so students can see an example being done. The teacher highlights the math vocabulary that is integral to the lesson such as: - Line Segment - Acute Angle - Parallel Lines 3. After the teacher does the line drawing alone the students are encouraged to work at the same time as the educator repeats it including additional resources to help the students. These resources can be printed out and given to students, projected, or written on the board. A sample handout can be downloaded here. 4. Students are then encouraged to add details such as multiple layers, wording, an aluminum foil cake, and a simple black piece of paper for a background. For the art weary, this can be done with simple materials. Crayons and markers lend themselves perfectly to this lesson where precision is necessary. For the art educators, students could delve deeper into this lesson and paint with different color schemes. They could limit their palettes to warm, cool, analogous, or monochromatic colors only. This lesson is easily modified to help those educators who are weary of the messy nature of art class, and is also readily modifiable for the art teacher who wants to go more in depth with art content. The drawing of the forms heavily supports the work that is going on in the general education classrooms’ of the third grade. Teachers can access deeper technology by trying the ‘cake maker’ online and having students do a virtual cake in addition to their art creation. The vocabulary and language integration of the math deepens the understanding for students as it taps into multiple subject areas. The final creation of the treat really sweetens the deal for all parties involved.
Saving our Species Australia is home to more than 500,000 animal and plant species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. Saving our Species is a statewide conservation program that addresses the growing number of Australian animals and Australian native plants facing extinction. Read more about Saving our Species Over the last 200 years in Australia, more than 100 animal and plant species have become extinct. In NSW alone, there are close to 1,000 animal and plant species at risk of extinction. Saving our Species is the NSW Government’s initiative to secure as many of these species as possible in the wild for the next 100 years. Unlike other conservation projects, Saving our Species prioritises between threatened Australian native plants and Australian animals and draws up specific management actions necessary for the survival of each of them. Proactive conservation efforts might involve: - Invasive weed control - Planned ecological burning - Prevention of vehicle access - Changes to livestock grazing regimes - Fire planning for seed germination - Improving natural habitats - Building artificial habitats - Monitoring and surveys - Reduction of feral animals To prevent koalas from becoming extinct, for example, the recovery plan recommends that NSW National Parks helps landowners improve koala habitat, map suitable land with local councils, and guide eucalyptus restoration efforts. As part of the Saving our Species program, mammal species currently extinct in NSW will be reintroduced into NSW national parks. These could include the bilby, numbat and golden bandicoot. The conservation program also targets iconic species, which are socially, culturally and economically important to NSW, and which the community expects us to protect. A formal recovery plan has been created for the: - Brush-tailed rock-wallaby - Southern corroboree frog - Wollemi pine The benefit and likelihood of management activities succeeding with available resources is high. Under the Saving our Species program, some of the site-managed species being prioritised include: - Megalong Valley bottlebrush - Eastern bristlebird - Pied oystercatcher - Smooth bush-pea - Summer leek orchid - Winged peppercress Sustainability programs like this one only succeed as a collaborative effort. As such, the Saving our Species program involves NSW businesses, research organisations, schools, landholders, government agencies, land conservation groups and various other members of the community. Threatened species programs - Iconic species - Brush-tailed rock-wallaby conservation program - Iconic species - Koala conservation program - Iconic species - Malleefowl conservation program - Iconic species - Southern corroboree frog conservation program - Megalong Valley bottlebrush conservation program - Pied oystercatcher conservation program - Reintroduction of locally extinct mammals - Saving our Species conservation program - Smooth bush-pea conservation program - Summer leek orchid conservation program - Threatened species volunteering program - Winged peppercress conservation program
Rainbows are a symbol of hope. They illustrate the colors and wonder of creation and remind us of the promise given at the end of the story of Noah's ark. I find the rainbow theme to be an inspiring springboard for learning and play. Rainbow Games and Activities 1. The Rainbow Twist Game Draw a giant rainbow on pavement with colored chalk. With or without a Twister game spinner, call out right or left, hand or foot, and a color. - Sometimes we make this a bilingual game by saying the names of the colors in Spanish or another target language. For example, "left hand azul!" - You can turn this into a tossing game by using rolled up socks. Aim to toss the sock ball onto each color band. 2. The Rainbow Clean Up Game If it is time to clean up a fairly large mess of toys, papers, etc., enlist children to sort the objects based on their color and then put them away. Tip: Provide a matching container for each color, or label containers before the clean up begins. You may want to assign a particular color (or colors) to each child.
Drosera capillaris, the pink or spathulate-leaved sundew (not to be confused with Drosera spatulata), is a small carnivorous plant of the family Droseraceae in the genus Drosera. They are frequently found in wet pine flatwoods and bogs of the southeastern United States, ranging from eastern Texas east to Florida and north to Virginia, as well as in some areas of the Caribbean. They thrive in moist, acidic soil. D. capillaris is a small plant, usually ranging from 2 to 4 cm in diameter, but in wet habitats it has been known to grow up to 7 cm. In strong sun the entire plant appears red with round, spoon-shaped leaf blades sporting numerous tentacles. In normal light, the leaves are lime-green and the tentacles red. The leaves are arranged in a rosette and generally lie flat on the ground. At the end of each tentacle is a mucilaginous secretory gland. This gland secretes droplets of fluid which gives the plant its glistening, dew-drop appearance. Insects, upon being attracted to the plant through the nectar-like appearance and odor of the secretions, become stuck to the mucilage. With this stimulus, the tentacles begin to slowly enclose the victim. In a matter of minutes, the sundew begins to secrete digestive enzymes and acids that start to dissolve its victim's body. The glands then start to absorb the nutritious liquified insect. It has been found that these plants only respond to objects of nutritional value and not to sand, paper, or water. Some individuals of this species act as annuals and some as perennials. Germination occurs throughout the fall, and germination time varies over a matter of months. The flowers are pink and typically show up in April. However, these plants flower over a huge range of times and sizes, and some individuals complete their life cycles within a year while others survive for two or more years. It is not unusual to see D. capillaris, along with their relative the Drosera brevifolia (the dwarf sundew), carpet large areas so thickly it is hard to walk without stepping on tens of them growing out of wet sand or long-fiber sphagnum or just overflowing from a road-side ditch. Both sundews commonly live side-by-side with American pitcher plants (Sarracenia), butterworts, and bladderworts. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Drosera capillaris\|
Definition - What does Breaking Strength mean? Breaking strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling or tensile force. It is customarily measured in units of force per cross-sectional area. This is an important concept in engineering, especially in the fields of material science, mechanical engineering and structural engineering. The ability to resist breaking under tensile stress is one of the most important and widely measured properties of materials used in structural applications. Breaking or tensile strength is more important for brittle materials than ductile materials. Breaking strength is also known as tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength. Corrosionpedia explains Breaking Strength The breaking strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that the material can withstand before failure, such as breaking or permanent deformation. Tensile strength specifies the point when a material goes from elastic to plastic deformation. It is expressed as the minimum tensile stress (force per unit area) needed to split the material apart. For example, if a metal rod one square inch in cross section can withstand a pulling force of 1,000 pounds but breaks if more force is applied, the metal has a breaking strength of 1,000 pounds per square inch. The breaking strength for structural steel is 400 megapascals (MPa) and for carbon steel is 841MPa. Breaking strength is different for different densities of steel. Breaking strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile failure in one of two manners: - Ductile failure - Yield as the first stage of failure, some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation - Brittle failure - Sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state Breaking strength testing for metals will determine how much a particular alloy will elongate before reaching its ultimate tensile strength and how much load a particular piece of metal can accommodate before it loses structural integrity. Therefore, it is a very important concept in material science and for safety considerations.
Understanding Intellectual Disabilities Intellectual disability refers to significant limitations in learning, thinking, solving problems, making sense of the world, and developing everyday life skills. All people with intellectual disabilities are capable of learning and can live a worthwhile and happy life. Do not assume that a person has an intellectual disability because of the presence of another disability. Individuals with intellectual disabilities can still feel the influence of the Spirit. Some people may require support in only a few specific areas, and others require support in almost every area of life. An intellectual disability often affects a person’s communication, social, and self-care skills. It also affects a person’s ability to learn and remember. Common causes include head injuries, Down syndrome, and fetal alcohol syndrome. Intellectual disability is often associated with other disabilities as well. Ways to Help - After consulting with family or caregivers, identify strengths, abilities, and learning style and offer specific praise for accomplishments and positive behavior. Provide opportunities to serve. - Set high but realistic expectations based on the individual’s skills and abilities. - Make eye contact and speak directly with kindness to the person using short, clear phrases. - Allow for extra time to respond to a question or situation. - Allow persons to perform tasks for themselves as much as possible. - Encourage genuine friendships. - Always speak in kind ways, eliminating the use of derogatory or slang words, and help others to do likewise. - Break down assignments or requests into small steps. For example, instead of asking someone to get ready for a prayer you might break the task into the smaller steps of folding arms, bowing head, and closing eyes. Be prepared to use repetition in teaching. - Prayerfully select an opportunity for members with intellectual disabilities to participate in the lesson. Examples might be selecting the music, reading a scripture, holding a picture, sharing a testimony, answering questions, and so forth. - Use teaching ideas such as role playing, object lessons, and other visual aids to illustrate difficult concepts. Break difficult concepts down into simple ones. - Communicate using simple phrases, and repeat important ideas. - Look for opportunities for students to work in small groups. - Establish a consistent classroom routine where students feel comfortable participating. - Be positive; smile. - Know that Heavenly Father will provide inspiration as you prayerfully and faithfully seek that blessing. - Teachers should not assume that a student with an intellectual disability has a need to be baptized or receive other ordinances. Make an effort to understand each individual’s situation.
Once, Detroit's carmakers wanted to be the nation's aircraft kings. For a short time during World War II, they were. Then things fell apart. Dr. Daniel Uziel of The Future of Things explains what happened. —Ed. Henry Ford brought with his Model T not only the first affordable and practical car, but also revolutionary production methods for complicated mechanical products. Ford's Highland Park factory in Michigan, opened in 1910, introduced the modern production line, which enabled mass, and therefore cheap, production of the Model T. This production line was based on a long line of assembly stations that added parts and components to the product as it moved along. The line moved forward at a predetermined pace, therefore forcing the workers on each station to adhere to a strict timetable. Conveyor belts were used to move most of the products along the line, as well as to feed workers parts. This type of production line was perfectly portrayed in Charlie Chaplin's classic movie Modern Times. By contrast, in the traditional workbench technique, most of the manufacturing tasks were performed on static stands by relatively small teams of highly skilled workers. One of the main benefits of Ford's production technique was that it lowered the training level required for employees. Since most workers performed specific manufacturing tasks that required only relatively brief training, car factories became massive employers of cheap workforces. By the end of WWI, several car factories in America and elsewhere were using the production methods introduced by Ford, and other branches of the industry also adopted them. The aviation industry, however, was not among them. Although several countries produced large numbers of aircraft during the war, the aircraft industry stuck to traditional workbench production methods due to the products they were creating: aircraft are complicated and often delicate machines that require extreme precision and care in assembly. Furthermore, at the time airplanes were constructed mainly from traditional materials, such as wood and fabric, that were difficult to adapt to the automobile industry's new techniques. Final assembly of B-24 bombers at Detroit's Willow Run factory. (National Air & Space Museum) Commercial aviation expanded rapidly during the interwar years, but the demand for large numbers of aircraft diminished due to economical difficulties and defense cuts. The looming clouds of war and massive rearmament in the second half of the 1930s brought a change. In Great Britain, political decision-makers were occupied largely by two concerns: aerial threats and the need to take the war to the enemy through bombers. As a result, a large portion of Great Britain's rearmament was dedicated to modern aircraft. The need to produce large numbers within a short time caused the British government to think outside the box. In May of 1938, the Air Ministry contracted Lord William Morris (a.k.a. Viscount Nuffield) owner and director of Morris Motors, and pioneer of inexpensive mass-produced cars in Britain, to bring his car-manufacturing expertise to aircraft and aero engine production. Nuffield's most urgent task was to expend the production of the new Spitfire fighter (some people suggested jokingly to change the name of the plane to "Spitfield" or "Nuffire"). He established his first big so-called "shadow factory" at Castle Bromwich, near Birmingham, taking advantage of the presence of several car manufacturers in the area and the availability of a relatively large pool of skilled workers. (Note: This location still houses a large chunk of Britain's automotive industry, including Jaguar's main assembly plant —Ed.) At the same time, he increased the recruitment of women. By 1940, Nuffield factories were the main source of British fighters and their engines, using modern production lines; however, British plants continued to produce bigger planes on old-fashioned production lines because they were considered to be too complicated for the new system. Final assembly of B-25 medium bombers at North American's factory in Kansas City. (Library of Congress) On the other side of the Atlantic, the application of automotive methods to aircraft manufacturing was taken even further. In May of 1940, Henry Ford offered to the U.S. government the production of 1000 aircraft of standard design. Both the U.S. and British governments, shocked by the quick fall of France, soon began to consult him. His greatest rival, General Motors, also offered to produce aircraft for the United States before the country entered WWII. Both firms influenced the conversion of the American aviation industry to modern production methods while converting some of their own plants to aviation production. GM, in particular, formed a useful and effective partnership with Grumman to produce naval fighters. The conversion of the car industry into aviation production and the conversion of the aviation industry to a Detroit-like mass production system was far from smooth. Aircraft and aero-engines were much more complicated machines than cars and automakers encountered numerous problems when they tried to mass-produce aircraft with their existing machinery and production lines. Furthermore, by definition, the car industry was far less flexible and unable to incorporate the frequent changes of design that typified military products, particularly military aircraft. This was a major problem typical to military products, which requires an explanation: The whole idea of the Fordian mass production system was to develop a production line and let it produce, almost independently, large numbers of a standard product. Any important change in design meant a line stoppage for retooling and rearrangement, so civilian manufacturers tended to introduce improvements only after large periods of time. By contrast, military production demanded almost constant changes as required by the more dynamic wartime environment. It was easier to incorporate such changes on the old-style production lines because it interrupted only part of the production. On the more modern lines, retooling and rearrangement disrupted the entire line. As a result of these problems, the American and British aviation industries never fully adopted the mass production methods of the car industry. They instead devised as a compromise different flexible production processes. This meant that while some parts and smaller components were produced on conveyor-belt production lines, bigger components were still assembled on stationary workbenches. The influence of Ford, General Motors, and Nuffield was still crucial in pushing the aviation industry to seek new ways to increase its output. The American car industry reached its peak wartime efficiency and publicity with Ford's mile-long and 40,000-worker-strong Willow Run Bomber Plant, constructed in Ypsilanti, near Detroit. Willow Run rolled out its first B-24 Liberator bomber in October of 1942. In March of 1944, this factory produced 14 Liberators, each made from 1.25 million parts, per day. Ford achieved this rate by redesigning the bomber for ease of manufacture and creating a larger number of production breaks, where work was divided into smaller portions. However, Willow Run also demonstrated the problems of mass-producing complicated warplanes. In contrast to what was portrayed in wartime propaganda, it took around two years to reach reasonable output, and the plant suffered from continuous problems during the critical years of 1942 and 1943. Many of the planes produced at Willow Run went straight to other factories upon leaving the production line in order to receive the latest updates before the Air Force accepted them into service. In early 1943, Willow Run came under congressional scrutiny because of its failures. Senator Harry Truman, chairman of the War Investigating Committee, alleged that production at the plant amounted to virtually nothing. The nickname "Will It Run" appeared at that time and stuck. Willow Run eventually produced 8,685 Liberator bombers and exemplified the possibility of modern production lines, but it also proved that building a bomber was nothing like building a car. Both Nuffield and Ford offered to design their own aircraft and make it easier to produce more aircraft more quickly. Their offers were declined because of their inexperience in aircraft design, and they were wisely tasked to produce existing designs. General Motors attempted in 1942-1943 to develop a high-performance heavy fighter using many components from existing aircraft types, significantly cutting down the time it would take to ready such an aircraft for mass production. The resulting P-75 Eagle fighter was a complete failure, even after a major redesign. The debacle cost the Air Force $49.75 million. Compromise at the Volkswagen Fellersleben factory: highly mechanized production line using an old-fashioned layout to manufacture medium bomber wings. (U.S. National Archives) In contrast to the Allies, the Germans were much slower in adopting modern production lines. The main reasons for their failure were mismanagement by the Air Ministry and the reluctance of industrialists and factory managers to disrupt production in order to convert existing production lines. Furthermore, apart from few exceptions, Germany's modern car industry stayed out of the specialized and exclusive branch of aviation production. Among the few exceptions was Volkswagen, which was contracted to manufacture wing sets for medium bombers and the cheap and simple V-1 cruise missile. Only after reports of the high production rates of the American aviation industry, and particularly Willow Run, reached Germany did the German aviation industry begin to modernize its production lines. It was a lengthy process that largely ended in mid-1943. The German equivalent to Willow Run was supposed to be the "thousand-bomber plant," codenamed Ultra, a project began in mid-1942. The plant was never constructed, however, due to shifts in production priorities from bombers to fighters, and the project was canceled at the end of 1943. By that point, the Germans had already lost the production war. One of the most important aftereffects of the introduction of modern production methods to the aviation industry was social. On the Allied side, the drastic reduction in training and skill required from production technicians enabled mass recruitment of unskilled women to perform production tasks. Technology played a central role here. The development of easy-to-operate riveting machines enabled the unskilled female workforce to skillfully use them after short training periods. Rosie the Riveter became an iconic figure symbolizing the thousands of women working in the war industry. The same thing happened in Great Britain and the USSR, where simplification of aircraft for easier production became an art. Layout of an old-fashioned ME-109 fighter wing production line by the Erla firm. (U.S. National Archives) In Germany, the effect of new production technology was more sinister. While German women mostly stayed at home, modern production lines allowed the Germans to employ foreigners from occupied Europe and concentration-camp inmates in aircraft production. This change was a major factor in the so-called "production wonder" of the German aviation industry in 1944. The "wonder" was a significant increase in aircraft production, an increase that was useless because the German air force was already defeated lacked skilled pilots to fly the new planes. The same production line after being converted to a flow line in early 1943. (U.S. National Archives) Mass military aviation production disappeared gradually after WWII. One reason was defense cuts and the raising costs of modern aircraft: Ford's production methods were efficient only for the production of large batches. Another reason was the increasing complication of military aircraft, which made it almost impossible to produce them like consumer goods. There was, however, one sector of the aviation industry that kept producing a regularly large series of easy-to-produce aircraft. The flourishing general aviation market — first in the USA and then elsewhere during the 1950s — saw the mass production of light aircraft on lines that resembled the production lines of the automotive industry. Companies like Piper, Cessna, and Beechcraft were major producers of utility aircraft during WWII; in the postwar years, the production lines of these giants and of lesser manufacturers began to deliver thousands of light aircraft to the developing civilian market. The ERCO Company, for example, once turned out 34 Ercoupe light planes per day. Production of modern military aircraft and airliners, however, is far from being simple or straightforward. Automatic and partially robotic production lines, like those common in modern car industry, are not used by the aviation industry. Most modern military and commercial planes are basically handmade, just as they were before WWII, but the Detroit dream of mass-produced aircraft still lives on in the general aviation sector. - Budrass, Lutz, Flugzeigindustrie und Luftrüstung in Deutschland 1918-1945, Düsseldorf: Droste, 1998. - Braun, Hans-Joachim, "Aero-engine Production in the Third Reich", in History and Technology 14 (1992), pp.1-15. - Ferguson, Robert G., "One Thousand Planes a Day: Ford, Grumman, General Motors and the arsenal of Democracy" History and Technology, Vol.21, No.2 (June 2005), pp.149-175. - Hounshel, David A., From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore: John Hopkins, 1984. - Holley, Irving Brinton jr. "A Detroit Dream of Mass-Produced Fighter Aircraft: The XP-75 Fiasco" Technology and Culture 28 (1987), pp.578-593. - Mommsen, H. Grieger, M, Das Volkswagenwerk und seine Arbeiter im Dritten Reich. Düsseldorf: Econ, 1996. Sabel, Charles F.. Zeitlin, Jonathan (eds.), World of Possibilities : Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization, Cambridge: University Press, 1997. - Zeitlin, Jonathan, "Flexibility and Mass Production at War: Aircraft Manufacture in Britain, the United States and Germany," in Technology and Culture, 36 (1995), pp.46-79. - Michigan Historical Center, Department of History. About the author: Dr. Daniel Uziel researches different aspects of modern German history, military history, and war and media. He conducted part of this research as a fellow at the Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum.
I hope your hunger for understanding will be enough to motivate you to read a couple of difficult chapters. If you do, you will learn something few J programmers know--what really happens when J executes a sentence. In this chapter we will analyze sentences from the top down, to get an idea for the order of execution. In the next chapter we will follow the interpreter as it alternately parses and executes sentences from the bottom up. Since the understanding of parsing and execution that you have developed during your work so far is probably a bit inaccurate, we will work through examples of increasing complexity. 9!:3 (5) NB. Do this once to select simplified display With only one word, there are no operands and nothing to execute, so the result of the sentence is the word itself: the conjunction &. . The result of executing -:&.^., i. e. executing &. with -: and ^. as operands, is an anonymous verb. This anonymous verb will execute according to the definition of &., given its operands -: and ^. (i. e. -:&.^. y will be ^ -: ^. y ). Note that the conjunction &. is executed without reference to the operand of the anonymous verb (indeed, in this case there is no such operand and the anonymous verb is the result of the sentence). We could assign the anonymous verb to a name, in which case it would no longer be anonymous (e. g. sqrt =: -:&.^.); without such an assignment we will refer to it here by the nickname av . The value of av is the verb described by -:&.^. . We know that this is executed as ^ -: ^. 16; let's see how that happens. Conjunctions are executed before verbs, so first -:&.^. will be executed to produce the anonymous verb we called av . Then av is executed with the operand 16 . av operates according to the definition of &. : it produces the same result as ^ -: ^. 16 (but it may use a different algorithm than executing ^ -: ^. 16 directly). It appears that &. was executed twice: once to create av and then again during the execution of av . No, it was executed only once, to create av . av operates according to the definition of &., but it is av that is executing, not &. . The confusion arises because of the way the interpreter displays av . There is no better way to show a verb that performs the function -:&.^. than to show the way the verb was created, i. e. with the characters '-:&.^.', but you should think of this as an exhibition of the pedigree of av, and an assurance of its good behavior, rather than a list of functions to be executed. In fact, part of the reason for J's good performance comes from its recognizing functions that can be combined efficiently and providing customized routines to handle anonymous verbs that call for those combinations. Confusion between a conjunction and the anonymous verb it produces is most likely when the conjunction is one you wrote using conjunction define or 2 :n . In most cases the text of the conjunction actually describes a derived verb, and it is natural for you to say 'the conjunction C is executed with operands u, v, and y' rather than the more accurate 'the anonymous verb created by the application of C to u and v is executed, with u and v available during the interpretation of the text of C and with y as the operand'. Such confusion is almost always harmless, but let's go through a few examples so you can see the layers of execution: 2 : 'u' 2 : 'u' We execute 2 : 'u' and the result is an anonymous conjunction that we'll call ac1 . The display of ac1 shows where it came from. When ac1 is executed, its result will be its left operand. +: (2 : 'u') -: Here 2 : 'u' is executed first to produce ac1; then ac1 is executed with left operand of +: and right operand of -: . The result is an anonymous verb that we'll call av1; its value is the verb +: which was the left operand to ac1 . +: (2 : 'u') -: 5 Remember, (2 : 'u') is a conjunction (the conjunction we have called ac1), and conjunctions are executed before verbs, so this is executed as (+: (2 : 'u') -:) 5, which becomes av1 5 . We execute av1 with the operand 5 . Monad +: doubles its operand, and the result is 10 . We know that a conjunction can produce a conjunction result. That's how explicit conjunctions are formed: executing the conjunction : with left operand 2, as in 2 :n, produces a conjunction. There is nothing special about 2 :n : any conjunction is allowed to produce a conjunction result: 2 : '&' 2 : (,'&') We execute 2 : '&' and the result is an anonymous conjunction that we'll call ac2 . The display of ac2 shows where it came from. (the , in the display of ac2 is harmless, a reminder that internally the anonymous entity resulting from m :n stores n as a list of characters.) +: (2 : '&') -: We execute ac2 with left operand of +: and right operand of -: . The result is an anonymous conjunction that we'll call ac3 . ac3 is a conjunction because its value & (the last sentence executed by ac2) is a conjunction. Yes, & by itself can be a result: modifiers can return any primary part of speech (but try to return a conjunction from a verb and you will get an error). Note that this is not the same as u&v : that would also be a valid return value from a conjunction, but u and v would be substituted and & would be executed to make the returned value an anonymous verb with the description u&v . Make sure you see why the +: and -: disappeared. First, the conjunction : was executed with operands 2 and '&'; that produced a conjunction ac2 which was then executed with operands +: and -:; but the defining text of ac2 does not look at its operands; it simply produces the value & . So, the operands to ac2 disappear without a trace, and the result of the whole phrase is a conjunction with the value & . 2 (+: (2 : '&') -:) * Continuing the example, we execute ac3 (which was just the conjunction &) with left operand 2 and right operand * . The result is the anonymous verb av2 which will execute as 2&* . 2 (+: (2 : '&') -:) * 5 Finally, we execute av2 with the operand 5, and get the result 10 . Definitions That Refer To x or y Explicit modifiers that refer to the operands of their derived verb (as x or y) come in for special treatment. A simple example is the conjunction defined by 2 : 'u v y' 2 : 'u v y' We execute 2 : 'u v y' and the result is an anonymous conjunction that we'll call ac4 . You can't tell it from the display, but ac4 is a special kind of conjunction. Because it refers to y, the text of ac4 can be executed only as a verb (only then are x and y meaningful). The stored ac4 makes note of this fact. +: (2 : 'u v y') - 5 When ac4 itself is executed (as +: (2 : 'u v y') - here--since ac4 is a conjunction it is executed before its result is applied to the noun operand 5), the text of ac4 is not interpreted, as it was in our previous examples. Instead, the new anonymous verb av3 is created. av3 contains the defining text of ac4, along with the operands that were given to ac4 (+: and - here). When the verb av3 is executed as in the line above, the text of ac4 is finally interpreted, with the operands of ac4 (+: and - here) available as u and v, and the noun operands of av3 (5 here) available as y (and x if the invocation is dyadic); the result is the result of +: - 5 .
Viruses and Bacteria are totally different. I’m going to say that again, cos it is really, really important. Viruses and bacteria are totally different. Viruses are almost nothing. They are just a shell of protein with some genetic instructions inside. On their own, outside a cell, they are inert. They just sit there. They don’t breathe, they don’t replicate, they don’t eat, poo or communicate. In order for a virus to do anything it needs a host cell (such as a human cell). Buttons, called receptors, on the virus shell help it enter a useful host cell. Once inside, it is the cell that translates the genetic instructions. Normally the instructions cause the host cell to replicate and spread the virus and the way the virus shows itself is that spread in action. So for example, the viruses that cause a cold (rhinoviruses) spread by being breathed in. They attach to nose cells and enter them to replicate. Their genetic code also makes the nose cells inflamed, which produces mucous (snot) and causes sneezing. The sneezing spreads the virus. Another type of virus is the herpes virus that replicates in skin cells and also makes those cells blister, giving a rash. Inside the blisters of the rash are lots of viruses that have replicated in the infected skin cells of their host. When those blisters touch someone else they spread and the virus’s genetic material is spread. The body fights viruses by making little proteins called antibodies. Antibodies cling to the receptors on the virus shell to stop it gaining entry into a host cell. They also mark the virus so it can be spotted easily by other immune cells and eaten. Antibodies can, on the whole, be made quickly, effectively and in huge numbers, meaning that the body is normally pretty good at dealing with viruses. Which is good because most infections are caused by viruses. Bacteria, on the other hand, are something else entirely.
Aligned To Common Core Standard: High School Functions - HSF-TF.B.7 Printable Worksheets And Lessons - Boxed Equation Step-by-Step Lesson- When a teacher first asked me to create this section, I have to admit; it has been quite a while since I met up with the - Guided Lesson - Yes, the first one is a bit theoretical math. I forgot that even existed until I was reminded. - Guided Lesson Explanation - I'm glad I chose to not go for that mechanical engineering degree - Practice Worksheet - Don't get out of whack when Pi is presented, it actually makes the - Matching Worksheet - Find which measures match up with the equations. View Answer Keys- All the answer keys in one file.
President Lyndon Johnson signing of the 1964 Civil Rights is one of the most important moments in American history. Because he signed a law that granted access to millions of Americans who were simply denied that access simply because of their race and for no other reason than that. And what it meant was that not only do all Americans have the same constitutional rights under law. But that they have to be enforced equally for all Americans. And if the states aren't willing to do that and leave Americans in the dark because of their race, than the Federal Government will step in and enforce those laws and rights for them. \|Civil Rights President\|
Simulation is the study and construction of models of various objects and phenomena. Modeling of clothes is the creation of sketches of garments taking into account the characteristics of the materials used, the purpose of the product and the figure of a person. Modeling is the creative process of creatingSample or sketch of the future product. From Latin, "modeling" is translated as "sample". In modeling, it is important to take into account a number of important factors. First of all, it is necessary to choose the material from which the product will be sewn, to study its properties and characteristics. In addition, you need to know all about the conditions of operation of the material and its design features. The aim of the simulation is to produce the basic basis for further product manufacturing. Simulation involves four main stages. The first stage is to analyze the idea. At this stage it is necessary to determine which methods and processes will be used to manufacture the product, to study the material that will be used, to determine the uniqueness of the future product. At the second stage of modeling, the existing basis is selected. It takes into account the planting of the product on the object, the physical characteristics of the materials, the width and length of the base. At the third stage, any changes or additions are made to the already existing basis. The fourth stage of modeling is the sewing of a sample, on which all previous work performed and additions are checked, if something has not been taken into account.
Photosynthesis, Respiration, Transpiration Plants are self-sufficient. They make their own food thru the process of photosynthesis using light energy to make sugars from carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20). The three major functions that are basic to plant growth and • Photosynthesis – the process of capturing light energy and converting it to sugar energy, in the presence of chlorophyll • Respiration – the process of metabolizing (burning) sugars to yield energy for growth, reproduction and other life • Transpiration – the loss of water vapor through the stomata A primary difference between plants and animals is the plant’s ability to manufacture its own food. carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil react with the sun’s energy to form carbohydrates (sugars and starches). Photosynthesis literally means to put together with light. The photosynthetic process occurs only in the chloroplasts, tiny subcellular structures contained in the cells of leaves and green stems. In photosynthesis, the sun’s energy combines hydrogen from with carbon dioxide (CO2) turning them into carbohydrates. is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis. The chemical equation for the process of photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + light C6H12O6 This process is directly dependent on the supply of water, light and carbon dioxide. Any one of the factors on the left side of the equation (carbon dioxide, water, or light) can limit photosynthesis regardless of the availability of the other factors. If any one of these factors is limiting, then the whole process slows down or stops. An implication of drought or severe restrictions on landscape irrigation is a reduction in photosynthesis and thus a decrease in plant vigor. In a tightly closed greenhouse there can be very little fresh air infiltration and CO2 levels can become limiting. This in turn limits plant growth because the production of sugars needed to do the work involved with growing is limited. Many greenhouses provide to stimulate plant growth. The rate of photosynthesis is somewhat temperature dependent. For example, with tomatoes, when temperatures rise above 96 degrees Fahrenheit the rate of food used by respiration rises above the rate that food is manufactured by photosynthesis. Plant growth comes to a stop and produce loses its In respiration, plants (and animals) convert the sugars back into energy for growth and to energize life processes (metabolic processes). The chemical equation for respiration shows that the sugars from photosynthesis are combined with oxygen. Notice that the equation for respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. Chemically speaking, the process is similar to the oxidation that occurs as wood is burned, producing heat. When compounds combine with oxygen, the process is often referred to as burning. For example, athlete’s burn energy (sugars) as they exercise. The harder they exercise, the more sugars they burn so the more oxygen they need. That’s why at full speed, they are breathing very fast. Athletes take up oxygen through their lungs. Plants take up oxygen through the stomata in their leaves and through their roots. Again, respiration is the burning of sugars for energy to grow and do the internal work of living. It is very important to understand that both plants and animals (including microorganisms) need oxygen for respiration. This is why overly wet or saturated soils are detrimental to both root growth and function, and the decomposition processes carried out by microorganisms in the The same principles regarding limiting factors are valid for both photosynthesis and respiration. Comparison of Photosynthesis sugars from energy in cells with chloroplasts dioxide is used dark and light Water in the roots is pulled through the plant by transpiration (loss of water vapor through the stomata of the leaves). Transpiration uses about 90 percent of the water that enters the plant. The other 10 percent is an ingredient of photosynthesis and Transpiration serves three • Movement of minerals up from the root (in the xylem) and sugars (products of photosynthesis) throughout the plant (in the phloem). Water serves as both the solvent and the avenue of transport. • Cooling – 80 percent of the cooling effect of a shade tree is from the evaporative cooling effects of transpiration. This benefits both plants and humans. • Turgor pressure – Water maintains the turgor pressure in cells much like air inflates a balloon, giving the non-woody plant parts form. Turgidity is important so the plant can remain stiff and upright and gain a competitive advantage when it comes to light. Turgidity is also important for the functioning of the guard cells, which surround the stomata and regulate water loss and carbon dioxide uptake. Turgidity also is the force that pushes roots through the soil. Water movement in plants is also a factor of osmotic pressure and capillary action. Osmotic pressure is defined as water flowing through a permeable membrane in the direction of higher salt concentrations. Water will continue to flow in the direction of the highest salt concentration until the salts have been diluted to the point that the concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal. A classic example is pouring salt on a slug. Because the salt concentration outside the slug is highest, the water from inside the slug’s body crosses the membrane that is his skin. The slug becomes dehydrated and dies. Envision this same scenario the next time you gargle with salt water to kill the bacteria that are causing your sore Fertilizer burn and dog urine spots in a lawn are examples of salt problems related to gardening. The salt level in the soil’s water is higher than in the roots, and water flows from the roots into the soil’s water in an effort to dilute the concentration. So what should you do if you accidentally over apply fertilizer to your lawn? refers to the chemical forces that move water as a continuous film rather than as individual molecules. Water molecules in the soil and in the plant cling to one another and are reluctant to let go. You have observed this as water forms a meniscus on a coin or the lip of a glass. Thus when one molecule is drawn up the plant stem, it pulls another one along with it. These forces that link water molecules together can be overcome by gravity Whiting, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension consumer horticulture specialist and Colorado Master Gardener Coordinator; M. Roll, Extension horticulture agent, Arapahoe County; and L. Vickerman, Extension horticulture agent, El Paso County. 12/03. here if you need us! Consultation is Free! Toll Free 1-866-444-7174 (9 am - 5 pm MST)
Fiction and Poetry Students explore fictional text and poetry. They explore the story structures used in the types of texts and examine the language patterns used. Students practice tracking text in the correct manner. 3 Views 14 Downloads - Activities & Projects - Graphics & Images - Lab Resources - Learning Games - Lesson Plans - Primary Sources - Printables & Templates - Professional Documents - Study Guides - Writing Prompts - AP Test Preps - Lesson Planet Articles - Interactive Whiteboards - All Resource Types - Show All See similar resources: Money Can't Buy Everything: Writing Poetry Explore consumerism by reading poetry. Learners define the terms synonym and antonym while utilizing a thesaurus to replace certain words in a money related poem. They then discuss the relationship between money, words, and happiness. 4th - 6th Social Studies & History Different Types of Writing What type of writing is this? Learners read a brief introduction to various types of text: instructions, explanations, poems, folk tales, novels, informative, and arguments. The introduction doesn't explain these, so consider going over... 4th - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed Reading Comprehension: Fiction and Nonfiction This resource is made up of a series of reading passages with accompanying questions. On the first page, learners read the definitions of both fiction and non-fiction. They examine four short selections before writing either fiction or... 1st - 3rd English Language Arts Heartsongs Poetry by Mattie Stepanek Use Mattie Stepanek’s Heartsongs book of poetry to inspire young poets to write about their own lives, experiences, and feelings. After reading the introduction to Mattie’s book, in which he talks about himself and his reasons for... 4th - 6th English Language Arts Regions of North Carolina Diamante Poem Providing a creative way to review information, this activity has learners create a diamante poem to share what they have learned. In this case, the topic of the poem is North Carolina, but a teacher could use this technique with any topic. 4th English Language Arts Text Features of Fiction, Poetry, Drama: Story Matrix How do novels differ from plays? Explore with your class the text features of fiction and drama by reading The Hidden One: Native American Legend and then performing a reader’s theater script based on the story. Class members create a... 3rd - 5th English Language Arts What is True? Discovering the Difference between Fact and Fiction The ability to distinguish between fact and fiction is the focus of this language arts lesson plan. Begin by viewing a PowerPoint that gives examples of fact and fiction. Then listen to The Story of the Milky Way, and try to determine... 3rd English Language Arts
From the formation of continents to the creation of mountain ranges, it took Earth a long time to get where it is today. Leave it to SciShow to explain four billion years’ worth of history in less than ten minutes. SciShow squeezes a heap of information on the Earth’s history into a brief, condensed guide, which you can watch in the video above. They break down the basics of how carbon dating works, along with the formation of continental crust and plate tectonics. It’s a great summation of not just the earth’s geological history, but also of how we study it. Check it out above or visit the link below. 4 Billion Years in Under 10 Minutes \| SciShow (YouTube)
Getting to grips with the New Forest National Park This project idea was contributed by Lisa Rabbetts \|Exam Board\|\|Components that this project links with\| \|AQA A\|\|Unit 1, Section A: Rocks, Resources and Scenery Unit 2, Section B: Tourism \|Edexcel A\|\|Unit 1, Section A: ICT Skills Unit 3, Section A: Farming and the Countryside Unit 3, Section B: A Tourist’s World \|Edexcel B\|\|Unit 2, Section B: Changing Countryside\| \|OCR A\|\|Possibly Unit A673: Similarities and Differences\| \|WJEC B\|\|Theme 2: People and the Natural World Interactions\| Virtual fieldwork is not meant to replace pupils getting out and seeing things for themselves. However, it can be used to support and enhance fieldwork or act as a substitute if real fieldwork is simply not possible, e.g. due to time, cost and accessibility constraints. This example centres on the New Forest National Park. It is a location close to the school I work in but pupil experience of the environment is variable. The PowerPoint is meant to remind pupils of the landscape, and the issues that go with it. Key Geography Objectives - For pupils to know where the New Forest is - For pupils to be able to describe the landscape of the New Forest - For pupils to know why people visit the New Forest - For pupils to know what conflicts occur in the New Forest - For pupils to know how conflicts can be resolved Key ICT Objectives To be able to put together a PowerPoint of maps, photos and graphs. Planning the Activity - Produce a PowerPoint of photos with associated questions to get pupils to think about what they are looking at (the instruction sheet that you may download below will give you guidance on this). - The photos could be from a location that you have done actual fieldwork at and therefore could be taken by pupils. - Alternatively the location could be somewhere you have visited or even somewhere you haven’t visited. Flickr is a useful source of photos, just check that you can use them first. - Ideally this activity would be run with pupils all having access to a computer. You would need to save the Power Point on the school network so all pupils can get access to it. Pupils then type their answers onto the slides in normal view mode rather than slideshow mode. When completed the work could be printed out as a handout. Alternatively pupils could e-mail to the teacher or send it via a VLE. Running the Activity - A starter activity could involve labelling Britain’s National Parks on to a map. - Explain to the class that they are going on a virtual fieldtrip to Britain’s newest National Park. - Showing the first slide outline the objectives to the pupils. - Pupils then complete the activities on each slide - An extension activity could consist of completing a decision making activity based on whether Lyndhurst should have a by-pass or not. See this article from the Southern Daily Echo. - As a homework task pupils could produce their own virtual fieldtrip of another location. The following download contains step by step instructions on creating a virtual fieldtrip in Microsoft PowerPoint. Download: How to create a virtual fieldtrip in Microsoft PowerPoint (PDF, 99k) ‘It’s virtually fieldwork‘ is an article on virtual fieldwork in the Autumn 2005 edition of Teaching Geography (free to members).
Researchers using multiple high-resolution satellite observations have found that carbon loss has more than doubled since 2001 due to forest clearance across the tropics. The findings are critical because they suggest that existing strategies to reduce forest loss are unsuccessful, and highlighting the importance of monitoring deforestation trends following new pledges made at COP26 in Glasgow. The study published in Nature Sustainability involved researchers from around the globe, and used high-resolution satellite observations to investigate the trajectory and drivers of forest carbon loss in the 21st century. The observations found doubling of tropical forest carbon loss worldwide from one billion tonnes of carbon per year in 2001–2005 to two billion tonnes of carbon in 2015–2019. This increase in carbon loss from forest conversion is higher than in previous estimates, which show no trend or a slight decline in land-use emissions in the early 21st century. This report shows a stark and worrying divergence between international commitments – which is to halve or stop deforestation – and reality, which is an acceleration of deforestation The lead author on this study is PhD candidate Yu Feng from the Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech) and the University of Hong Kong. He said: “The doubling in the loss of forest carbon, including biomass and soil organic carbon, is primarily driven by agricultural expansion. “This acceleration in forest carbon loss differs from current estimates of land-use change emissions in the assessments of the global carbon budget that shows a flat or decreasing trend.” Co-author Professor Dominick Spracklen, from the School of Earth and Environment at Leeds, said: “This report shows a stark and worrying divergence between international commitments – which is to halve or stop deforestation – and reality, which is an acceleration of deforestation. “Our paper highlights the need to rethink and refocus efforts to reduce deforestation.” Tropical forests are the largest terrestrial component of the global carbon cycle. Therefore, loss of forests could be devastating because both the stored carbon stocks in biomass and soil, as well as the function of sequestering atmospheric carbon, will be lost. The conversion of forests to agricultural lands also induces other environmental consequences, like biodiversity extinction and land degradation. Most (82%) of the forest carbon loss is triggered by large-scale commodity or small-scale agriculture activities, such as shifting cultivation, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia. The study found the largest increases in the rate of forest carbon loss occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia and Brazil. Increasing rates of forest loss in the Congo are particularly worrying, as this region had relatively low rates of deforestation until recently. Co-author, Professor Zhenzhong Zeng from SUSTech, said: “Our study observed that around 70% of former forest lands that had been converted into agricultural spaces in 2001–2019 remained so in 2020, confirming a dominant role of agriculture in long-term pan-tropical carbon reductions on formerly forested landscapes.” Professor Joseph Holden, from the University’s School of Geography, said: “Changing this tropical deforestation path requires serious political and private sector commitments and, importantly, both global and local actions to accompany those commitments. “Worryingly, our results show that carbon loss from tropical deforestation has actually accelerated over the last 10 years.” Co-author and chair Professor of SUSTech, Chunmiao Zheng, said: “The 2014 New York Declaration on Forests promised to halve tropical deforestation by 2020. “However, our results demonstrate a failure to the commitment and highlight the colossal challenge posed by the 2021 Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, which pledges to halt forest loss by 2030.” Top image credit: University of Leeds. “Doubling of annual forest carbon loss over the tropics during the early twenty-first century” is published in Nature Sustainability. For media enquiries, please contact the University of Leeds Press Office.
Zinc is an essential trace element that plays a critical role in maintaining a healthy immune system. A carnivore diet, which consists mainly of animal-based foods, can be an excellent source of zinc, providing numerous benefits for immune health. This article will outline ten essential aspects of zinc’s role in a carnivore diet and how it contributes to immune function. Importance of zinc for immune health: Zinc is crucial for the proper functioning of the immune system. It is involved in the development and activation of immune cells, including T cells and natural killer cells, which help protect the body from infections and diseases. Additionally, zinc helps regulate the production of cytokines, which are signaling molecules that coordinate the immune response. Bioavailability of zinc in a carnivore diet: A carnivore diet is rich in animal-based foods that are excellent sources of highly bioavailable zinc. Bioavailability refers to the proportion of a nutrient that can be absorbed and utilized by the body. Zinc from animal sources, such as meat, fish, and shellfish, is more easily absorbed compared to zinc from plant sources, ensuring that the body receives the necessary amounts for optimal immune function. Zinc-rich foods in a carnivore diet: Several animal-based foods are particularly rich in zinc. These include oysters, red meat (beef and lamb), pork, poultry, and seafood like crab and lobster. Incorporating these foods into a carnivore diet can help ensure that adequate levels of zinc are consumed to support immune health. Zinc and antioxidant activity: Zinc plays a role in the body’s antioxidant defense system, protecting cells from oxidative stress and damage caused by free radicals. This is important for overall immune function, as oxidative stress can compromise the immune system and increase susceptibility to infections and diseases. Zinc and wound healing: Zinc is essential for the process of wound healing, which relies on a well-functioning immune system. It is involved in cell division, protein synthesis, and collagen formation, all of which are necessary for repairing damaged tissues. Consuming adequate zinc through a carnivore diet can help support the body’s natural healing processes. Zinc and inflammation regulation: Inflammation is a normal part of the immune response, but chronic inflammation can lead to various health issues. Zinc helps regulate inflammation by modulating the immune system’s response, ensuring that inflammation is kept in check and does not become excessive. Zinc deficiency and immune health: Zinc deficiency can have a significant impact on immune health, leading to an increased risk of infections, a weakened immune response, and slower wound healing. A carnivore diet can help prevent zinc deficiency by providing a consistent intake of bioavailable zinc from animal-based foods. Zinc supplementation on a carnivore diet: While a well-balanced carnivore diet should provide adequate zinc levels for most individuals, some people may require supplementation to ensure optimal immune health. Consult with a healthcare professional before taking zinc supplements to determine the appropriate dosage and form. Zinc and the gut microbiome: Emerging research suggests that zinc may play a role in maintaining the gut microbiome’s health, which in turn can influence immune function. A healthy gut microbiome is essential for a strong immune system, and a carnivore diet rich in zinc may help support gut health and overall immune function. Zinc and the aging immune system: As individuals age, their immune systems become less effective, partly due to a decline in zinc levels. Consuming a diet rich in bioavailable zinc, such as a carnivore diet, can help support the immune system and potentially improve immune function in older adults. Zinc plays a vital role in supporting immune health, and a carnivore diet can provide an excellent source of bioavailable zinc. From its involvement in the development and activation of immune cells to its antioxidant properties and regulation of inflammation, zinc is crucial for maintaining a robust immune system. Incorporating zinc-rich animal-based foods into a carnivore diet can help ensure optimal immune function and overall health. As with any dietary change, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional to determine if a carnivore diet is appropriate for your individual needs and to ensure that your zinc intake remains at a healthy level. You can also read: Vegetarian Transitioning To Meat
Threats to Wetlands The United States has lost more than half of its original wetlands due to drainage, conversion to farmland or other forms of development. The highest rates of wetland loss occurred between the 1950s and the 1970s, until conservation movements considerably slowed the rate of decline [source: EPA]. But wetlands are still under threat. Human activity is probably the most prevalent cause of wetland destruction or degradation. Development -- whether it's drainage, damming to form lakes or ponds, adding pavement, or diverting water flow -- affects the soil's hydrologic condition, or the presence of water in the soil [source: Merriam-Webster]. If there's no water, there's no wetland. Humans can't take all the blame, though. There also are natural threats to wetlands, such as droughts. Even though wetlands are sponge-like and can hold water in reserve for a long time, they can't do it forever. Some wetlands will eventually dry out if they aren't replenished. Wildlife can also be a detriment. Overgrazing by animals can cut down on the area's vegetation, leaving wetlands susceptible to erosion. Natural disasters like hurricanes or flooding can greatly erode a wetland area. While wetlands act as a buffer against these weather occurrences, they also pay the price with diminished vegetation and pollution from runoff. Pollution also degrades wetlands and water quality. Again, wetlands act as a natural filter for polluted water, but they can only absorb so much. Pollution enters the water table through pesticides, sediment, sewage, fertilizers and many other forms. Once a wetland is polluted, it's difficult to clean it up. The best way to keep wetlands clean is to protect them from pollution in the first place, by ensuring a contaminant-free water supply. Global warming is also a threat to wetlands. A study by the Pew Center on Global Climate Change found that as air temperatures rise, so do water temperatures. Because warmer waters are more productive, wetlands may end up overrun by algae, which degrades water quality and poses health problems to humans and animals. The algae bloom known as red tide releases toxins, which have killed thousands of fish. Eating affected shellfish can expose humans to these toxins. Breathing the air near a red tide can also cause respiratory issues in some people [source: CDC]. Also, many fish rely on cooler water to survive and can die out when smaller lakes or ponds warm up. Elevated temperatures also lead to reduced precipitation, which reduces the amount of runoff provided to wetlands [source: Pew Center]. So what can be done to save the wetlands? Keep reading to learn what the U.S. Clean Water Act and other private organizations are doing to protect wetlands.
Enjoying our resources? Everything we provide is free. Help us keep this resource free by donating and helping us cover our running costs. Every little bit helps! Plants belong to the kingdom Plantae and are arguably one of the most important organisms on Earth! Without them life wouldn’t exist as we know it. In the Amazon alone, there are roughly 80,000 plant species. WHAT WILL YOU LEARN? All plants share some common characteristic, however, they do have difference between them that allow us to group them into different categories. Watch the video below for an overview of how we categories plants. We can start grouping plants by understanding how they reproduce. Do they use seeds or spores? If you every eaten an apple or orange you would have seen the seeds inside. When these seeds are planted they can grow into a new plant. Some plants, such as ferns, mosses and liverworts reproduce threw spores. Spores are tiny and only contain half the genetic information needed to make a full organism. You may have heard that apple seeds can kill you, but how accurate is that? While it’s true apple seeds can indeed be poisonous, you need to crush them and take a lot of them to kill you. I’m talking 150 to several thousands of crushed seeds! Apple seeds contain amygdalin and when metabolised in our digestive system it breaks down into hydrogen cyanide. If you want to learn more read the follow article. Like all living things, plants need water. Some plants use a system of tubes to transport the water from the roots to the leaves. We call this system of tubes, the vascular tissue. Other plants, such as moss and liverworts have no vascular tissue. They live in damp places and absorb water through all their parts. There are 2 different types of non flowering plants that do not produce by seeds. These are called Pteridophytes or Bryophytes. Select the ‘i’ icons below to learn more about these 2 groups of plants. Have you noticed how some plants have flowers, while others don’t. Flowers are a great way to attract insects and birds to the plant. Insects and birds help pollinate the plant. Plants without flowers can still pollinate, by using the air and other animals to help carry their pollen from one plant to another. Cycads and conifers spread their pollen through catkins and open cones, which release pollen into the air. We can divide flowering plants into 2 groups. Monocotyledons (monocots) and Dicotyledons (dicots). There are a few differences between them. Is the image below a monocot or dicot plant? Not all plants reproduce in the same way. Some use seeds while others use spores. Click the ‘question mark’ to test your knowledge with some questions and activities.
Best Children’s Books about Growing Plants and Gardening There is nothing quite so magical as the process of watching a plant grow – from seeds and shoots to leaves and flowers. Learning about growing plants is part of the Science curriculum in primary schools, with children learning to name local wildflowers and trees, exploring the functions of different parts of a plant and investigating what plants need to grow and thrive. We’ve put together a list of recommended books to support the topic of growing plants at KS1 and EYFS, covering everything from seed dispersal and life cycles to edible plant parts and activities for green-fingered budding gardeners. From stories about gardening like Lulu Loves Flowers and Oliver’s Vegetables, to beautifully illustrated non-fiction choices like The Big Book of Blooms, this booklist provides a handpicked selection of the best children’s books about growing plants. NB: This selection of stories about growing plants is aimed at children aged 4-7. If you are looking for books for older children, try our KS2 Plants and Trees list.
Design for floods Flooding poses a major threat to property and life. Climate change is creating more floods through sea level rise, stronger storms and more intense rainfall events. Simple defences like sand bags, low walls and drainage ditches help protect your home, but some locations need major flood adaptations. This action deals with designing to protect your home against floods. The wider area is covered by Action 13: 'Manage water in the landscape'. Assessing the risks Local news reports from the past decade, flood plain maps, conversations with neighbours and historical records are all useful in identifying flood risk. This can be very localised; one house may flood, while the neighbouring house does not. So carefully consider site gradient, features that will direct water into or away from your house (especially roads and driveways), places water flow may get trapped and whether your doorways are above the level of your garden. Remember that floods are often accompanied by very strong winds. Coastal flooding is a major risk for the 634 million people who live less than 30 feet above sea level. Simultaneous high tide, full moon and storm surge can produce 'coastal' flooding up to 30km/20 miles inland. Does this expose you to risk? Flood plains are areas where water collects following heavy rainfall. Normally placid rivers can burst their banks and go over the top of flood walls. Paving over large areas has greatly increased risks in urban flood plains. In the USA alone, 100 million people live on flood plains. Do you? Flash floods have a timescale of less than six hours between rainfall and flooding, posing a serious threat to property and life. They may be caused by heavy rain, meltwater or the collapse of a natural or human-made dam. Consider the routes that unexpected high water would take through your local area. A mud slide is a rapid flow of partially liquefied soil debris. Some mud flows are slow, but others begin very quickly and continue like an avalanche. If large enough, they can devastate villages and the whole landscape. Is there some possibility, or historical occurrence, of mud slides near your home? Flood control infrastructure One key way to tackle flooding is infrastructure such as sea walls, levees, dams, weirs, storm drains, upland forests, flood meadows, strict planning and building codes and even removal of homes from at-risk areas. For most people, creating substantial flood infrastructure is beyond their resources. However, lobby for installation and maintenance of flood infrastructure where appropriate and report any damage or neglect. Communities can create local flood infrastructure, focusing on simple measures to slow water upstream and guide it safely downstream (see Action 49: 'Campaign for local adaptation' and Action 13: 'Manage water in the landscape'). Home defence – simple improvements At household level there are a number of actions you can take to reduce flood risk and flood damage: - If your home has a sump pump, get a battery backup in case the power fails. - Buy a stock of sandbags or other temporary water barriers such as inflatable tubes. - Check your house for water entry points like doors, vents and basement windows. They can be protected with low walls, sandbags or temporary shields, or even permanently filled in or moved. - Dig a ditch or install a yard drain to carry water away from your home; this needs careful siting. - Check your home insurance policy covers damage from floods, and includes both contents and structure. - Plant species that will stabilise soil against water erosion, such as Vetiver grass, Napier grass or bamboo. Plant shrubs and trees. - In coastal areas create deep, dense areas of planting between your home and the sea. - Make a household inventory of belongings, especially the contents in the basement. - Mark your circuit box to show which circuits feed which parts of your house. Turning off the electricity to the basement may reduce damage in a flood. - Keep computer files backed up on the cloud. Keep vital documents in a bag you can carry if a flood comes. Get a small waterproof safe for other important documents. - Take action to stop flooding in the wider area (see Action 13: 'Manage water in the landscape') - Read Action 34: 'Learn to survive an emergency' for information on survival during a flood event. Home defence – major improvements The Homeowner's Guide to Retrofitting by FEMA gives a thorough description of major flood-proofing for your home. All require an investment of time and money, but could save you a great deal of both. - Wet floodproofing – make portions of your home resistant to flood damage and allow water to enter during flooding - Dry floodproofing – seal your home to prevent floodwaters from entering - Barrier systems – build a floodwall around your home to restrain floodwaters - Elevation – raise your home above the likely flood level - Relocation – move your home to higher ground - Demolition – either rebuild on the same property or buy or build elsewhere Picture credits: 1) distel2610 - Pixabay.com 2) Antranias - Pixabay.com 3) Canislupus - Pixabay.com Assess your risks Make well designed physical changes to your home and land Work with your community to create or lobby for improved local defences Donate to international disaster relief
Up to 16 feet Meet the Orinoco Crocodile, a majestic reptile found in tropical regions. With a potential length of up to 16 feet, this member of the Crocodylidae family has a long and robust body. Beware if you ever come across one, its powerful jaws and sharp teeth make it a fearsome predator in the wild. Animal Details Summary: Common Name: Orinoco Crocodile Habitat: Freshwater rivers and swamps The Mighty Orinoco Crocodile: A Living Dinosaur in the Modern WorldThe Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) is a powerful and fearsome creature, native to the Orinoco river basin in Venezuela and Colombia. Also known as the Orinoco crocodile, this species is the largest land predator in the Amazon and is considered an apex predator in its habitat. With a lineage dating back to the time of dinosaurs, the Orinoco crocodile is truly a living fossil in the modern world. Ancient Lineage: The Evolution of the Orinoco CrocodileThe Orinoco crocodile belongs to the Crocodylus genus, which is one of the oldest reptilian lineages on Earth Orinoco Crocodile. It is estimated that the crocodilian family has been around for over 240 million years, surviving through multiple mass extinction events. These ancient creatures were once widespread across the globe, with species ranging from terrestrial to aquatic habitats. However, with the changing landscape and environmental conditions, many of these species became extinct. Today, only a handful of crocodilian species are left, and the Orinoco crocodile is one of the most endangered. Anatomy and Physiology: Adaptations for SurvivalAs with most reptiles, the Orinoco crocodile's body is well-suited for its semi-aquatic lifestyle. Its long and robust body is covered in dark green to brown scales, which helps it blend in with its surroundings. These large reptiles can grow up to 16 feet in length and reach a maximum height of 2.5 feet, making them intimidating predators in their habitat. One of the most distinctive features of the Orinoco crocodile is its powerful jaws Ori Pei. With a bite force of over 3,000 pounds per square inch, they are capable of taking down large prey such as deer, cattle, and even jaguars. Their jaw structure allows them to bite down with incredible force, but their muscles also enable them to withstand tremendous pressure without damaging themselves. Another adaptation that aids in their survival is their excellent eyesight and sense of smell. They have uniquely positioned eyes on the top of their head, which allows them to remain mostly submerged in the water while keeping an eye out for potential prey. Their snouts are also lined with sensory organs, which help them detect vibrations and chemical cues in the water. Habitat and Distribution: The Life of an Orinoco CrocodileThe Orinoco crocodile is a freshwater species, found primarily in rivers and swamps within its namesake river basin. They are also known to inhabit flooded forests and lagoons during the rainy season. These crocodiles prefer slow-moving water where they can submerge themselves for long periods without expending too much energy. As for their distribution, the Orinoco crocodile is endemic to the Orinoco river basin in Venezuela and Colombia. Unfortunately, due to habitat destruction and hunting, their population has drastically declined, and they are now listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The total global population of Orinoco crocodiles is estimated to be around 1,500. Diet and Feeding Behavior: Carnivorous PredatorsLike all crocodilians, the Orinoco crocodile is a carnivorous species, meaning they exclusively feed on other animals. Their diet primarily consists of fish, turtles, birds, and small mammals, but they have been known to take down larger prey such as capybaras and anacondas. They are ambush predators, patiently waiting in the water for an unsuspecting animal to come by before launching a surprise attack. To minimize energy expenditure, they swallow their prey whole and rely on their strong stomach acid to digest their food. They are also known to cache their prey underwater, where it can ferment and become more palatable for consumption. Threats to Survival: Human Interference and Conservation EffortsUnfortunately, the Orinoco crocodile is facing multiple threats that have caused a severe decline in their population. One of the most significant threats is habitat loss and fragmentation due to human activities, such as dam construction and deforestation. This loss of habitat has limited their access to food sources and nesting sites, leading to a decline in their reproductive rates. Another significant threat to their survival is hunting. In many areas, these crocodiles are hunted for their meat, which is considered a delicacy, and their skin, which is used in the luxury leather industry. These unsustainable hunting practices have had a catastrophic impact on the Orinoco crocodile population and have pushed them to the brink of extinction. Fortunately, conservation efforts are underway to protect and preserve the Orinoco crocodile population. In Venezuela, a captive breeding program has been successful in raising and releasing over 500 hatchlings into the wild. This program has helped increase the population of Orinoco crocodiles in the country, and similar efforts are being made in Colombia to protect these remarkable creatures. The Fascinating Behaviors of Orinoco CrocodilesContrary to their fearsome reputation, Orinoco crocodiles exhibit several fascinating behaviors that have caught the attention of researchers and wildlife enthusiasts. Some interesting facts about their behavior include: • Orinoco crocodiles have a unique way of communicating with each other. They produce a deep bellowing sound by resonating their vocal cords in their nose and throat, which can be heard up to a mile away. • These crocodiles are diurnal, meaning they are most active during the day, unlike most other crocodilians. • Female Orinoco crocodiles are highly protective of their nests, even becoming more aggressive as they near the hatching time. They will fiercely defend their hatchlings until they are old enough to fend for themselves. • During the dry season, when water levels drop, Orinoco crocodiles are known to dig burrows in the mud to create a humid and cooler environment to beat the scorching heat. In Conclusion: A Prehistoric Creature in the Modern AgeThe Orinoco crocodile is a magnificent creature, thriving and surviving for millions of years. Their prehistoric lineage, impressive physical adaptations, and fascinating behavior make them one of the most intriguing species in the animal kingdom. However, with their population on the decline, it is crucial that we take steps to protect and preserve these living dinosaurs in the modern age. Through conservation efforts and raising awareness, we can ensure that the Orinoco crocodiles continue to roam the rivers and swamps of the Amazon for centuries to come. Animal Details Orinoco Crocodile - Scientific Name: Crocodylus intermedius - Category: Animals O - Scientific Name: Crocodylus intermedius - Common Name: Orinoco Crocodile - Kingdom: Animalia - Phylum: Chordata - Class: Reptilia - Order: Crocodilia - Family: Crocodylidae - Habitat: Freshwater rivers and swamps - Feeding Method: Carnivorous - Geographical Distribution: Orinoco River Basin in Venezuela and Colombia - Country of Origin: Venezuela and Colombia - Location: Tropical regions - Animal Coloration: Dark green to brown - Body Shape: Long and robust - Length: Up to 16 feet - Adult Size: Average length: 12 to 14 feet - Average Lifespan: 40-60 years - Reproduction: Sexual - Reproductive Behavior: Nest building and egg-laying - Sound or Call: Low rumbling sounds - Migration Pattern: Does not migrate - Social Groups: Solitary - Behavior: Mostly active at night - Threats: Hunting, habitat loss, pollution - Conservation Status: Critically Endangered - Impact on Ecosystem: Maintains ecological balance - Human Use: Source of meat, leather, and oil - Distinctive Features: Narrow snout, prominent bony ridges, powerful tail - Interesting Facts: One of the largest crocodile species, only found in the Orinoco River Basin - Predator: Other large predators, including humans The Fascinating World of the Orinoco Crocodile: A Species on the Brink of ExtinctionDeep within the murky waters of the Orinoco River basin in South America, resides a prehistoric creature that has captured the fascination and fear of humans for centuries - the Orinoco crocodile. This magnificent and formidable species has a long and unique history, but is now facing the threat of extinction due to human activities. In this article, we will explore the incredible features and behaviors of the Orinoco crocodile, its importance in the ecosystem, and the various challenges it faces in its fight for survival. One of the most striking features of the Orinoco crocodile is its size PeaceOfAnimals.Com. On average, this species can grow to be 12 to 14 feet long, making it one of the largest crocodile species in the world. Some individuals have been recorded to reach lengths of up to 20 feet, making them an impressive and intimidating presence in their natural habitat. In terms of weight, an adult Orinoco crocodile can weigh up to 1,100 pounds, with males being slightly larger than females. The average lifespan of the Orinoco crocodile is 40 to 60 years, with some individuals living even longer in captivity. However, in the wild, their lifespan is greatly affected by external factors such as human interference and environmental changes. These crocodiles reach sexual maturity at around 10-12 years of age, with the females being slightly smaller than males. Unlike some other species of crocodilians, the Orinoco crocodile has a monogamous mating system, and once a pair has formed, they will remain together for many years. Their reproductive behavior is also fascinating. During the mating season, which usually occurs between April to June, the male crocodile initiates courtship by vocalizing low rumbling sounds Ocellated Turkey. Once the female is receptive, they will engage in a series of underwater mating rituals. After the successful fertilization of the eggs, the female will begin to build a nest by collecting vegetation, mud, and other materials to create a mound in which she will lay her eggs. This protective behavior is crucial for the survival of the offspring as it helps to keep the eggs warm and safe from predators. Once the eggs are laid, the female crocodile fiercely guards her nest, waiting for the eggs to hatch. After 90 days of incubation, the baby crocodiles will start to emerge from their eggs, and the mother will assist them in breaking out of their shells. She will then carry the hatchlings in her mouth to the water, where they will begin their journey in the wild. This reproductive behavior not only demonstrates the intelligence and adaptability of the Orinoco crocodile but also highlights the strong bond between mother and offspring. Apart from their reproductive behavior, the Orinoco crocodile is known for its distinctive features. One of the most striking physical features is its narrow and elongated snout, which helps the crocodile catch prey efficiently. This species also has prominent bony ridges on its back and tail, which provide protection and help with swimming and maneuvering in the water. Speaking of their powerful tails, the Orinoco crocodile has one of the strongest tails among all crocodiles, and it is used as a weapon for defense and to stun their prey. Despite their size and fearsome appearance, Orinoco crocodiles are relatively shy and solitary creatures. They are mostly active at night, as they are primarily nocturnal hunters. They are opportunistic hunters, and their diet consists mainly of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Their role in the ecosystem is vital, as they help maintain the population of their prey species, which in turn helps to preserve the balance of the ecosystem. However, the survival of the Orinoco crocodile is under serious threat. Due to their large size and prized features, these crocodiles are often targeted by hunters for their meat, leather, and oil. This unsustainable hunting has resulted in a significant decline in their population. Another major threat to the Orinoco crocodile is habitat loss and pollution. The destruction of their natural habitat due to deforestation and dam construction has severely damaged the crocodile population. Pollution in the water can also have a devastating impact on these crocodiles, affecting their health and reproductive abilities. Unfortunately, the conservation status of the Orinoco crocodile is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). As of now, only an estimated 500 individuals are left in the wild, and if immediate actions are not taken, this species may become extinct in the near future. In recent years, various conservation efforts have been implemented to protect these crocodiles, including breeding programs, habitat restoration, and anti-poaching measures. However, more needs to be done to ensure the survival of this magnificent species. Apart from the devastating effects of their declining population, the extinction of the Orinoco crocodile would also have a significant impact on the ecosystem. These crocodiles play a vital role in controlling the population of their prey species, which helps to keep the balance of the ecosystem. Their absence could result in an imbalance, leading to a domino effect on other organisms in the ecosystem. In conclusion, the Orinoco crocodile is a unique and fascinating species that has captivated humans for centuries. From their impressive size to their distinctive features and reproductive behavior, these crocodiles have many traits that make them stand out from other crocodilian species. However, their existence is now threatened by various human activities, including hunting, habitat loss, and pollution. It is crucial that we take immediate action to protect and conserve this species before it's too late. Let us not allow this magnificent creature to become another victim of human greed and negligence. So, it is our responsibility to create awareness and actively participate in the conservation efforts to save the Orinoco crocodile from extinction. The Mighty Orinoco Crocodile: A Living Dinosaur in the Modern World Disclaimer: The content provided is for informational purposes only. We cannot guarantee the accuracy of the information on this page 100%. All information provided here may change without prior notice.
Chemistry, the science that can excite you before your very eyes from fireworks to colour changes. However, Chemistry is more than just a show subject. Understanding how the world around us works will enable our children to make the correct decisions when faced by environmental problems in the future. Be it working hard to preserve resources or inventing the newest materials, like graphene; the future needs our children to be fully informed. Chemistry at Key Stage 3 At KS3, a certain number of traditional investigations are performed... magnesium in vinegar, iron nails in copper sulphate solution but occasionally we can explore the possibilities of slime production or the separation of curds from whey in milk in order to made a casein glue. These can be exciting, even without the chance of an explosion but the real buzz in chemistry occurs when the mysteries could be resolved and the formulation of credible explanations begin. We do commence to investigate the riddles of the Periodic Table. Harry Potter is not destroyed but placed into a format that can be utilised. Chemistry at Key Stages 4 and 5 In Key Stage 4 we study the Edexcel IGCSE. With a varied approach including the ability to get hands on with practical experiments Chemistry is introduced through four main areas. These are the Principles of Chemistry, Inorganic, Physical and Organic. Students are able to look at the structure and properties of everyday objects, begin to understand the complexity of natural compounds linked to life and make predictions about the way in which chemicals might react. In addition, we touch on contemporary issues of the day from Global Warming to Plastic. We have many students who choose Chemistry at Key Stage 5 with the sole ambition of pursuing medical careers. There have been numerous who have successfully achieved this goal and we salute their skills, dedication and application. Many other students though, venture along different pathways. Chemistry at Advanced level can be very exciting especially given the luxury of extremely small groups. This creates the possibility and opportunity for flexible teaching of a highly specified curriculum. Students study the Edexcel International A Level, taking modular exams throughout the two years. The topics studied all for a greater look into the areas of Physical, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Not only do students gain a greater insight to how substances behave but also how chemists can manipulate them. Science has changed a great deal from chance discoveries to a world in which chemicals can be produced for specific purposes. All the while students develop a thorough practical experience through the 12 minimum required practical experiments.
Very likely, the last image that comes to mind when thinking of black holes is that they need to be nurtured, coddled and protected when young. But new research reveals the first large black holes in the universe likely formed and grew deep inside gigantic, starlike cocoons that smothered their powerful x-ray radiation and prevented surrounding gases from being blown away. “Until recently, the thinking by many has been that supermassive black holes got their start from the merging of numerous, small black holes in the universe,” said Mitchell Begelman, from the University of Colorado-Boulder. “This new model of black hole development indicates a possible alternate route to their formation.” Ordinary black holes are thought to be remnants of stars slightly larger than our sun that used up their fuel and died. But the first big black holes likely formed from very large stars that formed early in the Universe, probably within the first few hundred million years after the Big Bang. The unique process of these large stars becoming black holes includes the formation of a protective cocoon, made of gas. “What’s new here is we think we have found a new mechanism to form these giant supermassive stars, which gives us a new way of understanding how big black holes may have formed relatively fast,” said Begelman. These early supermassive stars would have grown to a huge size — as much as tens of millions of times the mass of our sun — and would have been short-lived, with its core collapsing in just in few million years. The main requirement for the formation of supermassive stars is the accumulation of matter at a rate of about one solar mass per year, said Begelman. Because of the tremendous amount of matter consumed by supermassive stars, subsequent seed black holes that formed in their centers may have started out much bigger than ordinary black holes. Begelman said the hydrogen-burning supermassive stars would had to have been stabilized by their own rotation or some other form of energy like magnetic fields or turbulence in order to facilitate the speedy growth of black holes at their centers. After the seed black holes formed, the process entered its second stage, which Begelman has dubbed the “quasistar” stage. In this phase, black holes grew rapidly by swallowing matter from the bloated envelope of gas surrounding them, which eventually inflated to a size as large as Earth’s solar system and cooled at the same time, he said. Once quasistars cooled past a certain point, radiation began escaping at such a high rate that it caused the gas envelope to disperse and left behind black holes up to 10,000 times or more the mass of Earth’s sun. With such a big head start over ordinary black holes, they could have grown into supermassive black holes millions or billions of times the mass of the sun either by gobbling up gas from surrounding galaxies or merging with other black holes in extremely violent galactic collisions. Begelman said big black holes formed from early supermassive stars could have had a huge impact on the evolution of the universe, including galaxy formation, possibly going on to produce quasars — the very bright, energetic centers of distant galaxies that can be a trillion times brighter than our sun. Begelman’s paper will be published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
This activity encourages students to think about the natural resources that are used to make everyday objects. After learning about natural resources, students will identify objects that are made from trees, sand, clay, animals, and metal and record their answers on a worksheet. This simple activity will show students that all objects come from other materials. The sources section links to an article on natural resources that explains the difference between renewable and nonrenewable sources. Younger students may need some help brainstorming objects for each of the categories. Instead of asking students to find objects, teachers may wish to present a number of objects for students to classify. As an art activity, students could work in groups to find pictures of objects in old magazines and then sort the pictures by natural resource. Once there are enough pictures of each of the five natural resources, students could use them to make collages. Students could write a few sentences about what individuals can do to make sure that they are conserving natural resources (treat objects with care, do not waste food, reuse objects). Younger students could write a sentence and draw a picture to illustrate their idea. Other resources on this topic include this video on preserving ecosystems and biodiversity, this project on upcycling discarded objects, and this ebook about improper trash disposal. This resource highlights all of the different natural resources it takes to create all of the stuff around us. This is important because some resources are finite. This resource is recommended for teaching. Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) PS1: Matter and its Interactions 2-PS1-1 Plan and conduct an investigation to describe and classify different kinds of materials by their observable properties. College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Standards Dimension 2: Geography D2.Geo.11.K-2 Explain how the consumption of products connects people to distant places. D2.Geo.8.3-5 Explain how human settlements and movements relate to the locations and use of various natural resources. Common Core English Language Arts Standards (CCSS.ELA) Reading: Foundational Skills (K-5) CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RF.1.4 Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension.
By Steven E. Tobias, Psy.D., coauthor of Boost Emotional Intelligence in Students: 30 Flexible Research-Based Activities to Build EQ Skills (Grades 5–9) If you have children or work with them, you know how important and sometimes challenging it can be to manage your feelings and interact with kids in a positive manner. These skills have been called emotional intelligence (EQ), and they are necessary for success and happiness in all aspects of life. EQ can be broken down into nine skill areas. For each one, it’s useful to ask yourself, “Do I consider this to be a strength or an area I would like to improve in myself?” - Assessing and knowing my own emotions, values, and capabilities (both strengths and weaknesses) - Coping with my emotions and maintaining self-control - Persevering to achieve my goals - Understanding and empathizing with others—including having an awareness of individual and group similarities and differences - Communicating effectively, both perceiving others’ messages and expressing myself to others - Working cooperatively with others - Establishing positive goals - Planning and enacting behaviors effectively to achieve those goals - Resolving interpersonal conflicts constructively As with most things in life, these skills are easier said than done. This especially occurred to me one day when I was yelling at my daughter to stop yelling. Something about that did not feel quite right, and for some reason, she kept yelling. When interacting with others, especially children, it is necessary to, as the Greeks said, “Know thyself.” We want to make sure that we are modeling the skills we want others to demonstrate, especially self-awareness, self-control, empathy, and effective communication. It can be helpful to consider your own strengths and challenges when it comes to your EQ skills. Here are some questions that, if you answer as openly and honestly as you can, will help you become more emotionally intelligent. - What are your core values as an educator (or a parent)? What are your overall values as a human being? How often do you reflect on your values? How often do your values conflict with the values of others at work, in your family, or in society? How do you handle these conflicts of values? - How good are you at identifying your own feelings? How well can you express them, especially when the feelings are particularly strong (positive or negative)? How often do you reflect on your feelings (outside of times when people ask how you are doing)? - How sensitive are you to the feelings of others? Where would you place yourself on a scale of highly responsive to others to emotionally distant? How do you experience and express empathy? - How well are you able to maintain your emotional and behavioral self-control in emotionally intense situations (also called trigger situations)? When do you find it most challenging to control and manage your emotional reactions? What tools or skills do you use to exercise self-control? - How aware are you of your own inner dialogue or self-talk? Does it tend to be generally positive or negative? When are you most aware of it? If your self-talk is negative, what do you do to handle it (such as try to ignore it or transform it into positive self-talk)? - How effective are your communication skills? How well do you listen to others? How well do you express yourself? How well do you balance listening and speaking? How aware are you of your nonverbal communication (body language, facial expression, eye contact, tone of voice) and that of others? - How well can you perceive things from other people’s perspectives? When is this easiest for you, and when is it most difficult? - How goal-directed are you? How often do you think about your goals—both short-term and long-term—and how specific are these goals? How do you balance goal-directed behavior with flexibility and spontaneity? - How good are you at problem-solving? How good are you at facilitating others’ problem-solving? In what situations do you typically struggle with problem-solving? - Before acting, how much do you think about the various possible outcomes of what you might do (or not do)? How often do you change your course of action after anticipating possibilities? - How resilient are you? How do you deal with challenges and obstacles? How often do you willingly put yourself in challenging situations, as opposed to trying to avoid them? Based on these reflections, identify your clear strengths. Be aware of them and keep working on them. Then take a realistic look at where you are most lacking. These are the things you need to improve upon (both individually and with the help of others) and to be mindful of when interacting with others. This is especially true with people you are close to and people you find challenging in your personal life and at work. Pick one of these and start to pay attention to it and work on it. After you make progress, pick another. Being aware of these skills is the first step in better managing them and becoming even more effective in your interactions with others. Steven E. Tobias, Psy.D., is the director of the Center for Child & Family Development in Morristown, New Jersey. He has over thirty years of experience working with children, parents, families, and schools. Dr. Tobias feels a strong commitment to children’s social and emotional development and provides consultation to schools as a way of reaching many children, including those who are underserved in terms of their social and emotional needs. He has coauthored several books with Dr. Maurice Elias, including Emotionally Intelligent Parenting and Raising Emotionally Intelligent Teenagers. He has given lectures throughout the United States on topics related to parenting and children’s emotional development. Dr. Tobias lives in New Jersey. Steven is coauthor of Boost Emotional Intelligence in Students: 30 Flexible Research-Based Activities to Build EQ Skills. We welcome your comments and suggestions. Share your comments, stories, and ideas below, or contact us. All comments will be approved before posting, and are subject to our comment and privacy policies.
Critical Thinking Questions - The taxonomic classification system uses a hierarchical model to organize living organisms. At each sublevel, the organisms are more similar. - The taxonomic classification system uses a hierarchical model to organize living organisms. At each sublevel, the number of organisms increases. - The categories in the taxonomic classification system are organized from smaller, more specific categories to larger categories. - In the hierarchal model for the taxonomic classification system, from the point of origin, the groups become less specific. - Italicize both words. Both words are lower case. - Italicize both words. The first word should be capitalized. The second word should be lower case. - Italicize both words. Capitalize both words. - Underline both words. Capitalize both words. - There are cases where organisms used to be closely related but diverged from each other and no longer look closely related. - There are cases where organisms can interbreed making them look like a single species, when in fact they are not closely related at all. - There are cases where organisms evolved through convergence and appear closely related but are not. - There are cases when extremely distant taxa can recombine into a single group. - A phylogenetic tree relates to the passing of time because species branch off from each other at regular time intervals. - A phylogenetic tree is not related to the passing of time because speciation is based on geographic changes. - The phylogenetic tree only shows the order in which things took place. - A phylogenetic tree relates to the passing of time when the diagram also shows how long ago the divergence from the common ancestor occurred. Ancient Mayans believed that deities out of yellow and white maize created humans. Why is this not a good hypothesis? - homologous traits - analogous traits - monophyletic groups - Clades vary in size depending on the number of branches. - All the organisms within a clade stem from a single point on the phylogenetic tree. - A clade shows branches that do not share a single point. - A clade shows groups that diverge at a different branch point. - describe phylogenies accurately - eliminate analogous traits - identify mutations to DNA codes - locate homoplasies Look at the phylogenetic tree in Figure 20.11. You discover a new species of unicellular organisms in a pond. What kind of experiment would you need to perform in order to classify the organism as a ciliate, flagellate, trichomonad, microsporidia, or diplomonad? Based on the phylogenetic tree below, is the domestic cat closer to a tiger or a cougar? Why? Two cultures of bacteria are separated by a filter that blocks the movement of cells but allows free exchange of anything smaller than a bacterial cell. On one side of the filter, a sample of penicillin-resistant cells in culture broth is added, on the second side of the tube, a culture of penicillin-sensitive cells in culture is added. After 24 hours, resistant cells appear on the side with the cells sensitive to penicillin. Which three genetic mechanisms can account for appearance of the penicillin-resistant cells? - a. transformation, transduction, and conjugation - b. transformation, transduction, and mutation - c. transformation, conjugation, and mutation - d. transduction, conjugation, and mutation
Cryptid Profile: Giant Jellyfish In 1953, a deep-sea diver from Australia witnessed something that absolutely shocked and terrified him. While deep below the surface, the diver noticed a large dark mass off in the distance that appeared to be floating within the current of the ocean. Stunned at what he was seeing, the diver continued to watch the dark mass get closer. At that moment, a Whitetip Shark swam within the vicinity of the mass. Without warning, the shark began to thrash around as if it was being attacked by some unseen predator. Eventually the shark went still and the diver watched in horrific amazement as the dark mass began to pull the body into its center. It was at this moment that the deep-sea diver realized what he was looking at. There in front of him at a safe distance away, was a Giant Jellyfish. Currently, the largest known jellyfish in the world is the Lion’s Mane Jellyfish (Cyanea capillata). The bell diameter (the “head”) of the Lion’s Mane can grow to over 6ft 7in wide, while the sticky tentacles can grow up to 100ft long. These jellyfish are found primarily within the cold waters of the Arctic, Northern Atlantic, and Northern Pacific oceans. The largest specimen of Lion’s Head washed up in Massachusetts Bay in 1870, and had a bell diameter of 7ft and tentacle length of 121ft. Now, could a Lion’s Mane Jellyfish be the Jelly responsible for catching, killing, and “eating” the shark in Australia? While the L.M.J is capable of growing extremely long tentacles, the bell diameter is not large enough to encapsulate and digest a full grown whitetip shark. The generally agreed upon length of the shark is around 9.8ft long, although a record setting 13ft specimen has been caught before. This would make the shark bigger than the bell of the L.M.J. by almost 3ft. In order for a jellyfish to eat and digest its food, it needs to fully encapsulate the prey inside its “stomach”. The stomach of the jellyfish is known as the coelenteron, a single cavity inside the bell which serves as not only the stomach, but also as the mouth, intestines, and anus. When the food has fully made it inside the coelenteron, digestive enzymes and acids begin to break down the food and it is then absorbed into the body. But, if the food is larger than the small hole that leads inside the coelenteron, the jelly will release the food to drift away. This means that the jellyfish that caught and ate the whitetip shark had to possess a bell which was 12ft or wider. In turn, this could mean that the tentacles of this mysterious gigantic jelly might have been a length of over 200ft or more. Seeing as how the diver only saw this creature once, could this have just been a rare, one of its kind jelly? More than likely not. A second sighting of a Giant Jellyfish took place in November of 1969, 14miles southwest of Bermuda. Divers Richard Winer and Pat Boatwright reported seeing a giant purplish colored jellyfish with an almost pink outer bell rim pulsating through the water. They estimated the bell diameter as being between 50-100ft. Then, 4yrs later in 1973, an Australian ship by the name of Kuranda collided with a Giant Jellyfish while making its way through the South Pacific near Fiji. The bell of the giant jelly wrapped around the head of the ship, while the tentacles wrapped around and flailed along both sides. The captain of the ship, Langley Smith, estimated the tentacles to be over 200ft long. The bell of the jelly basically exploded upwards onto the deck and left a slimy goo that measured 2ft deep. A tugboat by the name of Hercules was called to assist in the removal of the dead creature. Samples taken of the jelly were tested and the results came back as belonging to a Lion’s Mane Jellyfish. So, could there be gigantic jellyfish currently pulsating along in the oceans of the world? Yes. Jellies tend to grow larger the deeper you go in the ocean, so it is not unbelievable that there could be a massive subspecies of L.M.J alive out there just waiting to be officially discovered. Humankind is discovering new sea creatures regularly so it’s only a matter of time before something truly gigantic is witnessed by scientists. The only thing we recommend though is that if you do go out looking for Gigantic Jellyfish, try and keep a safe distance away. It would be a shame to finally discover one of these things alive, only to end up inside it, slowly digesting into its body, and never getting to tell this world of its discovery. -The Pine Barrens Institute Image Credit: Google Side-note: I know many of you will instantly exclaim that you have seen photos of divers alongside gigantic jellyfish in ocean before. For that, I will respond by stating that these are not photos of gigantic jellies, these are actually photos of normal jellyfish up close to the camera while another diver is offset in the distance. A forced perspective photograph can easily make a normal sized creature appear to be monstrous when it is anything but. Also, Photoshop can easily be blamed for some of these photos as well. Sorry!
- 45 species in North America - Can be found in many different habitats - Majority are insectivorous, helping to control insect populations - Decline of bat populations due to natural and human factors Species Description: Bats Bats are an important part of forested ecosystems, deserts, and rangelands and contribute to a region’s biodiversity. Bats exist in many different types of habitats like forests, deserts, cities and swamp lands. Their habitats need to include dark, protected places to hide from predators, sleep during and to hibernate in during the winter. The majority of North American bat species are insectivorous and serve as insect-controllers and pollinators. They typically consume more than 50 percent of their body with each night, consuming moths, flies, mosquitoes, beetles and other insects. The Brown Bat, one of the most common species, can capture 600 mosquitoes in one hour. Nectar-feeding and fruit bats pollinate more than 130 types of plants. Forty-five species of bats have been found in the United States and seven of them have been listed as threatened or endangered. The decline of bat populations is due to natural factors like flooding, freezing and diseases. Human factors, however, are the main cause of their decline. These factors include eradication, cave commercialization, deforestation, strip mining and improper use of pesticides. Mississippi Recreational Gardens: Establishing a Backyard Wildlife Habitat (PDF) Mississippi State University Extension Service, Natural Resource Enterprises Program All wildlife requires food, water and shelter to survive. This publication discusses providing those necessities in a backyard environment. Detailed information is given on how to attract birds, hummingbirds, butterflies, bats, snakes, lizards, toads and frogs. Information is also provided on controlling deer, rodents, and other animals that are considered pests. Management tips are given for making your backyard the best habitat possible including an example and how to create a trail. Bats: Ecologically Important Mammals (PDF) Animal Welfare Institute Endangered Species Handbook Bats are important to the environment as pollinators and insect killers. This publication includes a list of North American bat species and identifies their distribution and threat level. A list of other resources on bats is also included. Bats are Pollinators Too (PDF) Bat Conservation International This publication discusses some bat species are beneficial to ecosystems worldwide, how they are being threatened and, how you can help. Forest Management and Bats (PDF) Bat Conservation International This publication begins with a list of many interesting statistics on bats. It goes into detail on the importance of bats, and bat habitat requirements, including information on roosting, foraging and water needs. Also mentioned are geological resources required by bats, and the effects of man-made roosts. The publication ends by giving information on some specific types of forest bats. A list of resources is included. Bats Found in Mississippi (PDF) Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks A listing of the bats found in Mississippi.
NASA's CloudSat Spots Beginning of Pakistan Floods In late July 2010, flooding caused by heavy monsoon rains began in several regions of Pakistan, including the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Punjab and parts of Baluchistan. According to the Associated Press, the floods have affected about one-fifth of the country. Tens of thousands of villages have been flooded, more than 1,500 people have been killed, and millions have been left homeless. The floodwaters are not expected to fully recede before late August. NASA's CloudSat satellite flew over the region affected by the floods on July 28, 2010, at the beginning of the flooding event. At that time, a large area of intense thunderstorms covered much of Pakistan. Between July 28 and 29, as much as 400 millimeters (16 inches) of rain fell from these cells, triggering flooding along the Indus and Kabul rivers. The top image, from NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer instrument on NASA's Aqua spacecraft, reveals the bright white cloud tops from the cluster of thunderstorms. The blue vertical line across the image represents the path of CloudSat at the time the MODIS image was acquired. CloudSat cut through a large thunderstorm cell in the northern section of the country. As seen in the top half of the bottom image, CloudSat classified the majority of the clouds present at the time as deep convective (cumulonimbus) clouds, which are typical of thunderstorms. The bottom half of the lower image shows the 3-D vertical structure of the storm along the satellite's flight path, revealing its heavy precipitation. As CloudSat's Cloud Profiling Radar passed over the area of heaviest precipitation, its signal thinned significantly. By the middle of the image, the ground echo (horizontal red line), which represents the topography of the area, completely disappears. The thinning of the radar's signal occurs because larger-sized particles and heavy rains decrease radar reflectivity and become indistinguishable to the radar. As the satellite continued traveling north, rainfall rates decreased and the signal increased, allowing the ground echo (topography) to once again become visible, at the far right of the image. CloudSat measured the height of the clouds along the radar's flight path at around 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) in the areas of deepest convection. Storms with similar structure to this one have become common this summer as tropical monsoon moisture, coupled with a strengthening La Nina, dominate this region's weather patterns. Quicklook Images can viewed at the CloudSat Data Processing Center. Image credit: NASA/JPL/The Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA), Colorado State University
PLOT(5) UNIX Programmer's Manual PLOT(5) plot - graphics interface Files of this format are produced by routines described in plot(3X) and plot(3F), and are interpreted for various dev- ices by commands described in plot(1G). A graphics file is a stream of plotting instructions. Each instruction consists of an ASCII letter usually followed by bytes of binary information. The instructions are executed in order. A point is designated by four bytes representing the x and y values; each value is a signed integer. The last designated point in an l, m, n, a, or p instruction becomes the `current point' for the next instruction. The a and c instructions change the current point in a manner dependent upon the specific device. Each of the following descriptions begins with the name of the corresponding routine in plot(3X). m move: The next four bytes give a new current point. n cont: Draw a line from the current point to the point given by the next four bytes. p point: Plot the point given by the next four bytes. l line: Draw a line from the point given by the next four bytes to the point given by the following four bytes. t label: Place the following ASCII string so that its first character falls on the current point. The string is ter- minated by a newline. a arc: The first four bytes give the center, the next four give the starting point, and the last four give the end point of a circular arc. The least significant coordinate of the end point is used only to determine the quadrant. The arc is drawn counter-clockwise. c circle: The first four bytes give the center of the cir- cle, the next two the radius. e erase: Start another frame of output. f linemod: Take the following string, up to a newline, as the style for drawing further lines. The styles are `dot- ted,' `solid,' `longdashed,' `shortdashed,' and `dot- dashed.' Effective only in plot 4014 and plot ver. s space: The next four bytes give the lower left corner of the plotting area; the following four give the upper MirOS BSD #10-current April 29, 1991 1 PLOT(5) UNIX Programmer's Manual PLOT(5) right corner. The plot will be magnified or reduced to fit the device as closely as possible. Space settings that exactly fill the plotting area with unity scaling appear below for devices supported by the filters of plot(1G). The upper limit is just outside the plotting area. In every case the plotting area is taken to be square; points outside may be displayable on dev- ices whose face isn't square. 4013 space(0, 0, 780, 780); 4014 space(0, 0, 3120, 3120); ver space(0, 0, 2048, 2048); 300, 300s space(0, 0, 4096, 4096); 450 space(0, 0, 4096, 4096); plot(1G), plot(3X), plot(3F), graph(1G) A label instruction immediately followed by a cont instruc- tion does the wrong thing on a 4014. MirOS BSD #10-current April 29, 1991 2 Generated on 2016-04-09 18:24:16 by $MirOS: src/scripts/roff2htm,v 1.83 2016/03/26 23:38:28 tg Exp $ These manual pages and other documentation are copyrighted by their respective writers; their source is available at our CVSweb, AnonCVS, and other mirrors. The rest is Copyright © 2002–2016 The MirOS Project, Germany. This product includes material provided by mirabilos. This manual page’s HTML representation is supposed to be valid XHTML/1.1; if not, please send a bug report – diffs preferred.
Modern agriculture and conventional breeding and the liberal use of high inputs has resulted in the loss of genetic diversity and the stagnation of yields in cereals in less favourable areas. Increasingly landraces are being replaced by modern cultivars which are less resilient to pests, diseases and abiotic stresses and thereby losing a valuable source of germplasm for meeting the future needs of sustainable agriculture in the context of climate change. Where landraces persist there is concern that their potential is not fully realised. Much effort has gone into collecting, organising, studying and analysing landraces recently and we review the current status and potential for their improved deployment and exploitation, and incorporation of their positive qualities into new cultivars or populations for more sustainable agricultural production. In particular their potential as sources of novel disease and abiotic stress resistance genes or combination of genes if deployed appropriately, of phytonutrients accompanied with optimal micronutrient concentrations which can help alleviate aging-related and chronic diseases, and of nutrient use efficiency traits. We discuss the place of landraces in the origin of modern cereal crops and breeding of elite cereal cultivars, the importance of on-farm and ex situ diversity conservation; how modern genotyping approaches can help both conservation and exploitation; the importance of different phenotyping approaches; and whether legal issues associated with landrace marketing and utilisation need addressing. In this review of the current status and prospects for landraces of cereals in the context of sustainable agriculture, the major points are the following: (1) Landraces have very rich and complex ancestry representing variation in response to many diverse stresses and are vast resources for the development of future crops deriving many sustainable traits from their heritage. (2) There are many germplasm collections of landraces of the major cereals worldwide exhibiting much variation in valuable morphological, agronomic and biochemical traits. The germplasm has been characterised to variable degrees and in many different ways including molecular markers which can assist selection. (3) Much of this germplasm is being maintained both in long-term storage and on farm where it continues to evolve, both of which have their merits and problems. There is much concern about loss of variation, identification, description and accessibility of accessions despite international strategies for addressing these issues. (4) Developments in genotyping technologies are making the variation available in landraces ever more accessible. However, high quality, extensive and detailed, relevant and appropriate phenotyping needs to be associated with the genotyping to enable it to be exploited successfully. We also need to understand the complexity of the genetics of these desirable traits in order to develop new germplasm. (5) Nutrient use efficiency is a very important criterion for sustainability. Landrace material offers a potential source for crop improvement although these traits are highly interactive with their environment, particularly developmental stage, soil conditions and other organisms affecting roots and their environment. (6) Landraces are also a potential source of traits for improved nutrition of cereal crops, particularly antioxidants, phenolics in general, carotenoids and tocol in particular. They also have the potential to improve mineral content, particularly iron and zinc, if these traits can be successfully transferred to improved varieties. (7) Landraces have been shown to be valuable sources of resistance to pathogens and there is more to be gained from such sources. There is also potential, largely unrealised, for disease tolerance and resistance or tolerance of pest and various abiotic stresses too including to toxic environments. (8) Single gene traits are generally easily transferred from landrace germplasm to modern cultivars, but most of the desirable traits charact ristic of landraces are complex and difficult to express in different genetic backgrounds. Maintaining these characteristics in heterogeneous landraces is also problematic. Breeding, selection and deployment methods appropriate to these objectives should be used rather than those used for high input intensive agriculture plant breeding. (9) Participatory plant breeding and variety selection has proven more successful than the approach used in high input breeding programmes for landrace improvement in stress-prone environments where sustainable approaches are a high priority. Despite being more complex to carry out, it not only delivers improved germplasm, but also aids uptake and communication between farmers, researchers and advisors for the benefit of all. (10) Previous seed trade legislation was designed primarily to protect trade and return royalty income to modern plant breeders with expensive programmes to fund. As the desirability of using landraces becomes more apparent to achieve greater sustainability, legislation changes are being made to facilitate this trade too. However, more changes are needed to promote the exploitation of diversity in landraces and encourage their use. \|Title of host publication\|\|Sustainable agriculture\| \|Editors\|\|Eric Lichtfouse, Marjolaine Hamelin, Mireille Navarrete, Philippe Debaeke\| \|Place of Publication\|\|Dordrecht\| \|Publication status\|\|Published - 1 Jan 2011\|
The typical flu season occurs from fall to early spring. The length and severity of an epidemic may vary. Some lucky individuals can get through the season flu-free. But be prepared to be surrounded by sneezing and coughing for a few months out of every year. According to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), the flu affects between 5 and 20 percent of the U.S. population each year. Flu symptoms usually include: - sore throat - runny nose The symptoms that come with the flu can keep you bedridden for a week or more. Flu prevention is key if you don’t want to miss out on: - holiday celebrations - family events - social activities The flu virus changes and adapts every year, which is why it’s so widespread and difficult to avoid. New vaccines are created and released every year to keep up with these rapid changes. Before each new flu season, federal health experts predict which three strains of the flu are most likely to thrive. They use that information to manufacture the appropriate vaccines. The flu shot works because it prompts your immune system to produce antibodies. In turn, these antibodies help the body fight off the types of flu virus that are present in the vaccine. After receiving the flu shot it takes about two weeks for these antibodies to fully develop. Some people may be more prone to infection than others. That’s why the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends that everyone 6 months of age or older be vaccinated against the flu. The shots are not 100-percent effective in preventing the flu. But they are the most effective method to protect against this virus and its related complications. Certain groups are at an increased risk for getting the flu and developing potentially dangerous flu-related complications. It’s important that people in these high risk groups be vaccinated. According to the CDC, these individuals include: - pregnant women - children between 6 months and 5 years of age - people 18 and under who receive aspirin therapy - people over 50 - anyone with chronic medical conditions - people whose body mass index is 40 or higher - American Indians or Alaska Natives - anyone living or working in a nursing home or chronic care facility - caregivers of any of the above individuals Chronic medical conditions that could increase your risk of complications include: - heart or lung problems - metabolic diseases - neurological conditions, such as epilepsy - blood conditions, such as sickle cell anemia - kidney or liver disease According to the CDC, people under the age of 19 who are on aspirin therapy as well as people taking steroid medications on a regular basis should also be vaccinated. Workers in public settings have more risk of exposure to the disease, so it’s very important that they receive a vaccination. People who are in regular contact with at-risk individuals, such as the elderly and children, should also be vaccinated. Those people include: - daycare employees - hospital workers - public workers - healthcare providers - employees of nursing homes and chronic-care facilities - home care providers - emergency response personnel - household members of people in those professions People who live in close quarters with others, such as college students and members of the military, are also at a greater risk for exposure. Some people should not get a flu shot. Don’t get a flu shot if you have the following conditions. Previous bad reaction People who have had a bad reaction to the flu vaccine in the past should not get a flu shot. People who are severely allergic to eggs should avoid vaccination. If you are mildly allergic, talk to your doctor. You may still qualify for the vaccine. People who are allergic to mercury should not get the shot. Some flu vaccines contain trace amounts of mercury to prevent vaccine contamination. Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is a rare side effect that can occur after receiving the flu vaccine. It includes temporary paralysis. If you are at high risk for complications and have had GBS, you may still be eligible for the vaccine. Talk with your doctor to determine if you can receive it. If you have a fever the day of the vaccination, you should wait until it’s gone before receiving the shot. Flu shots are safe for most people. Many people incorrectly assume that the flu vaccine can give them the flu. You can’t get the flu from the flu shot. But some people may experience flu-like symptoms within 24 hours of receiving the vaccine. Possible side effects of the flu shot include: - low-grade fever - swollen, red, tender area around the injection site - chills or headache These symptoms may occur as your body responds to the vaccine and builds antibodies that latter will help prevent illness. Symptoms are typically mild and go away within a day or two. High-Dose flu shot The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently approved a high-dose flu vaccine (Fluzone High-Dose) for people 65 and over. Since the immune system response weakens with age, the regular flu vaccine is often not as effective in these individuals. They’re at the highest risk for flu-related complications and death. This vaccine contains four times the amount of antigens compared to a normal-dose. Antigens are the components of the flu vaccine that stimulate the immune system’s production of antibodies, which combat the flu virus. According to a study in the New England Journal of Medicine, the high-dose vaccine proved to be 24 percent more effective in preventing flu in adults 65 years of age and older than the standard-dose vaccine. Intradermal flu shot The FDA recently approved another type of vaccine, Fluzone Intradermal. This vaccine is for people between 18 and 64 years of age. The typical flu shot is injected into the muscles of the arm. An intradermal vaccine uses smaller needles that enter just under the skin. The needles are 90 percent smaller than those used for a typical flu shot. This may make the intradermal vaccine an attractive choice if you are afraid of needles. This method works just as well as the typical flu shot, but side effects are more common. These can include the following reactions at the site of the injection: According to the CDC, some people who receive the intradermal vaccine may also experience: - muscle aches These side effects should disappear within three to seven days. Nasal spray vaccine If you meet the following three conditions, you may be eligible for the nasal spray form of the flu vaccine (LAIV FluMist): - You have no chronic medical conditions. - You aren’t pregnant. - You’re between 2 and 49 years of age According to the CDC, the spray is nearly equivalent to the flu shot in its effectiveness. However, certain individuals should not receive the flu vaccine in nasal spray form. According to the CDC, these individuals include: - people 50 years or older - children under 2 years old - children between 2 and 5 who have had at least one wheezing episode in the past year - pregnant women - people who have had a serious reaction to flu vaccine in the past - people with asthma - children and adolescents on aspirin therapy - people severely allergic to eggs — if you are mildly allergic, talk to your doctor, as you may still qualify for the vaccine - people with muscle or nerve disorders that make swallowing or breathing difficult - people with weakened immune systems - people with a history of GBS A seasonal flu shot is the single best way to protect against the flu. You can schedule an appointment to receive a flu shot at your doctor’s office or at a local clinic. Flu shots are now widely available at pharmacies and grocery stores, with no appointment necessary.
The West Indian manatee is usually divided into two or more subspecies (1) the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and the Antillean or Caribbean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus). They are distinguished by cranial measurements and geographical distribution. Antillean manatees are smaller in size than Florida manatees. The Antillean or Caribbean manatee can be seen at the DWA. Description: Antillean manatees are large marine mammals with a walrus-like shaped body that tapers to a wide paddle-shaped tail. Although similar in appearance to seals and walruses, their closest living relatives are the elephant, aardvark and hyrax (a small animal that closely resembles a rodent). They have no hind limbs and each of the two forelimbs or flippers have nails. The gray or gray-brown skin is thick. Hair is scattered sparsely over the body. The flexible upper lip is lined with vibraissae that are very sensitive to touch. Manatees have only six neck vertebrae (most mammals have seven) and cannot move their heads sideways. They must turn their whole body around to see behind. Size: Antillean manatees reach an approximate length of 12 feet (3.7 m) and can weigh 3,000 pounds (1361 kg). They are typically about 9-10 feet (2.7 – 3 m) long, weighing 1,000 pounds (454 kg). Behavior: Manatees are slow moving, gentle animals. They rest submerged at the bottom or just below the surface, coming up to breathe on the average of every three to five minutes. When manatees are using a great deal of energy, they may surface to breathe as often as every 30 seconds. When resting, manatees have been known to stay submerged for up to 20 minutes. They usually swim at speeds of 3 – 5 miles (4.8 – 8 km) per hour, but can swim faster (up to 20 miles or 32 km per hour) for short distances. The paddle-shaped tail moves in an up-and-down motion to propel through the water and the two front flippers help steer and gather food. Diet: Manatees are plant eaters (herbivores) and can consume 10-15% of their body weight in vegetation each day. Senses: The cloudiness of the shallow water where they live often prevents them from seeing long distances. Small, well-developed eyes have no eyelids and close in a circular motion, somewhat like an aperture on cameras. A lid-like membrane closes over the eye for protection when under- water. Manatees have no external ears. Tiny ear openings are located behind the eyes. Hearing is not very good at low frequencies and this is a problem since slow moving boats produce low frequency sounds. Manatees possess highly sensitive hairs spaced widely apart over their body. Like the coarse whiskers on their top lip, these hairs provide information about their surroundings. Communication: Manatees communicate through a series of vocalizations that are described as chirps or squeaks, particularly between mothers and calves. Reproduction: Females are believed to be sexually mature at about five years of age; males at nine or ten years. One calf is normally born every two to five years. Calves can swim to the surface for air immediately after birth. Manatees have no storage sacs for their milk glands, therefore the calf must nurse frequently, getting milk from a pair of nipples, one under each pectoral flipper. Mothers and calves form a strong bond and will stay together for 18 months. Habitat/range: Antillean manatees inhabit the coast and estuaries of the Atlantic coast of Mexico, Central and northern South America. They can also be found in the waters surrounding the Greater Antilles. There are historical reports of the Antillean manatee off the coast of Texas. Status: All manatees are endangered and protected by law. CITES Appendix I; IUCN VU (Vulnerable).
Changing people’s feelings about washing their hands with soap improves hygiene, which in turn reduces diarrhea... Washing your hands with soap helps prevent the spread of germs that cause diarrhea. Yet many people in the world do not regularly wash their hands with soap. For instance, health researcher Adam Biran and his colleagues documented that less than 2% of the villagers they studied in rural India washed their hands after defecating or wiping children’s bottoms, and before preparing or eating food. To increase handwashing in these villages, Biran and his colleagues tested a novel idea. They randomly assigned 14 Indian villages to one of two conditions. In the handwashing-is-desirable condition, seven villages took part in 25 days of community activities that associated washing hands with soap with cultural ideals like nurturance and belonging. The campaign also linked poor hygiene with negative emotions like disgust. The campaign featured two cartoon characters: SuperAmma, a nurturing mother who teaches her son to wash his hands with soap, and a comical male character with disgusting habits. These characters starred in videos, posters, skits, songs, and games. Over the course of the campaign, people who pledged to wash their hands with soap earned rewards such as SuperAmma stickers and badges, as well as recognition on a public display. The other seven villages were randomly assigned to a control condition and were not a part of the handwashing campaign. Six months later, the researchers discovered that their handwashing-is-desirable intervention increased healthy handwashing (i.e., washing with soap after toileting and before handling food) to 37%--an increase of 36 percentage points. In comparison, villages in the control condition did not improve their handwashing habits. Together, these results show that changing emotions about handwashing can improve hygiene. Why This Works People avoid doing things that are considered disgusting, but will make a point of behaving in ways that are seen as desirable. Public health campaigns can link desired and undesired behaviors to these emotions to promote better habits. When This Works Best This campaign succeeded largely because it appealed to values that were important in these rural Indian villages, such as belonging and nurturance. For future interventions to succeed, they must likewise take into account what matters to people within a community.
\|\|The English used in this article may not be easy for everybody to understand. (September 2011)\| Fundamental Forces[change \| change source] Particles can carry fundamental forces. For example, the electromagnetic force is carried by photons. The four fundamental forces are responsible for almost everything in all of physics, including gravity, radioactive decay, and magnetism. Standard Model[change \| change source] One of the important concepts of particle physics is called the Standard Model. The Standard Model is a theory which tries to explain the fundamental forces. The Standard Model combined with General Relativity is currently the most accepted explanation of how the Universe works. The Standard Model is known to have problems. For example, there isn't much in it that explains gravity. This is why General Relativity, a different theory to explain how things have gravity, needs to be included in order for physicists to explain the universe. There is a lot of work to improve the theory and/or find a better theory that is being done. This work is often called theoretical particle physics, because none of it has been actually proven. Theoretical particle physicists make theories to try to improve the Standard Model. One example of this is how there are many theories that predict undiscovered particles. Collider[change \| change source] Physicists find out about particles by studying collisions between different particles. A good analogy of how physicists study particles through colliding is the car crash example. Imagine a person wanted to look inside cars. By crashing two cars together at very high speeds, we can break the cars apart and see inside. In the same way, physicists crash two particles together in order to break them and study the inside. If particles are moving at very high speeds, some of them will break apart when they collide. When they break, they create new smaller particles. These particles are very hard to find and detect because they decay (change into lighter particles) very quickly. Modern particle physics involves colliding particles together very energetically to create new particles inside a particle accelerator. This is called high-energy physics, due to the large amount of energy needed. However, many particles do not simply break apart, such as electrons. Because it does not break apart, the electron is called a fundamental particle. If you were to smash two super-fast electrons against each other, they would not break, but instead they might create more particles around them without breaking (this is another form of decay, known as a hadron jet). The Standard Model says that there are 16 types of fundamental particles, but there are actually twice as many because they can all be created out of antimatter. Application[change \| change source] Particle physics can help us learn about the early universe, because conditions that are similar to the early universe (which was a much more energetic place than it is now) can be made in a small volume of space using the collisions of these particles. The biggest particle accelerator in the world is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Europe.
Scientists at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York have unexpectedly discovered that vitamin C can kill drug-resistant tuberculosis bacteria. The findings, published in the journal Nature Communications, suggest that vitamin C added to existing anti-tuberculosis drugs could shorten therapy, and highlight a new area for drug design. Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease is especially acute in low and middle income countries, which account for more than 95 percent of tuberculosis-related deaths, according to the World Health Organization. Infections that fail to respond to anti-tuberculosis drugs are a growing problem: about 650,000 people worldwide now have multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, 9 percent of whom have extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. The discovery arose during research into how tuberculosis bacteria become resistant to isoniazid, a potent first-line anti-tuberculosis drug. The scientists observed that isoniazid-resistant tuberculosis bacteria were deficient in a molecule called mycothiol. “We hypothesized that tuberculosis bacteria that can’t make mycothiol might contain more cysteine, an amino acid,” explained senior author Prof William Jacobs. “So, we predicted that if we added isoniazid and cysteine to isoniazid-sensitive Mycobacterium tuberculosis in culture, the bacteria would develop resistance. Instead, we ended up killing off the culture – something totally unexpected.” The team suspected that cysteine was helping to kill tuberculosis bacteria by acting as a reducing agent that triggers the production of reactive oxygen species, which can damage DNA. “To test this hypothesis, we repeated the experiment using isoniazid and a different reducing agent – vitamin C. The combination of isoniazid and vitamin C sterilized the Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture. We were then amazed to discover that vitamin C by itself not only sterilized the drug-susceptible tuberculosis, but also sterilized multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis and extensively drug-resistant strains,” Prof Jacobs said. To justify testing vitamin C in a clinical trial, the team needed to find the molecular mechanism by which vitamin C exerted its lethal effect. More research produced the answer – vitamin C induced what is known as a Fenton reaction, causing iron to react with other molecules to create reactive oxygen species that kill the tuberculosis bacteria. “We don’t know whether vitamin C will work in humans, but we now have a rational basis for doing a clinical trial. It also helps that we know vitamin C is inexpensive, widely available and very safe to use. At the very least, this work shows us a new mechanism that we can exploit to attack tuberculosis,” Prof Jacobs concluded. Bibliographic information: Catherine Vilchèze et al. 2013. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is extraordinarily sensitive to killing by a vitamin C-induced Fenton reaction. Nature Communications 4, article number: 1881; doi: 10.1038/ncomms2898
The celebrated Macedonian phalanx formed the main strength of his infantry. This force had been raised and organized by his father Philip, who on his accession to the Macedonian throne needed a numerous and quickly-formed army, and who by lengthening the spear of the ordinary Greek phalanx, and increasing the depth of the files, brought the tactic of armed masses to the highest extent of which it was capable with such materials as he possessed. He formed his men sixteen deep, and placed in their grasp the sarissa, as the Macedonian pike was called, which was four-and-twenty feet in length, and when couched for action, reached eighteen feet in front of the soldier: so that, as a space of about two feet was allowed between the ranks, the spears of the five files behind him projected in front of each front-rank man. The phalangite soldier was fully equipped in the defensive armour of the regular Greek infantry. And thus the phalanx presented a ponderous and bristling mass, which, as long as its order was kept compact, was sure to bear down all opposition. The defects of such an organization are obvious, and were proved in after years, when the Macedonians were opposed to the Roman legions. But it is clear, that under Alexander the phalanx was not the cumbrous - See Niebuhr's " Hist, of Rome," vol. iii. p. 466.
King of Prussia (1861–88) and German Emperor (1871–88). He devoted himself to the welfare of the Prussian army, assuming personal command in suppressing the Revolution of 1848 in Baden. When he succeeded to the Prussian throne in 1861 he proclaimed a new ‘era of liberalism’, but this did not last for long. In 1862 he invited Otto von Bismarck to become his Minister‐President and from then on relied increasingly on Bismarck's policies, giving his approval to the growing influence of Prussia. During the Franco‐Prussian War he took command of troops, receiving the surrender of Napoleon III at Sedan (September 1870). In January 1871 he was invited by the princes of Germany, at Bismarck's instigation, to become their emperor, thus creating the German Second empire. Two unsuccessful assassination attempts strengthened his popularity, but also offered a pretext to suppress socialists. Subjects: World History.
view a plan Here students create a PowerPoint or Keynote presentation illustrating the Bill of Rights amendments in their unique personal style Computers & Internet, Social Studies By – Ian Taggart Primary Subject – Social Studies Secondary Subjects – Computers / Internet Grade Level – 8th Grade - Arizona State Standards: - S1:C10:PO8-10, S2:C9:PO1-3, S1:C4:PO4, S3:C1:PO3 Arizona Technology Standards: - S1:C1:PO1, S1:C4:PO1, S3:C1:PO1-2, S3:C2:PO1-5, S5:C1:PO3 - The purpose of the project is for the students to create their own understanding of the Bill of Rights through their own research. They can then apply what they learned to everyday events and activities and see how the Bill of Rights touch nearly every aspect of their lives. \|Utilizing the internet and news sources, the students will research each of the ten amendments that make up the Bill of Rights and create a presentation unique to their personal style which illustrates the main points of the Bill of Rights.\| Create a Keynote or PowerPoint presentation illustrating the Bill of Rights. - The presentation must be formatted and organized in the following manner: - Name, class and topic on the first slide (Bill of Rights). - Minimum of one slide per amendment, but may have more slides containing text, pictures or a combination of both. - Create your own slide format or use a preset format. - Try different slide transitions, artwork and photos, appropriate sound effects and music if desired. - The presentations will be assessed according to the guidelines above. - 50 total points are possible - Points are lost for missing incomplete elements E-Mail Ian Taggart !
Amino Acids: Information Amino acids are nitrogen-containing nutrients that form the building blocks of protein. Hundreds of different types of protein are vital for growth, development and sustaining life and therefore, amino acids are vital. The human body must make its own proteins "from scratch" since protein in food is broken down into amino acids during digestion. The body absorbs then uses these amino acids to make the new protein it needs. New protein is required on a constant basis to build and replace body structures (hair, skin, muscle, bone, cells of every kind) and to make hormones (insulin, growth hormone), enzymes (digestive, etc) and other fluids that sustain life. Of the roughly 80 amino acids that occur in nature, the human body requires 20. Of these 20, 9 are known as essential amino acids; they are essential in the sense that, like vitamins, the body cannot manufacture them and therefore they must come from the diet. The other non-essential amino acids can be produced if the diet provides insufficient amounts. Some amino acids like arginine and glutamine have been termed conditionally essential, meaning supplemental amounts are needed only in certain conditions. Most vegetable protein, except for soy and hemp, is considered incomplete protein, meaning it lacks one or more of the essential amino acids. Protein from animal sources such as meat, fish, egg, and whey are complete proteins, meaning they contain all 20 amino acids, including the 9 essential amino acids. Amino Acids: Health Benefits Individual amino acids are used as dietary supplements for a wide range of purposes. See the list at the end of this article. Occasionally, individual amino acids are used to correct known or suspected deficiencies. Common causes of amino acid deficiencies are inadequate amounts of dietary protein, injuries, illness, recovery, medications and some genetic and digestive disorders. Deficiencies can be diagnosed by a physician with a blood test, and may be remedied by taking an amino acid supplement. If the body lacks sufficient essential amino acids from the diet when needed, it immediately breaks down muscle tissue protein as a last-resort. So strength trainers or athletes should be sure to consume high-quality complete proteins with each meal, and eat 4 to 6 meals per day to support increased muscle production. Recommendations on protein consumption vary based upon individual differences and goals. A general recommendation for healthy non-athletes is to consume about 0.4 grams of protein per pound of ideal body weight, while athletes and bodybuilders may need from 0.8 up to 1.5 g of protein per pound of actual body weight. Using Amino Acid Supplements Take amino acid supplements within 30 minutes of a meal or as directed by the manufacturer or by your physician. Amino acid supplements are available as individual amino acids and in various combinations. Products are available in tablet, capsule, powder, and liquid form. Side Effects and Cautions: High doses of arginine may cause herpes and/or cold sore outbreaks in prone individuals. Consult your physician if you are pregnant/nursing or have a serious illness before taking amino acid supplements. Be sure to take only recommended doses, as some amino acids may be toxic if taken in large amounts. Do not take individual amino acid supplements on a long term basis except on the advice of a physician. Do not take lysine supplements with milk. The 9 essential amino acids: The 11 non-essential amino acids: - Alanine (cellular energy production) - Arginine* (NO production, circulation, growth hormone, ED) - Aspartic acid - Cysteine* (antioxidant, supports healthy hair) - Glutamic acid (muscle, immune and intestinal health) - Glutamine* (muscle, immune and intestinal health) - Proline (collagen production) - Tyrosine* (mood support, brain booster) *Conditionally-essential amino acid
For most people, exposure to mathematics begins with arithmetic in elementary school and may extend to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus in high school. Math is usually viewed as a rational, scientific discipline with practical applications. The notion that mathematics may have a connection to the divine does not often enter into classroom discussions. After all the job of a mathematician is to define precisely and to prove theories and equations, while the purview of a theologian is to explore the transcendent. Throughout history and across cultures, however, mathematics and spirituality have intersected in humanity’s quest to know the absolute. The magic square number system formulated by the Chinese and the correspondence between Indian astronomy and sacred Hindu texts represent early examples of ways in which humans have linked mathematics and religion. During the classical Greek period, the Pythagoreans believed that creation was founded on the principles of mathematics. In the centuries that followed, Augustine, Galileo, Sir Isaac Newton, René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, and others explored the notion that the divine essence underlying the structure of the material universe could be unveiled through the study of numbers. With the advent of the Enlightenment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, however, secular views predominated in the form of deism, agnosticism, and atheism, and mathematics was studied from a rationalist perspective. This approach continues to prevail, although some mathematicians continue to assert that metaphysics and mathematics are related. The tug of war between the rationalist and metaphysical approaches to mathematics is at the center of the intellectual drama in Naming Infinity by Loren Graham and Jean-Michel Kantor. In the early twentieth century, mathematicians were wrestling with the problem of how to define the nature of infinity. They sought to determine what kind of thing infinity is, whether it should be considered a number, and whether it can be of different sizes, among other questions. Three French and three Russian mathematicians grappled with this problem, but their social and cultural contexts led them to tackle the situation from opposite sides of the spectrum. The French Émile Borel, Henri Lebesgue, and René Baire attempted to understand infinity from a rationalist viewpoint. Russians Dmitri Egorov, Pavel Florensky, and Nikolai Luzin drew on a spiritual practice called “name worshiping”a heretical practice according to the Russian Orthodox Churchto enhance their understanding of infinity. The nature of infinity is central to set theory, which was introduced in an 1874 paper by German mathematician Georg Cantor titled “On a Characteristic Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers.” Even before Cantor began his study, the concept of infinity had occupied mathematicians for centuries. Cantor’s groundbreaking work on number theory, however, brought the nature of infinity into sharper focus. Cantor’s theory stirred controversy within the mathematical community but eventually garnered widespread interest if not acceptance. His notion of one-to-one correspondence among sets, his work with the real numbers and integers, and his idea of multiple infinities touched off a wave of excitement among mathematicians that over the years would transform mathematical inquiry. German mathematician David Hilbert hailed Cantor’s ideas during his historic address to the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900. Hilbert’s endorsement of Cantor’s work caught the attention of “the French trio” of Borel, Lebesgue, and Baire. However, the French mathematicians would eventually become less excited about set theory. Graham and Kantor note that one reason the three men lost their enthusiasm was that in 1895 Cantor himself had realized that there were difficulties with what he called ’sets that were too big to correspond to any cardinal,’and he escaped from the resulting contradiction by introducing pluralities too big to be sets, corresponding to a theological notion, the ’Absolute,’ which cannot be known, even approximately. Troubled by the metaphysical aspects of Cantor’s ideas, the French believed that reason should be the sole basis for mathematical study and that anything that “cannot be known, even approximately” is beyond the realm of mathematics. The question became: “Is mathematics a house built on sand, on the shaky... (The entire section is 1842 words.)
Instructions (Please read these carefully) Sample paper attached (Please write like the sample paper/ it is a previous paper that was submitted to this professor) An analysis of a piece of art, architecture, or literature other than Notre Dame from the pre-Renaissance period. Using at least one acceptable outside source (see below), choose a piece of art, architecture, or literature that, in your opinion, had a significant impact in the pre-Renaissance period. Your paper structure should be the following: - A brief (2-3 pages, approximately 600 to 900 words) biography of the individual responsible for the piece of art, architecture, or literature or the ruler/noble who commissioned the art; - A description (2-3 pages, approximately 600 to 900 words) of the piece of art, architecture, or literature. You might want to answer some or all of the following questions (but you are not limited to these): - What is it? - What is its construction/format? - What materials were used to create it (if relevant) - What does it look like? (Pictures are welcome) - Why was it created, and for whom? - An analysis (3-5 pages, approximately 900-1500 words) of the significance of the piece of art, architecture, or literature, both in the pre-Renaissance period and beyond. Questions that you might answer include the following: - Did it inspire other artists? - Did it serve as a model? - Did it influence society? - What role did it play? - Why is it still relevant (if it is still relevant) in this century? For the purposes of this paper, your piece of art, architecture or literature must have been created, built, or written between 700 and 1400. Papers which do not meet this criteria will receive a 0/100 = F grade. If you are not certain if your choice meets the requirements, please check with me prior to beginning your paper. Some possible subjects for your paper include the following: - Westminster Abbey in England - Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne - The Bayeux Tapestry - The Book of Kells - The Poem of the Cid - Ibn Sina’s The Canon of Medicine - The poems of William of Aquitaine These are just the most obvious examples, and you are probably going to be happier (and make me happier!) if you write on something unusual or slightly less well known than the above choices. If you have problems coming up with a topic, let me know and I can suggest some options. - You must use at least one academically appropriate source other than your textbook and the modules. Do not use another textbook, an encyclopedia, or other reference materials as your only source(s). Internet sources may be used but should be used in conjunction with other sources and should be from reliable web sites; this includes the use of online journals. A document with types of appropriate sources is listed under the resources tab on the course site; be certain to read it! Textbook: Hunt, et al, The Making of the West / Lecture slides attached separately. - Plagiarism is the passing off of another’s ideas and words as your own. This includes, but is not limited to, copying web sites without citing them in the body of your paper, borrowing another person’s paper and passing it off as your own work, or purchasing a paper and submitting it as your own work. This includes submitting a paper that was previously submitted by another student in an earlier section of the course. DO NOT PLAGIARIZE: chances are very good that your plagiarism will be discovered and you will receive an F for the assignment. Trust me, it is not worth the risk. If you have any questions about what constitutes plagiarism, let me know. If you are uncertain as to how to paraphrase, I would suggest checking out the following web site, which is produced by the Writing Center at the University of Indiana: Indiana University Writing Center - All papers should be a minimum of 2100 and a maximum of 3000 words long, double spaced, SPELL CHECKED, with normal 1″ margins and in a 10 or 12 point font. Papers which contain less than 2100 words of text or more than 3000 words will be penalized a minimum of10 points. The 2100 words of textdo not include pictures or descriptions, graphs, a title page, or your bibliography. - Papers must be submitted through this website through the “Assignments” area, using a .doc, a .docx, or an .rtf attachment. Papers submitted in alternative formats will not be accepted and will be returned with a 0/100 grade. - Papers must be submitted as a single file; papers submitted as separate files (for example, the bibliography is submitted separately) will only be graded on the primary file and will be penalized accordingly. - Papers are due on the day noted. Late papers will be accepted for four days beyond the due date, with a penalty of 5 points per day that the paper is late. Papers will not be accepted more than four days past the due date. If you choose to auto-submit your paper, or do not follow the submission instructions, your paper will be submitted on the last possible date, which will result in a 20 point penalty. Papers that are submitted after 9:00pm on the due date will be marked down accordingly; the only valid instrument for submission of the paper is the time stamp on the ETUDES website. - You must cite all source(s) using the University of Chicago notes and bibliography citation format. (For information regarding this format, see the University of Chicago Manual of Style website athttp://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html) Failure to use the correct format will result in a penalty. While endnotes are acceptable, it is generally preferable to use footnotes in citing your sources in the body of your paper. Parenthetical citation is not acceptable. There is also a “cheat sheet” on University of Chicago style under the “Resources” tab of the course site. - You must submit a bibliography; failure to do so will result in a minimum 10 point penalty. You must cite your sources, both in the bibliography and in the body of the paper itself; failure to do so may be considered plagiarism and may result in your receiving a failing grade on the paper. As mentioned above, your bibliography must be included in the paper file; you should not submit multiple files. - A rubric, showing the specifics of how the papers will be graded and the expected elements of the paper, is available below; be certain to look the rubric over so that you know what to include in your paper. \|Element of Paper\|\| \|Effective description and thesis that clearly indicates the topic, including a summary of the area of influence (politics, law, religion, or culture) that you are analyzing.\|\| \|Strong analysis clearly demonstrating the significance of this influence, both in the contemporary period and beyond.\|\| \|Detailed examples illustrate your points. At least one outside source is effectively integrated into the body of the paper and is properly cited in University of Chicago formatting. Sources are academically acceptable as per the provided guidelines. Bibliography is also correctly cited in University of Chicago formatting and is included in at end of paper.\|\| \|Paper has been proofread and is written at a college level. There are very few grammar and spelling errors, paper is constructed logically, and is formatted properly.\|\|
Imagine yourself hiking next to a babbling creek. You come to a small waterfall surrounded by rocks. The rocks glisten from the spray of the falls. You walk closer and see dozens of small snake like creatures slithering over the wet rocks. You watch them move from the top of the rock pile to the bottom. Then they slide back into the creek. You saw the American eel utilizing one of its unique adaptations. Their bodies are coated in a mucus layer, providing protection and a way to absorb oxygen through their skin. This mucus, in combination with their muscular bodies, allows them to move out of water and across land to avoid barriers. This, and other adaptations, makes the American eel able to live in more diverse habitats compared to most other fish species. American eels are fish, despite their snake like appearance, and the only species of eel that live in North America. They are catadromous, migrating from the saltwater of the Sargasso Sea to the freshwater of streams and lakes. The Sargasso Sea spans a part of the Atlantic Ocean between Bermuda and Puerto Rico. Once they reach maturity, they journey back there to spawn. The vastness of the Sargasso Sea makes it tough for researchers to locate and observe eels spawning in the wild. At this point, observations of spawning eels remain to be made, although one silver eel was tracked to the Sargasso Sea. Researchers believe the eels die right after spawning. Some mystery surrounds the final life stages of the American eel. What happens as they grow? Let us review the known information about the life stages of the eel. The eel’s life begins in the Sargasso Sea. First, they resemble a willow leaf. These small, oblong, transparent fish, called leptocephali, lack the snake like form of adult eels. They are about one inch long and rely on the ocean currents to bring them to the east coast. This journey takes about one year. Now they resemble vermicelli or rice noodles. At two inches long and still transparent, they are called glass eels. They make their way into estuaries which connect saltwater to freshwater. Many of them find themselves in water bodies of local New York State parks along the Hudson River. Once in freshwater, they develop a brown coloration. This signifies the shift to their next life stage as elvers. As the elvers grow longer over the next few years, they enter their yellow eel stage. They live in this stage right before they reach full maturity. Their size varies based on sex. Males can grow to two feet long whereas females can reach sizes of four feet. Their size in each life stage is based on their surrounding environment. They become silver eels when they reach full maturity to start their migration. This silver eel stage happens to be the most understudied of all the life stages. There is no set age that eels are known to reach full maturity and age cannot be determined from external characteristics. Researchers look to study silver eels right before they begin their migration. What kind of research? Sarah’s motivation to study silver eels stemmed from her previous experiences working with them in their other life stages. Her work with eels started with a summer project at Bard College, eight years ago. After graduation she continued to work with glass eels, elvers, and yellow eels as a Student Conservation Association (SCA) intern at the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve and Estuary Program. Studying silver eels seemed like the next logical and exciting step for her. Sarah Mount at the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry conducted research on yellow and silver eels. Her research led to a model that sorts yellow and silver eels into different maturity classes. The model relies on external characteristics such as the length, weight, eye diameter, pectoral fin length, head length, head width, and body depth of the eels to differentiate maturity classes. This means that future researchers can utilize this model to study the relative age of eels with a capture and release method that does not harm the fish. With the guidance of Karin Limburg at SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, she developed her research ideas into a master’s level study. With the help of colleagues at the Hudson River Research Reserve, she spent two summers and two autumns collecting yellow and silver eels from the streams of the Hudson River estuary. Silver eels migrate at night during rain events in the autumn. To catch them, Sarah set up a fyke net the day before a predicted rain storm. This v-shaped net spanned the width of the stream and was removed the next morning. The final life stages of the American eel still remain a mystery. Sarah Mount’s research begins to solve it both for future research and for herself. Her model will help future researchers understand when eels reach their full maturity to begin their migration. When asked about her next steps she said, “Now the only missing piece left is the ocean, I’ve got to get out to the Sargasso Sea sometime.” Post by Brianna Rosamilia, Master of Science candidate in Environmental Interpretation at SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
This article is reposted from the old WordPress incarnation of Not Exactly Rocket Science. Twenty-two thousand sounds like a huge number. It’s happens to be number of eastern Pacific gray whales currently swimming off the coast of North America. It’s certainly much larger than 140, the number of whales that aboriginal people of this area are allowed to hunt. And it’s far, far bigger than zero, the population size that the whales were rapidly approaching in the mid 20th century. Obviously, it’s all relative. Twenty-two thousand is still much less than ninety-six thousand. That’s the size of the original gray whale population and it’s three to five times the current count. Not exactly cause for conservational complacency, then. Previously, conservationists and whalers alike could only speculate on the number of whales that lived before their flirtation with extinction. But now, Elizabeth Alter and Stephen Palumbi from Stanford University have managed to pin down a figure by looking at the genetic diversity of living whales. And their results suggest that despite a rebound that Hollywood would envy, the grays are still a pale shadow of their former strength. The gray whale is often touted as a poster child for successful conservation. In the 19th century, they were hunted to near extinction by eager whalers, but they were given a new lease of life in 1949, when the International Whaling Commission granted them protection from hunting. Today, the western Pacific population remains critically endangered, but the eastern Pacific whales have bounced back. On average, recent censuses put their numbers at about 22,000. Despite once skirting the brink of extinction, the eastern Pacific gray is now the most common whale in the western seaboard. Cries of ‘full recovery’ were sounded, bolstered by the fact that several gray whales have recently been seen suffering from starvation. The assumption was that they had reached a population plateau, filling up the ecological niche that can support their large bulk. Even the American Cetacean Society claims that the whales are ‘probably close to their original population size.’But Alter argues that these celebrations are premature. She notes that we can’t truly claim a full recovery without knowing how large the whales’ initial populations were before the whalers took their toll. But that’s not something we can just look up – no whale censuses existed in those days. Indirect measurements will have to do. Alter and Palumbi realised that a species’ genetic diversity increases over time as their population grows. They compared the amount of genetic variation in 42 living whales at ten different parts of their genome. By looking at the rate at which these segments change (or mutate), they back-calculated the size of the ancestral shoals. They found much more variation in the whales’s genes than expected – too much for a population of a mere 22,000. Alter and Palumbi estimate that the whales once numbered 76,000 to 118,000 individuals, about 3 to 5 times more than the current level. The researchers admits that in the absence of historical records, their figures will only ever be estimates. But they have acknowledged and accounted for potential sources of error, including different mutation rates and unusual population structures. In most cases, these factors would only serve to increase Alter’s estimates, and in others, she took the most conservative estimate. Despite these allowances, even her lowest possible population tally (44,000) dwarfs today’s count by a factor of two. According to these figures, the current population is nowhere near a population limit. Indeed, recent ecological surveys suggested that the whales’ Arctic feeding grounds could support about 90,000 of them. Alter and Palumbi suggest that the starving whales of recent reports are the victims of climate change, suffering from a lack of food as the numbers of prey animals in the Arctic falls. The big worry is that their ecological niche has shrunk permanently. Their population crash could have rippled through the food web and created conditions which can now support a fraction of the original whale shoals. And the rise and fall of the whales also affects the fates of several other species. Gray whales are, quite literally, ‘bottom-feeders’. They feed by raking up large mouthfuls of sediment from the sea floor and filtering out the delicacies buried within. As a result, they rake up huge volumes of sediment and release nutrients back into the water. The population of 96,000 whales would have suspended more sediment into the water in a year than the entire Yukon river could in twelve. The loss of some 70,000 of these could have seriously lowered the capacity of the waters to sustain life. The whales’ bulldozing style also launches buried crustaceans into the water and these are picked up by opportunistic seabirds. In this way, the original whale population could have inadvertently provided food for over one million birds. Finally, their massive bulks could have fed scores of killer whales, while their beached carcasses provided rich pickings for scavenging condors. The gray whale is definitely a conservation success story, but it’s not out of danger yet. Whaling countries are keen to hold up recovered populations as reasons to increase the numbers that they are allowed to hunt. But if Alter and Palumbi, the existing quotas could be called into question themselves. For now, the more pressing concern is to work out why the eastern Pacific gray population has yet to return to its prime, and what that means for the oceans. Palumbi likens the whales to massive seagoing canaries – they are sensitive to the ecological health of the oceans. If they are struggling to reach their former glory despite our best efforts, something must be wrong. Reference: Alter, Rynes & Palumbi. 2007. DNA evidence from historic population size and past ecosystem impacts of gray whales. PNAS doi/10.1073/pnas.0706056104
Algal biofuels represent various methods to produce highly reduced hydrocarbons from carbon dioxide using solar energy as the power source and algae, typically microalgae, as the machinery. The primary driving point for photosynthesis powered biofuels is that they do not increase the net carbon content in the air; every molecule of CO2 released during combustion came from one molecule of CO2 fixed during photosynthesis. Since their energy source is sunlight, algal biofuels are considered renewable. Algae are top choices in biofuel engineering due to their far greater photosynthetic efficiency and low growth requirements. In addition, countries that lack reserves of fossil fuels may desire economic independence by reducing imports through domestic fuel product. Advantages over other Biofuels Microalgae tend to have better photosynthetic efficiency than terrestrial plants, including corn and soybeans, the other major sources for biofuels. Sugarcane, a major source of bioethanol, has a photosynthetic efficiency (that can reach 8% under optimal conditions, although it is more typically around 1%. However, microalgae are far better at producing biomass per unit land, as they can produce up to 158 tonnes/hectare, compared to 75 tonnes/hectare for sugarcane. In addition, microalgal dry mass can be up to 55% lipid, which is most relevant to biofuel production and is far greater than what can be managed by terrestrial plants. When it comes to biodiesel production, microalgae greatly outdo their competitors. Biodiesels are defined as methyl- or ethyl- esters of 10-14 carbon fatty acids. Some other sources, such as soybeans and oilpalms, can reach barely 5% lipid dry mass under highly optimized conditions. Microalgae can, even at a modest 15% lipid dry mass, would require only 10.8 million hectares (or 6% of US agricultural land) to produce the 530 million m3 of diesel consumed each year at present. Oil palms, in comparison, would require 61% of US agricultural land to produce the same amount. Sugarcane derived bioethanol, with 64% of the energy content of biodiesel, would require a similar amount of land to produce an amount of energy equivalent to 530 million m3 of diesel. One of the most distinct advantages of microalgae over other photosynthetic organisms is their tolerance and/or preference for marginal water sources. This means that algal biofuels won't have to compete for resources like fresh water and arable land with food crops, unlike biofuels derived from corn and soybeans. Most commercially relevant algal species grow well on either seawater or wastewater, both of which are inexpensive alternatives to freshwater. For economical reasons, the majority of algal aquacultures today are open-air. While this normally vastly opens up the risk for contamination, several of the most important algae, such as Chlorella, Spirulina and Dunaliella have traits that allow them to outgrow competitors under certain optimal conditions. That said, the future of algal biofuel reactors is likely to take place under closed conditions. Maximized efficiency in biofuel production is highly dependent on non-contamination and the absence of certain heavy metal pollutants that would be present in open aquacultures. The fundamental source of energy in biofuels is sunlight. Converting the electromagnetic energy in photons to chemical energy in reduced carbons is the core of biofuel production. Logically, one key focus of biofuel production would be to maximize the amount of energy absorbed during this first step. Photoinhibition, a result of the oxidative damage done to electron carriers in light reactions, is one of the first hurdles to jump. Truncated chlorophyll antennae show reduced levels of photoinhibition, resulting in less down time and therefore greater photosynthetic efficiency during the light reactions. In large growth cultures, antenna truncation also reduces light scattering, allowing greater access to appropriately energetic photons to the cells further from the surface of the liquid. In wild type Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the amount of energy in photons absorbed by chlorophyll exceeds the amount of energy that can be used to reduce the next protein in the photosynthetic pathway, Pheophytin. DNA insertional mutagenesis was used to mutate nuclear genes for caretenoid and chlorophyll synthesis, such as lor1, npq2, cao and TLA1. All genes except for npq2 showed promising results in antennae reduction leading to greater photosynthetic efficiency at higher light intensities. Oxygen evolution was used to measure the amount of photosynthetic efficiency. Although Polle et al. were working towards hydrogen production, the photosynthetic mechanisms for all biofuels are equivalent. Maximizing the lipid content of algae allows for the greatest energy content per unit land, and increases the energy return on extraction processes. In chlorella, lipid accumulation tends to be greatest during the stationary phase. Media rich in iron, nitrate and phosphate is optimal in chlorella for maximum lipid content, with the highest achieved lipid dry cell volume being 55%. One obvious problem to maximizing lipid yield is the fact that cells often use lipids as an energy source through β-oxidation. Inhibition of β-oxidation through gene knockouts is quite useful for algae grown under constant light conditions, but does retard growth in algae grown under natural light. In the absence of light, algae typically live off of triacyl glyecerol; if they are deprived of this food source, their growth rate is inhibited, and net lipid production over time may actually be lower than in algae that are wild type for lipid catabolism. The lipids that cells produce normally have to be chemically treated to form ethyl esters that can be directly used as biofuel. Overexpression of ethanol synthesis from Zymomonas mobilis and wax ester synthase genes from Acinetobacter baylyi in E. coli produced slightly better ethyl ester yields, although these yields are expected to be greater in microalgae. It is also possible to make long chain alkanes using algae. Microalga B. braunii is known to produce di- or tri-ene single chain hydrocarbons, but the chain lengths it produces (mostly >22 C) are too long to be directly used as fuel. The University of Washington's 2011 iGem Team attempted to use Fatty Acid intermediates into alkanes. They used Acy-ACP Reductase (AAR) to convert long Acyl-ACPs into aldehydes, and then used Aldehyde Decarbonylase (ADC) to convert them into alkanes. AAR and ADC are both taken from Synecocchus elongatus. The primary products of expression in E. coli were 13, 15 and 17 C alkanes, with a small component of 17 C alkenes. They claim to be trying (as of fall 2011) to increase yields, change the primary products and shift the system into yeast. Both parts allegedly work. Future of Algal Biofuels The future of biofuels in general seems mixed. The greatest challenge is maintaining net energy production; typically, the usage of fertilizing chemicals and artificial light are incompatible with economic feasibility. Algal biodiesel faces a challenge compared to bioethanol and petroleum products in that the latter two are thoroughly subsidized by the federal government in the US. On the scientific front, many issues remain regarding optimization under specific growth conditions. Further development is closely linked to the economic issues. For example, closed reactors provide a straightforward way to prevent contamination, but add to the energy consumption of the cultivation process; engineered strains that are highly resistant to contamination in open air cultures would reduce or eliminate this barrier. Much of the research into increasing photosynthetic efficiency at high light intensities might be for naught, as the cost of the light source could result in net negative energy production. A similar case exists with nitrate and phosphate rich cultivation media. Nonetheless, microalgae do provide a way for producing fuels with no net change in atmospheric carbon. Improved bioreacters and better engineered strains constantly change the energy output for the better. While significant work needs to be done before algal biofuels will be replacing fossil fuels en masse, that work in well on its way.
Global Citizens - Make an Impact! What is Cultural Diversity? KS2-4 - We are Hull! - Our Stories! Five films by young people (download from Video section below) - Activities: We are Hull! - Our Stories! KS1/2 - Activity: Britain- What does it mean to us? - Fact Sheet: A Diverse History - Fact Sheet: How Diverse is Britain? KS3/4 - Activity: The Citizenship Test - How would you do? (Download the Teacher's Notes to make the most of these activities!) What is 'Cultural Diversity'? The phrase 'Cultural Diversity' means a range of different societies or people of different origins, religions and traditions all living and interacting together. Britain has benefited from diversity throughout its long history and is currently one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. The food we eat, the music we listen to, and the clothes we wear have all been influenced by different cultures coming into Britain. Ethnic food, for example, is part of an average British diet. One of Britain's favourite dishes is Indian curry. Britons have enjoyed curry for a surprisingly long time - the first curry went on an English menu in 1773. Even the English language developed from the languages spoken by Anglo-Saxons, Scandinavian Vikings and Norman French invaders. New words were added from the languages of other immigrants over the years. Valuing Our Cultural Diversity In Britain today there is an estimated 'ethnic minority' population of just over 4 million. We live in a country with a rich cultural heritage, but the value in this diversity is sometimes not fully seen. Valuing our diverse culture is all about understanding and respecting the beliefs of others and their way of life, as we would expect someone to respect ours. It is about supporting individuals in keeping their cultural traditions alive and appreciating the fact that all these different traditions will enrich British life both today and in the future. A Diverse History Cultural diversity in Britain goes as far back as recorded history. Only when we consider our history do we get a true picture of how diverse Britain today really is. Each group of settlers brought with them different foods, fashions, languages, beliefs and lifestyles. People from all over the world have contributed to the Britain we live in today and they continue to do so. - Download the fact sheet A Diverse History to find out more! - See the link below to Benjamin Zephaniah’s poem ' The British'. British Citizenship Test – How would you do? If you are moving from a different country today and would like to settle in the United Kingdom, you are now required to pass what is called the Life in the UK Test. Click on the link below to visit the Life in the UK Test homepage. Questions in the test range from British history, British law and employment rights, to the role of women, human rights and education. How do you think you would you do? - Download the resources below!
To determine whether you have a parasite infecting your gastrointestinal tract. - When you have diarrhoea that lasts more than a few days and/or have blood or mucous in your loose stools - Have drunk stream or lake water while camping, or have travelled outside of the United Kingdom - Visited a farm or been in contact with sheep A fresh or preserved stool sample, sometimes multiple samples collected on different days. An ova, cysts and parasite (OCP) exam is a microscopic evaluation of a stool sample. It is used to look for parasites that have infected the gastrointestinal tract. These parasites and their ova (eggs, cyst form) are shed - passed out of the body through the faeces. When thin smears of stool are put onto glass slides and viewed under a microscope, the parasites and ova can be detected and identified under a microscope. Different ova and parasites have different shapes, sizes, and internal structures that are characteristic of their species. There are a wide variety of parasites that can infect humans. Each type of parasite has a particular life cycle (maturation process) and a place that it is adapted to live in. Some spend time in an intermediate host (such as a sheep, cow, or snail) before infecting humans, some infect humans “by accident”, and some are not picky about who or what they infect. Most parasites have an adult form and a cyst/egg/ova form. Some also mature through a larval phase. Those parasites that infect the gastrointestinal tract are passed out of the body through the faeces. The parasite ova are hardy, they can exist in the environment for some time without a host. Most people who are infected by parasites become infected by drinking water or eating food that has been contaminated with the ova. This contamination cannot be seen - the food and water will look, smell, and taste completely normal. Since an infected person’s stool is also infectious, without careful hygiene (handwashing and care with food preparation) they may pass the infection on to others. This is especially a concern with infants at day care centres and the elderly in nursing homes. Not only is a parasitic infection easily passed in these populations, but also the immune systems of those infected may be less effective at getting rid of the infection. The most common parasites are three single cell parasites: Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica (E. histolytica), and Cryptosporidium parvum. They are found in mountain streams and lakes throughout the world and may infect swimming pools, hot tubs, and occasionally community water supplies. Cryptosporidium (called crypto), resists chlorine and can live for several days in swimming pools. They can be removed from the water supply, however, with adequate filtration. Most parasitic infections in the UK are due to these parasites, but other more worm-like parasites such as a roundworms or tapeworms do occasionally cause infections. Those that travel outside the UK, especially to developing nations, may be exposed to a much wider variety of parasites. In warm climates and places where water and sewage treatment are less effective, parasites are often much more prevalent. Besides giardia, crypto, and E. histolytica, there are also a wide range of flat worms, roundworms, hookworms, and flukes. Visitors usually become infected by eating or drinking something that has been contaminated with the parasites’ ova (even something as simple as ice cubes in a drink, or a fresh salad) but some of the parasites can also penetrate the skin. The most common symptoms of a parasitic infection are prolonged diarrhoea, bloody diarrhoea, mucous in stool, abdominal pain, and nausea. Patients may also have headaches and fever, and will sometimes have few, or no noticeable symptoms. How is the sample collected for testing? A fresh stool sample is collected in a clean container (or on a clean surface). The stool sample should not be contaminated with urine or water. When multiple samples are requested, they are collected at different times, often on different days. The collection container must be labelled with the patient’s name and the date and time of the stool collection. These details are very important; if the sample is not labelled correctly the lab may refuse to examine it. Is any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample? No test preparation is needed. How is it used? The OCP test is used to help diagnose prolonged diarrhoea. It is requested to determine whether there are parasites present in the gastrointestinal tract and if so, to identify them. Since there are many other causes of diarrhoea, the OCP is often requested along with other tests, such as a stool culture (which identifies the presence of pathogenic bacteria in the stool). Classically, OCP tests were requested in multiples, such as 3 samples from 3 different bowel movements, often on separate days. This was considered to be the best way to detect what might be small amounts of ova in the stool (better chance of not missing an infection). OCP tests may also be requested to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for a parasitic infection. When is it requested? When you have prolonged diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and/or blood and mucous in your stool. When you have symptoms, and have recently travelled outside the U.K., drunk stream or lake water, or been exposed to someone who has a parasitic infection (like a family member). OCP tests may also be requested when you have had a parasitic infection, to monitor the effectiveness of treatment. What does the test result mean? If there are no ova or parasites seen, your diarrhoea may be due to another cause. There may also be too few parasites to detect. Your doctor may want to request additional OCP tests and/or may request other tests to search for the cause of your symptoms. If a parasite is identified, then you do have a parasitic infection. The type and duration of treatment will depend on what kinds of parasite(s) are found and on your general state of health. The number of parasites seen may give your doctor general information about how heavy or extensive your infection is. Is there anything else I should know? If diarrhoea lasts more than a few days it may lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, dangerous conditions in children and the elderly. They cannot afford to lose large amounts of fluid. Drug therapies are usually used to treat giardia and E. histolytica infections. They may resolve themselves after several weeks but they may also cycle, with symptoms subsiding, then worsening again. There is no effective treatment for cryptosporidium. In those with competent immune systems, cryptosprodium generally goes away after a few weeks. In those with compromised immune systems (such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant, cancer, etc.), however, cryptosporidium may be dangerous, becoming chronic and causing wasting and malnutrition. Parasitic infections are monitored on a community level. Other than travel related cases, health officials want to try to determine where your infection came from so that they can address any potential public health concerns. For instance, if cryptosporidium or giardia is due to contaminated swimming pool water or community water supply, steps will need to be taken to prevent the spread of the infection. How can I prevent a parasitic infection? The best way is to avoid food and water that is suspected of being contaminated. This is especially true if you travel to developing nations, where ice in a drink or a dinner salad may expose you to parasites. But the clearest mountain stream should also be suspect, it could be contaminated with giardia. You cannot see most parasites, you won't be able to smell them or taste them in the water. If someone in your family has a parasitic infection, careful handwashing after going to the toilet can help prevent passing the parasite on to others. Will an OCP test detect all parasites? No, only those that live in the intestines and whose eggs are passed thorough the faeces. There are other tests specific for other parasites, such as those that cause malaria and pinworms. Why does it need to be a fresh stool sample? The eggs and parasites may break down in stool, making the condition harder to detect. Are those parasitic worms I'm seeing in my stool sample? Usually no. Most of the common parasites are much too small to be seen with the naked eye. What you are probably noticing are undigested food fibres. The only way to be sure though is to look at the sample under the microscope. Parasites have a characteristic structure, including digestive organs that fibres do not have. Are there other ways to test for parasites? Yes, antigen tests have been developed for several common parasites including giardia, cryptosporidium, and E. histolytica. The antigen tests detect protein structures on the parasite and they can detect the presence of even fragments of the parasite in a stool sample. This has the advantage of allowing detection of that particular parasite even if it is not seen in the OCP examination. Antigen tests are not commonly used in the U.K. Blood antibody tests may be requested to determine whether or not someone has been exposed to a parasite in the past (this may indicate a past or a chronic infection but is not used to detect a current infection). Sometimes a biopsy of the small intestines is taken, a small amount of tissue that is examined for parasitic infestation. Molecular tests are also becoming more common in larger laboratories. This type of test is able to detect extremely low numbers of parasites which may be present. Once I've had a parasitic infection, can I be re-infected? Yes, you do not become immune once you have been infected, and can become re-infected if exposed again. This may happen if you have a family member who has an asymptomatic parasitic infection, such as giardiasis. They can continue to re-infect you until they are treated. Why shouldn’t I take an over the counter anti-diarrhoea medicine? You should only take this on the advice of your doctor. Diarrhoea is one of the methods your body uses to help rid itself of the infection. If you slow down or prevent this from happening by taking anti-diarrhoea medication you can prolong the amount of time that you are ill and sometimes make your infection worse.
This page is brought to by: "Principles of Diffusion and Osmosis" is an .interactive tutorial written and designed by Ian Emerson, Associate Professor, Department of Biology; graphics and text programmed by Dean William Barnes Each molecules moves independently in a different direction. The probability of molecules moving in one direction would be the same as the probability of moving in the opposite direction. That is, there is no net movement in any one direction. Perfume evaporating on front desk in classroom. Since the perfume molecules are in constant random motion they bump into each other causing some molecules to be occasionally sent hurtling out of the mass. Gradually the molecules spread out from the drop on the front desk and are sensed by students in the front of the classroom. See figure 2.2 below. Perfume Molecules Spreading Out From Drop on the Front Desk Perfume Molecules Spreading Out in Classroom Eventually the perfume molecules are evenly intermixed with the nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules of the air such that one litre of air from the front of the room would contain the same number of perfume molecules as a litre of air from the back of the room. Pile of Salt Crystals in a Tank of Water In water, sodium chloride molecules quickly dissociate into charged atoms called ions and become dissolved in the water. Above the pile of crystals, a dense concentration of ions (Na+ and Cl-) begins to form. The further away from the pile the fewer the number of ions of Na+ and Cl- that exist thus producing a decreasing concentration gradient. Na+ and Cl- Dissociating and Producing a High Concentration Above Pile of Salt Crystals Diffusion now acts to further spread out the Na+ and Cl- ions from the centre of concentration and to intermix the Na+ and Cl- ions with the H2O molecules. Note also that the water molecules are also diffusing from an area of higher concentration of water (away from the pile of salt crystals) to an area of lower concentration of water (near the pile of salt crystals). Hence the ions (Na+ and Cl-) and the water molecules are behaving as separate entities: both are moving down their individual concentration gradients but in this case in opposite directions (salt away from the crystals, water toward the crystals). Diffusion of Sodium and Choride Ions Away From Pile of Crystals and Osmosis of Water Toward Pile of Salt Crystals Eventually when all the salt has dissolved in the water and diffusion has evened out the concentration gradients a homogeneous solution of NaCl in water will exist. The liquid part of the solution (in this case water) is referred to as the solvent and the NaCl is the solute. Completion of Osmosis and Diffusion to Produce a Homogeneous Solution of NaCl in Water Click on Fish for an interactive question Aquarium Divided By an Artificaial Membrane Separating Pure Water (Side A) From a 5% Solution of Sodium Chloride (Side B) Since the artificial membrane, in our example, is permeable to both ions (Na+ and C1-) and to the water molecule, diffusion occurs in both directions across the membrane: the Na+ and Cl- ions diffuse from their area of higher concentration (side B) to their area of lower concentration (side A); whereas, the water diffuses from its area of higher concentration (side A) to its area of lower water concentration (side B). To convince yourself that each particle type is moving down its own gradient calculate the concentration of each of the solute and solvent components on each side of the membrane. In this last example note that diffusion stopped when the concentration on either side of the membrane became equal (in other words, the concentration gradient no longer existed). The continuous random movement of molecules continued (i.e., solute and solvent particles moved back and forth) but no net movement of molecules in either direction occurred. Diffusion proceeds until the concentration gradient no longer exists. At this point the two sides will be equal in concentration and are said to be isotonic. (Isotonic refers to two solutions having equal concentration [of a particular solute]). In this example for every 100 g of slution, 2.5 g of NaCl diffuse from side B to side A and 2.5 g of water diffuse from side A to side B. Cellophane is an Artificial Membrane Which is Permiable to Water Molecules But Impermiable to Protein Molecules Diffusion of H2O Molecules From Pure Water into a Hypertonic Solution The Effect of Gravity on the Occurrence of Diffusion Percentage by weight is the a method of expressing concentration of a solution. It is calculated as the number of grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent multiplied by 100. Diffusion is the movement of particles (ions or molecules) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a hypotonic solution into a hypertonic solution across and selectively permeable membrane. Passive Transport is the movement of ions or molecules across a membrane without the expenditure of energy. Diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport. Ions are charged atoms or groups of atoms, i.e. they have a positive or negative charge. When salts dissolve in water they dissociate in ions: e.g. SALT Dissociation IONS Molecules consist of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds. Overall, molecules are neutral, i.e. do not have a net positive or negative charge ( as do ions ), e.g. H2O is the formula for a water molecule. Thermal Motion is the constant random movement of particles in a liquid or gas resulting from the absorption of heat from the particles' surroundings. The more heat absorbed the faster the speed of the particle. Concentration Gradients A concentration gradient exists when two or more solutions of differing concentrations are in close proximity ( for example: two solutions of differing concentrations separated by a membrane). Biological Membranes are membranes produced by living organisms: for example, the plasma membrane (= cell membrane) and the membranes which surround organelles. Living Systems are found within living organisms and consist of organic molecules and carry out energy converting chemical reactions. Homogeneous refers to an even distribution (or uniform mixture). Solutions are homogenous because their components ( solute and solvent ) are evenly intermixed. Two samples of equal volumes from a solution would contain exactly the same numbers of particles of solute and solvent. Hypotonic refers to the solution in a concentration gradient having the lesser concentration ( of solute ). [ A hypotonic solution would have a greater concentration of solvent but a lesser concentration of solute than a hypertonic one. ] Hypertonic refers to the solution in a concentration gradient having the greater concentration ( of solute ). [ A hypertonic solution would have a lesser concentration of solvent but a greater concentration of solute than a hypotonic one. ] Isotonic means having equal concentration. Plasma Membraneis the outer membrane of the cell. Plasma membrane and cell membrane are synonymous. Random Movement describes the movement of molecules in a liquid or gas meaning that each molecule moves independently of the other molecules and in its own individual direction. Continuous random movement is sometimes called Brownian Movement or Thermal Motion. Selectively Permeable describes membranes. A membrane which is selectively permeable allows certain molecules to pass through but not others. (It is equivalent to the less appropriate term, semipermeable which means half permeable.) Solute is one component of a solution (the other is the solvent).The solute is the smaller of the two in quantity. We generally think of the solute as being dissolved in the solvent, e.g., in a salt water solution the salt is the solute and the solvent is water. Solute Concentration refers to the amount of solute per unit volume of solvent (usually Litres - solute concentration is the same as the concentration of the solution.). The expression "5% solution" refers to a solution in which the solute represents 5% of the solution by weight and water represents the other 95% by weight, i.e., 100 g of solution of sodium chloride contains 95 g of water and 5 g of NaCl. Note that solutions are named after the solute and that water, the "universal solvent" is assumed to be the solvent unless stated otherwise. e.g. a 5% solution (by weight ) would contain 5 g of solute for every 95 g of solvent. Solution(s) is a one phase homogeneous mixture of two (or more) forms of matter. The components of solutions are called solute and solvent. In living systems the most common types of solutions are a solid dissolved in water (such as salt water) or a gas dissolved in water (for example oxygen dissolved in water). Solvent is the component in which something is dissolved eg. the water in a salt water solution. The solute is what is dissolved in the solvent eg. the salt in a salt water solution. Most solvents in biological systems are water. Solvent Concentration refers to the concentration of solvent (usually water) in a solution. The most simplest way to understand this is view it as the number of moles of solvent per unit volume the whole solution actually occupies.
The latest microfluidic chip can generate microbubbles to break open cells for biochemical analysis Published online 14 March 2012 Scientists have made many important discoveries in biology and medicine through studying the internal contents of cells. Some have isolated or identified nucleic acids or proteins with special functions, while others have unravelled the working and regulatory mechanisms underlying biochemical or pharmaceutical components within cells. Dave Ow and co-workers at the A*STAR Bioprocessing Technology Institute and Institute of High Performance Computing have now developed a novel method to expose the internal contents of cells for biochemical analysis1. Currently there is a wide range of methods to disintegrate or lyse cell membranes and to release the biomolecules contained within. However, most of these methods can cause denaturation of proteins or interfere with subsequent assaying. Ow and co-workers explored the possibility of using ultrasound in microfluidics to lyse cells. They applied short bursts of ultrasound with periods of rest to prevent the proteins from overheating as a result of dissipation of mechanical energy. When the rapid changes of pressure generated with ultrasound are applied to a liquid, small bubbles are formed which oscillate in size and generate a cyclic shear stress. These rapidly oscillating bubbles generate a mini shockwave when they implode, which can be strong enough to cause the cell membrane to rupture. The researchers generated microbubbles in the meandering microfluidic channel by introducing a gas via a separate inlet to generate a gas–liquid interface and subsequently applying ultrasound to the system. As a proof of principle, the researchers tested the performance of their microfluidic device on genetically engineered bacteria and yeast that express the green fluorescent protein. The researchers found that the bacteria are completely disintegrated after only 0.4 seconds of ultrasound exposure (see image). The concentration of DNA released from yeast cells reached a plateau after only one second exposure (which contained six bursts of ultrasound each of 0.154 seconds), indicating that most cells are successfully lysed. Importantly the temperature of the sample was shown not to rise above 3.3 °C. “The large surface to volume ratio of the microfluidic environment means that the small amount of heat that is generated rapidly diffuses away,” says Ow. The researchers have proposed many ideas for applications. “In collaboration with another institute, we are developing a rapid and sensitive label-free optical method for on-chip detection of bioanalytes from lysed cells,” says Ow. “We also want to modify the device to break more difficult-to-lyse endospores, and to develop a rapid on-chip detection device to counter the threats of bioterrorism.” - Tandiono, T. et al. Sonolysis of Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris in microfluidics. Lab on a Chip 12, 780–786 (2012). \| article
Energy of Simple Harmonic Motion ENERGY OF A SPRING/MASS When a mass is connected gently to a hanging spring, it moves downward until it reaches an equilibrium position. When it is displaced upwards or downwards from that point, it goes into Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). During SHM, the mass moves upwards and downwards, changing the length of the spring. Three forms of energy are involved in this motion - gravitational poten tial, translational kinetic and elastic potential. In this lab, you will examine the relationships between these three quantities throughout a single cycle of motion and test the conservation of mechanical energy. ne a classic physics lab from the standpoint of the energies involved - Test the conservation of mechanical energy Spring, Hanging Mass, Motion Sensor, Computer Interface Computer, Interface Software - As the mass moves up and down, what energies are involved? How did the mass get the original amount of each energy? - What relationship gives the amount of elastic energy in the spring? - Compare the amounts of eac h energy (in a qualitative way) at the three extremes of motion - topmost point, middle, and bottommost point. 1. Prepare the equipment for data collection: 2. Carry out the data collection: - Connect the laboratory interface to the computer. onnect the motion sensor to the appropriate channel of the laboratory interface. - Record the total mass. - Position the mass so it hangs 60-70 cm above the motion sensor when it is in equilibrium. - Launch the software needed for measuring position and velocity during your experiment. - Pull the mass down approximately 10 cm (if the spring will allow this much extension) and release it, setting it in - When the motion is smooth and straight up and down, begin data collection. - Stop the data collection after two or three cycles have elapsed. 3. After analyzing the data, repeat the procedure using a new hanging mass or a new sprin - Construct a spreadsheet that contains the values of the following quantities: - Constants: Mass, Spring Constant - Variables: Position (height), Velocity, Time - Calculated Values: Gravitational Potential Energy (Ug) Kinetic Energy (K) Elastic Potential Energy (Ue) Total Mechanical Energy (Et) - Record the position, velocity and time for at least 15 different positions during a single cycle of the motion. li> Calculate Ug based on height above the lowest point of the motion. - Calculate Ue based on distance below the highest point of the motion. - Graph all four calculated values as functions of time. - What is your conclusion regarding the total mechanical energy during a cycle of motion? - What observations did you make regarding the relative sizes of the various energies during a cycle of motion? 1. If one considers that energy must be conserved, and theref ore the total energy at each position must be the same, the lab can be re-configured to dynamically determine the spring constant k. What value of k would keep the total energy constant, and how does this agree/disagree with the value of k determi ned in a separate measurement? 2. An air track glider could be mounted between two springs and set into SHM. A similar analysis could be done, but with only elastic and kinetic energies. If the air track were mounted at an angle, gravitational energ y would be introduced. Another alternative would be to fasten the glider to a spring, and connect a mass to it by a thread passing over a pulley. The total mass must be used, and the gravitational potential energy changes of the mass moving up and do wn must be included. With springs connected on either side of the glider, the effective spring constant could be determined and related to the individual spring constants. Although this is often a problem for AP students, it can be examined experimen tally by non-AP students in this format. Written by Clarence Bakken. Posted 7/29/96.
Space exploration requires reliable and efficient communication technology. One device currently under development is the inflatable antenna. Due to several unique characteristics—it is lightweight, easy to deploy, inexpensive, and requires low storage volume—inflatable technology is especially well-suited for space applications. Without requiring mechanical actuators or human assembly, something the size of a suitcase could be inflated in space to the size of a basketball court. In 1960, NASA launched the first of its inflatable space structures in the form of large metalized balloons, the Echo satellites. These were designed to act as communication reflectors to transmit signals from one point on Earth to another. Echo 1A was successfully orbited and was used to redirect telephone, radio, and television signals. Increasingly powerful launch vehicles became available, however, and lightweight inflatable technology was temporarily shelved. In the 1980s and 1990s, interest was renewed due to the cost advantages of the technology, and the space shuttle STS-77 mission successfully deployed an inflatable antenna in space in 1996. With renewed interest brewing in inflatable structures, NASA encouraged further advancements of the technology. ManTech SRS Technologies (formerly SRS Technologies), of Newport Beach, California, received Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) funding from Glenn Research Center in 1997 to develop an inflatable solar concentrator for power generation. The resulting thin polyimide material used to craft the inflatable concentrator was licensed by SRS and commercially produced as a powder, resin, and rolled film (Spinoff 1998). It soon became evident that the same basic technology for solar concentrators was applicable for large inflatable antennas, and follow-on SBIR contracts focused on using the polyimide material to develop thin film inflatable antennas for space communication. Paul Gierow, one of the engineers with SRS at the time, explains, “To make a solar concentrator, you point it at the Sun and focus the energy. The antenna is exactly the same thing, but instead of focusing it on the Sun, you point it at a satellite that is radiating radio frequency (RF) energy. Anything that focuses sunlight energy can typically focus RF energy,” says Gierow. With the help of SBIR funding, SRS modified the concepts and processes for ground-based inflatable antennas. “We came up with an idea to put an antenna in a ball, or sphere. Intuitively you don’t think it will work, but it did,” says Gierow. GATR Technologies, of Huntsville, Alabama, was formed in 2004. GATR, which is an acronym for “Ground Antenna Transmit and Receive,” licensed the technology from SRS and has provided additional product refinements leading to a ground-based satellite communications system. The company’s efforts were enhanced by a U.S. Department of Defense award to mature the ground-based antenna system. To test the new antenna, including testing of the system’s performance for Federal Communication Commission (FCC) certification requirements, GATR entered into a Space Act Agreement with Glenn. As a result, the company gained additional technical understanding of the product and was able to achieve the world’s first inflatable antenna certified by the FCC in 2008. This qualified the antenna for a variety of communication applications within NASA, other government agencies, and commercial entities. That same year, SRS and GATR received the “Tibbetts Award” in recognition of small businesses and SBIR support organizations exemplifying the types of business, economic, and technical development goals of the SBIR program. Popular Science magazine also recognized GATR and designated the inflatable antenna as a “2007 Invention of the Year.” In 2010, the system earned recognition as one of the “R&D 100” (a list of the top 100 inventions of the year), granted by R&D Magazine. Recently, the company entered into a new Space Act Agreement with Glenn to expand the antenna’s frequency range and size, as well as to test and evaluate a larger antenna.
Should you find yourself inside a black hole, you will die. Should you find yourself near a black hole, you will also die. Aside from the fact that these massive, light-trapping monsters are impossible to reach on human timescales, there are simply not many ways measure the plasma surrounding them without dying or destroying the experiment. Scientists have to make due by recreating some of the features in the lab. But one such attempt in New Mexico has yielded some theory-busting results. Researchers used the Sandia Z experiment at Sandia National Lab to create a plasma, a gas with an electric charge, similar to the plasma surrounding black holes, using the most powerful laboratory radiation source on Earth. But theories of the plasma surrounding active galactic nuclei, the bright, energetic, jet-spewing black holes at the center of some galaxies, don’t match up with the properties of the plasma observed in the lab. This could potentially change scientists’ understanding of the nature of stuff surrounding black holes. “Such benchmarked models” like those produced at Sandia Z “may then help refine the active galactic nuclei observation interpretations,” the authors write in the study, published this month in Physical Review Letters. From what scientists have gathered, these incredibly bright active galactic nuclei are surrounded by hot plasma from the objects torn apart by the incredibly high gravity of the black hole. These plasmas become photoionised, meaning light particles give atoms an electric charge via various processes. At present, telescopes measure the plasmas by recording specific wavelengths of light in the x-ray spectra. Scientists can use this data to measure these sources’ brightness, help guess the mass and spin of the black hole, and measure what kind of stuff the accretion disk, the ripped-up disk of plasma orbiting the black hole, is made from. The researchers at Sandia Z recreated this plasma by blasting silicon with pulses of extremely high-energy x-rays; each pulse has roughly the same amount of energy as running one of these electric heaters for 20 minutes or so. The researchers then measured the emission spectrum of the plasmas, which is similar to the measurement you do in high school chemistry where you try and identify a gas by looking at its spectral lines (except you can’t see x-rays with your eyes). Astronomers have for a long time noticed that some spectral lines seem to be missing from black holes, and theorised that certain elements might still exist without showing themselves, explained Lynn Matthews, Research Scientist at the MIT Haystack Observatory not involved in the study in an email. “These new laboratory data suggest that this explanation does not work, and that the presence of a given element should be revealed in the spectrum if it is there,” she said. And that’s important. “An implication is that the properties of black hole accretion disks (density, composition, size, etc.) may be somewhat different than astronomers previously thought.” As for what that means to future astronomy observations and scientists’ understanding of black holes, “This work... shows that an assumption which has gone into our atomic models is importantly flawed,” Jack Steiner, an Einstein Postdoctoral Fellow at MIT not involved in the study told Gizmodo an in email. That has important implications. But he also pointed out limitations—after all, these aren’t truly black holes producing the plasma. The black hole’s specific combination of x-rays could also change the result. But Steiner, Matthews and others agreed about the importance of the result. Javier Garvia at Caltech told Gizmodo in an email: “It is truly remarkable that in a laboratory on Earth into plasma opacities, the Sandia Z group are connecting and shedding light on plasma processes in both the Sun and in accretion disks around black holes.” [PRL]
Do pelagic predators hunt in random patterns or with some more organized approach that actually has some mathematical significance? Underwater Times picked up on an article in ScienceNews, about a study showing that fish like tuna, billfish, and some sharks exhibit a mathematical logic in their movements, called a Lévy walk or flight. In tracking various ocean predators, the researchers noted foraging patterns that were not random - moving here and there without any particular method to their movements - but more deliberate, punctuated with long movements and demonstrating evidence of mathematical fractals. A fractal is a mathematical pattern that is used to describe the shapes of many things, from snowflakes to the shapes of leaves. No, snowflakes and leaves don't have intelligence, at least not intelligence that necessarily demonstrates free will. But in analyzing the foraging patterns of their test subjects, the researchers detected a level of mathematical thinking or intelligence that was not purely random-based, which was the prevailing theory in the past. "Many of the animals displayed Lévy behavior at least some of the time, researcher David Sims and his colleagues report — 'the strongest evidence yet that these Lévy patterns are exhibited by wild animals,' he says. Lévy behavior showed up more often in waters where plankton, fish and other food was scarce. In regions with plentiful food, random motion dominated. This observation, says theoretical physicist Gandhimohan Viswanathan, fits with earlier suggestions that 'animals may use a Lévy flight motion to improve their chances of finding prey.'” This kind of research can provide more insight into migration and other feeding patterns based on availability of food. Perhaps in the future we can better understand or anticipate the actions or movements of some species or their ability to adapt when environmental conditions change. Read ScienceNews article.
While polar bears and other marine mammals may be suffering negative impacts from warming temperatures, new research suggests that other terrestrial animals in Artic regions are benefitting from the increased availability of shrubs. Ken Tape, an Arctic ecologist at the Institute of Northern Engineering at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and lead author of a study published in the journal Global Change Biology, looked at two species — moose (Alces alces) and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), both fairly new to Alaska’s North Slope — and how climate change may be helping support expansion of their populations. The team examined historical trapping records and anthropological sources and found that moose, which were first reported in the North Slope around 1930, were not part of the traditional hunt in Arctic Alaska. “Moose came along when the shrubs showed up,” he said. Snowshoe hares hadn’t been observed in the area before 1977, according to Tape. As part of their research, the team predicted shrub height from the 1960s to the present based on temperature. Their research showed that evidence of shrub expansion coincided with observational sightings of snowshoe hares. The increase in moose and snowshoe hares in the area affects the ecosystem as well as wildlife management. Tape said more moose means possibly implementing moose hunts on the North Slope where there haven’t been any before. An increase in these two species also means more of their predators frequent the area such as lynx and birds of prey. Further, new species being introduced can cause tundra specialist species that prefer open habitat to decline as their habitat disappears and they are outcompeted by moose and snowshoe hares coming from the South. “We need to be concerned about the loss of endemic species as the boreal species move north,” Tape said. \|Dana Kobilinsky is a science writer at The Wildlife Society. Contact her at [email protected] with any questions or comments about her article. You can follow her on Twitter at @DanaKobi.\|
John O´Keefe (missing), May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser won the this year's Nobel Prize for Physiologie or Medicine; © Geir Mogen/NTNU The 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine goes to John O´Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain. How do we know where we are? How can we find the way from one place to another? And how can we store this information in such a way that we can immediately find the way the next time we trace the same path? This year´s Nobel Laureates have discovered a positioning system, an “inner GPS” in the brain that makes it possible to orient ourselves in space, demonstrating a cellular basis for higher cognitive function. In 1971, John O´Keefe discovered the first component of this positioning system. He found that a type of nerve cell in an area of the brain called the hippocampus that was always activated when a rat was at a certain place in a room. Other nerve cells were activated when the rat was at other places. O´Keefe concluded that these “place cells” formed a map of the room. More than three decades later, in 2005, May-Britt and Edvard Moser discovered another key component of the brain’s positioning system. They identified another type of nerve cell, which they called “grid cells”, that generate a coordinate system and allow for precise positioning and pathfinding. Their subsequent research showed how place and grid cells make it possible to determine position and to navigate. The discoveries of John O´Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser have solved a problem that has occupied philosophers and scientists for centuries – how does the brain create a map of the space surrounding us and how can we navigate our way through a complex environment? MEDICA.de; Source: Nobelprize.org
A blockhouse is a small strongly built defensive structure built specifically to house guns and to protect the gunners and ammunition from attack. They are usually built of stone (more rarely brick) and were typically sited to command a river, harbour entrance, or anchorage, or as an outlying work to provide enfilading fire or protection to other defensive works. Accommodation within the blockhouse, if provided, was only for short-term use by the gunners or garrison. Although there was great variation in their design the main components are fairly standard, often being a tower dominating a bastion or gun platform. There may be a dry ditch or moat, or earthen defences on the landward side. They will often be recognised as (relatively) low upstanding structures. Sites that may be confused with this class are artillery castles which are considered as a separate class of monument. Both classes filled the same defensive function, were often similar architecturally, with many being built in association with one or more of the other class; a blockhouse will be recognised as a single free-standing structure with only two or three main elements whereas an artillery castle will be a complex of several interdependent structures. In documentary sources of the 16th century the term "bulwark" is often used indiscriminately for blockhouses of stone and for earthen forts; the latter are excluded from this description and are considered as a separate class of monument. Specifically excluded from this description are blockhouses or gun-towers forming an integral part of the enceinte of castles; the 19th century forts, built for much larger guns and usually sited further inland on high ground; the 19th century maritime forts built in the Solent; and the Martello gun-towers of the Napoleonic wars. Blockhouses were designed solely to protect a particular feature or area by the use of artillery against an attacker similarly armed. They had accommodation only for the short-term use of the gunners or garrison. The first known example is the Cow Tower, Norwich, built in 1398, and a late example is Cromwell's Castle, Isles of Scilly, built in 1651; most were built in the first half of the 16th century.
In Clayoquot Sound during the fall, typically September, October and early November, mushrooms emerge. Mushroom hunting can be an enjoyable pastime and greatly enhance your appreciation for the wonders of the rainforest. Remember the importance of fungi and be sure to walk softly of the earth! What is a Mushroom? A mushroom is the reproductive structure that is produced by some fungi. A fungus produces a mushroom to distribute spores (tiny microscopic 'seeds'), which blow away on the wind or are carried off by animals. The mushroom appears on the surface of the ground or of decaying wood at certain times of years, but the bulk of the fungi organism is under the surface. Under the surface are millions of kilometres of microscopic rooting threads called mycelium. These mycelia can spread out for many metres underground and can live for many years. Some species pop up a fresh batch of mushrooms every year. A fungus belongs to its own kingdom, separate from plants and animals. Fungi differ from plants and animals in the way they obtain their nutrients. The mycelium grows into or around the food source, secrete enzymes that digests the food externally, and then absorbs the digested nutrients. The Ecological Function of Forest Fungi The ecological functions of mushrooms and other fungi can be roughly classified into four categories: 1. Decomposers – Some species obtain nutrients by breaking down dead organic matter. As organisms of decay, mushrooms, and all other fungi enable organic matter to be continually recycled. A forest in which nothing rotted would starve for essential minerals and nutrients bound up in the undecomposed dead leaves and woody material. 2. 'Tree Helpers' – Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with the roots of trees and woody plants. The mycelium weaves itself around the root and the resulting fungus-root is called a mycorrhiza. This relationship is mutually beneficial as the mushroom absorbs water and minerals for the tree, and the tree gives the mushroom nutrients. Trees are healthier and stronger with the benefit of this relationship. These 'tree helper' fungus also connect differing tree species and allow for the passing of the nutrients between trees. 3. Pathogens – Some species attack living plant matter and kill the host while extracting nutrients. The honey mushroom for example, causes a root disease in conifers which is fatal to the tree. 4. Food Source – Many of the small forest animals such as squirrels and voles rely on mushrooms for a part of their diet. Slugs and insects also use mushrooms as a food source. If you are planning to collect wild mushrooms, please remember not to collect all of the mushrooms from any one area. Be sure to leave some behind to help sustain healthy future populations. Please refrain from picking in the Park, there are lots of other great places to find mushrooms. Also, never eat mushrooms that you are not 100% sure about, even if they smell/look tasty. Did you know? Although mushrooms are commonly known for their edible and medicinal properties, many people aren't aware that they also yield a lovely range of colour-fast natural dyes! The Nuu-chah-nulth used hollowed out bracket fungus to carry burning coals when traveling without matches. Some mushrooms have gills that glow in the dark. A great way to identify a gilled mushroom is by taking a spore print. Fairy ring mushrooms are often found growing in circles or arcs on lawns and other grassy places. Hemlock trees only live about a year if their roots are not colonized by a special fungus.
At COP 20 in Lima this week, country representatives are coming together to discuss plans to reign in global greenhouse gas emissions. A new infographic from WRI reveals the history of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, as well as what needs to happen to stay within world’s “carbon budget” and prevent the most disastrous impacts of climate change. The Carbon Budget The carbon budget is a threshold for global warming: If the world emits less than a certain amount of cumulative CO2 emissions, we have a likely chance to limiting temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius, thus avoiding the worst impacts of a changing climate. A recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) estimates the world’s carbon budget to be 2900 gigatonnes of CO₂. The interactive—which draws on data from WRI’s Climate Data Indicators Explorer (CAIT 2.0) and research from the IPCC—reveals that as of 2011, the world has already used up nearly two-thirds of the carbon budget. The world’s top emitters have changed significantly over time, with emissions stemming largely from fossil fuel use, cement manufacturing, and deforestation and land use change.1 The Future of Global Emissions The IPCC has put forth several scenarios that outline a spectrum of emissions pathways.2 If emissions continue unabated—a fossil-fuel intensive scenario—the world would exhaust its carbon budget in just two decades. However, it’s still possible to stay within the budget and stick to the 2 degree target. Under an ambitious “transformative change scenario,” the world will still slightly surpass the budget3 until emissions eventually go negative—that is, more carbon dioxide emissions are captured and sequestered than released. Cumulative emissions would then decrease, keeping temperature rise below 2 degrees C. This scenario is only possible if countries commit to ambitious actions that cap and steeply reduce global emissions. That level of international climate action is achievable, but it will take leadership, political will, and a strong climate agreement at COP 21 in Paris in 2015. LEARN MORE:** Visit CAIT 2.0 for more information about the history and present status of greenhouse gas emissions. Before 1990, deforestation & land-use data cannot be attributed to specific countries, so data are shown as a global number. The country and regional level data includes carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and cement. ↩ Comprehensive country level data are not available for the emissions scenarios. Therefore, only a global number is shown. ↩ The carbon budget is assumed to be 2900Gt CO2 in both scenarios. Transformative change could also lead to more action reducing the non-CO2 greenhouse gases and therefore keep us within the budget. ↩
In May of 2011 gray wolves were taken off of the endangered species list. This is the first time in history that the US Congress has taken this sort of action. The wolf is an apex predator, and has expanded into only small fractions of what had been its historical range over the last two decades, after nearly becoming extinct. An Apex predator is at the top of the food chain. They are crucial in conserving the health and well-being of the eco-system and the environment. If there were no predators, single species would become dominant. Because wolves are apex predators, it is imperative that they remain protected. Taking them off the endangered species list changes the population density. In 1966 congress passed the endangered species act. This law authorized the Secretary of the Interior to create an indexed list of the fish and wildlife that were endangered. Wolves have been on that list since 1974, and in the past 13 years their numbers have increased to a healthy level. Before they were put on the list, they were hunted down and killed. This had a huge impact on Yellowstone National Park. Herbivores, such as deer and elk, began to over-graze, which affected the native plant populations. The beavers were also affected by the killing of wolves, because the herbivores grazed in the beaver’s habitat. Creeks and streams in the area slowed to a trickle, because the over grazing held the soil in place, which resulted in channel incision, or erosion. Weak and dying animals are killed by apex predators, as are prey animals. This strengthens the entire population of the animal kingdom and keeps the eco-system in balance. If a pack of elk were not disturbed, they would never move, and would eat everything in sight. This would be detrimental to native plants and grasses. Wolves keep the herds of deer and elk moving. If it were not for the wolves, smaller carnivores, such as rabbits, squirrels and raccoons would be over-populated. Hunters and ranchers started killing off the wolves in Arizona back in the early 1900’s. They thought that the deer population was dwindling. The government put a wolf bounty into legislation. Two years later the wolves were almost extinct. Without the wolves, the deer population quadrupled in size. Because of their grazing, the ranchers had even more problems, as their cattle and sheep were starving to death. When man interferes with nature and wildlife, natural order is destroyed. This is not a political issue, and the government should be protecting the environment, not destroying it. Because the government is running at a huge deficit, they are cutting necessary funding. Killing wolves will not solve the economic problems that face the nation. Government regulation only makes things worse. Animal conservation is extremely necessary. Killing off wolves to save cows, sheep, deer and elk will create an imbalance in our eco-system. Nature has a way of working things out, and if we would just let Mother Nature do what she is supposed to do, there would not be a problem.
Reasons why the carrots forked, or getting sloppy, maybe a few. The most common: the seeding occurred on very heavy ground: clay, stony and acidic - like soil, though enriched with various nutrients, but due to its density and especially wrong to leak air, it is unfit for growing carrots; - incorporation before sowing neterprise of compost or fresh manure; - incorporation into soil of ash, lime or chloride of potassium; - improper care of crops; - root damage at an early stage of development of the carrots. Damage can occur for several reasons, for example due to drying of the soil in the first month after planting sloppy thinning and weeding, which were affected by the roots, and when rudovanie carrot flies or the mole crickets. How to grow smooth and even carrots If you wish to grow even carrots, you before planting the seeds must be carefully prepared land. In the fall, dig the beds to a depth of not less than 20 centimetres, and try to remove as many roots of the weeds (this will prevent compaction of the upper layer). In the spring again produce digging, which make the soil sand (the amount depends on the density of soil and compost. After land preparation, start sowing seeds. Select the method in which in the future will not need thinning. Organize proper irrigation: watering plants in the first two months of the summer, when the growth of carrot are most active. In August also, reduce watering, keep just that the soil does not dry up. If thinning is necessary, do it carefully, trying as little as possible to damage leaves and roots. Remove the crop in a timely manner (time of harvesting depends on the variety of carrots and temperature).

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