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- General considerations - Light from the stars - Stellar structure - Star formation and evolution Models of the internal structure of stars—particularly their temperature, density, and pressure gradients below the surface—depend on basic principles explained in this section. It is especially important that model calculations take account of the change in the star’s structure with time as its hydrogen supply is gradually converted into helium. Fortunately, given that most stars can be said to be examples of an “ideal gas” (see perfect gas), the relations between temperature, density, and pressure have a basic simplicity. Distribution of matter Several mathematical relations can be derived from basic physical laws, assuming that the gas is “ideal” and that a star has spherical symmetry; both these assumptions are met with a high degree of validity. Another common assumption is that the interior of a star is in hydrostatic equilibrium. This balance is often expressed as a simple relation between pressure gradient and density. A second relation expresses the continuity of mass—i.e., if M is the mass of matter within a sphere of radius r, the mass added, ΔM, when encountering an increase in distance Δr through a shell of volume 4πr2Δr, equals the volume of the shell multiplied by the density, ρ. In symbols, ΔM = 4πr2ρΔr. A third relation, termed the equation of state, expresses an explicit relation between the temperature, density, and pressure of a star’s internal matter. Throughout the star the matter is entirely gaseous, and, except in certain highly evolved objects, it obeys closely the perfect gas law. In such neutral gases the molecular weight is 2 for molecular hydrogen, 4 for helium, 56 for iron, and so on. In the interior of a typical star, however, the high temperatures and densities virtually guarantee that nearly all the matter is completely ionized; the gas is said to be a plasma, the fourth state of matter. Under these conditions not only are the hydrogen molecules dissociated into individual atoms, but also the atoms themselves are broken apart (ionized) into their constituent protons and electrons. Hence, the molecular weight of ionized hydrogen is the average mass of a proton and an electron—namely, 1/2 on the atom-mass scale noted above. By contrast, a completely ionized helium atom contributes a mass of 4 with a helium nucleus (alpha particle) plus two electrons of negligible mass; hence, its average molecular weight is 4/3. As another example, a totally ionized nickel atom contributes a nucleus of mass 58.7 plus 28 electrons; its molecular weight is then 58.7/29 = 2.02. Since stars contain a preponderance of hydrogen and helium that are completely ionized throughout the interior, the average particle mass, μ, is the (unit) mass of a proton, divided by a factor taking into account the concentrations by weight of hydrogen, helium, and heavier ions. Accordingly, the molecular weight depends critically on the star’s chemical composition, particularly on the ratio of helium to hydrogen as well as on the total content of heavier matter. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the radiation pressure, Pr, must be taken into account in addition to the perfect gas pressure, Pg. The total equation of state then becomes P = Pg + Pr. Here Pg depends on temperature, density, and molecular weight, whereas Pr depends on temperature and on the radiation density constant, a = 7.5 × 10−15 ergs per cubic cm per degree to the fourth power. With μ = 2 (as an upper limit) and ρ = 1.4 grams per cubic cm (the mean density of the Sun), the temperature at which the radiation pressure would equal the gas pressure can be calculated. The answer is 28 million K, much hotter than the core of the Sun. Consequently, radiation pressure may be neglected for the Sun, but it cannot be ignored for hotter, more massive stars. Radiation pressure may then set an upper limit to stellar luminosity. Certain stars, notably white dwarfs, do not obey the perfect gas law. Instead, the pressure is almost entirely contributed by the electrons, which are said to be particulate members of a degenerate gas (see below White dwarfs). If μ′ is the average mass per free electron of the totally ionized gas, the pressure, P, and density, ρ, are such that P is proportional to a 5/3 power of the density divided by the average mass per free electron; i.e., P = 1013(ρ/μ′)5/3. The temperature does not enter at all. At still higher densities the equation of state becomes more intricate, but it can be shown that even this complicated equation of state is adequate to calculate the internal structure of the white dwarf stars. As a result, white dwarfs are probably better understood than most other celestial objects. For normal stars such as the Sun, the energy-transport method for the interior must be known. Except in white dwarfs or in the dense cores of evolved stars, thermal conduction is unimportant because the heat conductivity is very low. One significant mode of transport is an actual flow of radiation outward through the star. Starting as gamma rays near the core, the radiation is gradually “softened” (becomes longer in wavelength) as it works its way to the surface (typically, in the Sun, over the course of about a million years) to emerge as ordinary light and heat. The rate of flow of radiation is proportional to the thermal gradient—namely, the rate of change of temperature with interior distance. Providing yet another relation of stellar structure, this equation uses the following important quantities: a, the radiation constant noted above; c, the velocity of light; ρ, the density; and κ, a measure of the opacity of the matter. The larger the value of κ, the lower the transparency of the material and the steeper the temperature fall required to push the energy outward at the required rate. The opacity, κ, can be calculated for any temperature, density, and chemical composition and is found to depend in a complex manner largely on the two former quantities. In the Sun’s outermost (though still interior) layers and especially in certain giant stars, energy transport takes place by quite another mechanism: large-scale mass motions of gases—namely, convection. Huge volumes of gas deep within the star become heated, rise to higher layers, and mix with their surroundings, thus releasing great quantities of energy. The extraordinarily complex flow patterns cannot be followed in detail, but when convection occurs, a relatively simple mathematical relation connects density and pressure. Wherever convection does occur, it moves energy much more efficiently than radiative transport.
The year 2005 marked the beginning of use of dual-core processors in desktop computers. On the single silicon wafer of such a processor two normal processor cores are located with all their resources, including L1 cache. L2 cache memory may be independent for each core or shared between them. A memory bus controller, inter-core communication controller, crossbar switch, etc. can also be located on the same wafer. Numerous tests prove the advantages of dual-core processors over single-core ones in a number of applications that support multi-threading. But there seem to have been no tests to show at what speed the cores can exchange data. How Processors Communicate in Multiprocessor Systems To better understand what this review is all about, you should be aware of the problems arising in communication between processors of a multiprocessor system. The processors are working with data that are read from system memory to be modified and then written back. Data are cached in the CPU for faster processing, but more than one processor may request the same data in a multiprocessor system. This is not a problem if both the processors are just reading data, because they are both provided the most recent valid copy from system RAM. But if one of the processors modifies the data, the data are first changed in the cache memory and it is only after a while that they are written into system RAM. So, there is a potential conflict when one processor is trying to read data that have been modified and are currently stored in another processor’s cache. Methods to solve conflicts of this kind are referred to as protocols of cache coherency maintenance. There exist multiple varieties of such protocols, but describing them is beyond the reach of this review (you can refer to documentation available on the CPU manufacturers’ websites for details). All the different protocols of maintaining cache coherency usually transfer modified data between the processors via system memory, but the cores of a dual-core processor are located on the same wafer right next to each other, so there’s an opportunity for a direct transfer of data from one core’s cache into another’s. Such transfers might go at a very fast rate. Some PC reviewers even suppose that the total effective capacity of the caches of two separate cores can be compared to a single common cache of the same capacity. Is this supposition true? We are going to give our answer to this question in this review.
Avian influenza basics for urban and backyard poultry owners What is avian influenza? Avian influenza (AI) is a disease in domestic poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, ducks and geese. Waterfowl and shorebirds are natural hosts for the virus that causes avian influenza and will shed the virus into their environment while often showing no signs of illness. Some types of avian influenza are called highly pathogenic (HPAI) because in contrast to waterfowl, these viruses are rapidly fatal for poultry. In chickens, the clinical signs of highly pathogenic (HPAI) are often a combination of respiratory (gasping) and digestive (extreme diarrhea) signs followed by rapid death. There may have swelling around the head, neck, and eyes as well as purple discoloration around the head and legs. In contrast, other poultry species, including turkeys, may have nervous symptoms such as tremors, twisted necks, paralyzed wings and recumbent pedaling. What is common among all poultry (except ducks and geese) is the sudden onset and high rate of mortality. Since December 2014, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has reported confirmed cases of HPAI, primarily of the H5N2 subtype, in wild waterfowl and backyard poultry in the states of Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho; and commercial poultry flocks in California, Minnesota and Missouri, and Arkansas (updates available). The risk to the public is very low and there is no food safety concern because infected birds do not reach the market. The risk of infection is generally limited to people in direct contact with affected birds. As a reminder, poultry and eggs should always be handled properly and cooked to an internal temperature of 165°F. Do not eat birds that appear to be sick or have died for reasons unknown. More food safety information. What to do if you suspect your poultry may have highly pathogenic avian influenza Each state has a designated agency to respond to avian influenza cases. In Minnesota, the Board of Animal Health is that agency. If your flock experiences a sudden, high mortality or has a high percentage of birds with signs of highly pathogenic avian influenza, please report this immediately to your veterinarian or the Minnesota Board of Animal Health. Visit their website, or call the Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory (MPTL) at (320) 231-5170. The MPTL cooperates with the University of Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (VDL) in St. Paul to conduct and coordinate testing for AI. For more information, contact the VDL at 612- 625-8787 or visit their website. Biosecurity steps to protect your flock In order to help flock owners to keep their birds healthy by preventing disease, biosecurity is a must! Introductions of HPAI come from waterfowl (ducks and geese) and gulls that come to Minnesota. Once poultry are infected, they can spread the disease to new flocks. Now is a great time to review your biosecurity. The USDA provides the following tips on preventing AI in your poultry: Keep your distance (separating your poultry from disease introduction). Some examples are: - Restrict access from wildlife and wild birds to your birds by use of enclosed shelter and fencing of the outdoor areas. Use of smaller mesh hardware cloth which allows exclusion of wild birds while still allowing outdoor exposure. - Caretakers should not have contact with other poultry or birds prior to contact with their own birds. Restrict access to your poultry if your visitors have birds of their own. - Keep different species of poultry and age groups separated due to differences in susceptibility. - Look at your own setting, what can you do to prevent your birds from contact with other birds that could introduce HPAI? Keep it clean (cleaning and disinfecting). Some examples are: - Keep feeders and waterers clean and out of reach of wild birds. Clean up feed spills. - Change feeding practices if wild birds continue to be present. - Use dedicated or clean clothing and foot wear when working with poultry - Clean and then disinfect equipment that comes in contact with your birds such as shovels and rakes. - Conduct frequent cleaning and disinfecting of housing areas and equipment to limit contact of birds with their waste. - Evaluate your practices. Is it clean or is there room for improvement? Don't haul disease home. Some examples are: - Introduction of new birds or returning birds to the flock after exhibition. Keep them separated for at least 30 days. - Returning dirty crates or other equipment back to the property without cleaning and disinfecting. This includes the tires on the vehicles and trailers. - Take a look and be critical. Is that site where you have set up a quarantine really separated well enough to keep your flock safe? Where do you clean crates? Can the runoff get to your birds? Don't borrow disease from your neighbors - Don't share equipment or reuse materials like egg cartons from neighbors and bird owners, you could be borrowing disease. - Do you have what you need to separate yourself from your friends and neighbors? Now is the time to get the equipment and supplies you need to make that possible. For more detailed information and resources, please visit the following websites: - Minnesota Board of Animal Health - Avian Influenza (eXtension.org) - USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service - Minnesota Department of Health - University of Minnesota Extension
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Pasteurellosis is a bacterial infection with one or more types of Pasteurella bacteria, which are most often carried by animals. Typically, humans acquire this infection when bites or scratches are sustained from animals like dogs, cats, rabbits, or chickens, but occasionally the disease develops in absence of this contact. The infection usually presents as a wound, scratch or abscess that in a few hours becomes infected and may quickly spread into the bloodstream. Complications of this condition include the possibilities of developing pneumonia, meningitis or blood infection. Fortunately, these complications seldom occur if the disease is recognized and treated with antibiotics right away. There are numerous types of Pasteurella bacteria, and some animals may carry several different kinds. Medical protocol when people receive animal bites or scratches is to automatically treat with antibiotics to keep pasteurellosis and other animal-borne bacteria from creating severe patient infection. Some people don’t see a physician if they receive a bite or scratch, and, as stated, contact with an animal isn’t always necessary to develop this disease. What should alert individuals to a problem is a sudden infection that appears to spread rapidly. Medical experts often advise patients to seek medical attention any time they’ve experienced an animal bite or scratch. Some other symptoms that might indicate pasteurellosis are redness, swelling, or an abscess that develops on a wound. Red streaks may be present around a scratch or bite area and could suggest that blood infection is imminent. Sometimes a wound is not present and the first indication of this condition is blood infection, pneumonia, or meningitis. The standard treatment for pasteurellosis is antibiotics, which are usually continued for seven to 14 days, depending on the severity of the presentation. Individuals who have conditions that cause immunosuppression are likely to take a longer course of antibiotics and might be checked more frequently by physicians during treatment. Most patients who are treated right away recover well. The greater danger occurs if pasteurellosis is untreated and develops into meningitis, which is associated with a much higher mortality rate. In most instances, some contact with an animal precedes pasteurellosis. A bite or scratch isn’t necessary to transmit the illness, and even a lick from a dog, cat or cow could transfer the illness. People handling animals should wash their hands carefully after contact to avoid contamination. If an illness like pneumonia or meningitis occurs, it’s important to mention recent contact with any animals, even if no bites or scratches occurred. Physicians can then evaluate the patient for pasteurellosis and choose the best antibiotics for treatment. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
\|A nursery rhyme is a traditional song or poem taught to young children, and specific actions or dances are often associated with particular songs. Learning such verse assists in the development of vocabulary, and several examples deal with rudimentary counting skills, eg. eenie, meenie, Many cultures (though not all, see below) feature children's songs and verses that are passed down by oral tradition from one generation to the next, however the term "nursery rhyme" generally refers to those of European origin. The best known examples are English and originated in or since the 17th century. Some however are substantially older, "Baa Baa Black Sheep" exists in written records as far back the Middle Ages. Arguably the most famous collection is that of Mother Goose. Some well known nursery rhymes originated in America, such as "Mary had a little lamb". Generally nursery rhymes are innocent doggerel, though some scholars have attempted to link their meaning to events in European or English history. Urban legends abound with regard to some of the rhymes, though most of these have been discredited. Some of the more plausible explanations indicate that some rhymes may have been contemporary social or political satire. ("Hey Diddle Diddle" is one example, the "dish" and "spoon" possibly being nicknames for the figures involved in a sex scandal in the court of Elizabeth I.) "Ring-Around-the-Rosie" (alternatively "Ring-a-ring of Rosies") is popularly believed to be a metaphorical reference to the Great Plague, although this has been widely discredited, particularly as none of the "symptoms" described by the poem even remotely correlate to those of the Bubonic plague, and the first record of the rhyme's existence was not until 1790. A credible interpretation of "Pop goes the Weasel" is that it is about silk weavers taking their shuttle or bobbin (known as a "weasel"), to a pawnbrokers to obtain money for drinking. It is possible that the "eagle" mentioned in the song's third verse refers to The Eagle freehold pub along Shepherdess Walk in London, which was established as a music hall in 1825 and was rebuilt as a public house in 1901. This public house bears a plaque with this interpretation of the nursery rhyme and the pub's history. Alternatively, the term "weasel" might be Cockney rhyming slang for a coat ("weasel and stoat" = "coat"), and the coat itself was pawned. Scholars occasionally think they have "all" nursery rhymes written down, or know the last time that a rhyme was in use (some fall out of favor). However, due to the fact that they're mainly an oral tradition, nursery rhymes will "pop up" anew. See Bill Bryson's book "Made in America : An Informal History of the English Language in the United States" for an excellent example. There are some aboriginal tribes which consider music sacred, so that only elder men may sing songs, and the songs are taught during sacred rituals in adulthood. It is forbidden for women or children to sing. Hence, these cultures don't have these kinds of songs. List of nursery rhymes * As I was Going to St Ives
IUCN Releases List of 100 Most Threatened Species More than 8,000 scientists from the International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) have compiled a list of the 100 most threatened animals, plants and fungi on the planet. Their report, titled "Priceless or Worthless?" was released with the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) during the IUCN World Conservation Congress. \|Keywords\|\|threatened species, IUCN, IUCN Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC),\| The report notes that the decline of some of the species is mainly caused by humans, and their extinction can still be avoided if conservation efforts are enacted. The 100 species come from 48 different countries, and include: the pygmy three-toed sloth; the saola, which is also known as the Asian unicorn because of its rarity; the willow blister; and the spore-shooting fungi. To read the full publication click here.
\|This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2009)\| Path length can mean one of several related concepts: In physics, there are two definitions for "path length." The first is defined as the total distance an object travels. Unlike displacement, which is the total distance an object travels from a starting point, path length is the total distance travelled, regardless of where it travelled. The second is synonymous with wavelength and is used in calculating constructive and destructive interference of waves. In chemistry, the path length is defined as the distance that light (UV/VIS) travels through a sample in an analytical cell. Typically, a sample cell is made of quartz, glass, or a plastic rhombic cuvette with a volume typically ranging from 0.1 mL to 10 mL or larger used in a spectrophotometer. For the purposes of spectrophotometry (i.e. when making calculations using the Beer-Lambert law) the path length is measured in centimeters (rather than in meters). In a computer network, the path length is one of many possible router metrics used by a router to help determine the best route among multiple routes to a destination. It consists of the end-to-end hop count from a source to a destination over the network. More simply, in general computer terminology, it can mean simply the total number of instructions executed from point A to point B in a program - Instruction path length.
A Hexapod platform is a six-legged robot with six degrees of freedom. Also known as a Stewart–Gough platform, its principal advantages are a high load-to-weight ratio and the ability to precisely position heavy loads. Disadvantages include limitations on the range of motion. The Stewart–Gough or Hexapod platform consists of six extensible legs connecting a fixed base to a movable platform. The platform is capable of moving with six degrees of freedom, three translational and three rotational. The Inverse Problem in robotics, calculating the actuator coordinates (leg lengths) for a given platform orientation, is straightforward in this situation. Simple geometry is all that is needed to express the rotation and translation matrices. In a nutshell, the nominal platform coordinates of the legs are rotated and translated by the desired values. Then the leg lengths are calculated by simply taking the norm of the difference between the base and platform coordinates for each leg. This Demonstration uses homogeneous coordinates to combine the rotations and the translations into a single matrix operation.
Definition : shedding or exfoliation of deciduous teeth is a term given to describe the physiologic process that ultimately leads to replacement of the deciduous teeth by their corresponding permanent successors . 1) the small deciduous teeth cannot grow in size to accommodate the growing jaw, thus , another generation of teeth is needed to fulfill this requisity . 1) Growth of muscle of mastication from infant to adult leading to increase the masticatory force so the periodontal ligament of deciduous teeth can not withstand the masticatory force . Pattern of shedding : a. Shedding of deciduous anterior teeth : the permanent incisors and canines tooth germs initially develop in apicolingual position to their deciduous predecessors , so, the permanent anterior tooth germs move into an incisolabial direction and, in latter stages, they are frequently located apical to their deciduous predecessors . Thus, the resorptive process is initiated on apico-lingual root surface, and then proceeds in a transverse plane apically . This secures the replacement of the primary teeth by their permanent successors in the exact position b. Shedding of deciduous molars : the premolars begin their development lingual to their corresponding primary molars . In later stage, however , they are frequently found between the divergent roots of the primary molars .Therefore resorption of the roots of deciduous molars first begins on their inner surfaces because The early developing bicuspids are found between them, then Come to lie apical to deciduous molars . At this time , the developing premolars become away and pressure is relieved from deciduous root so the areas of early resorption are repaired by deposition of new-cementum like tissue. Later when the bicuspids begin to erupt resorption of the deciduous molars is again initiated and continuous until the roots are completely lost and the tooth is shed . Histology of shedding exfoliation of the primary teeth takes place by a continuous resorption of their roots by cells having identical histology to osteoclasts (osteoclasts are bone resorbing cells ) . Since these cells are concerned in the resorption of the dental tissues ,so they are referred to as odontoclasts . These cells are capable to resorb all dental hard tissues even the enamel . Odontoclasts resorb hard tissue by separating mineral from the collagen matrix through the action of hydrolytic enzymes Origin of Odontoclast : It is presume that, they have the same origin of osteoclasts , that is monocytes . An alternative origin of odontoclasts is the undifferentiated mesenchymal The odontoclasts are easily recognized , with light microscope , in clusters rather than singly and appear occupying hollowed-out shallow depressions known Howship's lacunae . By scanning electron microscope: these lacunae seem not as small focal bays but rather long shallow troughs . This indicates that during the resorptive process , the odontoclasts continuously move inside the resorbing An odontoclast is a large cell that is characterized by multiple nuclei and a cytoplasm with a homogeneous, "foamy" appearance. This appearance is due to a high concentration of vesicles and vacuoles. At a site of active dentin resorption, the odontoclast forms a specialized cell membrane, the "ruffled border“ ( brush border ) , which faces the surface of the dentin tissue. The ruffled border facilitates removal of the dentin matrix. The ruffled border increases surface area interface for dentin resorption. The mineral portion of the matrix (called hydroxyapatite) includes calcium and phosphate ions. These ions are absorbed into small vesicles which move across the cell and eventually are released into the extracellular fluid, thus increasing levels of the ions in the blood. By transmission electron microscope : The portion of cell membrane facing the resorbing bone is thrown into numerous folds that may invaginate the cytoplasm up to 2-3 micrometer deep. The regional cytoplasm adjacent to the brush border appear devoid of cell organelles but rich in actin and myosin (the attachment zone ) which are presumed to provide an attaching system for odontoclast to the dentin surface . The remainder of the odontoclasts is heavily laden with mitochondria and vesicles especially concentrated beside the ruffled border . Also the cytoplasm contains a large number of nuclei, well developed , tightly packed Golgi saccules while several small vesicles (presumed to be primary lysosomes) are located peripheral to these Distribution : the odontoblasts occupy variable positions and this depends on the different pattern of resorption occurring in the different teeth . They are located on the root surface , to resorb both cementum and dentin in relation to the site of pressure exerted by the erupting permanent successor . The odontoclasts have occasionally found in the root canals or pulp chamber lying against the predentin surface . The pattern of resorption of single rooted teeth ultimately leads to shedding of the primary teeth before their roots are completely resorbed and the erupting permanent tooth compresses on the outer root surface therefore, the odontoclasts are not found in the pulp chamber but on the root surface . However, in multirooted teeth, odontoclasts are seen in the pulp Histological features of teeth undergoing Root surfaces exhibit resorption lacunae and odontoclast cells are often associated with these concavities. It is significant that periodontal fibroblasts in the area show signs of impaired function. The fact that programmed cell death is seen during shedding that occurs at specific ages is consistent with the concept that shedding is a genetically determined It should be emphasized that the pulp tissue in teeth undergoing shedding appears histologically normal except that neural elements seem to be missing. Thus the pulp does not contribute to the process of shedding and plays a passive role in this process. Mechanism of action during resorption of odontoclasts act by isolating an area of hard tissue (bone, cementum, dentin or even enamel) using clear cytoplasmic areas (no organelles) and through plasma membrane associated enzymes that act as proton pumps, the isolated area's pH is lowered making it acidic. This acidity breaks down the hydroxyapatite crystals of the inorganic content and also denature the collagenous organic matrix. Essentially denaturing makes the tightly assembled collagen fibrils looser. The proteolytic enzymes both secreted and within lysosomes in the odontoclasts cells are then able to break down this collagenous organic matrix. The histochemical study have evidenced that the odontoclasts characteristically contain a high level of acid phosphatase activity . Mechanism of shedding : I) Initiation of shedding Two factors are presumed to initiate shedding of the primary teeth : a. pressure factor which leads into the differentiation of the odontoclasts * pressure of the erupting permanent tooth . * augmentation of the masticatory forces b. genetic factor is probably responsible for the initiation of root resorption and an ultimate shedding of primary teeth . II) Process of shedding : The scanning and transmission electronmicrographs demonstrate the presence of mineral crystallites in the depth of the brush border enfolding .This denotes that, during resorption, the minerals of the dental hard tissues are primarily removed . It is presumed that the intracellular vesicles are thought to be primary lysosomes, which discharge their content extracellularly among the brush border, thus creating an acidic medium . Such medium causes minerals dissolution. However the removal of the dissolved minerals could be mechanically facilitated by the folding of the brush border . The disintegration of the organic matrix occurs by secretion of the proteolytic enzymes by odontoclast into smaller molecular components and then degraded intracellularly by the vesicle containing-acid phosphatase enzyme found beside the brush border . Tissue and cellular changes: Shedding is an intermittent process with periods of resorption involving alveolar bone, cementum and root dentin resorption by clast cells, osteoclasts and odontoclasts, respectively and recovery periods when osteoblasts and cementoblasts replace part of the resorbed tissues. Eventually more resorption takes place and when the tooth loses its supporting periodontal tissues, it is shed. During this process the primary teeth become loose during the periods of resorption and tighten during the brief periods of apposition. During root resorption, periods of resorption are alternated by periods of cementum deposit cementum in areas of resorption forming a reversal become embedded in the cementum and are then called A, Reversal line; B, Cementoblasts; C,
Maps mean different things to different people. So what is a map? My definition is simple: a map is an answer to a question. There are three basic kinds of maps that answer three basic types of questions: - The Location map answers the question, “Where am I?” - The Navigation map answers the question, “How do I get there?” - The Spatial Relationships map answers the question “How are these things related?” It’s this third type of map—a map that helps in our understanding of spatial patterns and relationships—where we as GIS professionals spend most of our time. We work hard making our maps. Our maps can be beautiful works of art, but that’s not why we make them. We make them to answer a question, to solve a problem, and to advance our understanding. And therein lies the power of the map. Even the best maps have no power by themselves; they just exist, like the maps you hang on your office wall, or the maps in the world atlas sitting on your bookshelf. But depending on how they are created, and how they are used, maps can have tremendous power. For a map to become truly powerful requires two things. First, they need to tell a story. Second, they need to be put in people’s hands. Almost anyone can publish a map or spatial data, or put dots on a map, or create a cool web mapping app. But today we are seeing a shift to the desire and the need to communicate more effective stories, not the just the data. We need the rest of the message beyond the data on the map. We need to craft these maps into more useful information products. Because maps only have power when they tell a story. A map represents geographic data and includes other features, such as annotation, legends, and popups to help us understand the map. The next step is adding a new feature to this list: narratives. We need to turn our maps into storytelling devices. A map that tells a story doesn’t simply answer a question or solve a problem; it’s a map with a definite purpose, a direction, and a message; it’s a map that can drive action. Create a map that tells a story, and you’ve created a much more powerful map. But once you’ve done that, how do you put your map—your story—in the hands of the people that will use it to create a better world? Power in Your Hand We often make maps, but are they reaching the right people? Our colleagues, the decision makers, the public? Others who can collaborate with us? Maps only have power when we put them in the hands of people. GIS has traditionally been a back-office technology, and many of the maps created by GIS professionals only reach the hands of a few people. But all that is changing, and it’s changing very rapidly. What is changing is how we put maps in the hands of the people. Do you remember how maps used to be shared? You would print out your map on a giant color plotter, roll up the paper map, and hand it to someone. It wasn’t the most effective way of leveraging the full power of all your hard work. Today, thanks to advances in computing and geospatial technologies, you have a much wider variety of options available for extending the reach of your map. For example, you can now put your map in a web app. Or you can put it on a mobile device. This evolution is changing the discussion; it’s changing how we interact among ourselves, our organization, and the much larger world. Power to the People Gone are the days when information was inaccessible; when our maps were difficult to create, and even more difficult to share. Be it your coworkers, your constituents, or your fellow world citizens, today almost anyone can use your map from practically anywhere. They can use it to be more productive, make better decisions, and help others. They can use it to make the world a better place. Now that’s what I call power.
Year 7 - Autumn Term 2015 Pupils will explore: What do we mean by Signs and Symbols? How useful are signs and symbols in everyday life Religious symbols and their meanings The importance of symbols to religious believers Food and symbolism A local church – St Oswalds at Bidston Visit from the local vicar to talk about his role and the place of the Church in the community The nativity story and its symbolism Christmas celebrations around the world Activities will include food tasting, exploring religious artefacts, making a Christingle, ICT research on Christmas traditions and drama. Year 8 Religious Education – Autumn Term 2015 Pupils will explore three World Religions this year. In the first term, they will focus on the religion of Judaism. They will find out about: Jewish beliefs about God Abraham - the founder of Judaism The importance of Moses to the Jewish religion The festival of Passover The Seder meal and symbolic foods The ten commandments The Torah and its importance in everyday life Objects associated with prayer The Synagogue and Worship Activities to include storytelling, acting out a seder celebration, tasting symbolic foods, designing their own Passover plate and making their own Torah scroll. Year 9 Religious Education – Autumn Term 2015 Students will study Festivals and Celebrations this term. They will explore: What is a Festival? Research special days and festivals from around the world Consider the importance of special days to us as individuals and as a community Interview someone about their special day, find out how they celebrate and why it is special Chinese New Year The Jewish festivals of Purim and Hanukkah Harvest and Sukkot Activities will include ICT research, class presentations, conducting interviews, puppet play, craft activities and designing a Jewish Sukkah.
Body language - breeding behaviour The behaviour between parents and chicks and vice versa. Also see breeding - chicks , while that behaviour occurs there too. It is only seen during the breeding season. - Hatch out Hatching out eggs on the nest. Typical pose is the bending forward, with the eggs lying between the feet and kept warm against or under the belly. Frequently the parent bird will turn the egg(s) with his/her bill or flippers, so all sides will warm equally. Emperor and king penguins hold their single egg on the feet and it will be kept warm against a bare brood patch, underneath a fold of abdominal skin. During the first weeks the chick too will be guarded and kept warm under the belly on the same place as the egg(s). As long as the chick is not able to regulate its temperature itself it will stay there. Afterwards the chicks of most species will gather together in small or larger crèches. The staring pose of the king penguin on the picture is a threat and a warning for neighbouring birds to stay away. Such staring is also part of the aggressive behaviour. - Begging for food: The chick shall tap against the bill of the parent bird and cheep for food. This tapping stimulates the parent bird to regurgitate a partly digested (fish) porridge. The chick holds its open bill in the beak of the parent, which drop the porridge directly in it. Some more pictures of begging and feeding: The mutual preening, part of the sexual behaviour, can also be observed between parent and chicks. On the picture on the right you see a humboldt penguin preening the down and feathers of its chick. - Moulting to juvenile: Before fledging the chick has to moult to its juvenile plumage. This plumage differs from the adult plumage in one way or the other. For emperor and king penguins the yellow or orange patch is not very pronounced. Spheniscus species don't have their black band and the pattern of the black spots on their belly is still missing. Juvenile crested penguins lack the crest and the white ring around an adélie penguin eye is barely visible. © Pinguins info \| 2000-2015
Genetically speaking, Finns and Italians are the most atypical Europeans. There is a large degree of overlap between other European ethnicities, but not up to the point where they would be indistinguishable from each other. Which means that forensic scientists now can use DNA to predict the region of origin of otherwise unknown persons (provided they are of European heritage). These are among the conclusions to be drawn from a genetic map of Europe, produced by the Erasmus University Medical Center in Rotterdam (the Netherlands), published in the August 7, 2008 issue of Current Biology. In its Science section, the New York Times devoted an article to the study, reproducing the genetic map. The discovery that autosomal (i.e. non-gender-related) aspects of DNA may be used to predict regional European provenance of unkown individuals was made by prof. dr. Manfred Kayser’s team of forensic molecular biologists. In a press release, the Erasmus UMC stated that this might potentially be helpful in resolving so-called ‘cold cases’. The genetic map of Europe was compiled by comparing DNA samples from 23 populations in Europe (pictured on the right-hand side map). Those populations were then placed on the ‘genetic’ map according to their similarity, with the vertical axis denoting differences from south to north, and the horizontal one from west to east. The larger the area assigned to a population, the larger the genetic variation within that population. When compared to the actual map, the populations kinda sorta maintain their relative position to each other. Two observations spring to mind immediately: the fact that most populations overlap so intimately with their neighbours. And that Finland doesn’t. Some other observations: - The extent of genetic variation is greater north to south than east to west. This may be a result of the way Europe was colonized by modern humans, i.e. from the south, in three successive waves of migration (45,000 years ago, where before there had only been Neanderthals; 17,000 years ago, after the last Ice Age; and 10,000 years ago, with the advent of farming techniques from the Middle East). - The isolation of Finnish genetics can be explained by the fact that they were at one time a very small population, preserving its genetic idiosyncrasies as it expanded. - The relative isolation of Italian genetics is probably due to the Alps, providing a geographic barrier to the free and unhindered flow of population to and from Italy… Although Hannibal, the Celtic and Germanic influence in Italy’s north and of course the expansion of the Roman Empire would seem to contradict this. - Yugoslav genetic variation is quite large (hence the big pink blob), and overlaps with the Greek, Romanian, Hungarian, Czech and even the Italian ones. - There is surprisingly little overlap between the northern and southern German populations, each of which has more in common with their other neighbours (Danish/Dutch/Swedish in the northern case, Austrian/Swiss/French in the other one). - The Polish population is quite eccentric as well, only significantly overlapping with the Czech one (and only minimally with the northern German one). - The Swiss population is entirely subsumed by the French one, similarly, the Irish population almost doesn’t show any characteristics that would distinguish it from the British one. - British and Irish insularity probably explains why so much of their genetic area is not shared with their closest European cousins, i.c. the Norwegian/Danish/Dutch cluster. Many thanks the many people that sent in this map. Strange Maps #306 Got a strange map? Let me know at [email protected].
If your job is in manufacturing, medicine, mining, automotive repair, underwater or space exploration, maybe even elder care, some of your coworkers are probably semi-autonomous programmable mechanical machines—in a word, robots. But humans and robots don't understand each other well, and they work very differently: a robot does exactly what it's told, over and over, taking the same amount of time every time, while a human acts with intention, deliberation, and variation. Their strengths and weaknesses can be complementary, but only if they each have good models of how the other works. In a breakthrough experiment, the Interactive Robotics Group at MIT discovered that cross-training, which is swapping jobs with someone else on your team to help everyone understand the work better, works even when your coworker doesn't have a mind. In short, when humans and robots model doing each others' job they end up working together more smoothly. In order for this to work, researchers first had to program robots to learn by watching humans instead of just through feedback. Humans were paired with a robotic arm, named Abbie, to practice placing the screws and screwing them in—in a virtual environment. There were two basic rhythms to the task: either have Abbie fasten the screw right after it was placed (1/2, 1/2, 1/2), or place all three screws and then have Abbie screw in the batch of three (1-2-3, 1-2-3). After the humans modeled their actions, and the robots practiced placing the screws, the team moved to a real environment where humans placed screws and Abbie screwed them in. The outcome was fascinating. In the control group, the humans and robots move like awkward dance partners. The human isn't sure where the robot will go next, and doesn't want a screw driven through her hand, so she spends more time waiting around while Abbie is moving. The team that had cross-trained understood each others' preferences much better. They spent 71 percent more time moving at the same moment, a sign of better coordination—like a well-oiled machine, you might say. The humans spent 41 percent less time waiting around for the robot's next action. The humans rated the robot's performance higher, and the robots had a lower "entropy level," meaning they spent less time in uncertainty about what the humans would do next. "What we suspect, and are planning to follow up on, is that the real benefit is coming from adaptation on the human side," said MIT professor Julie Shah, who leads the Interactive Robotics Group. "The person is doing actions in a more repeatable way, developing a better understanding of what the robot can do." Cross-training is a technique the military uses to improve teamwork. How could it work for you? [Robot and Human Image: Daniel Schweinert via Shutterstock]
Depression is complex and influenced by many factors, but the way depressed people think is a likely contributor to the disorder. Depression is often associated with cognitive biases, including paying more attention to negative than positive events and recalling them more easily. People with depression also tend to ruminate over perceived failures and criticism, and they are extra sensitive to negative feedback. Analogous cognitive biases can be found in animals. Now, in a new study, researchers have demonstrated for the first time a link between pessimism and sensitivity to performance feedback in rats. It’s the latest finding to show parallels between human depression and rat pessimism – an important result that lends further legitimacy to using animal research to shed light on human psychological problems. You might wonder how on earth it is possible to measure pessimism in rats. One way to do this was shown in a 2004 study in which animals were trained to press a lever to receive a food reward in response to hearing one tone, and to press a different lever to avoid a mild electric shock upon hearing a different tone. Then the scientists presented the animals with intermediate tones, in between the ones that signaled either food or shock. Which lever the rats pressed in response to these ambiguous cues was considered an indicator of whether the animals expected a positive or negative event. In other words, their behaviour revealed their relative optimism or pessimism. In the new research, Rafal Rygula and Piotr Popik of the Polish Academy of Sciences used the same paradigm to compare the reaction of rats displaying optimistic and pessimistic traits to positive and negative feedback. First, they divided rats into two groups based on how they performed in the ambiguous-cue interpretation test. Some rats tended to interpret ambiguous cues as signaling a reward, indicating a positive cognitive bias, while others were more likely to interpret them as signaling punishment, indicating a bias toward more pessimistic judgments. Then the optimistic and pessimistic rats were trained and tested in a probabilistic reversal-learning (PRL) task, which essentially involves using negative or positive feedback to teach the animals to change or maintain a response that they’ve learned previously. Rygula and Popik determined how likely each rat was to switch its response after receiving negative feedback and to maintain its response following positive feedback. The researchers found that the two groups did not differ in their responses to positive feedback, but that pessimistic rats were more sensitive to negative feedback than optimistic rats. That is, the pessimistic rats were much quicker to drop a previously learned response once it started to be met with negative feedback – you could see this as akin to a depressed human giving up more quickly in response to criticism. This new finding builds on earlier research by Rygula and his colleagues, in which they demonstrated that the trait of pessimism can also influence rats’ motivation levels (the optimistic rats were more motivated than pessimistic rats to obtain a sip of sugary water), and their vulnerability to “stress-induced anhedonia” – after being restrained, which they find stressful, pessimistic rats showed a longer-lasting lost appetite for sugary water. This might represent a reduction in their ability to experience pleasure that is analogous to human anhedonia, which is another important symptom of depression. This new study on sensitivity to negative feedback in pessimistic rats, in combination with Rygula’s two previous studies, supports the claim that rats that tend to be pessimistic are also more likely to demonstrate a variety of behavioral and cognitive processes that are linked with increased vulnerability to depression. It’s hard to know how similar pessimistic rats are to depressed people, but studies like these certainly provide intriguing commonalities. Scientists use animals such as rats as models for human disorders like depression, and use such models to test new therapies and drugs. It seems that rats can display the same negative cognitive biases as people, tending to make negative judgments about events and interpreting ambiguous cues unfavorably. And these biases, in turn, affect both rats’ and humans’ sensitivity to negative feedback. Post written by Mary Bates (@mebwriter) for the BPS Research Digest. Mary is a freelance science writer specialising in the brains and behaviour of humans and other animals. She has been published in National Geographic News, National Geographic's Weird & Wild blog, New Scientist, the Society for Neuroscience's BrainFacts website, plus many other outlets. She earned her PhD from Brown University, where she researched bat echolocation and bullfrog chorusing. You can follow her on Twitter and Facebook and see all of her work at her website. Our free weekly email will keep you up-to-date with all the psychology research we digest: Sign up!
When we first begin to learn about multiplication it can often be a help to get our the box of wooden bricks to explore the idea that multiplying 2 by 3 is the same essentially as building a rectangle of three rows of two bricks like this: Then we probably move on and relegate the insight to the past, which is a pity, since it has a lot to offer as we move more deeply into multiplication involving algebra. Anyone who has been fortunate enough to brush up against Montessori education will know that very young children can quickly become comfortable with the idea of calculations like using flat tiles or even using colourful blocks to build a cube. But why bother? After a while, most students become familiar with the idea that multiplying out results in , so what is the point of messing about with tiles or drawings. Well for me at least, the answer is twofold: firstly I love to see the parallels between the realm in which mathematics operates and the physical world, especially because so often the mathematics casts new light on why the world is as it is. The second reason is almost the opposite, that finding ways to express something on paper often casts light back on the way the mathematics works. That’s the case here, where the three shapes in the design cast light on three simple equations which are useful to remember as building blocks for more complicated work: The first shape in the design illustrates equation 1), with the value of a represented by the brown bar and b by the yellow bar – the bars are only there to show the length of a and b. There is no particular significance to the lengths chosen other than to create a pleasing design. It shouldn’t be difficult to see that what we have here is a square with each side equal to the lengths of a and b added together. And by connecting the places where a and b join we end up with two squares which represent and plus two rectangles which each have one side as a and one side as b, so their size is or, in other words, . So there in one simple shape you have the physical reality behind the equation . The second shape is little more messy, but there’s a good reason. When you’re multiplying together terms which involve minus signs you often end up with a result in which the same value is present in different quantities as positive and negative items. In this case, going the long way around multiplying , where we actually multiply all the terms one by one gives the result . Expressing that as $latex $ is quite correct but we lose some information about the way the thing works. So the second design is an attempt to show the correct final result (which is the area surrounded by the dotted line) without losing those pluses and minuses. What the design says to us is that if we were to take the whole rectangle and divide it up as shown (stay calm) then we end up with the following rectangles: and . to get to we have to subtract and , giving us which is the same as . Once again, expressing the calculation as a picture gives us a better idea of what is going on than simply writing down . (Just as an aside, even if we had drawn in the shorthand form all the information we need is actually there, since the rectangles involved are and two copies of . Multiplying all those out we get and twice = . Unsurprisingly, adding it all together gives .) If you’ve coped with everything so far, the final shape in the design should be obvious. It shows that is actually made up of with two copies of and one subtracted. Multiplying all that out and adding them all together gives which is correct. With a little imagination we can get straight to the final form if we recognize that there are actually two ab rectangles meeting in the bottom right corner. If we take them both at full value to give us then we have taken off too much and we have to add back the square in the corner, which is . This design is reminder that expressing equations on paper or in physical shapes can often demystify them. Perhaps you’d like to try on paper or get out the woodworking tools (or the 3D printer) and produce one of those cubes beloved of children in Montessori nurseries.
Stars are immense, but the space between them is truly phenomenal. chefranden Space is big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist’s, but that’s just peanuts to space.” Douglas Adams, The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy We all know the universe is large, very large, but is it possible to really comprehend just how large it really is? Sit down, take a deep breath, and we can give it a go. In my previous scale article, we considered the sizes of stars, and finished by imagining the sun being the size of an orange. On this scale, the nearest star to the sun, also the size of an orange, would be 2,300 kilometres away. Even through stars can be immense on human scales, they are dwarfed by the distances between them. Let’s continue our journey outwards and consider larger distances in the universe. The first stop is our cosmic home, the Milky Way galaxy. From our vantage point, buried deep within, the Milky Way appears as a broad band of stars encircling the sky. An artist’s impression of the Milky Way. NASA On a clear night, away from the lights of civilisation, we may be able to pick out a few thousand individual stars as mere points of light. The smooth swathe of light that accompanies them, however, is the combined light of many more distant stars. How many? It turns out the Milky Way is home to more than 200 billion stars, lots of stars like the sun, a few spectacular giants, and many, many faint dwarfs. To get a handle on the size of the Milky Way, let’s pretend the distance across it is 3,000km, roughly the distance between Sydney and Perth. On this scale, the separation between the sun and its nearest neighbour would be about 100 metres, whereas the diameter of the sun itself would be about a tenth the thickness of a human hair. Other than a bit of tenuous gas, there’s a lot of empty space in the Milky Way. For much of human history, we have prided ourselves on being at the centre of the universe, but as Douglas Adams pointed out, we live in the “unfashionable end of the Western Spiral arm of the Galaxy”. If the small town of Ceduna in South Australia, sitting roughly midway between Sydney and Perth, was the centre of the Milky Way, our sun would be orbiting 850km away, somewhere beyond Mildura in north-western Victoria (and, no, I’m not suggesting Mildura is unfashionable!) So the Milky Way is huge, and light, traveling at 300,000 kilometres a second, takes 100,000 years to cross from side to side. But we know that we share the universe with many other galaxies, one of the nearest being a sister galaxy to our own, the large spiral galaxy in Andromeda. The Andromeda galaxy. NASA I am writing this in the dome of the 4-metre Mayall Telescope at Kitt Peak in Arizona, during a night where we are observing the Andromeda galaxy. As the light falls on our electronic detectors, it’s always startling to think it has taken more than two million years to travel from there to here, and we are seeing Andromeda as it was before our ancestors, homo ergaster, walked Earth. Andromeda and the Milky Way inhabit a small patch of the universe known as the Local Group. While these two galaxies are by far the largest members, there are another 70 galaxies that are considerably smaller. To think about the scale of the Local Group, imagine that the Milky Way is a large dinner plate, with a diameter of roughly 25cm. With this, the Local Group would occupy the volume of a five storey building, one that is as wide and deep as it is tall, and if the Milky Way sits on a table on the second floor, Andromeda would be a plate on a table on the fourth floor. Spread throughout the rest of the building would be the 70 other Local Group galaxies. While some will be scattered almost randomly, many will be closer to the larger galaxies, but as dwarfs, most would be only a centimetre or less in size. While dwarfs represent the smallest of galaxies, we know we share the universe with some absolute galactic monsters. The largest yet discovered goes by the unassuming name of IC 1101, located a billion light years away (a single light year being equivalent to slightly less than 10 trillion kilometres) from the Milky Way. It truly dwarfs the Milky Way, containing more than a trillion stars, and would easily fill our five storey building. 4-metre Mayall Telescope. Astro Guy So, we approach the ultimate distance scale for astronomers, the size of observable universe. This is the volume from which we can have received light in the 13.7 billion year history since the Big Bang. Due to the expansion of the universe, the most distant objects are a mind-boggling 46 billion light years away from us. Can we hope to put this on some sort of understandable scale? The answer is yes! Let’s think of the entire Milky Way as a 10c coin, roughly one centimetre across. Andromeda would be another 10c coin just quarter of a metre away, and the Local Group could easily be held in your arms. The edge of the Observable Universe would be 5km away, and the universe would be awash with 300 billion large galaxies, such as our own Milky Way, living in groups and clusters, accompanied by an estimated ten trillion dwarf galaxies. This is a total of 30 billion trillion individual stars. And yet most of the universe is almost completely empty. At the edge of the Observable Universe, we have almost reached the end of our journey. We are left with the question of what is beyond the Observable Universe? Just how much more is out there? If we combine all of our observations of the universe, with our theoretical understanding of just how it works, we are left with a somewhat uncomfortable fact. The universe appears to be infinite in all directions, containing a infinite number of galaxies and stars. And that really is a lot to think about. Read the article at The Conversation
To create a lesson plan template, teachers should note the intended class or subject at the top of the page and designate a time duration for the lesson. The template should provide a space for materials required, key vocabulary, a description of the lesson and objectives for the students.Continue Reading When using a lesson plan template, teachers can quickly fill in the name of the subject or course and the time designated for the lesson as well as any handouts, props or equipment needed to complete the lesson. Each lesson plan should include vocabulary terms or jargon the students are required to learn. A brief overview of the lesson should be included for the description to help identify key tasks and serve as a guide for the teacher during the lesson. A list of the objectives helps to pinpoint what students are learning and goals for the assignment or activity. Teachers can also choose to align the objectives with state or national academic standards that must be met in each subject students are learning. Lesson plan templates help teachers to organize and plan ahead before the school day so that teachers are not spending extra time retyping a lesson plan each evening.Learn more about K-12
Have you ever wondered what the difference between "good" and "bad" cholesterol is? Well, you're certainly not alone. Many people want to know why low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or "bad" cholesterol) is bad, while high-density lipoprotein (HDL, or "good" cholesterol) is good. We will see in a moment. Lipoproteins are molecular aggregates of lipids (which are fat-soluble molecules) and proteins. Cholesterol is a lipid and therefore does not dissolve in blood, which is mostly water. To be transported throughout the body from its source in the liver, it must be incorporated into lipoproteins, which do dissolve in blood. Thus, all the cholesterol in your bloodstream is a component of one kind of lipoprotein or another. Scroll To Top
Biology IGCSE aims to give students knowledge and understanding of biological facts, concepts and principles. They will develop an appreciation of the importance of accurate experimental work in scientific method and reporting as well as forming hypotheses and designing experiments to test them. Students will develop an enjoyment and an interest in the study of living organisms. There subject is broken down into five sections. Section 1 (The nature and variety of living organisms) will introduce you to the diversity of life by looking at plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protoctists and viruses and their features. Section 2 (Structures and functions in living organisms) looks at the differences between plant and animal cells. The similarities and differences between diffusion, osmosis and active transport will be explained. Details of the human digestive system will be given, with the functions of the different parts. The experimental evidence showing what a plant needs for photosynthesis will be discussed. In Section 3 (Reproduction and inheritance) adaptations of wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers will be introduced. The functions of the main parts of the human reproductive systems will be discussed and the hormones involved in the menstrual cycle shown by means of graphs. Patterns of inheritance will be shown via working out genetics problems. In Section 4 (Ecology and the environment), technical terms used in ecology will be defined. The carbon, water and nitrogen cycles will be explained. The effects of humans on the environment will be considered (eg pollution). In Section 5 (Use of biological resources), you will look at how knowledge of biology can be used to increase the production of food for people will be discussed. Biotechnology such as genetic engineering and cloning will be explained. What skills do I need? You need an interest in science and the living world. You need to have good mathematical skills too. How is the course assessed? The course is assessed by two written papers. Both papers cover all five sections and include questions about experimental work. Paper 1 lasts two hours and is worth 66% of the total marks. Paper 2 lasts one hour and is worth 33% of the total marks. Longman Biology for IGCSE By A. Fullick Published by Longman, ISBN 978-0435966881 Exam Board and Specification Code Pearson-Edexcel GCSE 4 BIO Head of Department
Roman and Byzantine Egypt: background Information In 30 BC Egypt became a Roman province with a special status. Egypt was directly under the authority of the emperor and was ruled by a prefect. Senators or eques illustris (knights) could only enter the country with a special permission of the emperor. The country was divided into three districts (Thebais, Middle Egypt and the Delta). Head of these districts was the 'epistrategos' who had administrative, but no military power. Each of the districts was divided into several nomes, which were ruled by a strategos. The Egyptian were 'subjects' (dediticii), who had to pay a poll tax. Only people of the Greek cities (Naukratis, Alexandria, Ptolemaios, Antinooupolis) and the descendants of the Greek settlers in the Fayum were exempt. In AD 212 (Constitutio Antoniana) all people of the Roman Empire became Roman citizens. Under Diocletian, who reorganised the whole Roman Empire, the previously single province of Egypt was divided into three provinces: Aegyptus Jovia (with Alexandria), Aegyptus Herculia and Thebais. In AD 395 the Roman empire was divided into two halves. Egypt became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), which was now a Christian empire. AD 539 the Egyptian provinces were directly under the 'praefectus praetorio per Orientem'. He had civil, but also military power. In AD 619 Egypt was conquered by the (Sassanidian) Iranians, and their occupation of the land lasted till AD 629. In AD 639 Amr ibn el-As invaded Egypt. In AD 641 he conquered the fortification of Babylon (today Old Cairo) and in AD 642 Alexandria. A Byzantine fleet reconquered the city in AD 645, but it was lost again in AD 646. Egypt seems to have been in many ways a special province of the Roman empire. However, there are also many signs that it was a quite 'normal' province. Each province of the Roman Empire had its own character. Egypt was now part of the Mediterranean world more than ever before. Products from Egypt (papyrus, grain) were sold across the whole Roman Empire. Products of other parts of the Empire were imported into Egypt. The Ptolemies had represented themselves as true Pharaohs, especially in performing Egyptian rituals of kingship: Roman Emperors were also shown on Egyptian temple reliefs as pharaohs, but few of them ever visited Egypt. The Ptolemies tried to co-operate with the Egyptians and their structures, whereas the Romans deleted powerful offices (such as the high priest of Ptah, which was indiscontinued under the Romans). Only Greek writing was used in administration: the Egyptian demotic script (which had also never been the main administrative script under the Ptolemies) was now only used in religious contexts, and otherwise only occasionally for private transactions or lowest level records such as tax receipts on ostraca in Upper Egypt. Material culture in Roman Egypt is fully Hellenised. Within a few generations Egyptian motifs disappeared in many areas: for example, the production of private statuary in Egyptian style stops in the first century AD. Ancient Egyptian formal art only survived for a longer time in certain religious contexts. Temples and their decoration were still in Egyptian style till the third century AD. Egyptian motifs also survived longer in funerary contexts. Mummy masks which were produced in the Ptolemaic Period in a more Egyptian style were increasingly produced in a more classical Greek/Roman style, but sometimes decorated with Egyptian motifs. The archaeology of Roman Egypt seems very different to the archaeology of Ptolemaic Egypt. Ptolemaic settlements were often still occupied in Roman times. Therefore the Ptolemaic levels of these towns are only badly recorded, with relatively few diagnostic objects of daily use known. Roman levels are at many settlement sites the highest levels. They are easy to excavate and therefore there are plenty of daily life objects from the Roman (and Coptic) Period. Furthermore, burial customs changed in the Roman Period. Throughout the Late and Ptolemaic Period (about 1000 - 30 BC) objects of daily life were rarely placed in tombs, but under the Romans they were placed into the tombs. For these two reasons there is an amazingly high number of daily life objects from Roman Egypt, offering a unique detailed view of a Roman province not known to the same extent from any other parts of the Roman empire, including thousands of written texts, also on a scale not paralleled from other parts of the empire. The history of the archaeology of Roman Egypt is a rather sad story. Excavations in Egypt have focussed most often on earlier periods, destroying without recording Roman levels. Excavations concentrating on Roman sites and levels were often only interested in single aspects, such as finding papyri and painted mummy portraits. Oxyrhynchus is well-known for its thousands of papyri. The life of the inhabitants is the best known of any ancient city. However, the excavators did not record the houses or any finds, although the houses and buildings are described in passing as well preserved. Lewis 1983 (summary on Roman Egypt, mainly based on the written sources) Copyright © 2003 University College London. All rights reserved.
This is the third in a series of posts on rocket science. Part I covered… (Caveat: There is a little bit more maths in this post than usual. I have tried to explain the equations as good as possible using diagrams. In any case, the real treat is at the end of the post where I go through the design of rocket nozzles. However, understanding this design methodology is naturally easier by first reading what comes before.) One of the most basic equations in fluid dynamics is Bernoulli’s equation: the relationship between pressure and velocity in a moving fluid. It is so fundamental to aerodynamics that it is often cited (incorrectly!) when explaining how aircraft wings create lift. The fact is that Bernoulli’s equation is not a fundamental equation of aerodynamics at all, but a particular case of the conservation of energy applied to a fluid of constant density. The underlying assumption of constant density is only valid for low-speed flows, but does not hold in the case of high-speed flows where the kinetic energy causes changes in the gas’ density. As the speed of a fluid approaches the speed of sound, the properties of the fluid undergo changes that cannot be modelled accurately using Bernoulli’s equation. This type of flow is known as compressible. As a rule of thumb, the demarcation line for compressibility is around 30% the speed of sound, or around 100 m/s for dry air close to Earth’s surface. This means that air flowing over a normal passenger car can be treated as incompressible, whereas the flow over a modern jumbo jet is not. The fluid dynamics and thermodynamics of compressible flow are described by five fundamental equations, of which Bernoulli’s equation is a special case under the conditions of constant density. For example, let’s consider an arbitrary control volume of fluid and assume that any flow of this fluid is - adiabatic, meaning there is no heat transfer out of or into the control volume. - inviscid, meaning no friction is present. - at constant energy, meaning no external work (for example by a compressor) is done on the fluid. This type of flow is known as isentropic (constant entropy), and includes fluid flow over aircraft wings, but not fluid flowing through rotating turbines. At this point you might be wondering how we can possible increase the speed of a gas without passing it through some machine that adds energy to the flow? The answer is the fundamental law of conservation of energy. The temperature, pressure and density of a fluid at rest are known as the stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure and stagnation density, respectively. These stagnation values are the highest values that the gas can possibly attain. As the flow velocity of a gas increases, the pressure, temperature and density must fall in order to conserve energy, i.e. some of the internal energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. Hence, expansion of a gas leads to an increase in its velocity. The isentropic flow described above is governed by five fundamental conservation equations that are expressed in terms density (), pressure (), velocity (), area (), mass flow rate (), temperature () and entropy (). This means that at two stations of the flow, 1 and 2, the following expressions must hold: – Conservation of mass: – Conservation of linear momentum: – Conservation of energy: – Equation of state: – Conservation of entropy (in adiabatic and inviscid flow only): where is the specific universal gas constant (normalised by molar mass) and is the specific heat at constant pressure. The Speed of Sound Fundamental to the analysis of supersonic flow is the concept of the speed of sound. Without knowledge of the local speed of sound we cannot gauge where we are on the compressibility spectrum. As a simple mind experiment, consider the plunger in a plastic syringe. The speed of sound describes the speed at which a pressure wave is transmitted through the air chamber by a small movement of the piston. As a very weak wave is being transmitted, the assumptions made above regarding no heat transfer and inviscid flow are valid here, and any variations in the temperature and pressure are small. Under these conditions it can be shown from only the five conservation equations above that the local speed of sound within the fluid is given by: The term is the heat capacity ratio, i.e. the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure () and specific heat at constant volume (), and is independent of temperature and pressure. The specific universal gas constant , as the name suggests, is also a constant and is given by the difference of the specific heats, . As the above equation shows, the speed of sound of a gas only depends on the temperature. The speed of sound in dry air ( J/(kg K), = 1.4) at the freezing point of 0° C (273 Kelvin) is 331 m/s. Why is the speed of sound purely a function of temperature? Well, the temperature of a gas is a measure of the gas’ kinetic energy, which essentially describes how much the individual gas molecules are jiggling about. As the air molecules are moving randomly with differing instantaneous speeds and energies at different points in time, the temperature describes the average kinetic energy of the collection of molecules over a period of time. The higher the temperature the more ferocious the molecules are jiggling about and the more often they bump into each other. A pressure wave momentarily disturbs some particles and this extra energy is transferred through the gas by the collisions of molecules with their neighbours. The higher the temperature, the quicker the pressure wave is propagated through the gas due to the higher rate of collisions. This visualisation is also helpful in explaining why the speed of sound is a special property in fluid dynamics. One possible source of an externally induced pressure wave is the disturbance of an object moving through the fluid. As the object slices through the air it collides with stationary air particles upstream of the direction of motion. This collision induces a pressure wave which is transmitted via the molecular collisions described above. Now imagine what happens when the object is travelling faster than the speed of sound. This means the moving object is creating new disturbances upstream of its direction of motion at a faster rate than the air can propagate the pressure waves through the gas by means of molecular collisions. The rate of pressure wave creation is faster than the rate of pressure wave transmission. Or put more simply, information is created more quickly than it can be transmitted; we have run out of bandwidth. For this reason, the speed of sound marks an important demarcation line in fluid dynamics which, if exceeded, introduces a number of counter-intuitive effects. Given the importance of the speed of sound, the relative speed of a body with respect to the local speed of sound is described by the Mach Number: The Mach number is named after Ernst Mach who conducted many of the first experiments on supersonic flow and captured the first ever photograph of a shock wave (shown below). As described previously, when an object moves through a gas, the molecules just ahead of the object are pushed out of the way, creating a pressure pulse that propagates in all directions (imagine a spherical pressure wave) at the speed of sound relative to the fluid. Now let’s imagine a loudspeaker emitting three sound pulses at equal intervals, , , . If the object is stationary, then the three sound pulses at times , and are concentric (see figure below). However, if the object starts moving in one direction, the centre of the spheres shift to the side and the sound pulses bunch up in the direction of motion and spread out in the opposite direction. A bystander listening to the sound pulses upstream of the loudspeaker would therefore hear a higher pitched sound than a downstream bystander as the frequency the sound waves reaching him are higher. This is known as the Doppler effect. If the object now accelerates to the local speed of sound, then the centres of the sound pulse spheres will be travelling just as fast as the sound waves themselves and the spherical waves all touch at one point. This means no sound can travel ahead of the loudspeaker and consequently an observer ahead of the loudspeaker will hear nothing. Finally, if the loudspeaker travels at a uniform speed greater than the speed of sound, then the loudspeaker will in fact overtake the sound pulses it is creating. In this case, the loudspeaker and the leading edges of the sound waves form a locus known as the Mach cone. An observer standing outside this cone is in a zone of silence and is not aware of the sound waves created by the loudspeaker. The half angle of this cone is known as the Mach angle and is equal to and therefore when the object is travelling at the speed of sound and decreases with increasing velocity. As mentioned previously, the temperature, pressure and density of the gas all fall as the flow speed of the gas increases. The relation between Mach number and temperature can be derived directly from the conservation of energy (stated above) and is given by: where is the maximum total temperature, also known as stagnation temperature, and is called the static temperature of the gas moving at velocity . An intuitive way of explaining the relationship between temperature and flow speed is to return to the description of the vibrating gas molecules. Previously we established that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the kinetic energy of the vibrating molecules. Hence, the stagnation temperature is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the air molecules in a stationary gas. However, if the gas is moving in a certain direction at speed then there will be a real net movement of the air molecules. The molecules will still be vibrating about, but at a net movement in a specific direction. If the total energy of the gas is to remain constant (no external work), some of the kinetic energy of the random vibrations must be converted into kinetic energy of directed motion, and hence the energy associated with random vibration, i.e. the temperature, must fall. Therefore, the gas temperature falls as some of the thermal internal energy is converted into kinetic energy. In a similar fashion, for flow at constant entropy, both the pressure and density of the fluid can be quantified by the Mach number. In this regard the Mach number can simply be interpreted as the degree of compressibility of a gas. For small Mach numbers (M< 0.3), the density changes by less than 5% and this is why the assumptions of constant density underlying Bernoulli’s equation are applicable. An Application: Convergent-divergent Nozzles In typical engineering applications, compressible flow typically occurs in ducts, e.g. engine intakes, or through the exhaust nozzles of afterburners and rockets. This latter type of flow typically features changes in area. If we consider a differential, i.e. infinitesimally small control volume, where the cross-sectional area changes by , then the velocity of the flow must also change by a small amount in order to conserve the mass flow rate. Under these conditions we can show that the change in velocity is related to the change in area by the following equation: Without solving this equation for a specific problem we can reveal some interesting properties of compressible flow: - For M < 1, i.e. subsonic flow, with a positive constant. This means that increasing the flow velocity is only possible with a decrease in cross-sectional area and vice versa. - For M = 1, i.e. sonic flow . As has to be finite this implies that and therefore the area must be a minimum for sonic flow. - For M > 1, i.e. supersonic flow . This means that increasing the flow velocity is only possible with an increase in cross-sectional area and vice versa. Hence, because of the term , changes in subsonic and supersonic flows are of opposite sign. This means that if we want to expand a gas from subsonic to supersonic speeds, we must first pass the flow through a convergent nozzle to reach Mach 1, and then expand it in a divergent nozzle to reach supersonic speeds. Therefore, at the point of minimum area, known as the throat, the flow must be sonic and, as a result, rocket engines always have large bell-shaped nozzle in order to expand the exhaust gases into supersonic jets. The flow through such a bell-shaped convergent-divergent nozzle is driven by the pressure difference between the combustion chamber and the nozzle outlet. In the combustion chamber the gas is basically at rest and therefore at stagnation pressure. As it exits the nozzle, the gas is typically moving and therefore at a lower pressure. In order to create supersonic flow, the first important condition is a high enough pressure ratio between the combustion chamber and the throat of the nozzle to guarantee that the flow is sonic at the throat. Without this critical condition at the throat, there can be no supersonic flow in the divergent section of the nozzle. We can determine this exact pressure ratio for dry air () from the relationship between pressure and Mach number given above: Therefore, a pressure ratio greater than or equal to 1.893 is required to guarantee sonic flow at the throat. The temperature at this condition would then be: or 1.2 times smaller than the temperature in the combustion chamber (as long as there is no heat loss or work done in the meantime, i.e. isentropic flow). The term “shock wave” implies a certain sense of drama; the state of shock after a traumatic event, the shock waves of a revolution, the shock waves of an earthquake, thunder, the cracking of a whip, and so on. In aerodynamics, a shock wave describes a thin front of energy, approximately m in thickness (that’s 0.1 microns, or 0.0001 mm) across which the state of the gas changes abruptly. The gas density, temperature and pressure all significantly increase across the shock wave. A specific type of shock wave that lends itself nicely to straightforward analysis is called a normal shock wave, as it forms at right angles to the direction of motion. The conservation laws stated at the beginning of this post still hold and these can be used to prove a number of interesting relations that are known as the Prandtl relation and the Rankine equations. The Prandtl relation provides a means of calculating the speed of the fluid flow after a normal shock, given the flow speed before the shock. where is the speed of sound at the stagnation temperature of the flow. Because we are assuming no external work or heat transfer across the shock wave, the internal energy of the flow must be conserved across the shock, and therefore the stagnation temperature also does not change across the shock wave. This means that the speed of sound at the stagnation temperature must also be conserved and therefore the Prandtl relation shows that the product of upstream and downstream velocities must always be a constant. Hence, they are inversely proportional. We can further extend the Prandtl relation to express all flow properties (speed, temperature, pressure and density) in terms of the upstream Mach number , and hence the degree of compressibility before the shock wave. In the Prandtl relation we replace the velocities with their Mach numbers and divide both sides of the equations by and because we know the relationship between temperature, stagnation temperature and Mach number from above: substitution for states 1 and 2 the Prandtl relation is transformed into: This equation looks a bit clumsy but it is actually quite straightforward given that the terms involving are constants. For clarity a graphical representation of the the equation is shown below. It is clear from the figure that for we necessarily have . Therefore a shock wave automatically turns the flow from supersonic to subsonic. In the case of we have reached the limiting case of a sound wave for which there is no change in the gas properties. Similar expressions can also be derived for the pressure, temperature and density, which all increase across a shock wave, and these are known as the Rankine equations. Both the temperature and pressure ratios increase with higher Mach number such that both and tend to infinity as tends to infinity. The density ratio however, does not tend to infinity but approaches an asymptotic value of 6 as increases. In isentropic flow, the relationship between the pressure ratio and the density ratio must hold. Given that tends to infinity with increasing but does not, this implies that the above relation between pressure ratio and density ratio must be broken with increasing , i.e. the flow can no longer conserve entropy. In fact, in the limiting case of a sound wave, where , there is an infinitesimally weak shock wave and the flow is isentropic with no change in the gas properties. When a shock wave forms as a result of supersonic flow the entropy always increases across the shock. Even though the Rankine equations are valid mathematically for subsonic flow, the predicted fluid properties lead to a decrease in entropy, which contradicts the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hence, shock waves can only be created in supersonic flow and the pressure, temperature and density always increase across it. With our new-found knowledge on supersonic flow and nozzles we can now begin to intuitively design a convergent-divergent nozzle to be used on a rocket. Consider two reservoirs connected by a convergent-divergent nozzle (see figure below). The gas within the upstream reservoir is stagnant at a specific stagnation temperature and pressure . The pressure in the downstream reservoir, called the back pressure , can be regulated using a valve. The pressure at the exit plane of the divergent section of the nozzle is known as the exit pressure , and the pressure at the point of minimum area within the nozzle is known as the throat pressure . Changing the back pressure influences the variation of the pressure throughout the nozzle as shown in the figure above. Depending on the back pressure, eight different conditions are possible at the exit plane. - The no-flow condition: In this case the valve is closed and . This is the trivial condition where nothing interesting happens. No flow, nothing, boring. - Subsonic flow regime: The valve is opened slightly and the flow is entirely subsonic throughout the entire nozzle. The pressure decreases from the stagnant condition in the upstream reservoir to a minimum at the throat, but because the flow does not reach the critical pressure ratio , the flow does not reach Mach 1 at the throat. Hence, the flow cannot accelerate further in the divergent section and slows down again, thereby increasing the pressure. The exit pressure is exactly equal to the back pressure. - Choking condition: The back pressure has now reached a critical condition and is low enough for the flow to reach Mach 1 at the throat. Hence, . However, the exit flow pressure is still equal to the back pressure () and therefore the divergent section of the nozzle still acts as a diffuser; the flow does not go supersonic. However, as the flow can not go faster than Mach 1 at the throat, the maximum mass flow rate has been achieved and the nozzle is now choked. - Non-isentropic flow regime: Lowering the back pressure further means that the flow now reaches Mach 1 at the throat and can then accelerate to supersonic speeds within the divergent portion of the nozzle. The flow in the convergent section of the nozzle remains the same as in condition 3) as the nozzle is choked. Due to the supersonic flow, a shock wave forms within the divergent section turning the flow from supersonic into subsonic. Downstream of the shock the divergent nozzle now diffuses the flow further to equalise the back pressure and exit pressure (). The lower the back pressure is decreased, the further the shock wave travels downstream towards the exit plane, increasing the severity of the shock at the same time. The location of the shock wave within the divergent section will always be such as to equalise the exit and back pressures. - Exit plane shock condition: This is the limiting condition where the shock wave in the divergent portion has moved exactly to the exit plane. At the exit of the nozzle there is an abrupt increase in pressure at the exit plane and therefore the exit plane pressure and back pressure are still the same (). - Overexpansion flow regime: The back pressure is now low enough that the flow is subsonic throughout the convergent portion of the nozzle, sonic at the throat and supersonic throughout the entire divergent portion. This means that the exit pressure is now lower than the gas pressure (the flow is overexpanded), causing it to suddenly contract once it exits the nozzle. These sudden compressions cause nonisentropic oblique pressure waves which cannot be modelled using the simple 1D flow assumptions we have made here. - Nozzle design condition: At the nozzle design condition the back pressure is low enough to match the pressure of the supersonic flow at the exit plane. Hence, the flow is entirely isentropic within the nozzle and inside the downstream reservoir. As described in a previous post on rocketry, this is the ideal operating condition for a nozzle in terms of efficiency. - Underexpansion flow regime: Contrary to the over expansion regime, the back pressure is now lower than the exit pressure of the supersonic flow, such that the exit flow must expand to equilibrate with the reservoir pressure. In this case, the flow is again governed by oblique pressure waves, which this time expand outward rather than contract inward. Thus, as we have seen the flow inside and outside of the nozzle is driven by the back pressure and by the requirement of the exit pressure and back pressure to equilibrate once the flow exits the nozzle. In some cases this occurs as a result of shocks inside the nozzle and in others as a result of pressure waves outside. In terms of the structural mechanics of the nozzle, we obviously do not want shock to occur inside the nozzle in case this damages the structural integrity. Ideally, we would want to operate a rocket nozzle at the design condition, but as the atmospheric pressure changes throughout a flight into space, a rocket nozzle is typically overexpanded at take-off and underexpanded in space. To account for this, variable area nozzles and other clever ideas have been proposed to operate as close as possible to the design condition. Sign-up to the monthly Aerospaced newsletter - Rocket Science 101: Fuel, engine and nozzle This is the third in a series of posts on rocket science. Part I covered… - Rocket Science 101: Operating Principles In a previous post we covered the history of rocketry over the last 2000 years. By… - Rocket Science 101: Lightweight rocket shells This is the fourth and final part of a series of posts on rocket science.…
Study Notes For Research Methodology Topics for UGC NET EXAM CBSE UGC NET PAPER 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Based on the analysis of previous year cbse ugc exam net paper 1 this has been seen the most of the question were from one of following categories - Different definition - Qualities of good research - Classification of research - Steps involved in research - Standard and good practices - Variables used in research Definition of Research : Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. In the well-known nursery rhyme “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star ,How I Wonder What You Are” The use of the words how and what essentially summarizes what research is. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is indeed civilization and determines the economic, social and political development of a nation. The results of scientific research very often force a change in the philosophical view of problems which extend far beyond the restricted domain of Objectives of Research? The prime objectives of research are : - to discover new facts - to verify and test important facts - to analyses an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship - to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and nonscientific problems - to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and - to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life. Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast areas of research in other disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociology. Whatever might be the subject, research has to be an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviors and theories. Applying the outcome of research for the refinement of knowledge in other subjects, or in enhancing the quality of human life also becomes a kind of research and development. RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology? \|Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments. \|Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research. TYPES OF RESEARCH Research is broadly classified into following main classes: Fundamental or basic research - Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. - Basic researches some times may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it. - It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research. Researchers working on applied research have to make use of the outcomes of basic research and explore the utility of them. - Research on improving a theory or a method is also referred as fundamental research. For example, suppose a theory is applicable to a system provided the system satisfies certain specific conditions. - Attempts to find answers to the following questions actually form basic research. - Why are materials like that - What are they? - How does a crystal melt? - Why is sound produced when water is heated? - Why do we feel difficult when walking on seashore? - Why are birds arrange them in ‘>’ shape when flying in a group - Examples of Fundamental or Basic Research : - All Famous Theorems of Physics - All Laws of Maths and science we studied from childhood - In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are essentially applied research. - Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. - Such a research is of practical use to current activity. For example, research on social problems have immediate use. Applied research is concerned with actual life research such as research on increasing efficiency of a machine, increasing gain factor of production of a material, pollution control, preparing vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously, they have immediate potential applications. - Educational research is further divided into following four categories - Historical research - Qualitative research - Quantitative research - Experimental research Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives Quantitative and Qualitative Methods The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. The result of this research is essentially a number or a set of numbers. Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are: • It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses numbers. • It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated. • The results are often presented in tables and graphs. • It is conclusive. • It investigates the what, where and when of decision making Where as the Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are: • It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. • Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation. • Qualitative data cannot be graphed. • It is exploratory. • It investigates the why and how of decision making VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important steps to follow. The problem must be stated clearly, including any simplifying assumptions. Then develop a mathematical statement of the problem. This process may involve use of one or more mathematical procedures. Frequently, more advanced text books or review articles will be needed to learn about the techniques and procedures. Next, the results have to be interpreted to arrive at a decision. This will require experience and an understanding of the situation in which the problem is embedded. A general set of sequential components of research is the following: - Selection of a research topic - Definition of a research problem - Literature survey and reference collection - Assessment of current status of the topic chosen - Formulation of hypotheses - Research design - Actual investigation - Data analysis - Interpretation of result So far, we have seen different types of research methods and methodology along with key differences. the important take away from this part is definition of research and difference. In next part we will see various stages of research and the key items to be considered. 1. Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS Publishers’Distributors 2. Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Limited. 3. Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners,(2nd.ed.),Singapore, Pearson Education. 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY S. Rajasekar School of Physics, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli – 620 024, Tamilnadu, India∗
Scientists at the University of Manchester have developed a new type of self-replicating computer that uses DNA to make calculations, a breakthrough that could make computing far more efficient. Computing with DNA was first proposed in 1994 as a way to solve problems faster than with normal computers. DNA has a number of advantages over silicon that makes it ideal for problem solving, namely that it’s extremely small and highly stable. Advertisement – Continue Reading Below But the biggest advantage of DNA is that it can copy itself. In computing terms, this means that a DNA computer can run an arbitrary number of calculations at the same time, which is very important for solving complex problems. While a typical computer might have to do a billion calculations one after another, a DNA computer can just make a billion copies of itself and do all the calculations… View original post 59 more words
The shell will allow users to set up pipes since it knows how to use them. The pipeline which is symbolized by "\|", takes the output of one command as the input to a second command. It is an easy way to accomplish one goal using two or more steps. Lesson 6 / Lesson 8 If you need to display output that scrolls off of the top, you can't scroll back to see what you missed. So what do you do if you want to see all of the output? Easy, just pipe the output into the "less" utility. Here is an example: You are collecting data in your logs and you have captured a number of IP Addresses that are important to you. You can use echo to send them to a line. echo "192.168.7.26 192.168.3.34 192.168.4.2" 192.168.7.26 192.168.3.34 192.168.4.2 However to be more useful you need them all on separate lines so that you can create a script that reads one line at a time. As a result you use a "\|" to send the output of the first command to the second command. echo "192.168.7.26 192.168.3.34 192.168.4.2" \| tr " " "\n" But now you would like to create an ordered list that is from smallest to largest IP Address. Again pipe to another command. echo "192.168.7.26 192.168.3.34 192.168.4.2" \| tr " " "\n" \| sort For example, if you want to see a detailed listing of all of the files in your current directory, just enter: ls -la \| less Now, you'll be able to use the "Page Up" and "Page Down" keys to see all of the output. You'll also be able to use the less utility's search function. Just hit the / key, followed by the string of text that you're searching for. If you want to search for lines that begin with a certain text string, enter /^ followed by the string of text. If you want to search for lines with a certain string at the end of a line, enter / followed by the string of text with a $ at the end. There is one slight trade-off, though. By looking at the ls output in unadorned bash, you'll have a nice color-coded display, with a different color for each type of file. When you pipe the output through less, you'll lose the color-coding. Note: Same Linux distros aren't set up for color-coded bash display. The ls utility isn't the only thing that you can do this trick with. You can use it with just about any utility that produces a screen output. How you open your terminal emulator will again depend on which distro of Linux that you're working with. In most cases, you'll open it from a selection on your application menu. Different distros will have it in different sub-menus. Usually, you'll look for it either under the "System Tools" sub-menu, or the "Accessories" sub-menu. With bash, you'll have a fairly comprehensive set of commands at your disposal. Some are internal commands, which are built into the bash executable. Others are external commands, which are separate executables unto themselves. Copyright CyberMontana Inc. and BeginLinux.com All rights reserved. Cannot be reproduced without written permission. Box 1262 Trout Creek, MT 59874
Objective: Chapter 1 \| Chapter 2 ALICE - In this chapter, the reader is introduced to Alice, the protagonist of the novel, and is given insight into her various relationships. The objective of this lesson is for students to explore the character of Alice based on their first impressions of her, and to discuss the way that Alice's relationships may become central in the themes of this novel. 1) 1.) As a class, create a list of adjectives used to describe Alice. Based on first impressions, do you think Alice will be a likable protagonist? Why or why not? 2.) As a class, create a list of relationships explored through Alice's character. Do any of Alice's relationships seem to be functional? Why or why not? 3.) Based on the information presented in the first chapter, do you think that Alice will leave her husband, as she intends to do? Divide the class into two... This section contains 9,137 words (approx. 31 pages at 300 words per page)
It would be impossible to have made it through the last year without hearing about the dangers of Ebola. Luckily, a battle against one of the scariest diseases in the 21st century was won! An Ebola vaccine has recently been created that effectively prevents the Zaire strain (ZEBOV) of Ebola. There are currently five identified Ebola strains known by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Ebola virus, Sudan virus, Taï Forest virus, Bundibugyo virus, and Reston virus. The last strain does not cause the disease in humans, so a total of four out of five strains are pathogenic to humans. There are several key reasons why Ebola is such a widely feared disease. The first reason is its ease of transmission through contact with infected blood, bodily fluids, organs, and contaminated environments. Once infected, the virus has an incubation period (duration of time during which no symptoms show) of anywhere from two days to three weeks from the initial infection. People who are infected often show symptoms of fever, extreme weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, and internal hemorrhage, and the disease is unfortunately fatal for most people. Until this vaccine, there was no cure for Ebola, so patients were treated with intravenous fluids (IV drip), and doctors simply hoped for the best outcome. Image Source: John Moore This all changed when a team of scientists designed an Ebola virus vaccine. Through their study, the team measured the amount of antibodies produced in the body after vaccination and tested patients’ blood against the Zaire Ebola strain in a recognized ELISA assay (diagnostic method) to test whether there was a neutralization effect for the pathogen. The results suggested that 100% of the patients had an expected immune response against the virus vaccine; however, none of the patients were actually exposed to the virus. This means that theoretically there should be protective immunity against the Zaire Ebola virus strain, but it has not been field tested. Only time will be able to tell whether this is a lasting vaccine for the future. However, even just a glimmer of hope against this tragic disease is a definitely a step in the right direction. Feature Image Source: Vaccine Production by Sanofi Pasteur
Farm and Ranch Practices Farmers and ranchers can choose many ways to improve their sustainability, and these vary from region to region, state to state and farm to farm. However, some common sets of practices have emerged, many of them aimed at greater use of on-farm or local resources. Some of those practices are described here, each contributing in some way to long-term farm profitability, environmental stewardship and improved quality of life. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) IPM is an approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical, and chemical tools in ways that minimize economic, health and environmental risks. Management-intensive grazing systems take animals out of the barn and into the pasture to provide high-quality forage and reduced feed costs while avoiding manure buildup. Many soil conservation methods, including strip cropping, reduced tillage, and no-till, help prevent loss of soil caused by wind and water erosion. Water conservation and protection have become important parts of agricultural stewardship. Practices such as planting riparian buffer strips can improve the quality of drinking and surface water, as well as protect wetlands. Growing plants such as rye, clover, or vetch after harvesting a grain or vegetable crop or intercropping them can provide several benefits, including weed suppression, erosion control, and improved soil nutrients and Growing a greater variety of crops and livestock on a farm can help reduce risks from extremes in weather, market conditions, or pests. Increased diversity of crops and other plants, such as trees and shrubs, also can contribute to soil conservation, wildlife habitat, and increased populations of beneficial Proper management of manure, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients can improve the soil and protect the environment. Increased use of on-farm nutrient sources, such as manure and leguminous cover crops, also reduces purchased fertilizer costs. Agroforestry covers a range of tree uses on farms, including inter-planting trees (such as walnuts) with crops or pasture, growing shade-loving specialty crops in forests, better managing woodlots and windbreaks, and using trees and shrubs along streams as buffer strips. Farmers and ranchers across the country are finding that innovative marketing strategies can improve profits. Direct marketing of agricultural goods may include selling at farmers markets, roadside stands, or through the World Wide Web; delivering to restaurants and small grocers; and running community-supported agriculture (CSA) enterprises. Back to Sustainable Agriculture Home Page
Definition - What does Home Key mean? The Home key is a key found on most physical and virtual keyboards and is supported by most operating systems. The Home key is supported by certain software applications as well. The primary functionality of the Home key in most applications is to return the cursor to the beginning of a line, document, page, screen or worksheet cell based on the position of the cursor. Techopedia explains Home Key The Home key helps in navigation of applications or a word processing programs. It is most commonly used to make the cursor move to the beginning of the line in a text editing program. The Home key has the opposite functionality of the End key. Keyboards which do not have a Home key, usually due to limited size, can achieve the same functionality with the combination of a function key and the left arrow key. If a document is not editable, the Home key can help in scrolling the scrollable document to the beginning in operating systems like Microsoft and Linux. This is in addition to the functionality involving text editing applications, where the Home key can help return the cursor to the beginning of the document or the current line. Along with other function keys, the Home key can provide different functions like selecting all characters in a selectable text before the cursor, by pressing a combination of the Home and Shift keys simultaneously. In software applications, the Home key can have different functions such as reaching the menu screen. Join thousands of others with our weekly newsletter The 4th Era of IT Infrastructure: Superconverged Systems: Approaches and Benefits of Network Virtualization: Free E-Book: Public Cloud Guide: Free Tool: Virtual Health Monitor: Free 30 Day Trial – Turbonomic:
Globally, breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related death in women, with some 327 000 deaths each year. There are 1·35 million new cases every year, and about 4·4 million women are believed to be living with breast cancer. An estimated 1·7 million women will be diagnosed with breast cancer in 2020—a 26% increase from current levels—mostly in the developing world. Breast cancer is already the leading cause of cancer in southeast Asian women, and is second only to gastric cancer in east Asian women, and to cervical cancer in women in south-central Asia. In India, almost 100 000 women are diagnosed with breast cancer every year, and a rise to 131 000 cases is predicted by 2020. To meet this important and growing health challenge, a team of researchers has established a Global Task Force and hosted an international conference, entitled Breast Cancer in Developing Countries; Meeting the Unforeseen Challenge to Women, Health and Equity at Harvard School of Public Health (Nov 3—5). The aims of this new initiative are to emulate what has been accomplished for patients with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, trachoma, and malaria, for which support from developed countries, the pharmaceutical industry, the World Bank, the Clinton and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundations, and others has expanded access to early detection and treatment of these diseases, provided a sustainable supply of affordable drugs, and led to improved health and survival. Currently, only 5% of global spending on cancer is aimed at developing countries. New cases of cancer diagnosed in 2009 alone will cost an alarming US$286 billion, factoring in the costs of treatment, patients' income lost to illness, and investment in research. Breast cancer accounts for nearly $28 billion, $16 billion of which is in the USA. For breast cancer about $26 billion would be needed in the developing world to bring spending in countries with low breast-cancer survival up to that of high-survival countries. Major obstacles include the lack of adequate health-care infrastructure, getting women to attend for screening, and overcoming the social stigma associated with breast cancer. There is also a crippling lack of appropriate resources and expertise that are needed for diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer in developing countries, such as diagnostic mammography, the ability to carry out surgery safely and effectively, and chemotherapy drugs and radiation therapy. Another organisation, the US-based Breast Health Global Initiative (BHGI), co-sponsored by the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Centre in Seattle, WA, and the Susan G Komen for the Cure foundation in Dallas, TX, strives to develop evidence-based, economically feasible, and culturally appropriate guidelines that can be used in countries with limited health-care resources to improve breast cancer outcomes. BHGI guidelines are expected to assist ministers of health, policy makers, administrators, and institutions in prioritising resource allocation as treatment programmes for breast cancer are developed and implemented in resource-constrained countries. The 2010 BHGI Global Summit (Jun 9—11) will take place in Chicago, USA and will provide a forum to address the quality of care delivery in countries with limited resources. The new Harvard initiative and the well-established BHGI share similar goals and, in addition to avoiding duplication of effort by the two organisations, there are likely to be opportunities to work together on projects addressing the research and implementation of improved breast cancer health care in developing countries. The overall burden of breast cancer cases is shifting substantially to vulnerable populations in ill-prepared developing countries. When the standard developed by WHO's Commission on Macroeconomics and Health is applied, most current strategies for breast cancer treatment in developed countries are not cost effective in developing countries. This Commission aimed to extend the coverage of health services and crucial interventions to the world's poor to save lives, reduce poverty, spur economic development, and promote global security. It is necessary to determine whether the basic frameworks and treatments used in developed countries apply in these very different environments, and what changes are needed to make them both valid and feasible. It is precisely because resources are constrained in developing countries that it is imperative to adopt effective practices as quickly as possible, and to design effective implementation approaches with limited resources in mind. Most importantly, key indicators of breast cancer treatment and survival in developing countries will need to be monitored carefully over time.
By Mitch Stamm, CEPC By hiding the science in the pure joy of handling dough that has baked into pastries, you can increase students’ understanding and awareness of the baking process. Taking a lesson from parents who hide vegetables in other foods and desserts in order to train their children to appreciate them, instructors can do the same by hiding science in food. Many students find the science of baking dry and dull, yet they thrive when producing pastries. Rather than teaching science, why not teach food? Brioche production is an excellent tool for engaging students in the properties and characteristics of ingredients and the principles and techniques of production. Brioche and its variations intersect the skill sets of bakers and pastry chefs with its bread-making technology and its inclusion of pastry ingredients. With sweet and savory applications, brioche is one of the most versatile yeasted products in any pasty or baking repertoire. Flour selection is the first order of business. Hard, red, winter wheat with a protein level of approximately 12% will provide the appropriate amount of gluten-forming proteins necessary for developing the dough strength required to maintain the traditional shapes of this product. Glutenin, gliadin, elasticity, extensibility, tolerance and tenacity play important roles in dough development and handling. Osmotolerant yeast resists the hygroscopic pull of sugar when it is used at higher levels. Brioche recipes include sugar at 12% to 14% of the weight of the flour. Sugar tenderizes, provides sweetness (an ensuing discussion on taste vs. flavor can be inserted here), improves crust color (caramelization) and increases shelf life with its hygroscopic nature Salt controls fermentation, tightens gluten, increases shelf life with its hygroscopic and anti-microbial properties and harmonizes all flavors. Eggs provide the majority of if not all of the hydration in classic brioche production, usually in the amount of 50% to 60% of the weight of the flour (occasionally, up to 10% of the egg content is replaced with water and/or milk). It should be pointed out that while eggs are liquid, they are not all water. They contain 12% protein, 10% fats and emulsifiers, 2% various components such as sugars and ash, and only 76% moisture. Thus, 100 ounces of egg provides only 76 ounces of hydration. Eggs also provide richness and flavor to the final product. This is the perfect time to discuss the makeup of eggs, emulsification and even pH. (Egg white is one of the few ingredients in the bakery that is alkaline; baking soda and baker’s lye are others). Egg freshness, handling and sanitation can all be introduced. Butter provides flavor and mouthfeel and, like all fats, improves shelf life, tenderizes and promotes the sensation of moistness. A brief study of butter-making could touch on the composition of milk and other interesting facts, such as 21 pounds of milk is required to make 1 pound of butter. An understanding of the temperature ranges of butter enables students to maximize the characteristics it provides to baked goods: Butter is most plastic at 60° to 70°; it is soft at 80; it has a melting point of 88°, with a final melting point of 94°. The intensive mixing method is necessary due to the gluten-inhibiting effects of fats and sugars. This affords the instructor the opportunity to elaborate on the three main mixing methods for producing yeasted dough: short, improved and intensive and the unique characteristics each provides to the final product. Cold liquids are used to offset the high friction factor associated with the intensive mixing method. This would allow the baker to obtain a 75° to 78° dough for optimum fermentation. Many curricula introduce methodology and science prior to the actual production of baked goods. There is no sound argument for not including the scientific aspect of baking in course materials. With a strong understanding of fundamentals, students will achieve successful results at the bench and the oven. By hiding the science in the pure joy of handling dough that has baked into pastries which have delighted people for centuries, the instructor can lay a foundation for the students to increase their understanding and awareness of the baking process. At the end of our students’ education, it’s not what they know; it’s what they understand. Mitch Stamm is an associate instructor at Johnson & Wales University in Providence, R.I., where he teaches principles and techniques of bread-making. It is excellent to have the ability to read a good quality article with useful data on topics that a lot are interested on. The reason that the data stated are all first hand on live experiences even aid more. Go on doing what you do as we enjoy reading your work.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction in Physics Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction Advantages of Friction - We could not walk without the friction between our shoes and the ground. As we try to step forward, we push your foot backward. Friction holds our shoe to the ground allowing you to walk. - Writing with a pencil requires friction. We could not hold a pencil in our hand without friction. - A nail stays in wood due to friction - Nut and bold cal hold due to friction. Disadvantages of Friction - In any type of vehicle such as a car, boat or airplane-excess friction means that extra fuel must be used to power the vehicle. In other words, fuel or energy is being wasted because of the friction. - The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the amount of energy remains constant. Thus, the energy that is “lost” to friction in trying to move an object is really turned to heat energy. The friction of parts rubbing together creates heat. - Due to the friction a machine has less frequency 100%. - Due to friction machine catch fire. The last factor that can tip the scales towards reading is the problem of multitasking. “If you’re trying to learn something by doing two things at the same time, you’re less assimilating the information,” notes Willingham. Even if you are doing one thing on autopilot, for example, driving a car or washing dishes, some of your attention is occupied, and this makes learning difficult.
What Does Pollution Mean? Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural world whether it is into the air, water or on land. Contaminants can include a wide range of substances, but in order to be classified as pollution, these substances must be harmful. Pollution affects the health and safety of people, as a result of harming the environment. Air pollution, for example, can cause breathing problems in people regularly exposed to it. Safeopedia Explains Pollution Pollution includes processes like the release of untreated wastewater into a river system, or the introduction of sulphur gasses into the air. Pollution should be prevented wherever possible, which includes construction sites. Litter should be properly disposed of to ensure it does not land in waters or other natural areas. All potential contaminants in run-off and as effluent should be properly treated and released safely. This ensures the safety of the workers, and the general public who should not come into contact with contaminants not properly disposed of.
On March 23, 1968 a Glomar Challenger ship was launched from Orange, Texas under the supervision of National Science Foundation and the Regents, University of California. This marked the beginning of a new era in the field of oceanographic explorations. The Glomar Challenger explored the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans as well as the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, drilled and cored the bottom of the ocean and collected core samples. These core samples became a definite proof for continental drift and sea floor renewal at rift zones. The theory proposed by Alfred Wegener that Earth once consisted of a single land mass now known as Pangaea was proved by their findings. The theories attempting to explain the formation of mountain ranges, deep sea trenches and earthquakes provided by the two geologists, W. Jason Morgan and Xavier Le Pichon also gained support from these findings. As for the evidence for sea floor spreading there are ample examples. Samples from the deep ocean floor show that Basaltic oceanic crust and overlying sediment become much younger while nearing the mid ocean ridge. The sediment cover is thinner near the ridge. Moreover the age of the ocean is no more than 200 million years while the age of the Earth is roughly 3 billion years. Also evidence of periodic reversals in magnetic polarity of the Earth, or paleomagnetism proves the theory of sea floor spreading. The study of plate tectonics has advanced rapidly over the last 50 years. The advent of sophisticated oceanographic instruments has made the inaccessible regions easy to access. The easiest method of sampling sea floor includes coring using a long metal pipe weighted at the top. Gravity covers collects samples of sea floor sediments. There are machines that allow scientists to submerge beneath the water and observe the sea floor. Submersibles can carry up to a 5-person crew at a time. Most of these submersibles are geared with high frequency cameras, lights, mechanical arms for collection of samples, temperature measurers and other electromagnetic tools. Information regarding the sedimentation of the bedrocks can be obtained by shipboard gravimeters that can measure rock density and magnetometers, which measure the magnetic properties. Reflection of sound waves is used in seismic service and help in getting information about submarine topography and the thickness and folding and faulting of rocks covered with sediments. Seismic surveys are particularly helpful for finding out oil and gas deposits. Seismic surveys can be done by high voltage sparks, mechanical clappers or electronic pulse to create a spectrum of sonar frequencies. The Fundy Basin on Atlantic coast between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is where the oldest ocean sediments can be found. References: xpubs. vsgs. gov/gip/dynamic/historical. html Wikipedia Glomar Challenger Wikipedia Mid Atlantic Ridge Answers. com
Parkinsonism is a term used to describe any neurological condition that causes symptoms similar to that of Parkinson’s disease. These symptoms often include tremors, stiff muscles, and balance problems. Parkinson’s disease is a type of Parkinsonism and the most common cause of its symptoms. Parkinson’s disease accounts for 70% of all diagnosed cases of Parkinsonism. However, Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative illness, whereas Parkinsonism is used to describe a neurological syndrome, or collection of observable symptoms. Because there are many types and possible causes of Parkinsonism, doctors must do a thorough assessment before offering a diagnosis. What Is Parkinsonism? Parkinsonism, also referred to as atypical Parkinson’s or secondary Parkinson’s, covers a wide range of neurological issues that share a common core of symptoms. These classic symptoms are referred to as TRAP symptoms. TRAP stands for tremor, rigidity, akinesia, and postural instability. What Causes Parkinsonism? It is sometimes difficult to pinpoint the exact cause of Parkinsonism. Researchers believe both genetic and environmental factors play a part in Parkinsonism. Although there are many types and many possible causes, researchers know dopamine-producing cells are affected in every form of Parkinsonism. This causes problems with the body’s ability to control movement. Some of the known health problems associated with the condition include, but are not limited to: - Multiple system atrophy - Progressive supranuclear palsy - Viral encephalitis - Traumatic brain injury - Brain tumors - Substance abuse - Industrial toxin poisoning Symptoms of Parkinsonism Parkinsonism and Parkinson’s disease have several symptoms in common. However, symptoms of the various types of Parkinsonism extend beyond those of Parkinson’s Disease. Common symptoms for Parkinson’s and Parkinsonism: - Resting tremor - Stiff muscles or rigidity - Slow movements - Postural instability - Akinesia or loss of voluntary movement - Restlessness, agitation, and discomfort - Cognitive changes Symptoms unique to Parkinsonism (Non-Parkinson’s): - Memory loss - Low blood pressure - Urinary problems - Aphasia or the inability to understand spoken/written language - Apraxia or the inability to complete simple tasks - Muscle spasms - Difficulty moving the eyes - Voice problems, swallowing difficulty, and drooling - Problems with gait Parkinsonism and Mental Health There are many medical treatment options available for people diagnosed with Parkinsonism. These options include: - Discontinuation of symptom-causing drugs - Medication for symptom relief - Physical therapy - Occupational therapy - Healthy nutrition and regular exercise - Rehabilitative therapy In addition to the medical treatments above, mental health treatment from a qualified therapist or counselor should also be considered. Symptoms of Parkinsonism are painful, exhausting, and usually progressive. Changes in mobility and appearance can affect self-esteem and lead to debilitating mental health issues. Not only do those in treatment and their loved ones experience cycles of grief and loss, but those diagnosed with Parkinsonism are also at risk for other mental health issues. For example, depression and anxiety are common among people diagnosed with Parkinson’s and other atypical forms, and some studies show depression is linked to a faster progression of symptoms. Mental health treatments that may be helpful include: - Cognitive behavioral therapy - Family therapy - Art therapy (can aid in communication, stress reduction, and treatment of depression and anxiety) - Couples counseling - Grief counseling The above therapies may be instrumental in the healing process and can provide beneficial support for those adjusting to their parkinsonism diagnosis. - American Friends of Tel Aviv University. (2013, January 14). Parkinson’s treatment can trigger creativity: Patients treated with dopamine-enhancing drugs are developing artistic talents, doctor says. Science Daily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130114111622.htm - Arehart-Treichel, J. (n.d.). Psychiatric treatment crucial for many Parkinson’s patients. Psychiatric News. Retrieved from http://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176%2Fpn.47.2.psychnews_47_2_29-a - Dobkin, R. D., Menza, M., & Bienfait, K. L. (2008, January). CBT for the treatment of depression in Parkinson’s disease: A promising non-pharmacological approach. National Institute of Health Public Access Author Manuscript, 8(1), 27-35. doi:10.1586/1473722.214.171.124 - Lindop, F., Brown, L., Graziano, M., & Jones, D. (2014, April). Atypical Parkinsonism: Making the case for a neuropalliative rehabilitation approach [Electronic version]. International Journal of Therapy & Rehabilitation, 21(4), 176-182. - Parkinson’s disease and Parkinsonism: Are they the same?. (2014). In Parkinson’s Action Network. Retrieved from http://parkinsonsaction.org/about-pan/parkinsons-disease/parkinsons-disease-and-parkinsonism-are-they-same-thing - Porter, R. S., Kaplan, J. L., & Homeier, B. P. (Eds.). (2009). Anxiety disorders. The Merck Manual Home Health Handbook (3rd ed., p. 777). West Point, PA: Merck & Co. - Understanding Parkinson’s. (n.d.). The Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research. Retrieved from https://www.michaeljfox.org/understanding-parkinsons/supporting-caregiving.php - Weiner, W. J., Shulman, L. M., & Lang, A. E. (2013). Parkinson’s Disease (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. - What are the different types of atypical Parkinsonism syndromes?. (n.d.). National Parkinson’s Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.parkinson.org/Parkinson-s-Disease/Diagnosis/What-are-the-different-types-of-atypical-Parkinson Last Updated: 04-10-2018 Please fill out all required fields to submit your message. Invalid Email Address. Please confirm that you are human. MaryAugust 28th, 2019 at 11:24 AM Lyme Disease and the encephalopathy which may result can also later manifest as Parkinsonian symptoms, but may still resolve with proper diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics. Erly treatment is key to fullest recovery from LD. Leave a Comment By commenting you acknowledge acceptance of GoodTherapy.org's Terms and Conditions of Use.
SAMR Model & TPACK It's not simply about the technology, it's about creating a healthy, challenging learning environment for our students! When the winds of change blow, some people build walls, while others build windmills. Chinese Proverb What is SAMR? SAMR is a model designed to help educators infuse technology into teaching and learning. Popularized by Dr. Ruben Puentedura, the model supports and enables teachers to design, develop, and infuse digital learning experiences that utilize technology. Basically, SAMR give teachers a framework to check the effective use of classroom technology. Digital worksheets are nothing more than a Substitution. How effective is the technology in your classroom? Watch the video on the right to get a better understanding of the SAMR model. What is TPACK? The TPACK framework was introduced by Punya Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler of Michigan State University in 2006. With it, they identified three primary forms of knowledge: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), and Technological Knowledge (TK). Look at the diagram below. You’ll notice that the three primary forms of knowledge are not entirely separate. In fact, the intersections of each are critical because they represent deeper levels of understanding. TPACK shows us that there’s a relationship between technology, content, and pedagogy, and the purposeful blending of them is key. Below is an example inspired by a video by Sophia.org. modified by Dee Thomas Your Original Lesson Plan Imagine you are a 7th grade life sciences teacher. The topic is “cell anatomy.” Your objectives are to describe the anatomy of animal cells and explain how the organelles work as a system to carry out the necessary functions of the cell. The traditional strategies or activities might go as follows: - Walk through the cell’s anatomy and the basic functions of each organelle, referencing the diagram in the textbook - Break the class into small groups. Task each group with labeling their own diagram of cell anatomy and researching a single process to present to the class later on. You may want to choose the process for them to avoid duplicate presentations. - Have each group present the cell process they researched to the class. Got it? Okay. So how might the TPACK framework be used to enhance this lesson? Applying Technological, Pedagogical Content Knowledge to Your Lesson As mentioned before, the TPACK framework is based on three primary forms of knowledge. So your first step should be to understand your primary forms of knowledge in the context of this lesson. - Content Knowledge (CK)—what are you teaching and what is your own knowledge of the subject? For this lesson, you’ll need a solid understanding of cell anatomy and processes. - Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)—how do your students learn best and what instructional strategies do you need to meet their needs and the requirements of the lesson plan? In this case, you'll need to understand best practices for teaching middle school science and small group collaboration. - Technological Knowledge (TK)—what digital tools are available to you, which do you know well enough to use, and which would be most appropriate for the lesson at hand? For this lesson, students will need to label a diagram and present, so the ability to fill in blanks with an answer key, find images from the internet, create slides, etc. are important. Now that you’ve taken stock of your primary forms of knowledge, focus on where they intersect. While the ultimate goal is to be viewing your lesson and strategy through the lens of TPACK, or the center of the model where all primary forms of knowledge blend together, taking a moment to consider the individual relationships can be helpful. - Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)—understanding the best practices for teaching specific content to your specific students. - Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)—knowing how the digital tools available to you can enhance or transform the content, how it’s delivered to students, and how your students can interact with it. - Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)—understanding how to use your digital tools as a vehicle to the learning outcomes and experiences you want. Now let’s weave all this technological, pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) together and enhance the activities of our original lesson plan. The ideas below are examples of activities that can be added to the original list. Remember, the goal is to be purposeful in applying each form of knowledge. - After walking through the different parts of a cell’s anatomy, break your students into small groups and have them collaborate on completing a Check for Understanding quiz via Google Classroom. Include an interactive question that provides a diagram of a cell with blank labels and requires students to drag and drop the proper labels in place from an answer key (PearDeck). - Have each group use Chromebooks with recording capabilities (ScreenCastify). Have each member of the group choose an organelle to personify, and have them record each other explaining who they are (or which organelle they are) and why they are important for the cell (Flipgrid). Finally, have them upload their videos to a media album so your students can watch each other’s videos on their own time and leave comments. - Instead of researching a cell process (e.g., cell respiration, energy production, etc.) in one type of cell, have your students compare the process between animal and plant cells and make conclusions regarding the differences they find. Require each group to construct an artifact of their research by creating a one-page brief in Google Docs, a flowchart comparison (Piktochart, Easel.ly, Smore), or a video explanation (FlipGrid). This can be turned in via an assignment in Google Classroom for credit. - Armed with their knowledge of cell anatomy, function, and processes, have your students analyze the connections between different animals and plants in their natural habitats. Have each group infer what might happen when one animal or plant is placed in a habitat other than it's natural one. Each group should compile evidence to make their case (articles, videos, etc.) using Padlet, Google Slides, or other similar tool.
Motor Panel Overview Motor Control Panels (MCP) are used in just about every type of industry; from offshore drilling platforms to a production line that makes pastries and cookies in a bakery factory. It empowers the manufacturer to be able to duplicate and automate their process with little or no human intervention. It would be almost impossible today to enter a manufacturing facility and not encounter some type of automation controlled by a motor control panel. Imagine an automobile manufacturer with cars moving down an assembly line. The line is driven by various motors, which are controlled from a motor control panel. This motor and assembly line may be stopped at each station for fitment and started again to reach the next assembly station. The line may need to be stopped and started many times before reaching its final destination. This task can be accomplished, with or without human intervention, by a motor control panel. Motor Control Panel Purpose Motor control panels are designed by control engineers and pre-wired by technicians with a certain logic in mind. This logic is designed to accomplish or semi-automate a process. The contents of a motor control panel are universal. It is the way these components are connected or wired together that makes them specific to a process. Components include electro-mechanical devices such as switches, contacts, relays, motor starters and overload protection devices. We will look at these individually later in the resource. Motor control panels also have another purpose. They give us a way to turn on or off high power circuits by using a low voltage control circuit. This provides a safety feature for technicians and also saves the user in power consumption costs. It would be very dangerous to have a system wired with high voltage controls that operators use to start and stop a line or process. Most motor control panels are divided into a high voltage side, or “Line Voltage,” for motor operation and a low voltage side for control of these high power circuits. Industry commonly uses 480 volts for power circuits. A transformer is used to reduce the voltage and feed a lower voltage, such as 24 volts, to the control side. Most motor control panels are divided into a high voltage side, or “Line Voltage,” for motor operation and a low voltage side for control of these high power circuits. Industry commonly uses 480 volts for power circuits. A transformer is used to reduce the voltage and feed a lower voltage, such as 24 volts, to the control side. MCP Components-high Voltage Components A motor control panel is a way of incorporating automated control into a production line by originating all power circuits and control circuits from one place. Motor control panels also provide a safety feature by providing low voltage to control applications. All power supplied to an MCP is routed through some type of disconnect device. (See below) Figure 1 – Disconnect device for an MCP Disconnect Device in MCP The power is wired to the top of the disconnect switch and terminated at the top three lugs (1). The handle (2) mechanically connects the top terminals to the bottom terminals. It is operated manually by a technician to provide power to the rest of the components, or by a technician in case, work is needed inside the panel. When the handle is raised to the up position, the switch is said to be “closed” and power is supplied to individual components and the panel is considered to be “live” or “hot”. Once the handle is closed, power flows to the fuse terminals for protection of branch circuits and to components through the distribution block to the low voltage control side. Here, fuses are sized for the maximum safe current draw during normal operation. Figure 2 – Fuses and Distribution Block Fuses and Distribution Block in MCP Fuses are considered a safety device. They are considered to be a closed switch as long as the current draw through the fuse does not exceed its rating. If the current draw does exceed the rating, the fuse opens the circuit to protect both equipment and operator. It will have to be manually replaced by a qualified technician. A fuse of greater value cannot be used to replace that of a lesser one. If this did happen, it would let greater current flow through the devices that was designed. It could cause damage to the equipment, panel components and endanger personnel. Fuses can only be replaced with the same size or smaller current rating to ensure proper protection. Next, high voltage power is supplied by the distribution terminals to the variable frequency drive and the motor starter. These devices operate at full line voltage because of the power requirements associated with the loads attached to them. Figure 3 – Variable Frequency Drive Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a device used to control the speed of the motor. It is unique because it can be used to start and stop a motor, as well as, vary the speed. This is critical to some processes, but in others, it may not be needed, so it is considered optional equipment. VFD’s are covered in depth later. For our purposes, it is only relevant that it is considered a high voltage component designed to control motor speed. A motor starter incorporates two basic components; a contactor for high voltage flow and an overcurrent protection device in case of a fault. Motor Starters supply full line voltage to a motor. A lower voltage is used to switch the starter on or off from the low voltage side. This is called the “coil voltage” and is greatly reduced to a safe working value like 110 or 24 volts. When the coil voltage is switched on, the line voltage is supplied to the motor through contacts in the starter. Some motor starters may have a second contactor mechanically or electrically interlocked with the one beside it. The interlock keeps both contactors from being energized at the same time. This gives us the capability to make the motor shaft turn in the opposite direction when needed. This is called a “forward-reverse motor starter.” A motor starter always has some type of overcurrent protection built into the device. This is to protect the panel components and process in the event that something causes the motor to draw more current than it was designed. The overload protection used in the above picture has an adjustable current setting to accommodate many types of motors and it also utilizes a reset switch. If a fault occurs, the switch will automatically shut the circuit off. When the fault has been corrected, the reset switch can be reset manually to return the motor starter to normal operation. - For More Information on Electrical Concepts: Electrical School Motor starters are used for a fixed speed motor. The motor must be physically wired to the bottom of the motor starter. The motor data plate (below) should give a technician the correct wiring diagram, current draw, voltage, and speed. A motor starter has to be sized (voltage-speed-amperage) according to load or motor it is supplying. Figure 4 – Motor Data Plate Information
Neanderthal viruses dating back 500,000 years discovered in modern human DNA A new study published in the journal Current Biology has discovered a link between viruses present in Neanderthals and Denisovans half a million years ago, and modern diseases such as AIDS and cancer. The research suggests that ‘endogenous retroviruses’ are hard-wired into the DNA, enabling them to be passed down over thousands of generations. British scientists from the universities of Oxford and Plymouth compared DNA from Neanderthals and another group of ancient humans called Denisovans, with modern human DNA obtained from cancer patients. They found evidence of Neanderthal and Denisovan viruses in the modern DNA, suggesting that they originated in a common ancestor more than 500,000 years ago. Approximately 8% of human DNA is made up of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), which are DNA sequences left by viruses which pass from generation to generation. They form about 90 per cent of the 'junk' DNA, which contains no instruction codes for making proteins. However, many scientists have criticised the labelling of this part of the genome as ‘junk’ simply because it is not understood yet. “I wouldn’t write it off as ‘junk’ just because we don’t know what it does yet,” said Dr Gkikas Magiorkinis, from Oxford University’s Department of Zoology, who co-led the research. “Under certain circumstances, two ‘junk’ viruses can combine to cause disease. We’ve seen this many times in animals already. ERVs have been shown to cause cancer when activated by bacteria in mice with weakened immune systems,” he said. This of course indicates that these so called ‘junk’ viruses that have been passed down over half a million years are not junk at all, but have an element of activity that may come to life again given the right circumstances. The Oxford team now plans to look for possible links between these ancient viruses and how they are connected to HIV/Aids. It would also be extremely interesting to know the prevalence of these kinds of diseases in ancient humans. It seems highly probable that rates of disease are far higher now as a consequence of the poisons that exist in our modern society.
Additional info from The Climate Reality Project Scientists have been warning since at least the late 1980s that higher sea surface temperatures can increase the destructive power of hurricanes. Hurricanes are fueled by warm, moist air that evaporates from the surface of the ocean, and more water evaporates from the surface when the temperature is high. The global average sea surface temperature has increased since 1860, so it's reasonable to expect that hurricanes would also become more destructive. But high sea surface temperatures aren’t the only ingredient for a “successful” hurricane. For instance, powerful hurricanes can churn up cold water from deeper layers of the ocean, lowering the sea surface temperature and reducing the chance that fledgling storms nearby will reach their full potential. The full body of available evidence suggests the number of hurricanes may stay the same or decrease slightly. But the hurricanes that do form may get stronger and wetter by the end of the century, with a 2-11% increase in hurricane intensity and 20% more rainfall, on average. These percentages may sound small, but consider that most of the damage and deaths from hurricanes come from flooding caused by rain or storm surges. (A storm surge is a wall of ocean water that gets pushed inland by a hurricane.) Hurricane Katrina, for instance, was the third deadliest and most expensive hurricane ever in the U.S. It also had the highest surge on record in the country. And because sea levels are rising as the world gets warmer, there’s a higher risk of coastal flooding during even a minor hurricane. In New York City alone, so-called “1 in 100 year” coastal floods could happen every 3-20 years by the end of the century because of sea level rise and the risk of more intense hurricanes. As the residents of New Orleans or Pamlico Country, North Carolina can tell you, it only takes one intense hurricane to cause years of grief. The best evidence suggests hurricanes will get more intense as the world warms. And the more global warming pollution we put into the atmosphere, the worse things will get.
If you’ve ever prepared for a trip abroad, you probably know that you need to brush up on some essential foreign language skills to get around. If you’re learning Japanese, that means familiarizing yourself with the concept of Engrish, or English loanwords borrowed from English and transformed into Japanese. This is something English speakers do all the time—just think of foreign-derived words like “kindergarten,” “sauté,” and “piano” that we’ve adapted into our own accent and language. By the way, you might be wondering if “English” was misspelled and the answer is No! “Engrish” is a slang word that makes light of the lack of ‘L’ sound in Japanese (the ‘L’ sound gets replaced by an ‘R’ sound). Hence, you will see this replacement of any ‘L’ with an ‘R’ sound in the loanwords discussed below! Now, let’s launch into this beginner’s guide with the all-important question: what is a loanword? What’s a Loanword? If you’re learning Japanese and are planning a trip to Japan, you need to focus on the important questions, such as: how do I say “McDonald’s” in Japanese? Well, in Japanese, many words can be easy to recognize as an English speaker if you know the sounds in the Japanese alphabet. For example, “McDonald’s” is pronounced makudonarudo (ma-ku-do-na-ru-do), or often shortened to just makudo. When considering the sounds made in the Japanese language, this pronunciation - makudonarudo - is pretty much as close as you can get to saying the English word while using Japanese phonetics. This is an example of what’s called a “loanword” in Japanese, and despite sounding a bit funny when you first hear them, loanwords make up an important part of learning Japanese. A loanword (or garaigo in Japanese) is a word that originates from a language other than Japanese that has been “nipponized” for use in everyday Japanese conversation. Most words retain a pronunciation similar to their original language. For example, the Japanese word for a TV drama or soap opera is dorama, the word for “keyboard” is ki-bo-do, and the word for a club or society is kurabu. As you can tell, some words are pretty similar to their foreign language counterpart. Most loanwords come from English, but many come from Portuguese and the languages of the handful of other countries who interacted with Japan up until the early 20th century. When you hear a loanword, therefore, it might not be so obvious. After all, Japanese has borrowed words from many different languages. Where Engrish Loanwords Get Complicated: Contractions and Alternate Meanings You’ve already learned some of the easier-to-understand English loanwords, which initially might just seem like sounds you’d hear from a Japanese person learning English for the first time. However, many loanwords can have totally different meanings than the original English word, and they are often shortened to a point where they are barely recognizable to the untrained ear (think makudo = McDonald’s, or staba = Starbucks). Even the world-famous Pokémon (pocket monster) is a loanword! Engrish Loanwords in English Loanwords are just as essential to understanding Japanese as words that originated in Japan. Think of loanwords as just another part of the whole vocabulary you need to learn to work towards fluency in Japanese. In fact, English speakers use Japanese loanwords as well, though it is much more common to hear English loanwords used in Japanese. You undoubtedly already know some of these words: Typhoon - pronounced taifuu in Japanese, a typhoon is a tropical cyclone occurring in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. Tsunami - English speakers typically leave out the faint “T” sound at the beginning of this word, but it is otherwise pronounced the same. Tsunami are also referred to as “tidal waves.” Sensei - popularized by The Karate Kid and later Napoleon Dynamite, “sensei” is used in English to refer to martial arts instructors. In Japanese, however, “sensei” can refer to any teacher, and is used as an honorific suffix for those holding prestigious positions, such as doctors and lawyers. Yes, that’s right - in Japan, doctors and teachers get the same treatment (though probably not the same pay). There are even some words that were contracted (shortened) by the Japanese and then made their way over to the English-speaking world: Emoji - everyone’s favorite way of modern communication, “emoji” is a combination of two Japanese words: ‘e’ (picture) + ‘moji’ (letter/character) Anime - this is an interesting one. It was first borrowed from English by the Japanese from the word “animation,” and then re-borrowed from Japanese by English speakers to refer to specifically Japanese animation. A Beginner’s Guide to Confusing Engrish Loanwords Some loanwords can be downright confusing, and they typically fall into the two categories mentioned above: shortened words and words with different meanings. Shortened Engrish Loanwords If you are currently alive, you probably already knew that Pokémon stood for “pocket monster,” but you might not have known that this sort of shortening of English loanwords is common in Japanese. Let’s go over some common shortened English loanwords that have changed so much as to be initially unrecognizable. The English is underlined to give you an idea of how that shortening came about: Pasokon - Personal Computer Konbini - Convenience Store Depāto - Department Store Puroresu - Professional Wrestling Apāto - Apartment Bīru - Building Engrish Loanwords with New Meanings Now let’s talk about words with different meanings. These are probably the most confusing loanwords, since they require you to shift your understanding of a word despite it sounding similar to a meaning you already know! Hōmu - though this sounds quite like “Home,” it actually refers primarily to a railway platform. You would use the appropriate number and counter word + hōmu to refer to a specific platform at a railway station, such as rokuban hōmu (platform #6). Think of the platform as the train’s home. Mēru - this word refers specifically to e-mail, though it comes from the word “mail” in English. On behalf of Japanese language learners everywhere, let’s submit a petition to the Japanese government to change this word to “e-mēru.” Raibu - at first, you might be thinking “I got it! It means ‘live’!” and you would only be partially correct. Raibu (a “nipponization” of the word “live”) actually refers specifically to a live performance or concert. Faito - often heard at sporting events, it comes from the word “fight,” but is used as a phrase of encouragement to someone. It is similar to the Japanese word ganbatte, which can be used to convey encouragement to someone. Making Your Engrish Loanwords Pay Off Learning Japanese is a long commitment, but it’s important to have fun with it once in a while! Loanwords can sometimes be simpler to learn than other vocabulary due to the association your brain already has with a particular sound. At other times, loanwords can be confusing but amusing! As you continue to learn Japanese vocabulary, try to identify objects around you and in your everyday life, and never skimp on pronunciation and saying words out loud the correct way. It doesn’t do you any good to use poorly-pronounced loanwords. Make sure you use resources such as online learning apps like Speechling or blogs to aid you along the way to becoming a Japanese speaker! After all, a beginner’s guide can only get you so far. Until then… faito!
North central California (Butte County, eastern Glenn County) Language: Penutian family 1770 estimate: not known 1910 Census: not known The Konkow are sometimes called the Northwestern Maidu. Their language was similar to the Maidu who lived to the northeast of them, as well as to the Nisenan who lived south of them. Konkow villages were located along the Feather River and along a portion of the Sacramento River. Their territory also included a section of the Sierra foothills to the east of their villages. Much of Konkow territory had wet winters and dry summers. The rivers that cut through Konkow territory had carved deep, narrow canyons. The Konkow chose spots on the ridges above the rivers for their villages. About 150 Konkow village sites have been identified. Each Konkow village had a headman. Although the headman had more authority than others in the village, he did not make rules. Rather, he was an advisor and a spokesman for the other people. The name Konkow comes from a native term kóyo mkàwi, meaning meadowland. The Konkow built three types of houses. Small cone-shaped houses were covered with slabs of bark. These were used as family homes in the winter. Larger, earth-covered houses were also used in the winter, usually by several families at a time. The larger houses were built around a pit dug in the ground, making the floor of the house lower than the ground. The poles that framed the house were covered with bark and branches, and then with earth. The headman's house, larger than the others in the village, might serve as the assembly house for the community. For more than half of the year, the Konkow lived in temporary shelters built near where they were gathering food. They went to places in the valleys to gather seeds in the spring, into the mountains to hunt in the summer, and to places where there were groves of oak trees in the fall. As they moved around, the Konkow made campsites by putting up fences of brush and branches in a big circle. Several families lived inside each enclosure, which did not have a roof. Deer, fish, and acorns were the most important parts of the Konkow food supply, as they were for many early California peoples. The Konkow spent more than half of their year traveling from the valleys to the mountains and back to the valleys, gathering the various plants that were available and hunting and fishing. Besides acorns from the oak trees, other nuts and seeds were eaten. The Konkow used the nuts from the digger pine tree, either eating them as they came from the tree, or grinding them into a flour from which mush or bread could be made, similar to the way acorns were used. The shells of the digger pine nuts were made into beads. The men traveled to the mountains in the summer to hunt deer and elk. They often worked together to trail and capture these larger animals. The extra meat was dried at the temporary campsites, and later carried back to the permanent village for use during the winter. The Konkow also hunted small animals such as squirrels and rabbits, and birds such as ducks, geese, and quail. They did not eat bear, mountain lion, buzzards, lizards, snakes, or frogs. A sweet drink was made from the berries of the manzanita bush. Wild mint was used to make a tea drink. Wild rye grew in the valleys in Konkow territory. These seeds, as well as other seeds, berries, roots and bulbs were used for food. From the rivers, the Konkow got salmon, eels, and other fish. Some salt was available from salt deposits, but the Konkow also used dandelions, watercress, wild garlic, and onion to add flavor to their food. Konkow women wore a two-piece apron-like skirt, one piece covering the front and the other the back. The skirts were made either from deerskin, or from thin pieces of bark. In warm weather, men often either wore nothing, or wrapped a pieces of deerskin around their hips. The Konkow did not wear moccasins. To keep warm in the winter, they put a blanket or robe over their shoulders. Blankets were made of deerskin or mountain lion skin. The Konkow kept their hair cut to a shorter length than many of the neighboring groups. They used a hot coal to singe the hair off at the length they wanted. Konkow men did not let beards or mustaches grow on their faces, but pulled out the hairs. The people kept their hair neat and clean by using soaproot for shampoo, and pine cones and porcupine tails as combs and brushes. Women had their ears pierced, and wore ornaments of bone or wood in their ears. Men had their noses pierced, and wore woodpecker feathers. The people also wore bracelets and necklaces made of shell, bone, and feathers. Both Konkow men and women had tattooing on their chins. The tools that the people made were mostly connected with the process of collecting and preparing food. Several kinds of baskets were needed. The Konkow used both the twining and coiling methods of making baskets. In making twined baskets, they used slender willow or redbud branches for the upright parts, weaving in pieces of roots and fibers from other plants. The baskets were decorated with designs worked into the basket by using roots dyed black or red. Since food was often gathered some distance from the village, burden baskets to carry the supply back were important. Burden baskets were worn on the back, and were held in place by a woven strap that went around the forehead or over the shoulders. Carrying sacks were made of cord. The cord came from fibers of the milkweed plant, twisted together. Cord was also used to make nets for catching fish and snaring small animals. Tule rushes that grew along the rivers were used to make mats used for sitting and sleeping on, and for covering doorways. The Konkow did not make boats. The rivers in their area flowed too swiftly. The Konkow caught fish by stretching large nets across a stream. They also used fishing spears. Bows and arrows and knives were used in hunting. Knives and spears were made from basalt, a hard volcanic rock. Pieces of bone and stone were also used as scrapers in preparing animal skins. The Konkow used clamshell disks as money. The clamshells came from the coast along Bodega Bay, and were traded from one group to another throughout central California. The round pieces of clamshell were polished and strung on strings. They were used in trade with neighboring groups. The Konkow traded with the Maidu for pine nuts and salmon. They supplied arrows, bows, and deer hides to the Maidu. From other neighbors the Konkow got abalone shells which they used for ornaments. The Konkow had a ceremony to celebrate the catching of the first salmon of the season. Only after each man in the village had eaten a piece of the first fish caught could more fishing take place. Other ceremonies marked the time when girls and boys became adult members of the village. Dancing and music were always a part of the ceremonies.
Tectonic hazards/Earthquake simulation Earthquake simulation is a vibrational input that possesses essential features of a real seismic event. The very first earthquake simulations were performed by statically applying some horizontal inertia forces, based on scaled peak ground accelerations, to a mathematical model of a building. With the further development of computational technologies, static approaches began to give way to dynamic ones. Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical, like shake-table testing, or virtual, or hybrid ones. In all cases, to verify a structure's expected seismic performance, researchers prefer to deal with so called “real time-histories” though the last cannot be “real” for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building or by some particular research requirements. Therefore, there is a strong incentive to engage an earthquake simulation, like, e.g., the earthquake simulating displacement time-history Cone presented on the left . Earthquake simulations have been widely used in the research supported by The George E. Brown Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) . Sometimes, earthquake simulation is understood as a re-creation of local effects of a strong ground shaking . \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tectonic hazards/Earthquake simulation.\| References[edit \| edit source] - Valentin Shustov (1993), "Base isolation: fresh insight", Technical report to NSF No BCS-9214754. - Valentin Shustov (2010), "Testing of a New Line of Seismic Base Isolators," https://nees.org/resources/770.
(1872–1946). The 12th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court was Harlan Fiske Stone. He was an associate justice from 1925 to 1941 and chief justice from 1941 to 1946. During this period the government made many legislative changes to meet changing social and political conditions, and Stone believed that the Court should not restrict such reforms unless they were unconstitutional. He also advocated a new tolerance for government regulation of economic activity and asserted the importance of protecting individuals’ civil liberties. Stone was born in Chesterfield, N.H., on Oct. 11, 1872. He graduated from Amherst (Mass.) College in 1894 and received his law degree from Columbia University, in New York City, in 1898. From 1910 to 1923 he served as dean of Columbia’s law school while also maintaining a private law practice. In 1924 U.S. President Calvin Coolidge appointed Stone attorney general of the United States. In that role, he reorganized the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), whose reputation had previously been damaged by scandals. Stone’s effectiveness led Coolidge to appoint him associate justice of the Supreme Court in 1925. President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Stone chief justice in 1941. In his early years on the Court, Stone was considered one of the “three great dissenters” (along with Louis Brandeis and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.) against the conservative majority who disliked legislative regulation of business. During Roosevelt’s presidency, Stone generally voted to uphold the reforms of the New Deal, including the Social Security Act of 1935 and a national minimum-wage law. He also affirmed the rights of children who were Jehovah’s Witnesses to refrain from saluting the U.S. flag in school. He remained chief justice until his death, on April 22, 1946, in Washington, D.C. Stone was renowned for the objectivity he displayed in his more than 600 Court opinions. He was often less successful, however, in building consensus among his associate justices, and the Supreme Court during his chief justiceship was often a bitterly divided body.
Did you know that the brain of an infant contains essentially all the brain cells that they will ever need for learning throughout their lifespan? Add this to the knowledge that a newborn baby’s brain is about a third the size of an adult brain, but has all the mechanics it needs to develop speech, language, balance, coordination, executive functioning and sensory input. The growth and development of the brain and its functions are fascinating. When a baby is born, the arm and leg movements resemble more of a jellyfish motion than a mature human being. But the truth is, the brain develops at an astounding speed, especially because it’s needed for higher learning functions in school. The brain development during the first six months of life is focused on motor skills and sensory processing for improving our five senses (hearing, taste, sight, smell and touch). All of this work is setting up the brain for higher learning. The Brain Develops in Layers Why is it important to know how your child’s brain works and which parts are responsible for learning? Although the brain is complicated, the more you understand about how your child or student’s brain functions, then you can target those specific areas with activities and exercises to improve their learning development in the classroom. For instance, if we want your child to improve their receptive and expressive language, we want them to do front to back brain-building exercises, like you see here, as a way for them to listen to the teacher and then express what they learned on paper when they take a test. The brain doesn’t automatically know how to tell the body to sit down, pick up a book and to begin reading in one day. This process is learned in layers, building upon each other, day after day with sensory experiences, motor planning, and cognitive development. The brain is a very complex structure with neurons, blood vessels and synapses constantly growing, developing or shutting down, as is the case with synaptic pathways. The area of the brain that is responsible to keep the heart beating is not the same place where active learning and memory skills take place. There is a hierarchy to the brain, which is comprised of four working levels that all cooperate to control the basic life needs of time management. 4 Layers of the Brain Hierarchy The four layers of the brain hierarchy that are used for learning, sensory integration and the emotional status of your child include the following: Also known as the Cerebrum, is the largest brain structure and is responsible for your child’s personality, thinking, motor skills, reasoning, and sensory input. It’s divided into four lobes that are each accountable for different parts of learning and are broken up into higher and lower functions of the brain. Here is the breakdown and learning aspects that go with each: Lower Working Levels - Occipital Lobe: Visual system, visual information, sight (letters, shapes, sizes, numbers) - Temporal Lobe: Speech, auditory processing, hearing, behavior, emotions, short-term and long-term memory (processing what the teacher says, fear, fight or flight, recalling facts and details) - Parietal Lobe: Senses, sensory integration, sensory input (taste, temperature, smell, touch) Higher Working Levels - Frontal Lobe (prefrontal cortex): Highest levels of learning and activity used for problem solving, executive functioning, reasoning, motor skills, organizing, abstract thinking, analyzing, expressive language (telling stories, organizing thoughts on paper, starts and completes tasks, retains information, choices between right and wrong, social skills) This Cerebellum looks like two mounds of folded tissue attached to the top of the brain stem. The Cerebellum is one of the most important parts of the brain when it comes to helping your child learn and develop. What information the Cerebellum receives could mean the difference in how your child pays attention in the classroom, copies notes from the chalkboard, sits still in class and is responsible for much of the proprioceptive system (movement, position of body in space), balance, coordination, attention and rhythm. This brain structure is essential in skilled movements and helps to build learning pathways in the brain. This system includes many brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus. Every one of these structures plays an important part in managing emotions, reactions and even creating memory pathways. The limbic system is the central station for emotions and is located within the temporal lobe and that is why it controls fear or the fight or flight response your child may encounter. The amygdala in particular, is constantly aware of emotions that are needed for basic survival such as fear. Memory pathways are created here as well as bonding and regulating aggressive behavior. The basal ganglia’s job is to organize motor behavior (motor planning) and coordinate rule-based learning pathways. This part of the brain connects to the spinal cord and receives information from the spinal cord. The brainstem controls basic survival functions such as heart rate, breathing, sleeping, digesting food and maintaining consciousness. It is considered the lowest, most primitive part of the brain. Why it’s important to develop the lower levels of the brain Now that we have an understanding of the four levels of brain function, how do they each develop? When a baby is born, the active part of the brain is the brainstem. During the first six months, higher regions of the brain including the cerebellum start developing to control movement and expand their motor skills (crawling, walking, lifting their head). In The Well Balanced Child, it describes one of the tasks of early childhood is to build neural connections within the brain to connect the “learning dots.” For instance, if your child skips developmental milestones or is delayed, it could be why they experience gaps in learning. The links between higher and lower regions are important, but forming connections between the right and left hemispheres of the brain (creative and organizational) are even more critical. This is why crossing the midline exercises are so important for your child’s learning development. The development of higher functioning skills (reasoning, reading, language, problem solving, critical thinking) in the prefrontal cortex or frontal lobe cannot work in the classroom if your child’s lower systems that control automatic movement, emotions and survival impulses are not working properly. And, it doesn’t end there. The consistent use of the lower systems for sensory stimulation, motor skills, visual, vestibular and proprioception (balance and movement) and positive emotional experiences directly affects your child’s attention, focus, fidgeting, behavior, social skills and critical thinking in school. This development all takes place within six months to three and a half years of your child’s life. Jean Piaget, clinical psychologist who developed the Piaget theory, described this crucial term as the sensorimotor period. During this time, the cerebellum is the all-star in the brain and is what regulates your child’s movement, balance and coordination. The cerebellum kick starts what we call muscle memory, even though it has no cognitive memory of its own. These skills are developed through practice of motor movements such as kicking a ball, picking up and throwing an object, playing an instrument, and building structures with blocks. As these muscle memories develop, they build neural connections for higher learning. The cerebellum is linked to the brain’s involvement of memorizing the alphabet and multiplication tables. Lower Centers Crucial for Higher Learning We find more and more in our center and through research studies that when your child’s development occurs in a natural order with a stimulating environment, the lower centers of the brain refine the sensory motor skills and balance so that future physical movements can become automatic, which free up the frontal lobe for higher learning functions. For example, if your child is constantly fidgeting, up out of their desk, chewing on pencils and distracted by noise or other students in the classroom because they have poor sensory, vestibular, visual and proprioceptive systems, they can’t read, write, spell, remember facts, or complete math problems. That is why we need to improve those lower levels of the brain FIRST and make them AUTOMATIC before we can focus on the higher levels of the brain. This is also why I tell most parents, I can’t tutor your child in reading and comprehension until I strengthen their auditory and visual systems. Each step up the development ladder must include neurological readiness in the child. This readiness develops differently in each child and is normal and expected. If learning in any stage of the developing brain coincides with the neurological readiness in a young person, it is greatly enhanced. This article describes the neurological readiness for school-based learning. To sum it all up, remember, children who struggle to self-regulate, meaning they can’t sit in their seat, stay focused and have limited motor skills, may become mentally fatigued when they try and concentrate to learn and interpret information. Difficulties with regulating motor-skills, proprioception, balance and sensory filtering are all problems within the lower centers of the brain. Researchers find that the lower, more primitive parts of the human brain, such as the cerebellum, are equally as important to your child’s intelligence as the development of their prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes. If the lower levels of the brain are not up to par, then critical thinking, language, speech and higher learning will suffer. Exercises to Help Lower Brain Levels As you monitor your child’s development, if you notice your child has issues with their sensory, auditory, vestibular, or visual systems, which prevent them from fully developing, they will need exercises to help their learning behavior, attention and focus, and fidgeting in the classroom. Without these exercises, you may continue to notice delays in your child’s learning or side effects that can cause toe walking, W-sitting, bedwetting, poor balance and coordination, underdeveloped vestibular and proprioceptive systems, and trouble with motor planning. If your child struggles with any number of these issues, it could be an indication that the nervous system is underdeveloped. Retrieved from: http://ilslearningcorner.com/2016-03-brain-hierarchy-when-your-childs-lower-brain-levels-are-weak-they-cant-learn/
\|Shearing - Course: Technique of working sheet metals, pipes and sections. Trainees' handbook of lessons (Institut für Berufliche Entwicklung, 17 p.)\| In shearing, two wedge-shaped shear blades closely pass by each other. The workpiece that is placed between the two shear blades is cut under continued effect of force. The shearing process is performed in 3 stages: When the blades touch down, the material springs back a bit under the effect of force. As soon as its elastic limit has been overcome, the blades notch the workpiece. Figure 17. Notching 1 upper blade, 2 notched sheet, 3 lower blade In further penetrating, the shear blades overcome the internal resistance of the metal structure and cut the workpiece. Figure 18. Cutting 1 upper blade, 2 cut-in sheet, 3 lower blade The penetrating shear blades squeeze the material together between the blades, resulting in a material solidification. Since the blades are not able to further penetrate the material, they tear the residual material apart under continued effect of force. These stages can be seen at joint faces of thick sheets. Figure 19. Tearing 1 upper blade, 2 torn sheet, 3 lower blade Figure 20. Sheared joint face 1 upper notch, 2 smooth cut face, 3 rough torn face, 4 lower notch
Select a social problem that is important to you. Explain how this problem is socially constructed. What contributes to this social problem? What elements of society contribute to this problem, and how can it be alleviated? How is this problem perpetuated today? The Sociological Imagination encourages the idea to look at the world and its situations through a wider lens. Consider a social problem that you, your family, or maybe your close friends have experienced. To look at the problem through a wider lens than your own perspective, apply the Sociological Imagination to the problem: In order to do this, look past your previously constructed rationale, explore other possible reasons, on the micro (individual) and macro (political/systems/global) levels that may have impacted or perpetuated this social problem. Describe how using your sociological imagination helps you see the social problem. Does it widen your view? Read the journal articles about various inequalities that exist in America. Pick one of the areas (such as wage inequality, gender pay, racial gaps, etc). What are some historical solutions to the area of inequality that you selected? Explain if modern day solutions have been more effective in alleviating the problem or not. Compare and contrast the American and Norwegian incarceration systems. Distinguish at least three characteristics that are similar as well as distinct. Identify what is being done in each system to minimize the negative impacts on individuals lives, the community, and the larger issue of incarceration and its impact on society. Which characteristics seem to be the most effective? Poverty in urban areas tends to perpetuate social deviance. GCU conducts community outreach to local areas that are struggling with poverty. After reading the GCU Statement on Integrating Faith and Work document, how might the CWV influence the way to address this social problem? Investigate and create a list of both informal and formal deviance (things that were/are against the law as well as those against social norms). Identify at a solution/technique/action that was used both historically and used in modern times, to control/react to the deviant behavior you listed. Discuss what the differences are and if the modern solutions are more effective than historical solutions and why modern solutions replaced historical ones. Consider why persons with disabilities are considered a vulnerable population. Share with others experiences you may have had with individuals born with a physical ailment, children or adults with cognitive delays, people who may have suffered traumatic brain injury (i.e. possibly due to an accident, effects from war, etc.). What have you learned about challenges that impact their lives, that you may not have considered without this personal experience? Research programs that exist (America, or globally) to better integrate persons with disabilities into society and mitigate the disparities they face. Develop your own list of opportunities/programs/activities that can better support people with various disabilities. Consider the Micro and Macro approach to your thinking, and develop at least one idea per level. Why do you feel these may be viable solutions? What may be some of the barriers that these ideas face? Elder abuse in America, and around the world, is a social problem that may not be recognized. To gain a better understanding, use the following website to gain background information: .Define elder abuse, and explain what makes an older adult vulnerable. What has been done in the past, in your own state, or in another part of the world to educate, prevent, or mitigate the effects of elder abuse? Have these solutions been effective? What about current solutions? Explain if current solutions are more effective. According to some politicians, student loan debt is an economic emergency that is stopping young people from such things as purchasing cars, starting businesses, buying their own homes, etc. Historically, what has been done to alleviate this social problem? How do you think, if perpetuated, this problem may impact you or the community you live in? What are some solutions to this modern day problem? Research the issue of education disparity between impoverished families and those from high income families/communities. Explain if research shows that students from high income families achieve better in school. Develop a list outlining possible reasons why this disparity is real. Next, create a list of possible solutions micro (individual) and macro (systems, laws) solutions) that can address this disparity, with hopes of closing the gap. There are many arguments and much research that demonstrates the failing healthcare system for urban America. Researching the issue of failing healthcare, develop a list of historic as well as contemporary healthcare inequalities and consider how you agree/disagree. Provide support to your arguments. Historically, what has been done to help alleviate this social problem? What are some effective modern day solutions being proposed? Explain why they are effective. What do you think is the most pressing social problem facing America throughout the term of the last five presidents and today? What do you feel is the role of the government in the process of dealing with the social problems of their time on the micro and macro levels? What do you think has shaped your views? There are various forms of collective violence. These include: -War, terrorism, political conflicts -Genocide, disappearances, torture, human rights abuses -Organized violent crime (gangs, etc.) In order to apply the sociological imagination to this problem, select one of the forms of collective violence and describe the consequences of that type of collective violence on the macro and micro levels. What might it be like to experience the type of collective violence you selected? Give specifics of how your current life would be affected by this type of violence. What global social problems might be perpetuated by this type of collective violence? Next, propose a possible solution to the global social problems you presented. Migration and immigration is an age-old process of people moving across borders. Some argue it is detrimental to a country’s stability and others say that it brings benefits. Historically, what were some effective solutions to this social phenomenon? Develop a list of pros and cons to U.S. as well as Global migration. Describe the impact on individuals, countries, and the larger world context. What are some effective modern day solutions that are being proposed? See this:SOC 220 Full Course Assignments GCU Why Choose Us Premium Quality Papers We always make sure that writers follow all your instructions precisely. You can choose your academic level: high school, college/university or professional, and we will assign a writer who has a respective degree. Professional Assignment Writers We have a team of professional writers with experience in academic and business writing. Many are native speakers and able to perform any task for which you need help. Free Unlimited Revisions If you think we missed something, send your order for a free revision. You have 10 days to submit the order for review after you have received the final document. You can do this yourself after logging into your personal account or by contacting our support. 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The early decades of the nineteenth century brought intense political turmoil and cultural change for the Choctaw Indians. While they still lived on their native lands in central Mississippi\| they would soon be forcibly removed to Oklahoma. This book makes available for the first time a key legal document from this turbulent period in Choctaw history. Originally written in Choctaw by Peter Perkins Pitchlynn (1806-1881)\| and painstakingly translated by linguist Marcia Haag and native speaker Henry Willis\| the document is reproduced here in both Choctaw and English\| with original text and translation appearing side by side. A leader and future chief of the Choctaw Nation\| Pitchlynn created this record in the wake of a series of Choctaw Council meetings that occurred during the years 1826-1828. The council consisted of chiefs and other tribal statesmen from the nation’s three districts. Their goal for these meetings was to uphold traditions of Choctaw leadership and provide guidance on conduct for Choctaw people “according to a common mind.” Featuring an in-depth introduction by historian Clara Sue Kidwell\| this book is an important foundational source for understanding the evolution of the Choctaw Nation and its eventual adoption of a formal constitution.
Bites and envenomations account for 3% of phone calls to poison control centers.1 In North America, venomous animals vary by specific region and include varied terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates. Venomous bites are of particular concern in the pediatric population, with the highest morbidity and mortality occurring in smaller patients. Diagnosis and management strategies for envenomation vary according to the type of animal, specific toxic properties of the venom, location of the bite, time elapsed since exposure, appearance of the wound, systemic symptoms, size of the child, and history and physical examination findings (Table 176-1). It is important to keep in mind that unwitnessed bites can occur in younger children. This chapter specifically addresses the presentation and management of common snake bites, as well as black widow and brown recluse spider bites. TABLE 176-1Important Details to Elicit on History and Physical Examination \|Favorite Table\|Download (.pdf) TABLE 176-1 Important Details to Elicit on History and Physical Examination \|Description of animal (identification may not always be possible) \| \|Time of exposure \| \|Location of wound on the body \| \|Changes in appearance of wounds before presentation \| \|Local symptoms (paresthesia, weakness, swelling) \| \|Systemic symptoms (dizziness, diaphoresis, respiratory compromise, seizures, muscle cramping, bleeding) \| \|Physical Examination \| \|Patient’s weight \| \|Wound characteristics (erythema, edema, target lesion, bleeding, necrosis, hemorrhagic blebs) \| \|Local compromise (airway compromise, perfusion, neurovascular status) \| \|Systemic compromise (vital signs and end-organ perfusion) \| In North America, the most common venomous snakes belong to the Viperidae family (Crotalinae subfamily) and are commonly referred to as pit vipers. Common features of their general appearance that differentiate them from nonpoisonous snakes include a triangular head, vertically positioned elliptical pupils, heat-sensing nostril pits, and a single row of scales at the tail. In North America, common crotaline snakes include (1) eastern and western diamondbacks and other multiple species of rattlesnakes, (2) copperheads, and (3) water moccasins (also called cottonmouths); envenomation by rattlesnakes is usually more severe. In addition to pit vipers, coral snakes (Elapidae family) can be found in the southeastern and southwestern United States. Coral snake envenomation is less common than pit viper bites but can cause serious neurologic dysfunction. About 75% of snake bites, from venomous snakes, occur with envenomation. It is important to remember that a snake bite deposits the same amount of venom regardless of the size of the victim. Therefore a smaller patient will have a more significant venom load per kilogram and will be at higher risk for morbidity and mortality than larger children and adults. Crotaline venom contains a mixture of multiple enzymes and toxic substances. It is usually deposited subcutaneously, but rarely there can be subfascial or intravascular deposition. Local effects start approximately 15 to 30 minutes after the bite and include pain, paresthesias, numbness, edema, ecchymosis, necrosis, ...
MISSOULA — To go undetected for wildlife means survival but being small and well camouflaged doesn't make it easy to study an animal. Small, hidden and well camouflaged are the traits many animals strive for in order to be able to go undetected if a predator is near or to avoid detection by potential prey. Many of these animals are of conservation concern, and conservation efforts may be hampered by the lack of basic information on their ecological needs. Being small and obscure has its advantages in the animal kingdom but these traits make it challenging to detect and study these species in their natural habitat. Two elements can give away their position through -- body heat and scent. Innovative methods such as thermal imaging and the use of wildlife detection dogs serve as a fitting means for the detection of such species. With thermal imaging cameras using heat instead of visible light to create an image they provide accurate vision even when camouflage or darkness renders normal eyesight useless. Thermal techniques to study wildlife is nothing new to research. White-tailed deer were first tested with this process in the late 1960s and have been used to detect a large array of animals since. But smaller animals have always been difficult to find on the image. Now, new research and advancements in technology have allowed scientists to pick out those tiny details of heat emission and detect small mammals. Even with advancements in technologies, there can be some drawbacks to using thermal cameras -- and that’s where wildlife detection dogs come in. With their superior sense of smell, detection dogs serve as an alternative method to search for cryptic wildlife. The hard-working dogs have usually been used to detect the feces of animals like grizzly bears, owls, and even koalas -- but less so to target animals themselves. To be successful at this the dogs must find the target animal, indicate its find by showing a trained alert behavior and do all of these tasks without harming the target animal, itself, its handler, or any other human or animal. Dense areas with lots of brush imply the needs for detection dogs while more open areas are considered suitable for thermal detection. Applying one of these methods to field research can allow for the collection of data that just wasn’t accessible before, and ultimately improve the ecological understanding of small camouflaged species.
Windmill Hill Culture Middle Neolithic culture defined in 1954 by Stuart Piggott as typical of communities occupying central southern England. Based on the cultural assemblage recovered from the type‐site of Windmill Hill, the culture was founded upon mixed farming, especially cattle husbandry and the cultivation of wheat and barley. In addition to causewayed enclosures the population built long barrows that also provided repositories for the dead. The pottery was well made and frequently decorated. Trading connections with other parts of the British Isles and near continent were well attested through evidence for exchanges of stone axes and pottery. Radiocarbon testing relating to Windmill Hill Culture sites date them to the period 3600–3000 bc, although the term Windmill Hill Culture itself is now almost obsolete.
When the U.S. president used his power to target immigrants, the press, and his political opponents, the sheer overreach of his actions shocked many citizens. Tensions among the country’s political leaders had been escalating for years. Embroiled in one intense conflict after another, both sides had grown increasingly distrustful of each other. Every action by one camp provoked a greater counterreaction from the other, sometimes straining the limits of the Constitution. Fights and mob violence often followed. Leaders of the dominant party grew convinced that their only hope for fixing the government was to do everything possible to weaken their opponents and silence dissent. The president signed into law provisions that made it more difficult for immigrants (who tended to support the opposition) to attain citizenship and that mandated the deportation of those who were deemed dangerous or who came from “hostile” states. Another law allowed for the prosecution of those who openly criticized his administration, such as newspaper publishers. Much of this may sound familiar to anyone living through the present moment in the United States. But the year was 1798. The president was John Adams, and the legislation was known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. Adams’s allies in Congress, the Federalists, argued that in anticipation of a possible war with France, these measures were necessary to protect the country from internal spies, subversive elements, and dissent. The Federalists disapproved of immigrants, viewing them as a threat to the purity of the national character. They particularly disliked the Irish, the largest immigrant group, who sympathized with the French and tended to favor the opposition party, the Republicans. As one Federalist member of Congress put it, there was no need to “invite hordes of Wild Irishmen, nor the turbulent and disorderly of all the world, to come here with a basic view to distract our tranquility.” Critics of the new laws raised their voices in protest. The Republicans charged that they amounted to barefaced efforts to weaken their faction, which happened to include most Americans not of English heritage. Two leading Republicans, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, went so far as to advise state governments to refuse to abide by the Sedition Act, resolving that it was unconstitutional. Political conflicts boiled over into everyday life. Federalists and Republicans often resided in different neighborhoods and attended different churches. The Federalists, centered particularly in New England, prized their Anglo-American identity, and even after the American Revolution, they retained their affinity with the mother country. Republicans saw themselves as cosmopolitan, cherishing the Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, and they championed the French Revolution and disdained Great Britain. As early as 1794, partisans in urban communities were holding separate Fourth of July ceremonies. Republicans read aloud the Declaration of Independence—penned by Jefferson, the founder of their party—as evidence that independence had been their own achievement, whereas Federalists offered toasts to their leader, President George Washington. The Republicans viewed themselves as the party of the people; one prominent politician among them chided the Federalists for celebrating not “we the people” but “we the noble, chosen, privileged few.” On the streets, mock violence—the burning of effigies—was swiftly devolving into the real thing, as politically motivated beatings and open brawls proliferated. In one case, on July 27, 1798, Federalists in New York marched up Broadway singing “God Save the King” just to antagonize the Republicans; the latter responded by singing French revolutionary songs. Soon, the singing contest became a street fight. Watching the growing chaos and division, Americans of all stripes worried that their experiment in self-government might not survive the decade. They feared that monarchy would reassert itself, aristocracy would replace representative government, or some states might secede from the union, causing its demise. The beginnings of American democracy were fragile—even at a time when some of the U.S. Constitution’s framers themselves, along with other luminaries of the era, held public office. Of course, the early republic was by no means a fully realized democracy. The bold democratic ideals of equality and government by consent, which were enshrined in the nation’s founding documents, were paired with governing practices that repudiated them, most blatantly by sanctioning slavery. The U.S. Constitution established representative government, with public officials chosen directly or indirectly by a quickly expanded electorate of white men of all classes, who gained suffrage rights well before their peers in Europe. Yet nearly one in five Americans, all of them of African descent, were enslaved, lacking all civil and political rights. The Constitution not only implicitly condoned this practice but even granted extra political power to slaveholders and the states in which they resided. After two centuries of struggle, the United States democratized. Not until the 1970s could the United States be called a truly robust and inclusive democracy. That long path included numerous periods when the country lurched toward greater authoritarianism rather than progressing toward a stronger democracy. Time and again, democratic reforms and the project of popular government were put at risk of reversal, and in some instances, real backsliding occurred. In the 1850s, divisions over slavery literally tore the country apart, leading to a destructive civil war in the next decade. In the 1890s, amid the convulsive changes of the industrial era and an upsurge in labor conflict and farmers’ political organizing, nearly four million African Americans were stripped of their voting rights. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, many Americans welcomed the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt, who was willing to use greater executive power than his predecessors—but others worried that Roosevelt was paving the way for the type of strongman rule on the rise in several European countries. During the Watergate scandal of the 1970s, in the wake of unrest over racism and the Vietnam War, President Richard Nixon tried to use the tools of executive power that were developed in the 1930s as political weapons to punish his enemies, creating a constitutional crisis and sapping citizens’ confidence in institutions of all kinds. These crises of democracy did not occur randomly. Rather, they developed in the presence of one or more of four specific threats: political polarization, conflict over who belongs in the political community, high and growing economic inequality, and excessive executive power. When those conditions are absent, democracy tends to flourish. When one or more of them are present, democracy is prone to decay. Today, for the first time in its history, the United States faces all four threats at the same time. It is this unprecedented confluence—more than the rise to power of any particular leader—that lies behind the contemporary crisis of American democracy. The threats have grown deeply entrenched, and they will likely persist and wreak havoc for some time to come. Although the threats have been gathering steam for decades, they burst ever more vividly and dangerously into the open this year. The COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis it precipitated have dramatically exposed the United States’ partisan, economic, and racial fault lines. Americans of color have disproportionately been victims of the novel coronavirus. African Americans, for example, have been five times as likely as whites to be hospitalized for COVID-19 and have accounted for nearly one in four deaths related to the coronavirus that causes the disease—twice their proportion of the population. The pandemic-induced recession has exacerbated economic inequality, exposing the most economically vulnerable to job losses, food and housing insecurity, and the loss of health insurance. And partisan differences have shaped Americans’ responses to the pandemic: Democrats have been much more likely to alter their health behavior, and even the simple act of wearing a mask in public has become a partisan symbol. The Black Lives Matter protests that erupted after the police killing of George Floyd in Minneapolis in May have further highlighted the deep hold that systemic racism has long had on American politics and society. President Donald Trump has ruthlessly exploited these widening divisions to deflect attention from his administration’s poor response to the pandemic and to attack those he perceives as his personal or political enemies. Chaotic elections that have occurred during the pandemic, in Wisconsin and Georgia, for example, have underscored the heightened risk to U.S. democracy that the threats pose today. The situation is dire. To protect the republic, Americans must make strengthening democracy their top political priority, using it to guide the leaders they select, the agendas they support, and the activities they pursue. Not long ago, lawmakers in Washington frequently cooperated across party lines, forging both policy alliances and personal friendships. Now, hostility more often prevails, and it has been accompanied by brinkmanship and dysfunction that imperil lawmaking on major issues. The public is no different. In the 1950s, when pollsters asked Americans whether they would prefer that their child “marry a Democrat or a Republican, all other things being equal,” the vast majority—72 percent—either didn’t answer or said they didn’t care. By contrast, in 2016, a majority of respondents—55 percent—expressed a partisan preference for their future son-in-law or daughter-in-law. For many Americans, partisanship has become a central part of their identity. Vibrant political parties are essential to the functioning of democracy. Yet when parties divide lawmakers and society into two unalterably opposed camps that view each other as enemies, they can undermine social cohesion and political stability. The framers of the U.S. Constitution, attuned to such threats because of Great Britain’s previous century of experience with violent parties and factions, hoped their new country could avoid parties altogether. Yet no sooner was the new government up and running than political leaders—including some of the founders themselves—began to choose sides on the critical issues of the day, leading to the formation of the sharply antagonistic Federalist and Republican factions. That bout of polarization subsided only after the deadlocked presidential election of 1800, during which both sides prepared for violence and many feared civil war. The outcome was ultimately decided peacefully in the House of Representatives when, after multiple inconclusive votes, one member of Congress shifted his support from Aaron Burr to Jefferson. Polarization grows when citizens sort themselves so that, instead of having multiple, crosscutting ties to others, their social and political memberships and identities increasingly overlap, reinforcing their affinity for some groups and setting them apart from others. In the mid-twentieth century, this process commenced once again as white southerners, beginning as early as the 1930s and accelerating by the 1960s, distanced themselves from the Democratic Party and its uneven but growing embrace of the cause of racial equality, shifting gradually toward the Republicans. When parties divide society into unalterably opposed camps, they can undermine political stability. Polarization intensifies as ambitious political entrepreneurs take advantage of emerging divisions to expand their power. They may do this by adopting opposing positions on issues, highlighting and promoting underlying social differences, and using inflammatory rhetoric in order to consolidate their supporters and weaken their opponents. Contemporary polarization in Congress advanced in this way starting in 1978. A young Republican congressman named Newt Gingrich, lamenting his party’s decades of minority status, launched a long-term attack on the institution of Congress itself in order to undermine public trust in the institution and convince voters that it was time for a change. He told Republicans, “Raise hell all the time. . . . This party does not need another generation of cautious, prudent, careful, bland, irrelevant, quasi-leaders. . . . What we really need are people who are willing to stand up in a slugfest and match it out with their opponent.” He rallied the base, found ways to embarrass the Democratic majority, and proved to be a master of attracting media attention. As a political strategy, polarization delivered: congressional elections became more competitive than they had been for the previous half century. Every election from 1980 to the present has presented an opportunity for either party to take control of each chamber of Congress. In 1994, Republicans finally won a majority in the House of Representatives after being in the minority for 58 of the preceding 62 years, and they elected Gingrich as Speaker. Partisan control of Congress has seesawed ever since. Party leaders from Gingrich onward encouraged their fellow partisans to act as loyal members of a team, prioritizing party unity. They shifted staff and resources away from policy committees and toward public relations, allowing them to communicate constantly to voters about the differences between their party and the opposition. Such messaging to the base helps parties be competitive in elections. But this approach hinders democratic governance by making it more difficult for Congress to work across party lines and address major issues. This occurs in part because polarization makes many of the attributes of a well-functioning polity—such as cooperation, negotiation, and compromise—more costly for public officials, who fear being punished at the polls if they engage in these ways with opponents. As division escalates, the normal functioning of democracy can break down if partisans cease to be able or willing to resolve political differences by finding a middle ground. Politics becomes a game in which winning is the singular imperative, and opponents transform into enemies to be vanquished. Polarization is not a static state but a process that feeds on itself and creates a cascade of worsening outcomes. Over time, those who exploit it may find it difficult to control, as members of the party base become less and less trustful of elites and believe that none is sufficiently devoted to their core values. These dynamics give rise to even less principled actors, as epitomized by Trump’s rise. During the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, numerous established Republican politicians, such as Senators Lindsey Graham of South Carolina and Marco Rubio of Florida, expressed their disdain for Trump, only to eat their words once he was nominated and to support him faithfully once he was in the White House. The culmination of polarization can endanger democracy itself. If members of one political group come to view their opponents as an existential threat to their core values, they may seek to defeat them at all costs, even if it undermines normal democratic procedures. They may cease to view the opposition as legitimate and seek permanent ways to prevent it from gaining power, such as by stacking the deck in their own favor. They may become convinced that it is justifiable to circumvent the rule of law and defy checks and balances or to scale back voting rights, civil liberties, or civil rights for the sake of preserving or protecting the country as they see fit. Democracy has been most successful in places where citizens share broad agreement about the boundaries of the national community: who should be included as a member and on what terms, meaning whether all should have equal status or if rights should be parceled out in different ways to different groups. Conversely, when a country features deep social divisions along lines of race, gender, religion, or ethnicity, some citizens may favor excluding certain groups or granting them subordinate status. When these divisions emanate from rifts that either predated the country’s founding or emerged from it, they can prove particularly pernicious and persist as formidable forces in politics. Such formative rifts may come to a head as the result of some political change that prompts opposing political parties to take divergent stands on the status of certain groups. Politicians may deliberately seek to inflame divisions as a political strategy, to unite and mobilize groups that would not otherwise share a common goal. Or social movements might mobilize people on one side of a rift, leading to a countermobilization by those on the other side. In either case, when such divisions are triggered, those who favor a return to earlier boundaries of civic membership and status may be convinced that they must pursue their goals even if democracy is curtailed in the process. The United States at its inception divided the political community by race, creating a formative rift that has organized the country’s politics ever since. A commitment to white supremacy has often prevailed, impelling many Americans to build coalitions around appeals to racism and segregation in order to further their political interests. The quest to preserve slavery drove U.S. politics for decades. Even after slavery ended, white supremacy often reigned through decades of voting restrictions, the denial of rights, discrimination, and segregation. Yet a countervailing commitment to equality and inclusion also emerged in American politics, fueled by the ideals of the Declaration of Independence and sustained by the persistent efforts of enslaved and oppressed Americans themselves. This tradition repeatedly and powerfully challenged slavery and white supremacy and brought about critical reforms that expanded rights and advanced American democracy. Even after slavery ended, white supremacy reigned through voting restrictions and segregation. The American gender divide, also codified in law, made men’s dominance in politics and society appear to be natural and rendered the gender hierarchy resistant to change. A countervailing commitment to equality emerged, however, in the nineteenth-century women’s movement, articulated in the 1848 Declaration of Sentiments at the Seneca Falls Convention: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal.” Yet not until 1916 would the two major political parties embrace the cause of women’s suffrage at the national level, ushering in the 19th Amendment’s ratification in 1920. Certainly, some tendencies of human nature can help explain why formative rifts can prove so potent. Many people trust communities that seem familiar to them and that they associate with virtue and safety, and they feel distrustful of other groups, whose customs strike them as strange and even dangerous. When political figures or events ignite voters’ anger, especially around matters pertaining to race or gender, political participation is often elevated, particularly among those who favor traditional hierarchies and are willing to put democracy itself at risk in order to restore them. Yet views about who belongs in the political community do not always foster political conflict; it all depends on how they map onto the political party system. In some periods, for example, neither party strongly challenged white supremacy, in which case the status quo prevailed, its restrictions on democracy persisting unchallenged. In other periods, the conflict between racially inclusive and white supremacist visions of American society and democracy has overlapped with partisan divisions and fueled intense political conflict. At such moments, democracy stood on the brink—with the promise of its expansion existing alongside the threat of its demise. The first half of the nineteenth century featured white man’s democracy on southern terms, as neither party challenged the South’s devotion to slavery. In the 1850s, however, the region’s dominance of national politics began to decline. As that happened, its ability to use the political system to protect slavery eroded, and subsequently southerners abandoned democratic means for resolving the conflict. The party system reorganized itself around the slavery question, and ruinous polarization ensued. In response to the election of President Abraham Lincoln, the South seceded, and the country plunged into a violent civil war, the ultimate democratic breakdown. In the decades after the Civil War, the country made strides at building a multiracial democracy, as newly enfranchised African American men voted at high rates and over 2,000 of them won election to public office, serving as local officials, in state legislatures, and in the U.S. Congress. But in the 1890s, the forces of white supremacy rebounded, resulting in violent repression and the removal of voting rights from millions of African Americans. Sixty years of American apartheid followed, not only in the authoritarian enclaves of the South but in northern states as well and in national institutions such as the federal bureaucracy and the U.S. military. In the contemporary period, the conflict between egalitarian and white supremacist visions of American society once again overlaps with the party system and coincides with intense polarization. Over the past several decades, as the U.S. population has become more racially and ethnically diverse, the composition of the Republican Party has grown to be far whiter than the population at large, and the Democratic Party has forged a more diverse coalition. Attitudes among party members have diverged, as well: since the 1980s, Republicans have become far more likely to express racist views, and Democrats, far less so, as revealed by the American National Election Studies. This political chasm has been further exacerbated by rising hostility to immigration and simmering disagreement about the status of immigrants in American society. The resulting divergence makes for extremely volatile politics. THE NEW GILDED AGE Democratic fragility can also result from high rates of economic inequality, which can undermine the institutions and practices of existing democracies. Countries in which inequality is on the rise are more likely to see democracy distorted, limited, and potentially destabilized. By contrast, countries in which inequality is low or declining are less likely to suffer democratic deterioration. People typically assume that inequality makes democracy vulnerable by increasing the chances that the less well-off will rise up against the wealthy, but that is rarely the case. Rather, as inequality grows, it is the affluent themselves who are more likely to mobilize effectively. They realize that working- and middle-class people, who greatly outnumber them, tend to favor redistributive policies—and the higher taxes necessary to fund them, which would fall disproportionately on the rich. Fearful of such policy changes, the rich take action to protect their interests and preserve their wealth and advantages. For a time, this may skew the democratic process by giving the rich an outsize voice, but it can eventually cause more fundamental problems, endangering democratic stability itself. This can occur when the wealthiest citizens seek to solidify their power even if it entails harm to democracy. They may be willing to abide a polarizing politics of “us versus them” and the adoption of repressive measures if that is what it takes for leaders to protect their interests. Among wealthy democracies in the world today, the United States is the most economically unequal. After a period during the mid-twentieth century when low- and middle-income Americans experienced quickly rising incomes, since the late 1970s, they have seen slow or stagnant wage growth and shrinking opportunities. The affluent, meanwhile, have continued to experience soaring incomes and wealth, particularly among the richest one percent of the population. The compensation of chief executives skyrocketed from 30 times the annual pay of the average worker in 1978 to 312 times as much by 2017. In the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth century up through the Civil War, the widespread existence of slavery made for extreme inequality in the American South. Other regions of the country during that same period, however, featured greater equality than did the countries of Europe, being unencumbered by feudalism and the inherited structure of rigid social classes. But as the nineteenth century proceeded, economic inequality grew throughout the country, and by the late nineteenth century—“the Gilded Age,” as Mark Twain called it—the United States had nearly caught up with the intensely class-stratified United Kingdom. These disparities would endure until the U.S. stock market crashed in 1929. The wealthy lost much during the Great Depression, and then, after World War II, a strong economy and government policies fostered upward mobility and the growth of a large middle class. By later in the twentieth century, however, economic inequality was growing once again, owing not only to deindustrialization and globalization but also to policy changes that favored the wealthy. Greater political inequality generally accompanies rising economic inequality, and the United States has been no exception in this regard. In the age of the robber barons, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Industrial Revolution generated vastly unequal wealth paired with unequal political power. Decades of bloody repression of workers ensued as an ascendant class of capitalists enjoyed protection from the courts. Many Americans had already been living on the edge of destitution when the Great Depression plunged the country into soaring rates of joblessness and poverty. Under Roosevelt’s leadership, the United States responded with the New Deal, a collection of policies to provide social protection, restructure the economy, and ensure labor rights. Along with World War II, the New Deal helped revive the American economy and reduce economic inequality, while largely preserving existing racial and gender hierarchies and inequalities. These changes helped sustain three decades of shared prosperity and relatively low polarization in American politics. But beginning in the 1970s, economic inequality began to grow, and the affluent and big business in the United States became more politically organized than ever, in ways that presented major obstacles to democracy. Since the 1990s, the amount of money spent on politics—on both campaign contributions and lobbying—has escalated sharply, owing to the deep pockets and strong motivations of wealthy Americans and corporations. Even more striking is the degree to which the rich have organized themselves politically to pursue their policy agenda at the state and national levels. When government responds primarily to the rich, it transforms itself into an oligarchy, which better protects the interests of the wealthy few. Keeping watch over democracy is not their concern. THE IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY A final factor in democratic backsliding is the demise of checks on executive power, which typically results when powerful leaders take steps to expand their power and autonomy relative to more broadly representative legislatures and courts that are expected to protect rights. These executive actions might be perfectly legal, such as filling the courts and government agencies with political allies. But executives might also be tempted to stack the deck against their political opponents, making it hard to challenge their dominance; circumvent the rule of law; or roll back civil liberties and civil rights. The American founders sought to thwart executive tyranny and to prevent a single group of leaders from seizing control of all the levers of government power at once. But separation-of-powers systems, such as that of the United States, are notoriously prone to intractable political conflicts between the executive and the legislative branches, each of which can claim democratic legitimacy because it is independently elected. Moreover, a president engaged in such a conflict might be tempted to assume a populist mantle—to equate his supporters with “the people” as a whole and present his preferred policies as reflective of a single popular will, as opposed to the multiplicity of voices and interests represented in the legislature. Across most of the first 125 years of the country’s history, the very idea of a president achieving autocratic powers would have seemed inconceivable because the office was limited and Congress prevailed as the dominant branch. In the early twentieth century, however, presidential power began to grow, with the presidency eventually becoming a much more dominant office than the framers ever envisioned. Certainly, the president cannot single-handedly create or repeal laws, as those powers are vested in Congress. But in other respects, an aspiring autocrat who occupied the White House would find considerable authority awaiting him. Presidents throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first have expanded the powers of the office through the use of executive orders and proclamations, the administrative state, an enlarged White House staff and the creation of the Executive Office of the President, and the president’s control over foreign policy and national security. Meanwhile, Congress has ceded considerable authority to the executive branch, often in moments of crisis, and has enabled presidents to act unilaterally and often without oversight. As a result, the ordinary checks and balances that the framers intended to ensure democratic accountability have grown weaker. This “imperial presidency,” as some have dubbed it, has afforded presidents near-complete autonomy in foreign policy decisions and allowed them to commit the country to expensive and risky interventions abroad, with the executive seeking congressional approval only later. A vast national security apparatus has grown in tandem. It has secretly conducted domestic surveillance and engaged in political repression, often targeted at immigrants, minorities, and the politically vulnerable. In the hands of a leader who sees himself as above the law, these tools provide ample means to further the leader’s own agenda, at great cost to accountable democratic government. U.S. presidents are afforded near-complete autonomy in foreign policy decisions. Although presidential power had grown over the first third of the twentieth century, it was Roosevelt who truly launched the process of executive aggrandizement. He took office at a moment of deep crisis, and many Americans expected him to assume dictatorial powers like those on display in Europe—some even urged him to do so. Roosevelt managed to steer the country through the crisis in a manner that preserved democracy, but he did so through an unprecedented expansion of presidential power. As the fascist threat grew in the 1930s, Roosevelt secretly authorized extensive domestic wiretapping, ostensibly to counter the danger of Nazi subversion. And during World War II, he ordered the mass incarceration of more than 100,000 people of Japanese descent, some 70,000 of whom were U.S. citizens. In the 1970s, Nixon built on those precedents in order to weaponize the presidency, turning the national security apparatus against his personal and political enemies. Nixon’s White House and campaign operatives engaged in a wide array of skullduggery and law breaking to harass, surveil, and discredit his antagonists, including, most famously, the botched Watergate burglary in 1972 that ultimately brought Nixon down. TRUMP AND THE FOUR THREATS The four threats to democracy have waxed and waned over the course of U.S. history, each according to its own pattern. When even one threat existed, the course of democracy was put at risk, as occurred with the escalation of polarization in the 1790s and executive aggrandizement in the 1930s and 1970s. In the absence of the other threats, however, little backsliding occurred during those periods. When several threats coalesced, however, democratic progress was endangered. In both the 1850s and the 1890s, the combination of polarization, economic inequality, and racial conflict produced calamities. Today, for the first time ever, the country is facing all four threats at once. Polarization has become extreme, prompting members of Congress to act more like members of a team than as representatives or policymakers. Among ordinary citizens, polarization is prompting a sense of politics as “us versus them,” in which people’s political choices are driven by their hostility toward the opposition. Economic inequality has skyrocketed, and wealthy individuals and business leaders are highly motivated and organized to protect their interests and expand their riches, even if they must tolerate or embrace racist, nativistic politics to achieve their goals. And in the face of political dysfunction and stalemate, the power of the executive branch has grown exponentially. Trump’s nomination and election were one result of these trends; his presidency has become a driving force behind them. He is polarization personified, utterly dismissive of and vicious toward all opponents. He has repeatedly stoked racial antagonism and nativism. Despite the populist atmospherics of his rallies and rhetoric, his approach to governing has been plutocratic, not redistributive, delivering robust benefits to the wealthy and business interests and relatively little to everyone else. And more than any president since Nixon, Trump views the presidency as his personal domain and has wielded its power to promote his personal interests—political and financial—at the expense of democratic accountability. Throughout his time in the White House, Trump has launched a frontal attack on elections and the public’s confidence in them. This began with his unsubstantiated 2016 claims that the electoral system was “rigged” and his warnings that he would not accept the results if they went against him; even after he won, he made spurious allegations of voter fraud in order to wave away the fact that he had lost the popular vote. He has also tolerated and even encouraged foreign interference in U.S. elections, failing to condemn Russian meddling in 2016 and later making a bald-faced effort to coerce Ukraine into launching a baseless investigation into former Vice President Joe Biden, Trump’s likely opponent in the 2020 election, in order to provide him with dirt to use against Biden. Even more dangerous is Trump’s assault on the rule of law. Previous presidents have stretched the law and even violated it in pursuit of policy goals and political advantage. But few have so resolutely flouted the line between presidential power and personal gain. Trump has made no secret of his belief that the FBI and the Justice Department are not public entities responsible for carrying out the rule of law; rather, he regards them as a private investigative force and a law firm that can protect him and his allies and harass and prosecute his enemies. In William Barr, he has found an attorney general who is willing to provide this personal protection. Trump has also chipped away at bedrock values of American democracy, such as the idea of a free press, going so far as to threaten to revoke the licenses of news outlets that have published critical reporting on him and his administration; luckily, he has not followed through. Yet his frequent attacks on the mainstream media as “fake news” and “enemies of the people” have further undermined confidence in the press, with invidious effects. And when it comes to civil rights, Trump’s frequent verbal assaults on immigrants and members of other minority groups have been accompanied by several policy and administrative changes that have scaled back the rights of vulnerable communities. Americans may wish to assume that their democracy will survive this onslaught. After all, the country has weathered severe threats before. But history reveals that American democracy has always been vulnerable—and that the country has never faced a test quite like this. A REPUBLIC, IF YOU CAN KEEP IT Democratic decay is not inevitable, however. Politics does not adhere to mechanical principles, in which given circumstances foreordain a particular outcome. Rather, politics is driven by human beings who exercise agency and choice and who can set their sights on preserving and restoring democracy. Political leaders and citizens can rescue American democracy, but they must act before it is too late. Some will say that focusing on the risk of backsliding misses the bigger point that American democracy has been far from perfect even in the past half century, never mind prior to the 1960s. And yet in recent decades, American democracy—despite its limitations—has nonetheless continued some of the best-established traditions of the United States and has allowed for a vast improvement over earlier periods with respect to free and fair elections and the integrity of rights. Some political scientists and commentators believe that the only way to improve democracy in the United States would be through deep structural reforms. The equal representation of states in the Senate, for example, gives extra representation to residents of sparsely populated states and diminishes the power of people who live in more densely populated places. The Electoral College makes possible a perverse and undemocratic result in which the candidate for president who receives the most votes does not win—the result in two of the last five presidential elections. But changes to such long-standing features of the U.S. political system seem unlikely. Amending the Constitution is difficult under the best of circumstances, and probably next to impossible in today’s polarized climate. Moreover, those in power are the beneficiaries of the current arrangements and have little incentive to change them. Absent such changes, one key to protecting democracy is surprisingly simple: to allow that goal to explicitly guide political choices. In evaluating a policy or a proposal, Americans should lean away from their ideological tendencies, material interests, and partisan preferences and instead focus on whether the measure at hand will reinforce democracy or weaken it. The most important thing Americans can do is to insist on the rule of law, the legitimacy of competition, the integrity of rights, and strong protection for free and fair elections. These pillars are the rules of the game that permit all Americans to participate in politics, regardless of which party wins office. Today’s Republican Party has abandoned its willingness to protect those pillars of democracy, despite its legacy of having done so in earlier periods. The party has tolerated increasingly repressive and antidemocratic behavior as it has sought to maintain and expand its power. Republican officials and leaders now sanction the unjust punishment of their political enemies, efforts to limit voting by those who favor Democrats, and even the dismissal of election results that do not favor their party. In other countries where support for illiberal or authoritarian rule has emerged, opposition parties have embraced the role of champion of democracy. In the United States, that obligation now falls to the Democratic Party. But ordinary citizens must become engaged, as well. Early generations of Americans made immense personal sacrifices for the sake of democracy. During World War II, Americans defeated Nazism and fascism through military service overseas and substantial efforts on the home front. During the 1950s and 1960s, Americans marched for civil rights, took part in lunch counter sits-ins, and volunteered for Freedom Summer. The time has come once again for Americans to defend democracy, joining in a long legacy. The first half of 2020 deepened the crisis of democracy in the United States. A global pandemic, a deep recession, and feckless leadership have exposed and further exacerbated all four threats to democracy. At the same time, the broad and widespread Black Lives Matter protests that have filled streets and public squares in cities and towns across the country since the spring are forcing unprecedented numbers of Americans to confront their country’s shameful history of racial inequality. If this reckoning bears electoral fruit in November and beyond, the United States might once again pull itself back from the brink. Crisis might lead to renewal.
Circular design is gaining momentum as regards creating both a sustainable built environment and public spaces. Circular design makes buildings more adaptable and facilitates the high-value reuse of a structure’s materials once they have reached the end of their life. This toolbox article The circular design of buildings summarises the circular design of buildings in eight core principles. They are based on two key elements: circular design and the circular use of materials. Circular construction requires a different design process than the traditional approach. It involves the expertise of external parties specialising in circular design methods of flexible, detachable and waste-free construction. In terms of costs, a circularly designed building or structure does not necessarily have to be more expensive. Consider the structure’s entire life cycle: over time, a circular approach results in less investment in maintenance and interim adjustments. The residual value of materials also remains higher. Some important decisions at the very beginning of the process help ensure a circular design’s success, and they are outlined in the article.
⇧ [VIDÉO] You might also like this partner content (post ad) What if entire parts of the universe were opaque to us simply because we weren’t observing them in the right way? Engineers decided to “query” a machine learning system for certain physical phenomena and came up with amazing results, where scientists were unable to understand the “mathematical language” their creation used. ” I always wondered if we encountered an intelligent alien race, would they have discovered the same physical laws as us, or could they describe the universe in a different way? asks Hod Lipson, one of the scientists who carried out this research, in a statement from Columbia University. It is somewhat with this idea in mind that a team of engineers designed a program based on machine learning intended for the observation of physical phenomena. The research results were published in the journal Natural Computational Science last July 25. In fact, as scientists remind us, the observation and understanding of variables has always preceded the grand theories of physics. “ For millennia, people knew about objects moving fast or slow, but it wasn’t until the concept of speed and acceleration were formally quantified that Newton was able to come up with his famous law of motion F=MA ”, notes Hod Lipson, for example. It is therefore quite plausible to assume that physical phenomena may still remain inaccessible to us simply because we have not yet understood their rules of operation. ” What other laws are we missing simply because we don’t have the variables? summarizes Qiang Du, who co-directed the work. Therefore, to conduct their experiment, the researchers first “fed” their program with raw videos of already well-identified phenomena. For example, they offered him a video of a swinging double pendulum, which is known to have exactly four “state variables”—the angle and angular velocity of each of the two arms. The algorithm they used was specifically designed to observe physical phenomena via this type of video, and to “ find the minimum set of fundamental variables that fully describe the observed dynamics “. It took him a few hours of analysis to give an answer to the question “with how many variables can this phenomenon be described”: 4.7. ” We felt this answer was pretty close, especially since the AI only had access to raw video footage with no knowledge of physics or geometry. But we wanted to know what the variables actually were, not just how many “, describes Hod Lipson. This is where things got complicated for researchers. Data that does not correspond to any variable Indeed, the four variables identified by the program did not seem to correspond to anything known. Only two of them could vaguely match the angle of the arms. ” We tried to correlate the other variables with everything we could think of: angular and linear velocities, kinetic and potential energy, and various combinations of known quantities. But nothing seemed to fit perfectly says Boyuan Chen. However, the team was confident that the program had found a valid set of four variables because it had proven that its predictions were correct. So they came to a conclusion: they just couldn’t understand ” mathematical language used by their creation. They then continued the experiment by validating a series of physical systems they knew and then feeding the AI (artificial intelligence) videos whose exact “answers” they didn’t know. A wind dancer in front of a used car lot, for which the program found 8 variables, a lava lamp, which also produced 8 variables, and a chimney fire, which returned 24 variables. It therefore remains to know what exactly these variables correspond to. Could they be clues to new physics principles? “ Perhaps some phenomena seem cryptically complex because we are trying to understand them using the wrong set of variables. In the experiments, the number of variables was the same each time the AI restarted, but the specific variables were different each time. So yes, there are other ways to describe the universe, and it’s entirely possible that our choices won’t be perfect. “say the researchers.
Hint: Slash and burn agriculture is also referred to as fire-fallow cultivation, a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland. This leads to the creation of a field called swidden. Agriculture is the backbone of India. India ranks first with the highest net cropped area in the world followed by the US and China. Worth of $38 billion agricultural products were exported by India in 2013, making it the sixth-largest net exporter and the seventh-largest agricultural exporter worldwide. These agricultural products are exported to more than 120 countries. Out of 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 39 million hectares could be irrigated using groundwater wells and an additional 22 million hectares by using irrigation canals. There are different types of agriculture like shifting cultivation (which is the rotation of crops), Intensive Pastoral Farming (which is focused on grazing of animals), mixed agriculture, subsistence agriculture, plantation agriculture, terrace farming, etc. The method of slash and burn agriculture begins by cutting down the trees and woody plants in an area. The slash is left to get dried, usually before the rainiest part of the year. A nutrient-rich layer of ash is formed after burning the biomass, which makes the soil fertile. The temporary elimination of weed and pest species also helps in making the soil fertile. Thus, option (C) is correct. Note: This method is not suitable for large human populations. Inga alley cropping and slash – and – char are other types of methods that are used as alternatives that cause less environmental degradation than slash and burn agriculture.
Author: Gary Kader Number Of Pages: 112 Publisher: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Details: How does working with data in statistics differ from working with numbers in mathematics? What is variability, and how can we describe and measure it? How can we display distributions of quantitative or categorical data? What is a data sample, and how can we choose one that will allow us to draw valid conclusions from data? How much do you know and how much do you need to know? Helping your students develop a robust understanding of statistics requires that you understand fundamental statistical concepts deeply. But what does that mean? This book focuses on essential knowledge for mathematics teachers about statistics. It is organized around four big ideas, supported by multiple smaller, interconnected ideas essential understandings. Taking you beyond a simple introduction to statistics, the book will broaden and deepen your understanding of one of the most challenging topics for students and teachers. It will help you engage your students, anticipate their perplexities, avoid pitfalls, and dispel misconceptions. You will also learn to develop appropriate tasks, techniques, and tools for assessing students understanding of the topic. Focus on the ideas that you need to understand thoroughly to teach confidently.
Posted: June 14th, 2022 Prepare: Prior to tackling this first discussion question, read Chapters 5 to 7 in A Novel Approach to Politics. ????Reflect: The different systems of government employed today by various countries are all distinctive in some respects yet similar in others. Broadly, three governmental systems can be identified and discussed: presidential systems, parliamentary systems, and authoritarian systems. Each system reflects the unique political culture, institutions, and actors within these countries. Examining these three systems will expand our understanding of how people are governed around the world and how effective each type of system is in providing goods and services to their citizens. ????Write: You will be assigned to research a specific country based on the first letter of your last name. Place an order in 3 easy steps. Takes less than 5 mins.
America needs to stay healthy this flu season. Since late last year, flu cases have been rising, causing deaths since September last year. The virus has spread in 48 states, affecting mostly children and senior citizens. Although flu vaccines are available, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) sadly announces that these vaccines are only 23 percent effective. Nevertheless, CDC still encourages the public to receive the vaccines, as having some form of protection is better than none at all. Almost all people are familiar with the symptoms of flu (influenza). If you have it, you may suffer from runny or stuffy nose, cough, sore throat, headache and fever. However, fever may not be present in all flu cases. Other signs and symptoms include chills, body aches, fatigue and occasionally, vomiting and diarrhea. How to Avoid the Flu Wash your hands often One of the most common ways of transmission of the flu virus (or of any viral disease) is through the hands. Once germs and viruses stick to the hands, it is very easy for it to enter our body. Ideally, it is best to wash hands with soap and water. However, if these are not available, alcohol or hand sanitizer will do. Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth The easiest route of entry for viruses is through the nose, eyes and mouth. If your hands are contaminated, germs and viruses can quickly enter when you rub your eyes, eat with your hands or touch your nose. Get adequate sleep and rest One way to strengthen the immune system is by getting enough sleep. By having a strong immune system, we can better protect our body from sickness such as flu. Another way to boost the immune system is by exercising regularly. Aside from strengthening the immune system, regular exercise can also lower the body mass index (BMI). Since a higher BMI is associated with increase in illness and injury, exercise proves more useful than just lowering your body weight. Keep respiratory allergies under control If you have respiratory allergies, avoid factors that can trigger it. The presence of an allergy means that your respiratory structures are inflamed. In this state, it is very easy for the virus to invade your respiratory system. Keep your surroundings clean Flu often spread in school classrooms, offices and in homes. To prevent the virus from contaminating almost everything in your environment, always clean and sanitize your area. For instance, the virus can spread in doorknobs, light switches, photocopying machine, telephone, fax and even the candy bowl. If You Have the Flu: What to Do Once you are sick, avoid contact with others to avoid spreading the virus. Stay at home for 24 hours. Do not go to school or work so workers will not contract the disease. Wear a facial mask to prevent fluid droplets from spreading in your surroundings. Throw away used tissues promptly. Get enough rest, eat nutritious foods and take vitamin C supplements to help the body recover from flu faster. Photo credit: Shutterstock
The Restoration of the Monarchy:In 1660 marked the end of an age of fanaticism. Charles II’s court was the most immoral of the English history. His exile to France had given him French tastes and sympathies; he admire the magnificent. The Convention Parliament was replaced in 1661 by the first Parliament of the new reign and this was so royalist that it became known as the Cavalier Parliament. In this period there were two catastrophes: London was struck by an outbreak of bubonic plague and a year later a fire destroyed the city in four days. In this period was born the first political parties in Britain, the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs were the descendants of the Parliamentarians; they did not believe in absolute power , either of Church or State. The Tories were the descendants of the Royalists; they supported the cause of Church of England, the Crown and the landed gentry.
Read Write Inc. Daily phonics lessons, using Read Write Inc is the lively and vigorous teaching of synthetic phonics, which takes place in EYFS, Y1, Y2 and KS2 as required. Children learn the 44 common sounds in the English language and how to sound-blend words for reading(decoding) at the same time as developing handwriting skills and spelling (encoding). Here you will find a series of information and tutorial videos explaining the basics of Read Write Inc. Phonics. As your child is learning to read with this programme, these videos will help you support them at home. Here you will find lots of videos and games to help with recognising letters and reading. This game allows your child to listen to the sounds in a word and to pick the correct letter. Then they can see what word they have made with all of the sounds together. Here you will find several free games to play that will help your child with their blending and segmenting. Click on the picture of Oxford Owl to visit his website (external link) which has has over 250 free ebooks for to enjoy with your child.
How is Diesel Fuel Made from Crude Oil? You may have previously seen our infographic “The Journey from Crude Oil To Diesel”, but here at FuelTek we wanted to expand on the points we previously made. Diesel is an important factor in running fleets and managing our businesses, so we shouldn’t brush over the importance of the engineering and science that goes into it. So, what is the journey that crude oil takes once leaving the seabed? Detection and Installation Before we begin the process of oil extraction, it needs to be discovered, and this can be a difficult due to its home beneath the earth’s surface. In fact, the oil is found in an ‘oil reservoir’ which looks similar to any other rock formation. The pores in which the oil is found in this reservoir are so small they could only be seen through a microscope, so how do they find it? Geologists mainly use devices that utilise infrared signals and sonars which detect possible flowing oil. They can also measure the density of the rocks through radio waves. Depending on the speed in which they reflect back, there could be an oil reservoir beneath. Once they have discovered an area, a scientist will survey the area again to make an assessment of the seabed surface and confirm preparations which need to be carried out. Dependant on the circumstances the platform or rig may need to be fixed to the seabed or it may float. Some other types of oil platforms include: - Compliant towers - Semi-Submersible platform - Jack-up Drilling rigs - Floating Production systems - Tension Leg Platforms - Gravity based structure - Spar platforms - NUI/ Unmanned - Conductor support systems Seabed Drilling and Extraction The drills which are attached from the rig or platform must travel through numerous tough surfaces to eventually get to the crude oil pool. It has to drill through the seabed initially, then through several layers of sedimentary rock layers and impermeable rock (not porous). Therefore, the drills tend to have a strong steel casing around them to avoid erosion and increase structural integrity. The oil is so far down in the layers due to them being formed from living creatures and plants many years go. Crude oil takes millions of years to begin to form, which is why it is a finite resource. The heat and pressure and absence of air causes the animals and plants to convert into oils, with gas also being produced. Once the well has been drilled through these many layers, the oil is extracted through motor powered pumps. These also have a steel casing. Refinery and Heating After the oil is extracted from under the seabed, it will then be transported to the refinery. This is done by either truck, trains, boats or most commonly pipelines. These pipelines go from the wellhead, all the way to the processing facilities and are mainly used as they require less energy to operate compared to other methods, along with creating a significantly lower carbon footprint. Once transported to the refinery, the crude oil needs to be heated to around 400 Degrees Celsius after being fed into the fractional distillation system. The process of fractional distillation is the method of separating the solution into various parts, or fractions. This is important to extract the correct parts of the liquid to be able to create what we know as diesel. The container which the heated crude oil enters has several condensers coming off at different heights. Substances in the crude oil which have higher boiling points condense at the bottom and the lower ones at the top. Because all the components of crude oil have different boiling points this separates out the substances. The main fractions in the fractional distillation process include (from lowest boiling point to highest): - Refinery gas/Bottles gas - Gasoline/Petrol- Used for cars and other vehicles - Naphtha- For making chemicals - Kerosene- Aircraft fuel - Diesel Oil- Fuel for cars, lorries, buses etc - Fuel Oil- Fuel for ships and power stations The hydrocarbons which have a high boiling point, make for better fuel solutions due to the large hydrocarbons being volatile, easily flowing and easily ignited. As you can see Diesel oil is low down in the distillation process with a higher boiling point and larger molecules. The heavier liquids (which are the hydrocarbons with higher boiling points usually) are in less demand from customers, therefore go through another set of processes called ‘catalytic cracking’ to make them lighter. This is where the hydrocarbons in the liquid are broken down much smaller. Any impurities are than removed from the fractions the elements are combined as desired. The final product is then transferred into barrels and then transported to the tank trucks, to be delivered to the pumps where we get out much needed diesel. Without this process, industry fleets, transport related companies and other similar workforces would be lost. If you depend on this to keep your fleet running, a diesel fuel pump, a fuel monitoring system, a fuel management system or a fuel storage tank could be a fuel-saving solution to keep on top of your diesel usage.
Line is the most basic visual element. Lines can be used to define shapes and figures, but also to indicate motion, emotion, and other elements. Contour lines and hatching In a woodblock print of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse by Albrecht Dürer, contour lines — lines that define shapes — are used to mark the outside of all of the elements of the image. The outline of the hat on one of the horsemen, for example, is clearly made by a few black contour lines. This simple device is so effective that it is hard to remember that there is no hat here, only a few black marks on a white page. Note, though, that lines are also used to show shading – the shadows caused when light hits one side of an object, leaving the other in shadow. On the hat, for example, the closely spaced lines, called hatching, show that the left side of his hat is in a shadow. This also helps the hat to look more three-dimensional, giving it a sense of form. Contour lines outline all the figures and forms in the image, creating the illusion of shading and form. In addition, there are horizontal lines in the background. While these create shading, but they also help create the sense that the riders are moving rapidly from left to right. Motion lines may be familiar to you from comic strips, but they appear in all sorts of work. Organic and inorganic (geometric) lines In the Dürer print, we can also divide the lines into organic and inorganic (or geometric) lines (see the section on shape for more on organic and inorganic). Organic lines are loose, curving lines like those found in nature. In the Dürer print, the lines of the horses’ manes and tails, the figures’ hair, and the ruffled clouds are all organic. Inorganic lines are generally straight or perfectly curving lines, like those found in geometry. In this image, most of the lines are organic, but the horizontal lines in the background are inorganic. We can also look for implied lines. These are not actually drawn, but we can connect the dots (literally or figuratively) to create the lines in our minds. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks contains wonderful examples of implied lines. Here, the implied lines are sight lines, which guide us throughout the image. These help us know where to look, and show us what is important in the painting. Follow the gazes of the figures as they look and point at one another. The angel in the red cape to the right looks out at us, and then points at the infant John the Baptist, at the left. He looks at the infant Jesus, who in turn looks back again at him. Above, Mary looks down at Jesus, and also gestures toward him with her hand. Basically, once we make it into the space of the painting by meeting the gaze of the angel, we become locked in a cycle of movement between the holy figures, guided by their sight lines.
Difference Between Euro and Pound Euro vs Pound In everyday life, we often hear about the two popular currencies Euro and Pound. Right from the country of origin, the exchange rates and symbols of these two currencies are entirely different. Euro is the term used to specify the currency of European Union countries. The countries are Belgium, Spain, Vatican City, Martinique, Germany, Finland, and the like. This currency is now being used globally owing to its exchange rate and economy of the countries to which it belongs. It is the only used currency of the 16 European Union member states. These member states together contribute the Euro Area or the Eurozone. Pound or British pound is the currency of Great Britain. There is one more term which refers to this currency. It is Pound Sterling. This is the financial term used to represent the currency. This currency is used in the countries of United Kingdom, Channel Islands, and Isle of Man. Sometimes pound is also known as United Kingdom Pound. The symbol of Euro is â‚¬ and the abbreviation is EUR. The symbol of Pound is Â£ and the abbreviation is GBP. This refers to the term Great Britain Pound. Some other abbreviations used to denote the currency are UKP, GBR, UK, and STG. A Euro is made up of 100 cents while a Pound is made up of 100 pence. The symbol of a penny is ‘p’ and an amount like 40 pence is pronounced as fourty pee. So the basic unit of Euro is cent and that of Pound is pence. Both Euro and Pound have a conversion factor of six significant digits. The cents of Euro are issued as coins. Euro came into existence in 1995 and was introduced in the financial markets in 1999, as an accounting currency. Today Euro is the second most traded and second largest reserve currency in the world. It has the most combined cash value in circulation. Pound sterling comes as the third largest reserve currency in the world. And in the foreign exchange scenario it is the fourth most traded currency. In the foreign exchange market, if a Pound is equal to 1.59 USD, one Euro is equal to 1.46 USD. So roughly speaking, one Pound is equal to 1.09 Euro. Euro banknotes and coins are in circulation since 1st January 2002. The European Central Bank in Frankfurt and the Eurosystem administers and manages the circulation of the Euro. The Eurosystem monitors the process of minting, printing, and the circulation of the coins and notes in the states. The Pound and Euro are two major currencies in the foreign exchange market and two leading players in the global financial arena. 1.Euro is the currency of EU countries while pound is used in the UK. 2.The exchange rate of pound is greater than that of euro. 3.In the financial market, euro is the second most traded and pound is the third most traded currency. Search DifferenceBetween.net : Email This Post : If you like this article or our site. Please spread the word. Share it with your friends/family. Leave a Response
The state of Ohio is known for its miles and miles of forest areas and state parks. According to the Ohio Department of National Resources, Ohio has nine species of softwood and 149 species of hardwood trees that are native to the state. Softwood trees are those trees that release a seed into the atmosphere without the covering shell of a fruit or nut. Many of these trees bear cones, such as pine trees. False cypress (Chamaecyparis) is a type of softwood tree that can grow in Ohio. Some types of this tree can grow from 30 to 50 feet in height. There are, however, smaller species that remain the size of a shrub. False cypress will grow best in areas that provide full sun (no less than six hours of direct sun) and well-drained soil that is moist and rich. This tree is an evergreen and can vary in color, depending on the specific type. Spruce trees (Picea) are typically cone shaped and maintain their green color year-round. This type of tree grows best in full sun in areas that provide moist, well-drained soil. They can, however, thrive in the clay soil that is found in much of Ohio. Water your spruce tree during dryer times, especially during the first two years after planting, to keep the soil moist. To maintain an attractive shape to your tree, prune in the early spring. Types of spruce trees include the Norway spruce (reaches 40 to 60 feet in height and 25 to 30 feet wide), the Dwarf Alberta spruce (reaches 10 to 12 feet in height), the Colorado spruce (reaches 30 to 60 feet in height and spreads 10 to 20 feet in width), the white spruce ( reaches 40 to 60 feet in height and 10 to 20 feet in width), the Oriental spruce (reaches 50 to 60 feet in height) and the Serbian spruce (reaches 50 to 60 feet in height and 20 to 25 feet in width). Pines (Pinus) are another species of softwood trees that can be found in Ohio. This type of tree grows best in full sun and prefers slightly acidic soil that is well drained. Watering is required for at least the first year after planting. Types of pine trees include the Japanese red pine (reaches 40 to 60 feet in height and width), the Lacebark pine (reaches 30 to 50 feet in height and 20 to 25 feet in width), the Japanese white pine (reaches 25 to 50 feet in height and width), the eastern white pine (reaches 50 to 80 feet in height and 20 to 40 feet in width), the Austrian pine (reaches 50 to 60 feet in height and 20 to 40 feet in width), the Scotch pine (reaches 30 to 60 feet in height and 30 to 40 feet in width) and the Mugo pine (remains dwarf sized). - Plant Eldarica Pine Trees - The Best Time to Prune Cedar Trees - Prune Weeping Pine Trees - Small Pine Evergreen Trees - Prune Japanese Pine Trees - Take Care of Austrian Pine Trees - My Cryptomeria Is Turning Brown - Meyer's Spruce Planting Instructions - How Fast Will a Whitespire Birch Tree Grow? - Grow Pine Trees From a Cone Seed - Types of German Evergreen Trees - Evergreens in Tennessee
Learning a second language is referred to as Second Language Acquisition, and is a major undertaking in any language. How long it takes to acquire a second language will also vary from person to person, based on a variety of reasons. Kids at schools across America are learning English at faster rates than their non-English speaking parents and some kids may have surpassed their parents own educational attainment, which sometimes makes it challenging for parents to help their children with school homework, or even participate at their child’s school. Many parents may not feel like they have a role at the school. Dr. Stephen Krashen has researched and published work about Second Language Acquisition and particularly in bilingual communities. http://www.sdkrashen.com Language and Literacy in the ELL population is diverse and complex, but by far, the largest number of English learners is lead by Spanish speakers with more than 82% of all English Learners. The Latino Family Literacy Project brings out the best in parents and shows them how they can help their children with reading, using their own skill set, and then provides them with meaningful opportunities for parental engagement and second language acquisition. Teachers are invited to attend a workshop or webinar to help them understand the fastest growing population in America, and the largest segment of the ELL population. If a teacher does not speak Spanish, try to attend a workshop or webinar with another teacher or staff who does speak Spanish to work together as a team because there is a role for everyone for a successful parent program!
Flashcards in Week 3 - Biological Psychology 2 Deck (61): The Spinal Cord is comprised of what 3 Neurons? What do Sensory Neurons do? Are they input or output? Where are they located? Send messages to the brain from the body (eg temperature, pressure, pain) They are input Located in the dorsal spine What do Motor Neurons do? Are they input or output? Where are they located? Send messages from the brain to the body (eg actions, changes in organ function) They are output Located in the ventral spine What do Interneurons do? Connect sensory and motor neurons at the spinal level allowing for reflexive movement The Forebrain consists of? Cerebral cortex and subcortical structures The Brainstem consists of? Midbrain, pons and medulla What is the cerebellum known as? The little brain What are Cerebral Ventricles? Cavities within the brain and spinal cord that contain fluid that nourishes and protects CNS from trauma. What is the role of the Brain Stem? Regulates bodily function Connects brain and spinal cord What does the Pons do? Connects cortex to cerebellum The Medulla controls (3) respiration, heart rate and sleep/wake patterns The Midbrain is involved in (2) Movement control, orienting to sensory stimuli The Reticular Activating System (RAS) controls (2) consciousness and arousal What is the largest and most complex region of the brain? The left and right hemispheres are connected by what? What does this allow? The corpus callosum It allows the two hemispheres to share information What are the 2 subcortical structures of the Forebrain? The Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia What is the Limbic System and what is its role? (5) Interconnected brain regions involved in emotional processing, basic drives, control of the ANS, learning, memory and smell The Limbic System is comprised of what (4) things? What does the Thalamus do? Receives/transfers incoming sensory information to the cortex (relay station) What does the Hypothalamus do? (3) Regulates autonomic nervous system and endocrine system (via pituitary gland) - Basic drives (eg fighting, fleeing) - Homeostasis (body temp, metabolism) What is the Amygdala involved in? Learning, recognising and responding to emotion (particularly fear) What does the Hippocampus do? Encode new long-term memories, spatial memory What is the role of the Basal Ganglia? (3) Controlling of movement (initiating and inhibiting) Initiating actions for reward Some memory processes What is the cerebral cortex involved in? Higher order processing (eg thought, speech, reasoning) What are Primary Areas of the CC associated with? Receiving incoming sensory information (raw data) or send messages to the body to initiate movement What do the Associate Areas do? Add cognitive element by forming perceptions, by applying meaning to incoming messages. Plans responses What are the 4 lobes of the Cerebral Cortex hemisphere? 3 areas of the Frontal Lobe What does the Prefrontal cortex control? (3) - Personality, Mood What is the role of the executive function in regards to behaviour? (3) Planning, guidance and evaluation of behaviour (ie decision making, self control) What is Broca's area involved in? Which hemisphere? Speech PRODUCTION (typically left hemisphere) What is the Motor Cortex involved in? (2) Programming and execution of movement What does Frontal Lobe Damage result in? Executive function deficits eg inability to plan, loss in motivation, social inappropriateness PHINEAS GAGE CASE What does the Parietal Lobe do? Vital role in touch sensory information processing. A region where the brain interprets input from other areas of the body. Visuospatial navigation and reasoning What does the somatosensory cortex do? Registers touch sensations from body (temp, pressure, pain) The Parietal lobe is known as the ... visual pathway? Parietal lobe damage results in? (3) Left and right confusion, problems integrating sensory information, visuo-spatial problems The Temporal Lobe processes what? And has long-term storage of what? (2) Autobiographical information (memory) and storage of objects What are the 2 cortex's of the Temporal lobe? Primary Auditory Cortex Auditory Association Cortex What does the Primary Auditory Cortex do? Receives incoming sound, analyses according to frequency/tone What does the Auditory Association Cortex do? Applies meaning to sound What is Wernicke's area associated with? Language COMPREHENSION (typically L hem only) The Temporal Lobe is known as the .... visual pathway? What visual pathway Temporal lobe damage results in (4) Auditory problems, impaired language comprehension, poor memory, agnosia and prospagnosia What are the 2 Cortex's of the Occipital lobe? What does the Primary Visual Cortex receive? Visual information from eyes via the optic nerve What does the Visual Association Cortex organise? The features from the primary visual cortex into more complex maps of features (eg colour, motion) and their position in space - to form an image Occipital lobe damage would result in (3) Cortical blindess, problems with vision, reading problems What is the Corpus Callosum? Band of neurons that connects and transfers information between the left and right hemisphere All sensory input (except olfaction) is largely processed by what hemisphere? The left hemisphere receives information from the right and controls what side of the body? The left hemisphere is specialised for what? What is a Corpus Callosotomy? Surgical severance of the corpus callosum (split brain surgery) In split brain patients what connections and control are normal? Sensory connections and motor control are normal What process cannot be done in split brain patients? Sharing of info between the hemispheres Hemispheric lateralisation can be examined by using what technique? Information in the right visual field can be described how? Information in the left visual field can't be described ... but can be acted upon ..... Verbally, non-verbally eg point to object 3 key things the left hemisphere controls
A shipping line is a business that transports cargo aboard ships. Logistics: There are many different ways of moving cargo from port to port. Shipping in the Twentieth Century Early shipping lines provided a method of distinguishing ships by different kinds of cargo, which is still used today: - Bulk cargo is a type of special cargo that is delivered and handled in large quantities. - General cargo, now known as break-bulk cargo, refers to a wide assortment of goods that may be delivered to several ports around the world. - Oil became a crucial part of the shipping industry in the early 20th century. Its use varied from lubrication for developed machinery, burning in boilers and industrial plants, as well as for operating engines. Oil is also primarily shipped by specific shipping companies as opposed to other forms of transportation. This is considered a type of special cargo. The shipping of oil has become a debated issue due to the environmental impacts of both oil spills and oil tankers. - Passenger cargo is the business of transporting people on shipping lines for the purposes of relocation or recreation. This became a growing industry near the turn of the twentieth century with the wide use of luxury ocean liners. Passenger cargo became a logistical challenge by attempting to balance pleasure voyage aspects with the structural limitations and requirements of the vessel. - Special cargo is a term used for one specific product being shipped to a specific port. Inland shipping along rivers and other freshwater bodies are used to transport cargo to ports other than those along the coast. Inland shipping requires more infrastructure than ocean shipping. Rivers and lakes require infrastructure, such as river ports and canals, to be considered developed and ready for commercial use. Much of this infrastructure became more widely developed during the 19th and 20th centuries. Some principal waterways used by shipping lines in the 20th century were the Rhine, Amazon River, Congo River, Nile River, Mississippi River, and Columbia River. Examples of waterway infrastructure include the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal. These waterways are still in use for commercial purposes today. Some waterways can only operate under seasonal conditions. For example, the Great Lakes operate shipping for approximately eight months each year, but cannot continue operations during winter months when the lakes typically become frozen. Most inland shipping lines are based on speed and efficiency to deliver cargo. Contemporary maritime transportation is bound by geographical constraints, political regulation, and commercial interests. Modern advances and innovations in shipping technology have grown the shipping industry since the twentieth century. Many of these advances include the size of vessels, the size of fleets, specialty purposes for ships within the fleet, naval architecture and design, and automated ship systems. In terms of commercial interests, the maritime industry has a high level of contestability for shipping lines. This means that the ease of entering and leaving the industry is high. The cause of this is due to the purchase of secondhand ships, the return on which can often be covered fairly quickly for commercial ships. Newer, expensive ships require a larger return on the investment but pay off quickly. This is because these ships typically cater to a larger, more expensive crowd. For instance, new cruise ships can often be paid off within ten years due to the entrepreneurial nature of its intended purpose. Innovations in the shipping industry are also being utilized by shipping lines to find solutions to global problems. For example, modern technology and research is being used to analyze the phenomenon of shipping containers disappearing while at sea. These problems are being researched in part by government agencies, such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that operates in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. While part of this issue is due to human error as a result of lack of enforcement, advances in technology and ship design hope to improve the rates at which containers may be lost at sea. Other challenges being pursued in the maritime industry include adaptation to a more globalized economy. While the maritime industry has always remained global by nature, shipping lines are now experiencing phenomenon that is unprecedented in scale or unseen at all before the 21st century. Many of these issues surround the nature of increased cooperation in the maritime industry. For instance, cooperation among many shipping lines in the industry is causing an anticompetitive market. This is one of the reasons for the high level of contestability in the shipping industry. With more cooperation among shipping lines, there are larger rates of ships and companies entering and leaving the industry. As of 2019, business and economic analysists are attempting to find solutions to reduce the anticompetitive practices and promote competitive growth in the maritime industry. Large-scale shipping lines became widespread in the nineteenth century, after the development of the steamship in 1783. At first, Great Britain was the centre of development; in 1819, the first steamship crossing of the Atlantic Ocean took place and by 1833, shipping lines had begun to operate steamships between Britain and British Empire possessions such as India and Canada. Three major British shipping lines were founded in the 1830s: the British and American Steam Navigation Company, the Great Western Steamship Company and the Peninsular Steam Navigation Company. The United States federal government passed the Shipping Act of 1916 as a protection agency for American shipping. The act, passed during World War I but before the nation officially entered the war, helped American shipping lines during a period when commercial shipping grew under the demands of the war. Under this act, the United States Shipping Board was also formed. In 1920, after the end of World War I, the federal government passed the Merchant Marine Act to protect American shipping interests in response to changing foreign shipping policy. The responsibilities established under the Shipping Act were eventually transferred to the Department of Commerce in 1933 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Federal Maritime Commission was created in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy to regulate shipping activity in the United States, finally giving blanket authority to one shipping commission. At the same time, the United States Maritime Administration, or MARAD, was founded to regulate the merchant marine industry and fleet. However, a sharp rise in international ocean trade gave the two agencies expanded power in the growing maritime industry. - Hardy, A. C. (1928). Seaways and Seatrade. New York, NY: D. Van Nostrand Company. - Rodrigue, J. P. (2017). “Maritime Transportation”. The Geography of Transport Systems. New York, NY: Routledge. Retrieved from https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1762 - Davies, J. E. (1986). "Competition, Contestability and the Liner Shipping Industry". Journal of Transport Economics and Policy. 20 (3): 299–312. JSTOR 20052790. - Frey, O. T., DeVogelaere, A. P. (2014, March). “The Containerized Shipping Industry and the Phenomenon of Containers Lost at Sea”. Retrieved from https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuaries-prod/media/archive/science/conservation/pdfs/lostcontainers.pdf - Parthibaraj, Calwin S.; Subramanian, Nachiappan; Palaniappan, P.L.K.; Lai, Kee-hung (January 2018). "Sustainable decision model for liner shipping industry" (PDF). Computers & Operations Research. 89: 213–229. doi:10.1016/j.cor.2015.12.005. - British History - Victorian Technology, BBC History - “History of the Federal Maritime Commission”. (2019, March 11). Retrieved from https://www.fmc.gov/about/history.aspx
As educators, we often put undue emphasis on the students for why they can’t learn – it’s because of their backgrounds, their lack of motivation, their learning styles, their inattention, and their unsupportive parents. While it is true that the largest source of variance in student learning outcomes can be attributed to students, the underlying premise of this deficit thinking is that educators cannot change students. However, we must consider ourselves to be change agents. Hattie argues that teachers’ beliefs and commitments are the greatest influences on student achievement over which we have some control. This chapter provides an overview of the beliefs and commitments of the most successful teachers. The research shows that teachers clearly do make a difference. In fact, the difference in effect between a high-effect teacher and a loweffect teacher is about 0.25 which means that a student in a high-impact teacher’s classroom learns about a year more than his or her peers in a lower-effect teacher’s classroom. This chapter makes the claim that the differences between higher- and lower-effect teachers primarily relate to the attitudes and expectations teachers have when they decide on the core issues of teaching – what to teach, what level of difficulty to teach at, and how rapidly to progress. It is the attitude or belief system of expert teachers that really sets them apart. 1. Expert teachers identify the most important ways to represent the subjects they teach The research in Visible Learning showed that teachers’ subject-matter knowledge did not improve student achievement! However, expert teachers do differ in how they organize and use this content knowledge. They know how to introduce new content knowledge in a way that integrates it with students’ prior knowledge, they can relate the current lesson to other subject areas, and they can adapt the lessons according to students’ needs. Because of how they view their approach to teaching, they have a greater stock of strategies to help students and they are better able to predict when students will make errors and respond when they do. They seek out evidence of who has not learned, who is not making progress, and they problem solve and adapt their teaching in response. 2. Expert teachers create an optimal classroom climate for learning The best climate for learning is one in which there is trust. Students often don’t like to make mistakes because they fear a negative response from peers. Expert teachers create classrooms in which errors are welcome and learning is cool. 3. Expert teachers monitor learning and provide feedback Expert teachers know that a typical lesson never goes as planned and they are skilled at monitoring the current status of student understanding. They are excellent seekers and users of feedback about their teaching – that is, they see student progress as feedback about the effect they are having on learning. To do this they must regularly gather information to know who is not understanding. 4. Expert teachers believe all students can reach the success criteria Expert teachers believe that intelligence is changeable rather than fixed. This means that not only do they have a high respect for their students but that they show a passion that all students can succeed! While passion may be difficult to quantify, students are certainly aware of whether or not their teachers exhibit this passion. In one study of the students of over 3,000 teachers (The Measures of Effective Teaching Project sponsored by the Gates Foundation), students overwhelmingly stated that the teachers of classes with the most student achievement gains were the teachers with the most passion (as defined by seven adjectives starting with ‘C’ – teachers who care, control, clarify, challenge, captivate, confer, and consolidate). 5. Expert teachers influence a wide range of student outcomes not solely limited to test scores Overall, expert teachers exert positive influences on student outcomes and these are not confined to improving test scores. Expert teachers influence students in a wide range of ways: encouraging students to stay in school, helping them to develop deep and conceptual understandings, teaching them to develop multiple learning strategies, encouraging them to take risks in their learning, helping them to develop respect for themselves and others, and helping them develop into active citizens who participate in our world.
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism. In geology, sedimentation is often used as the opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport. In that sense, it includes the termination of transport by saltation or true bedload transport. Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process. In estuarine environments, settling can be influenced by the presence or absence of vegetation. Trees such as mangroves are crucial to the attenuation of waves or currents, promoting the settlement of suspended particles. Sedimentation may pertain to objects of various sizes, ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions of dust and pollen particles to cellular suspensions to solutions of single molecules such as proteins and peptides. Even small molecules supply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation. The term is typically used in geology to describe the deposition of sediment which results in the formation of sedimentary rock, but it is also used in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motion of often-smaller particles and molecules. This process is also used in the biotech industry to separate cells from the culture media. In a sedimentation experiment, the applied force accelerates the particles to a terminal velocity at which the applied force is exactly canceled by an opposing drag force. For small enough particles (low Reynolds number), the drag force varies linearly with the terminal velocity, i.e., (Stokes flow) where f depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Similarly, the applied force generally varies linearly with some coupling constant (denoted here as q) that depends only on the properties of the particle, . Hence, it is generally possible to define a sedimentation coefficient that depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Thus, measuring s can reveal underlying properties of the particle. In many cases, the motion of the particles is blocked by a hard boundary; the resulting accumulation of particles at the boundary is called a sediment. The concentration of particles at the boundary is opposed by the diffusion of the particles. The sedimentation of a single particle under gravity is described by the Mason–Weaver equation, which has a simple exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s in this case equals , where is the buoyant mass. The sedimentation of a single particle under centrifugal force is described by the Lamm equation, which likewise has an exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s also equals , where is the buoyant mass. However, the Lamm equation differs from the Mason–Weaver equation because the centrifugal force depends on radius from the origin of rotation, whereas in the Mason–Weaver equation gravity is constant. The Lamm equation also has extra terms, since it pertains to sector-shaped cells, whereas the Mason–Weaver equation is one-dimensional. - Type 1 sedimentation is characterized by particles that settle discretely at a constant settling velocity,or by the deposition of Iron-Rich minerals to streamlines down to the point source. They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate or stick to other during settling. Example: sand and grit material - Type 2 sedimentation is characterized by particles that flocculate during sedimentation and because of this their size is constantly changing and therefore their settling velocity is changing. Example: alum or iron coagulation - Type 3 sedimentation is also known as zone sedimentation. In this process the particles are at a high concentration (greater than 1000 mg/L) such that the particles tend to settle as a mass and a distinct clear zone and sludge zone are present. Zone settling occurs in lime-softening, sedimentation, active sludge sedimentation and sludge thickeners. In geology, sedimentation is the deposition of particles carried by a fluid flow. For suspended load, this can be expressed mathematically by the Exner equation, and results in the formation of depositional landforms and the rocks that constitute sedimentary record. An undesired increased transport and sedimentation of suspended material is called siltation, and it is a major source of pollution in waterways in some parts of the world. High sedimentation rates can be a result of poor land management and a high frequency of flooding events. If not managed properly, it can be detrimental to fragile ecosystems on the receiving end, such as coral reefs. Climate change also affects siltation rates. - Van Santen, P.; Augustinus, P. G. E. F.; Janssen-Stelder, B. M.; Quartel, S.; Tri, N. H. (2007-02-15). "Sedimentation in an estuarine mangrove system". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. Morphodynamics of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. 29 (4): 566–575. Bibcode:2007JAESc..29..566V. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.05.011. - Coe, H.S.; Clevenger, G.H. (1916). "Methods for determining the capacities of slime-settling tanks". Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. 55: 356. - "Siltation & Sedimentation". blackwarriorriver.org. Archived from the original on 2009-12-21. Retrieved 2009-11-16. - "Siltation killed fish at Batang Rajang - Digest on Malaysian News". malaysiadigest.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2009-11-16. - Victor, Steven; Neth, Leinson; Golbuu, Yimnang; Wolanski, Eric; Richmond, Robert H. (2006-02-01). "Sedimentation in mangroves and coral reefs in a wet tropical island, Pohnpei, Micronesia". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 66 (3–4): 409–416. Bibcode:2006ECSS...66..409V. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2005.07.025. - U.D. Kulkarni; et al. "The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses » Rate of Siltation in Wular Lake, (Jammu and Kashmir, India) with Special Emphasis on its Climate & Tectonics". The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses. Retrieved 2009-11-16.
Benjamin Horton remembers being in Southeast Asia just months after the devastating 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. “They were still dealing with a disaster,” he says. “The roads were in a terrible state.” But in those days, the formerly niche field of tsunami research had taken on new urgency. Horton, who studies sea levels at Rutgers University and Nanyang Technological University, was just one of dozens of researchers who came in search of answers: Had this happened before? Would it happen again? The answers were certainly not to be found in written records or seismometer data. In the short time such data have existed for the Indian Ocean, no one had ever recorded an earthquake capable of sending such a huge wall of water crashing into the coast. The tsunami in 2004 was so deadly because it was so unexpected. The answer, if scientists were to find it, would probably be in sand. Tsunamis pick up sand from the depths of the ocean floor, depositing it on land as the waters recede. Low-lying coastal plains are good places to look. So are lagoons or mangrove swamps that trap sand. A number of such sites around the Indian Ocean have allowed scientists to begin piecing together a fragmentary history of Indian Ocean tsunamis. To that, Horton and his colleagues now add an exciting new find: a coastal cave in Indonesia containing layers of sand left by tsunamis all the way back to the Stone Age 7,400 years ago. “It is really a spectacular site,” says Katrin Monecke, a geoscientist at Wellesley College who was not involved in the study, but who has worked on on other tsunami deposits in Southeast Asia. With this cave discovery, scientists have a whole new place they can look for records of past tsunamis. Horton knew the cave was special the moment he set foot inside in 2011. His colleague, Patrick Daly, an archeologist at Nanyang, had heard about it from locals. The first thing they noticed is that the opening of the cave did not directly face the ocean—a good sign because that positioning slows the movement of water, allowing sand brought by the tsunami to settle in the cave. Then they stepped in the dark, second chamber. “The next thing you know we were faced with thousands of bats. We were just drenched in bat pee,” says Horton. These bats turned out to be key. Tsunamis had been inundating this cave for thousands of years, during which time bats were also pooping on the cave floor. A tsunami came. Bats pooped. Tsunami, bat poop, tsunami, bat poop, and so on. So when Horton and Daly dug into the sand in the cave, they saw these perfect layers of sand, separated by dark bands of bat poop. “It was a holy grail moment,” says Horton. “We knew we had found something very, very unique.” Over several years, Horton and his colleagues dug six major trenches up to six-and-a-half feet deep. They carbon dated the animal shells and charcoal in the sand layers as well as the bat poop itself. They found, in total, records from at least 11 prehistoric tsunamis, separated by highly irregular intervals. In one case, there was a 2,100 year gap between tsunamis. But within the span of a single century around 1300 BCE, there were four tsunamis. “It shows just how far away we are from being able to predict when an earthquake will hit,” says Horton. There was one odd hiccup in data. The cave was missing the last 2,900 years of records because, Horton and his colleagues think, the 2004 tsunami actually washed away those layers. The bottom of the sand layer from 2004 was all irregular, as if something (perhaps the 2004 tsunami) had ripped out uneven chunks of the sand bed. This made the team worry that other parts of the tsunami record might be missing. But they did not see the irregular border in any other time period. For now, the cave is a single data point. The most puzzling and perhaps worrying part, according to Andy Moore, a geologist at Earlham College, is actually the streak of four tsunamis in a single century. “The clustered tsunamis is to me the biggest thing that needs to be clarified because that has real world impacts on how we handle the tsunami hazards on the coast of the Indian Ocean,” he says. How much should countries invest in infrastructure protecting against a potential tsunami? How important is a warning system? “The answer if the tsunami could happen once every few decades to a century, that’s a vastly different answer than [if it happens] every 500 years,” he says. Horton and his colleagues are continuing to work in the cave. They hope that by looking at the thickness of the sand layers and the grain size of the sand, they might determine how big each of those tsunamis were. They’re also driving down the coastal highway, in search of more caves that can corroborate the records from this one. This highway is relatively new; it was built after the 2004 tsunami. We want to hear what you think about this article. Submit a letter to the editor or write to [email protected].
Gamma Ray Burst Have the planet and its star, traveling around the Galaxy, come within a couple light-years from a black hole that's eating away a star. A nice sequence of gamma-ray bursts, near enough and long enough to sterilize the planet. Of course, an intensity sufficient to kill Archaea in deep mines or at the bottom of an ocean will wreck the atmosphere too. As per comment, what if the GRB source is in the planetary system itself? I am not an astrophysicist, but it seems unlikely: - the secondary star of a binary system goes nova. Possible, but if the flash doesn't boil off oceans and atmosphere, sterilization down to bacteria won't happen. Even if the surface reaches 200 °C for several days, heat will seep only slowly inside the crust. Deep mines will probably remain habitable for insects, not just bacteria. And if we lose the atmosphere, the planet won't be viable afterwards. - the secondary star collapses into a neutron star or black hole. The problems now are: (a) the gamma radiation from neutron stars is apparently emitted along the rotation axis, which in most solar systems is normal to the ecliptic since both phenomena stem from the angular momentum of the original gas cloud which originated the solar system. So, the GRB will never hit the planets; (b) if we posit a different mechanism, e.g. X-ray emission from an accretion disk, said accretion disk would almost have to come from the primary star. Which means that the black hole's grasp somehow reaches the star's atmosphere; a fortiori, the planet in its orbit is a goner. We could still have a gas-giant-massed black hole at cometary distances, eating away a superdense Kuiper belt or "smoke ring" (like the one around Tau Ceti). This would result in a very strong X-ray emission; will it be enough to sterilize a planet? Maybe. A more handwaved explanation: dark matter exists and it weakly interacts with baryonic matter. The planet passed through a large and dense clump of dark matter, that seeped through everything from the stratosphere to the molten core, subtly altering electrochemical and nuclear properties of all matter. This is not too hard on most types of matter (some crystals shatter, some elements decay at slightly different rates, but that's all), but living matter is based on finely balanced energy levels and innumerable chemical reactions that have to blend together just so. All DNA and RNA based molecules simply broke up, killing all life within a few seconds. A lingering core contamination could still be detected from slightly skewed geoneutrino ratios. These are biological machines, much more efficient and resistant than evolved bacteria. They will outcompete everything else, resisting to conditions more extreme than naturally evolved organisms can. Over a period of several thousand years, they'll infiltrate everything, and exterminate all competition. They'll not be DNA-based, but still have mechanisms to avoid random mutations, and be able to utilize different energy sources; and of course they will have some kind of count-down mechanism to have them die off after a certain time. Just seed the whole planet with the beasties, and wait.
The four inner planets -- Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars -- share several features in common. Astronomers call these the “terrestrial planets” because they have solid, rocky surfaces roughly similar to desert and mountainous areas on the earth. The inner planets are much smaller than Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and they all possess iron cores. Terrestrial Planet Formation Astronomers theorize that the very early solar system formed as a ring of materials surrounding the sun. Heavier elements such as iron and nickel condensed relatively close to the sun, whereas substances such as hydrogen, methane and water condensed in colder regions farther out. The terrestrial planets formed as clumps of rock and heavy elements from the inner ring of materials accumulated due to gravitational attraction; in a similar way, the outer band of gaseous substances produced the outer planets. Compared to the four gas giant planets that make up the outer solar system, the inner planets all have diminutive sizes. Of the four, Earth is the largest, with a diameter of 6,378 kilometers (3,963 miles) at the equator. Venus is a close second at 6,051 kilometers (3,760 miles). Mars is much smaller with a 3,396-kilometer (2,110-mile) diameter, and Mercury is the smallest terrestrial planet, measuring 2,439 kilometers (1,516 miles) across. The terrestrial planets all have rocky surfaces that feature mountains, plains, valleys and other formations. The temperatures of the inner planets are low enough that rock exists mostly as a solid at the surface. To different degrees, they also have meteor impact craters, although the dense atmospheres of Venus and Earth protect them from most meteors, and weathering and other factors wipe out all but the most recent craters. Mars has very low atmospheric pressure, and Mercury has almost none, so craters are more common on these planets. Astronomers believe all four of the terrestrial planets possess an iron core. During their early formation, the planets were hot blobs of molten metals and other elements; being heavier, most of the iron and nickel ended up on the inside with lighter elements such as silicon and oxygen forming the outside. Geologists have concluded that the earth’s iron core is partly liquid and partly solid by observing the behavior of earthquake waves traveling through the earth. Scientists speculate that the other terrestrial planets may also have partly liquid cores.
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a more serious form of gastroesophageal reflux (GER), which is common. GER occurs when the lower esophageal sphinc-ter (LES) opens spontaneously, for varying periods of time, or does not close prop-erly and stomach contents rise up into the esophagus. GER is also called acid reflux or acid regurgitation, because digestive juices—called acids—rise up with the food. The esophagus is the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach. The LES is a ring of muscle at the bottom of the esophagus that acts like a valve between the esophagus and stomach. When acid reflux occurs, food or fluid can be tasted in the back of the mouth. When refluxed stomach acid touches the lining of the esophagus it may cause a burning sensa-tion in the chest or throat called heartburn or acid indigestion. Occasional GER is common and does not necessarily mean one has GERD. Persistent reflux that occurs more than twice a week is considered GERD, and it can eventually lead to more serious health problems. People of all ages can have GERD. The main symptom of GERD in adults is frequent heartburn, also called acid indigestion—burning-type pain in the lower part of the mid-chest, behind the breast bone, and in the mid-abdomen. Most children under 12 years with GERD, and some adults, have GERD without heartburn. Instead, they may experience a dry cough, asthma symptoms, or trouble swallowing. Seek medical help if you have had symptoms of GERD and have been using antacids or other over-the-counter reflux medications for more than 2 weeks.
This one hour video workshop visits three high school classrooms and introduces the basics of economics. Economics can be broadly defined as how people react when pursuing their own interests in a situation of scarcity. This workshop shows how teachers introduce their students to the basic building blocks of economic thinking. In a good economics course, students learn the economic way of thinking, rather than a definite set of conclusions. This first workshop in the series presents some of the key ideas that constitute an economic way of thinking. Educators Elaine Schwartz, Steve Reich, and Jay Grenawalt deomonstrate teaching strategies to engage students to understand the basics of economics.
Liquid hydrogen is being used to fuel expelling practices. Credit: Bill Bowles In this historical photo from the U.S. space agency, a vent flowing cryogenic fuel and T/C Rake are mounted on a 1/10 scale model Centaur in the l0 x l0 Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel in September, 1963. The fuel being used is liquid hydrogen. The point of the test is to determine how far to expel venting fuel from the rocket body to prevent explosion at the base of the vehicle. This vent is used as a safety valve for the fumes created when loading the fuel tanks during launch preparation. Liquid hydrogen has to be kept at a very low temperature. As it heats, it turns to gas and increases pressure in the tank. It therefore has to be vented overboard while the rocket sits on the pad. The test is being run at the Lewis Research Center, now known as John H. Glenn Research Center, Lewis Field. Each weekday, SPACE.com looks back at the history of spaceflight through photos (archive).
By creating an account, you agree to our terms of service. Show previous comments Please enter between 0 and 2000 characters. Please, only british academic english. The importance of colour. Red, blue, white, black and green - these are colours. What do they mean? Animals can differentiate only some colours. For example, dogs see the world only in two colours. Nevertheless, we can say that (I would say in such a way) teenagers see the world in two colours too. But it is enough for animals since they have more developed sense organs. Birds see what color berries are and differentiate between edible and inedible ones. All poisonous plants have bright colors. This warns animals and people that it is dangerous to eat these plants. Colour helps some animals to hide from danger. For example, chameleon change its colour so that predators can't see them. Please enter between 25 and 8000 characters.
Andrew Johnson was impeached for breaking laws established by a Radical Republican Congress that opposed Johnson as President and his plans for Reconstruction of the South. This site explores that historic case. To examine the merits of the trial impeaching President Andrew Johnson. Text of Learning Exercise: Instructions: CLICK "go to material." SCROLL down to the bottom of the page. CLICK "Famous Trials." CLICK "Johnson's Impeachment Trial." READ "A Trial Account" by Douglas Linder. Answer the following questions: 1. Describe the process of impeachment as stated in the Constitution, 2. What are the major provisions of the Tenure of Office Act?, 3. List the Articles of Impeachment against President Johnson, 4. Who were the major witnesses for and against President Johnson and what were the arguments of each?, 5. How did the Senate vote?, 6. Describe the roles for each of the following in the trial: Edwin Stanton, Lorenzo Thomas, Thaddeus Stevens, Benjamin Butler, John Bingham,Chief Justice Salmon Chase, Henry Stanberry,7. Why was Senator Edmund Ross' role so critical in the trial?, 8. Did President Johnson get a fair trail?
Below are educational tips for staying safe around cars. - In and Around Cars - Car Seat - Booster Seat - Seat Belt - Pedestrian Safety - Getting Ready to Drive - School Bus Safety The fact sheets below offer facts on a wide range of injury prevention topics and summarize key safety information. These are a great place to start learning about car safety. Many of these facts will surprise you! To help you in the classroom, we’ve developed a few lesson plans to teach kids how to stay safe and have fun. Feel free to use these plans in your own classroom to help children learn about pedestrian safety. - Pedestrian Safety Lesson Plan - This lesson plan highlights great discussion questions and activities to help teach kids how to cross the street safely.
Understanding the key parameters of diodes and other components used in reference voltage circuits can help avoid issues in different application circuits across many disciplines. Voltage regulators and voltage references are essential to most electronic circuits, whether analog, digital, or a combination of the two. Although these circuits can appear deceivingly simple, much experience in worst-case analysis has shown them to also be the source of a large percentage of problems or issues as part of larger circuit designs. Often, these issues are due in part to a lack of understanding of the actual complexities of these seemingly simple circuits. Another major contributor is a general lack of data from integrated-circuit (IC) manufacturers—data that is critical to completing a successful and robust design. First, there is some confusion about the types and descriptions of different devices commonly used to provide a stable voltage source. A reference diode is a two-port element that does not provide a voltage by itself. The reference diode is either a Zener diode or bandgap shunt regulator, requiring an external current source. There is no significant difference between a reference diode and a Zener diode, other than the fact that a reference diode is generally a temperaturecompensated device and is often available with tighter initial tolerances than Zener diodes. A Zener diode allows current flow not only in the normal forward direction but also in the reverse direction when the applied voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage (or Zener knee voltage). A conventional diode will not allow significant current flow if it is reverse biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. A voltage reference is a three-port device that provides a precision output voltage when an appropriate input voltage is connected. The reference is typically capable of either sourcing or sinking current, often to approximately 10 to 20 mA. Adding to the confusion, there are devices that offer operation as either a two-port reference diode or as a threeport reference device. A linear voltage regulator is a threeport device that provides a regulated output voltage when an appropriate input voltage is connected. The regulator is generally capable of sourcing but not sinking current, and is usually designed for much higher output current than a reference. Typical current capabilities are from 500 mA to several amperes, though some regulators have been developed with capability exceeding 100 A. The key performance metrics for a regulated voltage source are: • ripple and noise, • power supply rejection ratio (PSRR), • absolute voltage accuracy, • temperature coefficient, • output current capability, • input voltage range, • control loop stability, • output impedance, and • sink current and source current. It may be obvious upon inspection that a subset of this list may be of interest to any one discipline, but no single discipline will be concerned with the entire list. For example, a designer of battery-powered equipment will be concerned about operating current but is not likely to be concerned with ripple rejection. An analogto- digital-converter (ADC) designer is concerned with noise, absolute accuracy and, depending on the application, PSRR. An RF circuit designer is not generally concerned with absolute accuracy, but is very concerned about output noise and ripple rejection. Many of these designers may be concerned with output impedance or the manifestations resulting from the output impedance variations. For example, a logic designer needs to be concerned with the impact of large dynamic currents. ADCs often present dynamic current loads on the reference, although much smaller than in highly integrated logic systems or computers. The performance requirements for each of these regulated sources are dependent on the discipline to which they are applied. There is not a “one size fits all” solution. A Zener diode or reference diode must be fed from a current source to properly regulate the voltage across the device. The current for which the device is designed to provide the specified voltage is different for each diode, but is always specified by the parameter Izt. At this operating current, the device provides a specified temperature coefficient and specified impedance. At other operating currents, these parameters will be different than when working at Izt. In the case of precision reference diodes, the device is generally temperature compensated and the accuracy of the compensation is often provided for different operating currents. Since the diode has a specified impedance, the determination of PSRR is easily calculated as a voltage divider, created by the source resistor and the diode impedance. In 1970, Kent Walters, then at Motorola and more recently at Microsemi, received a patent for a circuit using a current-limiting diode (CLD) in conjunction with a precision, temperature-compensated Zener diode to provide an accurate voltage reference over a wide range of input voltage and operating temperature conditions. The benefit of the CLD is that the impedance is much higher than the equivalent resistor, resulting in greatly improved PSRR, as well as greatly reduced input power when used in a wide voltage range application. There are several things to note about the capabilities of the simple reference circuit shown in Fig. 1: • The PSRR can be very good, limited primarily by the Zener diode impedance and the capacitance of the CLD. • Since the circuit does not include a feedback loop, it is unconditionally stable, allowing any value of capacitor to be placed on the output. • The circuit can sink or source current, limited by the value of the CLD and the power capability of the Zener diode; however, the circuit will only provide precision temperature compensation at a single current, which results in the Zener diode current being equal to Izt. • The voltage of the device cannot be adjusted, other than by selection of the Zener diode. To overcome some of these short- comings, the Zener diode is buffered, which is most commonly accomplished by the addition of a transistor, as shown in Fig. 2, or an operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 3. The addition of the buffer allows the Zener reference diode to operate at a fixed current, while the operational amplifier allows the reference to either sink or source an increased output current. The use of a transistor buffer increases the output source current, but cannot sink current. The maximum output current is typically in the range of +10 to +20 mA. Although the addition of the buffer does allow a much greater range of output current while maintaining the Zener reference diode at a precise current (Izt), several new comments apply: • The addition of an opamp to the circuit introduces a feedback loop and so it is simple to cause the reference to have poor stability or even to oscillate in response to the addition of output capacitors. • The PSRR is severely degraded, since the operational amplifier or transistor has a finite and generally poor PSRR compared with the CLD and Zener reference diode combination. This is especially true for frequencies above several kilohertz. • It is common for the output impedance of the buffered circuit to be much greater than that of the CLD and Zener reference diode combination, especially at frequencies above several kilohertz. • The operational amplifier adds some additional tolerances, such as VOS and additional noise terms. • The output voltage is easily adjusted or trimmed, by resistors, during manufacture. Voltage regulators are three terminal devices that include a voltage reference, which can be a reference diode type device or a band-gap voltage reference, an error amplifier, and a power stage. Voltage regulators often include additional functions such as current limit, soft-start, and over-temperature protection, to name a few. The typical characteristics of a voltage regulator are summarized as follows: • The tolerance of the voltage reference is generally not as good as that of a reference. • The output noise is generally much higher than that of a reference. • The voltage regulator can generally source current, but not sink current. • The voltage regulator is very sensitive to load capacitance and can be easily destabilized or made to oscillate due to selection of output filter components. The stability criteria are often neglected from datasheets and many devices do not have external compensation capability. • The stability is dependent on operating conditions, such as input voltage and load current. • The voltage regulator is capable of much greater output currents than a reference. Reference diodes, voltage references, and voltage regulators are not functionally interchangeable. Each device has benefits and drawbacks that must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Different disciplines require different performance characteristics, while component manufacturers tend to provide a “one-sizefits- all” solution. The end user often adds elaborate filtering and external circuits in order to obtain “improved” performance. Owing to insufficient data and a less than complete understanding of the intricacies of the devices, intended improvements often create performance issues that are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to correct. 1. Cecil Kent Walters, United States Patent 3,549,988, “Temperature Compensated Reference Voltage Circuitry Employing Current Limiters and Reference Voltage Diodes,” filed Jan. 2, 1968, granted Dec. 22, 1970.
April showers bring May flowers, and May brings Mental Health Month. So, what exactly is mental health and why is it important? Does mental health influence a person’s physical health and well-being? How are mental health illnesses diagnosed and what are the treatment options? We are going to answer all these questions, along with explaining a few common mental illnesses and their warning signs. To begin, we need to understand what mental health is, along with what it is not… The concept of mental health includes emotional, psychological and social well-being, and affects how we think, feel and act. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood (What is Mental Health?). Not only that, but it plays a very important role in our daily interactions with others, our ability to cope with bad news or stress and helps us remain positive even when dealing with a negative situation. Mental health is often labeled as a sense of abnormality or instability in a person’s brain, and it is crucial to understand that mental illness is just as important as physical illness. Research has shown that mental well-being has a direct impact on physical well-being, with chronic medical conditions being better controlled if mental health is stable. Almost everyone has pet peeves, something that irritates them or causes a reaction in a way that is outside the norm. Those are normal and aren’t what we are talking about here. What we are discussing is if a specific mental illness is serious enough that it starts to interfere with a person’s daily functioning, it’s a sign that treatment is needed. What brings on mental illness? There are definite causes of mental illness and there are several factors that may play a part in its development. Genetics, family history or a history of sexual, physical, or emotional abuse are just some examples. Other causes also include biology, such as an abnormal balance of brain chemicals, or major stressors like death, divorce or changing jobs (Mental Illness Basics). It should be made clear that mental health doesn’t necessarily limit itself to depression and anxiety, however it can (and often includes) substance abuse via drugs and alcohol, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), bipolar disorder or personality disorders. Grieving and bereavement may also progress to major depression. Mental health also includes psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia or post-partum psychosis. What are the basics behind the physical causes of mental illness in the first place? Let’s use an example. Diabetes is linked with insulin resistance or a lack of insulin production in the body. So in short, having a physical problem with insulin in the body causes a form of diabetes. Mental illness is caused by changes in brain chemistry. There are four important chemicals in the brain; serotonin, dopamine, glutamate and norepinephrine (How Brain Chemicals Influence Mood and Health). Serotonin has a crucial role in sleep, depression and essential body functions, such as appetite, mood and arousal. Dopamine is responsible for functions like behavior, emotion, cognition (understanding and awareness) and communicates with the front part of the brain (pleasure and reward). Glutamate controls early brain development, cognition, learning and memory. Norepinephrine is involved in the body’s stress response in a fight-or-flight situation. The best way to describe mental illness is due to an imbalance of these chemicals, the brain processes and responds to its surroundings differently. Lower levels of serotonin and norepinephrine are connected with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety, whereas lower dopamine levels are associated with shortfalls in concentration as seen in ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). An increased amount of dopamine is linked with psychosis and disorders such as schizophrenia, so medical treatment is guided towards finding the perfect balance of these brain chemicals in hopes of achieving mental stability. Now that we understand what mental illness is along with a few of the background causes, let’s go over how it’s diagnosed, a few types of illnesses and common symptoms. The basic way to diagnose mental illness is by clinical history and physical examination. Oftentimes, people are hesitant to get help and treatment because there is a negative attitude surrounding mental health. They may feel it shows a sense of weakness and that they are unable to handle their feelings. This stigma is why it’s crucial to screen for depression when patients come in for medical appointments. Often, a family member or spouse may accompany the patient and bring up a possible underlying condition in the patient. A noticeable change from the patient’s baseline, a recent life stressor (such as loss of job or family member), behavioral changes such as increased forgetfulness or diminished memory (especially in the elderly) or a decreased sense of self-care (poor grooming) are signs that a patient should be evaluated for underlying depression. A proper diagnosis is crucial to guiding therapy. Common symptoms that may point to a diagnosis of depression are; sleep disturbance (difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep or sleeping too much), a loss of interest in pleasurable activities, a sense of guilt, loss of energy and motivation, lack of concentration, appetite changes, psychomotor slowing (movements, dexterity, strength, speed, etc.), agitation and most importantly suicidal/homicidal thoughts. It is crucial during an appointment to get a detailed history to ensure the patient’s well-being and the well-being of those around them. A prior suicide attempt or current plan is usually considered a psychiatric emergency and requires hospitalization, along with close monitoring of the patient. Major depression is usually diagnosed if five of the symptoms listed above continue for at least two weeks. Treatment usually is started with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), which increases levels of serotonin in the brain to help relieve symptoms. The response to medication typically takes four to six weeks for full effect, but patients may report a response in as early as three to four weeks. Bereavement or grieving is a natural response to an acute stressor, such as a death in the family. There will be symptoms of sadness, lack of appetite, low energy, low motivation and sleep changes reported by the patient. While these are typically seen and normal as part of grievance and bereavement (and may continue for up to six to twelve months), these symptoms are typically self-resolving. However, if a patient reports thoughts of suicide, or feelings of hopelessness with statements such as “I wish it was me that had died…” it is a red flag and often something that requires additional evaluation for depression and the potential of self-harm in the patient. The diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder may become a bit tricky if some of the criteria are overlooked in the patient. Again, a detailed history and a series of questions can lead to the right diagnosis. There are two main types of bipolar disorder; bipolar I and bipolar II. Bipolar I is defined by manic episodes or symptoms that last at least seven days, usually followed by depression lasting at least two weeks. Bipolar II is a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes that aren’t the extreme manic episodes that Bipolar I involve (Bipolar Disorder). Manic phases tend to include a heightened sense of well-being, “feeling on top of the world,” a decreased need for sleep, impulsive behavior that may include impulsive spending that disrupts financial affordability, erratic behavior or sexual promiscuity. The treatment here is not going to be complete with just an antidepressant. It would require an antidepressant plus a mood stabilizer. These mood stabilizers work on brain chemicals different than serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine (as seen in antidepressants) to relieve the manic symptoms patients display in this phase. Anxiety is very common in practice and can show in many ways. Many times, anxiety is situational and is self-resolved. It can be a response to a major life stressor, health concern or may even be chronic in nature (as seen in generalized anxiety disorder). The mainstay of successful management and treatment is to get to the underlying cause of the patient’s anxiety. By using the correct medications (that are not likely to cause dependency and addiction) and counseling, anxiety can be managed in the most effective and safest way possible. Psychotic disorders are named as such because the symptoms involve an altered sense of reality. For example, delusions and hallucinations such as hearing voices, seeing objects or the smell of burning rubber, are common examples of hallucinations that patients with schizophrenia describe. Without proper medication treatment, these hallucinations may become so strong that patients may not be able to distinguish them from reality. This puts their well-being and the well-being of those around them at stake, with potentially dangerous consequences. Treatment of mental illness is not complete without counseling and therapy, which when combined with medication, show the best outcomes and relief of symptoms. Self-help and support groups are helpful counseling tools, along with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which alters behaviors by gradually tweaking the thought process. CBT allows patients to cope with stressors and their surroundings in a much more rational and practical way. Since mental health and physical health are often treated as different matters, it is important to rule out any underlying medical cause that may be a possible mental health condition. For example, untreated hypothyroidism is linked with depression, as is Vitamin D deficiency. Symptoms of appetite change, fatigue and energy loss may be due to poor sleep and hygiene, nutrition deficits, underlying diabetes or untreated obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Once these medical treatments are managed, a patient’s mental health may show signs of improvement. One in five adults struggles with a mental health condition each year, and one in 17 live with a serious mental illness such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (Mental Health Conditions). More so, half of mental health conditions begin by age 14, and 75 percent of mental health conditions develop by age 24 (Mental Health Conditions). Early diagnosis and support are critical to recovery. If you feel you or a loved one could benefit from being evaluated for a possible mental illness, AxessPointe Community Health Centers, Inc. will be more than happy to help assess your needs. Please call 888-975-9188 to schedule an appointment with any of our providers today. http://axesspointe.org/newWP/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/logo.png00AdminAxessPointehttp://axesspointe.org/newWP/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/logo.pngAdminAxessPointe2018-05-31 17:49:402018-05-31 17:56:05End the Stigma, Mental Health IS Important!
\|This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2008)\| \|\|This article possibly contains original research. (June 2012)\| In linguistics, a sprachraum (//; German: [ˈʃpʁaːxʁaʊm], "language area") is a geographical region where a common first language (mother tongue), with dialect varieties, or group of languages is spoken. Most sprachraums do not follow national borders. For example, half of South America is part of the Spanish sprachraum, while a single, small country like Switzerland is at the intersection of four such language spheres. A sprachraum can also be separated by oceans. The four major Western sprachraums are those of English, Spanish, Portuguese and French (according to the number of speakers). The English sprachraum spans the globe, from the United Kingdom, Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to the many former British colonies where English has official language status alongside local languages, such as India and South Africa. The French sprachraum, which also spans several continents, is known as the Francophonie (French: La francophonie). La Francophonie is also the name of an international organisation composed of countries with French as an official language. The Portuguese sprachraum, for example, includes non-adjacent countries. The Lusosphere or Lusophony (Portuguese: Lusofonia), is a cultural entity that includes the countries where Portuguese is the official language, as well as the Portuguese diaspora. It also includes people who may not have any Portuguese ancestry but are culturally and linguistically linked to Portugal. The Community of Portuguese Language Countries or Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (Portuguese: Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa, abbreviated to CPLP) is the intergovernmental organisation for friendship among Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) nations where Portuguese is an official language. By extension, a sprachraum can also include a group of related languages. Thus the Scandinavian sprachraum includes Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, while the Finnic sprachraum is Finland, Estonia and adjacent areas of Scandinavia and Russia. Even within a single sprachraum, there can be different, but closely related, languages, otherwise known as dialect continua. A classic example is the Chinese languages, which can be mutually unintelligible in spoken form, but belong to the same language family and have a unified non-phonetic writing system. Arabic has a similar situation, but its writing system is phonetic (an abjad) and there is a neutral standard spoken language (Modern Standard Arabic). - Anglosphere (the English-speaking world) - Dutch Language Union - German-speaking Europe - Germanic Europe cluster (continental West Germanic and North Germanic) - Catalan Countries (the Catalan-speaking world) - Hispanophone world (where Spanish is spoken) - Latin Europe - Lusofonia (the Lusophone world) Other Indo-European languages
It was at the BA annual meeting in Oxford that Lord Rayleigh and Professor William Ramsay announced the discovery of argon. A few months later, in January 1895, they entered their results in a competition for 'some new . . . discovery about atmospheric air', organised by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and won the dollars 10,000 prize, worth about pounds 100,000 today. Lucky argon. But it was second time lucky. The possibility of its existence was first revealed in 1766 in Clapham, London, by a wealthy eccentric, Henry Cavendish. When he was investigating the chemistry of the atmosphere, he passed electric sparks through a sample of air and absorbed the gases formed. He was puzzled that 1 per cent of their volume would not combine chemically, but he did not realise he had stumbled on a new element. For more than a century his observations were neither understood - nor forgotten. The actual discovery of argon began with the puzzle: why did the density of nitrogen depend on how it was obtained? Nitrogen extracted from the air had a density of 1.257g per litre, whereas that from decomposing ammonia had a density of 1.251g. Rayleigh and Ramsay knew that either atmospheric nitrogen must contain a heavier gas, or chemically derived nitrogen contained a lighter gas. They believed that the answer lay in the nitrogen from the air, so Ramsay passed a sample of this overheated magnesium, which reacts to form a solid, magnesium nitride. Like Cavendish, he was left with about 1 per cent of the volume that would not react, and was 30 per cent denser than nitrogen. When they examined its spectrum, they observed new lines that could be explained only by a new element - and they named it argon from the Greek argos, meaning idle. Argon is now an important industrial gas, and hundreds of plants around the world extract it from liquid air. Earlier this year, at Eggborough, North Yorkshire, MG Gas Products opened a pounds 20m plant controlled by computer and manned by only six technical staff. It processes 375 tonnes of air a day, separating it into oxygen, nitrogen and argon, which are shipped out as liquids. Tony Bonnett, of MG Gas Products, says argon is particularly important for the metals industry. Most is used in the purification of steel, where it is blown through the molten metal. It is also used to prevent oxidation of hot metals such as aluminium, and when welding titanium. The alloys from which high-grade tools are made require metal powders, and these are produced by directing a jet of liquid argon, at minus 190C, at a jet of the molten metal. The result is an ultrafine powder with a clean surface. Some smelters prevent toxic metal dusts escaping to the environment by venting them through an argon plasma torch. Here, argon atoms are electrically charged to reach temperatures of 10,000C, and the dust particles are turned into a blob of molten scrap. Some consumer products contain argon. It is used to fill the gap between the panes of sealed double glazing, because it is a poorer conductor than air. Inside light bulbs, it dissipates the heat of the filament while not reacting with it. Illuminated signs glow blue if they contain argon, and bright blue if they contain a little mercury vapour. But the most exotic use of argon is in the tyres of luxury cars: not only does it protect the rubber from attack by oxygen, but also it ensures less tyre noise at high speeds. Many of these uses rely on argon's chemical inertness - so far nothing has been found to induce it to react with any other material, no matter how high the temperature to which it is heated, nor how strong the electrical charge passed through it. So argon gas consists entirely of single argon atoms. Even compounds containing argon - the so-called argon clathrates - hold it only as trapped atoms in the lattice of a larger molecule. Several trillion tonnes of argon are swirling around in the world's atmosphere, where the gas has slowly built up over billions of years. It is a decay product of the radioactive isotope potassium-40, which has a half-life of 12.7 billion years, and transforms to argon-40. It is possible to date minerals by measuring the ratio of potassium to argon that they contain. Argon-40 accounts for 99.6 per cent of the argon in the atmosphere, the remainder being mainly the lighter isotopes argon-36 and argon-38. The writer is author of 'The Consumer's Good Chemical Guide', published by W H Freeman, pounds 18.99. (Photograph omitted)Reuse content
A species of crustacean with no eyes and venom-injecting fangs has been discovered in an underwater volcanic cave in the Canary Islands off the coast of North Africa. Researchers discovered the new animal during a diving expedition through the world’s longest submarine lava tube, called the Tunel de la Atlántida, or “tunnel to Atlantis.” The divers were searching for specimens of a closely related crustacean species that they’d discovered 25 years ago in the same cave. But after capturing several of the sea creatures, the researchers noticed something peculiar. “Some animals were much more active in swimming around than others in the small sample bottles,” said marine biologist Tom Iliffe of Texas A&M University at Galveston, who was part of the team that discovered the new species. “On closer examination, and subsequently with DNA testing, we confirmed that they were actually two different species.” Their findings appear this month in a special edition of Marine Biodiversity. The new crustacean has been named Speleonectes atlantida, which means “cave swimmer of Atlantis.” It’s a very apt name, Iliffe said, because the creature is a very active swimmer, gliding through the water an undulating fashion. Because the crustacean lives in near-total blackness of the cave, its body is almost transparent. Through its clear skin, 20 to 24 nearly identical body segments can be seen. “These animals are crustaceans, but they look more like a centipede,” he said, “with a highly segmented body and a well developed head with specialized appendages.” These specialized mouthparts include a set of hollow-tipped fangs filled with venom. Although the poison is strong enough to kill small shrimp and other marine animals, Iliffe said it’s not toxic enough to harm people. The new crustacean is a member of the class Remipedia, which researchers think is one of the oldest groups of crustaceans on Earth. Because Remipedia have been found in the Atlantic, the Caribbean and also in Australia, scientists speculate that the animals may have originated when the continents of Europe, Africa and the Americas were close together. “So it’s thought remipedes could be at least 200 million years old,” Iliffe said in a press release, “a time when dinosaurs roamed the Earth.” On the same expedition, Iliffe’s team also discovered two new species of tiny worms, each smaller than a grain of rice. Image 1: A live specimen of the new crustacean, photographed by Urlike Streker. Image 2: Cave divers Terrence Tysall, Jim Rozzi and Tom Iliffe (left to right) in the submarine lava tube where the new species was discovered, photographed by Jill Heinerth. - New Bald Bird Discovered in Laos - 10 Strange Species Discovered Last Year - New Stratospheric Bugs Probably Not Alien - Scientists ID New Whale Species - Selling the Rights to Name New Species is Cheap
CONES: The rules are simple. - The layout radius is the length of the side of the cone. For truncated cones the lengths are to the theoretical point (c1 + c2). - The FLAT layout angle is determined by the circumference of the finished cone divided by the circumference of the layout circle (from radius 1. above). - Since PI cancels in the two circumferences above you divide the radius of the base (b2) by the length of the side (for truncated cones use the length to the theoretical point c1 + c2). This is the ratio or percentage of the layout circle. This is also the sine of half the angle of the top of the cone (angle B). So, if you want a cone with a 90° point then the ratio is the sine of half the angle of the point (B above). sine(45°) = .7071 Therefore the layout angle S = .7071 x 360° = 254.6° You can use either method, the ratio or the sine of the angle. Both numbers are the same. sine is simply a word for ratio in geometry. If you have a starting angle it is easy to use a modern calculator to determine the sine. Copyright © 1999 Jock Dempsey,
Nosebleeds are fairly common given the prominence of the nose on the face, as well as the rich network of capillaries contained within it. These make the nose susceptible to trauma and injury which may result in nosebleeds. Other factors include changes in weather, dry air, allergies, repeated nose blowing, or sinus infections. The two types of nosebleeds are anterior and posterior. Anterior nosebleeds comprise 90% of all nosebleeds. The bleeding usually occurs in the anterior (front) of the nose and flows outward. Posterior nosebleeds are less common and usually occur in the elderly, people with high blood pressure, or those who suffer a facial or nose injury. The bleeding usually occurs in the posterior (back) of the nose and flows down the throat. These nosebleeds are generally more complicated and often require medical assistance. While most people will experience at least one nosebleed at some point in their lives, some people may experience nosebleeds on a regular basis, which may occur as a result of certain medications or underlying conditions such as high blood pressure, abnormal blood vessels or liver disease. Common nosebleed causes such as trauma, dry air and sinus infections can also contribute to chronic nosebleeds. Nasal polyps are benign growths that develop within the lining of the nasal passages or sinuses. If large enough, these growths may block the passages and cause breathing difficulties, sinus infections or other complications. Nasal polyps are most common in adults, especially those that have asthma or allergies. Children with cystic fibrosis are also at a higher risk of developing nasal polyps. They often develop in occurrence with respiratory diseases such as sinusitis and allergic rhinitis or immunodeficiency conditions. Most patients with nasal polyps may experience nasal congestion, as well as runny nose, headache, facial pain, loss of smell or taste and sinus pressure. Some patients may not have any symptoms if the polyp is small. Treatment for nasal polyps is often provided through medications that can reduce the size of the polyp or even eliminate it. Medication may be in the form of pills, nasal sprays or allergy shots. Surgery may be required to remove the polyp if medication is unsuccessful, and may include a polypectomy or endoscopic sinus surgery to either suction out the polyp or remove it carefully with tiny instruments. Sinusitis is a condition that refers to an inflammation of the lining within the paranasal sinuses. Sinusitis can be classified by location: Sinusitis can also be classified by duration: acute lasts for four weeks or less, subacute lasts four to twelve weeks, chronic lasts more than twelve weeks, and recurrent, which consists of several acute attacks within a year. Most acute cases of sinusitis are caused by an inflammation of the sinuses that eventually lead to a bacterial infection. With chronic sinusitis, the membranes of both the paranasal sinuses and the nose are thickened because they are constantly inflamed, possibly due to allergies, nasal polyps, or asthma. Sinusitis can be treated through courses of antibiotics, decongestants, saline sprays, or in cases of severe chronic sinusitis, oral steroids. When pharmaceuticals fail, surgery may be an alternative. The goal of the surgery is to improve sinus drainage and reduce blockage. Thus, a surgeon will enlarge the opening of the sinuses, remove any polyps, and correct any defects that contribute to the nasal obstruction. While many people have fewer symptoms as a result of the surgery, many others experience a recurrence of their symptoms post-surgery. To learn more about our Nose and Sinus treatments and to find out if they are right for you, please call 661-259-2500 today to schedule a consultation.
Prehistory (Early Humankind) WideHorizon Education Resources The Lascaux Caves: We start with a story retelling the discovery of the Lascaux Caves in France. The narrative tells of a group of young boys and their dog who, on an expedition in the local woods, discover the caves with the wonderful prehistoric paintings. The value of stories: The paintings of prehistoric people are introduced in the context of a narrative. This helps students to enter into the wonder and excitement of such a discovery. Students are led to appreciate the splendor of the prehistoric paintings. They also learn how the paintings have increased our knowledge of the prehistoric world. Readability level: The readability level of the story in the WER Unit allows students to work with ease when using the narrative to work on the assignments. The assignments develop historical literacy, language skills, and critical thinking skills. Outline Web: Why did Cro-Magnons create the cave paintings?Have your students organize the answers to this question into a graphic overview. This and many more activities for students can be found in Module 2, Lesson 2 of the WER Unit Prehistory. Have your students: a) use their imagination and prior knowledge to answer the question,”Why were the paintings created?”; b) organize their suggested reasons into categories such as artistic, educational, social, and economic; c) examine the story The Lascaux Caves for theme, setting, characters and plot; d) write a similar story about the discovery of the caves at Altamira in Spain. Sources: The WER story The Lascaux Caves is is based upon two articles published in The Illustrated London News. The first article, Lascaux Discovered (author unknown), was published on February 28, 1942, and the second, The Wall Paintings of the Lascaux Caves by Alan Brodrick, was published on April 12, 1947. WideHorizon Education Resources-Prehistory/Early Humankind Module 1: Understanding the Past Module 2: Cro-Magnons and Neolithic Farmers Example of content from Module 2 Lesson 2 Students are introduced to the cave paintings of Cro-Magnons through a story describing the discovery of the paintings in the Lascaux caves. The story is linked to a Guided Reading assignment that develops literacy and critical thinking skills, and encourages students to write creatively. Stories in all the Modules have controlled readability levels and Guided Reading assignments are linked to the stories. Language Arts: Students study the theme, setting, characters and plot of the story. They also pay particular attention to the dialogue and compare direct and indirect quotation. Creative Writing: Students create a similar story based on given facts about the discovery of cave paintings at Altamira. Critical Thinking Skills: Students are given an outline web and are asked to provide possible explanations of why Cro-Magnons painted cave walls. Prehistory/Early Humankind (2 Modules) includes 5 stories with readability levels, 3 guided reading assignments, 1 readers theatre, 13 activity sheets, 2 assignments targeted for monitoring and assessment, 1 map activity, 13 illustrated information sheets, 10 blackline masters, 2 review exercises, 2 colored reproductions, 10 teacher lesson guideline sheets, 2 monitoring and assessment guideline sheets. WideHorizon Education Resources (WER) material is in two formats. Firstly as a Starter Pack. Secondly as a Classroom Pack. Both Packs include a Teacher Guide containing all the material from the MLA Teaching Packs, with occasional refinements for the USA market. The ONLY difference between a Starter Pack and a Classroom Pack is that the Starter Pack contains just one Student Reference Book (SRB) while a Classroom Pack contains 35 (thirty-five) SRBs. The Starter Pack is available as a pdf (no postage or processing fee). A physical copy (postage/processing fees apply) can be provided at additional cost. Classroom Packs are ONLY available as physical copies and only for USA teachers. All physical copies are in USA and cost of sending abroad is prohibitive but please contact MLA if you have any queries (contact details at bottom of page). WideHorizon Education Resources (WER) Teaching Packs are designed to appeal to the heart, head and hands. Original material is the Mollet Learning Academy (MLA) Teaching Packs (written initially for New Zealand teachers). On request from USA teachers, monitoring and assessment procedures were added and renamed WER Teaching Packs to distinguish them from MLA Teaching Packs. Early Humankind, Ancient Israelites, Ancient India, Ancient China – USA $59.95 Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Kush, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome USA $79.95 Early Humankind, Ancient Israelites, Ancient India, Ancient China – USA $199.95 Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Kush, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome Set of Nine Starter Packs – USA $599.95 Set of Nine Classroom Packs – USA $1999.95 Set of 10 non-consumable SRBs – Prehistory, Israelites, India, China – USA $59.95 Set of 10 non-consumable SRBs – Egypt, Kush, Greece, Rome – USA $79.95 Set of 10 non-consumable SRBs – Mesopotamia – USA $89.95 7% S&H applies unless other arrangements made – thanks. Dr. David Mollet [email protected] NZ: h 09-555-2021 m 022-101-1741, 41 Hilling St, Titirangi, Auckland 0604 USA: 619-463-1270, 6656 Reservoir Lane, San Diego, CA 92115 (Skype waldorfedu) 1) The material was initially written for New Zealand teachers but on request from USA teachers, monitoring and assessment procedures were added. To view this material please visit https://molletacademy.com/ WideHorizon Education Resources (WER) https://molletacademy.com/widehorizon-2/ Waldorf Education Resources (WER) https://molletacademy.com/waldorf/ 2) MLA is also involved in researching on an international basis, what works and what doesn’t work. Most of the research results can be seen at https://molletacademy.com/research-reports/ while a draft of a book The Task for New Zealand Education is at https://molletacademy.com/the-task-for-nz-education/ 3) Blogs at http://www.molletlearningacademy.blogspot.co.nz/ 4) Business Plan at http://molletlearningacademy.com/corporate/MLABusinessPlan.pdf 5) Papyrus https://molletacademy.com/papyrus/ If you wish to subscribe to MLA Newsletter please do so at https://molletacademy.com/Thanks and take care, David 1. The MLA approach to education believes in developing the creative and imaginative side of the student in harmony with the intellectual and cognitive. To achieve this, MLA Teaching Packs make stories and drama an integral part of the lessons and involve students through storytelling, art, simulations, drama, craft, discussion and creation of a personal record. 3. Click here if you wish to access free lesson on papyrus (enter Papyrus in Subject line – any information you supply is treated in complete confidence). 4. Click here for Mollet Learning Academy (MLA) Teaching Packs. 5. Click here to find out about Kush. Kush is Africa’s oldest interior civilization. Do your students, particularly African-American, have the opportunity to study this part of their cultural heritage? 6. Click here for articles and research reports. 7. Click here to check out evaluations of pilots carried out in schools in San Diego and to read what teachers think about our lessons/newsletters. “These resource packs contain unbound, ready-to-use reproducible masters, that are varied, simple, and appealing to students. The interactive strategies suggested are suitable for independent, small-group, and whole-class assignments.” (Grade 6 Course Models – California State Department of Education) 8. Click here to check out evaluation of WER Unit Kush by USA leading authority. 9. Information on workshops/presentations for introducing the MLA approach into public schools available at https://molletacademy.com/mla-workshops/ 10. For an explanation of the philosophy behind the writing of these packs click https://molletacademy.com/mla-pedagogy/ 11. Click https://molletacademy.com/sdsu-courses/ for details of on-line courses accredited by San Diego State University.
\|Part of the Biology series on\| \|Mechanisms and processes\| \|Research and history\| \|Evolutionary biology fields\| \|Biology portal ·\| Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook seems to have been the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or 'cladogenesis,' as opposed to 'anagenesis' or 'phyletic evolution' occurring within lineages. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject of much ongoing discussion. There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are geographically isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry or laboratory experiments. Observed examples of each kind of speciation are provided throughout. All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however it still remains a subject of debate as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity. One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last ice age, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences. There is debate as to the rate at which speciation events occur over geologic time. While some evolutionary biologists claim that speciation events have remained relatively constant over time, some palaeontologists such as Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould have argued that species usually remain unchanged over long stretches of time, and that speciation occurs only over relatively brief intervals, a view known as punctuated equilibrium. During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated allopatric populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain building or social change such as emigration). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as they (a) become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures or (b) they independently undergo genetic drift. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics, the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits, has been observed in many circumstances, including insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that Mockingbirds differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation. In peripatric speciation, new species are formed in isolated, small peripheral populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the main population. It is related to the concept of a founder effect, since small populations often undergo bottlenecks. Genetic drift is often proposed to play a significant role in peripatric speciation. The London Underground mosquito is a variant of the mosquito Culex pipiens that entered in the London Underground in the nineteenth century. Evidence for its speciation include genetic divergence, behavioral differences, and difficulty in mating. In parapatric speciation, the zones of two diverging populations are separate but do overlap. There is only partial separation afforded by geography, so individuals of each species may come in contact or cross the barrier from time to time, but reduced fitness of the heterozygote leads to selection for behaviours or mechanisms that prevent breeding between the two species. Ecologists refer to parapatric and peripatric speciation in terms of ecological niches. A niche must be available in order for a new species to be successful. In sympatric speciation, species diverge while inhabiting the same place. Often cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different host plants in the same area. However, the existence of sympatric speciation as a mechanism of speciation is still hotly contested. People have argued that the evidences of sympatric speciation are in fact examples of micro-allopatric, or heteropatric speciation. The most widely accepted example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of Lake Nabugabo in East Africa, which is thought to be due to sexual selection. Sympatric speciation refers to the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location. Until recently, there has a been a dearth of hard evidence that supports this form of speciation, with a general feeling that interbreeding would soon eliminate any genetic differences that might appear. But there has been at least one recent study that suggests that sympatric speciation has occurred in Tennessee cave salamanders. The three-spined sticklebacks, freshwater fishes, that have been studied by Dolph Schluter (who received his Ph.D. for his work on Darwin's finches with Peter Grant) and his current colleagues in British Columbia, were once thought to provide an intriguing example best explained by sympatric speciation. Schluter and colleagues have found: However, the DNA evidence cited above is from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which can often move easily between closely related species ("introgression") when they hybridize. A more recent study, using genetic markers from the nuclear genome, shows that limnetic forms in different lakes are more closely related to each other (and to marine lineages) than to benthic forms in the same lake. The threespine stickleback is now considered an example of "double invasion" (a form of allopatric speciation) in which repeated invasions of marine forms have subsequently differentiated into benthic and limnetic forms. The threesspine stickleback provides an example of how molecular biogeographic studies that rely solely on mtDNA can be misleading, and that consideration of the genealogical history of alleles from multiple unlinked markers (i.e. nuclear genes) is necessary to infer speciation histories. Sympatric speciation driven by ecological factors may also account for the extraordinary diversity of crustaceans living in the depths of Siberia's Lake Baikal. Polyploidy is a mechanism often attributed to causing some speciation events in sympatry. Not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, so an increase in chromosome number may not result in the complete cessation of gene flow between the incipient polyploids and their parental diploids (see also hybrid speciation). Polyploidy is observed in many species of both plants and animals. In fact, it has been proposed that all of the existing plants and most of the animals are polyploids or have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. However, reproduction is often by parthenogenesis since polyploid animals are often sterile. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death. One example of evolution at work is the case of the hawthorn fly, Rhagoletis pomonella, also known as the apple maggot fly, which appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation. Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples. Some evidence, such as the fact that six out of thirteen allozyme loci are different, that hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and that there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4-6% hybridization rate) suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring. The emergence of the new hawthorn fly is an example of evolution in progress. Reinforcement is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation. It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species. If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be no further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred (e.g., as in horses and donkeys.) The reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own certain environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, therefore would not fit either ecological niche as well as the parents did. The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favor assortative mating, which would control hybridization. This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation. If the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact. Reinforcement is required for both parapatric and sympatric speciation. Without reinforcement, the geographic area of contact between different forms of the same species, called their "hybrid zone," will not develop into a boundary between the different species. Hybrid zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are very common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into secondary contact. Without reinforcement the two species would have uncontrollable inbreeding. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described below. New species have been created by domesticated animal husbandry, but the initial dates and methods of the initiation of such species are not clear. For example, domestic sheep were created by hybridisation, and no longer produce viable offspring with Ovis orientalis, one species from which they are descended. Domestic cattle, on the other hand, can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild ox, gaur, yak, etc., as they readily produce fertile offspring with them. The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William Rice and G.W. Salt bred fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry. Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described in Rice and Hostert (1993). Diane Dodd was also able to show how reproductive isolation can develop from mating preferences in Drosophila pseudoobscura fruit flies after only eight generations using different food types, starch and maltose. Dodd's experiment has been easy for many others to replicate, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods. Few speciation genes have been found. They usually involve the reinforcement process of late stages of speciation. In 2008 a speciation gene causing reproductive isolation was reported. It causes hybrid sterility between related subspecies. Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct phenotype. This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such natural selection may then favor these individuals. Eventually, if reproductive isolation is achieved, it may lead to a separate species. However, reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered an extremely rare event. The Mariana Mallard arose from hybrid speciation. Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in Heliconius butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species. Theodosius Dobzhansky, who studied fruit flies in the early days of genetic research in 1930s, speculated that parts of chromosomes that switch from one location to another might cause a species to split into two different species. He mapped out how it might be possible for sections of chromosomes to relocate themselves in a genome. Those mobile sections can cause sterility in inter-species hybrids, which can act as a speciation pressure. In theory, his idea was sound, but scientists long debated whether it actually happened in nature. Eventually a competing theory involving the gradual accumulation of mutations was shown to occur in nature so often that geneticists largely dismissed the moving gene hypothesis. However, 2006 research shows that jumping of a gene from one chromosome to another can contribute to the birth of new species. This validates the reproductive isolation mechanism, a key component of speciation. Interspersed repetitive DNA sequences function as isolating mechanisms. These repeats protect newly evolving gene sequences from being overwritten by gene conversion, due to the creation of non-homologies between otherwise homologous DNA sequences. The non-homologies create barriers to gene conversion. This barrier allows nascent novel genes to evolve without being overwritten by the progenitors of these genes. This uncoupling allows the evolution of new genes, both within gene families and also allelic forms of a gene. The importance is that this allows the splitting of a gene pool without requiring physical isolation of the organisms harboring those gene sequences. Humans have genetic similarities with chimpanzees and gorillas, suggesting common ancestors. Analysis of genetic drift and recombination using a Markov model suggests humans and chimpanzees speciated apart 4.1 million years ago.
Q: What are some block play activities that teach children about the important (and timely) topics of sharing and giving? A: According to Pamela C. Phelps, author of Let's Build, there are many ways to use blocks that explore what it means to give and share while also incorporating basic math concepts into the fun! Here are a few ideas: First, engage the children in a discussion about Thanksgiving, what it is, as well as the harvest and the changes of autumn. - During circle time, use 12 medium and tall cylinders, two double units, two quadruple units, and one floorboard to demonstrate an orchard. The floorboard is the ground; the double and quadruple units, the fencing; and the cylinders, the apple trees. - Engage the children in a discussion about creating an orchard. Use rectangular-shaped blocks to show the children how they can use pieces of red, green, yellow, brown, and orange paper (represented by the blocks) to create a tree or an orchard of many trees. - At the close of the circle, dismiss the children in sets of one and two to play in the different centers of the classroom environment. Allow four children (or the number that your block/construction area easily accommodates) stay to play in the block area. Encourage the children to work together as they build their creations. - Cut out a tree (or trees) from cardboard. Use paper and tape or Velcro to make and hang apples and leaves on the tree (or trees). Discuss the differences between this tree and the ones made from blocks. - Near the block area, provide colored paper pieces (red, green, yellow, brown, and orange), markers, scissors, and tape. Tell the children that they can build anything they want to build with the blocks and that the paper and tape can be used to create trees with leaves and/or apples to decorate their structure. - After working in the block area for a while, two children might begin to build a farm and to cut paper leaves and apples and tape them onto cylinders. - Other children might build random structures after talking about these constructions with their teacher. Then, put their blocks away and leave the area to engage in other play experiences. This block play experience will teach children the importance of sharing and giving when it comes to creating a structure. These ideas can also be easily incorporated into more expansive Thanksgiving-themed lesson plans. For more strategies to create and scaffold block-play experiences for young children, check out Let's Build by Pamela C. Phelps.
A digital assistant, also known as a predictive chatbot, is an advanced computer program that simulates a conversation with the people who use it, typically over the internet. Digital assistants use advanced artificial intelligence (AI), natural language processing, natural language understanding, and machine learning to learn as they go and provide a personalized, conversational experience. Combining historical information such as purchase preferences, home ownership, location, family size, and so on, algorithms can create data models that identify patterns of behavior and then refine those patterns as data is added. By learning a user’s history, preferences, and other information, digital assistants can answer complex questions, provide recommendations, make predictions, and even initiate conversations. Chatbots are computer programs that simulate and process written or spoken human conversation so that people can interact with digital devices as if they were communicating with a real person. If you speak into your phone to order your favorite coffee drink, you are interacting with a chatbot. You can also request a ride from a ridesharing service by using one of the service’s chatbots. These are relatively simple “conversations.” It’s easy to confuse digital assistants with chatbots—and, in fact, a digital assistant is an advanced type of chatbot that can handle more complex interactions in a conversational way. A digital assistant, for example, can respond to a complex request such as, “Schedule a flight to Phoenix for me next Sunday using my usual seating preferences, and arrange transportation to and from the airport.” To respond to this request, the digital assistant will need to access multiple sources—a capacity that the ordinary chatbot does not possess. Perhaps an easy way to understand the difference is to remember that while all digital assistants are chatbots, not all chatbots are digital assistants. Not all digital assistants have the same abilities. A digital assistant pulls data from multiple sources and puts it into context. Advanced natural language processing gives it the ability to process what you are saying or typing. Advanced natural language understanding (NLU) gives it the ability to parse what you say or type and then generate accurate answers. Advanced NLU can understand complex sentences and separate the various pieces within a multipart request or question and return an accurate answer. The more advanced digital assistants are capable of processing multiple tasks and complex questions to converse with you in a way that is easy to understand. These digital assistants use AI and machine learning to understand and learn your preferences based on your past actions. They can use their understanding of you to make predictions of your behavior and make recommendations based on your history and preferences. In this way, working with a digital assistant becomes a personalized experience tailored to your needs. For consumers, digital assistants like Apple’s Siri and Microsoft’s Cortana are able to answer many general questions and offer recommendations based on a user’s profile, past behavior, and other information. Get the directions you need while avoiding congested traffic, pick up that coffee you ordered, and check in to your hotel—all with the help of your digital assistant. If you are going to be out of town for a few days, your digital assistant can tell you the weather forecast at home and turn down the heat while you are away. For businesses, digital assistants provide a single, convenient point of contact for contractors and customers. Digital assistants are most commonly used in customer contact centers to manage incoming communications. They’re also used for internal purposes, such as to onboard new employees. For IT operations, chatbots are frequently used to enhance the service management experience by automating employee services and making them accessible to more people. With an intelligent chatbot, common tasks, such as resetting passwords, system status updates, outage alerts, ordering supplies, and knowledge management can be easily automated and made available around the clock. The services provided vary depending on the types and quality of the digital assistant’s natural language capabilities, AI, and other technologies used—the more advanced the digital assistant, the more business functions it can perform. For example, the latest digital assistants can: Integrating Business Data Employee self-service digital assistants are gaining in popularity. These new advanced apps save the business money, and employees like the convenience. Instead of having to track down the right forms, access multiple websites, and spend their time completing tedious manual processes, employees can use the digital assistant to easily update their profile, add that newborn family member to their insurance, check their vacation balance, and more. The digital assistant can unify information from systems across the company—such as human capital management (HCM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), and customer relationship management (CRM)—and create one messaging flow for its interaction with the employee. Combining CRM with marketing automation tools also improves the company’s ability to market to customers and improve the customer experience. Learn more about what conversational AI can do for your business (PDF). For individuals, digital assistants bring convenience—and a dose of fun—into homes, cars, and other locations. When used for certain purposes, such as to manage home heating and home security, they can also save people money and free them from tedious tasks. Businesses are also finding many benefits to using digital assistants, especially to improve efficiency and provide better assistance to their employees and customers. By using digital assistants, a business can: Ease of Use: Zero-Effort Access One of the advantages of digital assistants is that users don’t have to download and install specialized apps just to access the assistant. Instead, the digital assistant can be made available through existing solutions such as Continuing advances in AI, NLP, and machine learning mean that the digital assistants of the future will become even “smarter”—providing more natural conversations, answering more complex questions, and offering more insightful recommendations. When AI is combined with up and coming 5G technology, recommendations and predictions will come faster and digital assistants will likely incorporate advanced features such as high-definition video conferencing. It’s likely that eventually many people will have a digital assistant they can interact with at home, work, or wherever they go, making us more efficient and giving us time back in our days. Digital assistants can free us to be more creative and innovative, to spend more time on strategic ideas and complex activities, and less time on mundane, redundant tasks that are better handled by the assistants we will carry in our pockets. Digital assistants are a part of most people’s everyday lives due to the proliferation of smartphones. Many people interact with Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa every day. The use of chatbots and digital assistants is also growing in the workplace. These user interfaces need to be more complex to meet the needs of work environments, but the technology is now available. Discover three ways the next generation of digital assistants will change business
\|1. taste buds\|\|7. bowhead\| \|2. baleen/the baleen whales\|\|8. touch/sense of touch\| \|3. IN EITHER ORDER; BOTH REQUIRED FOR ONE MARK forward (and) downward\|\|9. freshwater dolphin(s)/the freshwater dolphin(s)\| \|4. freshwater dolphin(s)/the freshwater dolphin(s)\|\|10. airborne flying fish\| \|5. water/the water\|\|11. clear water(s)/clear open water(s)\| \|6. lower frequencies/ the lower frequencies\|\|12. acoustic sense/the acoustic sense\| An examination of the functioning of the senses in cetaceans, the group of mammals comprising whales, dolphins and porpoises Some of the senses that we and other terrestrial mammals take for granted are either reduced or absent in cetaceans or fail to function well in water. For example, it appears from their brain structure that toothed species are unable to smell. Baleen species, on the other hand, appear to have some related brain structures but it is not known whether these are functional. It has been speculated that, as the blowholes evolved and migrated to the top of the head, the neural pathways serving sense of smell may have been nearly all sacrificed. Similarly, although at least some cetaceans have taste buds, the nerves serving these have degenerated or are rudimentary. The sense of touch has sometimes been described as weak too, but this view is probably mistaken. Trainers of captive dolphins and small whales often remark on their animals’ responsiveness to being touched or rubbed, and both captive and free- ranging cetacean individuals of all species (particularly adults and calves, or members of the same subgroup) appear to make frequent contact. This contact may help to maintain order within a group, and stroking or touching are part of the courtship ritual in most species. The area around the blowhole is also particularly sensitive and captive animals often object strongly to being touched there. The sense of vision is developed to different degrees in different species. Baleen species studied at close quarters underwater - specifically a grey whale calf in captivity for a year, and free-ranging right whales and humpback whales studied and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii - have obviously tracked objects with vision underwater, and they can apparently see moderately well both in water and in air. However, the position of the eyes so restricts the field of vision in baleen whales that they probably do not have stereoscopic vision. On the other hand, the position of the eyes in most dolphins and porpoises suggests that they have stereoscopic visionforward and downward. Eye position in freshwater dolphins, which often swim on their side or upside down while feeding, suggests that what vision they have is stereoscopic forward and upward. By comparison, the bottlenose dolphin has extremely keen vision in water. Judging from the way it watches and tracks airborne flying fish, it can apparently see fairly well through the air-water interface as well. And although preliminary experimental evidence suggests that their in-air vision is poor, the accuracy with which dolphins leap high to take small fish out of a trainer’s hand provides anecdotal evidence to the contrary. Such variation can no doubt be explained with reference to the habitats in which individual species have developed. For example, vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and flooded plains. The South American boutu and Chinese beiji, for instance, appear to have very limited vision, and the Indian susus are blind, their eyes reduced to slits that probably allow them to sense only the direction and intensity of light. Although the senses of taste and smell appear to have deteriorated, and vision in water appears to be uncertain, such weaknesses are more than compensated for by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic sense. Most species are highly vocal, although they vary in the range of sounds they produce, and many forage for food using echolocation1. Large baleen whales primarily use the lower frequencies and are often limited in their repertoire. Notable exceptions are the nearly song-like choruses of bowhead whales in summer and the complex, haunting utterances of the humpback whales. Toothed species in general employ more of the frequency spectrum, and produce a wider variety of sounds, than baleen species (though the sperm whale apparently produces a monotonous series of high-energy clicks and little else). Some of the more complicated sounds are clearly communicative, although what role they may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of cetaceans has been more the subject of wild speculation than of solid science. 1echolocation: the perception of objects by means of sound wave echoes. Great thanks to volunteer Lan Nguyen has contributed these explanations and question markings. If you want to make a better world like this, please contact us.
The process of creating a pattern on a wafer is known as lithography. Typically, light is shone through a mask onto a photoresist that coats the wafer. After exposure, the photoresist is “developed,” which removes the exposed part of the resist (or the unexposed resist if it is negative resist). A photoresist coat/bake/develop system — often called a “track system” is typically connected directly to the wafer exposure tool or wafer “stepper.” The exposed wafer is then etched, where the photoresist acts as a barrier to the etching chemicals or reaction ions. The photoresist is then removed by stripping or “ashing.” In complex integrated circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times, making lithography one most critical process step. Increasingly smaller wavelengths of light have been used to create smaller dimensions. Complex mask designs have also evolved, such as optical proximity correction (OPC), to correct for optical effects. Mask-source optimization techniques have also been developed to correct for variations in the source and on the wafer. A push to extreme ultra-violet (EUV) lithography has been under way for a decade or more, led by ASML Lithography. Alternatives have also been research and developed, including nano-imprint lithography (NIL), which uses stencils and multi e-beam (MEB) lithography, which uses a large bank of individually controlled electron beams to expose the wafer directly (no mask required). More recently, an interesting approach called directed self-assembly (DSA) has been studied, which enables very small dimensions. DSA uses a guide structure on the wafer and polymer-based chemicals to create regular lines with very small dimensions. Check out our Lithography Topic Center for regular updates.
Build Your Own Solar Power Generator Introduction[edit \| edit source] In remote areas it may be necessary to power conventional electronics longer then a battery will hold. A solar power generator can help provide power for quite some time. Conversion[edit \| edit source] A solar cell converts light directly into electricity using the “Photovoltaic Effect”. There is no fuel, steam or thermodynamics involved. When light hits a solar cell, it instantly produces electricity. Solar cells today do not store electricity. In other words, when the light is taken away from the cell, it stops producing electricity. It is very common to store the electricity from a solar cell in a battery. You can store electricity generated from a solar panel in a battery such as a typical car battery or you could use a Deep Cycle battery for more storage capacity. Typical car batteries are not recommended for use in solar power systems. They have a very small range of operating voltage and if discharged too deeply, the battery will be irreparably damaged. Deep cycle batteries have a wider operating voltage range and are more suitable for use in solar power systems. If you are using a large solar panel to charge your battery, it would be wise to purchase a charge controller to regulate the current flow. Once the battery is charged you can connect an inverter to the terminals. Connect the negative terminal first. An inverter will convert the battery's DC current to usable AC current which you can use to power AC appliances. Ac vs Dc[edit \| edit source] AC and DC voltage waveforms. Alternating Current (AC) is the type of electricity found in the outlet in your home. DC Direct Current is what you would find in the outlet of your car. DC electricity is also the type of electricity stored in batteries. Generators at big power plants use rotating alternators to produce AC electricity while the dynamo found in your bicycle (still a rotating machine) produces DC. Commercially available solar cells only produce DC electricity and their excess power output is most readily stored in deep cycle batteries. In order to run most appliances in your home, you will need to use a power inverter which changes the DC voltage to AC. Inverters range in size from the very small 50 watts all the way up to 5Kw. You should consider what appliances and equipment you intend to run off your power inverter. Cheaper power inverters will typically use a square wave output signal to create the AC voltage. More sensitive equipment such as computers will require pure sine wave outputs. Pure sine wave power inverters are typically more expensive. Some solar panels contain built in inverters, making their use more straightforward. Putting it together[edit \| edit source] Tailor these steps to the instructions included with your specific equipment. Consult an expert before going forward for safety. Hook up the Solar panel to a battery charger circuit, and that circuit to the battery. Charge. Then use an inverter if AC power is needed, and use until charge is depleted. Repeat. Maintain[edit \| edit source] Your solar panel needs to be pointed at the sun for it to work well. This means that it may require adjustment throughout the day if it can't automatically track sunlight. Your solar panel needs to be clean and free of obstructions. Less light directly results in less power. Batteries will eventually degrade and require replacement.
- Our consumption of electronics is increasing. New products are constantly reappearing on the market and the old ones are gradually getting outdated. - Throughout their lifecycle electronics have an impact on both the environment and people who are working within the industry: starting from the extraction of raw materials and the manufacturing of electronic products up to their utilization and disposal. What is in our electronic devices? Electronic devices are produced from different raw materials, which provide different and specific electrophysical properties such as insulation and electrical conductivity. These raw materials are: - Metals, such as steel, iron and aluminum, but also copper, silver, gold, tin, tungsten and gallium. Metals can account for up to 50% of the product’s weight. - Plastics, which is used as insulation and design of the product. It can account for up to 20% of the weight of the product. - Rare-earth metals, which is a group of the elements lanthanides, scandium and yttrium (a total of 17 substances). They are used in small quantities. - Minerals and non-metallic materials, such as silicon and silicone, but also cobalt, carbon, antimony, fluorite, garnet and magnesium. - Hazardous substances, such as heavy metals (mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium), phthalates and brominated flame retardants. These substances are carcinogenic, neurotoxic, endocrine disrupting and harmful to reproduction. Extraction of metals - Metals such as tin, tungsten, tantalum, gallium, indium and ruthenium, copper, gold, platinum and beryllium are extracted from mines. The mining industry is usually concentrated in developing countries where poverty is a widespread phenomenon. The population often has no access to either education or health care. - Child labor in the mines is common. Children are used as they are smaller than adults and thus are more suitable for getting into narrow shafts. - The work is usually carried out without protective equipment and the workers are exposed to mineral dust, which causes lung diseases and eye irritation. - Emissions from the mines lead to polluted watercourses. There is a clear link between the emissions from smelting plants and high levels of lead discovered in the blood samples of children in Zambia. - In Ghana, which is the world’s second largest gold producer, gold mining leads to deforestation. The extraction of 1 gram of gold generates between 1 and 5 tonnes of mining waste. In order to make space available for gold mining, the local population is forced to be displaced and their land for farming is lost. - In Congo-Kinshasa, the extraction of tin, tungsten, tantalum and gold also intensifies conflicts between the army and rebel groups in the country. - Electronic Companies are usually outsourcing the manufacturing to low income countries, mainly in Asia, and often move certain operations from one country to another to reduce costs. - In countries such as China and the Philippines, workers often receive only the local legal minimum wage, which is so low that it is not enough to satisfy the basic needs of a normal-sized family. To be able to support themselves, the workers have to do a lot of overtime. - It is common for production to take place without protective equipment. This is problematic as many dangerous chemicals are used in the manufacturing process, which lead to serious health problems among workers. - Electronics industry puts a lot of effort into avoiding Trade unions regulations and often relocates production to special export zones, also known as “union- and strike-free zones”. Legislation in these zones is looser than in the rest of the world. The majority of workers are women who are generally preferred to men because they are considered less likely to claim their rights. - The supply chain in the electronics industry is long. The bottom of it usually has no transparency and is characterized by the worst working conditions and the absence of environmental controls. - The process of manufacturing electronics requires a lot of energy, but the use stage is also crucial. For example the entire world’s IT use has an equivalent climate impact to the world’s aviation industry. - To reduce energy consumption, you can choose electronics with energy labels such as Energy Star and TCO. It is also important to make sure to turn off your devices properly and not use standby mode. - Some hazardous substances found in electronics, such as phthalates and brominated flame retardants, can be excreted from the product and end up in the air and dust in our homes. The amounts of substances that come out into the air and enter our respiratory systems are relatively small. Still, it is important to ventilate the home properly and clean often to keep the dust away. Disposal and export to developing countries. - The amount of e-waste that was produced globally in 2019 reached 53.6 million tonnes. On average it is estimated that less than 40 percent of all electrical and electronic products are collected for recycling within the EU. The remaining 60-75 percent are unsorted. - Some of this waste is exported to developing countries in, for example, Asia and Africa, despite the fact that the export of e-waste to developing countries is banned by the EU legislation. The exports take place under the pretext that electronic products are still functional, but most of the time the exports are illegal. - The waste often contains many hazardous substances that are harmful for human health and the environment if not handled properly. Developing countries that receive e-waste often lack functioning waste management systems. As a result, the waste ends up in landfills and causes intractable environmental and health problems. - The world’s largest dump for e-waste is located in Ghana’s capital Accra in a slum area called Agbogbloshie. The size of the area is equivalent to 11 football fields and that is where electronics from Europe and the USA arrive at the end of their life cycle. Thousands of people, both adults and children, live and work in Agbogbloshie. They disassemble the appliances, burn cables and circuit boards to extract copper, which they then sell to buyers at the trash depot. - When e-waste is incinerated outdoors, heavy metals are released uncontrollably. The smoke is extremely toxic to those who are exposed to it. It causes breathing problems, coughing and headaches and in long term leads to cancer, DNA damage, miscarriage and infertility. Tips for sustainable consumption of electronics - Use the appliances you have for as long as possible: update and supplement instead of buying new. - Repair instead of buying a new one: by fixing a cracked screen and changing the battery, you will do a great service to both the environment and people. - Take care of what you have and prevent the damage: have protection for your mobile phone and put a piece of electrical tape on the parts of the charging cables and headphones that are most likely to be damaged. - Reuse appliances you no longer need: give them to a friend or sell them. - Buy used electronic products instead of brand new ones. There are many websites that sell electronic devices second hand. - Buy electronic devices that have an official eco-label and CE mark. The CE mark means a guarantee from a manufacturer that the device meets EU safety requirements. - Always hand in all used electronics for recycling, either at the municipality’s recycling center or at the nearest outlet. - Put pressure on companies and demand products that are produced with respect for the environment and human rights. - Voices from Eastern Congo (2010). A report from Swedwatch within the makeITfair project about the connection between mineral extraction and conflicts in Eastern Congo. Download a summary in Swedish or the entire report in English here. - Out of control- E-waste trade flows from the EU to developing countries (2009). A report from Swedwatch within the makeITfair project on the export of e-waste from the EU. Download a summary in Swedish here or the entire report in English here. - Silenced to deliver- Mobile phone manufacturing in China and Philippines (2008). A report from Swedwatch within the makeITfair project on the manufacturing of mobile phones in China and the Philippines. - Behind our mobile world- Cobalt production for rechargeable batteries in Congo-Kinshasa and Zambia (2007). A report from Swedwatch within the makeITfair project which describes the problems with the mining industry in the so-called copper belt in Zambia and Congo-Kinshasa. DANWATCH Danish non-profit media and research center that works with journalism concerning business ethics and examines the export of e-waste. FAIR ACTION A non-profit association that works for fair trade and monitors Swedish companies’ trade with low-income countries. Has, among other things, reported on working conditions in the electronics industry. THE LATIN AMERICA GROUPS A solidarity association that, together with Latin American popular movements, works for a just and sustainable society. Has different theme areas, including mining. MAKEITFAIR A European project consisting of several organizations from different countries that focus on the conditions in the electronics industry. SWEDWATCH An organization that examines Swedish companies in low-wage countries, with the goal of contributing to sustainable global development. GREENPEACE Has since 2006 presented Guide to Greener Electronics where you as a consumer can get help to choose a greener alternative when you buy new electronics. GREENER IT! Leaflet no 4 (2009). An information folder from makeITfair about electronic waste. COMPUTER CONNECTIONS Supply chain policies and practices of seven computer companies (2009). A report from Dutch SOMO that reviews seven companies’ codes of conduct. COMPUTER ENERGY USE Article on the Swedish Energy Agency’s website WHAT A WASTE How your computer causes health problems in Ghana (2011). A report from DanWatch within the makeITfair project on the consequences of e-waste for human health in Ghana. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT THE NEW ENERGY LABEL The Swedish Energy Agency’s website, 2020-04-27 PLATT-TV REKORD MED KLIMATVÄRSTING Article from Klotet in P1, 2010-05-26 CANCERFRAMKALLANDE ÄMNEN I PLATTEVEN Article from Klotet in P1, 2010-05-26 High price for cheap mobile – a study of four mobile operators (2009). A report from Fair Action (formerly Fair Trade Center) within the MAKE IT FAIR project on the responsibility of mobile operators for the environment and ethics. E-WASTE AND RAW MATERIAL: From Environmental Issues to Business Models (2019). A report from IVL Swedish Environmental Institute within the EU project E-mining@schools which describes what e-waste is, what e-waste consists of and what environmental problems are linked to it. THE GLOBAL E-WASTE MONITOR 2020 (2020). A report (in English) that delves into the e-waste problem. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS The Swedish Chemicals Agency
[pic][pic] [pic] [pic][pic] Herbert Spencer \| \| \|Biography: Herbert Spencer \| Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was an English philosopher, scientist, engineer, and political economist. In his day his works were important in popularizing the concept of evolution and played an important part in the development of economics, political science, biology, and philosophy.Herbert Spencer was born in Derby on April 27, 1820. His childhood, described in An Autobiography (1904), reflected the attitudes of a family which was known on both sides to include religious nonconformists, social critics, and rebels. His father, a teacher, had been a Wesleyan, but he separated himself from organized religion as he did from political and social authority. Spencer’s father and an uncle saw that he received a highly individualized education that emphasized the family traditions of dissent and independence of thought.He was particularly instructed in the study of nature and the fundamentals of science, neglecting such traditional subjects as history. Spencer initially followed up the scientific interests encouraged by his father and studied engineering. For a few years, until 1841, he practiced the profession of civil engineer as an employee of the London and Birmingham Railway. His interest in evolution is said to have arisen from the examination of fossils that came from the rail-road cuts. Spencer left the railroad to take up a literary career and to follow up some of his scientific interests.He began by contributing to The Non-Conformist, writing a series of letters called The Proper Sphere of Government. This was his first major work and contained his basic concepts of individualism and laissez-faire, which were to be later developed more fully in his Social Statics (1850) and other works. Especially stressed were the right of the individual and the ideal of noninterference on the part of the state. He also foreshadowed some of his later ideas on evolution and spoke of society as an individual organism. A System of EvolutionThe concept of organic evolution was elaborated fully for the first time in his famous essay “The Developmental Hypothesis,” published in the Leader in 1852. In a series of articles and writings Spencer gradually refined his concept of organic and inorganic evolution and popularized the term itself. Particularly in “Progress: Its Law and Cause,” an essay published in 1857, he extended the idea of evolutionary progress to human society as well as to the animal and physical worlds. All nature moves from the simple to the complex.This fundamental law is seen in the evolution of human society as it is seen in the geological transformation of the earth and in the origin and development of plant and animal species. Natural selection, as described by Charles Darwin in the Origin of Species, published in 1859, completed Spencer’s evolutionary system by providing the mechanism by which organic evolution occurred. Spencer enthusiastically elaborated on Darwin’s process of natural selection, applying it to human society, and made his own contribution in the notion of “survival of the fittest. From the beginning Spencer applied his harsh dictum to human society, races, and the state – judging them in the process: “If they are sufficiently complete to live, they do live, and it is well they should live. If they are not sufficiently complete to live, they die, and it is best they should die. ” Spencer systematically tried to establish the basis of a scientific study of education, psychology, sociology, and ethics from an evolutionary point of view. Although many of his specific ideas are no longer fashionable, Spencer went a long way in helping to establish the separate existence of sociology as a social science. His idea of evolutionary progress, from the simple to the complex, provided a conceptual framework that was productive and that justifies granting to him the title father of comparative sociology. His views concerning a science of sociology are elaborated in two major works, Descriptive Sociology (published in 17 volumes, 1873-1934) and The Study of Sociology (1873). Spencer was articularly influential in the United States until the turn of the century. According to William Graham Sumner, who used The Study of Sociology as a text in the first sociology course offered in an American university, it was Spencer’s work which established sociology as a separate, legitimate field in its own right. Spencer’s demand that historians present the “natural history of society,” in order to furnish data for a comparative sociology, is also credited with inspiring James Harvey Robinson and the others involved in the writing of the New History in the United States.Economic Theories Social philosophy in the latter part of the 19th century in the United States was dominated by Spencer. His ideas of laissez-faire and the survival of the fittest by natural selection fitted very well into an age of rapid expansion and ruthless business competition. Spencer provided businessmen with the reassuring notion that what they were doing was not just ruthless self-interest but was a natural law operating in nature and human society. Not only was competition in harmony with nature, but it was also in the interest of the general welfare and progress.Social Darwinism, or Spencerism, became a total view of life which justified opposition to social reform on the basis that reform interfered with the operation of the natural law of survival of the fittest. Spencer visited the United States in 1882 and was much impressed by what he observed on a triumphal tour. He prophetically saw in the industrial might of the United States the seeds of world power. He admired the American industrialists and became a close friend of the great industrialist and steel baron Andrew Carnegie.By the 1880s and 1890s Spencer had become a universally recognized philosopher and scientist. His books were published widely, and his ideas commanded a great deal of respect and attention. His Principles of Biology was a standard text at Oxford. At Harvard, William James used his Principles of Psychology as a textbook. Although some of Spencer’s more extreme formulations of laissez-faire were abandoned fairly rapidly, even in the United States, he will continue to exert an influence as long as competition, the profit motive, and individualism are held up as positive social values. His indirect influence on psychology, sociology, and history is too strong to be denied, even when his philosophical system as a whole has been discarded. He is a giant in the intellectual history of the 19th century. Spencer spent his last years continuing his work and avoiding the honors and positions that were offered to him by a long list of colleges and universities. He died at Brighton on Dec. 8, 1903. Further Reading By far the best source on Spencer’s life, education, and the development of his major ideas is his own An Autobiography (2 vols. 1904). Two of the more reliable and critical biographical works are Josiah Royce, Herbert Spencer: An Estimate and Review (1904), and Hugh Elliot, Herbert Spencer (1917). For a careful study of Spencer’s impact upon American intellectual history see Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (1944; rev. ed. 1955). Recommended for general historical background are Ernest Barker, Political Thought in England, 1848-1914 (1915; 2d ed. 1963), and William James Durant, The Story of Philosophy (1926; 2d ed. 1967). Additional SourcesHudson, William Henry, An introduction to the philosophy of Herbert Spencer: with a biographical sketch, New York: Haskell House Publishers, 1974. Kennedy, James Gettier, Herbert Spencer, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1978. Thomson, J. Arthur (John Arthur), Herbert Spencer, New York:AMS Press, 1976. Turner, Jonathan H. , Herbert Spencer: a renewed appreciation, Beverly Hills, Calif. : Sage Publications, 1985. Sponsored Links \|Spencer Herbert at Amazon \| \|Low Prices on Spencer herbert Free 2-Day Shipping w/ Amazon Prime \| \|www. Amazon. com/Books \| \|Find Herbert Spence \| \|Get current address, phone & more. Easy to use, search for free! \| \|www. usa-people-search. com \| \|Political Dictionary: Herbert Spencer \| Top (1820-1903) English evolutionary philosopher.Born in Derby, the only survivor in a family of nine, Spencer was educated in austere Unitarian circumstances by his father and uncle. He worked first as a railway engineer and then, at the age of 28, he became sub-editor of The Economist, a London weekly committed to free trade and laissez-faire (see Bagehot). He is now amongst the most remote and forbidding of the eminent Victorians. The fourteen enormous volumes of The Synthetic Philosophy, which were painstakingly compiled over thirty-six years, are nowadays barely looked at, let alone read. And the Autobiography completed in 1889 spreads to over 400,000 words.In general, Spencer always endeavoured to subsume phenomena under his philosophy of evolution, a philosophy resting squarely on Lamarckism. In the course of his life, he ranged under his definition of evolution not only the nebular hypothesis, the conservation of energy, and the social organism, but also laissez-faire economics, political individualism, and a utilitarian ethic based on hedonism. However, Spencer stopped creative thinking around 1860, as he descended into despair and solitude, his own earlier and radical individualism increasingly giving way to a grumbling and pessimistic conservatism. Longevity was Spencer’s worst enemy. Sponsored Links \|Cheap Mulch Delivered \| \|Pick up or delivery available now Fast and Friendly service call \| \|www. MulchGuyBark. com \| \|[pic][pic]Shopping: Related products \| Top Paul E. Lehr, R. Will Burnett, Harry McNaught, Herbert Spencer Zim – Weather [pic] [pic]Herbert Spencer Zim and Lester Ingle – Seashore Life: A Guide to Animals and Plants Along the Beach [pic] [pic] Frank Harold Trevor Rhodes, Herbert Spencer Zim, Paul R. Shaffer – Fossils: A Guide to Prehistoric Life [pic] [pic] Top of Form Enter a keyword ( browse ) [pic][pic] Choose a category [pic] Bottom of Form [pic] \|Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Herbert Spencer \| Top (born April 27, 1820, Derby, Derbyshire, Eng. — died Dec. 8, 1903, Brighton, Sussex) English sociologist and philosopher, advocate of the theory of social Darwinism. His System of Synthetic Philosophy, 9 vol. 1855 – 96), held that the physical, organic, and social realms are interconnected and develop according to identical evolutionary principles, a scheme suggested by the evolution of biological species. This sociocultural evolution amounted to, in Spencer’s phrase, “the survival of the fittest. ” The free market system, without interference by governments, would weed out the weak and unfit. His controversial laissez-faire philosophy was praised by social Darwinists such as William Graham Sumner and opposed by sociologists such as Lester Frank Ward. Liked or loathed, Spencer was one of the most discussed Victorian thinkers. For more information on Herbert Spencer, visit Britannica. com. \|British History: Herbert Spencer \| Top Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903). Philosopher. Spencer was the son of a Derbyshire schoolteacher of radical and dissenting views. In the 1840s he joined Sturge’s Complete Suffrage Union and in 1848 became subeditor of The Economist. His Social Statics, published in 1851, allowed the state only the minimum of defence and police functions. He published Education in 1861, advocating a child-centred approach and emphasizing the importance of science.But his main thesis—the need to limit the intervention of the state—was at variance with the spirit of the times. The miscellany of his thought gave him influence, but he was not a trained thinker and his fame faded fast. \|Modern Design Dictionary: Herbert Spencer \| Top (1924-2002) A highly influential British communication and typographic designer, Spencer disseminated his ideas through his work, his commitment to design education, his involvement with the pioneering magazine Typographica and the Penrose Annual, and highly perceptive writings in the field.Born in London Spencer became interested in printing as a child, an interest that was further developed as an RAF cartographer during the Second World War. Having joined the London Typographic Designers in 1946 he embarked on a career in design. He built up a design and consultancy business from 1948, with a client list that was to include the Post Office, British Railways, Shell, and the Tate Gallery. From the late 1940s onwards he travelled in Europe, meeting many influential figures such as Max Bill and Piet Zwart who enhanced the breadth of his design thinking and knowledge.Over many years he disseminated in Britain his familiarity with European typographic innovation. Spencer exerted considerable influence through a commitment to publishing and writing. He had a close relationship with the Lund Humphries company who began publishing the Typographica journal, which he founded in 1949, editing it until it ceased in 1967. It embraced avant-garde ideas from typography to photography, its own format often taking on fresh ideas. From 1964 to 1973 he also edited the highly respected print-focused Penrose Annual 1895-1982, also published by Lund Humphries.Furthermore, Spencer wrote a number of books that have proved influential in the profession, including Design in Business Printing (1952), The Visible Word (1966), and Pioneers of Modern Typography (1969). His national and international reputation was reflected by his role as Master of the Faculty of RDI ( Royal Designers for Industry) from 1979 to 1981 and International President of AGI ( Alliance Graphique Internationale) from 1971 to 1974. For three decades he played an important role in graphic design education, influencing several generations of students.From 1949 to 1955 he taught typography at the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London, and in 1966 was appointed Senior Research Fellow in the Print Research Unit at the Royal College of Art and was made Professor of Graphic Arts at the RCA from 1978 to 1985. \|Philosophy Dictionary: Herbert Spencer \| Top Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903) English philosopher of evolution. Spencer was born in Derby of radical Wesleyan parents, and suffered a sporadic education, leaving him largely self-taught.His early individualism is recorded in the story that, having been sent to school with an uncle in Somerset at the age of thirteen, he ran away, returning to Derby in three days, by walking 48 miles the first day, 47 the second, and about 20 the third, with little food and no sleep. He became involved in radical politics, and from 1848 worked in London on the journal the Economist, becoming known in literary circles, and narrowly failing to become a suitor of the novelist George Eliot.His health growing precarious, he lived on small legacies and then on the considerable proceeds of his writings. His first major work was the book Social Statics (1851), which advocates an extreme political libertarianism. The Principles of Psychology was published in 1855, and his very influential Education advocating natural development of intelligence, the creation of pleasurable interest, and the importance of science in the curriculum, appeared in 1861. In 1857 he began to plan a vast system of philosophy, which, after Darwin’s publication of the Origin of Species in 1859, turned into a scheme for a synthesis of the whole of scientific knowledge based upon the principles of evolution. His First Principles (1862) was followed over the succeeding years by volumes on the Principles of biology, psychology (recasting the earlier work of the same title), sociology, and ethics. Although he attracted a large public following and attained the stature of a sage, his speculative work has not lasted well, and in his own time there were dissident voices.T. H. Huxley said that Spencer’s definition of a tragedy was a deduction killed by a fact; Carlyle called him a perfect vacuum, and James wondered why half of England wanted to bury him in Westminster Abbey, and talked of the ‘hurdy-gurdy monotony of him…his whole system wooden, as if knocked together out of cracked hemlock boards’ (Pragmatism, p. 39). \|Columbia Encyclopedia: Herbert Spencer \| Top Spencer, Herbert, 1820-1903, English philosopher, b. Derby.In 1848 he moved to London, where he was an editor at The Economist and wrote his first major book, Social Statics (1851), which tried to establish a natural basis for political action. Subsequently, together with Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley, Spencer was responsible for the promulgation and public acceptance of the theory of evolution. But unlike Darwin, for whom evolution was without direction or morality, Spencer, who coined the phrase “survival of the fittest,” believed evolution to be both progressive and good. Spencer conceived a vast 10-volume work, Synthetic Philosophy, in which all phenomena were to be interpreted according to the principle of evolutionary progress. In First Principles (1862), the first of the projected volumes, he distinguished phenomena from what he called the unknowable-an incomprehensible power or force from which everything derives. He limited knowledge to phenomena, i. e. , the manifestations of the unknowable, and maintained that these manifestations proceed from their source according to a process of evolution.In The Principles of Biology (2 vol. , 1864-67) and The Principles of Psychology (1855; rev. ed. , 2 vol. , 1870-72) Spencer gave a mechanistic explanation of how life has progressed by the continual adaptation of inner relations to outer ones. In The Principles of Sociology (3 vol. , 1876-96) he analyzed the process by which the individual becomes differentiated from the group and gains increasing freedom. In The Principles of Ethics (2 vol. , 1879-93) he developed a utilitarian system in which morality and survival are linked.Spencer’s synthetic system had more popular appeal than scientific influence, but it served to bring the doctrines of evolution within the grasp of the general reading public and to establish sociology as a discipline. Bibliography See his autobiography (1904); J. D. Y. Peel, Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (1971); M. Francis, Herbert Spencer and the Invention of Modern Life (2007). \|World of the Mind: Herbert Spencer \| Top (1820–1903). British philosopher.The influence of Herbert Spencer in his lifetime was immense. It was not only in intellectual circles that his books were read, and their popular appeal in America and Asia, as well as in Britain, was enormous. But since the 19th century his reputation has suffered an uncommonly severe eclipse, and it is necessary to recall the extent of his influence. Henry Holt, an influential publisher, declared: ‘About 1865 I got hold of a copy of Spencer’s First Principles and had my eyes opened to a new heaven and a new earth. And Andrew Carnegie, prototype of the self-made American, publicized Spencer as ‘the man to whom I owe most’. For 30 years, from the 1860s, Spencer’s thought dominated American universities. The last of those decades, the 1890s, produced the revolution in educational thought and psychology led by William James and John Dewey, Stanley Hall, and E. L. Thorndike, all influenced by Spencer. In Britain, J. S. Mill backed financially the subscription scheme that launched Spencer’s work, and the scientists supported him too.Charles Darwin wrote, ‘After reading any of his books I generally feel enthusiastic admiration for his transcendental talents’, but added that ‘his conclusions never convince me’. (He also wrote, somewhat ambiguously: ‘I feel rather mean when I read him: I could bear and rather enjoy feeling that he was twice as ingenious and clever as myself, but when I feel that he is about a dozen times my superior, even in the master-art of wriggling, I feel aggrieved. ‘) In 1863 Alfred Russel Wallace visited Spencer, commenting: ‘Our thoughts were full of the great unsolved problem of the origin of life … nd we looked to Spencer as the one man living who could give us a clue to it. ‘ And as late as 1897 Beatrice Webb noted that: ‘? “Permanent” men might be classed just above the artisan and skilled mechanic: they read Herbert Spencer and Huxley and are speculative in religious and political thought. ‘ In the 1880s Spencer was consulted by the Japanese government on education. And in Chekhov’s short story ‘The Duel’ (1891) a female character recalls the beginning of an idyllic relationship: ‘to begin with we had kisses, and calm evenings, and vows, and Spencer, and ideals and interests in common. And, finally, a letter arrived at Spencer’s home in the early 1890s addressed to ‘Herbt Spencer, England, and if the postman doesn’t know where he lives, why he ought to’. Spencer’s fame was based entirely on his books. He rarely appeared in public, save for one triumphant tour of America late in life. He was born in Derby, the only surviving son of a schoolmaster, and he was educated informally at home by his father and later in the family of an uncle. The family was staunchly Nonconformist, with a radical tradition and a keen interest in the social issues of the day.For some years the young Spencer was a railway engineer, but by 1841 he had decided against this career. He became a journalist in London, attended meetings, and was formulating ideas on politics and education. He began to write, and became known for his radical opinions and self-confidence, traits tempered by great honesty. If in old age he became idiosyncratic, in youth he was a shrewd iconoclast who delighted in argument. Perhaps it was these qualities that led him to some influential and lifelong friendships. He got to know the young T. H.Huxley; they had interests in common and walked together on Hampstead Heath in London. George Eliot was a fellow journalist who fell in love with him, before he introduced her to G. H. Lewes. It was a remarkably tight-knit intellectual group in which Spencer moved, and it extended into the next generation. In 1877 when William James was attacking Spencer’s books at Harvard, William’s brother Henry, the novelist, wrote describing his meeting with Spencer at George Eliot’s, and comments: ‘I often take a nap beside Herbert Spencer at the Athenaeum and feel as if I were robbing you of the privilege. Spencer’s first books were published in the serene mid-century. His essays on Education (1861) remained a standard text in colleges training teachers for many decades. By 1858 he had conceived the plan of writing a major synthetic philosophy, and the prospectus appeared in 1860. Small legacies, publications, and the support of friends enabled him to give up journalism, and for the rest of his life he was an independent author. He never married, and he devoted his life to completing the philosophy as he had originally planned it. The whole massive project, with volumes on biology, psychology, sociology, and ethics, together with the initial First Principles (1862), was finally complete in 1896. Today one point of pursuing Spencer lies precisely in trying to understand something of the reasons for his great appeal in his own time. The social milieu in which he moved is significant. The immense popularity of his work is due to a rather special way in which it reflected some of the preoccupations of his own generation. In his thirties Spencer suffered a severe breakdown in health. He shared the Victorian syndrome, which Darwin and Huxley also endured, of a crisis in health as a young man and thereafter constant hypochondria, insomnia, and headaches; it suggests some of the tensions in their thought and background. Spencer had no formal education. He believed this to be a great advantage which ‘left me free from the bias given by the plexus of traditional ideas and sentiments’, and he adds: ‘I did not trouble myself with the generalisations of others. And that indeed indicated my general attitude. All along I have looked at things through my own eyes and not through the eyes of others. In later life he was never able to work for long, and his reading was severely curtailed. In fact he had never read a great deal; he observed, made biological collections and mechanical inventions, and he enjoyed intelligent conversations and his own thoughts much more than reading books. Although he believed this gave him an independent attitude, it in fact left him more than usually open to the influences around him. When Darwin’s Origin of Species was published in November 1859, evolutionary theories were not new — they had been the subject of speculation for half a century.Darwin’s achievement was to make the elements of the theory coherent and to demonstrate, by massive evidence, that it must be taken seriously. One man needed no conversion. Seven years earlier, in 1852, Spencer had published an essay on the ‘Development Hypothesis’, and coined the term survival of the fittest. Years later Huxley recalled that before Darwin’s publication, ‘The only person known to me whose knowledge and capacity compelled respect, and who was at the same time a thoroughgoing evolutionist, was Mr Herbert Spencer .. . ‘.Spencer first came across evolution in a secondary work discussing the ideas of Lamarck, whose theory was partly intuitive and had never convinced professional naturalists (see Lamarckianism). Spencer was won over, before there was convincing evidence, for a characteristically mid-Victorian reason: ‘The Special Creation theory had dropped out of my mind many years before, and I could not remain in a suspended state; acceptance of the only conceivable alternative was peremptory. ‘ An important feature of Spencer’s generation of intellectuals is that they had discarded orthodox religion.Spencer himself was never religious, and he enjoyed setting out for Sunday rambles walking provocatively in the opposite direction to the churchgoers. But unconsciously, the agnostic mid-Victorians searched for some other system of thought which could answer their doubts and give them clear first principles. Science was one alternative which was widely seized on, hence the battles over evolution and religion. Evolution offered, it seemed, an alternative conceptual framework, universally operating laws of cause and effect. The ‘new heaven and the new earth’ which Spencer’s philosophy opened up to many of his contemporaries was essentially a systematic metaphysical cosmology: everything from the stars to the embryo, from civilizations to the individual, was in process of development, interaction, change, growth — and progress. For Spencer’s conception of universal evolution was optimistic, a view which seemed natural to successful mid-Victorians. ‘Progress, therefore, is not an accident but a necessity. Instead of civilisation being artificial, it is a part of the embryo or the unfolding of a flower. Late 18th-century laissez-faire individualism is thus reconciled with the revolutionary changes of 19th-century society. Naturalistic organic conceptions of society gained a new importance with the addition of evolutionary laws. Spencer was the first to pursue the study of such laws operating in society, and to call his analysis sociology. His book The Study of Sociology (1873) was as popular as Education. A similar but more dynamic conception was being developed in the same period by Karl Marx. Fundamentally the reverence for nature which pervades all Spencer’s work goes back to Rousseau.It is romantic, not scientific. Spencer’s conception of evolution owes nothing to Darwin. Although greatly impressed by science, Spencer never really grasped scientific method: his method was inductive — he generalizes laws without proof, draws facts haphazardly from his own experience, and is fond of asserting his beliefs as ‘obvious’. Spencer understood his own romantic, speculative, and basically unscientific attitude, and recounts against himself the witticism of his friend Huxley that ‘Spencer’s idea of a tragedy is a deduction killed by a fact’.Not until almost a generation later was it realized that evolutionary theories cannot supply an ethical code for human societies. Spencer’s only quarrel with Huxley was in the 1890s, when Huxley first publicly dissented from the view that the law of nature in human society was neither just nor good. The origins of Spencer’s philosophy owe much to the provincial dissenting background of his youth. By the 1880s his individualistic laissez-faire views were already anachronistic, though his book Man versus the State (1884) had enormous sales. Essentially, Spencer is a Janus figure looking as much backwards as forwards.He only partly understood evolutionary theory and used it considerably to give a systematic framework for the individualistic ethics and organic view of the state prevalent in his youth. John Dewey, in an excellent essay, came to the conclusion that Spencer was essentially a transition figure, preserving the ideals of late 18th-century British liberalism in the only way possible: in ‘the organic, the systematic, the universal terms which report the presence of the nineteenth century’. Yet Spencer really did seize and propagandize the leading idea of his own day.It was Spencer, not Darwin, who opened up the horizons of the evolutionary theory in psychology, sociology, anthropology, and education. He did perhaps more than anyone else to persuade others that the implications of the evolutionary theory were important, and he did it in a thoroughly Victorian manner: energetic, confident, systematic, universal, which a modern scientist, Sir Peter Medawar, salutes with respect: • I think Herbert Spencer was the greatest of those who have attempted to found a metaphysical system on naturalistic principles. It is out of date, of course, this style of thought, it is philosophy for an age of steam. … His system of General Evolution does not really work: the evolution of society and of the solar system are different phenomena, and the one teaches us next to nothing about the other. … But for all that, I for one can still see Spencer’s System as a great adventure. (Published 1987) — Ann Low-Beer Bibliography • Medawar, P. (1967). The Art of the Soluble. • Peel, J.D. Y. (1971). Herbert Spencer. [pic] \|Quotes By: Herbert Spencer \| Top Quotes: “The more specific idea of Evolution now reached is — a change from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity, accompanying the dissipation of motion and integration of matter. ” “The ultimate result of shielding men from the effects of folly, is to fill the world with fools. ” Objects we ardently pursue bring little happiness when gained; most of our pleasures come from unexpected sources. ” “The preservation of health is a duty. Few seem conscious that there is such a thing as physical morality. ” “There is a principle which is a bar against all information, which is proof against all arguments and which cannot fail to keep a man in everlasting ignorance-that principle is contempt prior to investigation. ” “A jury is composed of twelve men of average ignorance. “See more famous quotes by Herbert Spencer \|Actor: Herbert Spencer \| Top • Born: 1905c in Chile • Died: Sep 18, 1992 in Culver City, California • Active: ’50s-’70s • Major Genres: Musical, Fantasy • Career Highlights: I Spy, The Andy Griffith Show, Make Room for Daddy • First Major Screen Credit: Make Room for Daddy (1953) Biography Versatile composer Herbert Spencer spent two decades working for 20th Century Fox for musical director Alfred Newman.He also composed and arranged music for radio, theater, and television productions (his best-known theme was for The Andy Griffith Show). During the 1970s, he was an arranger and orchestrator for distinguished composer John Williams on such films as Star Wars (1977), E. T. The Extra-Terrestrial (1982), and The Witches of Eastwick (1987). ~ Sandra Brennan, All Movie Guide \|Filmography: Herbert Spencer \| Top [pic] \|[pic] \|[pic] \|[pic] \| \|Jesus Christ Superstar \|Scrooge \|MAS*H \|The Undefeated \| \|Buy this Movie \|Buy this Movie \|Buy this Movie \|Buy this Movie \| \|Wikipedia: Herbert Spencer \| Top For other persons named Herbert Spencer, see Herbert Spencer (disambiguation). Herbert Spencer \| \|Western Philosophy \| \|19th-century philosophy \| \|[pic] \| \|Herbert Spencer \| \|Full name \|Herbert Spencer \| \|Born \|27 April 1820(1820-04-27) \| \|Died \|8 December 1903 (aged 83) \| \|School/tradition \|Evolutionism, Positivism, Classical liberalism \| \|Main interests \|Evolution, Positivism, Laissez-faire, \| \| \|utilitarianism \| \|Notable ideas \|Survival of the fittest \| \|Influenced by \| \|Charles Darwin, Auguste Comte, John Stuart Mill, George Henry Lewes, \| \|Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Thomas Huxley \| \|Influenced \| \|Charles Darwin, Henry Sidgwick, William Graham Sumner, Thorstein Veblen, \| \|Murray Rothbard, Emile Durkheim, Alfred Marshall, Henri Bergson, Nikolay \| \|Mikhaylovsky, Auberon Herbert, Roderick Long, Grant Allen, Yen Fu, Tokutomi \| \|Soho, Carlos Vaz Ferreira \| \|Signature \|[pic] \| Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, prominent classical liberal political theorist, and sociological theorist of the Victorian era. Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, economics, politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English Speaking circles. Indeed in Britain and the United States at “one time Spencer’s disciples had not blushed to compare him with Aristotle! “ He is best known for coining the phrase “survival of the fittest,” which he did in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection. Contents \| \|[hide] \| \|1 Life \| \|2 The System of Synthetic Philosophy \| \|3 Concept of evolution \| \|4 Sociology \| \|5 Ethics \| \|6 Agnosticism \| \|7 Political views \| \|7. 1 Social Darwinism \| \|8 General influence \| \|8. 1 Political influence \| \|8. 2 Influence on literature \| \|9 Primary sources \| \|10 Philosophers’ critiques \| \|11 See also \| \|12 Notes \| \|13 References \| \|13. By Spencer \| \|14 External links \| [pic]Life Herbert Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820, the son of William George Spencer (generally called George). Spencer’s father was a religious dissenter who drifted from Methodism to Quakerism, and who seems to have transmitted to his son an opposition to all forms of authority. He ran a school founded on the progressive teaching methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and also served as Secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific society which had been founded in the 1790s by Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles.Spencer was educated in empirical science by his father, while the members of the Derby Philosophical Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution, particularly those of Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, vicar of Hinton Charterhouse near Bath, completed Spencer’s limited formal education by teaching him some mathematics and physics, and enough Latin to enable him to translate some easy texts. Thomas Spencer also imprinted on his nephew his own firmly free-trade and anti-statist political views. Otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact who acquired most of his knowledge from narrowly focused readings and conversations with his friends and acquaintances. 3] As both an adolescent and a young man Spencer found it difficult to settle to any intellectual or professional discipline. He worked as a civil engineer during the railway boom of the late 1830s, while also devoting much of his time to writing for provincial journals that were nonconformist in their religion and radical in their politics. From 1848 to 1853 he served as sub-editor on the free-trade journal The Economist, during which time he published his first book, Social Statics (1851), which predicted that humanity would shortly become completely adapted to the requirements of living in society with the consequential withering away of the state.Its publisher, John Chapman, introduced him to his salon which was attended by many of the leading radical and progressive thinkers of the capital, including John Stuart Mill, Harriet Martineau, George Henry Lewes and Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot), with whom he was briefly romantically linked. Spencer himself introduced the biologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who would later win fame as ‘Darwin’s Bulldog’ and who remained his lifelong friend. However it was the friendship of Evans and Lewes that acquainted him with John Stuart Mill’s A System of Logic and with Auguste Comte’s Positivism and which set him on the road to his life’s work; he strongly disagreed with Comte. The first fruit of his friendship with Evans and Lewes was Spencer’s second book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1855, which explored a physiological basis for psychology. The book was founded on the fundamental assumption that the human mind was subject to natural laws and that these could be discovered within the framework of general biology. This permitted the adoption of a developmental perspective not merely in terms of the individual (as in traditional psychology), but also of the species and the race. Through this paradigm, Spencer aimed to reconcile the associationist psychology of Mill’s Logic, the notion that human mind was constructed from atomic sensations held together by the laws of the association of ideas, with the apparently more ‘scientific’ theory of phrenology, which located specific mental functions in specific parts of the brain.Spencer argued that both these theories were partial accounts of the truth: repeated associations of ideas were embodied in the formation of specific strands of brain tissue, and these could be passed from one generation to the next by means of the Lamarckian mechanism of use-inheritance. The Psychology, he modestly believed, would do for the human mind what Isaac Newton had done for matter. However, the book was not initially successful and the last of the 251 copies of its first edition was not sold until June 1861. Spencer’s interest in psychology derived from a more fundamental concern which was to establish the universality of natural law. In common with others of his generation, including the members of Chapman’s salon, he was possessed with the idea of demonstrating that it was possible to show that everything in the universe—including human culture, language, and morality—could be explained by laws of universal validity. This was in contrast to the views of many theologians of the time who insisted that some parts of creation, in particular the human soul, were beyond the realm of scientific investigation. Comte’s Systeme de Philosophie Positive had been written with the ambition of demonstrating the universality of natural law, and Spencer was to follow Comte in the scale of his ambition. However, Spencer differed from Comte in believing it was possible to discover a single law of universal application which he identified with progressive development and was to call the principle of evolution. [pic] [pic]Spencer at age 38 In 1858 Spencer produced an outline of what was to become the System of Synthetic Philosophy. This immense undertaking, which has few parallels in the English language, aimed to demonstrate that the principle of evolution applied in biology, psychology, sociology (Spencer appropriated Comte’s term for the new discipline) and morality. Spencer envisaged that this work of ten volumes would take twenty years to complete; in the end it took him twice as long and consumed almost all the rest of his long life. Despite Spencer’s early struggles to establish himself as a writer, by the 1870s he had become the most famous philosopher of the age.His works were widely read during his lifetime, and by 1869 he was able to support himself solely on the profit of book sales and on income from his regular contributions to Victorian periodicals which were collected as three volumes of Essays. His works were translated into German, Italian, Spanish, French, Russian, Japanese and Chinese, and into many other languages and he was offered honors and awards all over Europe and North America. He also became a member of the Athenaeum, an exclusive Gentleman’s Club in London open only to those distinguished in the arts and sciences, and the X Club, a dining club of nine founded by T. H. Huxley that met every month and included some of the most prominent thinkers of the Victorian age (three of whom would become presidents of the Royal Society).Members included physicist-philosopher John Tyndall and Darwin’s cousin, the banker and biologist Sir John Lubbock. There were also some quite significant satellites such as liberal clergyman Arthur Stanley, the Dean of Westminster; and guests such as Charles Darwin and Hermann von Helmholtz were entertained from time to time. Through such associations, Spencer had a strong presence in the heart of the scientific community and was able to secure an influential audience for his views. Despite his growing wealth and fame he never owned a house of his own. The last decades of Spencer’s life were characterized by growing disillusionment and loneliness.He never married, and after 1855 was a perpetual hypochondriac who complained endlessly of pains and maladies that no physician could diagnose. By the 1890s his readership had begun to desert him while many of his closest friends died and he had come to doubt the confident faith in progress that he had made the center-piece of his philosophical system. His later years were also ones in which his political views became increasingly conservative. Whereas Social Statics had been the work of a radical democrat who believed in votes for women (and even for children) and in the nationalization of the land to break the power of the aristocracy, by the 1880s he had become a staunch opponent of female uffrage and made common cause with the landowners of the Liberty and Property Defence League against what they saw as the ‘socialism’ of the administration of William Ewart Gladstone. Spencer’s political views from this period were expressed in what has become his most famous work, The Man versus the State. [pic] [pic] Grave of Herbert Spencer in Highgate Cemetery. It is a coincidence that his grave is near that of Karl Marx. The exception to Spencer’s growing conservativism was that he remained throughout his life an ardent opponent of imperialism and militarism. His critique of the Boer War was especially scathing, and it contributed to his declining popularity in Britain. In 1902, shortly before his death, Spencer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for literature. He continued writing all his life, in later years often by dictation, until he succumbed to poor health at the age of 83. His ashes are interred in the eastern side of London’s Highgate Cemetery facing Karl Marx’s grave. At Spencer’s funeral the Indian nationalist leader Shyamji Krishnavarma announced a donation of ? 1,000 to establish a lectureship at Oxford University in tribute to Spencer and his work. The System of Synthetic Philosophy The basis for Spencer’s appeal to many of his generation was that he appeared to offer a ready-made system of belief which could substitute for conventional religious faith at a time when orthodox creeds were crumbling under the advances of modern science.Spencer’s philosophical system seemed to demonstrate that it was possible to believe in the ultimate perfection of humanity on the basis of advanced scientific conceptions such as the first law of thermodynamics and biological evolution. In essence Spencer’s philosophical vision was formed by a combination of deism and positivism. On the one hand, he had imbibed something of eighteenth century deism from his father and other members of the Derby Philosophical Society and from books like George Combe’s immensely popular The Constitution of Man (1828). This treated the world as a cosmos of benevolent design, and the laws of nature as the decrees of a ‘Being transcendentally kind. ‘ Natural laws were thus the statutes of a well governed universe that had been decreed by the Creator with the intention of promoting human happiness. Although Spencer lost his Christian faith as a teenager and later rejected any ‘anthropomorphic’ conception of the Deity, he nonetheless held fast to this conception at an almost sub-conscious level. At the same time, however, he owed far more than he would ever acknowledge to positivism, in particular in its conception of a philosophical system as the unification of the various branches of scientific knowledge. He also followed positivism in his insistence that it was only possible to have genuine knowledge of phenomena and hence that it was idle to speculate about the nature of the ultimate reality. The tension between positivism and his residual deism ran through the entire System of Synthetic Philosophy.Spencer followed Comte in aiming for the unification of scientific truth; it was in this sense that his philosophy aimed to be ‘synthetic. ‘ Like Comte, he was committed to the universality of natural law, the idea that the laws of nature applied without exception, to the organic realm as much as to the inorganic, and to the human mind as much as to the rest of creation. The first objective of the Synthetic Philosophy was thus to demonstrate that there were no exceptions to being able to discover scientific explanations, in the form of natural laws, of all the phenomena of the universe. Spencer’s volumes on biology, psychology, and sociology were all intended to demonstrate the existence of natural laws in these specific disciplines.Even in his writings on ethics, he held that it was possible to discover ‘laws’ of morality that had the status of laws of nature while still having normative content, a conception which can be traced to Combe’s Constitution of Man. The second objective of the Synthetic Philosophy was to show that these same laws led inexorably to progress. In contrast to Comte, who stressed only the unity of scientific method, Spencer sought the unification of scientific knowledge in the form of the reduction of all natural laws to one fundamental law, the law of evolution. In this respect, he followed the model laid down by the Edinburgh publisher Robert Chambers in his anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844).Although often dismissed as a lightweight forerunner of Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species, Chambers’ book was in reality a programme for the unification of science which aimed to show that Laplace’s nebular hypothesis for the origin of the solar system and Lamarck’s theory of species transformation were both instances (in Lewes’ phrase) of ‘one magnificent generalization of progressive development. ‘ Chambers was associated with Chapman’s salon and his work served as the unacknowledged template for the Synthetic Philosophy. Concept of evolution The first clear articulation of Spencer’s evolutionary perspective occurred in his essay ‘Progress: Its Law and Cause’ published in Chapman’s Westminster Review in 1857, and which later formed the basis of the First Principles of a New System of Philosophy (1862).In it he expounded a theory of evolution which combined insights from Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s essay ‘The Theory of Life’—itself derivative from Friedrich von Schelling’s Naturphilosophie—with a generalization of von Baer’s law of embryological development. Spencer posited that all structures in the universe develop from a simple, undifferentiated, homogeneity to a complex, differentiated, heterogeneity, while being accompanied by a process of greater integration of the differentiated parts. This evolutionary process could be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. It was a universal law, applying to the stars and the galaxies as much as to biological organisms, and to human social organization as much as to the human mind. It differed from other scientific laws only by its greater generality, and the laws of the special sciences could be shown to be illustrations of this principle. This attempt to explain the evolution of complexity was radically different to that to be found in Darwin’s Origin of Species which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalized Darwin’s work on natural selection. But although after reading Darwin’s work he coined the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ as his own term for Darwin’s concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection into his preexisting overall system.The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognized was Lamarckian use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain ‘higher’ evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of ‘equilibrium. ” Sociology The evolutionary progression from simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to complex, differentiated, heterogeneity was exemplified, Spencer argued, by the development of society. He developed a theory of two types of society, the militant and the industrial, which corresponded to this evolutionary progression. Militant society, structured around relationships of hierarchy and obedience, was simple and undifferentiated; industrial society, based on voluntary, contractually assumed social obligations, was complex and differentiated. Society, which Spencer conceptualized as a ‘social organism’ evolved from the simpler state to the more complex according to the universal law of evolution. Moreover, industrial society was the direct descendant of the ideal society developed in Social Statics, although Spencer now equivocated over whether the evolution of society would result in anarchism (as he had first believed) or whether it pointed to a continued role for the state, albeit one reduced to the minimal functions of the enforcement of contracts and external defense. Ethics [pic] [pic]The end point of the evolutionary process would be the creation of ‘the perfect man in the perfect society’ with human beings becoming completely adapted to social life, as predicted in Spencer’s first book. The chief difference between Spencer’s earlier and later conceptions of this process was the evolutionary timescale involved. The psychological—and hence also the moral—constitution which had been bequeathed to the present generation by our ancestors, and which we in turn would hand on to future generations, was in the process of gradual adaptation to the requirements of living in society. For example, aggression was a survival instinct which had been necessary in the primitive conditions of life, but was maladaptive in advanced societies.Because human instincts had a specific location in strands of brain tissue, they were subject to the Lamarckian mechanism of use-inheritance so that gradual modifications could be transmitted to future generations. Over the course of many generations the evolutionary process would ensure that human beings would become less aggressive and increasingly altruistic, leading eventually to a perfect society in which no one would cause another person pain. However, for evolution to produce the perfect individual it was necessary for present and future generations to experience the ‘natural’ consequences of their conduct. Only in this way would individuals have the incentives required to work on self-improvement and thus to hand an improved moral constitution to their descendants.Hence anything that interfered with the ‘natural’ relationship of conduct and consequence was to be resisted and this included the use of the coercive power of the state to relieve poverty, to provide public education, or to require compulsory vaccination. Although charitable giving was to be encouraged even it had to be limited by the consideration that suffering was frequently the result of individuals receiving the consequences of their actions. Hence too much individual benevolence directed to the ‘undeserving poor’ would break the link between conduct and consequence that Spencer considered fundamental to ensuring that humanity continued to evolve to a higher level of development.Spencer adopted a utilitarian standard of ultimate value—the greatest happiness of the greatest number—and the culmination of the evolutionary process would be the maximization of utility. In the perfect society individuals would not only derive pleasure from the exercise of altruism (‘positive beneficence’) but would aim to avoid inflicting pain on others (‘negative beneficence’). They would also instinctively respect the rights of others, leading to the universal observance of the principle of justice – each person had the right to a maximum amount of liberty that was compatible with a like liberty in others. ‘Liberty’ was interpreted to mean the absence of coercion, and was closely connected to the right to private property. Spencer termed this code of conduct ‘Absolute Ethics’ which provided a scientifically-grounded moral system that could substitute for the supernaturally-based ethical systems of the past. However, he recognized that our inherited moral constitution does not currently permit us to behave in full compliance with the code of Absolute Ethics, and for this reason we need a code of ‘Relative Ethics’ which takes into account the distorting factors of our present imperfections. Spencer’s last years were characterized by a collapse of his initial optimism, replaced instead by a pessimism regarding the future of mankind. Nevertheless, he devoted much of his efforts in reinforcing his arguments and preventing the mis-interpretation of his monumental theory of non-interference. AgnosticismSpencer’s reputation among the Victorians owed a great deal to his agnosticism, the claim that it is impossible for us to have certain knowledge of God. He rejected theology as representing the ‘impiety of the pious. ‘ He was to gain much notoriety from his repudiation of traditional religion, and was frequently condemned by religious thinkers for allegedly advocating atheism and materialism. Nonetheless, unlike Huxley, whose agnosticism was a militant creed directed at ‘the unpardonable sin of faith’ (in Adrian Desmond’s phrase), Spencer insisted that he was not concerned to undermine religion in the name of science, but to bring about a reconciliation of the two.Starting either from religious belief or from science, Spencer argued, we are ultimately driven to accept certain indispensable but literally inconceivable notions. Whether we are concerned with a Creator or the substratum which underlies our experience of phenomena, we can frame no conception of it. Therefore, Spencer concluded, religion and science agree in the supreme truth that the human understanding is only capable of ‘relative’ knowledge. This is the case since, owing to the inherent limitations of the human mind, it is only possible to obtain knowledge of phenomena, not of the reality (‘the absolute’) underlying phenomena. Hence both science and religion must come to recognize as the ‘most certain of all facts that the Power which the Universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable. He called this awareness of ‘the Unknowable’ and he presented worship of the Unknowable as capable of being a positive faith which could substitute for conventional religion. Indeed, he thought that the Unknowable represented the ultimate stage in the evolution of religion, the final elimination of its last anthropomorphic vestiges. Political views [pic] [pic] Portrait of Herbert Spencer by John Bagnold Burgess, 1871-1872 Spencerian views in 21st century circulation derive from his political theories and memorable attacks on the reform movements of the late 19th century. He has been claimed as a precursor by libertarians and philosophical anarchists.Spencer argued that the state was not an “essential” institution and that it would “decay” as voluntary market organization would replace the coercive aspects of the state. He also argued that the individual had a “right to ignore the state. “ Politics in late Victorian Britain moved in directions that Spencer disliked, and his arguments provided so much ammunition for conservatives and individualists in Europe and America that they still are in use in the 21st century. The expression ‘There Is No Alternative’ (TINA), made famous by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, may be traced to its emphatic use by Spencer. By the 1880s he was denouncing “the new Toryism” (that is, the social reformist wing of Prime Minister William E. Gladstone).In The Man versus the State (1884), he attacked Gladstone and the Liberal party for losing its proper mission (they should be defending personal liberty, he said) and instead promoting paternalist social legislation. Spencer denounced Irish land reform, compulsory education, laws to regulate safety at work, prohibition and temperance laws, tax funded libraries, and welfare reforms. His main objections were threefold: the use of the coercive powers of the government, the discouragement given to voluntary self-improvement, and the disregard of the “laws of life. ” The reforms, he said, were tantamount to “socialism”, which he said was about the same as “slavery” in terms of limiting human freedom.Spencer vehemently attacked the widespread enthusiasm for annexation of colonies and imperial expansion, which subverted all he had predicted about evolutionary progress from ‘militant’ to ‘industrial’ societies and states. Spencer anticipated many of the analytical standpoints of later libertarian theorists such as Friedrich Hayek, especially in his “law of equal liberty”, his insistence on the limits to predictive knowledge, his model of a spontaneous social order, and his warnings about the “unintended consequences” of collectivist social reforms. Social Darwinism Spencer created the Social Darwinist model that applied the law of the survival of the fittest to society.Humanitarian impulses had to be resisted as nothing should be allowed to interfere with nature’s laws, including the social struggle for existence. This interpretation has its primary source in Richard Hofstadter’s Social Darwinism in American Thought, which is frequently cited in the secondary literature as an authoritative account of the Synthetic Philosophy. Through constant repetition Hofstadter’s Spencer has taken on a life of its own, his views and arguments represented by the same few passages, usually cited not directly from the source but from Hofstadter’s rather selective quotations[original research? ]. However, to regard Spencer as any kind of Darwinian, even of the ‘Social’ variety, is a gross distortion[original research? ].He could never bring himself to abandon the idea that evolution equated to progress, that it involved the unfolding of a pre-existent pattern, and that there would be a final resting point—’equilibrium’—in which an ultimate state of perfection was attained. Darwinian natural selection, with its open-ended process of change based on random variations that prospered or failed depending on their adaptation to environmental conditions, was thus far removed from Spencer’s vision of progressive development, and he struggled hard to find a place for it within his overall system. Against this background, his use of the theory of natural selection could never be more than window dressing as it threatened the idea of universal evolutionary progress and thus the scientific foundation for morality that he hoped to establish.In contrast to the harsh and unforgiving imperative that the weak must be made to go to the wall, his main political message was essentially an anti-political one about the efficacy of self-improvement rather than collective action in bringing about the promised future state of human perfection. General influence [pic] [pic] Portrait of Herbert Spencer by John McLure Hamilton, circa 1895 While most philosophers fail to achieve much of a following outside the academy or the
Some light bulbs are filled with gas. The type of gas can vary depending on the type of light bulb. As the filament burns, tungsten particles separate from the filament, eventually causing the filament to weaken and break. The presence of gas inside the light bulb helps extend the lifespan of the light bulb by slowing the evaporation process of the tungsten. Originally, there was no gas inside of a traditional light bulb. Instead, a vacuum was created to allow air to oxidize the filament when heated. However it was discovered that gas atoms can "bounce" tungsten atoms back onto the filament, restoring the filament structure. There are a few types of gases that can be found in a light bulb. Usually only one type of gas is found in a single bulb. The first type of gas used, and one found in common incandescent bulbs, is argon. Sometimes the argon gas is mixed with nitrogen. Some light bulbs contain halogen or xenon gas. Krypton gas is also found in some light bulbs. Besides helping to slow the evaporation of tungsten from the filament, each gas has a slightly different benefit during use. Krypton- and xenon-filled light bulbs do not burn as hot as argon-filled ones. These types of gases also have larger atoms than argon gas, making them more effective at bouncing tungsten atoms back to the light filament. This in turn results in longer-lasting light bulbs. Halogen light bulbs last longer than the other types of gas-filled bulbs, with a lifespan of up to three years or about 2,500 hours of use. Mercury is found in fluorescent light bulbs, but it is not in gas form. Rather, the inside of these bulbs is coated with a mercury powder that aids in the light production process. Also, while krypton- and xenon-gas-filled bulbs tend to put off less heat than those filled with argon, halogen light bulbs run extremely hot, upward of 250 degrees C or 482 degrees F. A 300-watt halogen bulb can easily reach temperatures of 300 degrees C or higher. Other types of light bulb technology, such as LED lights, do not contain gases; incandescent bulbs that contain a coated filament are the primary types that contain some form of gas. The cost of xenon, krypton and halogen light bulbs is higher than argon-filled bulbs. According to the "The Great Internet Light Bulb Book," xenon gas is the best choice but also the most expensive to use. Another consideration is the safety associated with certain gas-filled bulbs. Halogen bulbs not only run extremely hot, but their glass also can become weakened when touched because of the oil in our skin. About the Author Maxwell Payne has been a freelance writer since 2007. His work has appeared in various print and online publications. He holds a Bachelor of Science in integrated science, business and technology.
People become infected by drinking water containing tiny crustaceans infected with the roundworm. After mating, female worms move to the skin and create a blister, usually on the lower legs or feet, with swelling, redness, and burning pain in the area around it, and the joints near the blister may be damaged. Doctors diagnose the infection when they see the worm come out through the blister. Drinking only water that has been filtered, boiled, or chlorinated helps prevent the infection. The worm is removed by slowly rolling it on a stick or surgically. (See also Overview of Parasitic Infections Overview of Parasitic Infections A parasite is an organism that lives on or inside another organism (the host) and benefits (for example, by getting nutrients) from the host at the host's expense. Although this definition actually... read more .) In the mid-1980s, 3.5 million people had dracunculiasis. The disease was widespread in many parts of tropical Africa,Yemen, India, and Pakistan. But by 2018, because of international efforts to stop dracunculiasis, only 28 cases were reported. In 2021, only 14 cases were reported in humans. Transmission remains within a narrow belt of only a few African countries—Chad, Mali, and Ethiopia, and possibly Sudan and South Sudan. The guinea worm is close to being eliminated. Transmission of dracunculiasis People become infected by drinking water containing tiny infected crustaceans. The immature Dracunculus worms (larvae) live inside the crustaceans. After the crustaceans are ingested, they die and release the larvae, which penetrate the wall of the intestine and enter the abdominal cavity. Inside the abdomen, larvae mature into adult worms in about 1 year, and the adult worms mate. After mating, female worms leave the abdomen and move through tissues under the skin, usually to the lower legs or feet. There, they create a blister. The blister causes severe, burning discomfort and eventually breaks open. When people attempt to relieve the burning by soaking their leg in water, the pregnant worm releases larvae into the water. Once the larvae are in the water, they find and infect another crustacean. If the pregnant worms do not reach the skin, they die and disintegrate or harden (calcify) under the skin. Symptoms of Dracunculiasis Dracunculiasis symptoms start when the worm begins to break through the skin. A blister forms over the worm's location. The area around the blister itches, burns, and is inflamed—swollen, red, and painful. Materials released by the worm may cause an allergic reaction, which can result in difficulty breathing, vomiting, an itchy rash, and disabling pain. Soon the blister opens, and the worm can be seen. Later the worm leaves the body, and symptoms subside. Usually, the blister heals after the adult worm leaves the body. However, in about 50% of people, bacterial infections develop around the opening for the worm. Sometimes joints and tendons near the blister are damaged, causing joint pain and other symptoms of arthritis. Diagnosis of Dracunculiasis Appearance of a worm at the blister Diagnosis of dracunculiasis is obvious when the adult worm appears at the blister. X-rays may be taken to locate calcified worms. Prevention of Dracunculiasis The following can help prevent dracunculiasis: Filtering drinking water through a piece of fine-mesh cheesecloth Drinking only chlorinated water Infected people are instructed not to enter sources of drinking water, such as open wells or reservoirs, so that these sources do not become contaminated. Treatment of Dracunculiasis Removal of the adult worm Usually, the adult worm (which may be up to 47 inches [120 centimeters] long) is slowly removed over days to weeks by rolling it on a stick. When the head starts to come out, the person grasps it and wraps the end of the worm around a small stick. Gradually, as the worm loosens, the stick is turned, wrapping more of the worm around the stick. Eventually, the worm is pulled free and discarded. When health care workers are available, they can remove the worm through a small incision made after a local anesthetic is used. No drugs can kill the worms. But if a bacterial infection develops around the worm's opening, people may need antibiotics.
Experimental HIV Vaccine Shows Promise A team led by NIAID’s Dr. Paolo Lusso developed and tested an mRNA HIV vaccine in animals. Study results were published in Nature Medicine. Messenger RNA, or mRNA, is a molecule that instructs the body to make proteins. mRNA vaccines teach cells to make proteins from a virus or other microbe, which then trigger the body’s immune response, protecting the body from infection if the real virus enters. The first two mRNA vaccines available to the public are Covid-19 vaccines, but researchers have studied mRNA technology for other uses for decades. The experimental HIV vaccine is injected into muscle, where it instructs the body to make two key HIV proteins, Env and Gag. Muscle cells assemble these two proteins into virus-like particles studded with many copies of Env on their surface. These virus-like particles cannot cause infection or disease because they lack the complete genetic code of HIV. Yet they provoke immune responses similar to natural HIV infection. The researchers first tested the vaccine in mice. After two injections, it elicited antibodies in all animals that could neutralize HIV, producing a response that closely mimicked natural infection. They then tested the vaccine in rhesus macaques. Monkeys received a priming vaccine followed by several booster inoculations. By week 58, all vaccinated macaques had developed measurable levels of antibodies that could neutralize many diverse HIV strains. The experimental vaccine also induced other important immune responses, like helper T cells, which aid other immune cells. The macaques were then exposed weekly to simian-human HIV (SHIV), a form of the virus used for modeling human HIV in monkeys. Overall, vaccinated monkeys had a 79 percent lower per-exposure risk of SHIV infection than unvaccinated animals. The vaccine course was well-tolerated with only mild side effects. These results showed that the novel HIV vaccine was safe and prompted immune responses against an HIV-like virus. The team plans to conduct a phase 1 trial of the mRNA HIV vaccine in healthy adult volunteers after further refinement and testing.—adapted from NIH Research Matters
Ajay K. Garg of Cornell University and his colleagues modified strains of Indica rice, which is common throughout Asia, to produce a sugar known as trehalose. Although the simple sugar is common in many bacteria and insects, few plants manufacture the molecule. Those that do, however, are classified as "resurrection" plants because of their ability to survive long periods without water and revive quickly once moisture becomes available. Previous attempts to introduce trehalose-producing genes into rice resulted in plants that were less hardy than natural plants were. In the new work, the scientists first fused two genes from E. coli that synthesize the sugar and then introduced them, together with so-called promoter sequences, into the plant. These sequences allowed the researchers to control when and where the introduced genes expressed themselves. For instance, the leaf of a plant may produce trehalose, while the edible grains do not. Overall, the plants carrying the sugar-producing genes not only fared better under stressful conditions but also displayed more efficient photosynthesis under normal circumstances. (The image above shows rice plants after exposure to drought conditions. The plant on the left is transgenic.) Despite the encouraging findings, trehalose-containing rice will not be planted outside a laboratory for at least a few years. "We still have a lot to learn about trehalose in important crop plants," Garg notes. But if the plants are judged safe and large-scale production is feasible, the modified rice could help to feed the world's burgeoning population. Says study co-author Ray J. Wu, "Anything we can do to help crop plants cope with environmental stresses will also raise the quality and quantity of food for those who need it most."
Age: Toddler, Preschool Space requirements: Open space - Children sit in a circle. - One child is “it” and moves around the outside of the circle and taps the other children on the head. The child either says “duck” or “goose” with each tap. - The child who is tapped as the “goose” chases after the “it” child and tries to tag them before “it” makes it back to the goose’s spot. - Children switch roles and play again. - Physical skills: running; balancing; spatial awareness - Non-physical skills: listening and following instructions; critical thinking; problem solving Adjust the challenge: - Children walk instead of run. - Make the circle larger so children have a longer distance to run.
Humanities › History & Culture Suffragette Defined British and American Usage Share Flipboard Email Print Poster advertising the Suffragette newspaper, 1912. Artist: Hilda Dallas. Museum of London/Heritage Images/Getty Images History & Culture Women's History Women's Suffrage History Of Feminism Important Figures Key Events Women & War Laws & Womens Rights Feminism & Pop Culture Feminist Texts American History African American History African History Ancient History and Culture Asian History European History Genealogy Inventions Latin American History Medieval & Renaissance History Military History The 20th Century View More By Jone Johnson Lewis Women's History Writer B.A., Mundelein College M.Div., Meadville/Lombard Theological School Jone Johnson Lewis is a women's history writer who has been involved with the women's movement since the late 1960s. She is a former faculty member of the Humanist Institute. our editorial process Jone Johnson Lewis Updated March 18, 2017 Definition: Suffragette is a term which was sometimes used for a woman active in the woman suffrage movement. British Usage A London newspaper first used the term suffragette. British women in the suffrage movement adopted the term for themselves, though earlier the term they used was "suffragist." Or, often capitalized, as Suffragette. The journal of the WPSU, the radical wing of the movement, was called Suffragette. Sylvia Pankhurst published her account of the militant suffrage struggle as The Suffragette: The History of the Women’s Militant Suffrage Movement 1905-1910, in 1911. It was published in Boston as well as in England. She later published The Suffragette Movement - An Intimate Account Of Persons And Ideals, bringing the story to World War I and the passage of woman suffrage. American Usage In America, the activists working for women's voting preferred the term "suffragist" or "suffrage worker." "Suffragette" was considered a disparaging term in America, much as "women's lib" (short for "women's liberation") was considered a disparaging and belittling term in the 1960s and 1970s. "Suffragette" in America also carried more of a radical or militant connotation that many American woman suffrage activists did not want to be associated with, at least until Alice Paul and Harriot Stanton Blatch began to bring some of the British militancy to the America struggle. Also Known As: suffragist, suffrage worker Common Misspellings: sufragette, suffragete, suffrigette Examples: in a 1912 article, W. E. B. Du Bois uses the term "suffragists" within the article, but the original headline was "Suffering Suffragettes" Key British Suffragettes Emmeline Pankhurst: usually considered the main leader of the more radical wing of the woman suffrage (or suffragette) movement. She is associated with the WPSU (Women’s Social and Political Union), founded in 1903. Millicent Garret Fawcett: campaigner known for her “constitutional” approach, she is associated with the NUWSS (National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies) Sylvia Pankhurst: a daughter of Emmeline Pankhurst and Dr. Richard Pankhurst, she and her two sisters, Christabel and Adela, were active in the suffrage movement. After the vote was won, she worked in left-win and then anti-fascist political movements. Christabel Pankhurst: another daughter of Emmeline Pankhurst and Dr. Richard Pankhurst, she was an active suffragette. After World War I she moved to the U.S. where she joined the Second Adventist movement and was an evangelist. Emily Wilding Davison: a militant in the suffragettes, she was jailed nine times. She was subjected to force-feeding 49 times. On June 4, 1913, she stepped in front of the horse of King George V, as part of a protest in favor of women’s votes, and she died of her injuries. Her funeral, a major event for the Women’s Social and Political Union (WPSU), drew tens of thousands of people to line the streets, and thousands of suffragettes walked with her coffin. Harriot Stanton Blatch: a daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Henry B. Stanton and mother of Nora Stanton Blatch Barney, Harriot Stanton Blatch was an active suffragist during her twenty years in England. The Women’s Political Union, which she had helped found, merged later with Alice Paul's Congressional Union, which later became the National Woman's Party. Annie Kenney: among the radical WSPU figures, she was from the working class. She was arrested and imprisoned in 1905 for heckling a politician at a rally about women’s vote, as was Christabel Pankhurst, with her that day. This arrest is usually seen as the beginning of the more militant tactics in the suffrage movement. Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton: she was a suffragette, also worked for birth control and prison reform. A member of the British nobility, she joined the militant wing of the movement under the name Jane Warton, and was among those who went on a hunger strike in Walton jail and were force fed. She said that she used the pseudonym to avoid getting any advantages for her background and connections. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson: a sister of Emmeline Pankhurst, she was the first woman physician in Great Britain and a supporter of women’s suffrage Barbara Bodichon: Artist and women’s suffrage activist, early in the movement’s history – she published pamphlets in the 1850s and 1860s. Emily Davies: founded Griton College with Barbara Bodichon, and was active in the “constitutionalist” wing of the suffrage movement.
This video instructs you on how to draw angles in geometry. The instructor begins by showing you 4 example angles you can create. He then draws a straight line that can be linked to any of the other four angles. The first example of an angle shown is 180 degrees. He draws a line at 50 degrees and then he continues to draw a 90 degree angle. The instructor varies whether he uses the left or right side of the protractor. He ended by noting some angles will be larger than the protractor.

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