Split (1)

train · 64k rows

content stringlengths 275 370k
UNIVERSITY AT ALBANY PROFESSOR HAS INSIGHT Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano was placed on “red alert” on May 16th and soon thereafter erupted spewing lava and hazardous gases on Hawaii’s Big Island. What will the short and long term consequences be for island residents and the atmosphere, near and far? Below you will find answers to these and other questions from Sarah Lu, Ph.D., research associate at the Atmosphereic Science Research Center (ASRC), and research faculty in the Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences at the University at Albany. Dr. Lu says volcanic smog contains sulfur dioxide gas (SO2), fine particulate matter (PM, a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets), and other trace gases. Both SO2 and PM are pollutants regulated by the EPA and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). SO2 can be harmful to human, animal health and plant life. According to the National Parks Service, sulfur dioxide irritates the skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. High concentrations like those experienced in this latest eruption can cause inflammation and irritation of the respiratory system. The gas can also react with other chemicals in the air and change to a small particles that may enter the lungs and cause health effects. Those at particular risk include those with lung disease, children, older adults and active individuals. “Injected ash falls rapidly from the atmosphere, though most ash is removed within several days to weeks,” said Dr. Lu. “However, SO2 can cause global cooling, while carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) can promote global warming. One example is the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The Pinatubo cloud was the largest sulfur dioxide cloud ever observed in the stratosphere since the satellite-era (1979-present). Large aerosol disturbances from the Pinatubo eruption led to measurable cooling of the Earth’s surface that lasted for 2-3 years after the eruption.” Dr. Sarah Lu Volcanic ash also has detrimental effects on aircraft engines, so the forecast of ash-loading is critical to those concerned with aviation safety. The University of Hawaii, in collaboration with the Atmospheric Research Lab, is monitoring ash levels to ensure air safety. For more on VOG forecasting (air pollution that results when sulfur dioxide and other gases and particles emitted by an erupting volcano react with oxygen and moisture in the presence of sunlight), click here. “Once emitted in the atmosphere, volcanic smog is transported and distributed in the atmosphere and eventually dissipates (removed),” said Dr. Lu. “In general, the larger particles fall closer to the source of the volcanic emission and fine particles are carried longer distances. The higher the volcano eruption plumes reaches, the longer the volcanic plumes reside in the atmosphere.” The evolution of volcanic ash in the atmosphere depends on volcanic activity and weather conditions, particularly wind. Volcanic smog can be measured either from ground-based observations, or aircraft/satellite measurements. The scientific challenge for forecasting volcano plume dispersion is to correctly specify the emission intensity and injection height needed for dispersion numerical calculations. Ground-based lidar (radar using laser light), like that deployed by the NYS Mesonet, the state’s mesoscale weather network, has been used following previous eruptions to mearsure the vertical structure of volcanic plumes. Source: University at Albany \| Albany.edu
Tips for Teaching Kids About Fire Safety It is important for your kids to know what fire is and that it can be harmful to them. They need to understand how incredibly dangerous fires can be. . One of the best ways to teach small children about fire safety is to make it a fun yet informative topic. Have your children practice their home fire safety by completing fun and informational online quizzes. There are quizzes that will allow them to become a Junior Fire Marshall. Becoming a Junior Fire Marshall will give your child something to be proud of and he/she can help to remind the family to practice the fire escape plan on a regular basis and test smoke detectors. . It is very important for your kids to know about fire safety. They need to understand how incredibly dangerous fires can be. Discuss that the first sign of a fire may be smoke. Tell them about your home fire escape plan, practice it with your children and designate a meeting place outside. . Explain to your kids with various examples that fire is a tool; not a toy. Teach them the nature of fire. It is FAST, HOT, DARK and DEADLY. Keep matches and lighters in a secured drawer or cabinet. Have your children tell you when they find matches and lighters. Check under beds and in closets for burned matches; evidence your child may be playing with fire. Supervise young children closely. Do not leave them alone even for short periods of time. . Show your children the smoke alarms in the home. Test the alarm while they are present so that they can hear the sound. Instruct them on what to do if they hear the smoke alarm go off. Develop an evacuation plan with two exits from every room. Teach children to test doors before opening them by placing their hand on the door to see if it is hot. . Use new innovative ways of teaching kids. Make them practice feeling their way out of the home in the dark or with their eyes closed. Parents and providers can turn this into a game by blindfolding a child and placing them in a room and asking them to feel their way to a designated area. Parents or guardians can set it up as an obstacle course, and then provide cues and help them reach a designated endpoint. Make it look like a game! . Children should know how to call emergency services. Consider teaching a song to reinforce the words, using repetition and body movements: There's a fire! There's a fire! Call the fire department! Call the fire department! Reinforce this by letting them practice on an unplugged phone. Or, have them create telephones with large keypads they can practice on. Above are some really simple and innovative tips to help you and your child stay safe in the event of a fire.
Crystals may not only be categorized according to their repetitive units (motifs) and bonding, but also according to the orientation of their bonds. For example, bonding may be uniformly strong in all three dimensions, or could be limited to two dimensions. The following examines three types of structure. - Three-dimensional structure - The three-dimensional type of structure is an unlimited lattice structure with strong bonds. The bonds have the same strength in all directions. Examples are NaCl (Abb. 1) and diamond (Abb. 4) . - Layer structure - If the bonds within a crystal are strong in two dimensions but weak in the third, the result is a layer structure. The individual layers are held together by Van der Waals forces (London forces) or oppositely charged ions. Examples include graphite (Abb. 2) and molybdenum disulfide (Abb. 5) . - Chain structure - Crystals in which the repetitive units are strongly bound in only one direction have a chain structure: The building blocks are arranged in a linear fashion. The individual chains are held together by Van der Waals forces (London forces) or by oppositely charged ions. Examples include beryllium chloride (Abb. 3) and copper chloride .
One in six species could be threatened with extinction from climate change unless steps are taken to reduce global warming emissions, according a new study. Lead author Mark Urban, an ecologist at the University of Connecticut, reviewed 131 articles on species extinction to come up with a global meta-analysis of the issue. The data, published in the journal Science, show that as the Earth warms, extinction risk will increase. Urban said the increase wouldn't look like a straight line, but instead might quickly curve upward. “There is an acceleration of those extinction risks as we get into a warmer and warmer climate,” he said. Today, 3 percent of species are at risk of disappearing, but the extinction rate climbs as the planet approaches 4.3 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial times. Experts say that is a tipping point that will lead to the worst impacts of climate change. “We reach the point where we are at 16 percent risk for extinction under a business-as-usual scenario," Urban said, adding that some regions of the world would be harder hit than others. “The small land masses play a role, places with lots of endemic species like Australia and South America," he said. "These are species that are already constrained to small ranges, and so even a small shift in those ranges could endanger them.” Scientists predict rising seas, stronger and more frequent storms, drought, fire and floods with rising temperatures. Climate change will alter species and the habitats in which they live, Urban warned. Their loss will spread disease and have other unintended consequences. “If you think about our food security and our crops, it is important to understand the rainfall pattern in the future and the ability of those crops to still be grown," Urban said. If, for example, a key predator of a particular crop pest falls victim to climate change, suddenly that pest increases, and the crop yield decreases. Urban said his study gives policymakers and the public added incentive to adopt new strategies to conserve and protect the most threatened species. “We don’t need to see extinctions occur," he said. "We can do something right now.” Urban hopes increased awareness about the impact of climate change will spur individuals to do their part to combat emissions. He also hopes world leaders might agree to more limits on greenhouse gas emissions at this year's U.N. Climate Change Conference in Paris. Urban’s hope is that in 20 years, "we can look back and say that we averted this disaster.”
Components of VectorsEdit In the discussion of vector addition we saw that a number of vectors acting together can be combined to give a single vector (the resultant). In much the same way a single vector can be broken down into a number of vectors which when added give that original vector. These vectors which sum to the original are called components of the original vector. The process of breaking a vector into its components is called resolving into components. While summing a given set of vectors gives just one answer (the resultant), a single vector can be resolved into infinitely many sets of components. In the diagrams below the same black vector is resolved into different pairs of components. These components are shown in red. When added together the red vectors give the original black vector (i.e. the original vector is the resultant of its components). In practice it is most useful to resolve a vector into components which are at right angles to one another. Worked Example 11Edit Resolving a vector into components Question: A motorist undergoes a displacement of 250km in a direction 30o north of east. Resolve this displacement into components in the directions north ( and east ( ). Step 1 : Firstly let us draw a rough sketch of the original vector Step 2 : Next we resolve the displacement into its components north and east. Since these directions are orthogonal to one another, the components form a right-angled triangle with the original displacement as its hypotenuse: Notice how the two components acting together give the original vector as their resultant. Step 3 : Now we can use trigonometry to calculate the magnitudes of the components of the original displacement: Remember sN and sE are the magnitudes of the components- they are in the directions north and east respectively. Block on an inclineEdit As a further example of components let us consider a block of mass m placed on a frictionless surface inclined at some angle to the horizontal. The block will obviously slide down the incline, but what causes this motion? The forces acting on the block are its weight mg and the normal force N exerted by the surface on the object. These two forces are shown in the diagram below. Now the object's weight can be resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to the inclined surface. These components are shown as red arrows in the diagram above and are at right angles to each other. The components have been drawn acting from the same point. Applying the parallelogram method, the two components of the block's weight sum to the weight vector. To find the components in terms of the weight we can use trigonometry: The component of the weight perpendicular to the slope W exactly balances the normal force N exerted by the surface. The parallel component, however, is unbalanced and causes the block to slide down the slope. Vector addition using componentsEdit In Figure 3.3 two vectors are added in a slightly different way to the methods discussed so far. It might look a little like we are making more work for ourselves, but in the long run things will be easier and we will be less likely to go wrong. In Figure 3.3 the primary vectors we are adding are represented by solid lines and are the same vectors as those added in Figure 3.2 using the less complicated looking method. Figure 3.2:An example of two vectors being added to give a resultant Each vector can be broken down into a component in the x-direction and one in the y-direction. These components are two vectors which when added give you the original vector as the resultant. Look at the red vector in figure 3.3. If you add up the two red dotted ones in the x-direction and y-direction you get the same vector. For all three vectors we have shown their respective components as dotted lines in the same colour. But if we look carefully, addition of the x components of the two original vectors gives the x component of the resultant. The same applies to the y components. So if we just added all the components together we would get the same answer! This is another important property of vectors. Worked Example 12Edit Adding Vectors Using Components Question: Lets work through the example shown in Figure 3.3 to determine the resultant. Step 1 : The first thing we must realise is that the order that we add the vectors does not matter. Therefore, we can work through the vectors to be added in any order. Step 2 : Let us start with the bottom vector. If you are told that this vector has a length of 5.385 units and an angle of 21.8o to the horizontal then we can find its components. We do this by using known trigonometric ratios. First we find the vertical or y component: Secondly we find the horizontal or x component: We now know the lengths of the sides of the triangle for which our vector is the hypotenuse. If you look at these sides we can assign them directions given by the dotted arrows. Then our original red vector is just the sum of the two dotted vectors (its components). When we try to find the final answer we can just add all the dotted vectors because they would add up to the two vectors we want to add. Step 3 : Now we move on to considering the second vector. The green vector has a length of 5 units and a direction of 53.13 degrees to the horizontal so we can find its components. Step 4 : Now we have all the components. If we add all the x-components then we will have the x-component of the resultant vector. Similarly if we add all the y-components then we will have the y-component of the resultant vector. The x-components of the two vectors are 5 units right and then 3 units right. This gives us a final x-component of 8 units right. The y-components of the two vectors are 2 units up and then 4 units up. This gives us a final y-component of 6 units up. Step 5 : Now that we have the components of the resultant, we can use Pythagoras' theorem to determine the length of the resultant. Let us call the length of the hypotenuse l and we can calculate its value The resultant has length of 10 units so all we have to do is calculate its direction. We can specify the direction as the angle the vectors makes with a known direction. To do this you only need to visualize the vector as starting at the origin of a coordinate system. We have drawn this explicitly below and the angle we will calculate is labeled . Using our known trigonometric ratios we can calculate the value of Step 6 : Our final answer is a resultant of 10 units at 36.8o to the positive x-axis.
Diabetes in dogs happens when the beta cells in the pancreas begin to release less insulin, or when the action of insulin becomes less effective. In dogs, the condition is grouped into Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. Type 1 is the most common form in dogs and is similar to Type 1 diabetes in people. These dogs require insulin injections. They are more inclined to develop dangerously high blood glucose levels, or ketoacidosis. Type 2 diabetes in dogs is similar to Type 2 diabetes in humans, but is rare in dogs. Type 3 diabetes is somewhat like impaired glucose tolerance in people, when blood glucose levels fall somewhere between normal and diabetes. In dogs, hormone problems usually cause Type 3 diabetes. Other diseases or medication cause increases in hormones that interfere with the action of insulin - for instance, an excess of growth hormone, cortisol, steroids, or progesterone. Some dogs are genetically inclined to developing diabetes. Golden Retrievers, German Shepherds, Keeshonds, and Poodles are included in this group. They may be more likely to develop a juvenile form of diabetes. Most often, it is middle-aged pets that develop diabetes. Three times as many female dogs are affected as males. Lifestyle, genetics, or both may cause diabetes in dogs. More than one factor may be involved in the development of the disease. Insulin-dependent diabetes (the most common form) can be caused by genetic factors, a disease that inflames the pancreas, being overweight, infection, illness, or certain medications (such as glucocorticoids and megestrol acetate). You can help to prevent diabetes in your dog. Keep your pet at a normal body weight, use medications carefully based on the advice of a veterinarian, and treat illnesses as they happen. Pet owners usually discover their dogs have diabetes after noticing they are drinking too much and passing more urine than usual. You may also note increased appetite, weight loss, and rapid development of cataracts (clouding of the lens in the eye). The link between diabetes and these changes may become more apparent as the condition progresses. Laboratory results may show signs of dehydration, increased liver enzymes, high blood glucose, blood protein increases, and pancreatitis (an inflamed pancreas). Abnormalities in the urine system include bladder infections, and ketones and glucose in the urine. Your goal is to eliminate symptoms of diabetes, returning the dog to a normal state. Since dogs cannot communicate how they feel throughout the day, the easiest way to control diabetes is to establish a routine for your individual pet. A schedule should be established for feeding, exercise, and timing of insulin injections. The more closely a routine is followed, the easier it will be to regulate the dog. The dog’s diet is usually changed to a low-fat, high carbohydrate and high-fiber food. A better diet increases the action of insulin and slows the emptying of the stomach. Veterinarians usually have these foods on hand. Food composition and quantity should be identical from day to day. Diabetes may be treated by different types of insulin, based on the individual pet. Most owners must inject their dog with insulin twice a day. Oral medication has not been shown to be very effective in dogs. A set dose of insulin is calculated to help with initial regulation. Whenever insulin therapy is started or the dose is changed, it will take five to seven days to reach equilibrium (even levels). A balance has been reached once measured blood glucose levels, taken at certain times of the day for several days, are similar from one day to the next. A glucose curve may be developed at the veterinary hospital, or at home if the owners have blood glucose monitoring equipment. Aim to have your pet on the same routine for feeding, exercise, and insulin injections when performing the glucose curve. This is necessary since the veterinarian can only examine how the pet responds to the type and dose of insulin. Several glucose levels will be taken throughout the day to create the glucose curve. For instance, blood may be collected every two hours (the recommended time interval may vary between veterinarians). The results provide information about blood glucose levels throughout the day. The amount or type of insulin can be changed based on how the pet is responding. Ideally, the insulin should act in the body for 10 to 12 hours if it is being given twice daily. Blood glucose levels should also remain between 6 to 11 mmol/L, or 6 to 16 mmol/L if cataracts are already present. To achieve results in this range, the dose of insulin is adjusted based on the results of the glucose curve. Taking several blood glucose level measurements throughout one day is more accurate than evaluating random blood or urine glucose. Weekly glucose curves may be done until the pet is properly regulated. After that rechecks will be based on your vet’s judgment, perhaps at one, three, six, and 12 months. Injections are given under the skin using several different areas of the dog’s body. It may be better to change sites each time you give a shot of insulin. Appropriate sites include any loose skin folds, such as those at shoulders and hips. It is important to monitor clinical signs (such as a decrease in the amount of water the dog drinks), and to regularly check the dog’s weight and glucose curve. Other methods of monitoring include checking levels of glucose in urine or blood. Urine or blood glucose can be measured at home with test strips. These tests can give a general idea of whether your dog is well-regulated or if a change has occurred. Fructosamine and glycosylated hemoglobin (Ghb) may also be tested. These proteins are present in the blood in proportion to blood glucose concentrations. The levels are not affected by stress, although stress can increase blood glucose levels. Blood protein levels cannot indicate underlying problems or replace glucose curves for adjusting therapy. Instead, measuring fructosamine or GHb gives an idea of the effectiveness of diabetes control over long periods of time. Fructosamine reflects control over the previous two to four weeks and GHb for the prior two to four months. If a pet’s blood glucose is too low, corn syrup on the gums can help until you can get veterinary attention. Signs that blood sugar is too low include weakness, wobbly legs, and seizures. Monitor your dog’s condition regularly and approach your veterinarian with any questions. Diabetes is manageable in dogs, although the disease will likely require lifelong therapy with insulin. Remember, your dog’s quality of life can be maintained. Even dogs who have developed cataracts can lead good lives as long as the furniture is rearranged! Surgery to remove the cataract and put in a new lens is available from veterinary ophthalmologists. Periodic checkups are recommended to help you take good care of your pet while regulating the diabetes.
Average temperatures are increasing and Earth's climate is changing. These changes are linked to global warming and the greenhouse effect. Although these processes have many natural causes, natural causes alone cannot explain the rapid changes observed in recent years. Most climate scientists believe that these changes are linked to a wide range of human activities. The Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps the planet's climate warm enough to support life. It is named for the effect that keeps greenhouses warm enough to support plants. When sunlight passes through the glass windows of the greenhouse, some of it is reflected by the ground and some is absorbed and later released in the form of heat waves. The reflected energy and heat waves are trapped by the glass, warming the greenhouse. Instead of glass, our atmosphere contains greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor that trap some of the energy from the sun. Without them, the Earth would be too cold to support life. Global warming is an average increase in temperatures in the lower atmosphere and near the Earth's surface. Scientists have discovered that the amount of greenhouse gases began increasing during the industrial revolution when factories and power plants began burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil for energy. As the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases, more heat is trapped. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that average global temperatures rose about 1.3 degrees between 1901 and 2000. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at or above the current rate, average temperatures will increase between 3 and 7 degrees by 2100. Even if emissions are substantially reduced to year 2000 levels and kept there, the Earth would still warm about 1 degree before the end of this century. Sciencing Video Vault Greenhouse Gas Emissions Some greenhouse gases are from natural processes such as volcanic eruptions. However, scientists believe most of the increase of greenhouse gas emissions is caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests, agriculture and storing garbage in landfills. Carbon dioxide, abbreviated CO2, is a greenhouse gas that is considered the major culprit in global warming. Although other gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons can trap more heat than CO2, they exist in much smaller concentrations and don't add as much heat. Climate change is a long-term change in precipitation, temperature or wind patterns that lasts for several decades or more. The terms "global warming" and "climate change" are often used interchangeably; however, according to the National Academy of Sciences,"climate change" includes changes other than temperature increases, such as changes to Earth's orbit, the land's surface, and climate processes such as ocean circulation. Global warming is considered one of the primary causes of current climate change. For example, rising temperatures may alter the frequency and severity of extreme weather such as storms, drought and heat waves.
- Damage from earthquakes - Earthquake-safe structures - Protecting yourself in an earthquake - Describe different types of earthquake damage. - Describe the features that make a structure more earthquake safe. - Describe the ways that a person and a household can protect themselves in earthquake country. liquefy: for soil to become saturated with water and behave like quicksand Introducing the Lesson Call on one student after another to answer the question, “What should you do if you are caught in an earthquake?” Accept all reasonable responses at this point, and continue around the room until you have received a range of ideas. Then tell students they will find out in this lesson what they should do to stay safe in an earthquake. Use the activity at the URL below to introduce students to earthquake-resistant building construction. In the activity, students will assume they are engineers, and they will try to build structures (using toothpicks and marshmallows) that can withstand a simulated earthquake (a pan of gelatin). In the process, they will learn how engineers construct buildings to resist damage from earthquakes. Have students make a KWL chart for the lesson. Tell them to fill in the first two columns (Know, Want to Know) of the chart before they read the lesson and to fill in the last column (Learned) after they read the lesson. Discuss what they learned from the lesson and anything they still want to know. Ask a few students to create a public service announcement about how to stay safe in earthquakes. They should make a video of the announcement. If your school is in an earthquake-prone region, arrange to show the video to the class or even to the entire student body. Students can model liquefaction by doing the inquiry activity at the URL below. They will learn why this dangerous condition occurs during certain earthquakes. Students may have heard that the safest place to be in a building during an earthquake is under a doorway. That is true only if you live in an unreinforced adobe home. In most modern buildings, the doorway isn’t stronger than the rest of the building. In fact, if you stand in a doorway you might be hurt by the door swinging against you. In a public building, you could be in danger from people trying to hurry outside. Make sure students know that the safest place to be in a building during an earthquake is under a table or desk. Reinforce and Review Copy and distribute the lesson worksheets in the CK-12 Earth Science for Middle School Workbook. Ask students to complete the worksheets alone or in pairs to reinforce lesson content. Lesson Review Questions Have students answer the Review Questions listed at the end of the lesson in the FlexBook® student edition. Check students’ mastery of the lesson with Lesson 7.4 Quiz in CK-12 Earth Science for Middle School Quizzes and Tests. Points to Consider Many people think that in a large earthquake California will fall into the ocean and that Arizona and Nevada will be beachfront property. Why is this not true? If you were the mayor of a small city in an earthquake-prone area, what would you like to know before choosing the building site of a new hospital? How are decisions made for determining how much money to spend preparing people and structures for earthquakes?
What are ovarian cysts? The ovaries are part of the female reproductive system. They’re located in the lower abdomen on both sides of the uterus. Women have two ovaries that produce eggs, as well as the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Sometimes, a fluid-filled sac called a cyst will develop on one of the ovaries. Many women will develop at least one cyst during their lifetime. In most cases, cysts are painless and cause no symptoms. Types of ovarian cysts There are various types of ovarian cysts, such as dermoid cysts and endometrioma cysts. However, functional cysts are the most common type. The two types of functional cysts include follicle and corpus During a woman’s menstrual cycle, an egg grows in a sac called a follicle. This sac is located inside the ovaries. In most cases, this follicle or sac breaks open and releases an egg. But if the follicle doesn’t break open, the fluid inside the follicle can form a cyst on Corpus luteum cysts Follicle sacs typically dissolve after releasing an egg. But if the sac doesn’t dissolve and the opening of the follicle seals, additional fluid can develop inside the sac and this accumulation of fluid causes a corpus luteum cyst. Other types of ovarian cysts include: - dermoid cysts: sac-like growths on the ovaries that can contain hair, fat, and other tissue non-cancerous growths that can develop on the outer surface of the ovaries - endometriomas: tissues that normally grow inside the uterus can develop outside the uterus and attach to the ovaries, resulting in a cyst Some women develop a condition called polycystic ovary syndrome. This condition means the ovaries contain a large number of small cysts. It can cause the ovaries to enlarge, and if left untreated, polycystic ovaries can Symptoms of an ovarian cyst Often times, ovarian cysts do not cause any symptoms. However, symptoms can appear as the cyst grows. Symptoms may - abdominal bloating or swelling - painful bowel movements - pelvic pain before or during the menstrual cycle - painful intercourse - pain in the lower back or thighs - breast tenderness - nausea and vomiting Severe symptoms of an ovarian cyst that require immediate medical attention include: - severe or sharp pelvic pain - faintness or dizziness - rapid breathing These symptoms can indicate a ruptured cyst or an ovarian torsion. Both complications can have serious consequences if not treated early. Ovarian cyst complications Most ovarian cysts are benign and naturally go away on their own without treatment. These cysts cause little, if any, symptoms. But in a rare case, your doctor may detect a cancerous cystic ovarian mass during a routine examination. torsion is another rare complication of ovarian cysts. This is when a large cyst causes an ovary to twist or move from its original position. Blood supply to the ovary is cut off, and if not treated, it can cause damage or death to the ovarian tissue. Although uncommon, ovarian torsion accounts for nearly 3 percent of emergency cysts, which are also rare, can cause intense pain and internal bleeding. This complication increases your risk of an infection and can be life-threatening if left untreated. Diagnosing an ovarian cyst Your doctor can detect an ovarian cyst during a routine pelvic examination. They may notice swelling on one of your ovaries and order an ultrasound test to confirm the presence of a cyst. An ultrasound test (ultrasonography) is an imaging test that uses high-frequency sound waves to produce an image of your internal organs. Ultrasound tests help determine the size, location, shape, and composition (solid or fluid filled) of a cyst. Imaging tools used to diagnose ovarian - CT scan: a body imaging device used to create cross-sectional images of internal organs - MRI: a test that uses magnetic fields to produce in-depth images of internal organs - Ultrasound device: an imaging device used to visualize the ovary Because the majority of cysts disappear after a few weeks or months, your doctor may not immediately recommend a treatment plan. Instead, they may repeat the ultrasound test in a few weeks or months to check your condition. If there aren’t any changes in your condition or if the cyst increases in size, your doctor will request additional tests to determine other causes of your symptoms. - pregnancy test: to make sure you’re not pregnant - hormone level test: to check for hormone-related issues, such as too much estrogen or progesterone - CA-125 blood test: to screen for ovarian cancer Treatment for an ovarian cyst Your doctor may recommend treatment to shrink or remove the cyst if it doesn’t go away on its own or if it grows larger. Birth control pills If you have recurrent ovarian cysts, your doctor can prescribe oral contraceptives to stop ovulation and prevent the development of new cysts. Oral contraceptives can also reduce your risk of ovarian cancer. The risk of ovarian cancer is higher in postmenopausal women. If your cyst is small and results from an imaging test rule out cancer, your doctor can perform a laparoscopy to surgically remove the cyst. The procedure involves your doctor making a tiny incision near your navel and then inserting a small instrument into your abdomen to remove the cyst. If you have a large cyst, your doctor can surgically remove the cyst through a large incision in your abdomen. They’ll conduct an immediate biopsy, and if they determine that the cyst is cancerous, they may perform a hysterectomy to remove your ovaries and uterus. Ovarian cyst prevention Ovarian cysts can’t be prevented. However, routine gynecologic examinations can detect ovarian cysts early. Benign ovarian cysts don’t become cancerous. However, symptoms of ovarian cancer can mimic symptoms of an ovarian cyst. Thus, it’s important to visit your doctor and receive a correct diagnosis. Alert your doctor to symptoms that may indicate a problem, such as: - changes in your menstrual cycle - ongoing pelvic pain - loss of appetite - unexplained weight loss - abdominal fullness What’s the long-term outlook? The outlook for premenopausal women with ovarian cysts is good. Most cysts disappear within a few months. However, recurrent ovarian cysts can occur in premenopausal women and women with hormone If left untreated, some cysts can decrease fertility. This is common with endometriomas and polycystic ovary syndrome. To improve fertility, your doctor can remove or shrink the cyst. Functional cysts, cystadenomas, and dermoid cysts do not affect fertility. Although some doctors take a “wait and see” approach with ovarian cysts, your doctor may recommend surgery to remove and examine any cyst or growth that develops on the ovaries after menopause. This is because the risk of developing a cancerous cyst or ovarian cancer increases after menopause. However, ovarian cysts don’t increase the risk of ovarian cancer. Some doctors will remove a cyst if it’s larger than 5 centimeters
Anemia is generally perceived as a negative condition. New research, however, suggests that the same health condition, which could be accountable for severe long-term consequences, actually protects children against malaria. The research also points out that addressing the iron deficiency with supplements could also diminish or even completely neutralize its effects against the deadly virus. Anemia, Natural Protection Against Malaria Iron deficiency is the most common condition caused by nutritional problems worldwide, and about 9.6 percent of the American population suffers from it. However, according to a new research, published in the journal EBioMedicine, the condition has proven to be beneficial against Malaria. The observational study indicates that iron supplementation increases the risk of malaria, although the underlying mechanism of this process is still unknown. "We investigated how anemia inhibits blood stage malaria infection and how iron supplementation abrogates this protection.[...] Iron supplementation completely reversed the observed protection and hence should be accompanied by malaria prophylaxis. Lower hemoglobin levels typically seen in populations of African descent may reflect past genetic selection by malaria," noted the study. The researchers from University of North Carolina, in collaboration with the Medical Research Council Unit in The Gambia and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, have investigated the red blood cells of 135 subjects between the ages of 6 months and 24 months in an area where the virus is highly active. The subjects were administered with micronutrient powder to combat the iron deficiency for 84 days, at the end of which they discovered that anemia reduced the blood-stage of malaria by 16 percent. This discovery implies that anemia represents a very powerful natural protector against malaria. Additionally, one of the hypotheses of the research is that the high prevalence of anemia within people from the African desert area is of genetic nature, while also being a signature of malaria. When anemic children were administered iron supplements for seven weeks, the progress of malaria retook its course, and its invasion at the blood level was reversed. Before conducting this research, the same team found that the reason why children seem to be so affected by the virus lies in their young red blood cells, which represent a perfect host for malaria. "This study is elegant in its simplicity, yet remains one of the most substantial and systematic attempts to unveil the cellular-level relationship between anemia, iron supplementation and malaria risk," noted Carla Cerami, M.D. Ph.D., lead scientist on the project at the MRC Unit in The Gambia. Malaria, An Ongoing Threat According to a WHO report released in 2016, there were 212 million reported cases of malaria in 2015 across the world, and the global incidence between 2010 and 2015 dropped by 21 percent. Additionally, due to the organized efforts to diminish the number of cases, the mortality among patients infected with the disease decreased by 29 percent within the same period. "Nevertheless, significant gaps in program coverage remain. Access to vector control has been greatly extended through mass-distribution campaigns; however, increasing the coverage of chemoprevention, diagnostic testing and treatment requires these interventions to be delivered through health systems that are frequently under-resourced and poorly accessible to those most at risk of malaria. Moreover, the potential for strengthening health systems in malaria endemic countries is often constrained by low national incomes and per capita domestic spending on health and malaria control," noted the report.
legislative branch, or Congress, includes another lawmaking body called the Senate. Voters elect two senators from each state, regardless of population size. There is equal representation from each state in the Senate. It doesn't matter if the state is big or small, densely or sparsely populated, or where it is located. Senators are elected every 6 years. The elections are staggered so that both senators from a state are not elected at the same time. Only the Senate can approve or reject treaties and presidential nominations for states the qualifications for being a senator. To be a senator a person must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years, and have fulfilled the requirements for residency in the state that person wishes to represent.
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| When some person is recognized, he or she is accorded some special status, such as a name, title, or classification. Recognition can take many forms, such as mention in the mass media. It becomes easier for people to be accepted into some social process if they allow themselves to fit into a social identity, as a signal that they implicity accept some social norm. Thus the use of uniform dress is a signal for both group inclusion and acceptance. Gangs use signals and dress for this purpose. Dress codes and norms also occur for religious groups. In employment Edit As a means to increase productivity, communication, and satisfaction in the workplace, recognition is a tool used by many successful organizations to address these challenges. Recognition can be used in multiple models, including manager-to-employee, employee-to-manager, and peer-to-peer. In terms of employment, individuals within an organization can acknowledge each other for great attitudes, individual efforts and team contributions that help build a great culture and positive work environment. Recognition in the workplace can be a monetising activity, a complimentary activity, or both. In terms of monetised activities, organizations will recognize employees with additional compensation (bonuses) or items that have a monetary value (tickets, trips, etc.). In terms of complimentary activity, organizations will recognize employees through avenues such as broadcasting (notice to fellow employees) or public recognition with a “thank you”, “kudos”, or “congratulations”. \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
Let’s face it: Our children need computer skills to succeed in life. Starting to use the computer at a young age can be very positive. However, as with all technology — from television, to DVD watching, to video games — a healthy dose of parental involvement and supervision is critical. Is there an age at which it is too young to start your child on the road to acquiring computer skills? The answer really depends on three other questions: • What can be gained by computer use? • What might your child miss out on if over-exposed to computer use? • And, when are you — the parent — ready to take on the responsibility of monitoring and supervising computer use? What do children need to know? Clearly, learning to use a computer is an important skill in its own right. It presents the opportunity for a child to work independently. It also can be a tool for reinforcing basic skills — to a point. If your child needs to practice spelling, math problems or other skills, there are excellent programs that make these drills fun. But if he has not yet mastered a concept, it won’t be the computer, but the teacher, who teaches the fundamental lesson. Initially, you’ll want your child to develop a level of comfort with technology. An understanding of how the mouse and keys work is the first level of learning. As your child becomes comfortable writing on paper, word processing skills become an important next step. As your toddler acquires the dexterity to manipulate the mouse and the keyboard, you can consider introducing age-appropriate software. Young children love repetition, a need that computers are happy to fulfill, and this offers them a sense of mastery. Sit with your toddler just as you would sit with her as she plays with blocks or puzzles. The computer is an appropriate and important learning and teaching tool, but it cannot replace human interaction. By the time your child gets to high school, she should be a technologically literate teen, having mastered using the computer and Internet for research, and having gained an understanding of how to select keywords from a search engine for meaningful results. Your high school student should be able to assemble information, transcribe the information to note cards, and write a cohesive research paper. But the computer can’t and ought not to replace brainstorming, writing, drafting or even editing of a paper. In the end, it is only a tool for facilitating the process. Watch out for computer addiction Computer use can be habit forming. Our children don’t need daily doses of computer use — though my teenager would like me to believe otherwise. To assess if your child is over-exposed to the computer, ask yourself these questions: • Does he have sufficient human contact in a day? • What might he be doing if he were not on the computer — reading? Building a snowman? Writing in a diary? Playing a game with a friend? • Am I or other adult caretakers interacting with him in a meaningful way? Listening and focusing on another person rather than on the computer, imaginary play for a young child, socializing with others — all in generous helpings — should be part of a child’s daily regimen, regardless of age. Some students may come to rely on the computer to socialize — two of them may sit in front of computer together, using and overusing it as a social lubricant. Put some ground rules in place when your child is young, and stick to them from year to year. —Create per-day limits. Many parents think nothing of television limits; computers, too, should have time limits. If your 5-year-old is spending hours engrossed in a computer game, she’s missing out on activities that will develop fine and gross motor skills. Consider a program that limits how long the computer is on. —Make a house rule that the computer can only be used when an adult is home. Try not to forget that your child is on the computer when you get involved in your own projects, such as putting dinner on the table or paying bills. —Make sure the programs and activities your child is accessing are age-appropriate by spending time at the computer with your child. Sit at the computer with your son from time to time and review, for instance, what websites he has visited. This can be a great way to learn more about him and his interests, so avoid being punitive. —Discuss appropriate boundaries for research, and appropriate tone and content for emails and other correspondence. Many children have a level of familiarity and comfort with instant messaging that may lead them to write things they would never dream of saying to someone’s face. This same false sense of familiarity and comfort can make children of any age vulnerable while surfing the Internet. As with most things in life, moderation is key. The bottom line is that as parents, we need to be active participants in our children’s computer use. Know what he’s up to, why he’s on the computer, and make sure it happens while you’re at home to supervise. So, are you ready? NORA ANDERSON is the Head of School of the Westchester/Fairfield Hebrew Academy, a Jewish community day school in Greenwich, Connecticut, which uses a challenging curriculum and Judaic studies to educate students in kindergarten through middle school. She is also the parent of four children.
The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a conflict in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, leading to the end of slavery and Haiti as the first modern republic ruled by Africans. The main leaders were former slaves Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The Haitian Revolution led to the second nation in the Americas (after the United States) formed from a European colony. It was because of Toussaint Louverture that slavery was abolished in Haiti by: 1) He assembled 20,000 fighting men, provided training, ammunition and discipline. 2) Trade with the USA; which allowed to him to export commodities and ammunition. 3) Military Alliances; he made alliances with France, Spain and Coloreds to obtain trading and ammunition. 4) Tactics; Toussaint burnt towns, threw corpses into wells and engaged opponents in the wet season. 5) Ideology; he inspired black people to pursue liberty at all costs.
Lost Discoveries, Dick Teresi's innovative history of science, explores the unheralded scientific breakthroughs from peoples of the ancient world -- Babylonians, Egyptians, Indians, Africans, New World and Oceanic tribes, among others -- and the non-European medieval world. They left an enormous heritage in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, cosmology, physics, geology, chemistry, and technology. The mathematical foundation of Western science is a gift from the Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Babylonians, and Maya. The ancient Egyptians developed the concept of the lowest common denominator, and they developed a fraction table that modern scholars estimate required 28,000 calculations to compile. The Babylonians developed the first written math and used a place-value number system. Our numerals, 0 through 9, were invented in ancient India; the Indians also boasted geometry, trigonometry, and a kind of calculus. Planetary astronomy as well may have begun with the ancient Indians, who correctly identified the relative distances of the known planets from the sun, and knew the moon was nearer to the earth than the sun was. The Chinese observed, reported, dated, recorded, and interpreted eclipses between 1400 and 1200 b.c. Most of the names of our stars and constellations are Arabic. Arabs built the first observatories. Five thousand years ago, the Sumerians said the earth was circular. In the sixth century, a Hindu astronomer taught that the daily rotation of the earth on its axis provided the rising and setting of the sun. Chinese and Arab scholars were the first to use fossils scientifically to trace earth's history. Chinese alchemists realized that most physical substances were merely combinations of other substances, which could be mixed in different proportions. Islamic scholars are legendary for translating scientific texts of many languages into Arabic, a tradition that began with alchemical books. In the eleventh century, Avicenna of Persia divined that outward qualities of metals were of little value in classification, and he stressed internal structure, a notion anticipating Mendeleyev's periodic chart of elements. Iron suspension bridges came from Kashmir, printing from India; papermaking was from China, Tibet, India, and Baghdad; movable type was invented by Pi Sheng in about 1041; the Quechuan Indians of Peru were the first to vulcanize rubber; Andean farmers were the first to freeze-dry potatoes. European explorers depended heavily on Indian and Filipino shipbuilders, and collected maps and sea charts from Javanese and Arab merchants. The first comprehensive, authoritative, popularly written, multicultural history of science, Lost Discoveries fills a crucial gap in the history of science. Dick Teresi is the author or coauthor of several books about science and technology, including The God Particle. He is cofounder of Omni magazine and has written for Discover, The New York Times Magazine, and The Atlantic Monthly, and is a frequent reviewer and essayist for The New York Times Book Review. He lives in Amherst, Massachusetts. Dava Sobel Author of Galileo's Daughter and Longitude If you think, as I did, that science flowered in ancient Greece -- the way Athena sprang fully formed from the brow of Zeus -- then read Dick Teresi's Lost Discoveries and revel in the global expression of early genius, from Sumerian mathematics and ancient Indian particle physics to the sky maps of the Skidi Pawnee and the rubber 'factories' of the Aztecs. Leon Lederman Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics and coauthor of The God Particle Wow, Teresi's Lost Discoveries is a romp through the history of mathematics, astronomy, cosmology, physics, geology, chemistry, and technology. Teresi must have pored through tons of ancient manuscripts and scholarly compendia to unearth a rich mine of historical achievements of largely non-Western civilizations that preceded and enabled the Golden Age of Greece. For science buffs who are curious about 'How do we know?' and 'How did we learn?' this is a spectacular canvas, and it illuminates the power of cultural diversity. Yes, there were peaks in the progress of science, but today science is the only universal culture, the same in the West, East, North, and South. Teresi's important book helps to explain why. Have a question about this product? Ask us here.
Over the course of the five centuries that have elapsed since the Spanish conquest of Mexico, a myth of desolation has been propagated by literature and scholarship regarding the ensuing fate of the natives of Central Mexico. This myth of native desolation determines that “the Conquest left in its wake a silence that was immense, terrifying. It engulfed the Indian world…reduced it to a void. Those Indigenous cultures, living, diverse, heirs to knowledge and myths as ancient as the history of man, in the span of one generation were sentenced and reduced to dust, to ash.” With the primary retelling of the story of the 16th century conquest and its after effects originating from the Spanish perspective the myth of native desolation may have appeared to be true. However, contemporary native-language based research on this topic suggests otherwise. One central Mexican native group in particular authored a written record, the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, that tells a different story. The Tlaxcalan people of central Mexico, indigenous allies of Cortez during the conquest, successfully referenced that pact to adapt to the new Spanish social system while they strove to maintain their unique culture, history, language, and traditions long after the conquest. Early in Hernan Cortez’s expedition into the Mexican interior, his detachment of men came across an abandoned wall on the outskirts of the province of Tlaxcala. Upon further movement into Tlaxcalan territory they were attacked by Tlaxcalan troops and fought vigorously with the indigenous warriors before the native army was forced to retreat in defeat under the onslaught of Spanish cavalry and superior weaponry. The Spanish had heard from a messenger of the Tlaxcalan resistance to the Aztec empire and that the natives sought to barter an alliance against Tenochtitlan. Cortez himself describes Tlaxcala as “a very extensive province called Tlaxcala, which they informed me was near this place, as it proved to be. I had also been informed by them that the natives of this province were their allies, but deadly enemies of Moctezuma; and they desired me to form an alliance with them, because they were a numerous and powerful nation.” After much debate within the altepetl council as to whether Tlaxcala should continue fighting Cortez and his men, or accept an alliance and join Cortez’s forces in an attempt to topple the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma, the Lords of Tlaxcala finally decided upon uniting with the Spanish. Tlaxcala then joined thousands of its warriors to Cortez’s cause as well as an abundance of food, porters to carry the Spaniards goods, and guides for the long march to the capital of the Mexica Empire. The remaining parts of the story of the Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance entail the Spanish-Tlaxcalan capture of Tenochtitlan followed by the eventual conquest of the Mexica Empire’s land holdings as well as much more territory beyond its borders. These events involving the Tlaxcalans and their pact with Cortez’s conquistadors are the basis of Tlaxcalan expectation of an elevated status in post conquest Spanish colonial society. The Tlaxcalan altepetl council utilized their alliance with Cortez during the conquest to effectively lobby the Spanish crown for corporate privileges and elevated status within colonial Mexico. This attempt at influencing King Charles V is evidenced by the fact that around the year 1552 the city government of Tlaxcala decided upon the rendering of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, an epic painting in the native pictograph style depicting the history of Tlaxcalan alliance with the Spanish. Figure 1: Tlaxcalan coat of arms taken from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala (Chavero, Alfredo. “Introduction to the Lienzo de Tlaxcala.” Mesolore: A research & teaching tool on Mesoamerica. Accessed October 19, 2017. http://mesolore.org/tutorials/learn/19/Introduction-to-the-Lienzo-de-Tlaxcala-/55/Summary.) This effort was described in the June 17, 1552 minutes of the town council of Tlaxcala from the Tlaxcalan Actas: 1. The cabildo discusses sending a delegation to Spain to lay Tlaxcala’s troubles before the emperor; contributions from all Tlaxcalans are to pay expenses of travel and solicitors’ and counsel’s fees, etc., since city assets are insufficient. The viceroy’s approval is to be asked by a committee of an alcalde and two regidores sent to Mexico City… 4. A painting of Cortes’s arrival in Tlaxcala and the war and conquest is to be prepared for presentation to the emperor; two regidores are to oversee the project and arrange for artists’ supplies through the city majordomo and to choose the artists. At this point it is not decided whether the painting should be on cloth (tilmatly) or paper (amatl). The painting then was to be sent to King Charles V to demonstrate the massive amount of aid given to Cortez by Tlaxcala and in doing so to lobby the king for more preferential treatment in addition to the rewards that had been secured by the city after the conquest. The coat of arms depicted at the top of the painting is a primary example of the indigenous retaining their own identity and ethnic heritage as their local mountain peak, today known as La Malinche, and the city state’s political organization as well as its ruling families are prominently featured on their own emblem just below the Spanish royal family’s crest. The Tlaxcalans were making rational calculated decisions to advance their own interests even during the conquest years that run contrary to the traditional notion that their society simply collapsed and ceased to exist. Tlaxcala entered into an alliance with Cortez after fighting against him for about two weeks as they realized the possibilities of toppling the Mexica empire and seeking the best possible outcome for themselves thence forward. The yalso understood that converting to Catholicism was part of making a pact with the Spanish.
Of the Peoples Assembly of the Parliament of the republic of Abkhazia The Statehood of Abkhazia is more than 1500 years old. The history of the Abkhazian State and indigenousness of its people is universally recognized in the world history and ethnography. The Abkhazian State played an important role in the political and economic life of the Caucasus in the medieval period. After the end of Russian-Caucasian war in 1864 the Abkhaz statehood was liquidated, major part of Abkhaz people was deported from the country, transforming Abkhazia into the colony of the Russian Empire. Superior body of the authority of Abkhazia – Abkhaz National Council was elected after the collapse of the Russian empire 8th of November 1921, then it adopted the Constitution and the Declaration of the Abkhaz nation, and on the 11th of May 1918 an independent Abkhaz statehood was restored. In June 1918 the troops of Democratic Republic of Georgia which was proclaimed on May 26th 1918, occupied the territory of the Abkhazian State. Abkhazian people rose to an armed struggle, and in 1921 released its country from the Georgian occupation. In the same year the Red Army troops entered the territory of the South Caucasus, and on March 4th 1921 Soviet Power was established in Abkhazia. On March 31st 1921 an independent Soviet Socialist Republic of Abkhazia was proclaimed. On May 21st 1921 SSR of Georgia recognized independence of Abkhazian SSR and adopted the Declaration of Independence of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Abkhazia. The Abkhazian SSR was a co-founder of the Soviet Union on the rights of a sovereign state, and signed the USSR Treaty in December of 1922. In the national-territorial structure of the former Soviet Union the nations were divided by grade ("autonomous", "alliance", etc.) and strictly subordinated to each other in a hierarchical order. According to that gradation Abkhazia contrary to the will of its people, in 1931 was incorporated into artificially created "mini-empire" - Georgian SSR. Flouting of the sovereign rights of Abkhazia, reduction of its status to autonomous republic within the Georgian SSR caused massive national resistance and led to a nationwide gathering. The resistance of the Abkhaz people, which has begun to take nature of the fighting, was crushed, and the leaders were repressed. Since that time one of the darkest periods began in the recent history of the Abkhaz people. Abkhazia has been subjected to terror and repressions that led to the destruction of the political and intellectual elite of the Abkhaz people. The policy of georgianisation of the Abkhaz has begun: Abkhazia has been declared a historic region of Georgia and the Abkhaz people to be ethnographic group of Georgian nation, the Abkhaz schools were closed, teaching in schools has been conducted in Georgian, Abkhaz toponyms totally were replaced into Georgian and etc. In particular the policy of assimilation and resettlement was conducted. For the period from 1937 till 1953, more than 80 thousands of Georgians were resettled from Georgia to Abkhazia, radically changing the ethnic demographic map of Abkhazia. Abkhazian people never accepted such oppressive approach and over the period after the loss of their independence they waged selfless struggle against the Russian Empire, and against totalitarian communist system for the inalienable right to freedom and a dignified life and restoration of its statehood. National liberation struggle of Abkhaz people had been expressed in the national armed uprisings at the time of the Russian Empire (1866-1867, 1877-1878's.), and during Communist totalitarian regime, with periodic mass demonstrations, rallies, strikes, hunger strikes (1931, 1957, 1964, 1967, 1978, 1989.), and this struggle continued till the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the adoption in 1991 of the Act on restoration of the state independence of Georgia, by which Georgia was proclaimed a successor of the Georgian Democratic Republic 1918-1921's., and the collapse of the USSR in 1992 the state-legal relations between Abkhazia and Georgia that were established and regulated on the bases of the Soviet legislation were halted. De-jure and de-facto, not related to each other two independent states emerged in the territory of the former Soviet Georgia which were Georgia and Abkhazia. Absence of any state-legal relations between Georgia and Abkhazia, after the collapse of the Soviet Union was also confirmed in “the Statement on measures for a political settlement of the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict” signed by the Georgian and Abkhaz sides on the 4th of April 1994, with the mediation of the United Nations, the Russian Federation and participation of the OSCE (CSCE). Hence, the recognition by the United Nations of the territorial integrity of Georgia on the 31st of July 1992, along with Abkhazia within the boundaries of non-existing at that time Stalin's Soviet Georgia, has no legal grounds. On the 14th of August 1992 Georgian Government in response to an appeal of Abkhazian Government to review aborted state-legal relations by peaceful, civilized means and establishing equal and good neighborly relations between two countries, has launched armed aggression against Abkhazia. All multi-ethnic population of Abkhazia had to protect their right to life. Having won the bloody liberation war, the people of Abkhazia won its independence and reiterated unwavering determination to defend their inalienable right to freedom and a dignified life. During the entire post-war period all efforts of the authorities of the Republic of Abkhazia, aimed at concluding a peace treaty and establishing civilized, good-neighborly relations between the Republic of Abkhazia and the Republic of Georgia, were completely blocked by the authorities of Georgia. At present, the Abkhaz-Georgian negotiations have been stalled, and that was confirmed at a meeting of the UN Security Council on January 23, 2008. The Republic of Abkhazia successfully exists as an independent state for already 15 years. The formation and legal registration of the state independence of Abkhazia took place in full compliance with the recognized norms of international law. On the 3rd of October 1999, referendum was held in Abkhazia, which was attended by most pre-war population. Based on the will of the absolute majority the “State Independence of the Republic of Abkhazia” was adopted on the 12th of October 1999, which was the turning point of the development in the modern history of Abkhazia. The people of Abkhazia once again strongly reaffirmed their commitment to achieve a true state independence, willingness and ability to decide and determine future of their country. During the years independence, Abkhazia has shown its commitment to universally recognized principles of democracy, respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms, and desire to be a worthy partner in commonwealth of democratic nations of the world. All of the post-war years, in the conditions of unprecedented pressure from the International Community, isolation and blockade, the population of Abkhazia demonstrated significant viability as an independent community with its problems and challenges inherent in the transitional period of formation. The Republic of Abkhazia has been formed as an independent, democratic, constitutional state and truly possesses all the attributes of power, formed with the observance of democratic standards. The democratic institutions, civil society, an effective legal system successfully operate and develop, which is relevant to rules of international law, free media functions, as well as legal opposition. All multi-ethnic population of Abkhazia uniquely identifies itself as citizens of their own state. The economy of Abkhazia operates and develops independently. Every effort is made for the protection of human rights and freedoms, ensuring all the necessary conditions to protect the identity and development of ethnic minorities in Abkhazia. However, international non-recognition of Abkhazia creates exceptional difficulties in its sustainable development and a threat to its national security. An illegitimate recognition by the UN of Georgia's territorial integrity within the borders of the Stalin’s created Soviet Georgia, openly justifies the Stalinist totalitarian regime and the promotion of aggressive tendencies of Georgian authorities against Abkhazia. These invading aspirations of Georgia are today a major source of escalating tensions that threaten peace and security in the region. The Parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia notes that the process of establishing an independent democratic state of Abkhazia and achieving international recognition is irreversible. Restoration of the state independence of Abkhazia has deep, objective, historical preconditions. It is political expression of the achieved level of national unity, socio-economic and cultural development of the Abkhaz Nation. Only within the independent state people of Abkhazia see the possibility of further development and achievement of strategic goals and ensuring national security. In current political environment, any attempt to take so hardly won independence and sovereignty from people of Abkhazia that sacrificed so much, will inevitably lead to a major regional armed conflict, involving neighboring countries. The Parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia appreciates the role of the UN Secretary General, the Group of Friends of the UN Secretary General, the Russian Federation, European Union, the CIS countries in the promotion of peace and security in the South Caucasus and the peaceful resolution of existing armed conflicts in the area. The Parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia reaffirms commitment to peaceful, equal and good neighborly relations between the Republic of Abkhazia and the Republic of Georgia. These positive intentions are also clearly confirmed by the plan on the settlement of the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict: “Key to the future” prepared by the Abkhaz side. Government of Abkhazia also confirms its positive intentions implementing this Plan unilaterally. Considering the aforementioned: • based on the fundamental principle of the right of nations to self-determination; • Based on the fact that the UN has condemned colonialism and any related practices of segregation and discrimination, and that the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples proclaims, in particular, the need to quickly and unconditionally end to colonialism; • Taking into account the fact that according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings without fear and need, can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his economic, social and cultural rights as well as civil and political rights; • Taking into account the fact that the UN Charter is based on the principle of equality and dignity of all people and aimed at achieving international cooperation through development and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, language or national origin; • Taking into account the need to facilitate the establishment and development of friendly relations between the peoples of the region; • Taking into account that formation and the development of the Abkhaz State occurs in full accordance with international law; • Taking into account the historical realities of the formation and development of Abkhaz statehood and the political-legal basis for the existence of the Republic of Abkhazia; • Taking into account that international recognition of the independence of the Republic of Abkhazia will serve peace and stability in the Caucasus – People's Assembly - The Parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia appeals to the Secretary General of the United Nations, the Chairman of the UN Security Council, the parliaments of the of the countries of the world to consider the recognition of the Republic of Abkhazia as an independent, sovereign state and the establishment of mutually beneficial inter-state relations with the Republic of Abkhazia. People's Assembly - The Parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia 7 of March 2008. Sukhum
\|Improving Space Weather Forecasting by Detecting Active Regions on the Far Side of the Sun\| This press release explains how scientists have enhanced their ability to predict space weather by detecting active regions on the sun's surface on the far side of the Sun, before they rotate to its Earthward side. Using the SWAN instrument aboard the SOHO satellite, they are able to detect hydrogen atoms in space, which are being illuminated by radiation emitted from active regions (sunspots), even though they are on the Sun's far side. Intended for grade levels: Type of resource: No specific technical requirements, just a browser required Cost / Copyright: Copyright and other restrictions information are unknown. DLESE Catalog ID: NASA-Edmall-682 Resource contact / Creator / Publisher: Contributor: Harvey Leifert American Geophysical Union
Penobscot Bay's Geography and Resources From Marshall Point in Port Clyde to Naskeag Point in Brooklin, Penobscot Bay’s coastline is longer than 1,000 miles and includes more than 1,800 islands. Its marine life is most influenced by the cold seawater current called the Gulf of Maine GyreGulf of Maine Gyre A gyre is a system of ring-like ocean currents that rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. This one exists in the Gulf of Maine. and the currents created by an eight to thirteen foot tide. Cold water holds more oxygen and supports more nutrients than warm water. Like fertile soil, the nutrient-rich waters in Penobscot Bay support healthy and abundant growth. Penobscot Bay is a home for almost all of the seventy commercially harvested species of fish and shellfishShellfish shellfish Common name for marine invertebrates: crustaceans such as lobsters, mollusks such as clams, echinoderms such as sea urchins. landed in the Gulf of Maine. It is this rich resource that attracted early seventeenth century fishermen to the Penobscot Bay area. Maine’s valuable timber is improved by cool weather, which encourages slower growth, thus higher wood quality. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the British Royal Navy used white pineWhite pine A fast-growing pine tree with white wood and smooth gray bark. Often used for ships' masts in the past. for mastsMast A straight piece of timber or a hollow cylinder of wood or metal set up vertically or nearly so and supporting yards, booms, derricks, or gaffs. In fore-and-aft rigged vessels each mast is commonly made of two parts, called the lower mast and the topmast. Read More and sparsSpar A round timber or metal pole used for masts, yards, booms, etc.. Throughout the Maine lumber boom of the mid-19th century, white pine was the primary species cut, processed, and shipped to the American East Coast, the West Indies, and South American ports. Other species were used to build ships, boats and houses. Still others were well suited for barrel stavesStaves shook The curved wooden parts of a cask or barrel, rabbeted at both ends to take the bottom and top., boxes, shingles, and furniture. Firewood was cut both for heat and for burning limeLime Calcium oxide (CaO), obtained from limestone, and used in mortars, plasters, cement, bleaching powder, and in making paper, glass, and steel. in the lime kilnsKiln An oven used to fire pottery or limestone.. Leather tanningTan To convert hides into leather by soaking them in a bath of tanbark or synthetic chemicals. needed hemlock bark. Softwoods were used in Maine’s paper industry beginning in 1868, and the paper industry expanded greatly in the 1880s. Penobscot Bay’s rocks and clays provided granite for buildings, limestoneLimestone limerock A sedimentary rock consisting mostly of calcium carbonate, formed from fossilized skeletons of marine microorganisms and coral. Limestone is used as a building stone and to make lime. for mortarMortar A mixture of lime and/or cement, with sand and water, used as a bond between bricks or stones. and plasterPlaster A combination of lime or gypsum, sand, water, and sometimes hair or other fiber applied in a paste form to walls, ceilings, etc., and allowed to harden., and clay for bricks. Harvesting rock and clay began prior to 1800, but grew tremendously in the 19th century. Maine’s cold climate and pure lakes and rivers located close to the sea were well suited to a successful ice business (key to map: pinkish-tan = granite; red-brown = brick; yellow = lime). Penobscot Bay’s rivers provided waterpower to run sawmills, gristmillsGristmill A mill for grinding grain., woolen mills, paper mills, and foundriesFoundry A place for producing castings in molten metal., before steam engines and electricity became available. In some places, tide millsTide mill A mill that operates on the water power generated by the incoming and outgoing tide flow. There were many tide mills in Maine. operated on the incoming and outgoing water flow.
What Is Distance Education? Distance education delivers classes (live or pre-taped) to students in their home, office, or classroom. It is used by K-12, higher education, continuing education and business. As the cost of delivering quality education increases, institutions find that limited resources prevent them from building facilities, hiring faculty, or expanding curricula. They are using distance education to maximize resources and are combining their assets with others to produce programming. Distance education is offered internationally, nationally, regionally, and locally over all forms of conferencing technology. Distance learning is expanding and examples of it are increasing dramatically. Fewer than 10 states were using distance learning in 1987; today, virtually all states have an interest or effort in distance education. Distance learning systems connect the teacher with the students when physical face-to-face interaction is not possible. Telecommunications systems carry instruction, moving information instead of people. The technology at distant locations are important and affect how interaction takes place, what information resources are used, and how effective the system is likely to be. Technology transports information, not people. Distances between teachers and students are bridged with an array of familiar technology as well as new information age equipment. What sets today's distance education efforts apart from previous efforts is the possibility of an interactive capacity that provides learner and teacher with needed feedback, including the opportunity to dialogue, clarify, or assess. Advances in digital compression technology may greatly expand the number of channels that can be sent over any transmission medium, doubling or even tripling channel capacity. Technologies for learning at a distance are also enlarging our definition of how students learn, where they learn, and who teaches them. No one technology is best for all situations and applications. Different technologies have different capabilities and limitations, and effective implementation will depend on matching technological capabilities to education Distance education places students and their instructors in separate locations using some form of technology to communicate and interact. The student may be located in the classroom, home, office or learning center. The instructor may be located in a media classroom, studio, office or home. The student may receive information via satellite, microwave, or fiber optic cable, television (broadcast, cable or Instructional Television Fixed Services (ITFS), video cassette or disk, telephone - audio conferencing bridge or direct phone line, audio cassette, printed materials - text, study guide, or handout, computer - modem or floppy disk, and compressed video. Recent rapid development of technology has resulted in systems that are powerful, flexible, and increasingly affordable. The base of available information technology resources is increasing with dramatic speed. Much has been learned about connecting various forms of technology into systems, so that the ability to link systems is growing. Most distance learning systems are hybrids, combining several technologies, such as satellite, ITFS, microwave, cable, fiber optic, and computer connections. Interactivity is accomplished via telephone (one-way video and two-way audio), two-way video or graphics interactivity, two-way computer hookups, two-way audio. Interactivity may be delayed but interaction provided by teacher telephone office hours when students can call or through time with on-site facilitators. Classes with large numbers of students have a limited amount of interactivity. Much of the activity on computer networks is on a delayed basis as well. Possibilities for audio and visual interaction are increasingly wide. In the earlier days of distance learning, it was most common to see distance learning used for rural students who were at a distance from an educational institution. The student might watch a telecourse on a television stations, read texts, mail in assignments and then travel to the local college to take an exam. This model is still in use, but as the technology has become more sophisticated and the cost of distance learning dropped as equipment prices dropped, the use of distance education has High front-end costs prevented an early widespread adoption of electronically mediated learning. Distance learning has been aggressively adopted in many areas because it can meet specific educational needs. As the concept of accountability became accepted and laws required certain courses in high school in order for students to be admitted to state colleges, telecommunications was examined as a way to provide student access to the required courses. Many rural school districts could not afford the special teachers to conduct required courses. Distance education met this need by providing courses in schools where teachers were not available or were too costly to provide for a few students. It also fulfilled a need for teacher training and staff development in locations where experts and resources were difficult to obtain. These systems link learner communities with each other and bring a wide array of experts and information to the classroom. Challenges which faced the early users of distance education are still with us today. If distance education is to play a greater role in improving the quality of education, it will require expanded technology; more linkages between schools, higher education, and the private sector; and more teachers who use technology well. Teachers must be involved in planning the systems, trained to use the tools they provide, and given the flexibility to revise their teaching. Federal and state regulations will need revision to ensure a more flexible and effective use of technology. Connections have been established across geographic, instructional, and institutional boundaries which provide opportunities for collaboration and resource sharing among many groups In the pooling of students and teachers, distance learning reconfigures the classroom which no longer is bounded by the physical space of the school, district, state or nation. The key to success in distance learning is the teacher. If the teacher is good, the technology can become almost transparent. No technology can overcome poor teaching which is actually exacerbated in distance education applications. When skilled teachers are involved, enthusiasm, expertise, and creative use of the media can enrich students beyond the four walls of their classroom. Teachers need training in the system's technical aspects and in the educational applications of the technology. Areas for assistance include the amount of time needed to prepare and teach courses, how to establish and maintain effective communication with students, strategies for adding visual components to audio courses, ways to increase interaction between students and faculty, planning and management of organizational details, and strategies for group cohesion and student motivation. The interchange of ideas requires different communication methods than in conventional classrooms: information technologies are predominantly visual media, rather than the textual and auditory environment of the conventional classroom, the affective content of mediated messages is muted compared to face-to-face interaction, and complex cognitive content can be conveyed more readily in electronic form because multiple representations of material (e.g., animations, text, verbal descriptions, and visual images) can be presented to give learners many ways of understanding the fundamental concept. from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane
One of the defining characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is difficulty with language and communication.1 Children with ASD's onset of speaking is usually delayed, and many children with ASD consistently produce language less frequently and of lower lexical and grammatical complexity than their typically developing (TD) peers.6,8,12,23 However, children with ASD also exhibit a significant social deficit, and researchers and clinicians continue to debate the extent to which the deficits in social interaction account for or contribute to the deficits in language production.5,14,19,25 Standardized assessments of language in children with ASD usually do include a comprehension component; however, many such comprehension tasks assess just one aspect of language (e.g., vocabulary),5 or include a significant motor component (e.g., pointing, act-out), and/or require children to deliberately choose between a number of alternatives. These last two behaviors are known to also be challenging to children with ASD.7,12,13,16 We present a method which can assess the language comprehension of young typically developing children (9-36 months) and children with autism.2,4,9,11,22 This method, Portable Intermodal Preferential Looking (P-IPL), projects side-by-side video images from a laptop onto a portable screen. The video images are paired first with a 'baseline' (nondirecting) audio, and then presented again paired with a 'test' linguistic audio that matches only one of the video images. Children's eye movements while watching the video are filmed and later coded. Children who understand the linguistic audio will look more quickly to, and longer at, the video that matches the linguistic audio.2,4,11,18,22,26 This paradigm includes a number of components that have recently been miniaturized (projector, camcorder, digitizer) to enable portability and easy setup in children's homes. This is a crucial point for assessing young children with ASD, who are frequently uncomfortable in new (e.g., laboratory) settings. Videos can be created to assess a wide range of specific components of linguistic knowledge, such as Subject-Verb-Object word order, wh-questions, and tense/aspect suffixes on verbs; videos can also assess principles of word learning such as a noun bias, a shape bias, and syntactic bootstrapping.10,14,17,21,24 Videos include characters and speech that are visually and acoustically salient and well tolerated by children with ASD. 19 Related JoVE Articles! Making Sense of Listening: The IMAP Test Battery Institutions: MRC Institute of Hearing Research, National Biomedical Research Unit in Hearing. The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the abilities to extract and use the information encoded in the auditory signal. We refer to these as listening skills (or auditory processing AP). Deficits in these skills are associated with delayed language and literacy development, though the nature of the relevant deficits and their causal connection with these delays is hotly debated. When a child is referred to a health professional with normal hearing and unexplained difficulties in listening, or associated delays in language or literacy development, they should ideally be assessed with a combination of psychoacoustic (AP) tests, suitable for children and for use in a clinic, together with cognitive tests to measure attention, working memory, IQ, and language skills. Such a detailed examination needs to be relatively short and within the technical capability of any suitably qualified professional. Current tests for the presence of AP deficits tend to be poorly constructed and inadequately validated within the normal population. They have little or no reference to the presenting symptoms of the child, and typically include a linguistic component. Poor performance may thus reflect problems with language rather than with AP. To assist in the assessment of children with listening difficulties, pediatric audiologists need a single, standardized child-appropriate test battery based on the use of language-free stimuli. We present the IMAP test battery which was developed at the MRC Institute of Hearing Research to supplement tests currently used to investigate cases of suspected AP deficits. IMAP assesses a range of relevant auditory and cognitive skills and takes about one hour to complete. It has been standardized in 1500 normally-hearing children from across the UK, aged 6-11 years. Since its development, it has been successfully used in a number of large scale studies both in the UK and the USA. IMAP provides measures for separating out sensory from cognitive contributions to hearing. It further limits confounds due to procedural effects by presenting tests in a child-friendly game-format. Stimulus-generation, management of test protocols and control of test presentation is mediated by the IHR-STAR software platform. This provides a standardized methodology for a range of applications and ensures replicable procedures across testers. IHR-STAR provides a flexible, user-programmable environment that currently has additional applications for hearing screening, mapping cochlear implant electrodes, and academic research or teaching. Neuroscience, Issue 44, Listening skills, auditory processing, auditory psychophysics, clinical assessment, child-friendly testing A Research Method For Detecting Transient Myocardial Ischemia In Patients With Suspected Acute Coronary Syndrome Using Continuous ST-segment Analysis Institutions: University of Nevada, Reno, St. Joseph's Medical Center, University of Rochester Medical Center . Each year, an estimated 785,000 Americans will have a new coronary attack, or acute coronary syndrome (ACS). The pathophysiology of ACS involves rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque; hence, treatment is aimed at plaque stabilization in order to prevent cellular death. However, there is considerable debate among clinicians, about which treatment pathway is best: early invasive using percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI/stent) when indicated or a conservative approach (i.e. , medication only with PCI/stent if recurrent symptoms occur). There are three types of ACS: ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), non-ST elevation MI (NSTEMI), and unstable angina (UA). Among the three types, NSTEMI/UA is nearly four times as common as STEMI. Treatment decisions for NSTEMI/UA are based largely on symptoms and resting or exercise electrocardiograms (ECG). However, because of the dynamic and unpredictable nature of the atherosclerotic plaque, these methods often under detect myocardial ischemia because symptoms are unreliable, and/or continuous ECG monitoring was not utilized. Continuous 12-lead ECG monitoring, which is both inexpensive and non-invasive, can identify transient episodes of myocardial ischemia, a precursor to MI, even when asymptomatic. However, continuous 12-lead ECG monitoring is not usual hospital practice; rather, only two leads are typically monitored. Information obtained with 12-lead ECG monitoring might provide useful information for deciding the best ACS treatment. Therefore, using 12-lead ECG monitoring, the COMPARE Study (electroC n of ischeM sive to phaR atment) was designed to assess the frequency and clinical consequences of transient myocardial ischemia, in patients with NSTEMI/UA treated with either early invasive PCI/stent or those managed conservatively (medications or PCI/stent following recurrent symptoms). The purpose of this manuscript is to describe the methodology used in the COMPARE Study. Permission to proceed with this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the hospital and the university. Research nurses identify hospitalized patients from the emergency department and telemetry unit with suspected ACS. Once consented, a 12-lead ECG Holter monitor is applied, and remains in place during the patient's entire hospital stay. Patients are also maintained on the routine bedside ECG monitoring system per hospital protocol. Off-line ECG analysis is done using sophisticated software and careful human oversight. Medicine, Issue 70, Anatomy, Physiology, Cardiology, Myocardial Ischemia, Cardiovascular Diseases, Health Occupations, Health Care, transient myocardial ischemia, Acute Coronary Syndrome, electrocardiogram, ST-segment monitoring, Holter monitoring, research methodology Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism Institutions: University of Texas at Dallas, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The rise of accessible commercial eye-tracking systems has fueled a rapid increase in their use in psychological and psychiatric research. By providing a direct, detailed and objective measure of gaze behavior, eye-tracking has become a valuable tool for examining abnormal perceptual strategies in clinical populations and has been used to identify disorder-specific characteristics1 , promote early identification2 , and inform treatment3 . In particular, investigators of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have benefited from integrating eye-tracking into their research paradigms4-7 . Eye-tracking has largely been used in these studies to reveal mechanisms underlying impaired task performance8 and abnormal brain functioning9 , particularly during the processing of social information1,10-11 . While older children and adults with ASD comprise the preponderance of research in this area, eye-tracking may be especially useful for studying young children with the disorder as it offers a non-invasive tool for assessing and quantifying early-emerging developmental abnormalities2,12-13 . Implementing eye-tracking with young children with ASD, however, is associated with a number of unique challenges, including issues with compliant behavior resulting from specific task demands and disorder-related psychosocial considerations. In this protocol, we detail methodological considerations for optimizing research design, data acquisition and psychometric analysis while eye-tracking young children with ASD. The provided recommendations are also designed to be more broadly applicable for eye-tracking children with other developmental disabilities. By offering guidelines for best practices in these areas based upon lessons derived from our own work, we hope to help other investigators make sound research design and analysis choices while avoiding common pitfalls that can compromise data acquisition while eye-tracking young children with ASD or other developmental difficulties. Medicine, Issue 61, eye tracking, autism, neurodevelopmental disorders, toddlers, perception, attention, social cognition A Novel Rescue Technique for Difficult Intubation and Difficult Ventilation Institutions: Children’s Hospital of Michigan, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital. We describe a novel non surgical technique to maintain oxygenation and ventilation in a case of difficult intubation and difficult ventilation, which works especially well with poor mask fit. Can not intubate, can not ventilate" (CICV) is a potentially life threatening situation. In this video we present a simulation of the technique we used in a case of CICV where oxygenation and ventilation were maintained by inserting an endotracheal tube (ETT) nasally down to the level of the naso-pharynx while sealing the mouth and nares for successful positive pressure ventilation. A 13 year old patient was taken to the operating room for incision and drainage of a neck abcess and direct laryngobronchoscopy. After preoxygenation, anesthesia was induced intravenously. Mask ventilation was found to be extremely difficult because of the swelling of the soft tissue. The face mask could not fit properly on the face due to significant facial swelling as well. A direct laryngoscopy was attempted with no visualization of the larynx. Oxygen saturation was difficult to maintain, with saturations falling to 80%. In order to oxygenate and ventilate the patient, an endotracheal tube was then inserted nasally after nasal spray with nasal decongestant and lubricant. The tube was pushed gently and blindly into the hypopharynx. The mouth and nose of the patient were sealed by hand and positive pressure ventilation was possible with 100% O2 with good oxygen saturation during that period of time. Once the patient was stable and well sedated, a rigid bronchoscope was introduced by the otolaryngologist showing extensive subglottic and epiglottic edema, and a mass effect from the abscess, contributing to the airway compromise. The airway was secured with an ETT tube by the otolaryngologist.This video will show a simulation of the technique on a patient undergoing general anesthesia for dental restorations. Medicine, Issue 47, difficult ventilation, difficult intubation, nasal, saturation Assessment of Cerebral Lateralization in Children using Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound (fTCD) Institutions: University of Oxford. There are many unanswered questions about cerebral lateralization. In particular, it remains unclear which aspects of language and nonverbal ability are lateralized, whether there are any disadvantages associated with atypical patterns of cerebral lateralization, and whether cerebral lateralization develops with age. In the past, researchers interested in these questions tended to use handedness as a proxy measure for cerebral lateralization, but this is unsatisfactory because handedness is only a weak and indirect indicator of laterality of cognitive functions1 . Other methods, such as fMRI, are expensive for large-scale studies, and not always feasible with children2 Here we will describe the use of functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) as a cost-effective, non-invasive and reliable method for assessing cerebral lateralization. The procedure involves measuring blood flow in the middle cerebral artery via an ultrasound probe placed just in front of the ear. Our work builds on work by Rune Aaslid, who co-introduced TCD in 1982, and Stefan Knecht, Michael Deppe and their colleagues at the University of Münster, who pioneered the use of simultaneous measurements of left- and right middle cerebral artery blood flow, and devised a method of correcting for heart beat activity. This made it possible to see a clear increase in left-sided blood flow during language generation, with lateralization agreeing well with that obtained using other methods3 The middle cerebral artery has a very wide vascular territory (see Figure 1) and the method does not provide useful information about localization within a hemisphere. Our experience suggests it is particularly sensitive to tasks that involve explicit or implicit speech production. The 'gold standard' task is a word generation task (e.g. think of as many words as you can that begin with the letter 'B') 4 , but this is not suitable for young children and others with limited literacy skills. Compared with other brain imaging methods, fTCD is relatively unaffected by movement artefacts from speaking, and so we are able to get a reliable result from tasks that involve describing pictures aloud5,6 . Accordingly, we have developed a child-friendly task that involves looking at video-clips that tell a story, and then describing what was seen. Neuroscience, Issue 43, functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound, cerebral lateralization, language, child Prehospital Thrombolysis: A Manual from Berlin Institutions: Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg - Eppendorf, Berliner Feuerwehr, STEMO-Consortium. In acute ischemic stroke, time from symptom onset to intervention is a decisive prognostic factor. In order to reduce this time, prehospital thrombolysis at the emergency site would be preferable. However, apart from neurological expertise and laboratory investigations a computed tomography (CT) scan is necessary to exclude hemorrhagic stroke prior to thrombolysis. Therefore, a specialized ambulance equipped with a CT scanner and point-of-care laboratory was designed and constructed. Further, a new stroke identifying interview algorithm was developed and implemented in the Berlin emergency medical services. Since February 2011 the identification of suspected stroke in the dispatch center of the Berlin Fire Brigade prompts the deployment of this ambulance, a stroke emergency mobile (STEMO). On arrival, a neurologist, experienced in stroke care and with additional training in emergency medicine, takes a neurological examination. If stroke is suspected a CT scan excludes intracranial hemorrhage. The CT-scans are telemetrically transmitted to the neuroradiologist on-call. If coagulation status of the patient is normal and patient's medical history reveals no contraindication, prehospital thrombolysis is applied according to current guidelines (intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, iv rtPA, alteplase, Actilyse). Thereafter patients are transported to the nearest hospital with a certified stroke unit for further treatment and assessment of strokeaetiology. After a pilot-phase, weeks were randomized into blocks either with or without STEMO care. Primary end-point of this study is time from alarm to the initiation of thrombolysis. We hypothesized that alarm-to-treatment time can be reduced by at least 20 min compared to regular care. Medicine, Issue 81, Telemedicine, Emergency Medical Services, Stroke, Tomography, X-Ray Computed, Emergency Treatment,[stroke, thrombolysis, prehospital, emergency medical services, ambulance Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults Institutions: Rutgers University. Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this domain has focused almost exclusively on adult participants, completely ignoring the topic of threat detection over the course of development. One of the biggest reasons for the lack of developmental work in this area is likely the absence of a reliable paradigm that can measure perceptual biases for threat in children. To address this issue, we recently designed a modified visual search paradigm similar to the standard adult paradigm that is appropriate for studying threat detection in preschool-aged participants. Here we describe this new procedure. In the general paradigm, we present participants with matrices of color photographs, and ask them to find and touch a target on the screen. Latency to touch the target is recorded. Using a touch-screen monitor makes the procedure simple and easy, allowing us to collect data in participants ranging from 3 years of age to adults. Thus far, the paradigm has consistently shown that both adults and children detect threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, angry/fearful faces) more quickly than neutral stimuli (e.g., flowers, mushrooms, happy/neutral faces). Altogether, this procedure provides an important new tool for researchers interested in studying the development of attentional biases for threat. Behavior, Issue 92, Detection, threat, attention, attentional bias, anxiety, visual search Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila Institutions: Rutgers University, University of California, Davis, Rutgers University. Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (≡24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila . These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila . Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties. Neuroscience, Issue 43, circadian rhythm, locomotor activity, Drosophila, period, sleep, Trikinetics Surgical Management of Meatal Stenosis with Meatoplasty Institutions: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Meatal stenosis is a common urologic complication after circumcision. Children present to their primary care physicians with complaints of deviated urinary stream, difficult-to-aim, painful urination, and urinary frequency. Clinical exam reveals a pinpoint meatus and if the child is asked to urinate, he will usually have an upward, thin, occasionally forceful urinary stream with incomplete bladder emptying. The mainstay of management is meatoplasty (reconstruction of the distal urethra /meatus). This educational video will demonstrate how this is performed. Medicine, Issue 45, Urinary obstruction, pediatric urology, deviated urinary stream, meatal stenosis, operative repair, meatotomy, meatoplasty Aseptic Laboratory Techniques: Plating Methods Institutions: University of California, Los Angeles . Microorganisms are present on all inanimate surfaces creating ubiquitous sources of possible contamination in the laboratory. Experimental success relies on the ability of a scientist to sterilize work surfaces and equipment as well as prevent contact of sterile instruments and solutions with non-sterile surfaces. Here we present the steps for several plating methods routinely used in the laboratory to isolate, propagate, or enumerate microorganisms such as bacteria and phage. All five methods incorporate aseptic technique, or procedures that maintain the sterility of experimental materials. Procedures described include (1) streak-plating bacterial cultures to isolate single colonies, (2) pour-plating and (3) spread-plating to enumerate viable bacterial colonies, (4) soft agar overlays to isolate phage and enumerate plaques, and (5) replica-plating to transfer cells from one plate to another in an identical spatial pattern. These procedures can be performed at the laboratory bench, provided they involve non-pathogenic strains of microorganisms (Biosafety Level 1, BSL-1). If working with BSL-2 organisms, then these manipulations must take place in a biosafety cabinet. Consult the most current edition of the Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) as well as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for Infectious Substances to determine the biohazard classification as well as the safety precautions and containment facilities required for the microorganism in question. Bacterial strains and phage stocks can be obtained from research investigators, companies, and collections maintained by particular organizations such as the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). It is recommended that non-pathogenic strains be used when learning the various plating methods. By following the procedures described in this protocol, students should be able to: ● Perform plating procedures without contaminating media. ● Isolate single bacterial colonies by the streak-plating method. ● Use pour-plating and spread-plating methods to determine the concentration of bacteria. ● Perform soft agar overlays when working with phage. ● Transfer bacterial cells from one plate to another using the replica-plating procedure. ● Given an experimental task, select the appropriate plating method. Basic Protocols, Issue 63, Streak plates, pour plates, soft agar overlays, spread plates, replica plates, bacteria, colonies, phage, plaques, dilutions Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises Institutions: University of Kentucky, University of Toronto. The purpose of this report is to help develop an understanding of the effects caused by ion gradients across a biological membrane. Two aspects that influence a cell's membrane potential and which we address in these experiments are: (1) Ion concentration of K+ on the outside of the membrane, and (2) the permeability of the membrane to specific ions. The crayfish abdominal extensor muscles are in groupings with some being tonic (slow) and others phasic (fast) in their biochemical and physiological phenotypes, as well as in their structure; the motor neurons that innervate these muscles are correspondingly different in functional characteristics. We use these muscles as well as the superficial, tonic abdominal flexor muscle to demonstrate properties in synaptic transmission. In addition, we introduce a sensory-CNS-motor neuron-muscle circuit to demonstrate the effect of cuticular sensory stimulation as well as the influence of neuromodulators on certain aspects of the circuit. With the techniques obtained in this exercise, one can begin to answer many questions remaining in other experimental preparations as well as in physiological applications related to medicine and health. We have demonstrated the usefulness of model invertebrate preparations to address fundamental questions pertinent to all animals. Neuroscience, Issue 47, Invertebrate, Crayfish, neurophysiology, muscle, anatomy, electrophysiology Assessment and Evaluation of the High Risk Neonate: The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale Institutions: Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, University of Massachusetts, Boston. There has been a long-standing interest in the assessment of the neurobehavioral integrity of the newborn infant. The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was developed as an assessment for the at-risk infant. These are infants who are at increased risk for poor developmental outcome because of insults during prenatal development, such as substance exposure or prematurity or factors such as poverty, poor nutrition or lack of prenatal care that can have adverse effects on the intrauterine environment and affect the developing fetus. The NNNS assesses the full range of infant neurobehavioral performance including neurological integrity, behavioral functioning, and signs of stress/abstinence. The NNNS is a noninvasive neonatal assessment tool with demonstrated validity as a predictor, not only of medical outcomes such as cerebral palsy diagnosis, neurological abnormalities, and diseases with risks to the brain, but also of developmental outcomes such as mental and motor functioning, behavior problems, school readiness, and IQ. The NNNS can identify infants at high risk for abnormal developmental outcome and is an important clinical tool that enables medical researchers and health practitioners to identify these infants and develop intervention programs to optimize the development of these infants as early as possible. The video shows the NNNS procedures, shows examples of normal and abnormal performance and the various clinical populations in which the exam can be used. Behavior, Issue 90, NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale, NNNS, High risk infant, Assessment, Evaluation, Prediction, Long term outcome An Affordable HIV-1 Drug Resistance Monitoring Method for Resource Limited Settings Institutions: University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, Jembi Health Systems, University of Amsterdam, Stanford Medical School. HIV-1 drug resistance has the potential to seriously compromise the effectiveness and impact of antiretroviral therapy (ART). As ART programs in sub-Saharan Africa continue to expand, individuals on ART should be closely monitored for the emergence of drug resistance. Surveillance of transmitted drug resistance to track transmission of viral strains already resistant to ART is also critical. Unfortunately, drug resistance testing is still not readily accessible in resource limited settings, because genotyping is expensive and requires sophisticated laboratory and data management infrastructure. An open access genotypic drug resistance monitoring method to manage individuals and assess transmitted drug resistance is described. The method uses free open source software for the interpretation of drug resistance patterns and the generation of individual patient reports. The genotyping protocol has an amplification rate of greater than 95% for plasma samples with a viral load >1,000 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml. The sensitivity decreases significantly for viral loads <1,000 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml. The method described here was validated against a method of HIV-1 drug resistance testing approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Viroseq genotyping method. Limitations of the method described here include the fact that it is not automated and that it also failed to amplify the circulating recombinant form CRF02_AG from a validation panel of samples, although it amplified subtypes A and B from the same panel. Medicine, Issue 85, Biomedical Technology, HIV-1, HIV Infections, Viremia, Nucleic Acids, genetics, antiretroviral therapy, drug resistance, genotyping, affordable Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults Institutions: Emory University School of Medicine, Brigham and Woman‘s Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital. Adapted tango dancing improves mobility and balance in older adults and additional populations with balance impairments. It is composed of very simple step elements. Adapted tango involves movement initiation and cessation, multi-directional perturbations, varied speeds and rhythms. Focus on foot placement, whole body coordination, and attention to partner, path of movement, and aesthetics likely underlie adapted tango’s demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. In this paper, we describe the methodology to disseminate the adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and to implement the adapted tango by the trainees in the community for older adults and individuals with Parkinson’s Disease (PD). Efficacy in improving mobility (measured with the Timed Up and Go, Tandem stance, Berg Balance Scale, Gait Speed and 30 sec chair stand), safety and fidelity of the program is maximized through targeted instructor and volunteer training and a structured detailed syllabus outlining class practices and progression. Behavior, Issue 94, Dance, tango, balance, pedagogy, dissemination, exercise, older adults, Parkinson's Disease, mobility impairments, falls Measurement Of Neuromagnetic Brain Function In Pre-school Children With Custom Sized MEG Institutions: Macquarie University. Magnetoencephalography is a technique that detects magnetic fields associated with cortical activity . The electrophysiological activity of the brain generates electric fields - that can be recorded using electroencephalography (EEG)- and their concomitant magnetic fields - detected by MEG. MEG signals are detected by specialized sensors known as superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). Superconducting sensors require cooling with liquid helium at -270 °C. They are contained inside a vacumm-insulated helmet called a dewar, which is filled with liquid. SQUIDS are placed in fixed positions inside the helmet dewar in the helium coolant, and a subject's head is placed inside the helmet dewar for MEG measurements. The helmet dewar must be sized to satisfy opposing constraints. Clearly, it must be large enough to fit most or all of the heads in the population that will be studied. However, the helmet must also be small enough to keep most of the SQUID sensors within range of the tiny cerebral fields that they are to measure. Conventional whole-head MEG systems are designed to accommodate more than 90% of adult heads. However adult systems are not well suited for measuring brain function in pre-school chidren whose heads have a radius several cm smaller than adults. The KIT-Macquarie Brain Research Laboratory at Macquarie University uses a MEG system custom sized to fit the heads of pre-school children. This child system has 64 first-order axial gradiometers with a 50 mm baseline and is contained inside a magnetically-shielded room (MSR) together with a conventional adult-sized MEG system [3,4]. There are three main advantages of the customized helmet dewar for studying children. First, the smaller radius of the sensor configuration brings the SQUID sensors into range of the neuromagnetic signals of children's heads. Second, the smaller helmet allows full insertion of a child's head into the dewar. Full insertion is prevented in adult dewar helmets because of the smaller crown to shoulder distance in children. These two factors are fundamental in recording brain activity using MEG because neuromagnetic signals attenuate rapidly with distance. Third, the customized child helmet aids in the symmetric positioning of the head and limits the freedom of movement of the child's head within the dewar. When used with a protocol that aligns the requirements of data collection with the motivational and behavioral capacities of children, these features significantly facilitate setup, positioning, and measurement of MEG signals. Neuroscience, Issue 36, Magnetoencephalography, Pediatrics, Brain Mapping, Language, Brain Development, Cognitive Neuroscience, Language Acquisition, Linguistics Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children Institutions: UCL Institute of Child Health, University College London. EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and signal processing make it possible to exploit information from other imaging modalities like structural MRI that provide high spatial resolution to overcome this constraint1 . This is especially useful for investigations that require high resolution in the temporal as well as spatial domain. In addition, due to the easy application and low cost of EEG recordings, EEG is often the method of choice when working with populations, such as young children, that do not tolerate functional MRI scans well. However, in order to investigate which neural substrates are involved, anatomical information from structural MRI is still needed. Most EEG analysis packages work with standard head models that are based on adult anatomy. The accuracy of these models when used for children is limited2 , because the composition and spatial configuration of head tissues changes dramatically over development3 In the present paper, we provide an overview of our recent work in utilizing head models based on individual structural MRI scans or age specific head models to reconstruct the cortical generators of high density EEG. This article describes how EEG recordings are acquired, processed, and analyzed with pediatric populations at the London Baby Lab, including laboratory setup, task design, EEG preprocessing, MRI processing, and EEG channel level and source analysis. Behavior, Issue 88, EEG, electroencephalogram, development, source analysis, pediatric, minimum-norm estimation, cognitive neuroscience, event-related potentials Quantitative Assessment of Cortical Auditory-tactile Processing in Children with Disabilities Institutions: Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt University. Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess children's cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing children discomfort. To accomplish this we developed a dual channel, time and strength calibrated air puff stimulator that allows both tactile stimulation and sham control. We combined this with the use of event-related potential methodology to allow for high temporal resolution of signals from the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices as well as higher order processing. This methodology also allowed us to measure a multisensory response to auditory-tactile stimulation. Behavior, Issue 83, somatosensory, event related potential, auditory-tactile, multisensory, cortical response, child Using Visual and Narrative Methods to Achieve Fair Process in Clinical Care Institutions: Brandeis University, Brandeis University. The Institute of Medicine has targeted patient-centeredness as an important area of quality improvement. A major dimension of patient-centeredness is respect for patient's values, preferences, and expressed needs. Yet specific approaches to gaining this understanding and translating it to quality care in the clinical setting are lacking. From a patient perspective quality is not a simple concept but is best understood in terms of five dimensions: technical outcomes; decision-making efficiency; amenities and convenience; information and emotional support; and overall patient satisfaction. Failure to consider quality from this five-pronged perspective results in a focus on medical outcomes, without considering the processes central to quality from the patient's perspective and vital to achieving good outcomes. In this paper, we argue for applying the concept of fair process in clinical settings. Fair process involves using a collaborative approach to exploring diagnostic issues and treatments with patients, explaining the rationale for decisions, setting expectations about roles and responsibilities, and implementing a core plan and ongoing evaluation. Fair process opens the door to bringing patient expertise into the clinical setting and the work of developing health care goals and strategies. This paper provides a step by step illustration of an innovative visual approach, called photovoice or photo-elicitation, to achieve fair process in clinical work with acquired brain injury survivors and others living with chronic health conditions. Applying this visual tool and methodology in the clinical setting will enhance patient-provider communication; engage patients as partners in identifying challenges, strengths, goals, and strategies; and support evaluation of progress over time. Asking patients to bring visuals of their lives into the clinical interaction can help to illuminate gaps in clinical knowledge, forge better therapeutic relationships with patients living with chronic conditions such as brain injury, and identify patient-centered goals and possibilities for healing. The process illustrated here can be used by clinicians, (primary care physicians, rehabilitation therapists, neurologists, neuropsychologists, psychologists, and others) working with people living with chronic conditions such as acquired brain injury, mental illness, physical disabilities, HIV/AIDS, substance abuse, or post-traumatic stress, and by leaders of support groups for the types of patients described above and their family members or caregivers. Medicine, Issue 48, person-centered care, participatory visual methods, photovoice, photo-elicitation, narrative medicine, acquired brain injury, disability, rehabilitation, palliative care Making MR Imaging Child's Play - Pediatric Neuroimaging Protocol, Guidelines and Procedure Institutions: Children’s Hospital Boston, University of Zurich, Harvard, Harvard Medical School. Within the last decade there has been an increase in the use of structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the neural basis of human perception, cognition and behavior 1, 2 . Moreover, this non-invasive imaging method has grown into a tool for clinicians and researchers to explore typical and atypical brain development. Although advances in neuroimaging tools and techniques are apparent, (f)MRI in young pediatric populations remains relatively infrequent 2 . Practical as well as technical challenges when imaging children present clinicians and research teams with a unique set of problems 3, 2 . To name just a few, the child participants are challenged by a need for motivation, alertness and cooperation. Anxiety may be an additional factor to be addressed. Researchers or clinicians need to consider time constraints, movement restriction, scanner background noise and unfamiliarity with the MR scanner environment2,4-10 . A progressive use of functional and structural neuroimaging in younger age groups, however, could further add to our understanding of brain development. As an example, several research groups are currently working towards early detection of developmental disorders, potentially even before children present associated behavioral characteristics e.g.11 . Various strategies and techniques have been reported as a means to ensure comfort and cooperation of young children during neuroimaging sessions. Play therapy 12 , behavioral approaches 13, 14,15, 16-18 and simulation 19 , the use of mock scanner areas 20,21 , basic relaxation 22 and a combination of these techniques 23 have all been shown to improve the participant's compliance and thus MRI data quality. Even more importantly, these strategies have proven to increase the comfort of families and children involved 12 . One of the main advances of such techniques for the clinical practice is the possibility of avoiding sedation or general anesthesia (GA) as a way to manage children's compliance during MR imaging sessions 19,20 . In the current video report, we present a pediatric neuroimaging protocol with guidelines and procedures that have proven to be successful to date in young children. Neuroscience, Issue 29, fMRI, imaging, development, children, pediatric neuroimaging, cognitive development, magnetic resonance imaging, pediatric imaging protocol, patient preparation, mock scanner
Sleep deprivation has been reported to contribute to several disease processes and to reduce longevity. It leads to hormonal and neurochemical changes. In the short term lack of sleep reduces performance and alertness. Cognition and memory are impaired and the risk of injury increases with sleep deprivation. In the long term the consequences of sleep deprivation are worse: high blood pressure, heart attack, stroke, obesity and depression. Now you can add dry eye to the list. A recent study of very healthy young male subjects implies that the tears are negatively affected by less sleep. The subjects were not allowed to sleep for 24 hours. When multiple measurements of their tears were compared to the subjects that slept for 8 hours there was a significant difference. The tears evaporated quicker, the tear volume was less and inflammatory markers were higher. It doesn’t take much to imagine that combined with other factors that contribute to dry eye disease such as medications, hormones and eyelid health, sleep deprivation will worsen the condition. Dry eye disease is a common ocular surface disease associated with symptoms of eye discomfort, grittiness and visual disturbance. Conquering the causes of sleep deprivation should be foremost in maintaining good health, and having a dry eye evaluation to improve the tear quality is also recommended. Comments are closed.
Focus question 3: Where have Australians' human rights come from and how are they protected? Conduct activities 1, 2. Activities 3 to 6 are optional. Activity 1 \| Activity 2 \| Activity 3 \| Activity 4 \| Activity 5 \| Activity 6 \| Assessment task Activity 1: Rights defined in the Australian Constitution Vocabulary: Australian Constitution, referendum, compensation, compulsory acquisition, trial by jury, discrimination, abolish, adopted as official religion, funding, unanimous verdict, majority verdict, market price. - Explain the rights guaranteed by the Australian Constitution. - Draw the table on the board. - Clarify the situations. - Complete Situation a with the class, using the table, as an example. - Students complete the remaining Situations in small groups. (Consider dividing the number of situations among groups). - Conduct 1b as a class discussion. Activity 2: Acts of Parliament - case studies Vocabulary: Act of Parliament, Racial Discrimination Act, Ombudsman, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, common law, statute law, prejudice. - Conduct 2a and 2b as a whole-class exercise. - Explain 'Power of Acts of Parliament'. - Explain Case study 2. Students complete 2c in small groups. - Explain and conduct Case study 3 as for Case Study 2. Activity 3: Court decisions - case study (optional) Vocabulary: common law, statute law, prejudice. - Explain and conduct Case study 4 like the case studies in Activity 2. Activity 4: Amnesty International and Councils for Civil Liberties (optional) Vocabulary: non-party political. - Conduct as a class discussion. Activity 5: Investigating democratic rights in Australia - case study (optional) Conduct activities parts 5a to 5e only. Vocabulary: free speech, political censorship, racial vilification. - Conduct this activity as a small group activity. Select an even number of groups. Assign half the groups the task of 'arguing for' and the other half the task of 'arguing against'. - Construct the table on the board. Record groups' arguments on the table. - Continue with parts 5d to 5e as a class discussion. Activity 6: Applying a Bill of Rights (optional) Conduct activity parts 6b, 6c, 6d only. Vocabulary: Bill of Rights, cite, peaceful assembly, secret ballot, suffrage, campaign, placard. - Explain the notion of a Bill of Rights. - Conduct part 6b as a small group exercise. - Construct the table on the board. Record groups' responses on the table. - Conduct 6c and 6d as a class discussion. - Debating is a demanding task for ESL learners. Place them in groups of about five students. All group members work on preparing the information for the speeches. Nominated students do the presenting. Back to 'Human Rights - At a glance'
The main idea of asymptotic analysis is to have a measure of efficiency of algorithms that doesn’t depend on machine specific constants, mainly because this analysis doesn’t require algorithms to be implemented and time taken by programs to be compared. We have already discussed Three main asymptotic notations. The following 2 more asymptotic notations are used to represent time complexity of algorithms. Little ο asymptotic notation Big-Ο is used as a tight upper-bound on the growth of an algorithm’s effort (this effort is described by the function f(n)), even though, as written, it can also be a loose upper-bound. “Little-ο” (ο()) notation is used to describe an upper-bound that cannot be tight. Definition : Let f(n) and g(n) be functions that map positive integers to positive real numbers. We say that f(n) is ο(g(n)) (or f(n) Ε ο(g(n))) if for any real constant c > 0, there exists an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) 0. Its means little o() means loose upper-bound of f(n). In mathematical relation, f(n) = o(g(n)) means lim f(n)/g(n) = 0 Is 7n + 8 ∈ o(n2)? In order for that to be true, for any c, we have to be able to find an n0 that makes f(n) < c * g(n) asymptotically true. lets took some example, If c = 100,we check the inequality is clearly true. If c = 1/100 , we’ll have to use a little more imagination, but we’ll be able to find an n0. (Try n0 = 1000.) From these examples, the conjecture appears to be correct. then check limits, lim f(n)/g(n) = lim (7n + 8)/(n2) = lim 7/2n = 0 (l’hospital) n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ hence 7n + 8 ∈ o(n2) Little ω asymptotic notation Definition : Let f(n) and g(n) be functions that map positive integers to positive real numbers. We say that f(n) is ω(g(n)) (or f(n) ∈ ω(g(n))) if for any real constant c > 0, there exists an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) > c * g(n) ≥ 0 for every integer n ≥ n0. f(n) has a higher growth rate than g(n) so main difference between Big Omega (Ω) and little omega (ω) lies in their definitions.In the case of Big Omega f(n)=Ω(g(n)) and the bound is 0<=cg(n)0, but in case of little omega, it is true for all constant c>0. we use ω notation to denote a lower bound that is not asymptotically tight. and, f(n) ∈ ω(g(n)) if and only if g(n) ∈ ο((f(n)). In mathematical relation, if f(n) ∈ ω(g(n)) then, lim f(n)/g(n) = ∞ Prove that 4n + 6 ∈ ο(1); the little omega(ο) running time can be proven by applying limit formula given below. if lim f(n)/g(n) = ∞ then functions f(n) is ο(g(n)) here,we have functions f(n)=4n+6 and g(n)=1 lim (4n+6)/(1) = ∞ and,also for any c we can get n0 for this inequality 0 <= cg(n) < f(n), 0 <= c1 < 4n+6 Introduction to algorithems This article is contributed by Kadam Patel. If you like GeeksforGeeks and would like to contribute, you can also write an article using contribute.geeksforgeeks.org or mail your article to [email protected]. See your article appearing on the GeeksforGeeks main page and help other Geeks. Please write comments if you find anything incorrect, or you want to share more information about the topic discussed above.
The respiratory membrane allows gases to be exchanged between the pulmonary capillaries, or blood vessels, and the respiratory units of the lungs, which consist of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, atria and alveoli, according to John E. Hall in the Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. This exchange transports oxygen from the alveoli into red blood cells and carbon dioxide from blood cells into the alveoli. Certain factors affect the diffusion rate, including the membrane's thickness and surface area and the concentration gradient, notes Hall. An exchange of gases supplies oxygen to the cells and removes carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled by the lungs. The respiratory membrane can be thickened by fluid in the lungs, which forces gases to diffuse through the fluid and the membrane. Pulmonary diseases that result in fibrosis or scarring of the lungs can also cause the membrane to become thicker. The surface area of the lung is decreased by the removal of a lung or by emphysema, causing the alveoli to coalesce, thus destroying alveolar walls. The loss of alveolar walls decreases the surface area of the respiratory membrane, which impedes the exchange of gases and hinders the ability of the lungs to expel air, explains The McGraw-Hill Human Physiology textbook. The respiratory membrane is coated with mucus, a clear, slippery substance that protects tissues from dust, bacteria and viruses.
Actions or speech intended to help others “Be kind whenever possible. It is always possible.”—Dalai Lama Why does kindness matter? When you act kindly toward others, the benefits go both ways. Small, thoughtful acts—like helping, sharing, listening, or teaching—can change both how you are perceived and how you see yourself. When children are encouraged to be kind, their peers want to spend more time around them. Not only does kindness strengthen social relationships, but it also can show that your choices have an impact and that you have valuable skills (like the ability to make friends). In short, being kind to others is also being kind to yourself. Think about yourself. How many of these things are true? - I pay attention to what other people want or need to try to figure out how I can help. - I go out of my way to do favors for others, speak up to support them, share what I have, or simply listen when they need a friend. - I consciously make small sacrifices to be kind to others, like taking a few minutes to do an extra chore or listening to a story even if I’m not in the mood for it. - I try to think about how much my actions mean to others instead of how much of a burden they are for me. How do I encourage kindness in others? Model it. When being helpful to others, talk about why you’re doing it. Try to include the cue for the behavior and what outcome you anticipate: “I noticed that you all seem a little down today because it is Monday, so I decided to give the class an extra five minutes of free time to talk to the people around you. I hope that this can help you feel a little more awake and excited to work.” Point out things you notice about others, and brainstorm together about things that you can do. “I notice that Grandma is unhappy when her house is messy. What do you think I could do to help?” Celebrate it. When you notice kind behavior, try to make clear why it’s so generous. “I saw that you gave your seat up on the bus for the older gentleman. That was very thoughtful of you to choose to stand so that he could sit. I am sure that you helped give him a rest.” Work with the young people in your life to become “kindness detectives” who are constantly alert to others’ needs or wants. Enable it. Making “If ___, then ___” plans can support habit formation. For example: “If someone is walking behind me through a door, then I will hold the door for them.” Planning what to do in future situations can make the decision happen more naturally when they arise. About the Authors Talking to Strangers Take the Sting Out Through the Eyes of a Child Better Your Best Pay It Forward Character is more than just kindness. There are many other strengths of heart, mind, and will.LEARN MORE ABOUT CHARACTER
Fig 1: Inflation stretched the initial microscopic Universe to a macroscopic size and turned the cosmic energy into matter. However, it likely created an equal amount of matter and anti-matter predicting complete annihilation of our universe. The authors discuss the possibility that a phase transition after inflation led to a tiny imbalance between the amount of matter and anti-matter, so that some matter could survive a near-complete annihilation. Such a phase transition is likely to lead to a network of "rubber-band"-like objects called cosmic strings, that would produce ripples of space-time known as gravitational waves. These propagating waves can get through the hot and dense Universe and reach us today, 13.8 billion years after the phase transition. Such gravitational waves can most likely be discovered by current and future experiments. (Original credit: R. Hurt/Caltech-JPL, NASA, and ESA Credit: Kavli IPMU - Kavli IPMU modified this figure based on the image credited by R.Hurt/Caltech-JPL, NASA, and ESA) Recently discovered ripples of spacetime called gravitational waves could contain evidence to prove the theory that life survived the Big Bang because of a phase transition that allowed neutrino particles to reshuffle matter and anti-matter, explains a new study by an international team of researchers. How we were saved from a complete annihilation is not a question in science fiction or a Hollywood movie. According to the Big Bang theory of modern cosmology, matter was created with an equal amount of anti-matter. If it had stayed that way, matter and anti-matter should have eventually met and annihilated one to one, leading up to a complete annihilation. But our existence contradicts this theory. To overcome a complete annihilation, the Universe must have turned a small amount of anti-matter into matter creating an imbalance between them. The imbalance needed is only a part in a billion. But it has remained a complete mystery when and how the imbalance was created. “The Universe becomes opaque to light once we look back to around a million years after its birth. This makes the fundamental question of ‘why are we here?’ difficult to answer,” says paper co-author Jeff Dror, postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Berkeley, and physics researcher at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Since matter and anti-matter have the opposite electrical charges, they cannot turn into each other, unless they are electrical neutral. Neutrinos are the only electrical neutral matter particles we know, and they are the strongest contender to do this job. A theory many researchers support is that the Universe went through a phase transition so that neutrinos could reshuffle matter and anti-matter. “A phase transition is like boiling water to vapor, or cooling water to ice. The behavior of matter changes at specific temperatures called critical temperature. When a certain metal is cooled to a low temperature, it loses electrical resistance completely by a phase transition, becoming a superconductor. It is the basis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) for cancer diagnosis or maglev technology that floats a train so that it can run at 300 miles an hour without causing dizziness. Just like a superconductor, the phase transition in the early Universe may have created a very thin tube of magnetic fields called cosmic strings,” explains paper co-author Hitoshi Murayama, MacAdams Professor of Physics at the University of California, Berkeley, Principal Investigator at the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, University of Tokyo, and senior faculty scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Dror and Murayama are part of a team of researchers from Japan, US and Canada who believe the cosmic strings then try to simplify themselves, leading up to tiny wobbling of spacetime called gravitational waves. These could be detected by future space-borne observatories such as LISA, BBO (European Space Agency) or DECIGO (Japanese Astronautical Exploration Agency) for nearly all possible critical temperatures. “The recent discovery of gravitational waves opens up a new opportunity to look back further to a time, as the Universe is transparent to gravity all the way back to the beginning. When the Universe might have been a trillion to a quadrillion times hotter than the hottest place in the Universe today, neutrinos are likely to have behaved in just the way we require to ensure our survival. We demonstrated that they probably also left behind a background of detectable gravitational ripples to let us know,” says paper co-author Graham White, a postdoctoral fellow at TRIUMF. “Cosmic strings used to be popular as a way of creating small variations in mass densities that eventually became stars and galaxies, but it died because recent data excluded this idea. Now with our work, the idea comes back for a different reason. This is exciting!” says Takashi Hiramatsu, a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo, which runs Japan’s gravitational wave detector KAGRA and Hyper-Kamiokande experiments. “Gravitational wave from cosmic strings has a spectrum very different from astrophysical sources such as merger of black holes. It is quite plausible that we will be completely convinced the source is indeed cosmic strings,” says Kazunori Kohri, Associate Professor at the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization Theory Center in Japan. “It would be really exciting to learn why we exist at all,” says Murayama. “This is the ultimate question in science.” The paper was published as an Editor’s Suggestion in Physical Review Letters online on 28 January, 2020. Quelle: KAVLI INSTITUTE FOR THE PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS OF THE UNIVERSE
Laryngeal or voice box cancer is not as well known by the general public as some other types of cancer, yet it is not a rare disease. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2005 almost 10,000 new cases of laryngeal cancer will be diagnosed, and close to 3,800 people will die from laryngeal cancer in the United States. Even for survivors, the consequences of laryngeal cancer can be severe with respect to voice, breathing, or swallowing. It is fundamentally a preventable disease though, since the primary risk factors for laryngeal cancer are associated with modifiable behaviors. Risk Factors Associated With Laryngeal Cancer Development of laryngeal cancer is a process that involves many factors, but approximately 90 percent of head and neck cancers occur after exposure to known carcinogens (cancer causing substances). Chief among these factors is tobacco. Over 90 percent of laryngeal cancers are a type of cancer called squamous cell carcinoma (SCCA), and over 95 percent of patients with laryngeal SCCA are smokers. Smoking contributes to cancer development by causing mutations or changes in genes, impairing clearance of carcinogens from the respiratory tract, and decreasing the body’s immune response. Tobacco use is measured in pack-years, where one pack per day for one year is considered one pack-year. Two pack-years is defined as either one pack per day for two years, or two packs per day for one year (Longer terms of pack years are determined using a similar ratio.) Depending upon the number of pack-years smoked, studies have reported that smokers are about 5 to 35 times more likely to develop laryngeal cancer than non-smokers. It does seem that the duration of tobacco exposure is probably more important overall to cancer causing effect, than the intensity of the exposure. Alcohol is another important risk factor for laryngeal cancer, and acts as a promoter of the cancer causing process. The major clinical significance of alcohol is that it potentiates the effects of tobacco. Magnitude of this effect is between an additive and a multiplicative one. That is, people who smoke and drink alcohol have a combined risk that is greater than the sum of the individual risks. The American Cancer Society recommends that those who drink alcoholic beverages should limit the amount of alcohol they consume, with one drink per day considered a limited alcohol exposure. Other risk factors for laryngeal cancer include certain viruses, such as human papilloma virus (HPV), and likely acid reflux. Vitamin A and beta-carotene may play a protective role. Signs and Symptoms of Laryngeal Cancer Signs and symptoms of laryngeal cancer include: progressive or persistent hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, persistent sore throat or pain with swallowing, difficulty breathing, pain in the ear, or a lump in the neck. Anyone with these signs or symptoms should be evaluated by an Otolaryngologist (Ear, Nose and Throat Doctor). This is particularly important for people with risk factors for laryngeal cancer. Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer The primary treatment options for laryngeal cancer include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these treatments. Remember that this is a preventable disease in the vast majority of cases, because the main risk factors are associated with modifiable behaviors. Do not smoke and do not abuse alcohol!
Found only in the Wet Tropics and parts of Cape York in Australia, cassowaries are fascinating and unique birds. But as thrilling as it is to see them in the wild, the future of this endangered species is uncertain. Like many endangered species, the cassowary population in the Wet Tropics has been put at risk by the destruction and fragmentation of its natural habitat as a result of land clearing and urban development. Thankfully many local communities are passionate about cassowary conservation so this distinctive bird at least has a fighting chance of surviving. The area south of Cairns has even taken the step of calling themselves the Cassowary Coast, and the local mayor sums it up well by saying, “I don’t want to be mayor of the ‘Extinction Coast’”. [headline size=”small” align=”left”]protecting cassowaries[/headline] Local communities and authorities have certainly taken protecting cassowary habitat more seriously in recent years. Nearly 90% is now protected by National Parks although much of this is on steep slopes. The best habitat is still in demand for other uses so cassowaries continue to face threats from traffic and domestic dog attacks. Cassowaries are large birds that require large areas of habitat with food and water sources to survive. Because of this, and the fact that much of their habitat has become fragmented, cassowaries are often seen crossing roads and walking through urban areas. [headline size=”small” align=”left”]what’s being done?[/headline] Recent analysis by Terrain NRM in partnership with Cairns Tropical Zoo has revealed that Mission Beach is the main hotspot for cassowary deaths, particularly due to vehicle strike. The Mission Beach tourist information centre has said “110%” of tourists visiting the area want to see a cassowary. Subsequently, local community groups who are very actively involved in cassowary conservation are working closely with tourism to find a way for cassowaries and tourism to benefit each other. Many of the strategies being put in place to protect cassowaries include mapping important cassowary corridors for planning purposes and revegetating habitat so that fragmented pockets can be reconnected, allowing cassowaries to roam more easily between each habitat. The next step in securing the recovery of cassowaries and their environment is dependent on minimising vehicle strikes and dog attacks, whilst maintaining habitat and revegetating corridors. [headline size=”small” align=”left”]why is the cassowary so important?[/headline] The cassowary has become an iconic symbol of the Wet Tropics and it generates important tourism dollars for local communities. However, its environmental role as the ‘rainforest gardener’, which supports the ecology and diversity of the rainforest, is its most vital role. All animals help maintain the ecosystem by eating fruits and spreading seeds. However, as the largest creature in the rainforest, the cassowary is the only one capable of ingesting larger fruits and seeds, so certain plant species are dependent on the cassowary for their survival. What also makes the cassowary so special is the fact that it has an unusual digestive system that allows it to consume fruits that would be toxic to other species. Scientists therefore consider cassowaries to be an ‘umbrella’ or ‘keystone’ species, because without them, some other species might also become extinct. [headline size=”small” align=”left”]best places to see cassowaries in the wild in nq[/headline] While seeing any kind of animal in the wild can never be guaranteed, the places in North Queensland where you are most likely to see a cassowary in the wild include Mission Beach, Etty Bay, Kuranda and the Daintree. [headline size=”small” align=”left”]interesting cassowary facts:[/headline] - Cassowaries are part of the same family of birds as emus and ostrichs - There are 3 species: Southern, Northern and Dwarf - The Southern Cassowary is the only one found in Australia (it is also present in Papua New Guinea and the Aru Islands) - They can grow to a height of 2 metres - Mating season is June-September - The fathers raise the chicks - They are solitary birds so you won’t often see them in groups unless you see a male with its chicks - They mostly eat fruit [headline size=”small” align=”left”]travel nq fast facts:[/headline] - If you see a cassowary, don’t approach it, they have been known to be dangerous towards humans, especially if they have chicks. - Do not feed them – this makes them dependent on humans and attracts them to places where they are at greater risk of vehicle strike or dog attack. - If you’re driving in areas like Mission Beach and the Daintree, take notice of the road signs and slow down.
Most recently reviewed by: Blayne Reed & Ballinger (Vacant) (1970) Common Name(s): dobsonfly, hellgrammite, toe biter Dobsonflies are not really flies (insects in the Order Diptera). They are in the Order Megaloptera along with the Alderflies and Fishflies, all of which have aquatic larvae. The adults are quite striking in appearance with membranous wings and bodies 1.9 to 2.4 inches long, and often covered by wings that are much longer. Wingspans are from 3.9 – 5.5 inches. Males have long, sickle-like mandibles used to hold females during mating or for self defense, and females have relatively short mandibles. It is not known whether adults feed during their 3-10 day lifespans, but some entomologists suggest that they do. Larvae are equally striking and can be as long as 2 3/4 inches. They are aquatic and have both gills for breathing under water and spiracles for breathing on land. The larvae are commonly called hellgrammites and are sometimes sold as fish bait. Origin and Distribution There are some 30 species of dobsonflies in the New World, but only one in the United States, the eastern dobsonfly. There is some disagreement though, as the there are three western species in genus Corydalus, but these are currently included under species cornutus. Dobsonflies are also found in Asia, Africa and Australia. Habitat & Hosts Dobsonfly larvae live in flowing water, often at the base of rocks in fast moving water. They feed on the larvae of other aquatic insect species living in the same location. Because they have gills they do not need to surface for air. Eggs are laid in masses on leaves and structures above flowing water, or on rocks at water’s edge. They are covered with a white substance that is said to help protect the eggs from overheating. Eggs hatch at night and first instar larvae drop or crawl to water and disperse. There are 10 – 12 larval instars (or stages), and it takes 1-3 years to complete development. Pupation occurs on land near the stream from which they emerged. Prepupae excavate small cells in moist soil then enter the pupal stage. Adults emerge 7-14 days later. Adult males live only a few days, and females as many as 10 days. ManagementIf you live in the State of Texas, contact your local county agent or entomologist for management information. If you live outside of Texas, contact your local extension for management options. Dobsonflies and hellgrammites are beneficial insects. They are a key component of the food chain for fish that live in the streams and rivers where they are found. The predatory nature of the larvae helps keep other species in check, including blackflies, a serious biting pest. Eastern Dobsonfly. University of Florida Featured Creatures. http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/eastern_dobsonfly.htm
Back to top Consider what makes a ceramic mug the perfect container for a morning cup of coffee: the material is durable and resists heat and corrosion. Due to strong interatomic crystalline bonds created when clay, earthen elements, and water are heated to between 1,200 and 1,800°C, a ceramic mug will last a long time—as long as no one drops it. The material also keeps the coffee hot and does not chemically react with it. Transparent ceramics exhibit similar desirable characteristics and are used in streetlamps and bullet-proof windows. Having developed several transparent ceramics for radiation detection applications for the Department of Homeland Security and the Stockpile Stewardship Program, Lawrence Livermore recently leveraged its unique additive manufacturing resources and capabilities to develop transparent ceramics with properties not previously available for use as laser materials. As Livermore researcher Zachary Seeley explains, the key difference between opaque and transparent ceramics is that transparent ceramics lack pores or holes. “In most common ceramics, microscopic pores or secondary structural crystal phases in the final product cause light to scatter, making them opaque,” says Seeley. Transparent ceramics are formed by using extreme heat and pressure to consolidate raw material nanopowder, an inorganic, polycrystalline material, into an initial “green body” of weakly bound material. The green body is then heated in a vacuum or controlled atmosphere to just below the material’s melting point in a process called sintering. To remove any remaining pores, the sintered ceramic is then subjected to very high temperatures and pressures in a process called hot isostatic pressing. The result is a fully dense nonporous ceramic object that is stronger and harder than glass and more resistant to corrosion, heat, or extreme environments than many other materials. The ability to control the structure, composition, and properties of transparent ceramics makes them ideal for applications that demand a high degree of precision, particularly laser optics. (See S&TR, April 2006, Transparent Ceramics Spark Laser Advances.) The Laboratory’s early work on transparent ceramics that could replace glass in various applications led to several breakthroughs, including a gadolinium–lutetium–oxide (GLO) transparent ceramic scintillator developed by a team led by Nerine Cherepy, which won an R&D 100 Award in 2016. The GLO scintillator converts x rays to visible light more efficiently than glass, allowing advanced computed tomography systems to produce detailed, 3D images of large, complex objects in less time. (See S&TR, January 2017, Novel Scintillator Improves X-Ray Imaging.) Currently, Ian Phillips and Josh Smith, materials scientists in the Laboratory’s Materials Science division, are working with vendors to commercialize GLO plates in sizes up to 1,300 square centimeters. Research and development also continues into transparent ceramics for scintillators, which have applications in x- and gamma-ray detection. Cherepy and colleagues are currently developing transparent polycrystalline gadolinium–garnet ceramic scintillators doped with cerium for use in gamma spectroscopy and radiation portal monitors. Still, challenges remained. Applications of transparent ceramics, particularly in the laser science arena, were limited by residual microstructural defects. “With its exceptional expertise in additive manufacturing, chemistry, and laser science, and its multidisciplinary approach,” says Seeley, “the Laboratory was uniquely positioned to tackle this problem.” Seeley notes that transparent ceramics offer an advantage over traditional crystalline optics materials—spatially controlled doping with ions that absorb and emit light. Doping entails introducing low concentrations of elements such as chromium, erbium, neodymium, and ytterbium into a ceramic’s microstructure to absorb and emit light. While some transparent ceramics employ undoped endcaps or exterior cladding to maintain optical and thermal stability, others require separately doped cores or dopant gradients to improve laser beam propagation. Because doping concentrations must be carefully optimized and executed, additive manufacturing, with its flexibility and precision, presents an innovative method to produce doping gradients. “For most printed ceramics, you’re not worried about smooth interfaces to 500-nanometers of precision,” says Seeley. “It only comes into play when you’re crafting materials to control laser beams that have to be optically perfect with extremely small refractive index fluctuations.” A team of Laboratory researchers, including Seeley, Cherepy, and Stephen Payne, have developed processes that use both direct ink write (DIW) and material jetting to create green bodies that yield transparent ceramics with precisely tailored properties. “Choosing the right process for an application depends on the desired geometry of the end product,” says Cherepy. “The DIW process is best for thicker, three-dimensional applications, whereas the jetting process is best for creating structures that require more precise, finer granularity in material deposition.” In the DIW additive manufacturing process, the team has worked with colleague Timothy Yee to develop methods to extrude a ceramic slurry in precise configurations, similar to piping frosting onto a cake. Dopants can be introduced into the slurry to produce the desired concentration gradient or to integrate variably doped regions. Material jetting, on the other hand, applies droplets of ceramic slurry to build up thin layers of doped and undoped ceramic. Another technique, composite pressing, can yield three-dimensionally controlled chemical composition. As additive manufacturing advances, the customizable geometry of transparent ceramics offers enhanced mode stability, thermal management, efficiency, and power in laser gain media. Laboratory researchers continue to explore how additive manufacturing can contribute to transparent ceramics in areas as diverse as laser materials, scintillators, and light-emitting diode (LED)-based lighting. In laser optics, researchers are focusing on the doping challenges involved with laser-gain media—optics used to amplify the power of laser beams. Such optics usually take the shape of rods, slabs, thin disks, or waveguides. When a laser beam travels through the gain medium, its shape and doping profile affects the laser beam’s power and geometry. To achieve optimal performance for various applications, different laser systems require different gain media. As additive manufacturing methods improve and evolve, increasingly complex optical structures will be possible, opening doors to novel laser designs. A new Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project led by Thomas Rudzik is developing additively manufactured strontium–fluoride ceramics with neodymium-doping gradients for the next generation of laser materials for a futuristic design of a possible successor to the National Ignition Facility. As LED lighting becomes standard in homes, workplaces, and public spaces, improving the color temperature of the light they emit to more closely match natural sunlight is crucial. LED color temperature is controlled through a thin layer of phosphor, a substance that absorbs the blue LED light, converting it to green and red to produce white light in the fixture. The Laboratory’s Ross Osborne recently consolidated the narrow-emitting red phosphor, KSF:Mn (K2SiF6:Mn4+), into a transparent ceramic for the first time under funding by the Critical Materials Institute, which seeks to develop technologies that avoid using rare-earth elements. The KSF ceramic has an ideal red emission spectrum and offers superior thermal conductivity compared to traditional phosphor powders, allowing efficient warm-white lighting. These advancements and more can be traced back to the Laboratory’s early and continued investment in materials science, which established the foundation for transparent ceramics research and rewarded multidisciplinary collaboration. Cherepy notes that her team “works with every part of the Laboratory that could possibly utilize optical ceramics.” Payne adds, “We collaborate across the Laboratory, applying transparent ceramics to state-of-the-art science and technology in a variety of fields. We also collaborate with external partners, such as the United States Army, the Department of Homeland Security, and private industry. Internally, the LDRD program helps propel the transparent ceramics team to new heights with its focus on funding high-risk, potentially high-payoff projects.” With so much going for it now, and the exciting challenges ahead, the future looks bright for transparent ceramics to find even more applications in the days ahead. Key Words: Additive manufacturing, composite pressing, direct ink write (DIW), gadolinium–lutetium–oxide (GLO) transparent ceramic scintillator, KSF:Mn, Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD), laser-gain media, laser optic, light-emitting diode (LED), scintillator, transparent ceramics. For further information contact Nerine Cherepy (925) 424-3492 ([email protected]).
In the harsh winter of 1947, the tiny town of Snag, located in the scenic Yukon region of Canada, experienced unprecedented weather conditions. Over the course of this cold spell, temperatures plummeted to an astonishing -83°F (-63.9°C) on February 3, 1947, making it the coldest day ever recorded in Canadian history. These extreme conditions brought about a series of awe-inspiring phenomena, including the bizarre ability to hear people speaking from four miles away, breath turning to powder, and the booming of river ice resembling gunshots. So what really happened in the Snag’s unbelievable sub-zero world on that day. A chilling soundscape Imagine standing amidst the frigid air, bundled in layers upon layers of warm clothing, and hearing what seemed to be conversations from afar. According to the accounts of Snag’s residents, during this extraordinary cold spell, sound carried much farther and clearer than usual. Astonishingly, one could discern conversations from a distance of four miles, an incredible feat that was virtually unheard of during normal weather conditions. Frozen breath becoming powder Another intriguing phenomenon that baffled Snag’s inhabitants was the effect the extreme cold had on their breath. As they exhaled, their breath would transform into powdery particles before gracefully descending to the frozen ground. This ethereal transformation added an otherworldly quality to the already surreal winter landscape. For many, this strange occurrence only further emphasized the chilling power of Mother Nature in Snag. The resounding booms of river ice As if the experiences above were not enough, the inhabitants of Snag also witnessed the extraordinary booming sounds emanating from the frozen Yukon River. The snapping and cracking of the ice reverberated through the town, echoing like gunshots and creating an eerie soundscape that could easily send shivers down one’s spine. Science behind the strange phenomena of Snag The combination of low temperatures and changing air density played a crucial role in creating these mind-boggling phenomena. In extreme cold, the air becomes denser, allowing sound waves to travel much further and clearer than in regular weather conditions. As a result, conversations could be heard across long distances, giving Snag an almost paranormal aura. Similarly, the moisture in exhaled breath rapidly froze and crystallized due to the low temperatures, transforming it into a powder-like substance. Lastly, the intense cold put immense pressure and tension within the solidified river’s surface, causing it to crack and boom, generating sounds similar to gunshots. Frigid winter: Canada’s beauty When it comes to extreme weather, Canada is well-known for its frigid winters. Here are the 10 coldest places in Canada — ever, or at least since they’ve been keeping weather records: - -63°C — Snag, Yukon — February 3, 1947 - -60.6°C — Fort Vermilion, Alberta — January 11, 1911 - -59.4°C — Old Crow, Yukon — January 5, 1975 - -58.9°C — Smith River, British Columbia — January 31, 1947 - -58.3°C — Iroquois Falls, Ontario — January 23, 1935 - -57.8°C — Shephard Bay, Nunavut — February 13, 1973 - -57.2°C — Fort Smith, Northwest Territories — December 26, 1917 - -56.7°C — Prince Albert, Saskatchewan — February 1, 1893 - -55.8°C — Dawson City, Yukon — February 11, 1979 - -55.6°C — Iroquois Falls, Ontario — February 9, 1934 While these glacial winters of the land deter some, others see Canada’s coldest days as an opportunity to fully experience the beauty and resilience that this vast country has to offer. Embracing the challenges Instead of shying away from the bitter cold, Canadians have learned to embrace and celebrate the challenging weather. Many communities across the country hold winter festivals, such as Quebec City’s annual Winter Carnival, which showcase a myriad of outdoor activities including ice sculptures, dog sledding, and ice canoe races. These events provide an incredible opportunity for Canadians and visitors alike to immerse themselves in the joy and excitement of the season. Extreme cold temperatures also create a unique phenomenon that captures the imagination of locals and tourists alike. As lakes, waterfalls, and rivers freeze over, awe-inspiring natural wonders emerge. For instance, the Abraham Lake in Alberta transforms into a breathtaking canvas of frozen bubbles trapped under the ice. These mesmerizing formations, created by the release of methane gas from decaying plants, have become an essential subject for photographers who travel from around the world to capture this captivating sight. Did Marco Polo Really Witness Chinese Families Raising Dragons During his Journey? Göbekli Tepe: This Prehistoric Site Rewrites the History of Ancient Civilizations Time Traveler Claims DARPA Instantly Sent Him Back in Time to Gettysburg! The Lost Ancient City of Ipiutak The Antikythera Mechanism: Lost Knowledge Rediscovered The Coso Artifact: Alien Tech Found in California? Adventures in the Great White North Canada’s coldest days serve as a cue for adventure enthusiasts to explore the country’s winter wonderland, offering activities like cross-country skiing, ice climbing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. Outdoor enthusiasts flock to national parks, such as Banff and Jasper in Alberta or Algonquin in Ontario, to marvel at snow-capped peaks, pristine frozen lakes, and panoramic landscapes, making for unforgettable experiences and incredible photo opportunities. While enduring extreme cold temperatures might not be everyone’s cup of tea, Canada’s coldest day provides a unique opportunity to experience the breathtaking beauty and remarkable resilience of this incredible country. From winter festivals and frozen wonders to thrilling outdoor adventures, the bone-chilling temperatures offer a chance to explore and appreciate Canada’s natural wonders in their frozen splendor. On the other side, Snag’s chilling tale unfolds as an extraordinary moment in Canadian history. It serves as a reminder of nature’s awe-inspiring power and its ability to leave us astounded and humbled. After reading about the Canada’s coldest day, read about 1816: The “year without a summer” brings disasters to the world.
Sample NYS Assessments Practice Questions Wondering what kinds of questions your child will be asked on the New York State (NYS) Assessments? Here are six sample NYS practice questions. For more questions, sign up for our 100 free practice questions. IMPORTANT: While the NYS test sample questions shown on this page are representative of what your child will be seeing, they aren’t taken directly from the actual test being administered this year. NYS Test Sample Question #1 – 3rd Grade Math Which of the following expressions represents the number of leaves in the picture below? A. 4 x 3 B. 4 x 12 C. 3 x 12 D. 3 + 4 NYS Test Sample Question #2 – 4th Grade Math Which of the following is equal to the fraction in the picture below? NYS Test Sample Question #3 – 5th Grade Math What number is missing in the table below, if the table is generated by the rule “y is 4 less than x”? NYS Test Sample Question #4 – 3rd Grade ELA Read the following sentences: “Many times bugs like moths and beetles live in a sloth’s fur.” “It becomes their habitat due to the algae.” Why do bugs live in a sloth’s fur? A. They are attracted to small animals. B. They like to sleep nine hours a day. C. They are attracted to algae. D. They live living in trees. NYS Test Sample Question #5 – 4th Grade ELA Read the passage: For a moment the Muley Cow forgot that she was the oldest cow on the farm. She tossed her head, flirted her heels in the air, and cut a few clumsy capers around the scarecrow, who did his best to dance a jig–only the wind died down completely just as he was in the middle of it. And he hung from his pole in such a woebegone fashion that the Muley Cow began to feel uneasy about him. “You’re not ill, I hope?” she ventured, as she stopped her prancing. He paid not the slightest heed to her. Which clue in this section is most helpful in determining the meaning of the word woebegone? A. cut a few clumsy capers B. did his best to dance a jig C. “You’re not ill, I hope?” D. He paid not the slightest heed to her. NYS Test Sample Question #6 – 5th Grade ELA Read the sentence from the story. “Ah reckon it’s just like Ah said: Reddy Fox is gwine to meet trouble right smart soon,” muttered Ol’ Mistah Buzzard. How would this sentence most likely be written using Standard English? A. “Well, I’ll be! That there fox is ’bout to get hisself shot if he don’t take heed,” muttered Ol’ Mistah Buzzard. B. “I can’t believe that careless fox,” muttered Ol’ Mistah Buzzard, “he shouldn’t have taken that chicken!” C. “I told you so: Reddy Fox is just about to get into trouble,” muttered Old Mr. Buzzard. D. “Lookee here,” Old Mr, Buzzard muttered, “Reddy Fox done gone and run right into trouble.” (Answers: A, D, D, C, C, C)
Grade 1 Phonics Lesson: Learning the ing-ending Watch the Video Lesson Phonics: Word Endings In this ten-minute phonics video lesson, Ms. Breckle from Rocketship Mosaic teaches second graders about the -ing ending sound. Using just a pen and paper and their voice, children can follow along and virtually answer her questions. Looking for more free activities that teach word endings? Check out this extensive worksheet library for grade 1 students and grade 2 students from education.com.
Healthy eating and your child’s appetite Children’s appetites can change from day to day. These changes are usually nothing to worry about. Sometimes your child might want to eat a lot. That’s fine. Just make sure that you fill up your child with healthy food. Other times your child might not want to eat as much. That’s OK too. If your child doesn’t want to eat, they’ll probably make up for it at the next meal or even the next day. It’s best not to force things or offer other foods as rewards, because this teaches children not to listen to their appetites. As a parent you give your child healthy food and opportunities to eat it. It’s up to your child to decide how much to eat – or whether to eat at all. If your child is growing and developing well, they’re probably getting enough to eat. The most powerful way to send healthy food messages to your children is by letting them see you make healthy eating choices every day. Children tend to do what they see you doing. ‘Tummy talk’ and healthy eating Understanding the way your child’s tummy ‘talks’ to their brain can help you deal with worries about your child undereating or overeating. For example, your child’s brain realises their tummy is full only about 20 minutes after the food hits their tummy. Also, your child’s hunger is partly determined by how physically active they’ve been and whether they need to ‘catch up’ if they haven’t eaten a lot over the last couple of days. Offering meals and snacks at regular times encourages a better appetite at mealtimes. Regular meals and snacks can be part of a healthy eating routine. If you’re concerned that your child has a tendency to overeat, here are some things to try: - Offer a slightly smaller portion of food. If your child finishes it, you can offer a small second helping. This gives your child’s brain and tummy a chance to catch up. - If your child doesn’t eat part of the meal – for example, the vegies – this is your child’s choice. It isn’t a good idea to offer extra serves of other food – for example, meat – to make up for missing vegies. - Serve your child’s food on a smaller plate. This way your child gets the right-sized portion but still gets a ‘full plate’ of food. - Avoid distractions like TV or toys during mealtimes. This will help your child focus on their appetite. If you feel your child doesn’t eat enough at mealtimes or doesn’t have an appetite, you could try the following strategies: - Offer food around the same times each day. If children eat at regular mealtimes, they’re more likely to be hungry at that time of day. - Encourage your child to eat more at mealtimes by making sure you serve small amounts at snack times. One small snack between regular mealtimes is usually plenty as an energy top-up, unless your child has been very active. If your child has too many snacks or the snacks are too big, your child can feel too full before a main meal. - Avoid offering your child an alternative if they don’t eat a meal. Your child might just have a small appetite at the moment. Healthy eating and food messages for your child Healthy eating habits start at home. Giving your child healthy nutritious foods is important for their growth and development. It also helps to surround your child with messages about healthy eating habits and food. This can help your child make healthy food choices. Here are some ideas: - Try to have a bowl full of fresh fruit within easy view and reach on the kitchen table or bench. You can offer fruit as a snack or if your child is still hungry after meals. - Stock your pantry and fridge with plenty of healthy, nutritious options, and leave the sometimes food on the supermarket shelves. - Try to choose fruit and vegetables of different colours, textures and tastes. The more variety there is, the more likely it is your child will find something that they’re interested in eating. - Get your child involved in planning and preparing meals. If your child has helped to make the meal, they’re more likely to eat it. - Enjoy healthy meals together as a family as often as possible. Also look for opportunities to eat together at breakfast and on weekends. - Turn the TV off while eating. This way your child is paying attention to eating and the fresh healthy food choices you offer. - Read books that have healthy food messages for your child – for example, books with pictures of fruits and vegetables. Get your child to point out different types, colours, shapes and so on. Keep healthy snacks handy at home – and try to avoid buying unhealthy ones. Children will take the healthy option if it’s the only one they have. For example, you could have a bowl of fresh fruit on the bench and a container of vegie sticks in the fridge.
Native to Europe and western Asia. The brown trout was first imported to the United States from Germany in 1883. Since then, the species has been stocked in virtually every state, including Utah, where it is now one of the most popular sport fish in the state. Brown trout are more piscivorous, meaning they love to eat other fish, than many other trout species. In addition to fishes, brown trout also consume amphibians, rodents, and invertebrates. Because of their piscivorous nature, brown trout can often have a detrimental effect on populations of both native fishes and nonnative sport fishes. In the fall, female brown trout dig areas (called redds) in the gravel substrate of stream riffles. The Male and female fish then pass over a redd, laying and fertilizing nearly 2000 eggs. The eggs, which hatch in one to two months, are then covered with gravel. Anglers are encouraged to stay off the redds, so they do not disturb the young. Brown trout are a hardy trout species that can thrive in warmer waters and endure marginal water qualities better than other trout species. These trout often grow to considerable size, the Utah record Brown Trout was caught in 1977 at Flaming Gorge Reservoir, was 33 lbs. 10 oz. For more information on the brown trout or any other critter found in Utah, check out our DWR field guide on our Outdoors section at KSL.com.
Henri Matisse: “Creativity takes courage” Pablo Picasso: “Every child is an artist… Degas: “Art is not what you see, but what you make others see” Pablo Picasso: “Painting is just another way of keeping a diary” At Mobberley CE primary school, we value the creative curriculum. Art is not just taught in a designated Art lesson, but wherever appropriate it is linked to topics and the wider curriculum as it gives the children the opportunity to develop their art skills in key areas such as drawing, clay, textiles, painting, print making and collage and brings topics to life. These areas are developed continually throughout the school from Reception through to Year 6. We also use our special whole school enrichment days to bring in a love of art, and create whole school displays. Below you can see our Artist Studies this year for every year group in the school. Purpose of study Art, craft and design embody some of the highest forms of human creativity. A high-quality art and design education should engage, inspire and challenge pupils, equipping them with the knowledge and skills to experiment invent and create their own works of art, craft and design. As pupils progress, they should be able to think critically and develop a more rigorous understanding of art and design. They should also know how art and design both reflect and shape our history, and contribute to the culture, creativity and wealth of our nation. The national curriculum for art and design aims to ensure that all pupils: · produce creative work, exploring their ideas and recording their experiences · become proficient in drawing, painting, sculpture and other art, craft and design techniques · evaluate and analyse creative works using the language of art, craft and design · Know about great artists, craft makers and designers, and understand the historical and cultural development of their art forms.
Who Discovered Japan? According to Japanese legend, Japan was discovered by Nigini no Mikoto, who was sent to the region by the Sun goddess Amaterasu to establish rule. His grandson, Jimmu, became emperor in 660 B.C. Jimmu is considered the first Emperor of Japan. Amaterasu-omikami is a Shinto goddess who is considered the ancestor of the Japanese Imperial family. Her grandson Nigini no Mikoto was given a set of jewels, a sword and a mirror to take with him when he established the Japanese monarchy. As of 2014, the mirror is still in the inner sanctum of Ise Shrine in Mie Prefecture. Much of Japan's earliest history is only known as legend. The recorded history of the country became more established during the reign of Emperor Keitai from 507 to 531 A.D.
The "Paracrine Effect" is the best thing about Stem Cells Regenerative medicine is the science of repairing diseased and damaged cells or tissues. This can be accomplished in two ways. First, stem cells can directly replace the diseased cells by engrafting and differentiating into the required cell type. This is what happens during a bone marrow transplant, where the donor stem cells replace the patient's blood and immune system. The second method of regenerative medicine is the paracrine effect. In this mechanism some of specialized donor cells act to stimulate the patient's cells to repair the diseased tissue, without the donor cells contributing directly to the new tissue. This happens because the donor cells secrete factors that signal the patient's cells to change their behavior, and this signaling from one cell to another is called the paracrine effect. In many pre-clinical studies of stem cell transplants, investigators observed that damaged patient tissue was repaired after the transplant, but when the new tissue was analyzed there was a noticeable absence of donor cells. Upon further investigation, scientists were able to demonstrate that the donor stem cells were secreting factors that triggered the patient's cells to repair the tissue themselves. Mammals have a wound repair mechanism that on its own can only deal with small wounds, and is incapable of repairing large wounds or of regenerating new functioning tissue instead of just scar tissue. But, studies of the paracrine effect have demonstrated that mammalian tissue does contain cells capable of regeneration, they just need to receive the appropriate signals to initiate the regeneration and repair. The paracrine mechanism has turned out to be very beneficial. At first, most scientists were disappointed that transplanted donor cells often did not contribute directly to new tissue, but the advantages of having a paracrine effect soon became apparent. The most important observation was that even though the donor cells were short lived, they had a long term effect on tissue regeneration. It seems that they are important for initiating tissue repair but are dispensable once the patient's cells are activated. The fact that donor cells do not have to persist in order to achieve a cure via the paracrine effect has the implication that unmatched donor cells can be used. The unmatched cells will survive for 1-2 weeks in a patient before they are rejected, and this is enough time for the cells to initiate tissue regeneration. By dispensing with the need to find matched donor cells, therapies that rely on the paracrine effect are open to many more patients. Many different cell types can invoke a paracrine response. Paracrine effect cells include mesenchymal cells and blood cells that can be isolated from donor bone marrow, adipose (fat) tissue, umbilical cord blood, and umbilical cord tissue. In addition, studies have indicated that the paracrine effect is amplified because the donor cells are attracted to the damaged tissues that need their help. The damaged patient cells are secreting cytokines, regulatory proteins that act as mediators to generate an immune response that attract the donor cells. In turn, the donor cells secrete their own cocktail of proteins that stimulate the patient's stem cells and help to reduce inflammation, promote cell proliferation, and increase vascularization and blood flow into the areas that need to heal. Paracrine effect cells can also secrete factors that inhibit the death of patient cells due to injury or disease. An important third paracrine effect is their ability to 'dampen' the immune response that occurs during transplant rejection or during autoimmune disease (1). In this case the cells can be used directly or in conjuction with other stem cells for therapeutic purposes. For example, the application of mesenchymal cells along with blood stem cells during a bone marrow transplant seems to reduce graft versus host disease (2). An advantage of using cells, versus medication, to promote regeneration is that transplanted cells will respond to their environment and secrete the factors as they are needed and in the appropriate concentration. The cells can be thought of as 'drug factories' that adapt as the tissue is repaired. Preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of mesenchymal cells and cord blood cells for the treatment of neural, heart, kidney and muscle based diseases. There have been some convincing studies on the neuroprotective effect of cord blood cells. In one study, cord blood cells were used to treat spinal cord injury. The transplanted cells were only present for 7-10 days, but were able to reduce the wound lesion and significantly improved mobility in the hind limb of spinal cord injured rats when compared to injured animals that did not receive cord blood cells (3). Recently a study showed that cord blood could reduce diabetes-related kidney damage. The improvement was significant although very few cord blood cells engrafted, indicating that the mechanism of action was via the paracrine effect (4). Myocardial damage has also been reported to be repaired by the paracrine effect of cord blood (5). The paracrine effect was an unexpected mechanism for tissue regeneration from stem cells but has led to new possibilities for the treatment of different diseases. The ability of umbilical cord blood and tissue-derived stem cells to promote tissue regeneration by both contributing directly to new tissue as well as by the paracrine effect of stimulating endogenous repair will lead to novel cell therapies. - Najar, M., et al. Adipose-tissue-derived and Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stromal cells suppress lymphocyte responses by secreting leukemia inhibitory factor. Tissue engineering. Part A 16, 3537-3546 (2010). - Lazarus, H.M. Acute leukemia in adults: novel allogeneic transplant strategies. Hematology 17 Suppl 1, S47-51 (2012). - Chua, S.J., et al. The effect of umbilical cord blood cells on outcomes after experimental traumatic spinal cord injury. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 35, 1520-1526 (2010). - Park, J.H., Park, J., Hwang, S.H., Han, H. & Ha, H. Delayed treatment with human umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells attenuates diabetic renal injury. Transplantation proceedings 44, 1123-1126 (2012). - Greco, N. & Laughlin, M.J. Umbilical cord blood stem cells for myocardial repair and regeneration. Methods Mol Biol 660, 29-52 (2010).
Interaction is a key component of active learning. These recommendations provide strategies for promoting active learning by encouraging students to engage in interactions both in and out of class. Encourage active learning online using these strategies: - Establish guidelines for in-class participation - Give interactive lectures - Build opportunities for in-class interaction - Build opportunities for out-of-class collaborations - References and resources This diamond icon ♦ in the text indicates that there is content in the right sidebar that relates to that particular strategy. To discuss your unique teaching and technology needs, schedule a consultation with an ATS instructional designer at [email protected]. For questions about pedagogical and teaching strategies, contact the Center for Educational Effectiveness: [email protected]. Planning interaction and establishing guidelines before you teach can help encourage active learning online. - Plan the types of interactions you want students to engage in. Think about how you would like to see students interact. Do you want them to have their cameras on? Do you want them to unmute during certain moments in class? Being clear about communication processes helps students feel safe about participating. - Teach your students how to use technology to engage in interaction in your class. Demonstrate good participation practices and give some time in class for students to practice them. Explicitly explain how to use the tools (e.g., Breakout Rooms, Reactions, Zoom Chat) that facilitate online interaction that are available in your online class. - Regularly remind your students about the importance of participation. People often need to hear a message several times before a new behavior becomes comfortable. Remind your students at regular intervals throughout the quarter about the value you place on participation and interactions, particularly as it relates to their learning. - Technology that supports this: Zoom \| Back to top \| Using active learning strategies during your live session is a powerful way to engage students during your main Zoom session. - Share screens during synchronous Zoom meetings. - Share your screen to help students focus on the content that you are presenting. You might show your slides, play a video, model a process or procedure, or share another type of learning resource. Screensharing might help as you work through problems during office hours or guide students through using specialized software. - Have students share their screens to make a presentation, show an assignment, complete a procedure, report back, or share how they completed a pair or group activity. - Technology that supports this: Zoom: Screen sharing - Invite students to unmute their mics before you ask a question to encourage participation. This will increase the likelihood that students respond. Give positive feedback to the class when students use the tools in ways that promote interaction and support student learning. - Take a poll and invite students to comment on the poll results. Use polls during class to stimulate students’ interest, gauge understanding, or elicit opinions about class material. - Technology that supports this: iClicker Cloud app, Zoom Polls - Remind students to raise their virtual “hands” to participate. Students might participate by asking questions or by answering your questions when you call for contributions. You can also call on students by name to make sure that you hear from students who may not be raising their hands. Remind students to unmute themselves when they are called on. - Encourage students to type their questions into the Zoom Chat window throughout the lecture. Let students know how often you will be answering chat questions during the session (e.g., first/last 10 minutes, or every 10-15 minutes, etc.). ♦1 - Assign students short (2-3 minute) spontaneous writing tasks (Quick Writes) to stimulate thinking about a topic. Through typed or handwritten writing tasks, students can briefly summarize or synthesize material just presented, express their opinions about a topic, or explain which point from the day’s class is most unclear to them. You can also ask students to refer to their Quick Writes during discussions with peers and TAs in Breakout Rooms, Canvas Discussions or office hours. Assigning short writing tasks can provide you with an opportunity to assess students’ understanding of content and helps students engage more actively with course content. \| Back to top \| Putting students into groups to work together to encourage student-to-student interaction can be done during live class sessions using Zoom Breakout Rooms. ♦2 - Facilitate small group discussions. Take time out during your live class sessions for students to discuss a point related to the day’s topic. In a variation of Think-Pair-Share, an instructor might ask students to first think about a prompt or question individually and write down a few thoughts before going into a breakout room to discuss it in a group of 3-4 students. When students return to the main session, you might ask a representative of the group to verbally share the results of their discussion in the main Zoom session or after class in a Google Doc or in a designated Canvas Discussion Thread. - Facilitate small task completion. You can also use Zoom breakout rooms to assign students to work collaboratively on tasks. For example, an instructor might assign a few problems for students to work on as a group, perhaps instructing them to spend a specified number of minutes working on the problem(s) individually before discussing their solutions in their breakout room groups. Depending on the size of the class, you might ask a representative of each group to verbally share their solutions with the class in the main Zoom session before you share the correct solution and address any questions or observed gaps in understanding. - Technology that support this: Zoom Breakout Rooms During the breakout meetings, you can either circulate among the breakout rooms to check on them and answer questions or you can stay in the main session. When you end the breakout rooms, students have a minute or so to wrap-up their work and rejoin the main session. \| Back to top \| Assigning group work that students complete outside of class Zoom sessions can provide opportunities for active learning while encouraging students to take responsibility for their own learning. - Assign a group project or assignment that spans the entire quarter. Quarter-long group projects facilitate active learning and collaboration among students. It is recommended to design the project such that groups must submit smaller assignments along the way, with the instructor providing timely feedback on their work. You will also want to provide students with tips and strategies for a successful collaboration (e.g., exchanging contact information, establishing timelines, working from a shared Google Drive or Doc, and meeting regularly to check in on work progress). - Assign students to small learning groups. Assigning students to small learning groups that meet throughout the quarter allows students to help each other better understand course content. For example, groups might meet virtually outside of class to: - complete a low stakes, participation-based assignment (e.g., reading guide, problem set). - discuss common errors on recently graded work and how they arrived at correct responses. - review a pre-exam study guide in preparation for an exam. - Technology that supports this: Canvas, Google Docs, Google Meet, Zoom Requiring students to submit a document (e.g., a collaborative Google Doc or a completed handout) where they can display the work they accomplished together provides you with information about their learning process, which helps you to formatively assess student learning. \| Back to top \|
What is the technology at stake? Genome editing is amongst many technologies aimed at better understanding the genome and developing better techniques to make changes in the genome. However, only a few scientists are currently engaged in human gene editing since efficient tools for therapeutic purposes have only recently become available. Zinc finger proteins (ZNFs) were the first of the “genome editing” nucleases described to control gene expression in mammalian cells, then rapidly scientists proposed a simpler approach based on the use of transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) (1, 2). Despite several clinical trials conducted based on these technologies, the development of both techniques was limited by their cost and their technical drawbacks (3). In parallel, in 1993, Frederico Mojica of the University of Alicante (Spain) described a curious phenomenon set highlighted by a few scientists, allowing bacteria to expel the virus infecting them by creating a true memory of these attacks, and named this mechanism ‘CRISPR’ (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat) (4). When a bacterium is attacked by a virus it protects itself by cutting the viral DNA and memorizes it by storing a few fragments. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat thus resembles a hard drive, which stores these fragments. If the bacterium is attacked again by the same virus, it has its ‘identity card’ and ‘memories’ fragments which will act like a magnet by recognizing the DNA of the virus and allow the recruitment of molecular scissors, the enzyme Cas, which cuts and destroys the virus. The bacterium is thus protected from the virus. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat research quietly continued up to 2012 when several teams customized the bacterial system to use it for the accurate, cheap and quick target modification of the genome of eukaryotic cells (5). In relatively few years, this technique has been applied to human, animal, fungal and plant cells, leading to multiple applications (6-10). CRISPR in humans In humans, an article published in August 2015 by a Chinese team, demonstrating the ability to manipulate human embryos in vitro using CRISPR, was the first reported study to raise some serious ethical and social concerns on the potential consequences of the technology (11). These researches attempted to change the β-thalassemia gene in non-viable human embryos obtained in clinics; however, only a few of the manipulated embryos expressed the gene. Despite the limitations of the approach chosen by these researchers, this study demonstrated that human embryonic cells can be changed in a simple way, and an article published by an American team in collaboration with Korean scientists followed, reinforcing the idea that human germ cells could be changed by the CRISPR technology (12). These studies also presented for the first time an ad hoc creation of human embryos for research purposes, an illegal procedure in most EU countries adhering to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, signed in Oviedo in 1997 (13). Of note, the United States’ National Academy of Medicine and the National Academy of Sciences have both given the ‘go ahead’ for genetically altering human embryos as long as numerous conditions are fulfilled, including when no other treatments are available for the disorders they carried, and when sufficient safety guarantees are met (14). More recently, in August 2018, researchers from Weill Cornell University reported at the annual meeting of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE), that DNA in sperm could be fixed with CRISPR using a brief but powerful electrical shock, without killing sperm cells; the corresponding publication is awaited. The main ethical question raised here is the heritable nature of any gamete modification, an intervention prohibited by Article 13 of the Oviedo Convention. Things considerably evolved on November 28th, when at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing in Hong Kong, a Chinese scientist, Dr. He Jiankui, announced the birth of twins (girls Lulu and Nana) from embryos whose genome had been modified prior to their transfer into the womb. The modification was done using CRISPR-Cas9 disabling copies of the CCR5 gene in human embryos with the stated aim of preventing the transmission of a HIV infection from the father’s side. While on the face of it this seems a reasonable moral justification for the action taken, the lack of any confirmed assessment of the implications of the action casts doubt on the scientist’s motives and has further raised international concerns about the premature application of such a ground-breaking technology. Even though Dr. He did not initially present any solid proof or witnessed confirmation that this experiment on human embryos had really taken place, it was unsurprising that a cascade of interest in the media and reactions from different institutions, research ethics boards, scientists and professionals all over the world was triggered. It appeared as though the world suddenly awoke to the realization of the sharp edge between promising science breakthroughs and a murky abyss of risky experiments, which the future of humankind could easily be pulled into. The lack of ethical procedures, assessments and guidance, which characterized this project, shocked the world scientific community. To change the public perception on his actions, Dr. He tried to justify his work in a series of video interviews available online (15). One of his arguments was that the procedure was safe and that no other genes were affected. However, targeting the CCR5 gene is just one potential route of virus cell entry clearly pointing out that this procedure could not be seen solely as a consequence of a real medical need, rather more like a proof of concept (16). More precisely this was an experiment on human embryos that could not be seen as absolutely necessary for the care of the unborn. In order to assess the actions and commentary in this field we conducted searches through PubMed to retrieve a total number of publications containing word CRISPR in their abstracts or in their keywords during the period from 2002 up to 2018 (the search being conducted at the end of February 2019). For the purpose of a focus on the EU-model, data on proposals/projects having CRISPR in the keywords or mentioned in abstracts were received by the courtesy of the Ethics and Research Integrity Sector, Directorate General for Research & Innovation of the European Commission (EC) from the EC statistic tool called ‘Corda’ (as of the end of January 2019). Data for 2018 are incomplete and thus not fully visible in Corda since the negotiating phase for some proposals applied for in 2018 was still ongoing at the time of this paper submission. We here maintain the difference between terms ‘proposal’ and ‘project’. Only those applications, which, at the end of the evaluation process, are chosen to sign the grant agreement and will be funded, are considered as “projects”. All others we refer to as “proposals”. How to address these ethical challenges Through an international debate The perception of the nature and value of human embryos differs between societies, cultures and religions. The isolation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) from the human embryo is considered highly objectionable and contested as it requires the destruction of the human embryo leading to the banning of hESC research in many countries around the world (17, 18). The national laws on the use of hESC are not globally standardized (19). Even at the EU level, laws on hESC research differ substantially from the very strict in, say, Germany, Austria and Croatia to the more supportive of research in Greece, Sweden and the UK (20). In some countries, there is ongoing debate about whether the current legislation should be amended. For example, recently the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced its plans to lift its moratorium on funding research that involves injecting human embryonic stem cells into animal embryos, which would allow for the creation of part-human and part-animal organisms known as chimeras (21). The International ethical guidelines for health-related research involving humans are well established (prepared by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO)) (22). The ‘China Twins Case’ clearly demonstrated not only a lack of appropriate implementation of this guideline, but rather a more complete avoidance of any relevant ethics procedure for work with humans and hESC since this would have clearly led to the banning of such experiments. The potential unknown irremediable risks to foetuses and future generations of the CRISPR/Cas9 technique used for genetic modification in human embryos requires a general consensus and adequate regulations before human germline genome editing is introduced worldwide (23). Importantly, in July of 2017, an extensive report on the social and ethical issues raised using genome editing as a technology that could influence inherited characteristics in humans was published by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics in the UK (24). Unfortunately, Dr. He together with his research team fully disregarded all warnings coming from that report, initiating a profoundly challenging experiment and irretrievably changing the public perception of CRISPR/Cas 9 technique while potentially damaging future positive and constructive work in this field. Worldwide academic, professional and public reaction was immense. Almost simultaneously many eminent world public and governmental organizations together with different scientific and academic institutions released their official announcements (25). The official statement of the Organizing Committee of the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing recommended an independent assessment to verify Dr. Jiankui He’s claims and to ascertain whether the claimed DNA modifications had actually occurred. The Organizing Committee clearly stated that “…even if the modifications are verified, the procedure was irresponsible and failed to conform with international norms. Its flaws include an inadequate medical indication, a poorly designed study protocol, a failure to meet ethical standards for protecting the welfare of research subjects, and a lack of transparency in the development, review, and conduct of the clinical procedures.” (26). There was no explanation of Dr. He’s proceedings even from the Chinese official authorities. Both the Genetics Society of China and the Chinese Society for Stem Cell Research jointly issued a statement saying that the experiment “violates internationally accepted ethical principles regulating human experimentation and human rights law” (27). Finally, in January 2019, it was officially confirmed that Dr. He’s experiments had actually taken place. Authorities and investigators confirmed that the twin girls were born and were under medical observation. Moreover, an announced additional pregnancy was also confirmed and was being monitored – meaning that another new gene-edited baby is to be arriving soon (28). Chinese authorities are still investigating He and the responsibility of other researchers who had knowledge of his actions became hotly debated. In light of these events, it is questionable how public scrutiny will affect the future of work in the field (29). For our purposes there are obviously major concerns about the potential irreversible modification of the human genome and the possibility of destroying several animal species deemed ‘un-necessary’ while such experimentation progresses. In 2015, representatives of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and Medicine, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the UK Royal Society met in Washington DC. They released a statement pointing to the critical social issues raised by these technologies but did not call for a moratorium as it was deemed unrealistic (30). However, during the 13th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Cancún, Mexico in December 2016, more than 170 non-governmental organizations called for a moratorium on the modification of animals by the gene drive approach, as long as the environmental impacts were not more fully and precisely considered (31). In Europe, many academies and institutions were also concerned by this possible irreversible modification of the human genome in contravention of Article 13 of the Oviedo Convention. The INSERM Ethics Committee (IEC), in France, also initiated a reflection at the national and international level, involving experts living in economically vulnerable countries that are or could be impacted by these technologies. The group’s initial position was published in the journal Nature in early 2017 and a more elaborated one in Transgenic Research was released in July 2017 (32, 33). Among its recommendations, the group called for the creation of an international association which has since been launched on March 23, 2018, in Paris: ARRIGE (Association for Responsible Research and Innovation in Genome Editing) (34). This association has a mission to inform the general public and policymakers on the real issues of the development of genome editing techniques, by creating several thematic focus groups. This reflection is to focus on researching the methods of assessment of the effectiveness and safety of techniques, on the assessment of the impacts of the use of the ‘gene drive’ on the acculturation of the scientific community in the development of a responsible innovation, and on a transparent and honest communication to the general public. The ARRIGE initiative links with other similar initiatives that were launched in the USA, and several papers have reported on its activities (35-38). By a thorough ethics review of the projects: the EU model Without inferring any malicious intent on the part of Dr He, it is clear that there is consensus across the international community to find a way to prevent any similar ill-considered experiments in the future until the corresponding safety, scientific, ethical and legal aspects have been discussed openly and broadly and their implications fully understood. That task will not be easy since the number of research projects involving the CRISPR technology has grown rapidly over the last few years. Data retrieved from PubMed at the end of February 2018 shows a significant growth in the number of published papers during the period from 2002 up to 2018 containing the word CRISPR (Figure 1). Data supplied to the authors by the courtesy of Ethics and Research Integrity Sector/DG Research & Innovation of the European Commission from the EC statistic tool called Corda showed 952 proposals and projects with CRISPR in the title, keywords or mentioned in the abstracts (data collection performed at the beginning of February 2019). Their distribution under specific H2020 Framework Programme actions: Bio-Based Industries (BBI), Coordination and Support Action (CSA), Innovation Action (IA), Marie Sklodowska-Curie actions (MSCA), Research and Innovation Actions (RIA), Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SME) and the European Research Council (ERC) is shown in Figure 2. These numbers clearly demonstrate that the wide use of CRISPR technology has already brought the world in to the new ‘CRISPR era’ aiming to help to prolong the human lifespan in general. However, the question remains as to whether society in general is also prepared for the unanticipated consequences of the potential unethical application of such prominent and pervasive technology. An appropriate and effective ethics review process is essential to help to conceive of all possible ethics issues arising out of the use of CRISPR technology. Such an ethics review process must be efficient, not necessarily blocking the innovative project cycle but still having enough strength to stop it at any point in time in case any violation of the agreed ethics norms and principles is detected. The Ethics Assessment process established by the European Commission (EC) and conducted on all projects applying for funding by the European Commission, Horizon 2020 (H2020) and European Research Council (ERC), is carefully tailored to detect and prevent any possible destruction or experimental creation of new human embryos. At the same time, that assessment procedure leaves enough space to allow the use of CRISPR technology for scientific research purposes under the condition that all possible ethics issues arising in such projects are appropriately dealt with. For instance, an initial ethics screening by two independent experts is implemented in the very early phase of project applications. Projects which will be funded, and which are identified as “ethically sensitive”, must then go through a more detailed Ethics Review procedure guided by more external independent ethics experts. Only the projects which are thoroughly scanned by an independent and multidisciplinary Ethics Review Panel, consisting of 5-6 independent ethics experts, and which completely fulfil all ethics requirements, can receive the ‘ethics clearance’ for preparation of the Grant Agreement. The ethics monitoring process does not stop at that time point. A procedure of ‘Ethics Check/Ethics Audit’ enables the European Commission to closely monitor project implementation, having the possibility to completely stop the project process at any further time point in case the ethics dimensions of the project are not respected. As shown in Table 1 and Table 2 all funded and previously ethically screened CRISPR projects eventually went through the full Ethics Panel Review (data presented up to 2017), which is sometimes due to the grant agreement negotiation phase, and thus postponed to the next calendar year. \|Year\|\|Ethics reviewed CRISPR projects (N)\| \|CRISPR - Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat.\| This data clearly shows a serious and thorough approach of the EC Ethics Review procedures, conducted on projects carrying the CRISPR technology. The growth in H2020 applications for proposals carrying the CRISPR technology is undoubtedly likely to continue to increase. Ethics review must be applied to novel developments in this field to prevent possible violations of ethics principles and to ensure that review process will address the inevitable emergent ethical concerns as the technology grows and develops. All too often ethical concerns ‘follow’ innovation since it remains impossible to anticipate all the problems arising, especially from novel biotechnologies. As with all technological innovation, biotechnology must face the ethical hurdle of the Collingridge dilemma: impacts cannot be easily predicted until the technology is extensively developed and widely used, but controlling or changing the method is difficult when the technology has become entrenched (39). The spirit of ethics review is not to block the testing and implementation of new technologies but to ensure the effective monitoring of projects and to facilitate scientific progress that remains within accepted moral boundaries. Of course, all ethics review procedures could be improved, and we cannot assume that those applied by the European Commission are necessarily the ‘best’. However, we are assured that they themselves remain under constant review and must adapt to new and emergent technologies in all fields. The He’s case illustrates what can happen when the spirit and practice of supportive review is ignored or sidestepped. More importantly formal ethics review systems will never be adequate to control researchers whose passion to move quickly overcomes their willingness to ensure that the measured, balanced and constructive support that is possible from an ethical review process that engenders a facilitative culture is provided. That must come from a culture of professional scientific integrity that ultimately recognizes that ethical research lies in the hands of the researcher in the field and in the laboratory - ethical review can only ever act as a further, mutually supportive balance on the eagerness of the scientist whose passion must be held in check to ensure that both societal and individual benefit is secured. Finally, we can conclude that the crucial element for responsible and ethical use of CRISPR Genome Editing tools lies with the researchers themselves. Researcher ethics awareness is essential so that good fruits from the tree of science can be obtained.
Most analog signals require some form of preparation before they can be digitized. Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that prepares it for the next stage of processing. Many applications involve environmental or structural measurement, such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning before a data acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the signal. For example, thermocouple signals have very small voltage levels that must be amplified before they can be digitized. Other sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, strain gages, and accelerometers, require excitation to operate. All of these preparation technologies are forms of signal conditioning. To master the fundamentals, Download the Engineer's Guide to Signal Conditioning.
NASA is set to begin the testing of their new one-way navigation system by making use of a small atomic clock. With thisnew NASA’s Deep Atomic Clock, a spacecraft can safely fly themselves to far off destinations such as Mars and the Moon. Before the introduction of this one of a kind invention, a spacecraft could go by calculating its current location in relation to the Earth. Now that we have the Deep Atomic Clock, data can be sentvia a relay system that has the ability to take almost everything from minutes to hours passed along. Even though this system is currently working quite well with close-to-earth missions, we will still need a new invention in order to navigate the deep-space projects. NASA is expected to start testing the Deep Atomic Clock in June once it has already been launched on the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket into the orbit of Earth for one year. The Atomic Clock will be tested rigorously to check whether it will be able to give a helping hand to spacecraft whenever they want to locate themselves. If the test goes as planned, it could prove beneficial to space exploration since the doors to a one way navigation will be opened. This action is then set to allow both crewed and autonomous spacecraft to fly into deep space without encountering any problems on the way. At the moment, spacecraft that explore deep space are controlled on Earth by navigators. With the Deep Space Atomic Clock, this will be a thing of the past as it enables onboard autonomous navigation according to Jill Seubert, the deputy principal investigator. GPS and Smartphones are Inaccurate for Deep Space GPS and Smartphones have proved inaccurate for deep space exploration. This is because they tend to determine their location by sending data to atomic clocks on satellites that are currently orbiting the Earth. In order to determine the position of the device, we would then have to triangulate its position in relation to the atomic clock. Spacecraft can no longer make use of GPS since any small inaccuracy will mean vast distances. Therefore, a spacecraft is forced to use giant satellites to send signals which then bounce back to Earth. With accurate clocks on the ground, they are able to measure the duration that the message takes, to send and receive. It is then that navigators can tell how far away the spacecraft is. Furthermore, they can also detect how fast it is travelling. However, despite the system being sound, it may take a long time for the messages to be sent and received. Fortunately NASA is already working on this. NASA’s new Deep Space Atomic Clock is set to change space exploration completely once it has been fully tested. As more tests continue to be done, we will wait and see how the Deep Space Atomic Clock is going to change space exploration.
Transport Layer Security This is how Audio Deepfakes work The procedure for creating audio deepfakes is similar to visual deepfakes but still different. What is similar is that audio deepfakes are based on the same principles of computation with neural networks. However, the approach to processing voice material is different because of the starting point. To create an audio deepfake, clear recordings of a speaker, preferably without interruptions, ambient or background noise, are needed. And the more such material is available, the better the audio deepfake will be. The approach of current tools is to read out text in the voice of a selected person. In a first step, the model must be taught to read in a specified language and to be able to reproduce what has been read. This is based on a generic voice for which a lot of voice material, at least 24 hours of audio, has to be available. In addition, transcripts must be available for the recordings so that text can eventually be converted to voice sounds. The model is fed with the recordings and the transcripts. The text and audio segments given to the model should not be longer than 10 seconds each for the training and should stop with the end of a word. This means that a lot of effort is needed to prepare the data for such a generic model. On the one hand, enough good recordings must be available, on the other hand, the recordings and texts must be brought into the state expected by the model. After the material has been prepared, a lengthy calculation is performed to allow the model to establish a correlation between the text and the audio. This results in the generic base model in the desired language, which can be used in the next step to fine tune the model with the target voice. The fine tuning requires another 30% of the time needed for the training of the base model. About 2.5 to 3 hours of voice recordings of the desired speaker are necessary to achieve a good result. However, the results obtained from this fine-tuning still sound relatively metallic and robot-like. The reason for this is that in this training only the most important frequencies were trained, since the amount of computation and time required would be far too great to train correctly for all frequencies that are present. In order to turn the metallic voice into a better sounding imitation or an unrecognizable imitation of the voice, one last step is needed. The results obtained are fed into a so-called neural vocoder, which fills in the gaps in the frequencies and thus gives the whole thing a natural sound. There are different publicly available tools. Two of these tools that look very promising are TTS from Mozilla and tacotron2 from NVIDIA. Both have instructions on how to use them, but it quickly becomes clear that the tools currently available require technical understanding as well as an understanding of how audio deepfakes work. On YouTube you can find many examples of results of audio deepfakes with Tacotron2. For example, the Vocal Synthesis channel uses this approach. However, with the publicly available tools, the results are mostly audibly manipulated. In this video of a Donald Trump impersonation, strange remnants of processing can still be heard clearly. However, if this clip were to be backed up with a loud background noise, such as a party or a bad-sounding connection, and nothing malicious is expected, it could very well be used to fool people. However, there are also better examples like the clip of the channel Speaking of AI, in which an imitation of Homer Simpson can be heard. However, the examples from this YouTube channel are created with a method that is not publicly available. Nevertheless, it shows that amazing results can already be achieved today. In combination with visual deepfakes, this can potentially create a complete imitation of a person. This results in similar advantages and disadvantages as already discussed in the introduction to deepfakes. In addition, however, other points come up. With the ability to imitate voices, convincing phone phishing attacks can be carried out against companies. Furthermore, the basic existence of the technology gives people the ability to reject video or audio evidence as fake, whether that evidence is true or false. A positive point for the technology is that it can be used to recreate the voices of people who have lost their voice due to illness or other factors. This makes it possible to offer personalized computer voices as voice substitutes. At the very least, it would make sense to hang up when a fake call is suspected and to call the person back and confirm what has been discussed. The callback should not be to a number given on the phone, but to the known number of the person who allegedly called. The possibility to create realistic audio deepfakes already exists today. However, with the currently existing, publicly available tools, it is necessary to have a certain technical understanding. Nevertheless, companies should think about how they will deal with for example possible fake phone calls in the future, and how staff should be trained to deal with them. Our experts will get in contact with you! Our experts will get in contact with you! Further articles available here
The First Printed Book - Print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper – also inverted there – against the inked surface of woodblocks. Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side, superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate, with remarkable accuracy, the beauty of calligraphy. - The imperial state in China possessed a huge bureaucratic system which recruited its personnel through civil service examinations. Textbooks for this examination were printed in vast numbers under the sponsorship of the imperial state. From the sixteenth century, the number of examination candidates went up and that increased the volume of print. - By the seventeenth century print was no longer used just by scholar-officials, merchants used print in their everyday life. Reading increasingly became a leisure activity. The new readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces, and romantic plays. Print Culture of Japan - Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand printing technology into Japan around AD 768-770. - The oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations. - Pictures were printed on playing cards, paper money and textile products. - In medieval Japan, the works of poets and prose writers were ‘regularly published and books were cheap and abundant. - In the late 18th century, in the flourishing urban circles at Edo (later to be known as Tokyo), illustrated collections of paintings depicted an elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans and teahouse gatherings. Print Comes to Europe - Marco Polo, a great explorer reached Italy after several years of exploration in China in the year 1295. Macro Polo brought back with him the technology of woodblock printing. Now Italians started publishing books with woodblocks and soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe. Merchants and students in the university towns bought the cheaper printed copies. - As the demand for books increased, Scribes or skilled handwriters were no longer solely employed by wealthy or influential patrons but increasingly by booksellers as well. More than 50 scribes often worked for one bookseller. Limitations of handwritten manuscripts It could not satisfy the ever-increasing demand for books. Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business. Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle, and could not be carried around or read easily. Their circulation therefore remained limited. Hence woodblock printing gradually became more and more popular. Gutenberg and The Printing Press The breakthrough in print technology occurred at Strasbourg, Germany, where Johann Gutenberg developed the first-known printing press in the 1430s. Gutenberg had learnt the art of polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for printing press and moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system. The first book he printed was the Bible. The new technology didn’t entirely displace the existing art of producing books by hands. Printed books at first closely resemble the written manuscripts in appearance and layout. The metal letters imitated the ornamental handwritten styles. Borders were illuminated by hand with foilage and other patterns and illustrations were painted. Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most countries of Europe. As the number of printing press grew, book production boomed. The second half of the fifteenth century saw 20 million copies of printed books flooding the markets in Europe. The number went up in the sixteenth century to about 200 million copies. This shift from hand printing to mechanical printing led to the print revolution. The Printing Evolution and Its Impact The shift from hand printing to mechanical printing was not just a development, but led to the print revolution. - It transformed the lives of the people. - It changed their relationship to information and knowledge. - It affected relationship with institution and authorities. - It opened up new ways of looking at things, influenced popular perceptions A New Reading Public Access to books created a new culture of reading Earlier, reading was restricted to the elites. Common people lived in a world of oral culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited, and folk tales narrated. Now books could reach out to wider sections of people. If earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public came into being. The rates of literacy in most European countries were very low till the twentieth century. So the publishers had to keep in mind the wider reach of the printed work. So printers began publishing popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were then sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns. Oral culture thus entered print and printed material was orally transmitted, and the hearing public and reading public became intermingled. Religious Debates and Fear of Print Not everyone welcomed the printed book, and those who did also had fears about it. Many were apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to the printed word and the wider circulation of books, could have on people’s minds. It was feared that if there was no control over what was printed and read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might spread. If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’ literature would be destroyed. In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote; Ninety Five Theses; criticizing many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This lead to a division within the church and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one. Print and Dissent In the sixteenth century, Manocchio, a miller in Italy, began to read books that were available in his locality. He reinterpreted the message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. When the Roman Church began its inquisition to repress heretical ideas, Manocchio was hauled up twice and ultimately executed. The Roman Church, troubled by such effects of popular readings and questioning of faith, imposed severe controls over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain an index of Prohibited Books from 1558. The Reading Mania Increase in Literacy rate : By the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe literacy rate was as high as 60 to 80 percent. As literacy and schools spread in European countries, there was a virtual reading mania. New forms of literature : New forms of popular literature was printed which targeted new audiences. Booksellers employed sales persons who went around villages, carrying little books for sale. There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales. All forms of reading matter, largely for entertainment, began to reach ordinary readers as well. In England, penny chapbooks were sold by petty peddlers known as chapmen, for a penny, so that even the poor people could buy them easily. In France, ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ were printed which were low priced small books printed on poor quality paper and bound in cheap blue covers. Then there were the romances, printed on four to six pages and the more substantial ‘histories’ which were stories about the past. Books were of various sizes, serving various purposes and interests. Periodicals : The periodical press developed from the early eighteenth century, combining information about current affairs with entertainment, about wars and trade, as well as news of developments in other places. Ideas of scientists and philosophers (Issac Newton, Thomas Pain, Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau etc.) now became more accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality found their way into popular literature. “Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world !” - It came to be believed by mid-eighteenth century that the books were a means of spreading progress and enlightenment. - Many believed that books would liberate society form the tyranny and despotism and herald a time when reason and intellect would rule. - Louise Sebastien Mercier, a French novelist of 18th century believed that : “The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.” Heroes in Mercier’s novels were transformed by act of reading, they became enlightened man. He believed power of print would destroy despotism. Print Culture and the French Revolution Many historians argued that the print culture created the conditions which brought about the French Revolution in 1789. - The print culture laid emphasis on the rule of reason rather than custom, demanded that everything should be judged through the application of reason and rationality, attacked the sacred authority of the church and despotic power of the state. Those who read these, saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were questioning, critical and rational. - Secondly, the print culture created an atmosphere of dialogue and debate. As such, all existing ideas and beliefs began to be questioned by the public. Such a thing created the ground for social revolution. - Thirdly, by the 1780s, there was outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticized the monarchy. This process led to the growth of hostile sentiments against the ruler. No doubt, print helps the spread of ideas, but people did not read just one kind of literature, they were also exposed to monarchical and Church propaganda. They were not influenced directly by everything they read of saw. They accepted some ideas and rejected others. The Nineteenth Century Mass literacy in Europe brought a large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Children, Women and Workers - From the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school textbooks became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857. This press published new works as well as old fairy tales and folk tales. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. - Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping. Some of the best known novelists were women : Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot. Their writings became important in defining a new type of woman : a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think. - In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England became instruments for educating white collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class shortened from the mid-nineteenth century self-expression. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers. - By the mid-nineteenth century, Richard M. Hoe of New York perfected the power driven cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8000 sheets per hour. It was particularly useful for printing newspapers. - In the late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could print up to six colours at the same time. - From the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of many other developments followed. Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric control of the colour register were introduced. - Nineteenth-century periodicals sterilized important novels. In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series. Dust cover or the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation. In the 1930s publishers brought out cheap paperback editions. India and The World of Print Manuscripts Before the age of print India had a very rich and old tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after the introduction of print. Down to the late nineteenth century. Manuscripts were however very expensive and fragile and had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script were written in different styles. So the manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life. Print comes to India Portuguese missionaries brought printing press to Goa in mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests printed several pamphlets in Konkani, after learning it. By 1674. about 50 books were printed in Konkani and Kanara languages. In 1579, Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in Cochin. In 1773 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. Dutch protestant Missionaries printed 32 Tamil texts, these were translations of older works. First regular periodical in India was the “Hickey’s Bengal Gazette”, brought out by James Augustus Hickey. Magazine contained advertisements, some about import and sale of slaves, juicy gossips about the private life of senior company officers. This enraged the Governor-General Warren Hastings. He persecuted Hickey, and encouraged publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter the flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government. End of 18th century, a number of newspapers journals appeared in print. Indians also began to publish Indian newspapers. First to appear was the weekly “Bengal Gazette” brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya. Religious Reforms and Public Debates Printed tracts and newspaper not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. To reach a wider audience, the ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people. Rammohan Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published; Jam-i-Jahan, Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance. Print and the Muslims In north India, the Ulemas used cheap lithographic presses which published Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures and printed religious newspapers and tracts to counter Christian cultural invasions. The Deoband seminary founded in 1867, published many fatwas making Muslim readers aware of the code of conduct to be followed in their everyday lives and explained the meanings of Islamic doctrines. Urdu print helped them conduct these battles in public. Print and the Hindus - The first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas came out from Calcutta in 1810. - The mid-nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded the north Indian markets. - From the 1880s, the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published many religious texts in vernaculars Religious texts and books started reaching a very wide circle of people, encouraging debates and controversies within and among different religions. Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India, creating pan-Indian identities. New Forms of Publication Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. As more and more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives, experiences, emotions and relationship reflected in what they read. - The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe, ideally catered to this need, it opened up new worlds of experience, and gave a vivid sense of the diversity of human lives. - New literary forms – lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings, about the political and social rules that shaped such things. - By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visual images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies. These prints began shaping popular ideas about modernity and tradition, religion and politics, and society and culture. - By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. There were imperial caricatures lampooning nationalists, as well as nationalist cartoons criticizing imperial rule. Women and Print Women education : Writers started writing about the lives and feelings of women and this increased the number of women readers. Women got interested in education and many women schools and colleges were set up. Many journals started emphasizing the importance of women education. Women writers : In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography “Amar Jiban” which was published in 1876, was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language. From the 1860s, many Bengali women writers like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women. In the 1880s, in present day Maharastra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows. The poor status of women was also expressed by Tamil writers. Hindu writing and women : Hindu printing began seriously only from the 1870s. Soon, a large section of it was devoted to the education of women. New journals : In the early 20th century, the journals written by women became very popular in which women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage etc, were discussed. Some of them offered household and fashion lessons for women. Teachings for women : In Punjab, Ram Chaddha published Istri Dham Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar massage. In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of popular books. Peddlers took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure time. Print and the Poor People Public libraries : Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books. For rich local patrons, setting up a library was away of acquiring prestige. Highlighting the issue of class discrimination : From the late 19th century, many writers started writing about the issue of class distinction. - Jyotiba Phule wrote about injustices of the caste system in his book Gulamgiri (1871) - In the 20th century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharastra and E.V. Ramaswamy in Madras wrote powerfully on caste and their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts criticizing ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future. Poor workers and print : Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker wrote and poublished Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938. The poems of another Kanpur millwork, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakr between 1935and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan. By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers. Print and Censorship - Early measures to control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of particular company officers. The company was worried that such criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade monopoly in India. - By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1835, Governor General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms. - After the revolt of 1857, as vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the ‘native’ press. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, it provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the Vernacular press. From now on, the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspaper published in different provinces. - Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers, reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. - Calligraphy : Decorative writing; Art of writing beautifully using fine pen ink, etc. - Autobiography : Story of one’s own life written by the author himself or herself. - Anthology : Collection of passages from literature, especially poetry and song. - Mechanical Press : A press for printing which is operated by machine. - Scribes : Ancient & medieval copyist of manuscripts. - Manuscripts : Book or document written by hand; authors original copy hand written or typed, not printed. - Vellum : Fine parchment originally from skin of calf or other animal. Manuscript written on this. - Parchment : Skin of animal like goat or sheep specially prepared for writing, painting etc. - Foliage : Leaves, Leafage. - Compositors : One who setup type for printing. - Ballad : Sentimental song with repeated melody ; poem or song in short stanzas narrating a popular story. - Tavern : Inn or public house where people gather for a drink. - New Testament : Part of Bible concerned with teachings of Christ and his earliest followers. - Protestant Reformation movement : A movement of protest against the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church. The movement was led by Martin Luther, a German monk. - Chapbooks : Cheap pocket size books available at roadside shops of books. - Lithography : A process of printing from stone or metal surface so that the ink addresses only to the design requested to be printed. - Vernacular Language : Language or dialect of the country, language spoken by a particular clan or group. - Despotism : A system of governance in which absolute power is exercised by an individual, unregulated by legal and constitutional checks. - Ulemas : Legal scholars of Islam and the Sharia (a body of the Islamic law). - Fatwa : A legal pronouncement on Islamic law usually given by a ‘mufti’ (legal scholar) to clarify issues on which the law is uncertain. - Marco Polo : Marco Polo was one of the greatest explorers who returned to Italy in 1295 after many years of exploration in China. Marco polo brought the knowledge of woodblock printing to Europe. - Biliotheque Bleue : These are low priced small books printed in France. These were printed on poor quality paper and bound in cheap blue covers. - Johann Gutenberg : Johann Gutenberg was a German goldsmith and the inventor credited with inventing the movable type of printing in Europe. Very Short Answer Type Question - What is calligraphy ? - How was the use of print diversified in 17th century China ? - When and by whom was the hand printing technology was introduced in Japan ? - Who was Marco Polo ? What did the Italians learn from him regarding printing ? - What is referred to as wood block printing ? - Who was Johann Gutenberg ? What was his main contribution ? - What was the first printed book after the invention of the printing press ? How many copies of book were printed in first three - What is meant by Print revolution ? - How did the printing press bring change in reading culture ? - Why were the printed books popular even among illiterate people ? - Why were some people scared about printed books ? - Mention any two strategies adopted by printers and publishers to sell their books ? - Why were manuscripts not used widely in everyday life ? - By whom and in which part of India was the first printing press set up ? - Name the first weekly paper published in India ? By whom was it brought out ? - Name two Persian newspapers published in India in 1822. - Name the first two mill workers who published books written by them in 20th century ? - Name two governor generals who passed laws to give greater freedom to press ? - Why did the British government in India try to clamp the press ? - Are the new painters better than the previous one ? - Name the countries where the earliest kind of print technology was developed. - Who was the major producer of printed material in China ? - For what purpose was this material used ? - Why the print industry boomed in China in the 17th century ? - Which was the oldest book to be printed in Japan ? - Which material was used to print pictures in Japan ? - Who developed the first printing press ? - Name the first book published by Johann Gutenberg in Europe. - Name any four languages in which Indian manuscripts were prepared before the age of print. - When did the first printing press come to India ? - Who printed the first Tamil book ? - Who was the author of Amar Jiban ? - Who wrote Istri Dharam Vichar ? - Name a book written by Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste. - Name an Act which was passed by the British government to keep a regular track of the vernacular newspapers. Short Answer Type Question - Where did the earliest form of paint technology develop ? How were the early books printed ? - Describe the roll of scribes in the production of books in early medieval period ? - Explain the factors responsible for the invention of new printing technology. - How did Gutenberg use his early experience in inventing printing press ? - How did the knowledge of printing spread to all parts of Europe ? What were its effects. - Describe the main features of the first printed Bible ? - What was the impact of Print Revolution ? - What were the main effects of the invention of the Printing press ? - Before the age of print, how did the common people learn about the sacred texts ? - When was the first children’s press set up ? What were its affects ? - What role did lending libraries play in educating comment people in 19th century ? - Examine the various innovations in print technology in late 19 century and early 20th century ? - Examine the role of missionaries in the growth of press in India ? - How did religious texts encourage religions debates and discussion ? - How did the ancient Indian copy and preserve manuscripts ? - Why the British government curtailed the freedom of press ? - How press is helpful in social and religious reform movement ? - How did Johann Gutenberg learn the art of print ? - Explain the main features of the first printed Bible. - In North India, the ‘Ulemas’ were deeply anxious about the collapse of the Muslim dynasties. They feared that colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws’. Mention any three steps taken by them to counter this. Long Answer Type Question - Examine the reasons for a virtual reading ‘mania’ in Europe in 18th century ? - To what extent did the print culture create conditions for the spread of revolutionary ideas before the French Revolution of - How did the print technology help to being about a new intellectual atmosphere in Europe and help Martin Luther in the Reformation movement ? - Discuss the impact of mass media on culture? - What are the factors which do or can, act against the independence of mass media ? - What measures have been taken to tackle the issue of communication imperialism by the UNO ? - ‘The shift from handprinting to mechanical printing led to the print revolution’. Explain. - ‘Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers’. Explain. - Mention some of the important characeristics of print culture of Japan. - Trace the history of print in Europe. - What were the features of the new books which were produced in Europe after the invention of the Gutenberg’s press ? - ‘Print not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.’ Explain. - “By the end of the 19th century a new visual culture was taking shape.” Write any three features of this new visual culture. - How did the women writers use the print to express their opinions regarding the status of women in India? Explain. - Explain the role of missionaries in the growth of press in India. - ‘Not everyone welcomed the printed books, and those who did also had fears about it.’ Explain by giving examples. - Explain the factors which were responsible for creating a virtual reading mania in Europe. - How did the print culture change the way of life of women in late nineteenth century in India. - How was the print used to spread the religious texts by various communities? Explain by giving examples. - Explain the impact of print culture on Indian women. Multiple Choice Question 1. The first printing press was developed by – (A) Marco Polo (B) Kitagawa Utamaro (C) Johann Gutenberg 2. Which religious reformer was responsible for the Reformation movement ? (A) Martin Luther (B) The Grimm Brother (C) George Elliot (D) None of these 3. Who among the following was not a women novelist – (A) Jane Austern (B) Bronte sister (C) George Eliot (D) Maxim Gorky 4. Who among the following wrote her autobiography ? (A) Kailashbasini Debi (B) Tarabai Shinde (C) Pandita Ramabai (D) Rashundari Debi 5. The book Gulamgiri wrote about – (A) The link between caste and class exploitation (B) The injustices of the caste system (C) Illtreatment of windows (D) Restrictions on the vernacular press 6. Church began to maintain an index of prohibited books from – (A) 1556 (B) 1558 (C) 1560 (D) 1562 7. The book “Chote Aur Bade ka Sawal” was written by – (A) Sudarshan Chakr (B) Kashibaba (C) Gandhiji (D) S.C. Bose 8. Where was the first printing press set up in India – (A) Pune (B) Kanpur (C) Goa (D) Bombay 9. What was the first printed books after the invention of the printing press – (A) Ramayan (B) Gita (C) Kuran (D) Bible 10. A legal scholars of Islam and the Sharia – (A) Ulamas (B) Kazi (C) Maulvi (D) Fatwa 11. The earliest kind of print technology was developed in Japan, Korea and ………….. (A) China (B) India (C) Germany (D) France 12. The paper was invented in ……………… (A) India (B) England (C) China (D) France 13. Who was the major producer of printed material in China ? (A) The Imperial State (B) The Novel Industry (C) The Buddhist Monks (D) None of the above 14. What is calligraphy ? (A) The art of beautiful and stylish writing (B) A type of building (C) A type of writing used during neolithic age (D) A type of writing used in Egypt 15. When was handprinting technology introduced in Japan ? (A) 1002-1008 A.D. (B) 768-770 A.D. (C) 1008-1012 A.D. (D) 1012-1014 A.D. 16. Who among the following brought hand – printing technology into Japan around 768-770 AD ? (A) Buddhist missionaries (B) Japanese Traders (C) European Traders (D) None of the above 17. Which is the oldest printed book of Japan ? (B) Diamond Sutra 18. Who wrote 95 Theses ? (A) Martin Luther (B) Johann Gutenberg (C) J.V. Schley (D) Charles Dickens 19. Which one among the following is an ancient name of Tokyo ? (A) Osaka (B) Nagano (C) Edo (D) Gifu 20. By the mid 19th century, …………. had perfected the power driven cylindrical press – (A) Johann Gutenberg (B) S. Richard (C) Richard M. Hoe (D) Vivian Richard 21. Who authored ‘Gitagovinda’ ? (B) Mahatma Gandhi (C) Munshi Premchand (D) Chandu Menon 22. The printing press first came to India in ……… ………….. with ………….. missionaries (A) Bombay, Portuguese (B) Goa, Portuguese (C) Surat, East India Company (D) Calcutta, East India Company 23. Which of the following is the meaning of ‘Biliotheque Bleue’? (A) An author (B) Low price small books (D) None of these 24. The printing was first introduced in India by which one of the following ? (A) East India Company officials (B) Indian reformers (C) Portuguese missionaries (D) Arabic traders 25. James Augustus Hickey was persecuted by ………………. (A) Governor-General Warren Hastings (B) Governor-General William Bentick (C) Governor-General Lord Dalhousie (D) Governor-General Mountbatten
Atopic Dermatitis — Know It All! All you need to know about Eczema. Know your ailment well, so you can manage it better!! Here we come with Eczema today! What is Atopic Dermatitis? Atopic Dermatitis is also referred to as Eczema, commonly. Atopic dermatitis also referred to as eczema, is a chronic (long-lasting) disease that causes the skin to become inflamed, red, and irritated. It’s a chronic disorder that typically begins in childhood; however, anyone can get the illness. Atopic dermatitis is not infectious, so it can not be transmitted from person to person. Atopic dermatitis causes excessively itchy skin. Scratching contributes to more redness, swelling, cracking, crusting, and scaling of the transparent fluid. For most cases, there are occasions when the disease gets worse, called flares, followed by periods where the skin improves or even clears up, called remissions. Scientists do not know what causes atopic dermatitis, although they do know that the disease plays a part in genes, the immune system and the environment. It may be difficult to live with atopic dermatitis depending on the severity and location of the symptoms. Treatment can help in controlling symptoms. In several, atopic dermatitis improves over maturity, but for others, it may be a chronic illness. Who Develops Eczema? - Atopic dermatitis is a chronic disease that typically occurs during childhood and infancy. Atopic dermatitis goes away for many children before puberty. Many kids who experience atopic dermatitis, however, can tend to have symptoms as adults and adolescents. Occasionally the disorder occurs first during puberty for certain individuals. - There is a greater risk of developing atopic dermatitis if there is a family history of atopic dermatitis, hay fever or asthma. Moreover, evidence indicates that atopic dermatitis is more common in black children who are not Hispanic and that women and girls continue to develop the disease significantly more frequently than men and boys. What causes Eczema: No one knows what causes atopic dermatitis; however, researchers are aware that changes in the skin’s protective layer that cause it to lose humidity. It can cause the skin to get dry, resulting in skin damage and inflammation. New research suggests that itch sensations are directly caused by inflammation which in turn causes the patient to scratch. This contributes to further skin damage, as well as an increased risk of bacterial infection. Researchers do know that the following can lead to changes in the skin barrier, which regulates moisture critically: - Changes in DNA, (mutations). - Immune system problems. - Exposure to other external issues. If there is a family history of the disease, the risk of developing atopic dermatitis is higher, which means that genetics may play a part in the cause. Scientists recently identified changes to genes that regulate a specific protein and help our bodies maintain a healthy skin layer. Without this protein’s normal levels, the skin barrier improves, allowing moisture to escape, and exposing the skin immune system to the environment , resulting in atopic dermatitis. Scientists are continuing to research genes in order to better understand how different mutations cause atopic dermatitis. The immune system usually helps the body ward off illness, bacteria, and viruses. Occasionally the immune system is confusing and overactive, leading to atopic dermatitis, which can cause inflammation in the skin. External conditions can cause the immune system to change the skin’s protective barrier to allow more moisture to escape, which can contribute to atopic dermatitis. This may include: - Exposure to smoke from tobacco. - Many forms of toxins at the surface. - Many chemicals and fragrances present in skin products and soaps. - Extra dry skin. What are the symptoms of Eczema? Common symptoms of Eczema are as follows: Itching is the most common symptom of atopic dermatitis and can be severe. Many common signs include: - Dark, with dry skin spots. - Rashes which, when scratched, may ooze, weep clear fluid or bleed. - Thickened and hardened skin. The symptoms can manifest concurrently in several areas of the body, and may occur in the same locations and in new locations. The rash‘s appearance and location varies depending on age; however the rash may appear anywhere on the body. During infancy and up to 2 years of age, red rash, which may ooze when rubbed, occurs most often on the: - Skin layer around the joint that brushes when the joint bends. Many parents are concerned that the child has atopic dermatitis in the diaper area; however, this area rarely shows up the disease. A red thickened rash, which may ooze or bleed when scratched, appears most commonly during childhood, usually 2 years of age to puberty, on the: Elbows and knees, often in bend. Neck and Ankles. Teenagers and adults: A red to dark brown scaly rash, which may bleed and crust when scratched, appears most commonly during the teenage and adult years on the: - Elbows and knees, often in bend. - The skin around the eyes. - Ankles and feet. Other skin characteristics common to atopic dermatitis include: - Extra skin folds beneath the eye, known as the Dennie-Morgan fold. - Skin darkening beneath the eyes. - On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, extra skin creases. Additionally, atopic dermatitis patients often have other conditions, such as: - Asthma and allergies like allergies to food. - Other skin conditions such as ichthyosis cause dry, thickened skin. - Depression, or fear. - Loss of Sleep. Researchers continue to research why having atopic dermatitis as a child can cause asthma and hay fever to develop later in life. Atopic dermatitis can be complicated. They cover: - Infections of bacterial skin which can worsen from scratching. These are common and can take control of the disease more difficult. - Viral infections in the skin. - Loss of sleep which can lead to behavioral problems in children. - Eczema to the hand (hand dermatitis). - Problems with the hand, such as: - Conjunctivitis (pink skin), which causes the inside of your eyelid and the white portion of your skin to swell and turn glow. - Blepharitis, which causes the eyelid to become progressively inflamed and swollen. How is it Eczema Diagnosed? Diagnosing atopic dermatitis may include the following: Giving the doctor your or your child’s medical history, including: - Your family history of allergies. - Whether you also have diseases such as hay fever, asthma, or food allergies. - Sleep problems. - Foods that seem to trigger hives. - Previous treatments for skin-related symptoms. - Use of steroids or other medications. - Exposure to irritants, such as: Soaps and detergents. Some perfumes and cosmetics. - Examining your skin and the rash. Ordering laboratory tests, such as: - Blood tests to check for other causes of the rash. - Skin biopsy of the rash or lesion. Your doctor may need to see you or your child several times to make an accurate diagnosis and to determine if symptoms are from other diseases and conditions or from atopic dermatitis. What is the treatment for Eczema? The goals for treating atopic dermatitis include the following : - Manage and control dry skin. - Contain skin inflammation. - Control itching. - Promote healing. - Prevent infections. - Prevent flares. Your health care provider will work with you to develop a treatment plan based on: - Location and rash form including the severity of itching. - Specific triggers for you or your kids, to reduce exposure and to prevent possible flares. - The reaction of the skin to specific treatments, to identify which treatments appear to work best. Treatments include usually a combination of therapies and may include: - Moisturizing creams can help restore the skin barrier. - Corticosteroid creams and ointments help to decrease inflammation and are commonly used to treat diseases affecting the skin. Doctors do not usually prescribe oral corticosteroids to treat atopic dermatitis because after stopping the normal dose, atopic dermatitis can flare or rebound and be more severe than before. - Calcineurin inhibitors applied to the skin decrease inflammation and help prevent flares - Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors, a topical cream, can help with inflammation when the symptoms do not respond to other treatments - Pills that reduce the abnormal immune response can be used but are reserved for more severe disease, and they require close monitoring. - Biologic medication, which is given by an injection just under the skin, blocks specific functions of the immune system to help control and manage atopic dermatitis. At this time, biologic medications are only approved to treat adults and adolescents with the condition When treating atopic dermatitis it is necessary to keep the skin hydrated by applying moisturizers immediately after bathing to retain the water in your skin. The doctor will decide how much you or the child will take a bath and what kind of moisturizer you should use. For certain cases, the following skincare may be advised to do with AD: - Twice a week, diluted bleach bath to help treat AD and prevent infections. It is important when taking a bleach bath, to follow the specific instructions of your doctor. You do not take this medication without talking to the doctor first. - Wet wrap treatment to help moisturize the skin when the disease continues. Just use wet wraps, though, after talking to your doctor. If the atopic dermatitis is severe, widespread, and has not responded to other therapies, the use of ultraviolet A or B light waves to relieve symptoms may be recommended. When atopic dermatitis causes you or your child to develop skin infections, your doctor can prescribe additional topical or oral antibiotic treatments. It is important to use skin treatments as directed and to periodically follow up with your doctor to ensure that the treatment plan works. Gopala Krishna Varshith, Content Developer & Editor,
« PreviousContinue » EXAMPLES 1. The extremes are 3 and 29, and the number an terms 14, what is the common difference? -3 Number of terms less 1=13)26(2 Ans. 2. A man had 9 sons, whose several ages differed alike: che youngest was 3 years old, and the oldest 35; whai was the common difference of their Ans. 4 years 3. A man is to travel from New-London to a certain place in 9 days, and to go but 3 miles the first day, incrcasing every day by an equal excess, so that the last day's journey may be 43 miles : Required the daily increase, and the length of the whole journey? Ans. The daily increase is 5, and the whole journey 207 miles. 4. A debt is to be discharged at 16 different payment (in arithmetical progression, the first payment is to be 141. the last 1001.: What is the common difference, and the sum of the whole debt? Ans. 5l. 14s. 8d. common difference, and 912. the whole debt, PROBLEM III. Giver the first term, last term, and common difference to find the number of terms. RULE. Divide the difference of the extremes by the common difference, and the quotient increased by i is the number of terms. 1. If the extremes be 3 and 45, ans' the common dif ference?; what is the number of terms ? Ans. 22. 2. A man going a journey, travelled the first day five miles, the last day 45 milos, and each day increased his journey by 4 miles; how many days did he travel and how far? a ns. 11 days, and the whole distance travelled 275 miles GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION, Is when any rank or series of numbers increased by one common multiplier, or decreased by one common divisor ; as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c. increase by the multiplier 2; and 27, 9, 3, 1, decrease by the divisor 3. PROBLEM I. The first term, the last term (or the extremes) and the ratio given, to find the sum of the series. RULE. Multiply the last term by the ratio, and from the product subtract the first term; then divide the remainder by the ratio, less by 1, and the quotient will be the sum of all the terms. 1. If the scries be 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, 486, 1458, and the ratio 3, what is its sum total ? =2186 the Answer. 3-1 2. The extremes of a geometrical series are 1 and 65536, and the ratio 4; what is the sum of the series ? Ans. 87381. PROBLEM II. Given the first term, and the ratio, to find any other term CASE I. When the first term of the series and the ratio are equal. As the last term in a long series of numbers is very tedious to be found by continual multiplications, it will be necessary for the readier finding it out, to have a series of numbers in arithmetical proportion, called indices, whose common difference is 1. When the first term of the series and the ratio are equal, the indices must begin with, the unit, and in this case, the 1. Write down a few of the reading terms of the series, and place their indices over them, beginning the indices with an unit or 1. 2. Add together such indices, whose sum shall make the entire index to the sum required. 3. Multiply the terms of the geometrical series belonging to those indices together, and the product will be the term sought EXAMPLES 1. If the first be 2, and the ratio 2; what is the 13th term. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, indices. Then 5+5+3=13 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, leading terms. 32x32x8=8192 Arse 2. A draper sold 20 yards of superfine cloth, the first yard for 3d. the second for 9d. the third for 27d. &c. in triple proportion geometrical ; what did the cloth come to at that rate ? The 20th, or last term is 3486784401d. Then 3+3486784401-S =5250176600d. the sum of all 3_1 the terms (by Prob. I.) equal to £21792402 10s. Ans. 3. A rich miser thought 20 guineas a price too much for 12 sine horses, but agreed to give 4 cents for the first, 16 cents for the second, and 64 cents for the third horse, and so on in quadruple or fourfold proportion to the last what did they come to at that rate, and how much did they cost per head, one with another? Ans. The 12 horses came to 8223696, 20cts. and the average price was 818641, 35cts. per head. product of any two terms is equal to that term, signified by the sum of their indices. $1 2 3 4 5 &c. Indices or arithmetical series. - 32 = the fifth term CASE II. When the first term of the series and the ratio are diffe rent, that is, when the first term is either greater or less than the ratio. 1. Write down a few of the leading terms of the series, and begin the indices with a cypher: Thus, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. 2. Add together the most convenient indices to make an index less by 1 than the number expressing the place of the term sought. 3. Multiply the terms of the geometrical series together belonging to those indices, and make the product & dividend. 4. Raise the first term to a power whose index is one ess than the number of the terms multiplied, and make the result a divisor. 5. Divide, and the quotient is the term sought. 4. If the first of a geometrical series be 4, and the ratio 3, what is the 7th term ? 0, 1, 2, 3, Indices. 3+2+1=6, the index of the 7th term. =2916 the 7th term required, 16 Here the number of terms multiplied are three; therefore the first term raised to a power less than three, is the 2.0 power or square of 4=16 the divisor. *When the first term of the series and the ratio are different, the indices must begin with a cypher, and the sum of the indices made choice of uust be one less than the number of terms given in the question: because 1 in the indices stands over the second term, and 2 in the indices over the third term, &c. and in this case, the product of any two terins, divided by the first, is equal to that term beyond the first, signified by the sum of their indices. Thus, So, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. Indices. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 8c. Geometrical series. Here 4+3=7 the index of the 8th term. 81X27=2187 the 8th term, or the 7th beyond the 18 5. A Goldsmith sold 1 lb. of gold, at 2 cents for the first ounce, 8 cents for the second, 32 cents for the third, &c. in a quadruple proportion geometrically; what did the whole come to ? Ans. 8111848, 10cts. 6. What debt can be discharged in a year, by paying 1 farthing the first month, 10 farthings, (or 24d.) the seoond, and so on, each inonth in a tenfold proportion ? Ans. £115740740 14s. 9d. Sqrs. 7. A thresher worked 20 days for a farmer, and received for the first day's work four barley-corns, for the second 12 barley-corns, for the third 36 barley-corns, and so on in triple proportion geometrical. I demand what the 20 days' labor came to, supposing a pint of barley to contain 7680 corns, and the whole quantity to be sold at 2s. 6d. per bushel ? Ans. £1773 78. 6d. rejecting remainders. 8. A man bought a horse, and by agreement was to give a farthing for the first nail, two for the second, four for the third, &c. There were shoes, and eight nails in each shoe; what did the horse come to at that rate ? Ans. £,4473924 5s. 31d. 9. Suppose a certain body, put in motion, should move the length of one barley-corn the first second of time, one inch the second, and three inches the third second of time, and so continue to increase its motion in triple pro portion geometrical; how many yards would the sand body move in the term of half a minute ? Ars. 953199685623 yds. ift. lin. 1b.c. which is no less tiun five hundred and forty-one millions of miles. POSITION. POSITION is a rule which, by false or supposed numbers, taken at pleasure, discovers the true ones required. It is divided into two parts, Single or Double. SINGLE POSITION, Is when one number is required, the properties of whioh are given in the question.
March is Women’s History Month. Women have made genius inventions throughout history. This post is about the life-changing inventions by badass women. They contributed to inventions ranging from computer programming to X-rays to telecommunications. Radioactivity- Invented by Marie Curie, a Polish and naturalized-French scientist who researched on radioactivity. She discovered two elements, polonium, and radium. At the time of her discovery, people were unaware of the effects of radiation exposure and she worked unprotected in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry of Ecole Normale Superieure where she taught. On top of working unprotected, the shed itself was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. Her work did not end there. During World War 1, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals. She is the only first person to win the Nobel Prize twice. Computer programming- Invented by Ada Lovelace, who was an English mathematician and writer. She is also the only legitimate child of Lord Byron and Lady Byron. She published the first algorithm intended to be carried out by Charles Babbage’s proposed mechanical general purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. Computer Language Compiler- Invented by Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist, and United States Navy rear admiral. She had always dreamed of a programming language written in English and invented the first computer compiler that the world has ever seen. She obtained her Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale University and was a professor of mathematics at Vassar College before she joined the Navy Reserve during WW2. She also popularized the phrase, “computer bugs”. Recursive Function- Invented by Rozsa Peters, who was a Hungarian mathematician and logician. During the war, she was banned from teaching due to her Jewish origin and was also confined in a ghetto in Budapest. During the time, she wrote her book, “Playing with Infinity: Mathematical Explorations and Excursions. After the war ended, she was able to receive her first full-time teaching appointment at the Budapest Teachers’ Training College. By 1951, she published a key finding on “Recursive Functions” and continued to publish important papers on recursive theory throughout her life. By the mid-1950s, Peter applied recursive function theory to computers. Telecommunications Technology- Invented by Shirley Ann Jackson, an American physicist. She was the first African-American woman to earn a doctorate degree at MIT. She started working at the Theoretical Physics Researcher Department at Bell Laboratories in 1976 where she researched the optical and electronic properties of 2 dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional system. Her research eventually enabled others to invent the portable fax, touch-tone telephone, solar cells, fiber optic cables, caller ID, call waiting, and etc. Without these badass women, our modern world would look very different. We might still be communicating via pigeons delivery and never be able to check out our bodies by X-Ray when we break our bones.
Research by NOAA and partners may be key to seasonal outlooks for regional tornado outbreaks Tornadoes are one of nature’s most destructive forces. Recent violent and widespread tornado outbreaks in the United States, such as occurred in the spring of 2011, have caused significant loss of life and property. Currently, our capacity to predict tornadoes and other severe weather risks does not extend beyond seven days. Extending severe weather outlooks beyond seven days will assist emergency managers, businesses, and the public prepare the resources needed to prevent economic losses and protect communities. So how can scientists better predict when and where tornadoes are likely to strike, before the tornado season begins? In a recent paper published in Environmental Research Letters, scientists with NOAA and the University of Miami identified how patterns in the spring phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), coupled with variability in North Atlantic sea surface temperatures, could help predict U.S. regional tornado outbreaks. “This is the first study to show that the most frequently occurring spring sea surface temperature patterns in the tropical Pacific and North Atlantic are linked to distinctive spatial patterns of the probability of U.S. regional tornado outbreaks,” said lead author Sang-Ki Lee, Ph.D., an oceanographer at NOAA’s Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML). Researchers at AOML and the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies (CIMAS) at the University of Miami investigated the spatial patterns of springtime U.S. regional tornado outbreaks from 1950-2014 and their connection to springtime phases of ENSO. ENSO, or the El Niño-La Niña cycle, is a natural climate pattern in the Pacific Ocean. During an El Niño event, warm sea surface temperatures spread across the tropics. In a La Niña year, the opposite happens: Cool sea surface temperatures dominate in the eastern tropical Pacific. These temperature shifts have a ripple effect on large-scale atmospheric processes conducive to tornado outbreaks across the U.S. The researchers focused on four variations of ENSO events: strong winter events that persist well into spring, and weak events that dissipate soon after their winter peak. They found that weak El Niños led to tornado outbreaks in May throughout the Upper Midwest, while strong El Niños led to outbreaks in February across Central Florida and the Gulf Coast. In contrast, weak La Niñas led to April outbreaks throughout the South, particularly in Oklahoma and Kansas, while strong La Niñas led to April outbreaks along the Ohio Valley and in the Southeast and Upper Midwest. The results suggest that each of the four dominant spring ENSO variations is linked to distinct and significant U.S. regional patterns of outbreak probability. The strongest tornado connection was with strong, persistent La Niñas, consistent with the Super Outbreak of 1974 and the record-shattering tornado outbreaks of 2011, both of which occurred during strong La Niñas. The researchers plan to incorporate the spring ENSO state and the North Atlantic sea surface temperature variability into a forecast model to predict which regions are more likely to experience widespread tornado outbreaks. By extending NOAA’s ability to predict tornado outbreaks, federal, state, and local agencies can plan early and pre-position resources to better prepare for emergency response. It is important to remember that a regional tornado outbreak may occur in any season and almost anywhere in the U.S. regardless of ENSO state. Furthermore, even during an overall quiet season, one outbreak event could cause significant loss of life and property. Therefore, communities routinely exposed to severe weather systems should be ready for every severe weather season regardless of what a seasonal outlook may predict. This research was funded in part by the Modeling, Analysis, Predictions, and Projections (MAPP) program, part of NOAA’s Climate Program Office in the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, and NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center (CPC) and Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), working in collaboration with the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL). To read the research, go to Environmental Research Letters. To watch a video abstract on the study, click here. For more information, see image and story at Climate.Gov. Originally Published by Edward Pritchard, 2016
Views: 89 Author: Site Editor Publish Time: 2022-04-11 Origin: Site An earth auger, floor auger, or post-drill is a drilling tool or machine used to drill holes in the ground. It usually consists of a rotating vertical metal rod or pipe with one or more blades attached to its lower end for cutting or scraping the soil. Here is the list of contents Who invented the earth auger? Types of ground drills Driving forces used by earth augers Metal augers have been used to drill holes in wood since the Middle Ages. In the 19th century, hand bulldozers became a common farm and construction tool in the United States, and several inventors patented them. One example is the design of M. Hubby of Maysfield, Texas, which consisted of an open hollow cylinder with two blades on the bottom edge. In 1943, John Habluetzel, a Kansas farmer, built the first known powered earth auger using parts removed from other equipment, including the 7-inch auger blade of the auger separator. It was attached to a tractor and could be operated by the driver from his seat. It dug a hole 2.5 feet deep every minute. john Habluetzel's invention appeared in the 35th Biennial Report of the Kansas Board of Agriculture. He continued to dig holes for other farmers for 10 cents per hole, a side business he ran well in the 1950s. in 1999, he donated his invention to the Kansas History Museum. Classification from the arrangement of the blades. The most common auger design has an auger blade (propeller) wrapped around the lower part of the shaft. The lower edge of the auger blade scrapes off the soil at the bottom of the hole, and the rest of the blade acts as a screw conveyor, lifting the loose soil to one side. When the hole reaches the desired depth and the tool is pulled out, the spiral blades scoop out the remaining loose dirt. The end of the rod may protrude from a pointed point below the spiral blade. Its purpose is to push the dirt located below the rod to the side, making it easier for the blade to pick it up. It also helps prevent the auger from deflecting to one side, thus keeping the hole straight. The lower edge of the auger blade may also have teeth. Another type of earth auger has two vertical blades instead of auger screws. Instead of scraping the soil off the bottom of the hole, this type of auger cuts a cylindrical plug out of the hole which is held in place by friction between the two blades. The auger must then be pulled out and emptied every foot or so. This type of operation may require less force, but may only be applicable to certain types of soil. The earth auger can be manually driven by the "T" shaped horizontal handle at the top of the rod. The earth auger can also be powered by an electric motor or internal combustion engine, or by a tractor or other vehicle through a power output device. Zhejiang Hengyue Machinery Co., Ltd strictly controls the quality of all spare parts and every step in all production plants. We inspect and test all parts, even some spare parts produced by professional machines. Meanwhile, each gearbox must be tested with special testing equipment. We insist on providing high-quality products. If you are interested in our products and would like to get detailed information about them, please feel free to contact us!
Here, we will be making “The Great Indian Flag” using Python Turtle Graphics. Here, we will be using many turtle functions like begin_fill(), end_fill() to fill color inside the Flag, penup(), pendown(), goto() etc to reaching the target. In computer graphics, turtle graphics are vector graphics using a relative cursor upon a Cartesian plane. Turtle is a drawing board like feature which let us command the turtle and draw using it. Features of turtle graphics: - forward(x): moves the pen in forward direction by x units. - backward(x): moves the pen in the backward direction by x units. - right(x): rotate the pen in the clockwise direction by an angle x. - left(x): rotate the pen in the anticlockwise direction by an angle x. - penup(): stop drawing of the turtle pen. - pendown(): start drawing of the turtle pen. - begin_fill(): starts filling the color inside the shape. - fillcolor(“color_name”): sets the color to be filled. - end_fill(): stops filling the color. 1. import the turtle modules. 2. Get a screen to draw on. screen = turtle.Screen() 3. Define an instance for turtle(here “t”). 4. For making Indian Flag lets divide the process into 4 steps: - The rectangle with orange color. - Then the middle rectangle. - Then the last Green Rectangle. - Then Ashoka Chakra inside the middle rectangle. 5. Here dimensions of all three Rectangles are (800 units x 167 units), which makes up dimensions of the flag as (800 units x 501 units). 6. The turtle starts from coordinates (-400, 250). 7. Then from that position it makes the First rectangle of orange color. 8. Then from the ending point of the first rectangle,Turtle makes the Second rectangle of no color. 9. Then the Third green color rectangle is made. Now for Ashoka Chakra we need to perform a set of operations - A Big Blue circle and a white circle just smaller than blue. - Set of small blue circles on the inner lining of a blue and white circle. - And finally spokes inside the two blue and white circles starting from Centre towards the outer direction. 10. Finally, The pride of one’s Nation is ready. Below is the implementation of the above approach: Attention geek! Strengthen your foundations with the Python Programming Foundation Course and learn the basics. To begin with, your interview preparations Enhance your Data Structures concepts with the Python DS Course.
They are most famous for their architecture, based on the new ideas and materials that they established. The Romans learned concepts from prior ages and altered them with the aim of building up their Empire and creating a stronger basis for living. Through mastering skills of architecture and engineering, the Romans were able to change the face of Europe forever. They learned not only to master ways of creating solid structures but also ways of giving them character and style. Roman architecture did not simply appear out of thin air; it has its roots in Grecian and Etruscan architecture. The Greeks believed that intellect is superior to forces of nature, while the Romans wanted their architecture to dominate the sites. A third similarity was their ability to be innovative during their time periods. Along with their innovations when it came to their temples, the Greeks also had the ability to create very life-like and dynamic sculptures, something that the Romans constantly struggled with during their time. Because of this, a lot of their sculptures were just replicas of Greek sculptures with small adaptations and changes occurring. One of the most innovative steps that the Romans took with their Both the column and the arch had been seen before, but the Romans based their work on the arch and its structural principles which had not been done previously. They used arches both for their immense support capabilities but also for their power to glorify and amaze. They then used three types of columns; the Doric Style, to hold up huge and heavy buildings. The Ionic Style was the second type of column. Used for the same purpose as the Doric style although more graceful and not so imposing with its slender shaft. ROMAN TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING Kasey Simas HIS 103 World Civilizations I Instructor Max Fassnacht January 28, 2013 ROMAN TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING Roman empires flourished, which can largely be attributed to the emperors that created government, laws, cities, military, and many buildings and structures. This would not be possible without the use of technology. In order to talk about roman technology and engineering we must first understand what technology is. Technology is “the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science (technology, n.d.).” The Pantheon is a great example of Roman architecture. Most historians believe Emperor Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa built the first Pantheon in 27BC, though no one knows its exact age. Roman Architecture The creative and efficient design of roman architecture has influenced the features and theory behind many of our most admirable structures today. The Roman’s carry many successful buildings to their name as they greatly influenced the time in which they were introduced. Some of the Roman’s most recognized and appreciated innovations were the aqueduct, the roads, the dome and the invention of concrete. There are many reasons as to why the Roman building was so accepted, mostly because of their unique yet successful ideas and reliable materials. To start the Roman’s were a very advanced society. Author: James E. Packer Title: The Forum of Trajan in Rome, A Study of the Monuments in Brief Publication Information: ©2001, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London Marcus Ulpius Traianus was a Roman Emperor in AD 98-117, known as the Roman Emperor of Trajan. Because of the militaristic skill that he showed, Nerva chose him to be his successor on the Imperial throne. Trajan was praised in his time by the Romans because he built roads and aqueducts. Trajan’s forum was an elaborate one and was made of polished marble, bronze and gold. The two main elements of the new Forum of Trajan were that it had an open piazza as well as a basilica, both of which were very large. Stadiums and playgrounds:- Sports are played on playground and specific stadium. The composition of the stadium and playground also include chemistry. Modern construction materials have revolutionised the design and performance of sports venues, whether it’s a showpiece stadium. Admixtures are specially formulated products that are added in small amounts to Concrete, mortar or grout during the mixing process in order to modify the concrete properties in the plastic and / or hardened state. These admixtures can make a real difference – for example, the Bird’s Nest Olympic stadium in Beijing was constructed using BASF concrete admixtures that allowed the building process to be completed more quickly. Art was a crucial aspect of expressing Renaissance ideas. Italian sculptors, painters, and architects in particular did a fantastic job of communicating Renaissance concepts in their artwork. Three of the most central humanistic beliefs during this period of time were the appreciation of the individual, the emphasis on the real rather than the abstract, and the imitation of past civilizations. The sculpture “David”, by Italian artist Michelangelo, is an excellent example of the humanistic emphasis on appreciating the individual and dignifying the human kind. Michelangelo depicts David as a strong, godlike figure, emphasizing the size of his hands and feet. “Discuss the classical column, its origins, and its continued application over 2500 years. Speculate on this longevity.” - Professor Peter Corrigan It has evident that the use of columns for building temples or fanes had had become quite common application in ancient times. In creating a perfect order that satisfied the beauty of the temple, they started to look upon the human body that was thought to be the finest creation of God. The Roman architect Vitruvius on whom we depend for almost all we know of ancient architectural theory mentioned, the fluted or striated cylindrical column shafts tapering slightly toward the top are derived from tree trunks; but he also says that two principal column types are related to humans, which explains their proportions and ornaments. It is the intention of this essay to discuss whether or how the classical columns influenced and invested in the architecture of Australia and use of its ornamentation invented in ancient Western world. The Romans moved away from the simple, ordered and comparatively humble style of Greek temples and created more lavish, grandiose buildings, made possible by engineering developments such as concrete, arches, vaults and domes, to emulate the epicurean taste, vast wealth and power of the Empire. The two nations had similar approaches to religion and its significance in everyday life but very different ways of producing these religious buildings. The differences between the Greek and the Roman temple are due to the
Do you work tirelessly to make your math lessons meaningful, challenging, accessible, and engaging? Do you spend hours you don’t have searching for, adapting, and creating tasks to provide rich experiences for your students that supplement your mathematics curriculum? Help has arrived! Classroom Ready-Rich Math Tasks for Grades K-1 details 56 research- and standards-aligned, high-cognitive-demand tasks that will have your students doing deep-problem-based learning. These ready-to-implement, engaging tasks connect skills, concepts and practices, while encouraging students to reason, problem-solve, discuss, explore multiple solution pathways, connect multiple representations, and justify their thinking. They help students monitor their own thinking and connect the mathematics they know to new situations. In other words, these tasks allow students to truly do mathematics! Written with a strengths-based lens and an attentiveness to all students, this guide includes: • Complete task-based lessons, referencing mathematics standards and practices, vocabulary, and materials • Downloadable planning tools, student resource pages, and thoughtful questions, and formative assessment prompts • Guidance on preparing, launching, facilitating, and reflecting on each task • Notes on access and equity, focusing on students’ strengths, productive struggle, and distance or alternative learning environments. With concluding guidance on adapting or creating additional rich tasks for your students, this guide will help you give all of your students the deepest, most enriching and engaging mathematics learning experience possible.
Homer, The Iliad 1. As you begin reading, note what elements of the Iliad are unique to epic — how is it unlike novels, lyric poems, fairy tales, etc.? 2. Study the words and actions of Agamemnon carefully. What is the basis of his authority? 3. In Book 3, the two sides are massed for a mighty conflict, but the poet turns to a single duel between Menelaus and Paris. Why hasn’t this duel occurred before? What function does it have in the story? 4. Do the interactions among the gods parallel those among the humans? In what ways? What do the gods do here that the humans do not? 5. Consider the differences between Ares and Athene; they are both war-god/dess, but why have two? 6. Book 6: This is Hector’s book. Here we see who, what and why he is. How does the narrator seem to feel about Hector? Compare and contrast his heroism with Achilles. Consider his relations with women. Note his self-consciousness about the inevitable fate of Troy and his family (520). What, exactly, motivates him to keep fighting? Do you see anything potentially wrong or self-contradictory with his reasoning? Don’t sentimentalize his hopes for his son too much. 7. Book 8: Zeus signals the Greeks’ collapse, but still pities (280ff.): is he confused? Given that the proem told us that these events are the will of Zeus, what does Zeus really want? 8. Book 9: An important book. Agamemnon admits his error and sends an embassy to Achilles, consisting of Odysseus, Phoenix and Ajax. Consider why these three in particular go. Compare Agamemnon’s instructions with what actually happens, focusing in particular on the conduct of Odysseus. 9. Which characters do you feel the most sympathy for and why? Explain. 10. What do you think is the purpose of Diomedes’ and Odysseus’ excursion? What do they achieve, both during and as aftermath? 11. Book 12: Sarpedon and Glaucus (compare this scene with Glaucus and Diomedes in Book 6) give the most complete statement of the heroic code. Why do heroes risk their lives? Note how the awareness of mortality changes everything. Compare their ethos with Achilles’ speech in Book 9. 12. Look for ways in which this book and the next [12 & 13] set the stage for Hector’s fall, as his success makes him progressively more reckless. Look for warnings Polydamas gives Hector, and note where and why he stops listening. 13. Think about the effects anger has on events. What positive and negative effects result from anger? Why do characters get angry? Is their anger justified or not? Explain. 14. What roles do the gods play? Where are they more symbols (of what?) and where are they more like “people”? What is your opinion of these characters as gods? 15. Since the epic is set during a war, obviously martial values are most on display. What other social and personal values are expressed or demonstrated? 16. Pay particular attention to the scenes in Books 11-16 with Patroklos; what character traits do we see most clearly? How does Patroklos complement Akhilleus? 17. Patroclus kills Sarpedon, Zeus’ son, whom Zeus considers saving. Why doesn’t he? What happens to Sarpedon? This is the first important death in the epic, beginning the sequence that leads to Hector’s death. Look for changes in the narrative tone and level of elaboration. 18. What happens to Patroclus after killing Sarpedon? Look at the descriptions of his mind and emotions. 19. Is Patroclus diminished in the end? Is Hector’s conquest of him glorious. Note that, despite the intention of tricking the Trojans that Achilles has returned, they never think that. Why do you think this is so? What effect would it have had on the story if Hector had bent over the dead Patroclus and said, “It’s only Patroclus.” 20. Hector says he will give Patroclus’ corpse to the vultures; consider the ramifications. And does Hector has a realistic idea of his role in the death of Patroclus? 21. What do we learn from Thetis’ trip to Hephaestus? How does this episode play into furthering Akhilleus’ fate? 22. The new shield of Achilles allows Homer a delineation of normal human life, of which the heroic is an exceptional part. Think about the shield and what is represented. What image of life does Homer provide? What does the shield evoke? Can you draw the shield based on Homer’s description? 23. Which characters do you feel the most sympathy for by this point, and why? Has this changed over the course of the epic? Explain. 24. Critics have always liked the scene between Akhilleus and his horses; what makes it unique and significant? 25. Explain how in Book 20 Homer builds up to the big fight between Hektor and Akhilleus. 26. How is Achilles’ aristeia similar to and different from others? 27. How do you feel about Hector, Achilles, and the other Achaeans during Hector’s death and shortly after? Achilles’ vengeance is now complete, but the book has shown us little of his thought and much of Hector’s. The plot is now complete, and thus Achilles’ continuing rage is stressed even more. Why is Achilles still angry? 28. Read the passage about Patroklos’ funeral pyre carefully; why do you think the detail is important? What symbolic significance might this fire have? 29. Why does Akhilleus return the body? Consider several possible motives. 30. Are you satisfied with how and where the epic ends? Explain. What, if anything, would you change? Homer, The Odyssey 1. How is Odysseus described before we meet him? How or how not does he live up to that characterization? 2. Consider the queens we meet or are told about. What traits do they share in common and which are unique? Which queen is most admired? In general, what role(s) do women seem to play in Homeric society? 3. What kinds of repetition do you notice? How do they function in the development of the narrative? 4. The story of Agamemnon is repeated several times. Why do you think this story is important with regard to Odysseus? 5. Consider the older men we meet. For what characteristics are they most admired and respected? Do these characteristics differ much from those admired in younger men? 6. Discuss how the portrayal of Telemakhos develops as he travels; what steps do you see in his maturity-journey? 7. Describe the different ways the theme of hospitality is expressed in this epic. 8. How does Homer portray the role of the gods? How do they relate to each other? to men? What themes are connected with the gods and their role(s)? 9. Compare the different “homecomings” that Odysseus receives on Ithaca – what is significant about each? 10. What motives might Penelope have for promoting the bow test? Which motive is most likely, do you think? 11. Odysseus punishes the suitors and servants; do his actions seem just to you or excessive? Perikles — Funeral Oration 1. This speech was delivered at a public “mass funeral” for war dead. How does Perikles approach the mourners and validate their losses throughout the speech? What is Perikles’ ultimate purpose in this speech? What responses does he want to engender in his audience? 2. What aspects of Athenian life and society does Perikles celebrate? How does Perikles characterize non-Athenians? What specific traits separate Athenians from their enemies? 3. What image of Perikles do you get from this text? Pick out some sections which you think reveal his personality or attitudes and explain how they reveal character. 1. Pick out some animal images which are used to symbolize people or events in the play and follow how they develop over the course of the drama. How do these images contribute to the meaning of the play? 2. The chorus is made up of the old men of Argos; as a group, what are their characteristics? How do these characteristics tie into the plot of the drama? 3. Note the comments made about male/female roles; what does this tell you about Agamemnon and Clytemnestra? 4. What importance does the carpet scene hold for Agamemnon and Clytemnestra? 5. Clytemnestra has several different motives for plotting against Agamemnon; which do you think is her strongest motive, and why? 6. What is the effect of Cassandra’s ability to see the future on the chorus? on the audience? 7. In some versions of the myth, Aegisthus kills Agamemnon; do you think this would be more or less effective if the play presented that version (explain)? 8. What is your opinion of Aegisthus? What lines contribute to your opinions? Why do you think Aeschylus portrayed him this way? Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 1. Who and what did Prometheus object to and rebel against? Discuss the different levels of his rebellion; might his rebellion have a “higher purpose”, i.e., trying to change something for the better? 2. Why would the gods be stingy with fire? What could fire be symbolic of? (it can be symbolic of more than one thing…) 3. What reasons are given for Zeus’ attitude? Can his attitude be defended? Explain. 4. What must Zeus learn? What must Prometheus learn? Would your attitude toward Prometheus change if he were human rather than a god? 5. Why is Io brought in? 6. Do the powers of prophecy that Prometheus has affect your attitude towards his actions and his punishment? 7. What role does “Necessity” or “Fate” play in events? 8. Is Prometheus’ revolt (and/or his punishment) tragic? Explain. 1. The translators of Oedipus have added all the stage directions (the ancient Greek text provides none). Imagine having to create these from the clues in the text. What kinds of information do stage directions provide and how do they help? What more would you add? 2. How would Sophocles answer this question: Is our destiny a result of fate or of our own personality and decisions? both? neither? Explain. 3. What symbols and metaphors unify the drama? Which two are the most prominent? Explain their significance. 4. What advantages and disadvantages does the play have from adhering to the three unities? 5. What is the function of the chorus? Does it seem like a unified character or a collection of characters? Why? 6. At what point did you realize who Oedipus was looking for? Was this before or after he did? How does this affect your opinion of Oedipus? 7. Is Sophocles’ message here religious or political? Why? 8. Is Oedipus justly punished? If so, for what crime? If not, why not? 9. Why do you think Aristotle valued the conjunction of peripety and recognition that occurs in Oedipus, among other plays? 10. Is knowledge always good? (This play seems to be the ultimate example of “don’t ask questions you don’t want answers to”.) 1. What are Antigone’s character strengths? Weaknesses? 2. Explain the purpose of Ismene’s character – how does she function in the unfolding of the plot? of Antigone’s character? 3. What do we learn from the chorus sections that adds to a portrait of Creon? of Antigone? 4. Although the gods never appear as characters in this drama, they play an important role — explain. 5. Analyze what the basic conflict is between Creon and Antigone; what values does each represent? 6. Is the main “message” of the drama religious or political? Support your view. 7. How does Haimon affect our perception of events? What does his character add to our perspectives on Creon and Antigone? 8. Agree or disagree, and support: Antigone’s basic theme is justice. 9. Who is the “tragic hero” of this play, Antigone or Creon? Is it more useful to think in terms of protagonist/antagonist for this play? Why or why not? 10. Consider what Sophocles promotes here as “heroic” qualities, and contrast these with the epic “heroic” qualities (of Akhilleus, for example). How has the concept of a hero (not?) changed? 1. List and define the six elements of tragedy that Aristotle discusses. 2. How does Aristotle distinguish between tragedy and history? Do you think his distinction is valid (explain)? 3. What is katharsis (or catharsis)? How does tragedy, ideally, produce katharsis? What religious purpose might it serve? 4. Explain what the Three Unities are and why Aristotle would encourage their use in writing a play. 5. Define hamartia. What is its function in a tragedy? Aristophanes, The Clouds + Socrates through Plato & Xenophon 1. Find 3 similarities and 3 differences between Greek tragedy and Greek comedy. 2. Is Aristophanes condemning rhetoric in general, or specific kinds of rhetoric? Explain. 3. What would you say are Aristophanes’ views on traditional religion? 4. What universal (anywhere, anytime) subjects for satire are found in this play? What specific (local in time & place) subjects? 5. Note places where Aristophanes seems to appeal to the audience and involve them; what is the purpose? 6. What comic techniques are found in this play? Describe an example of each from the play. 7. From your knowledge of Socrates, do you think Aristophanes is being malicious, mischievous, or friendly in his portrayal? 8. Which scenes amuse you most (explain)? 9. Do you think it’s realistic that a normal, upstanding citizen could confuse education with corruption? Explain. 10. Compare/contrast the portrait of Socrates in the play to the impression you get of him from Plato and Xenophon. 1) Although treated comically, the play expresses serious themes: name two and discuss how the play treats them. 2) What is the function of obscenity (including double meanings) in the play? 3) Identify/explain at least one instance in the play where the following comic techniques are used: reversal of roles, double meanings, stereotyping (including stock characters), physical antics, addressing/involving the audience, exposure of faults, deflating the “superior”, contemporary (to the author) references. 4) Describe the characteristics Aristophanes attributes to women. What is his opinion of women, and what are their proper roles? 5) What attitudes toward war are expressed in the play, by whom? 6) Explore some information on the Peloponnesian War, keeping in mind that the play was written in 411 BCE. Analyze how current events might have influenced the play. 7) What are the Magistrate and Lysistrata debating in the passage where she mentions spinning? How does this tie in to the plot movement? 8. What serious messages, other than a general anti-war message, are expressed in the play, and by whom? 9) Name 3 reasons why this play can be classified as a comedy, according to Aristotle’s definition. 10) If, as one critic claims, “comedy has something subversive about it,” what do you think was (or is) most subversive about this play? Aristophanes, The Birds 1. Pisthetairus and Euelpides start out with the idea of founding a utopia — what are the key elements in their “ideal state”? 2. Identify and explain examples of these comic techniques at use in the play: (a) visual effects [you’ll have to imagine how scenes would be performed, costumes, etc.], and (b) the normal world turned topsy-turvy. 3. Compare/contrast the comic chorus with the tragic chorus; how are the functions of the two alike and different? 4. Explain how the birds are presented as an improvement over the gods. 5. What sorts of moral ambiguities does Aristophanes represent in the play? How might these create discomfort on the part of the Athenian audience? 6. How does the utopian dream pan out? Does it end up utopia, dystopia, something else? Explain. 7. You’ll find a number of references to “current events” (for ancient Athens) in the play. Discuss in what ways the comedy is undermined by these, and how the comedy still comes through in spite of not knowing all the details of the references. 8. If you took Aristophanes’ picture (given through the mouths of the characters) of Athenian life and government seriously, what would it have been like? 9. Look back at Aristotle’s definition of comedy in the Poetics and explain how this play fits it. 10. If, as one critic put it, “comedy has something subversive about it,” what do you see as most subversive about this play? Explain. 1. In Greek tradition, Theseus is usually seen as an heroic figure. What is left of that heroic image, and why do you think Euripides altered it? 2. One virtue that the Greeks extolled was epieikeia [ep-ih-ay-KAY-uh], which included traits such as fairness, decency, reasonableness, flexibility, and clemency. Which character(s) are the best representatives of this virtue, and why? How is this virtue tied to the sense of tragedy in the play? 3. Look up Sophism; how does Euripides use the ideals of this philosophy as a dramatist? 4. Who is the tragic hero in this play? Justify your choice. 5. What is the key conflict in this play? Are the gods relevant to the conflict or not? Explain. Euripides, The Trojan Women 1. Note the order in which people appear; what significance do you see? How does the opening scene with the gods influence your opinion on the subsequent events? 2. Euripides’ audience would have known Homer well; what characters has Euripides chosen to elevate, and which seem “smaller” in comparison to their stature in Homer? 3. Why do you think Euripides focuses on the women? what is Euripides’ attitude, in general, toward women? 4. Given the portrayals here, what would you say is Euripides’ attitude toward war? 5. What are the key points Euripides makes through his portrayal of the following [choose 3]: Hecuba, Talthybius, Menelaus, Helen, Andromache? 1. What are Jason’s motives for taking a new wife? [Keep in mind that in Athenian law, only a marriage between two Athenian families is a valid marriage; Medea is a foreigner and hence her children could not be citizens.] 2. Explain what human interest is added via the Nurse and the Tutor. 3. What can we admire about Medea? Do you think Athenians of Euripides’ time would have admired any of her traits? How are we invited to feel compassion for her position? 4. Identify the scene where Medea decides to take revenge against Jason by depriving him of his children; what ideas expressed by Jason drive her to this decision? 5. Euripides offers some views on women’s position in his society; where do we see these views expressed, and what does he think? 6. Why didn’t Euripides just have Medea run off with the children? How would your response to the play be different if he had? 7. Describe how Medea fills the role of tragic hero. How is it necessarily different from how a male character (like Oedipus) is a hero?
The idea was described by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates in about 400 BC, and written by Plato as the Allegory of the Cave. People in the cave see shadows, and do not appreciate the 3-D nature of the objects causing the shadows. They are seeing a 2-D projection of 3-D objects. A photograph is also a 2-D projection of a 3-D scene. A measurement with a meter stick is a 1-D projection. Other observations can also be viewed as projections of some more complex reality. Quantum mechanics is the first theory to truly take the cave allegory seriously. It has a theory for how observations correspond to projections, without ever trying to explain what is outside the cave. The theory concocts representations of reality, but is never sure about what the reality is. Much of the confusion about quantum mechanics occurs when people try to ask about what the theory says about reality. It does not directly say anything about reality. It describes projections of that reality into subspaces, and predicts observations.
No products in the cart. A polysaccharide is a long molecule of carbohydrates, and is composed of repeated monomers that are joined together by bonds known as glycosidic bonds. The bonds are products of a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides range in structure, from highly branched structured polysaccharides to linear structured ones. Often they are quite heterogeneous and may contain slight modifications with repeating units of the monomers. The macromolecules may be amorphous or water soluble and this largely depend on structure as well as the monosaccharide building blocks. A polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide if it all the monosaccharide is of the same type and a heteropolysaccharide/ heteroglycan if it has been formed from more than one type of monosaccharide. (Stout and Taylor) Polysaccharides are divided into two major categories namely: - Structural polysaccharides - Storage polysaccharides Structural polysaccharides include Cellulose– this is one of the main components of plant cell walls. As an un-branched polymer, cellulose is composed of about ten thousand units of glucose per chain. A hydroxyl group, which forms hydrogen bonds with other chains projects out from each of the chains, and forms rigid cross links in between the chains. This is what makes cellulose a strong support material. Cellulose is one of the most abundant organic substances in the world. Chitin– this is closely related to cellulose in terms of the structure. The difference between the two is that while cellulose has a hydroxyl group, has (–NH.CO.CH3). Chitin may be found in some fungi and green algae cell walls and cuticles of arthropods. Characteristics of storage polysaccharides Insoluble to water, Can fold into smaller shapes, Can be converted to sugars easily Glycogen– glycogens are the main form in which carbohydrates are stored in the body liver and muscles. Glycogen is branched structures and is broken down to produce sugars in cases where the body is starved. Starches are found in plant cells, some bacteria and protists and are made up of amylopectin and amylose. Pectins– this is a group of complex polysaccharides and present in a majority of primary cell walls and non- woody terrestrial pants. They also contain a 1, 4 linked alpha D- galactosyluronic acid residues (Dongowski, Gebhard & Flamme 2002). These compounds are made up of D- glucose and contain beta glycosidic bonds. They are diverse vary in terms of: Configuration in dimensions They are better known as a class of soluble fibers found in many plants such as wheat, oats and barley. Beta glycans occur largely as cellulose and contribute positively in the nutrition of the human body, soluble fiber supplements and texturing agents. Beta glycan derived from medicinal mushrooms and yeast is used to boost the immune system, and studies have showed the insoluble beta glycans to have a higher biological activity as compared to the soluble ones (Dongowski, Gebhard & Flamme 2002). Some types of beta glycans such as those made from barley and yeast are used to reduce total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol for individuals with high cholesterol following some weeks of treatment (Patchen & MacVittie1986). Moreover, it is used to increase the chances of survival in individuals suffering from cancer, prevent infections and boost the immunity of HIV/ AIDS patients. Green, Stout and Taylor, Biological Science 1&2, 2nd ed. Cambridge Cell and Molecular Biology by Sheeler and Bianchi, 3rd ed. Wiley Dongowski, G; Huth M, Gebhardt E, Flamme W (December 2002). “Dietary fiber-rich barley products beneficially affect the intestinal tract of rats”. The Journal of nutrition (United States: American Society of Nutritional Sciences) 132 (12): 3704–3714 Patchen, ML; MacVittie TJ (February 1986). “Comparative effects of soluble and particulate glucans on survival in irradiated mice”. Journal of biological response modifiers (United States: Raven Press) 5 (1): 45–60
Study validates monkey model of visual perception A new study from The Journal of Neuroscience shows that humans and rhesus monkeys have very similar abilities in recognizing objects "at a glance," validating the use of this animal model in the study of human visual perception. In the study, published August 26, humans and monkeys not only demonstrated similar ease in recognizing objects in varied positions and landscapes, but both species also tended to make the same errors. For the study, researchers from MIT compared the performance of two rhesus macaque monkeys and 638 adult human subjects on a large set of object recognition tasks. First, the researchers generated images of 3-D objects and trained the monkeys to identify the objects. Images were presented for less than a second and then the monkeys selected the correct object from two choices. In the object recognition tasks, humans and monkeys were presented with an object for less than a second on a variety of backgrounds and in various positions and orientations. They then had to identify the object from two choices. The researchers found that: - Humans' and monkeys' performance across a large number of object recognition tasks was highly correlated, suggesting that they have similar abilities to recognize objects. - Humans and monkeys made the same types of mistakes, such as confusing tanks with trucks and elephants with rhinoceroses, even though these objects possess no semantic meaning for monkeys. - Each monkey's pattern of mistakes was statistically indistinguishable from individual humans. Thus, it would be impossible to tell whether a particular set of responses on these object recognition tasks originated from a monkey or human. The results suggest that rhesus monkeys and humans share similar neural representations of shapes and that these underlie the visual perception of objects, the researchers said. "The study shows that monkeys are similar to humans, not only in their ability to recognize objects, but also in their patterns of errors," said Nikolaus Kriegeskorte, a neuroscientist at the University of Cambridge who studies visual object recognition and was not involved in the study. "This is consistent with the similarity of the brain representations of objects between the two species, which had been demonstrated previously." As far as visual processing is concerned, "the study provides important evidence that the monkey brain can serve as a model for the human brain," Kriegeskorte added.
This is an image of an estuary near San Diego, California. Click on image for full size Cation Exchange in Groundwater Groundwater often contains dissolved minerals in the form of ions, such as dissolved calcium, or magnesium, which come from the weathering of surface rocks as well as dissolved organic compounds such as detritus, animal waste, or human contaminants. As this water percolates through an aquifer, it may be modified and changed. Material comprising the aquifer may contain material which has a strong natural tendency to exchange one ion for another. In such an aquifer, calcium or magnesium in the water may be exchanged for sodium. For example, limestone, CaCO3, dissolves to become Ca+ and CO3-. The Ca+ may exchange with another chemical element such as Mg+, to form the rock MgCO3. After awhile excess accumulation of one particular ion in the soil of the aquifer may force a chemical change in the rock which form the aquifer leading to metamorphism in that rock. Eventually dissolved minerals are carried to the sea where these ions form salts. Thus sea water, the repository of dissolved material, especially carbonates, tends to be salty. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! We have beautiful specimens of banded iron formation in our online store from Nature's Own, along with many other mineral You might also be interested in: An aquifer is the name for a layer of rock which is capable of holding a large amount of water. Some layers are better at holding water than others, for example a layer of sandstone can hold a good deal...more Carbonate is a name for rocks and minerals which contain a certain form of carbon/oxygen compound known as CO32-. (CO32- is also known as the molecule carbonate). Limestone is an example of a calcium carbonate,...more The deep ocean waters are under pressure and are much colder than layers of the ocean which are closer to the surface. Dissolved carbon dioxide seems to be absent from the deep ocean water and as a result...more One process which transfers water from the ground back to the atmosphere is evaporation. Evaporation is when water passes from a liquid phase to a gas phase. Rates of evaporation of water depend on factors...more The water at the ocean surface is moved primarily by winds. Large scale winds move in specific directions because they are affected by Earth’s spin and the Coriolis Effect. Because Earth spins constantly,...more Rivers are very important to Earth because they are major forces that shape the landscape. Also, they provide transportation and water for drinking, washing and farming. Rivers can flow on land or underground...more About 70% of the Earth is covered with water, and we find 97% of that water in the oceans. Everyone who has taken in a mouthful of ocean water while swimming knows that the ocean is really salty. All water...more
Oncology is the branch of science that deals with the study of cancer. Oncologists are medical experts (physicians or surgeons) who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. These experts provide extensive medical care to patients suffering from cancer. Oncologists specialize in the carrying out chemotherapy and using medications, hormones and analgesics to manage the disease. The medical experts often coordinate with other specialists to ensure that the patients are given appropriate treatment and care. What do oncologists treat? Cancer: Cells are known as the unit of life. Normally, the cells divide to form new cells and die when they are old or damaged. All the signals for cell growth and division are stored in the DNA, when the genetic makeup of the cells is hampered, the cells do not get a signal to stop the division. This uncontrolled division of cells forms tumours. The condition is called cancer. The tumours formed by the uncontrolled growth of the cell can be malignant or benign. Malignant tumours are the ones that are cancerous and have the tendency to spread from one body part to the other. On the other hand, benign tumours are the ones that grow but do not spread. However, there are certain types of cancers which do not form tumours like leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma. Types of Cancer Based on where it began, cancer can be classified into four main types - - Carcinoma: It is a type of cancer that begins in the cells that make up the lining of the surface of the internal organs and skin. Carcinomas are the most common types of cancer. Some of the examples of carcinomas include breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer and colorectal cancer. - Sarcomas: This type of cancer affects the connective tissues of the body. It causes a problem in the blood vessels, tendons, lymph vessels, cartilage, bones, muscles etc. - Leukemia: Leukemia is the cancer of the blood. In this condition, blood cells divide uncontrollably. Four main types of leukemia are acute chronic lymphocytic leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid chronic myeloid leukemia and acute myeloid leukemia. - Lymphomas: Lymphoma is cancer that begins in the lymphatic system which is a network of vessels and gland that contain lymphatic fluid. There are two major types of lymphomas namely Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. What are the various types of oncologists? - Medical Oncologists: The primary job of a medical oncologist is to manage the symptoms of cancer. These experts treat patients using immunotherapy, chemotherapy and targeted therapy. Medical oncologists are responsible for monitoring the improvement of the patient’s condition. They also coordinate with other doctors and specialists to ensure that the patient is getting suitable treatment. - Surgical Oncologists: They are the physicians who diagnose and treat cancer with the help of surgical procedures. They carry out biopsies to examine the removed tissue and determine the presence or absence of cancer. - Radiation Oncologists: They are specialized in treating cancer with the help of radiation therapy. This therapy uses X-rays to kill the cancer cells. The radiologists first map the cancer cells in the body and then use their software to target the radiation in the affected area. - Gynecologic oncologists: They focus primarily on the cancers pertaining to female reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus and cervix). - Pediatric oncologists: They specialize in treating cancer of the children and adolescents. A pediatric oncologist may be radiation, surgical or a medical oncologist. How to find the best oncologist near you? - Take referrals from friends and relatives – To begin their search, people may start asking for referrals from their relatives and close ones. If anyone of their relatives has been to an oncologist and has observed improvement in the patient’s condition, it is wise to go and consult the expert.Consulting a doctor that has been referred by a dear one offers a sense of trust. - Make use of Google – A person may simply type “oncologist near me” in Google and many results will appear on the screen. The person may choose from the list of doctors that appears and check their rating for more clarity. Also, the links to the websites of the doctors are displayed which makes it easy for people to read about their expertise and experience. - Consider using online platforms – Online portal such as docprime make it very easy for the users to find an oncologist nearby. The user just needs to enter the query in the website and many results will appear depending upon the location selected by the user. The user may choose to visit the profile of the doctor and read about his/her qualification, expertise and experience. Also, if the user wishes to book an appointment that could be done in a few clicks. Consult top oncologists online on docprime: docprime is an online platform that provides the best health care services to its users. The portal has all the data that an individual would require with respect to different medical conditions and medicinal drugs. If an individual needs to undergo some diagnostic tests, he/she may enter a query to look for the close-by labs as well. For patients who do not have time to visit a specialist can get a free medical consultation by means of an online conversation. Likewise, there is no reason to stress over the privacy of data entered by the patient. docprime is associated with around 25, 000 doctors and specialists, who are connected effectively through the online stage. The online portal additionally gives rewarding discounts on different diagnostic tests and on booking of online appointments. A patient should simply, visit the site, set the location, chose from specialists or tests and tap on book an appointment. The process is easy and hassle-free. Every single doctor associated with docprime has a profile that involves his/her expertise and experience. For the comfort of the patients and to guarantee that they are being referred to a good oncologist, they may read the reviews posted by other patients. Advantages of using docprime – - Book hassle-free online appointments - Get free online consultation via chat - Get lucrative discounts and offers on diagnostic tests - Be assured of the privacy
Glaucoma is a condition in which the eye pressure, also known as intra-ocular pressure (IOP), is too high for a given eye and thus causes damage to the optic nerve of that eye. (Note: each individual has a different pressure which causes damage to the optic nerve) Damage to the optic nerve results in progressive loss of peripheral or side vision. Central or straight ahead vision is preserved until the end of the disease (tunnel vision). Pressure is measured in mm of Hg (mercury). Normal pressure is between 10 - 21 mm Hg with 14 being the average. Prior to 1978, glaucoma was defined as a disease in which the pressure was above 21 mm Hg in an eye. Today we know that this is not correct. Only 10-20% of the patients having an eye pressure between 21-24 mm Hg go on to develop loss of the peripheral vision or loss of side vision over a ten year period of time. Fifty percent loose peripheral vision if their pressure is consistently between 25-27 mm Hg, and 90% loose vision if the pressure is 30 mm Hg. The natural history of patients that have non-treated glaucoma is slow progression. Glaucoma is usually a slow disease. Untreated glaucoma takes on an average of 15 years to progress from early damage to blindness with an IOP of 21 to 25 mmHg, 7 years with 25 to 30 mmHg, and 3 years with a pressure more than 30 mmHg. Thus, most eye doctors will treat a pressure over 30 with out signs of damage. We tend to treat a little earlier. Like blood pressure the eye pressure (intra-ocular pressure) will vary from day to day and time of day, usually higher in the morning and lower in the early evening. Therefore, it is important to measure the pressure at different times of the day. Patients without glaucoma may vary 4 mm Hg while patients with glaucoma tend to vary more. This variability necessitates multiple readings at different times of the day before making any decision. Unless the pressure is very high, one reading is meaningless. In addition, it takes years for the pressure to damage the eyes, thus, time is on our side. One should use the time to make an appropriate decision without panicking. The truth is that we are not sure. Either we make too much fluid, have restricted drainage or the ("thermostat") control system does not maintain a proper pressure. Treatment is directed at either decreasing production of the aqueous (the fluid in the front part of the inside of the eye) or increasing the out flow. This is analogous to your sink, to maintain a constant level of water in the sink one must control the amount of water going into the sink or increase the size of the holes in the drain. Which ever mechanism is causing the increase in pressure, treatment today is directed towards reducing pressure. Newer thoughts suggest that blood flow to the nerve may be as important as pressure. Also, newer drugs may provide neuro-protection (slow down the death process). The only thing that has shown to slow the progression of glaucoma is control of eye pressure. There is a small group of people who loose vision with consistent pressure under 21mm Hg. This condition is known as normal or low tension glaucoma and is the most dangerous type of glaucoma in patients who do not have routine eye examinations. There are few signs or symptoms for the patient or doctor to determine the presence of the condition. It is often first suspected if one or both of the nerves look unusual. Glaucomatous appearing nerves or nerves that appear differently in each eye must be carefully watched to make sure that this uncommon disease is not present. Watching includes observation of the nerve, measurement of pressure, and repeated peripheral field testing (visual fields). Glaucomatous appearing nerves may be normal for a given individual. Change over time demonstrates the presence of glaucoma. We attempt to take pressure on every patient. In very young children we do this by touching the eye. Glaucoma is rarely present in the young, but becomes more common after age 35. The chances of developing glaucoma increase with age. Glaucoma is found in 2% of whites and 7% of blacks older than age 65. Thus, it is a common eye disease. No. Glaucoma is similar to high blood pressure. The drops control the pressure. Stop the drops and the pressure re-occurs. It is important to continue the glaucoma eye drops for another reason. Many believe that variability of pressure is more dangerous than if constantly high. One must be committed to a life long treatment. Laser treatment can eliminate the need for drops for some. Laser treatment is effective in 80% of the patients with glaucoma but wears off in about half in 5 years. It can be repeated. Most doctors begin treatment of glaucoma with drops, but would begin treatment of themselves with laser! Surgery, which is successful, is reserved for the few in which either the drops or laser do not effectively control the pressure. Laser and surgery can also be used in the non-compliant patient. The tough part in the treatment of glaucoma is to get the patient to use the drops consistently even though they have no visual disturbance- they see fine. The drops can have side effects, which makes it even harder for the patient to continually take their drops. The drops prevent further damage they do not restore vision already lost. If you are bothered by the drops, do not stop taking the drops, call the doctor. No. One third of the people who have glaucoma will have a normal eye pressure at the time of their examination. Thus, eye pressure is not the only determinate for glaucoma but a risk factor. Other risk factors include: age, family history of glaucoma, corneal thickness, myopia, being African-Americans, having diabetes, hypertension, or other vascular disease, e.g., migrane. If the risk factors are too great, we may elect to treat the patient though the disease is not proven to present (risk against benefit). The goal is not to over or under treat the condition. Treatment includes drops, simple office based laser treatment, and rarely surgery. The goal of treatment is to lower the pressure so that the pressure will not cause further damage. Thus, the treatment will not make you see better nor feel better. The target pressure varies from patient to patient depending on the entering pressure, current damage, and/or risk factors. Actually there are many types of glaucoma but two major categories. One in which the pressure increases insidiously over time and is moderately high. This type is known as chronic or primary open angle glaucoma. The higher pressure results from an inaccurate control system like the thermostat of your house being set to high. Another analogy would be that too much water is coming out of a faucet vs. being drained. This increased pressure is painless and asymptomatic until the late stages, which, makes it dangerous. Open angle glaucoma is diagnosed by pressure, risk factors, appearance of the optic nerve, and results of the visual fields test. Approximately one percent of all Americans have this form of glaucoma, making it the most common form of glaucoma. It occurs mainly in patients over 50. The danger of this disease is its silence. Generally, there is no pain associated with glaucoma. By the time the vision is impaired, the damage is irreversible. The second category is the narrow angle glaucoma. In this condition, the eye is anatomically small causing the iris (colored part of your eye) to bow forward. Before an attack the drainage is normal and pressure is normal. With age the angle or space between the cornea narrows. During an attack, incorrect, positioning of the iris causes the drainage system to become blocked. Closure is analogous to dropping a plug into the drain of a sink. The result - a rapid increase in pressure. The pressure may rise from normal mid-teens to 40-70. The eye becomes red, painful, with blurred vision or halos around lights. Often the pupil is dilated. Nausea and headache may accompany the increase in pressure. Angle-closure glaucoma affects nearly half a million people in the United States. There is a tendency for this disease to be inherited. It is more common in people of Asian descent and people who are far-sighted. This is an ocular emergency if not taken care of immediately. Severe permanent loss of vision may occur. Fortunately, the predisposition to this type of glaucoma is easily detected during a comprehensive eye exam. If the chances of closure in the future are significant then a laser is used to prophalaxically create another exit via the iris, like the overflow drain in your sink. This laser treatment is simple and painless without a true recovery time. If the angle is known to be dangerously narrow one should avoid medications which cause dilation of the pupil and may lead to an attack of glaucoma. These include anti-depressants, cold medications, antihistamines, and some medications to treat nausea. The labels of these medications usually which state "do not take if you have glaucoma". Unfortunately, the patients with un-diagnosed narrow angle glaucoma are the ones at risk if they use these medications. Acute glaucoma attacks are not always full blown. Sometimes patients have numerous minor attacks. The patient might experience slight blurring of vision and/or haloes of light, with or without pain or redness. Once the laser is performed this type of glaucoma is cured. Exercise seems to lower IOP and therefore decreases the risk of glaucomatous damage. There are two exceptions: standing on ones head which increases blood flow to the head, also, increases pressure within the eye; and secondly, pigmentary glaucoma is also aggrevated by physical exercise. If you have routine examinations and you develop glaucoma, the chances of serious vision loss from glaucoma are very remote. However, late detection or non-compliance may result in vision loss. One may think of glaucoma being analogous to a house on the beach. If a house is in good shape and is hit by a series of storms, then the house will survive the storms with little damage (high eye pressure with a healthy nerve). However, if the foundation of the house has been damaged by previous storms there is a significant chance that the house will either be further damaged or swept away by the storm (a damaged nerve can not take the excess pressure from glaucoma). Thus, the key to preserving vision is early detection with aggressive treatment. The chronic, progressive nature of the disease makes it difficult for the patient to faithfully take their medication - the key to preserving vision. Visual fields tests measure side or peripheral vision. Glaucoma causes loss of peripheral or side vision before central vision. It is not until late into the disease is that central or visual acuity is effected. The problem is that defects in visual fields do not show up until glaucoma is relatively advanced (over 50% of the nerve fibers must be lost before visual fields changes). Once visual fields changes are noted it is very sensitive to progression. Even with perfect control of eye pressure, a very, few patients will continue to loose fields. This occurs only in very advanced glaucoma. Previously, the best method for monitoring early glaucoma was careful evaluation of the optic nerve. As long as the nerve doesn't change, there is no progression. Newer, tests use laser scanning (HRII) to create a three dimensional picture of the optic nerve. The scanning lasers are accurate and quantitative than the doctor just observing the nerve. These tests may replace visual field testing in detecting early glaucoma in the future. Late glaucoma is best followed with visual fields testing. This study investigated the effect of treating patients who had elevated pressure without any evidence of damage to the nerve or an abnormal visual field. These patients have been called ocular hypertensives or glaucoma suspects. Until this study no one knew the natural history of patients with elevated pressure without damage. Half the subjects were treated with eye drops while the other half were watched. Eye drops reduced the development of glaucoma by over 50% in a study of 1636 people with elevated eye pressure without evidence of damage, i.e., normal optic nerve and visual field. Nine and half percent of those who were watched developed glaucoma after five years, while only 4.4% of those treated with drops developed glaucoma. If you have above-average eye pressure you don't necessarily need to begin taking eye drops. Not everyone with elevated eye pressure develops glaucoma; in this study, over 90% of those in the untreated group did not show any evidence of damage during the five years of the study. Those of you who are at moderate or high risk of developing glaucoma should be treated. This study also demonstrated that traditional methods of measuring your eye pressure are more dependent on the thickness of your cornea than previously thought. Thin corneas measure lower pressures while thicker corneas measure higher pressure. If you are at risk of developing glaucoma or have it we will measure the thickness of your cornea. —June 2002 issue of Archives of Ophthalmology. Ginkgo biloba (GBE) is thought to enhance blood flow and thereby improve visual field damage in some patients with normal tension glaucoma (NTG). A prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked crossover trial was performed on patients with visual field loss from NTG. Half of the patients received 40 mg GBE orally three times daily for 4 weeks, then 4 weeks of placebo pills (identical capsules filled with sugar). The other half underwent the same regimen, but took the placebo first and the GBE last. Researchers evaluated visual field tests, performed at baseline and at the end of each phase of the study. Results showed a significant improvement in visual fields after GBE treatment. No significant changes were found in intraocular pressure, blood pressure or heart rate after treatment. No ocular and systemic side effects were recorded forthe duration of the trial. Quaranta L, Bettelli S, Uva MG, et al. Effect of ginkgo biloba extract on preexisting visual field damage in normal tension glaucoma. Ophthalmol 2003;110(2):359-62.
Cub Scout Pack 759 \| Digging In The Past Digging in the Past Ask your parents to download the worksheet for Digging in the Past. It has some stuff in it that will help you complete the requirements and earn the Digging in the Past Award. Digging in the Past Requirements Dinosaurs lived millions of years ago and yet every day we find one somewhere on the planet. Typically, we find their bones as fossils but sometimes, frozen in ice for hundreds of thousands of years, we can find even more than that. Digging in the past gives you a chance to look for fossils and do like scientists do to try and recreate what the animal was. Build molds of dinosaur bones and build some snacks they might have eaten. Learn about Digging in the Past and have a great time learning about early life on our planet. Complete the following Requirements. - Play a game that demonstrates your knowledge of dinosaurs, such as a dinosaur match game. - Create an imaginary dinosaur. Share with your den its name, what it eats, and where it lives. - Complete one of the following: - Make a fossil cast. - Make a dinosaur dig. Be a paleontologist, and dig through a dinosaur dig made by another member of your den. Show and explain the ways a paleontologist works carefully during a dig. - Make edible fossil layers. Explain how this snack is a good model for the formation of fossils.
Seen here is the spectacular Copernicus crater with its central peaks. They allow a peak (pun intended) into the lunar interior. Copernicus is a (geologically) young crater, owing to its young & rocky walls and bright ejected material (ejecta) seen radiating out of the crater. In fact, all craters with bright ejecta (Tycho, Aristarchus, etc.) are part of the Copernican period, the lunar time period starting from the formation of crater Copernicus about 800 million years ago. The impact that formed Copernicus must have been quite energetic. The impactor asteroid/comet slammed into the lunar surface creating the crater. The central impact point compressed the underneath material the most until it resisted the compression and bounced back up! Such materials excavated from the lunar interior rise up as mountains! Such is the beauty of lunar science. Studying composition of material in central peaks of craters is key to understanding the Moon’s interior. Which is why Copernicus crater was a candidate landing site of the now cancelled Apollo 17+ missions and also a Constellation Region of Interest.
“Right is right, even if everyone is against it, and wrong is wrong, even if everyone is for it.” —William Penn Early Pennsylvania was not immune to the tragedy of slavery. Though the colony was established in 1682 with more general liberty and equality for all people than almost any government in world history, indentured servitude and slavery were not banned. The early citizens of William Penn’s “Holy Experiment” fought to eliminate the practices, and provided a much more “comfortable” existence for slaves than other colonies, but it was not until 1780 that the State Legislature began the gradual elimination of slavery. The practice of slavery was not completely eliminated from the state until 1847. Records from the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam show that in 1639, a convict was sentenced to serve among the blacks at the South (Delaware) River. This is the first documentation of slavery in the area that would become Pennsylvania. Enslavement of Africans and Native Americans, and the indenture of whites was a common practice by European nations. The Dutch and Swedish settlers on the Delaware Bay brought the practice of slavery to that area of the New World long before there was a Pennsylvania. In a world that only recently emerged from the Feudal Age, indentured servitude was a standard practice across Europe. Many of the first American settlers secured passage aboard ships bound for the New World by indenturing themselves to landowners and businessmen. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, slavery was a common practice worldwide. “Civilized” people were often appalled by the conditions and practices of the “primitive pagans” they encountered in Africa, and by their Native “neighbors” in America. They felt justified in enslaving them in order to educate, “save,” and improve the living standards of these “unfortunate,” ignorant people. England gained control of the colonies of New Sweden and New Amsterdam in 1654. The Religious Society of Friends soon established the colony of West Jersey along the eastern shore of Delaware Bay. At the time, Quakers were a despised Christian sect. They believed that all people possessed the Light of God within, and, consequently, all were equal. They disdained church hierarchy and the inhibition of individual thought and worship. They refused to acknowledge social classes and government control of religious practice. They gained many members and much influence during the mid 1600s. A persistent, vicious persecution of the Friends, by government and other denominations, drove them to America by the thousands. Curiously, many of them owned slaves or servants. In 1681, William Penn, a Friend who had been imprisoned several times for openly practicing the Quaker way, was given vast land grants in the New World by King Charles II, who owed a large debt to his father. Penn established “conditions and considerations” for the new colony he planned to establish. These requirements were based on his Quaker philosophy of equality, freedom and justice. In Penn’s colony, all servants had to be registered with full names, wages, and pay clearly documented. There was a strict requirement that no servant could be kept past the time of indenture. They were to be “kindly treated” and provided with the “customary outfit” at the time they were freed. Those servants included Native Americans and blacks as well as indentured whites. In addition, Indians were provided with legal channels to redress grievances. Any person who “injured” an Indian would be punished, and any planter who was injured by one should “not be his own judge upon the Indian.” Conflicts between the two parties were to be settled by a committee of six white men and six Indians. The enslavement of Africans was tolerated under the auspices of educating and religiously training them. However, many Quakers felt it was against Christian conscience. After Philadelphia was established in 1682, it became the region’s main port. Most Africans were imported through the city. Throughout the majority of Pennsylvania history, most slaves lived in or near Philadelphia. They usually arrived in small groups, brought in by individuals or businessmen, but records show that in 1684, the ship Isabella unloaded a “cargo” of 150 African slaves. Most found employment in the agricultural industry, on building projects, and as house servants. The institution was not of the same magnitude it was in other colonies, however. Records show that from 1682 through 1705, less than 7 percent of Philadelphia families owned slaves. In 1688, Quakers from the Philadelphia suburb of Germantown put forth the first American document that made a plea for equal human rights for all people. The Germantown Petition Against Slavery was drafted by Francis Daniel Pastorius and other Quakers and presented to the yearly meeting of Philadelphia Friends. Pastorius argued, “Have not these negroes as much right to fight for their freedom as you have to keep them as slaves?” At that time, the Yearly Meeting decided that it was “not proper to give positive judgment in (the) case.” Most Quakers had a concern (what the Society calls problems they want to address) that slavery was “contrary to the religion of Christ, the rights of man, and sound reason and policy.” In 1696, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting declared against any further importation of slaves, and adopted measures to educate and see to the moral improvement of existing slaves. This pronouncement was the first by any religious organization in the world that denounced the institution of slavery. It was not legislative policy, though; it affected only Quakers. When William Penn returned to America in 1699, he agreed with the Yearly Meeting’s decision. He presented to the Provincial Assembly, which was dominated by Friends, several bills he wished enacted as provincial law. One was “for better regulation of servants in this province and territories”; another was “about ye [the] marriages of Negroes.” Penn wanted the treatment of slaves to be regulated by law. The Assembly approved his requests. After 1700, no slave could be sold out of Pennsylvania without the slave’s consent; no slave could be sold or traded at all, except before a Justice of the Peace. Specific, approved judicial procedures were established for dealing with crimes committed by slaves. To further discourage the practice, the Assembly imposed duties and taxes on the import of slaves. The decisions were invariably rescinded by the Board of Trade in England, but the legislature persisted. Ever‐increasing taxes were passed periodically from 1705 to 1725. The Assembly frequently delayed sending notice of the legislation to London so that by the time it was overturned, there was another import tax being voted on. Consequently, the laws never had a chance to lapse. In addition, in 1711 the Assembly passed an act “to prevent the importation of Negroes and Indians” into the province under any circumstances. It too was overruled in London. On June 7, 1712, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed a law that banned the import of new slaves into the colony. However, by an Act of Queen Anne, on February 20, 1713, the decision was negated. She said it was “neither just nor convenient to set them at liberty.” Slavery was banned in Pennsylvania, but only for nine months. In 1714, and again in 1717, the Assembly passed similar laws. In each case the English government repealed them in the name of commerce. It was not economical, and the Crown did not want the idea of emancipation to spread. Consequently, slavery persisted and grew in the American colonies. Quakers, though concerned and in the forefront of efforts to end the institution of slavery, were not innocent. While living on his estate at Pennsbury Manor, before he returned to England forever in 1701, William Penn kept 12 slaves. (While an early will stipulated manumission, two later wills didn’t mention slaves, and some remained in the service of the Penn estate after his death.) Many other wealthy Friends kept slaves and indentured servants, though the treatment of their wards was said to be gentle and kind. Conscience eventually prevailed. Gradually, the majority of Friends freed their slaves and, at the local level, began to disown members who would not. Slave ownership was a luxury of the wealthy. A 1767 report shows that 44 percent of all slaves in the province were owned by the wealthiest 10 percent of the population. Only 5 percent were owned by the poorest 50 percent. During the mid‐1700s there was a huge migration of poor Germans and Scotch‐Irish immigrants who were drawn by the freedom offered in Pennsylvania. The importation of African slaves diminished as the newcomers began to fill the job niches once dominated by slaves. There was another surge in slave ownership in the colony after the outbreak of the French and Indian War, when immigration was inhibited and many laborers were in the military. By the time of the American Revolution, the numbers had again sagged. The continued efforts of some Quaker ministers, like John Woolman and Anthony Benezet, kept slavery in the forefront of Friends’ concerns. In 1754, Quakers lost dominance in the Pennsylvania Assembly due to their refusal to vote for war against the Indians and French. Abolition was no longer a prime objective of the legislature. Wealthy businessmen and farmers promoted the use of slaves. The Society of Friends continued to work toward abolition. In 1758, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting agreed that they would no longer permit slave owners to have leadership positions in the organization. In Philadelphia, on April 14, 1775, Friends were instrumental in the formation of America’s first abolition group—The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage. It was renamed the Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of Abolition in 1784, and in 1785 Benjamin Franklin became its president. Franklin presented the Abolition Society’s concerns to the Constitutional Convention in 1790, to no avail. After the Revolution, Scotch‐Irish Presbyterians who controlled the Pennsylvania government addressed the continuing “problem” of slavery. On March 1, 1780, the Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery was passed. It was the first attempt by a government in the Western Hemisphere to eliminate the institution. No one was set free at first. A registry of all slaves in the state was compiled. Taxes were placed on them. No new slaves could be imported. Children born to slaves in Pennsylvania were “indentured,” not enslaved, and were to be set free when they reached the age of 28. An amendment to the Act passed in 1788, making it illegal for slave owners to transport pregnant women out of the state to give birth, thus circumventing the law, and prohibited the separation of slave families. It also prohibited the “rotation” of slaves in and out of the state to subvert the law. During this period, citizens of Pennsylvania continued to fight for abolition. Lucretia Mott (a Quaker) and her husband formed the Philadelphia Female Anti‐Slavery Society in 1833. The escaped slave network that would become known as the Underground Railroad developed and was coordinated from Pennsylvania by the anti‐slavery societies and by the Philadelphia Vigilance Committee headed by William Still, a free African American. Many thousands of slaves were assisted toward Canada where they were out of reach of the federal government, or were settled in the northern states. The U.S. government, partly in response to Pennsylvania laws, passed the Fugitive Slave Act in 1793. Slave owners and their agents were permitted to cross state lines to retrieve “lost property.” Local officials were required to assist in the recovery. In 1826, the Commonwealth passed a law forbidding people from forcibly carrying citizens out of the state. The law was nullified by the United States Supreme Court case (Prigg v. Pennsylvania) in 1842. In response, Pennsylvania passed a law in 1847 which freed any slave as soon as they set foot on Pennsylvania soil. Unfortunately, a consequence of that law was the passage of a new Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which gave the federal government great power to hunt down and capture escaped slaves. This law, in effect, nationalized the institution of slavery. The condition of free African American men was not always good in Pennsylvania. The state constitution gave the right to vote to “all free men.” In an election in Bucks County in 1836, 13 of 14 candidates of the ruling Democratic Party were defeated by their Whig opponents, some by only a few votes. It was somehow learned that almost all of the county’s free African Americans had voted for the Whigs. The following year, the Democrat‐controlled legislature in Harrisburg amended the constitution making only “free white men,” eligible to vote. The legislature also began paying bonuses to judges who ruled that escaped slaves, or even falsely accused free blacks, were in the state illegally and extradited them. The tide was turning, though. By 1860, there were no slaves in Pennsylvania, and the anti‐slavery Republican Party had gained power in many northern states and in the U.S. Congress. Abraham Lincoln was elected president. Over the next five years, tens of thousands of Pennsylvanians gave their sons, their fathers, and their lives to end slavery on the North American continent. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1862. Resistance ended at Appomattox in April, 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified on December 6, 1865, and finally, in the United States and in Pennsylvania, slavery ended and men and women moved closer to the American ideal of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Correction: November 2012 An earlier version of this article stated that William Penn’s slaves were freed at his death; while an early will stipulated manumission, two later wills didn’t mention slaves, and some remained in the service of the Penn estate after his death. The The 1712 Pennsylvania Assembly act did not free all the slaves in the colony, as the author originally stated, but instead banned the importation of new slaves.
Databases @ Helena High Library - JSTOR: a periodical based database with high-quality articles for a wide variety of subjects. Articles contained here are most appropriate for high school junior, senior, and college level students. - EBSCO: a collection of multiple databases that pull resources mostly from periodicals. The search interface is not user-friendly, but the resources are high quality, relevant, and current. - Opposing Viewpoints: a database with access to multiple viewpoints on a variety of controversial topics. Mostly reference based articles but does include news, magazines, primary sources, and external internet links. - Points of View: a database with access to multiple viewpoints on a variety of controversial topics, except POV pulls from periodicals and goes beyond general reference materials. - Student Resources in Context: a database that includes multiple viewpoints and topics. This resource is a good place to find relevant reference articles, news and magazine articles, websites and primary sources on a wide variety of topics. - ABC/CLIO: a suite of databases geared toward research in the Social Studies areas. A general reference tool. - Gale Virtual Reference Library: a collection of 75 e-reference books that cover a wide variety of subjects. These reference materials are searchable across all titles or within a specific title. - Advanced Search: Use the advanced search option to apply the Boolean operators and limiters. Search within results, apply limiters to search results, cite articles, save articles. - Text Analyzer: Use any document or text from a website to produce a search using the key terms found most relevant in the text. - Topic Search: Within search results, topic links are located below each article. Use the topic links to either expand or narrow your search results. Use the general description of topic in text analyzer to get more relevant results. - Workspace: Compile articles found both in JSTOR and other databases or website. Individual accounts are created separate from the institution allowing students to use articles after graduating. - Quotation Marks-use when searching for an exact phrase; can be combined with other search formulas. - Parenthetical-a complex search that allows you to combined terms and modifiers. Use parenthesis with AND/OR along with your search term. John Steinbeck AND (Pearl OR Grapes of Wrath). Results will include both works by Steinbeck. - Asterisk-use with root, stem, and truncated search terms - AND-use when searching for two terms - OR-broadens search to include one or more search terms - NOT-excludes words from search results. Type NOT immediately before term to be excluded Other Libraries and Resources - Lewis and Clark Library: multiple databases, online resources, print collection and interlibrary loan services. - Inter-library Loan: Either go to the library and use a computer there to look up materials, or call 447-1690 x100, or email [email protected] - Montana State Library: EBSCO databases, links to MT State Law Library, World Cat, Montana Memory Project, Census and Economic Information, Montana Field Guides, MT Government Archives, and so much more. - Library of Congress: includes access to photographs, books, magazines, newspapers, maps, and much more. The digital collections here may be most relevant.
Film Studies Writing Guide - Background reading, It's important to become familiar with the film's development, director, and political contexts. - Terminology. Before you can write a film paper, it's really necessary to know your terminology. This includes language created to describe lighting, shot formation, etc. - Watch the movie more than twice, looking at different aspects each time. It always helps to watch critical moments shot by shot and jot notes about everything that happens. Try not to get sucked into the narrative. Pause and rewind to aid your critical thinking. - Internet resources. If you need some basic factual information about a film, there are fairly reliable internet resources such as the Internet Movie Database and the Film Index International. - Understanding the discipline. It may be helpful to think of film as a language. Elements of film are analogous to elements of language; just as a sentence can be broken into phonetic, semantic, and morphological elements, a film can be broken into its component parts. Film Studies papers often involve looking at the message of the film in relation to the means (component parts) by which it is conveyed. - Common elements of a film paper. Most film papers have two elements: a shot-by-shot analysis and an interpretation of that analysis. First, you analyze what the form is, and then you analyze what the form does. In the interpretation section, it's important to form an argument that draws on_rather than restates_the shot-by-shot breakdown of a scene. The shot-by-shot analysis provides material for you to cite as you form an argument about the way the formal aspects of the movie relate to a theme or message. - Constructing an argument. Analyze certain aspects of the mise-en-scène instead of only the dialogue. Find something idiosyncratic about how the filmmakers chose to express their message. Don't just pay attention to random elements when they happen to validate an argument about a film's theme. Choose 1, 2, or 3 elements of the film (such as camera angle, lighting, camera movement, sound, distance, etc.) and follow the usage of those elements throughout the film. - Ask your professor how formal your paper's tone should be. Swarthmore film professors differ over their acceptance of colloquialisms and first person usage. - Citations. Film titles should be italicized. When citing films, list the director and date of release in parentheses, e.g. The Crying Games (Neil Jordan, 1992). - Shot-by-shot breakdown. For this section, you can use an Excel chart, draw pictures, grab stills, or describe each shot in words. As long as you provide enough information in an organized way, any format is fine. - Self-reflexivity. Remember that film is a reflection of pop culture just as pop culture draws on film. Film is a self-reflexive medium. Many films (for example, Singing in the Rain) comment on other films or on the process of filmmaking. - Don't interpret the film in a vacuum: consider the film's message in the context of its cultural, social, and political context. Remember that filmmaking is usually a collaborative process. Focus on a few specific elements of each film, but nevertheless be aware of how other aspects of the film relate to those elements. Compilers' note: We gathered the information for this handout from interviews with Professor Sunka Simon and Film Studies majors Gabe Hankins and Kathleen O'Hara.
Shortly after the big bang, the universe was an energetic mixture of particles with strong mutual interaction. The first particles that managed to free themselves from this dense primordial soup were the neutrinos, the lightest and weakest interacting particles from the standard model of elementary particles. These neutrinos are still all around us today, but are very difficult to observe immediately because their interaction is so weak. An international team of cosmologists, including Daniel Baumann and Benjamin Wallisch from the University of Amsterdam, has now succeeded in measuring the influence that this 'cosmic neutrino background' has had on the way galaxy clusters formed during the evolution of the universe. The research was published in Nature Physics. Since time immemorial, philosophers and scholars have sought to determine how existence began. With the birth of modern astronomy, this tradition has continued and given rise to the field known as cosmology. And with the help of supercomputing, scientists are able to conduct simulations that show how the first stars and galaxies formed in our Universe and evolved over the course of billions of years. In 2014, astronomers using the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope found that this enormous galaxy cluster contains the mass of a staggering three million billion suns — so it’s little wonder that it has earned the nickname of “El Gordo” (“the Fat One” in Spanish)! Known officially as ACT-CLJ0102-4915, it is the largest, hottest, and brightest X-ray galaxy cluster ever discovered in the distant Universe. The furthest galaxy ever observed is so far away that the starlight we now detect was emitted less than 500m years after the Big Bang. It has taken about 13 billion years to reach us. But there’s a lot of things about a galaxy that we can’t see. For example, we think galaxies are immersed within gigantic “halos” of an invisible substance dubbed dark matter. Scientists don’t actually know what dark matter is, but they know it exists because it has a gravitational pull on surrounding matter. The events surrounding the Big Bang were so cataclysmic that they left an indelible imprint on the fabric of the cosmos. We can detect these scars today by observing the oldest light in the universe. As it was created nearly 14 billion years ago, this light — which exists now as weak microwave radiation and is thus named the cosmic microwave background (CMB) — permeates the entire cosmos, filling it with detectable photons. Fifty years ago Captain Kirk and the crew of the starship Enterprise began their journey into space — the final frontier. Now, as the newest Star Trek film hits cinemas, the NASA/ESA Hubble space telescope is also exploring new frontiers, observing distant galaxies in the galaxy cluster Abell S1063 as part of the Frontier Fields programme. Galaxy clusters are enormous collections of hundreds or even thousands of galaxies and vast reservoirs of hot gas embedded in massive clouds of dark matter, invisible material that does not emit or absorb light but can be detected through its gravitational effects. These cosmic giants are not merely novelties of size or girth – rather they represent pathways to understanding how our entire universe evolved in the past and where it may be heading in the future. ESO telescopes have provided an international team of astronomers with the gift of the third dimension in a plus-sized hunt for the largest gravitationally bound structures in the Universe — galaxy clusters. Observations by the VLT and the NTT complement those from other observatories across the globe and in space as part of the XXL survey — one of the largest ever such quests for clusters. Astronomers have discovered a giant gathering of galaxies in a very remote part of the universe, thanks to NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope and Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). The galaxy cluster, located 8.5 billion light-years away, is the most massive structure yet found at such great distances.
Tropical forests are critically important for human livelihoods, climate stability, and biodiversity conservation but remain threatened (1). Recent years have seen major strides in documenting historical and annual tropical forest loss with satellites (2). Now, a convergence of satellite technologies and analytical capabilities makes it increasingly possible to monitor deforestation in near real time, on the scale of days, weeks, or months, rather than years (3, 4). This advance creates greater potential for near–real-time action as well and could play a key role in achieving local, national, and international forest, biodiversity, and climate policy goals, as there is a global imperative to address deforestation. Challenges remain, however, to attaining effective policy action based on the new technology. On the basis of lessons learned from pioneering work in Brazil and Peru, we suggest at least two key factors for successfully linking the technical and policy realms. On the technical side, it is critical to capitalize on continually improving satellite technology to better detect, understand, and prioritize deforestation events. On the policy side, institution building, along with related civil-society engagement, is needed to facilitate effective action within complex government frameworks. We outline a five-step protocol for near–real-time tropical deforestation monitoring, with the goal of bridging the gap between technology and policy. More and Better Eyes in the Sky The number of Earth observation satellites, and the quality and accessibility of the imagery they provide, has greatly improved in recent years (see the first figure) (5), making satellite imagery the most consistent and effective tool for large-scale forest monitoring. Satellite-based monitoring has four key considerations: spatial resolution, temporal resolution, sensor type, and data access. Spatial resolution (that is, pixel size) has been steadily increasing since the 1970s (see the first figure), trending from coarse (>250 m) to medium (10 to 30 m) to high (<5 m). Temporal resolution (frequency of imagery for any given location) has also improved. Until recently, there had been a trade-off between spatial and temporal resolution, with higher-resolution sensors covering less area per day. For example, NASA’s coarse-resolution MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) sensor collects optical imagery of every point daily, whereas medium-resolution Landsat has a revisit time of 16 days. However, constellations of miniature satellites (such as the 175 satellites of the company Planet) address the trade-off, by providing high-resolution (3 m) optical imagery with near-daily frequency (6).
Music activates the infant brain, according to neuroscience Mathematical skills, cognitive development, confidence, language skills, memory, attention, autonomy, creativity, emotional flexibility and empathy converge in people who live with musical experiences since childhood. The music is the pending subject within the Spanish educational system, is one of the conclusions that have been put in common between the experts in education and science on music, language and brain development after the conference offered by Dr. John R. Iversen during the VII edition of the Language Education Forum organized by Trinity College London. "There is already scientific proof that lMusic effectively influences the development of certain skills in children, and we hope that more and more schools will bet on its implementation with large music programs, not only to improve learning but also to encourage the emotional growth of the youngest, "said Iversen. Main benefits that music generates in the brain Some of the main ones benefits that music generates in the brain, especially that of children, are the release of dopamine in the brain, the creation of stimuli that ignite the subcortical brain circuit of the limbic system, the activation of emotional stimuli, the improvement of cognitive functioning and learning, as well as the integration sensory, the development of individual, social and cooperative skills, the increase of creativity and self-esteem, among others. "The music power cognitive skills and develops the brains of children from their earliest childhood, "says John R. Iversen, neuroscientist at UCSD, after his research with the study Symphony, which has followed the evolution of 200 primary school children for five years, deeply measuring brain structure and emerging cognitive abilities. Music influences the growth curves of the brain The objective of the project has been to develop the first "growth curves" for the brain, that could ultimately support personalized education from individual brain development. Neuroscientist John R. Iversen foresees a future in which a person's education is based on brain development to help each person reach their maximum individual potential. Through this technology, the results of the study Symphony confirm that music 'plays', activates and deactivates the brain. It happens, for example, when music evokes memories. This can show exactly what areas of the brain are stimulated by music. "We have used music as a tool to help understand and influence the brain," clarifies John R. Iversen. The scientific data of the study Symphony they also examine the correlations between music students and their improvement in the perception of rhythm and in language tests. Thanks to the Symphony project he has been able to deepen more about how humans perceive the world, how they create a rich and detailed vision of the world from certain sensory stimuli and the impact of musical training on brain and behavioral development. According to John R. Iversen, in the future children will go to the doctor and receive their height and weight measurements and in their growth chart will also include measures of brain growth. "Neurological mapping technologies can already show us measurements of average growth in certain areas of the brain, so children will see how certain areas of their brain development compare to their average age, and which areas need more stimulation," says Iversen. . Marisol Nuevo Espin
Albert Einstein, (born March 14, 1879, Ulm, Württemberg, Germany—died April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.), German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Childhood and education Einstein’s parents were secular, middle-class Jews. His father, Hermann Einstein, was originally a featherbed salesman and later ran an electrochemical factory with moderate success. His mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. He had one sister, Maria (who went by the name Maja), born two years after Albert. Einstein would write that two “wonders” deeply affected his early years. The first was his encounter with a compass at age five. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he devoured, calling it his “sacred little geometry book.” Einstein became deeply religious at age 12, even composing several songs in praise of God and chanting religious songs on the way to school. This began to change, however, after he read science books that contradicted his religious beliefs. This challenge to established authority left a deep and lasting impression. At the Luitpold Gymnasium, Einstein often felt out of place and victimized by a Prussian-style educational system that seemed to stifle originality and creativity. One teacher even told him that he would never amount to anything. Yet another important influence on Einstein was a young medical student, Max Talmud (later Max Talmey), who often had dinner at the Einstein home. Talmud became an informal tutor, introducing Einstein to higher mathematics and philosophy. A pivotal turning point occurred when Einstein was 16. Talmud had earlier introduced him to a children’s science series by Aaron Bernstein, Naturwissenschaftliche Volksbucher (1867–68; Popular Books on Physical Science), in which the author imagined riding alongside electricity that was traveling inside a telegraph wire. Einstein then asked himself the question that would dominate his thinking for the next 10 years: What would a light beam look like if you could run alongside it? If light were a wave, then the light beam should appear stationary, like a frozen wave. Even as a child, though, he knew that stationary light waves had never been seen, so there was a paradox. Einstein also wrote his first “scientific paper” at that time (“The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”). Einstein’s education was disrupted by his father’s repeated failures at business. In 1894, after his company failed to get an important contract to electrify the city of Munich, Hermann Einstein moved to Milan to work with a relative. Einstein was left at a boardinghouse in Munich and expected to finish his education. Alone, miserable, and repelled by the looming prospect of military duty when he turned 16, Einstein ran away six months later and landed on the doorstep of his surprised parents. His parents realized the enormous problems that he faced as a school dropout and draft dodger with no employable skills. His prospects did not look promising. Fortunately, Einstein could apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (“Swiss Federal Polytechnic School”; in 1911, following expansion in 1909 to full university status, it was renamed the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, or “Swiss Federal Institute of Technology”) in Zürich without the equivalent of a high school diploma if he passed its stiff entrance examinations. His marks showed that he excelled in mathematics and physics, but he failed at French, chemistry, and biology. Because of his exceptional math scores, he was allowed into the polytechnic on the condition that he first finish his formal schooling. He went to a special high school run by Jost Winteler in Aarau, Switzerland, and graduated in 1896. He also renounced his German citizenship at that time. (He was stateless until 1901, when he was granted Swiss citizenship.) He became lifelong friends with the Winteler family, with whom he had been boarding. (Winteler’s daughter, Marie, was Einstein’s first love; Einstein’s sister, Maja, would eventually marry Winteler’s son Paul; and his close friend Michele Besso would marry their eldest daughter, Anna.) Test Your Knowledge Famous People in History Einstein would recall that his years in Zürich were some of the happiest years of his life. He met many students who would become loyal friends, such as Marcel Grossmann, a mathematician, and Besso, with whom he enjoyed lengthy conversations about space and time. He also met his future wife, Mileva Maric, a fellow physics student from Serbia. From graduation to the “miracle year” of scientific theories After graduation in 1900, Einstein faced one of the greatest crises in his life. Because he studied advanced subjects on his own, he often cut classes; this earned him the animosity of some professors, especially Heinrich Weber. Unfortunately, Einstein asked Weber for a letter of recommendation. Einstein was subsequently turned down for every academic position that he applied to. He later wrote, I would have found [a job] long ago if Weber had not played a dishonest game with me. Meanwhile, Einstein’s relationship with Maric deepened, but his parents vehemently opposed the relationship. His mother especially objected to her Serbian background (Maric’s family was Eastern Orthodox Christian). Einstein defied his parents, however, and in January 1902 he and Maric even had a child, Lieserl, whose fate is unknown. (It is commonly thought that she died of scarlet fever or was given up for adoption.) In 1902 Einstein reached perhaps the lowest point in his life. He could not marry Maric and support a family without a job, and his father’s business went bankrupt. Desperate and unemployed, Einstein took lowly jobs tutoring children, but he was fired from even these jobs. The turning point came later that year, when the father of his lifelong friend Marcel Grossmann was able to recommend him for a position as a clerk in the Swiss patent office in Bern. About then, Einstein’s father became seriously ill and, just before he died, gave his blessing for his son to marry Maric. For years, Einstein would experience enormous sadness remembering that his father had died thinking him a failure. With a small but steady income for the first time, Einstein felt confident enough to marry Maric, which he did on January 6, 1903. Their children, Hans Albert and Eduard, were born in Bern in 1904 and 1910, respectively. In hindsight, Einstein’s job at the patent office was a blessing. He would quickly finish analyzing patent applications, leaving him time to daydream about the vision that had obsessed him since he was 16: What would happen if you raced alongside a light beam? While at the polytechnic school he had studied Maxwell’s equations, which describe the nature of light, and discovered a fact unknown to James Clerk Maxwell himself—namely, that the speed of light remains the same no matter how fast one moves. This violates Newton’s laws of motion, however, because there is no absolute velocity in Isaac Newton’s theory. This insight led Einstein to formulate the principle of relativity: “the speed of light is a constant in any inertial frame (constantly moving frame).” During 1905, often called Einstein’s “miracle year,” he published four papers in the Annalen der Physik, each of which would alter the course of modern physics: - 1. “ Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt” (“On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light”), in which Einstein applied the quantum theory to light in order to explain the photoelectric effect. If light occurs in tiny packets (later called photons), then it should knock out electrons in a metal in a precise way. - 2. “ Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen” (“On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat”), in which Einstein offered the first experimental proof of the existence of atoms. By analyzing the motion of tiny particles suspended in still water, called Brownian motion, he could calculate the size of the jostling atoms and Avogadro’s number (see Avogadro’s law). - 3. “ Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper” (“On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”), in which Einstein laid out the mathematical theory of special relativity. - 4. “ Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?” (“Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?”), submitted almost as an afterthought, which showed that relativity theory led to the equation E = mc2. This provided the first mechanism to explain the energy source of the Sun and other stars. Einstein also submitted a paper in 1905 for his doctorate. Other scientists, especially Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz, had pieces of the theory of special relativity, but Einstein was the first to assemble the whole theory together and to realize that it was a universal law of nature, not a curious figment of motion in the ether, as Poincaré and Lorentz had thought. (In one private letter to Mileva, Einstein referred to “our theory,” which has led some to speculate that she was a cofounder of relativity theory. However, Mileva had abandoned physics after twice failing her graduate exams, and there is no record of her involvement in developing relativity. In fact, in his 1905 paper, Einstein only credits his conversations with Besso in developing relativity.) In the 19th century there were two pillars of physics: Newton’s laws of motion and Maxwell’s theory of light. Einstein was alone in realizing that they were in contradiction and that one of them must fall. General relativity and teaching career At first Einstein’s 1905 papers were ignored by the physics community. This began to change after he received the attention of just one physicist, perhaps the most influential physicist of his generation, Max Planck, the founder of the quantum theory. Soon, owing to Planck’s laudatory comments and to experiments that gradually confirmed his theories, Einstein was invited to lecture at international meetings, such as the Solvay Conferences, and he rose rapidly in the academic world. He was offered a series of positions at increasingly prestigious institutions, including the University of Zürich, the University of Prague, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and finally the University of Berlin, where he served as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics from 1913 to 1933 (although the opening of the institute was delayed until 1917). Even as his fame spread, Einstein’s marriage was falling apart. He was constantly on the road, speaking at international conferences, and lost in contemplation of relativity. The couple argued frequently about their children and their meager finances. Convinced that his marriage was doomed, Einstein began an affair with a cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, whom he later married. (Elsa was a first cousin on his mother’s side and a second cousin on his father’s side.) When he finally divorced Mileva in 1919, he agreed to give her the money he might receive if he ever won a Nobel Prize. One of the deep thoughts that consumed Einstein from 1905 to 1915 was a crucial flaw in his own theory: it made no mention of gravitation or acceleration. His friend Paul Ehrenfest had noticed a curious fact. If a disk is spinning, its rim travels faster than its centre, and hence (by special relativity) metre sticks placed on its circumference should shrink. This meant that Euclidean plane geometry must fail for the disk. For the next 10 years, Einstein would be absorbed with formulating a theory of gravity in terms of the curvature of space-time. To Einstein, Newton’s gravitational force was actually a by-product of a deeper reality: the bending of the fabric of space and time. In November 1915 Einstein finally completed the general theory of relativity, which he considered to be his masterpiece. In the summer of 1915, Einstein had given six two-hour lectures at the University of Göttingen that thoroughly explained an incomplete version of general relativity that lacked a few necessary mathematical details. Much to Einstein’s consternation, the mathematician David Hilbert, who had organized the lectures at his university and had been corresponding with Einstein, then completed these details and submitted a paper in November on general relativity just five days before Einstein, as if the theory were his own. Later they patched up their differences and remained friends. Einstein would write to Hilbert, I struggled against a resulting sense of bitterness, and I did so with complete success. I once more think of you in unclouded friendship, and would ask you to try to do likewise toward me. Today physicists refer to the action from which the equations are derived as the Einstein-Hilbert action, but the theory itself is attributed solely to Einstein. Einstein was convinced that general relativity was correct because of its mathematical beauty and because it accurately predicted the precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun (see Mercury: Mercury in tests of relativity). His theory also predicted a measurable deflection of light around the Sun. As a consequence, he even offered to help fund an expedition to measure the deflection of starlight during an eclipse of the Sun. World renown and Nobel Prize Einstein’s work was interrupted by World War I. A lifelong pacifist, he was only one of four intellectuals in Germany to sign a manifesto opposing Germany’s entry into war. Disgusted, he called nationalism “the measles of mankind.” He would write, “At such a time as this, one realizes what a sorry species of animal one belongs to.” In the chaos unleashed after the war, in November 1918, radical students seized control of the University of Berlin and held the rector of the college and several professors hostage. Many feared that calling in the police to release the officials would result in a tragic confrontation. Einstein, because he was respected by both students and faculty, was the logical candidate to mediate this crisis. Together with Max Born, Einstein brokered a compromise that resolved it. After the war, two expeditions were sent to test Einstein’s prediction of deflected starlight near the Sun. One set sail for the island of Principe, off the coast of West Africa, and the other to Sobral in northern Brazil in order to observe the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. On November 6 the results were announced in London at a joint meeting of the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Nobel laureate J.J. Thomson, president of the Royal Society, stated: This result is not an isolated one, it is a whole continent of scientific ideas.…This is the most important result obtained in connection with the theory of gravitation since Newton’s day, and it is fitting that it should be announced at a meeting of the Society so closely connected with him. The headline of The Times of London read, “Revolution in Science—New Theory of the Universe—Newton’s Ideas Overthrown—Momentous Pronouncement—Space ‘Warped.’” Almost immediately, Einstein became a world-renowned physicist, the successor to Isaac Newton. Invitations came pouring in for him to speak around the world. In 1921 Einstein began the first of several world tours, visiting the United States, England, Japan, and France. Everywhere he went, the crowds numbered in the thousands. En route from Japan, he received word that he had received the Nobel Prize for Physics, but for the photoelectric effect rather than for his relativity theories. During his acceptance speech, Einstein startled the audience by speaking about relativity instead of the photoelectric effect. Einstein also launched the new science of cosmology. His equations predicted that the universe is dynamic—expanding or contracting. This contradicted the prevailing view that the universe was static, so he reluctantly introduced a “cosmological term” to stabilize his model of the universe. In 1929 astronomer Edwin Hubble found that the universe was indeed expanding, thereby confirming Einstein’s earlier work. In 1930, in a visit to the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles, Einstein met with Hubble and declared the cosmological constant to be his “greatest blunder.” Recent satellite data, however, have shown that the cosmological constant is probably not zero but actually dominates the matter-energy content of the entire universe. Einstein’s “blunder” apparently determines the ultimate fate of the universe. During that same visit to California, Einstein was asked to appear alongside the comic actor Charlie Chaplin during the Hollywood debut of the film City Lights. When they were mobbed by thousands, Chaplin remarked, “The people applaud me because everybody understands me, and they applaud you because no one understands you.” Einstein asked Chaplin, “What does it all mean?” Chaplin replied, “Nothing.” Einstein also began correspondences with other influential thinkers during this period. He corresponded with Sigmund Freud (both of them had sons with mental problems) on whether war was intrinsic to humanity. He discussed with the Indian mystic Rabindranath Tagore the question of whether consciousness can affect existence. One journalist remarked, It was interesting to see them together—Tagore, the poet with the head of a thinker, and Einstein, the thinker with the head of a poet. It seemed to an observer as though two planets were engaged in a chat. Einstein also clarified his religious views, stating that he believed there was an “old one” who was the ultimate lawgiver. He wrote that he did not believe in a personal God that intervened in human affairs but instead believed in the God of the 17th-century Dutch Jewish philosopher Benedict de Spinoza—the God of harmony and beauty. His task, he believed, was to formulate a master theory that would allow him to “read the mind of God.” He would write, I’m not an atheist and I don’t think I can call myself a pantheist. We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many different languages.…The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books but doesn’t know what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent human being toward God. Nazi backlash and coming to America Inevitably, Einstein’s fame and the great success of his theories created a backlash. The rising Nazi movement found a convenient target in relativity, branding it “Jewish physics” and sponsoring conferences and book burnings to denounce Einstein and his theories. The Nazis enlisted other physicists, including Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, to denounce Einstein. One Hundred Authors Against Einstein was published in 1931. When asked to comment on this denunciation of relativity by so many scientists, Einstein replied that to defeat relativity one did not need the word of 100 scientists, just one fact. In December 1932 Einstein decided to leave Germany forever (he would never go back). It became obvious to Einstein that his life was in danger. A Nazi organization published a magazine with Einstein’s picture and the caption “Not Yet Hanged” on the cover. There was even a price on his head. So great was the threat that Einstein split with his pacifist friends and said that it was justified to defend yourself with arms against Nazi aggression. To Einstein, pacifism was not an absolute concept but one that had to be re-examined depending on the magnitude of the threat. Einstein settled at the newly formed Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, which soon became a mecca for physicists from around the world. Newspaper articles declared that the “pope of physics” had left Germany and that Princeton had become the new Vatican. Personal sorrow, World War II, and the atomic bomb The 1930s were hard years for Einstein. His son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia and suffered a mental breakdown in 1930. (Eduard would be institutionalized for the rest of his life.) Einstein’s close friend, physicist Paul Ehrenfest, who helped in the development of general relativity, committed suicide in 1933. And Einstein’s beloved wife, Elsa, died in 1936. To his horror, during the late 1930s, physicists began seriously to consider whether his equation E = mc2 might make an atomic bomb possible. In 1920 Einstein himself had considered but eventually dismissed the possibility. However, he left it open if a method could be found to magnify the power of the atom. Then in 1938–39 Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and Otto Frisch showed that vast amounts of energy could be unleashed by the splitting of the uranium atom. The news electrified the physics community. In July 1939 physicist Leo Szilard convinced Einstein that he should send a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt urging him to develop an atomic bomb. With Einstein’s guidance, Szilard drafted a letter on August 2 that Einstein signed, and the document was delivered to Roosevelt by one of his economic advisers, Alexander Sachs, on October 11. Roosevelt wrote back on October 19, informing Einstein that he had organized the Uranium Committee to study the issue. Einstein was granted permanent residency in the United States in 1935 and became an American citizen in 1940, although he chose to retain his Swiss citizenship. During the war Einstein’s colleagues were asked to journey to the desert town of Los Alamos, New Mexico, to develop the first atomic bomb for the Manhattan Project. Einstein, the man whose equation had set the whole effort into motion, was never asked to participate. Voluminous declassified Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) files, numbering several thousand, reveal the reason: the U.S. government feared Einstein’s lifelong association with peace and socialist organizations. (FBI director J. Edgar Hoover went so far as to recommend that Einstein be kept out of America by the Alien Exclusion Act, but he was overruled by the U.S. State Department.) Instead, during the war Einstein was asked to help the U.S. Navy evaluate designs for future weapons systems. Einstein also helped the war effort by auctioning off priceless personal manuscripts. In particular, a handwritten copy of his 1905 paper on special relativity was sold for $6.5 million. It is now located in the Library of Congress. Einstein was on vacation when he heard the news that an atomic bomb had been dropped on Japan. Almost immediately he was part of an international effort to try to bring the atomic bomb under control, forming the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists. The physics community split on the question of whether to build a hydrogen bomb. J. Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the atomic bomb project, was stripped of his security clearance for having suspected leftist associations. Einstein backed Oppenheimer and opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb, instead calling for international controls on the spread of nuclear technology. Einstein also was increasingly drawn to antiwar activities and to advancing the civil rights of African Americans. In 1952 David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s premier, offered Einstein the post of president of Israel. Einstein, a prominent figure in the Zionist movement, respectfully declined. Increasing professional isolation and death Although Einstein continued to pioneer many key developments in the theory of general relativity—such as wormholes, higher dimensions, the possibility of time travel, the existence of black holes, and the creation of the universe—he was increasingly isolated from the rest of the physics community. Because of the huge strides made by quantum theory in unraveling the secrets of atoms and molecules, the majority of physicists were working on the quantum theory, not relativity. In fact, Einstein would engage in a series of historic private debates with Niels Bohr, originator of the Bohr atomic model. Through a series of sophisticated “thought experiments,” Einstein tried to find logical inconsistencies in the quantum theory, particularly its lack of a deterministic mechanism. Einstein would often say that “God does not play dice with the universe.” In 1935 Einstein’s most celebrated attack on the quantum theory led to the EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) thought experiment. According to quantum theory, under certain circumstances two electrons separated by huge distances would have their properties linked, as if by an umbilical cord. Under these circumstances, if the properties of the first electron were measured, the state of the second electron would be known instantly—faster than the speed of light. This conclusion, Einstein claimed, clearly violated relativity. (Experiments conducted since then have confirmed that the quantum theory, rather than Einstein, was correct about the EPR experiment. In essence, what Einstein had actually shown was that quantum mechanics is nonlocal; i.e., random information can travel faster than light. This does not violate relativity, because the information is random and therefore useless.) The other reason for Einstein’s increasing detachment from his colleagues was his obsession, beginning in 1925, with discovering a unified field theory—an all-embracing theory that would unify the forces of the universe, and thereby the laws of physics, into one framework. In his later years he stopped opposing the quantum theory and tried to incorporate it, along with light and gravity, into a larger unified field theory. Gradually Einstein became set in his ways. He rarely traveled far and confined himself to long walks around Princeton with close associates, whom he engaged in deep conversations about politics, religion, physics, and his unified field theory. In 1950 he published an article on his theory in Scientific American, but because it neglected the still-mysterious strong force, it was necessarily incomplete. When he died five years later of an aortic aneurysm, it was still unfinished. In some sense, Einstein, instead of being a relic, may have been too far ahead of his time. The strong force, a major piece of any unified field theory, was still a total mystery in Einstein’s lifetime. Only in the 1970s and ’80s did physicists begin to unravel the secret of the strong force with the quark model. Nevertheless, Einstein’s work continues to win Nobel Prizes for succeeding physicists. In 1993 a Nobel Prize was awarded to the discoverers of gravitation waves, predicted by Einstein. In 1995 a Nobel Prize was awarded to the discoverers of Bose-Einstein condensates (a new form of matter that can occur at extremely low temperatures). Known black holes now number in the thousands. New generations of space satellites have continued to verify the cosmology of Einstein. And many leading physicists are trying to finish Einstein’s ultimate dream of a “theory of everything.” Einstein wrote the space-time entry for the 13th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
In 2011, Smithsonian paleontologist Nicholas Pyenson heard rumors of a large number of marine fossils while working in the Atacama Region of Chile. This site, Cerro Ballena, or “whale hill” in Spanish, contained the skeletons of more than 30 whales and other marine mammals. Working against the clock because of imminent road construction over the site, Nick called in technology experts from Smithsonian’s Digitization Program Office, Adam Metallo and Vincent Rossi, to 3D scan the fossil site. With 3D technology, Adam and Vince preserved the Cerro Ballena site in its original form, documenting the fossils as well as the context in which they were discovered. Now, anyone in the world can explore the images, models and scientific findings from the site. With these findings and data, researchers at Smithsonian and around the world can continue to study how changes in climate affected marine biodiversity in the geologic past. Data from the past is crucial to understanding how climate change today will impact biodiversity in the near future because the rate and magnitude of changes to this planet only have parallels in the geologic past.
Researchers at MIT, NASA and elsewhere have detected a possible planet, some 1,500 light years away, that appears to be evaporating under the blistering heat of its parent star. The scientists infer that a long tail of debris -- much like the tail of a comet -- is following the planet, and that this tail may tell the story of the planet's disintegration. According to the team's calculations, the tiny exoplanet, not much larger than Mercury, will completely disintegrate within 100 million years. The team found that the dusty planet circles its parent star every 15 hours -- one of the shortest planet orbits ever observed. Such a short orbit must be very tight and implies that the planet must be heated by its orange-hot parent star to a temperature of about 3,600 degrees Fahrenheit. Researchers hypothesize that rocky material at the surface of the planet melts and evaporates at such high temperatures, forming a wind that carries both gas and dust into space. Dense clouds of the dust trail the planet as it speeds around its star. Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 2 guests
Transcription factor Ajuba regulates stem cell activity in the heart during embryonic development. It is not unusual for babies to be born with congenital heart defects. This is because the development of the heart in the embryo is a process which is not only extremely complex, but also error-prone. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research in Bad Nauheim have now identified a key molecule that plays a central role in regulating the function of stem cells in the heart. As a result, not only could congenital heart defects be avoided in future, but new ways of stimulating the regeneration of damaged hearts in adults may be opened up.
Researchers may be on the verge of the “holy grail” for concussion tests. Researchers have developed a blood test that has so far proven to be highly accurate at detecting concussions among children, including both whether a concussion has occurred, and the severity of the consussion. Currently, when a person has suffered a suspected concussion, doctors and medical staff have to conduct a concussion test, which involves a series of tests and question regarding symptoms, vision, and ability to complete certain tasks. While this test has proven to be relatively effective at diagnosing concussions, a new blood test may take all the guesswork out of diagnosing concussions and will also allow doctors to pinpoint how severe a concussion is. Concussions are caused by severe head trauma. Between 2001 and 2009, an estimated 173,285 people under the age of 19 had to visit the emergency room because of potential concussions. The tests works by measuring levels of specific protein to first discover if a person has suffered a concussion, and if so, how severe it is. So far, the test has proven to be accurate 94 percent of the time, making it nearly as accurate as the CT scan. The test could prove to be a major breakthrough for athletics. The holy grail of concussion testing is to create a test that can be used on the sidelines of sporting events to diagnose athletes who may have potentially suffered a concussion. Currently, athletes are tested with a series of questions and other exercises, but the accuracy of such tests has long been questioned. Athletics is especially important because the risk of injuries is high, yet at the same time the pressure for athletes to return to the game is also intense. The risk of concussions during sports, especially physical sports like football, is very high. Researchers looked at 257 people, 197 of whom had suffered a blunt head trauma, whole the remaining 60 were part of a control group. Of those who had suffered blunt head trauma, 152 had CT scans taken to detect for concussions. Next, the patients had blood tests taken to detect for glial fibrillary acid protein. This protein is found in the glial cells, which surround neurons and provide a sort of cushion for these brain cells. When a person is injured, the proteins are released. Importantly, the proteins can also pass the blood brain barrier, which means that blood tests can detect them.
Armchair Space Walks On Apollo 16, astronauts John Young and Charlie Duke explored the Descartes region of the moon. The rock visible on the left became known as “House Rock” because of its increasing size as the astronauts drew nearer. (When they first set out, it had appeared to be only half their size—a trick of lunar perspective.) Beginning with Apollo 15, the color TV camera was controlled by Mission Control, freeing the astronauts to conduct their experiments. Additionally, Apollo 15 marked the beginning of the use of the Lunar Rover, which was used on Apollo 16 and 17 as well. The Lunar Rover enabled astronauts to travel farther in their explorations, and with the placement of the TV camera on board, the public could observe right alongside the astronauts.
An article published in Nature explains why is it possible climate change caused the peopling of the world. Scientists continue to debate on which caused the Homo Sapiens to spread outside Africa so long after they first appeared approximately 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. Now a paper on Nature by Timmermann and Friedrich has developed a model that shows how climate change could have caused this migration. Migrations into the eastern Mediterranean and the Arabian peninsula occurred around 1200,000 to 90,000 years ago, but further displacement to south Asia happened 50,000 years ago, to Europe 45,000 years ago, into north Asia 25,000 years ago and into the Americas about 15,000 years ago. The role of climate change has been long debated but all hypothesis agree climate affects resource richness and could drive human dispersal. These events could've been large volcanic eruptions, glacial Heinrich events (ice sheets collapse), orbital monsoonal-rainfall changes and sea level fluctuations. Their modelling included ocean-atmosphere-vegetation model that changes as it shows variations in orbital insolation, carbon dioxide levels, glacial ice and sea levels over the past 125,000 years. They compared this with the available palaeoclimate and palaeoceanographic data to ensure their results were reasonable. For example, today the Sahara and Arabian deserts are an effective barrier for species migration but in the past water conditions in the region allowed migration paths out of Africa and were vegetates, resource rich corridors. This happened during three time windows and supports the idea of environmental change drawing humans way form Africa. The main discrepancy in their results is their suggestion of southern Europe experiencing a low density wave 80,000 years ago which is more than 35,000 years earlier than the generally accepted evidence. Another example in Nature Education shows how climate change has changed population dynamics more recently. Between 12,000- to 5,000 years ago the Sahara was a vegetated region with wooded grasslands, lakes and rivers. It was a place where cultural interaction happened up until 5,000 years ago when the monsoon rains weakened and retreated. Archeological records show there was a massive and rapid depopulation of the north of Africa at the same time as the Sahara desert was established. Climate change can shape life and it can be considered as one of the reasons why the early humans left Africa. LatinAmerican Post \| Maria Andrea Marquez
Melanoma, the most serious type of skin cancer, develops in the cells (melanocytes) that produce melanin — the pigment that gives your skin its color. Melanoma can also form in your eyes and, rarely, in internal organs, such as your intestines. The exact cause of all melanomas isn't clear, but exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or tanning lamps and beds increases your risk of developing melanoma. Limiting your exposure to UV radiation can help reduce your risk of melanoma. The risk of melanoma seems to be increasing in people under 40, especially women. Knowing the warning signs of skin cancer can help ensure that cancerous changes are detected and treated before the cancer has spread. Melanoma can be treated successfully if it is detected early. Melanomas can develop anywhere on your body. They most often develop in areas that have had exposure to the sun, such as your back, legs, arms and face. Melanomas can also occur in areas that don't receive much sun exposure, such as the soles of your feet, palms of your hands and fingernail beds. These hidden melanomas are more common in people with darker skin. The first melanoma signs and symptoms often are: - A change in an existing mole - The development of a new pigmented or unusual-looking growth on your skin Melanoma doesn't always begin as a mole. It can also occur on otherwise normal-appearing skin. Normal moles are generally a uniform color — such as tan, brown or black — with a distinct border separating the mole from your surrounding skin. They're oval or round and usually smaller than 1/4 inch (about 6 millimeters) in diameter — the size of a pencil eraser. Most people have between 10 and 45 moles. Many of these develop by age 50, although moles may change in appearance over time — some may even disappear with age. Unusual moles that may indicate melanoma To help you identify characteristics of unusual moles that may indicate melanomas or other skin cancers, think of the letters ABCDE: - A is for asymmetrical shape. Look for moles with irregular shapes, such as two very different-looking halves. - B is for irregular border. Look for moles with irregular, notched or scalloped borders — characteristics of melanomas. - C is for changes in color. Look for growths that have many colors or an uneven distribution of color. - D is for diameter. Look for new growth in a mole larger than 1/4 inch (about 6 millimeters). - E is for evolving. Look for changes over time, such as a mole that grows in size or that changes color or shape. Moles may also evolve to develop new signs and symptoms, such as new itchiness or bleeding. Cancerous (malignant) moles vary greatly in appearance. Some may show all of the changes listed above, while others may have only one or two unusual characteristics. Melanomas can also develop in areas of your body that have little or no exposure to the sun, such as the spaces between your toes and on your palms, soles, scalp or genitals. These are sometimes referred to as hidden melanomas because they occur in places most people wouldn't think to check. When melanoma occurs in people with darker skin, it's more likely to occur in a hidden area. Hidden melanomas include: - Melanoma under a nail. Acral-lentiginous melanoma is a rare form of melanoma that can occur under a fingernail or toenail. It can also be found on the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet. It's more common in blacks and in other people with darker skin pigment. - Melanoma in the mouth, digestive tract, urinary tract or vagina. Mucosal melanoma develops in the mucous membrane that lines the nose, mouth, esophagus, anus, urinary tract and vagina. Mucosal melanomas are especially difficult to detect because they can easily be mistaken for other far more common conditions. - Melanoma in the eye. Eye melanoma, also called ocular melanoma, most often occurs in the uvea — the layer beneath the white of the eye (sclera). An eye melanoma may cause vision changes and may be diagnosed during an eye exam. When to see a doctor Make an appointment with your doctor if you notice any skin changes that seem unusual. Melanoma occurs when something goes awry in the melanin-producing cells (melanocytes) that give color to your skin. Normally, skin cells develop in a controlled and orderly way — healthy new cells push older cells toward your skin's surface, where they die and eventually fall off. But when some cells develop DNA damage, new cells may begin to grow out of control and can eventually form a mass of cancerous cells. Just what damages DNA in skin cells and how this leads to melanoma isn't clear. It's likely that a combination of factors, including environmental and genetic factors, causes melanoma. Still, doctors believe exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun and from tanning lamps and beds is the leading cause of melanoma. UV light doesn't cause all melanomas, especially those that occur in places on your body that don't receive exposure to sunlight. This indicates that other factors may contribute to your risk of melanoma. Factors that may increase your risk of melanoma include: - Fair skin. Having less pigment (melanin) in your skin means you have less protection from damaging UV radiation. If you have blond or red hair, light-colored eyes, and freckle or sunburn easily, you're more likely to develop melanoma than is someone with a darker complexion. But melanoma can develop in people with darker complexions, including Hispanics and blacks. - A history of sunburn. One or more severe, blistering sunburns can increase your risk of melanoma. - Excessive ultraviolet (UV) light exposure. Exposure to UV radiation, which comes from the sun and from tanning lights and beds, can increase the risk of skin cancer, including melanoma. - Living closer to the equator or at a higher elevation. People living closer to the earth's equator, where the sun's rays are more direct, experience higher amounts of UV radiation than do those living in higher latitudes. In addition, if you live at a high elevation, you're exposed to more UV radiation. - Having many moles or unusual moles. Having more than 50 ordinary moles on your body indicates an increased risk of melanoma. Also, having an unusual type of mole increases the risk of melanoma. Known medically as dysplastic nevi, these tend to be larger than normal moles and have irregular borders and a mixture of colors. - A family history of melanoma. If a close relative — such as a parent, child or sibling — has had melanoma, you have a greater chance of developing a melanoma, too. - Weakened immune system. People with weakened immune systems, such as those who've undergone organ transplants, have an increased risk of skin cancer. Start by seeing your family doctor or a general practitioner if you notice any skin changes that concern you. Depending on your situation and the outcome of any tests, you may be referred to a doctor who specializes in skin diseases (dermatologist) or to a doctor who specializes in cancer treatment (oncologist). Because appointments can be brief, and because there's often a lot of ground to cover, it's a good idea to be well-prepared for your appointment. Here's some information to help you get ready and know what to expect from your doctor. What you can do - Be aware of any pre-appointment restrictions. At the time you make the appointment, be sure to ask if there's anything you need to do in advance, such as restrict your diet. - Write down any symptoms you're experiencing, including any that may seem unrelated to the reason for which you scheduled the appointment. - Make a list of all medications, vitamins or supplements you're taking. - Take a family member or friend along. Sometimes it can be difficult to remember all the information provided during an appointment. Someone who accompanies you may remember something that you missed or forgot. - Write down questions to ask your doctor. Your time with your doctor is limited, so preparing a list of questions can help you make the most of your time together. List your questions from most important to least important, in case time runs out. For melanoma, some basic questions to ask your doctor include: - Do I have melanoma? - How large is my melanoma? - How deep is my melanoma? - Has my melanoma spread beyond the area of skin where it was first discovered? - What additional tests do I need? - What are my treatment options? - Can any treatment cure my melanoma? - What are the potential side effects of each treatment option? - Is there one treatment you feel is best for me? - How long can I take to decide on a treatment option? - Should I see a specialist? What will that cost, and will my insurance cover it? - Are there any brochures or other printed material that I can take with me? What websites do you recommend? - What will determine whether I should plan for a follow-up visit? In addition to the questions that you've prepared to ask your doctor, don't hesitate to ask other questions during your appointment. Skin cancer screening Ask your doctor whether you should consider periodic screening for skin cancer. You and your doctor may consider screening options such as: - Skin exams by a trained professional. During a skin exam, your doctor conducts a head-to-toe inspection of your skin. - Skin exams you do at home. A self-exam may help you learn the moles, freckles and other skin marks that are normal for you so that you can notice any changes. It's best to do this standing in front of a full-length mirror while using a hand-held mirror to inspect hard-to-see areas. Be sure to check the fronts, backs and sides of your arms and legs. In addition, check your groin, scalp, fingernails, soles of your feet and spaces between your toes. Some medical organizations recommend periodic skin exams by your doctor and on your own. Others don't recommend skin cancer screening exams because it's not clear whether screening saves lives. Instead, finding an unusual mole could lead to a biopsy, which, if the mole is found to not be cancerous, could lead to unnecessary pain, anxiety and cost. Talk to your doctor about what screening is right for you based on your risk of skin cancer. Sometimes cancer can be detected simply by looking at your skin, but the only way to accurately diagnose melanoma is with a biopsy. In this procedure, all or part of the suspicious mole or growth is removed, and a pathologist analyzes the sample. Biopsy procedures used to diagnose melanoma include: - Punch biopsy. During a punch biopsy, your doctor uses a tool with a circular blade. The blade is pressed into the skin around a suspicious mole, and a round piece of skin is removed. - Excisional biopsy. In this procedure, the entire mole or growth is removed along with a small border of normal-appearing skin. - Incisional biopsy. With an incisional biopsy, only the most irregular part of a mole or growth is taken for laboratory analysis. The type of skin biopsy procedure you undergo will depend on your situation. Doctors prefer to use punch biopsy or excisional biopsy to remove the entire growth whenever possible. Incisional biopsy may be used when other techniques can't easily be completed, such as if a suspicious mole is very large. If you receive a diagnosis of melanoma, the next step is to determine the extent (stage) of the cancer. To assign a stage to your melanoma, your doctor will: - Determine the thickness. The thickness of a melanoma is determined by carefully examining the melanoma under a microscope and measuring it with a special tool (micrometer). The thickness of a melanoma helps doctors decide on a treatment plan. In general, the thicker the tumor, the more serious the disease. See if the melanoma has spread. To determine whether your melanoma has spread to nearby lymph nodes, your surgeon may recommend a procedure known as a sentinel node biopsy. During a sentinel node biopsy, a dye is injected in the area where your melanoma was removed. The dye flows to the nearby lymph nodes. The first lymph nodes to take up the dye are removed and tested for cancer cells. If these first lymph nodes (sentinel lymph nodes) are cancer-free, there's a good chance that the melanoma has not spread beyond the area where it was first discovered. Cancer can still recur or spread, even if the sentinel lymph nodes are free of cancer. Other factors may go into determining the aggressiveness of a melanoma, including whether the skin over the area has formed an open sore and how many dividing cancer cells are found when looking under a microscope. Melanoma is staged using the Roman numerals I through IV. A stage I melanoma is small and has a very successful treatment rate. But the higher the numeral, the lower the chances of a full recovery. By stage IV, the cancer has spread beyond your skin to other organs, such as your lungs or liver. The best treatment for you depends on the size and stage of cancer, your overall health, and your personal preferences. Treating early-stage melanomas Treatment for early-stage melanomas usually includes surgery to remove the melanoma. A very thin melanoma may be removed entirely during the biopsy and require no further treatment. Otherwise, your surgeon will remove the cancer as well as a border of normal skin and a layer of tissue beneath the skin. For people with early-stage melanomas, this may be the only treatment needed. Treating melanomas that have spread beyond the skin If melanoma has spread beyond the skin, treatment options may include: - Surgery to remove affected lymph nodes. If melanoma has spread to nearby lymph nodes, your surgeon may remove the affected nodes. Additional treatments before or after surgery also may be recommended. Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy can be given intravenously, in pill form or both so that it travels throughout your body. Chemotherapy can also be given in a vein in your arm or leg in a procedure called isolated limb perfusion. During this procedure, blood in your arm or leg isn't allowed to travel to other areas of your body for a short time so that the chemotherapy drugs travel directly to the area around the melanoma and don't affect other parts of your body. - Radiation therapy. This treatment uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy may be recommended after surgery to remove the lymph nodes. It's sometimes used to help relieve symptoms of melanoma that has spread to another area of the body. Biological therapy. Biological therapy boosts your immune system to help your body fight cancer. These treatments are made of substances produced by the body or similar substances produced in a laboratory. Side effects of these treatments are similar to those of the flu, including chills, fatigue, fever, headache and muscle aches. Biological therapies used to treat melanoma include interferon and interleukin-2, ipilimumab (Yervoy), nivolumab (Opdivo), and pembrolizumab (Keytruda). Targeted therapy. Targeted therapy uses medications designed to target specific vulnerabilities in cancer cells. Side effects of targeted therapies vary, but tend to include skin problems, fever, chills and dehydration. Vemurafenib (Zelboraf), dabrafenib (Tafinlar) and trametinib (Mekinist) are targeted therapy drugs used to treat advanced melanoma. These drugs are only effective if your cancer cells have a certain genetic mutation. Cells from your melanoma can be tested to see whether these medications may help you. You can reduce your risk of melanoma and other types of skin cancer if you: Avoid the sun during the middle of the day. For many people in North America, the sun's rays are strongest between about 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Schedule outdoor activities for other times of the day, even in winter or when the sky is cloudy. You absorb UV radiation year-round, and clouds offer little protection from damaging rays. Avoiding the sun at its strongest helps you avoid the sunburns and suntans that cause skin damage and increase your risk of developing skin cancer. Sun exposure accumulated over time also may cause skin cancer. Wear sunscreen year-round. Sunscreens don't filter out all harmful UV radiation, especially the radiation that can lead to melanoma. But they play a major role in an overall sun protection program. Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of at least 15. Apply sunscreen generously, and reapply every two hours — or more often if you're swimming or perspiring. The American Academy of Dermatology recommends using a broad-spectrum, water-resistant sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30. Wear protective clothing. Sunscreens don't provide complete protection from UV rays. So cover your skin with dark, tightly woven clothing that covers your arms and legs and a broad-brimmed hat, which provides more protection than a baseball cap or visor does. Some companies also sell photoprotective clothing. A dermatologist can recommend an appropriate brand. Don't forget sunglasses. Look for those that block both types of UV radiation — UVA and UVB rays. - Avoid tanning lamps and beds. Tanning lamps and beds emit UV rays and can increase your risk of skin cancer. Become familiar with your skin so that you'll notice changes. Examine your skin regularly for new skin growths or changes in existing moles, freckles, bumps and birthmarks. With the help of mirrors, check your face, neck, ears and scalp. Examine your chest and trunk and the tops and undersides of your arms and hands. Examine both the fronts and backs of your legs and your feet, including the soles and the spaces between your toes. Also check your genital area and between your buttocks. Jan. 28, 2016 - What you need to know about melanoma and other skin cancers. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/wyntk-skin-cancer. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Niederhuber JE, et al., eds. Melanoma. In: Abeloff's Clinical Oncology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2014. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Habif TP. Nevi and malignant melanoma. In: Clinical Dermatology: A Color Guide to Diagnosis and Therapy. 5th ed. Edinburgh, U.K.; New York, N.Y.: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Intraocular (eye) melanoma treatment (PDQ). National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/intraocularmelanoma/patient. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Detect skin cancer. American Academy of Dermatology. https://www.aad.org/spot-skin-cancer/learn-about-skin-cancer/detect-skin-cancer. Accessed April 28, 2015. - U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final recommendation statement: Skin cancer screening. http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/skin-cancer-screening. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Melanoma. Fort Washington, Pa.: National Comprehensive Cancer Network. http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp. Accessed April 28, 2015. - Reed KB, et al. Increasing incidence of melanoma among young adults: An epidemiological study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2012;87:328.
The Impact on Marine Mammals by LeRoy French, NAUI A50 One of Jacques Cousteau’s first underwater films was entitled “The Silent World”. This was filmed almost a half century ago, and it labeled our underwater environment as a ‘silent world’. At the time this was true. Today, not so true. Most marine mammals and fishes are very sensitive to sound. Noise travels long distances underwater and potentially prevents marine mammals and their young from finding their way. Some studies indicate that naval sonar affects large populations of whales. Seismic air guns used in gas exploration are also a large contributor to ocean noise. It has been shown that these air guns have affected fish at distances from over 500 meters to several kilometers. There are 40 to 80 percent fewer fish catches near seismic surveys. Reef fish can be impacted by these various sounds as they rely on normal reef noises to help them select a suitable habitat. However, whales seem to be the most vulnerable. They have been known to move away from feeding and breeding grounds along with altering their migration routes and in some cases have fallen completely silent. This means they are not communicating. Many have blundered into fishing nets and in some cases have collided with ships. This is most likely damage caused by “Ocean Noise”—Manmade “Ocean Noise”! The three main culprits in this noise pollution are: the increase in commercial shipping, seismic surveys, and military sonar. All of these sounds make it increasingly difficult for whales and other marine mammals to communicate with song. This also leads to marine mammal strandings. Today shipping lanes follow coastal routes that whales have traced for millions of years. The result has led to beach strandings, collisions, and basically disorienting the whales so they lose their bearings. Here is an interesting statistic. Climate change is not helping the problem either. The acidification of oceans caused by rising temperatures reduces sound absorption by 40%, therefore allowing sound to travel even farther. Why do Whales get Stranded? This has been a huge mystery for many years. There have been hundreds of studies made on this interesting phenomenon. It is believed that whales use a magnetic field along with underwater topography to orient themselves. This means that any deviation to this field can cause confusion. It is not unusual for a beached whale after being returned to deeper water to later strand on the same beach from which it was freed. What’s happening is that the whales’ reference points lead them to believe that they are heading to deeper water when in fact they are going toward the beach. Aside from noise there are other factors involved. Whales may be hurt or sick. Also illness and parasites can affect their direction. What should be noted is that when a whale is stranded and not able to get back into deeper water within a reasonable period of time it will die. Keep in mind that the whale’s body is supported by the sea; on land its body weighs it down, damaging internal organs and eventually causing suffocation. Global Warming, Pollution, Plastic Bags, Runoff, the list seems endless. I know you are sitting there reading this and saying to yourself, what can I possibly do about “ocean noise?” What’s important is that you are made aware of how this pollution affects our ocean environment. You can help by supporting the different actions that help to protect our oceans and its inhabitants. Your voice is important. Our underwater world is no longer a “Silent World,” just ask the animals that live there. You may, however, have to speak loudly.
This is a drawing which depicts what makes Saturn's atmosphere. Click on image for full size An Overview of Saturn's Atmospheric Composition Saturn's atmosphere is mostly made of the simple molecules hydrogen and helium. There is a lot of sulfur, which gives Saturn its yellow color. There is also nitrogen and oxygen, which are in the air that we breath every day on Earth. These molecules combine to make clouds of complex molecules, such as clouds of water and smog. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Learn about Earth and space science, and have fun while doing it! The games section of our online store includes a climate change card game and the Traveling Nitrogen game You might also be interested in: Saturn's atmospheric environment is one of strong gravity, high pressure, strong winds, from 225 miles per hour to 1000 miles per hour, and cold temperatures of -270 degrees to +80 degrees. With winds...more The dramatic appearance of Saturn stems mainly from the spectacular rings. The atmosphere looks much less dramatic. The clouds of Saturn are much less colorful than those of Jupiter. This is because the...more The most important motions in the atmosphere are winds. The major winds in Saturn's atmosphere are the zonal winds which are made of zones and belts. Zones are high pressure systems and belts are low pressure...more The striped cloud bands on Saturn, like Jupiter, are divided into belts and zones. In a belt, the wind flows very strongly in one direction only. In a zone, the wind flows very strongly in exactly the...more The position of the planets in the solar nebula greatly affected their 1. size and 2. composition. This is because of the effect of how cold it was in the nebula. 1. The nebula was a lot warmer close to...more As shown in this picture, while they were forming in the solar nebula, the nucleii of the planets-to-be (called protoplanets) drew material to themselves from the cloud of gas and dust around them. The...more Astronomers have discovered a strange shape in Saturn's atmosphere. The shape is a hexagon. The hexagon is near Saturn's North Pole. Scientists aren't quite sure why Saturn has the hexagon shape in its...more
According to the University of Michigan, the primitive Earth did not have an atmosphere until gases were released from the planet's interior. Fast-moving gases and massive volcanic eruptions led to the creation of two distinct yet equally important atmospheric layers.Continue Reading According to NASA, Earth's earliest atmosphere was likely composed of only hydrogen and helium, two of the most abundant substances in the universe. These gases also composed the gassy disk around the Sun from which the Earth and all surrounding planets were formed. When the atmosphere first formed, Earth was extremely hot and inhospitable to the life that currently exists on it. Hydrogen and helium molecules hovering over Earth's surface eventually took on such velocity that they escaped the gravitational pull of Earth and drifted into space. This process resulted in the formation of the first layer of the Earth's atmosphere. NASA explains that the second atmospheric layer was formed over billions of years due to massive volcanic eruptions. At this time, there were far more volcanoes spread out across the Earth's surface, which resulted in gases from the Earth's interior being released globally. These gases included steam, carbon dioxide and ammonia. Eventually, the ammonia molecules were broken up by sunlight and left nitrogen and hydrogen behind, causing the formation of the atmospheric conditions that exist today.Learn more about Atmosphere
Learning how to describe the size and shape of objects at a young age helps children develop their spatial skills, researchers say. Their study of 52 preschool children found that those who heard their parents use spatial terms and then used those words themselves had higher scores on spatial skills tests. In the study, researchers counted the number of times children and their caregivers (mostly mothers) used words that were related to the size and shape of objects, such as 'circle,' 'tall,' 'wide,' 'bent' or 'edge' during several 90 minute sessions, each four months apart. On average, parents used 167 words related to spatial concepts during 13.5 hours of recorded time, though the range was from five to 525 such words. Kids averaged 74 words related to spatial concepts, but the range was four to 191. Then, when they were 4.5 years old, children were tested on their spatial skills, such as their ability to mentally rotate objects. Children who'd heard and used more spatial terms did better on the tests. For every 45-word increase in kids' use of spatial terms, scores on spatial tests were 23% higher, according to the University of Chicago researchers. They said this is the first study to show that learning to use a wide range of spatial words affects children's spatial skills, which are important in mathematics, science and technology. "Our results suggest that children's talk about space early in development is a significant predictor of their later spatial thinking," study co-author and psychology professor Susan Levine said in a university news release. The study appears in an issue of the journal Developmental Science. The findings provide additional evidence for the importance of exposing young children to words related to mathematical concepts, Levine said. In an earlier study, she and her colleagues found that talking about mathematics with young children greatly improved their math abilities. Canada's Ontario Ministry of Education offers a parent's guide for teaching math to children. (Copyright © 2011 HealthDay. All rights reserved.)
Changes in the weather are critical for moles, as conditions above the earth's surface can have profound effects on those below. Flooding is the greatest hazard, and these underground mammals have evolved the instinct to head for higher ground whenever their tunnel network is threatened, sometimes deserting low-lying areas en masse. Weather lore expert Thomas Willsford, writing in the 17th century, was one of the first people to record this phenomenon: "When on a sudden they do forsake the valleys and low grounds, it foreshows a flood near at hand." Moles can help us forecast the weather in other ways, too. It is said that if, during a frosty spell, you observe a mole throwing up fresh earth, then there will be a thaw in the next 48 hours. But if a mole is seen throwing up more earth than usual, rain is on its way – presumably moles dig deeper when they think they might be vulnerable to wet weather. Drought, on the other hand, makes it harder for them to burrow, although not even the hardest earth presents an insuperable barrier to these determined creatures. Finally, moles are supposed to have long-term forecasting ability. The Victorian periodical the Gardeners' Chronicle reported that moles make a cache of worms to see them through the winter, keeping them in a basin in a bed of clay. According to the anonymous author, when there are fewer of these worm caches than usual, the coming winter will be a mild one.
written by: George Garza•edited by: RC Davison•updated: 9/7/2011 If you were to land on a gas giant you would sink to the center. There is no solid surface, except for the core, several thousands of miles down. The gas giants lack rock or solid matter. The core is believed to contain liquid metals. The Solar System has four different gas giants. slide 1 of 7 What Planets Make Up the Gas Giants? Gas giants at their core may have a rocky, metallic, or liquid metal structure. In fact, astronomers believe that such a core is necessary for a gas giant to form. The main constituents of a gas giant will be hydrogen and helium. It will also have traces of water, methane, ammonia, and other compounds. Unlike solid planets, which will have a well defined separation between an atmosphere and the surface, gas giants do not; their atmospheres tend to become denser toward the core. In our Solar System the gas giantsappear outside of the asteroid belt, unlike the rocky planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, which are inside the asteroid belt. Finally, in the Solar System there are four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They are also called the Jovian planets. The first of the gas giants that we willlook at is Jupiter, the largest planet. It takes 11 years to orbit the Sun, but it takes just under 10 hours to rotate once around its axis. Since it rotates so fast, it has winds that moveat about 150 m/s. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium; there are also trace amounts of ammonia, methane, and other light substances. Jupiter is a "hot" planet because it gives off about 2½ times more heat than it takes in from the Sun. Astronomers believe that Jupiter has a solid metal-rock core at its center, similar to Earth, but much larger. It has an equatorial diameter of about 142,984 km, by contrast Earth's diameter is 12,756 km. Jupiter has a mass density around 318 Earth-masses. Other note worthy features: The surrounding atmosphere is a metallic mixture of hydrogen and helium. On Earth, hydrogen and helium behave as gases, but the pressure is so high on Jupiter's interior that the hydrogen behaves like a metal. There is a shell of liquid molecules that surrounds this metallic hydrogen area. Other parts of the atmosphere has concentrations of ammonia and methane. This zone is about 1,000 (km) deep. Another interesting feature is temperature; it varies widely. For example, it goes from -130°C at the top of the clouds, to 30°C about 70 km (43 miles) below, then to about 20,000°C at the planet's center. The image below points out some features of the atmosphere. Notice the trace compounds at the top of the cloud layer. As you go deeper, there is a zone of fluid molecular hydrogen that extends about 20,000 km (12,427 mi). There is a transition zone that is about 40,000 km (24,854 mi). In this zone, the liquid hydrogen, in molecular form at these levels is compressed until it reaches a fluid metallic state. Finally, 60,000 km (37282 mi) down, at the center of Jupiter is a small rocky core (about 15 times the mass of the Earth). It may have been residue from the icy-dust particles that collected in an early solar nebula. It has a temperature about 20,000°C, 36,000°F. Saturn is the second largest gas giant and also the second largest planet in the Solar System. It has an atmospheric composition of 96.3% hydrogen, and 3.25% helium, but it also has traces of methane, ammonia, ethane, ethylene, and phosphine. It has been observed that Saturn's atmosphere has alternate jet streams going from east-west and west-east. Sometimes speeds reach up to about 1,800 km/h. The atmospheric conditions are responsible for the banded appearance of the planet. There are electrical processes and heat deep within Saturn, which modify the layered chemical mixture of the atmosphere and may be responsible for the transitions that occur from superheated water near the core to the extremes of ammonia ice at the observed cloud tops. The Solar System has four gas giants planets, but two of them, Uranus and Neptune, are also called "ice giants." Uranus has an atmosphere, like the other gas giants, composed of hydrogen (83%), helium (15%), methane (2%), and other trace amounts of acetylene and other hydrocarbons. It has a bluish tint, which comes from an upper-methane haze that strongly absorbs red wavelengths. At the core of the ice giants the ice that might exist may in fact be more like a supercritical fluid, instead of like the ice on Earth. Normally liquids are distinguished from gases on the basis of density; liquids are more dense than vapors. But at the critical point both have become identical and this comes from raising the temperature and pressure of a liquid so it turns into a vapor and it has the same density as the liquid. If there is a substance where its temperature and pressure are above its critical pointit is called supercritical. The supercritical fluid can dissolve materials like a liquid or diffuse through solids like a gas. This supercritical fluid is believed to be at the core of Uranus. The image shows the suspected breakdown of the atmosphere. The last of the gas/ice giants is Neptune. It has a deep atmosphere, which goes down to between 80 and 90% of the center of the planet. At high altitudes it consists mostly of hydrogen (80%) and helium (19%). There are increasing concentrations of methane, other hydrocarbons (including acetylene, diacetylene, and ethane), plus ammonia, and water vapor, which occur in the dark, warmer, and lower regions of the atmosphere. Finally, the atmosphere transitions toasuperheated liquid interior. Where does the blue color come from? It is mainly due to methane in the atmosphere, because it absorbs red light. Another aspect about thecolor is that there is a difference between the bright blue of Neptune and the blueish-green of Uranus. Both planets are affected by the atmospheric methane. However, astronomers believe that an additional component must also be responsible for Neptune's distinctive hue, but it has not been identified yet. The Great Dark Spot Neptune also has a two dark spots, a great dark spot and the small dark spot, which are oval-shaped anticyclones. They are not as prominent as the Jupiter Spot, but are fairly notecable nonetheless. The cause of the Neptune spots is the difference in temperature between the heat-producing core and the frigid cloud tops. There are four rings around Neptune. They are vey dark which explains why they cannot be easily seen. There is one broad and three narrow rings.They are located betwen 40,000 and 63000 km (25000 to 39000 mi). Neptune is about 4.5 billion kilometers from the Sun (2.8 billion miles). It has a diameter of 49,400km (30,700 mi). It has a volume that is 72 time greater than earth, but it's mass is only 17 time larger. It rotates once around its axis every 16 hours, and orbits the Sun every 164.79 Earth years. This guide to what are the gas giant planets discusses the four largest planets in the Solar System. They have high amounts of hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres. They are unlike the rocky planets, which are smaller and have a well defined solid surface. Gas giants and the ice giants do not have a well defined surface. Their atmospheres can be thousands of miles thick. The behavior of the planet is more dynamic than that of the rocky planets, because the atmosphere changes the appearance, the temperature, and even the rotational speed of the planet. slide 7 of 7 What are Gas Giant Planets Image 1: Jupiter credit Nasa Gas Giants Of the Solar System - Jupiter Image 2: Giant Balls of Gas: http://www.solstation.com/stars/jovians.htm
Send the link below via email or IMCopy Present to your audienceStart remote presentation - Invited audience members will follow you as you navigate and present - People invited to a presentation do not need a Prezi account - This link expires 10 minutes after you close the presentation - A maximum of 30 users can follow your presentation - Learn more about this feature in our knowledge base article HOW DOES ACID RAIN AFFECT PLANT GROWTH? Transcript of HOW DOES ACID RAIN AFFECT PLANT GROWTH? The harm of acid rain Acid can harm other plants just like it harms trees. However, food crops are not typically seriously effected by air pollutions because farmers add fertilizers to the soil frequently to replace nutrients that have previously washed away. Limestone is also a common material used in the soil to help increase the ability of the soil to act against acidity. WHAT IS ACID RAIN Acid rain is the rain that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the air. Acid rain has decreased the growth of many forced plants. It has also limited the nutrients available to the plants and exposed them to toxic substances that are released from the soil. The affects of Acid Rain Then at the same time acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and other plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Acid rain can also affect the forest floor, then the water pours into the soil, and the soil neutralizes some or all of the acidity of the acid rain. Acid rain can also affect aquatic plants and their growth because the acid dissolves the nutrients they really need like calcium, magnesium, and potassium, which stuns their growth. Scientists have discovered... That acid water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals within the soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to grow. Aquatic Plants have to adapt into their aquatic environment. Aquatic plants are also referred to as macrophytes or hydrophytes. These plants also have special adaptations. The gathering of acids or acidic compounds on the surface of earth, in lakes or streams or on objects or vegetation near the earths surface, as a result of their separation from the atmosphere. How are aquatic plants affected? Acid rain can also affect aquatic plants and their growth because the acid dissolves the nutrients they really need such as: calcium, magnesium, and potassium, which results to stunted growth. (2006). Pearson SuccessNet. Retrieved June 4, 2014, from http://www.pearsonsuccessnet.com/. (2005). Eric D.- Acid Rain vs. Plant Growth - Science Project. Retrieved June 4, 2014, from http://www.selah.k12.wa.us/soar/sciproj2000/EricD.html. (2006). What is Acid Rain? \| Acid Rain \| US EPA. Retrieved June 4, 2014, from http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what/.
Target – Leadership in a Student-Centered Learning Environment. FWSU will foster development of teacher and student leaders who provide innovative opportunities for local and global student-centered learning. Action Step – Develop learning habits, communication and problem-solving skills necessary for collaborative learning and leadership. Indicator of Success – Teachers embrace the role of coach, facilitator and co-learner in a student-centered learning environment. In an instant, a teacher’s language – the things we do or do not say, the unspoken messages beneath the words, and the manner in which we deliver our thoughts – can, at best, ignite a spark in children that creates a lifelong love of learning and models strong, positive social skills. At its worst, poorly planned and executed teacher language can devastate a student’s self-esteem, cause them to disconnect from school and overpower their ability to reach their full potential. The term “teacher,” in this context, applies to any adult who interacts with children – from kitchen staff and bus drivers to para-educators, custodians, office staff and, of course, classroom and other professionals. Parents, too, are important teachers of their children. Each and every adult interacting with a child has an equal responsibility and opportunity use language that supports them in being at their social and academic best. In Fletcher, all faculty and staff members have recently completed an intensive six-week study of the importance of teacher language using the Responsive Classroom book, The Power of Our Words (Northeast Foundation for Children, 2014). Outlined in the book are five basic guidelines for teacher language. These guiding principles become the overarching philosophy for daily interactions with children and remind the adults in school of the importance of approaching teacher language with mindfulness and purpose. Be direct and authentic: In being direct and authentic, students learn that the adults say what they mean and mean what they say. This creates a trusting relationship that allows students to take risks in their learning throughout the day. Using an even, matter of fact tone of voice conveys a sense of confidence in children and creates safety in the classroom. Teachers need to be aware of the unspoken messages that their body language conveys to students. Convey faith in children’s abilities and intentions: Teacher language shapes students’ perceptions of themselves and others. When our language conveys positive assumptions and high expectations, it will help students to form similar views of themselves. It is essential that teachers notice the positives in all students. Focus on action: Adult language contains many abstract terms. Phrases such as, “be respectful” or, “be safe” may be confusing in isolation. It is important for teachers to connect abstract terms with concrete behaviors. For example, a teacher might say, “Please be safe by walking in the hallway.” This language connects the abstract term with a specific and understandable behavior that is taught. Focusing on the action also helps children separate their behaviors from who they are as a person. Keep it brief: Long explanations and lectures are often counterproductive for young children. Particularly when they are upset, students tend to hear nothing more than a jumble of words. Keeping your thoughts brief makes it more likely that the child will understand what is being said. In brief, children often understand more when we speak less. Know when to be silent: Silence provides children time to think, gather their thoughts and gain the courage to speak. The use of “wait time” encourages children to be problem-solvers and thinkers, rather than students who simply wait to be spoon-fed the answer. Silence also allows others the opportunity to speak as part of a cordial and respectful conversation. In addition to the guiding principles of teacher language, The Power of Our Words outlines a variety of types of language used by adults. Envisioning language is used to help students imagine themselves behaving and achieving in ways beyond their current reality. It helps children to form a vision of themselves being successful. Open-ended questions are another type of teacher language. They have no single right or wrong answer. Rather, any reasoned and relevant response is acceptable. Open-ended questions allow students at a variety of academic and social levels to participate in a conversation and to respond appropriately. They also allow teachers to gain a sense of students’ knowledge in a given area. During staff meetings, the adults at Fletcher participated in activities that aligned the guiding principles of teacher language with the specific language types. Then, they applied this work to their day-to-day interactions with students. In addition to language, however, the group also discussed the importance of listening as a powerful tool in understanding students. Listening is far more than silently receiving someone’s words. It is also about searching for the speaker’s intended meaning (i.e. the child that yells, “I hate you!” may in fact mean something completely different and be reacting out of frustration.) Statements that affirm the positive behaviors of students are called reinforcing language. They support children in building on their strengths. When adults notice and name what children are doing well, the children are more likely to continue doing it. This is true of both social and academic skills. Similarly, just as reminders (like the one in my calendar to write this blog!) keep us all on track in our daily lives, reminding language offers valuable support to students as they go about their daily lives as school. At school, reminders are used to prompt students to remember a rule or answer. They are typically phrased in the form of a question (i.e. “What is the rule about how we move in the hall?”) Since children are not simply given the answer, they learn that they are expected to truly know the rule and act accordingly. Redirecting language is literally used to change a child’s direction. It is used when a child is being unsafe to self or others, when they are too emotional to remember expectations, or otherwise so far off track that they cannot regroup. They are brief, respectful statements that tell the child what they need to do (i.e. “Stop and walk.”) Any adult who spends time with children has the responsibility and opportunity to use skillful language to engage, inspire and support their social and academic learning. The adults at Fletcher will continue their refinement of teacher language in an effort to best serve students. Read more about teacher language here.
A study published in today's Astrophysical Journal by University of Texas at Austin assistant professor Steven Finkelstein and colleagues reveals that galaxies were more efficient at making stars when the universe was younger. The announcement explains the team's discovery, announced in the journal's September 1 issue, that there are a lot more bright, highly star-forming galaxies in the early universe than scientists previously thought. "This was an unexpected result," Finkelstein said. "It has implications for galaxy formation at the earliest times" in the universe. For both studies, his team used galaxy observations from Hubble Space Telescope's CANDELS survey, of which he is a team member. Hubble's largest survey to date, CANDELS stands for Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey. Today's finding stems from studies of about 8,000 CANDELS galaxies seen at times ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang (that is, between redshift four and redshift seven). As the universe is a little less than 14 billion years old, this corresponds to only the first five to 10 percent of the history of the universe. The team deduced the rate of star formation in these galaxies from the Hubble images, by noting their brightness in ultraviolet light, and then correcting this measurement depending on how much light-absorbing dust the galaxy contains. The dust estimation comes from the Hubble images, too. The redder a galaxy is, the dustier it is. Investigating the highly star-forming galaxies further, they compared the mass in stars in these galaxies to the theoretically predicted rate at which galaxies grow their mass in the early universe. They found higher masses than predicted, implying that galaxies are more efficient at turning gas into stars in the early universe than they are today. There could be a couple of different reasons why, Finkelstein said. First, as the universe has been expanding outward since the Big Bang, at earlier times everything in the universe was packed closer together, including the gas in galaxies. Dense gas is the material that makes stars, so perhaps these galaxies simply had more of it. Second: feedback. "No galaxy is 100 percent efficient at turning gas into stars," Finkelstein said, explaining that there are several mechanisms inside galaxies that can cause some of the gas to not form stars. These include things like the massive explosions called supernovae, winds from massive stars, and active supermassive black holes that can heat their surrounding gas. Altogether, these barriers to star formation collectively are called "feedback." Finkelstein said that galaxies at earlier times may experience less feedback, and so may form stars more readily. He anticipates that these bright galaxies in the early universe can be studied in greater detail with the forthcoming James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the infrared successor to Hubble, which will launch in 2018. Future studies with JWST should provide a better understanding of star formation in early galaxies. Explore further: Hubble looks in on a galactic nursery More information: * "An Increasing Stellar Baryon Fraction in Bright Galaxies at High Redshift," Steven L. Finkelstein et al., 2015 December 1, Astrophysical Journal iopscience.iop.org/article/10. … 8/0004-637X/814/2/95 , Arxiv: arxiv.org/abs/1504.00005 * "The Evolution of the Galaxy Rest-frame Ultraviolet Luminosity Function Over the First Two Billion Years," Steven L. Finkelstein et al., 2015 September 1, Astrophysical Journal iopscience.iop.org/article/10. … 8/0004-637X/810/1/71 , Arxiv: arxiv.org/abs/1410.5439
The idea that everybody’s genes are pretty much the same, a central conceit of the Human Genome Project, may need some revising. A group of researchers has accidentally discovered that our DNA contains substantial areas of repeated genes—and the location and number of these genetic echoes vary considerably from person to person. Biologist Michael Wigler of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, who led the study, started out studying genes in cancer cells but soon realized he was seeing unexpected patterns in the healthy cells he examined for reference. Although he does not know exactly what the large-scale repeats mean, he suspects that the number of genes a person is carrying may be just as important as the codes those genes contain. “More copies probably means more expression of whatever that gene is coding for,” he says. Several of the repeated regions involve genes regulating appetite and body weight; others occur in regions associated with breast cancer, leukemia, and nerve development, leading Wigler and his teammates to speculate that differences in these copied genes could help explain why some people are particularly susceptible to obesity, cancer, or neurological diseases. If the disparities are so large, why has nobody found them before? Part of the answer is simply that the most commonly used DNA probes tell whether or not a given sequence is present, not how many times it appears in an individual cell. As a result, researchers have tended to focus on point variations, such as the mutation or deletion of a single DNA letter within a gene. “People have known isolated cases where this sort of multiple copying existed,” Wigler says. “But everyone assumed that these were just anomalies, and so it wasn’t something anyone was looking for.”
Loneliness isn’t just an emotion or ever-changing mood. Loneliness is a state of mind that can cause harm both to psychological and physical health. (As we will mention later, Placetochat may be helpful for you to check out!) Previously loneliness has been associated with objective social isolation, depression, introversion, or poor social skills. However, recent studies disprove this assumption, showing that loneliness is a unique condition in which individuals perceive themselves to be socially isolated even when among other people. In the United States alone, 31% of residents are suffering from this condition, and 46% are sometimes or always feeling alone. Single-person households are expected to increase from about 2.1 million in 2011 to almost 3.4 million in 2036. According to legendary Greek philosopher Aristotle, man is by nature a social animal that cannot live alone. He must satisfy certain natural basic needs in order to survive. Psychologist Robert Weiss made a distinction between “social loneliness” – a lack of contact with others – and “emotional loneliness,” which can persist regardless of how many “connections” you have.THis is especially true if they do not provide support, affirm identity, or create feelings of belonging. The reality is that humans need meaningful, compassionate communication that gives the sense of being heard and understood. Loneliness is associated with a 26% increase in the risk of premature mortality. In developed countries, a third of people are affected by this condition now, with one person in 12 affected severely. And these proportions are increasing. Despite the threatening statistics, loneliness is often ignored and is not perceived as a massive public health problem. Health risks of loneliness Although it’s hard to measure loneliness precisely, there is strong evidence that many adults are socially isolated or lonely in ways that put their health at risk. Recent studies found that: - loneliness increases a person’s risk of premature death from all causes, a risk that may rival those of smoking, obesity, and physical inactivity. - loneliness is associated with about a 50% percent increased risk of dementia. - poor social relationships were associated with a 29% increased risk of heart disease and a 32% increased risk of stroke. - loneliness is linked to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide. - loneliness among heart failure patients was associated with a nearly 4 times increased risk of death, 68% increased risk of hospitalization, and 57% increased risk of emergency department visits. Can we satisfy the need for meaningful communication with social media? The problem is that loneliness can’t be cured with improved quality of life or any material possessions. On the contrary, feeling abandoned and left out can cause compulsive and addictive behaviors such as shopaholism, overeating, and overconsumption of alcohol or other substances. We need to understand the root cause of feeling lonely and unsatisfied with life for the condition to be cured. The world is changing, as well as the way we manage loneliness. Isolated individuals often deal with negative emotions alone, through therapy, or through connecting online with whoever may be available. Social media use is pervasive, so the least we can do is bend it in a way that facilitates our real-life need to belong. It is a tool that should work for us, not the other way around. Perhaps, once we achieve this, we can expect to live in a world that is a bit less lonely. While there is evidence of more loneliness among heavy social media users, there is also evidence suggesting social media use decreases loneliness among highly social people. How do we explain such apparent contradictions, wherein both the most and least lonely people are heavy social media users? Research reveals social media is most effective in tackling loneliness when it is used to enhance existing relationships or forge new connections. On the other hand, it is counterproductive if used as a substitute for real-life social interaction. Evidence from past literature has associated heavy social media use with increased loneliness. This may be because online spaces are often oriented to performance, status, exaggerating favourable qualities (such as by posting only “happy” content and likes), and frowning on expressions of loneliness. On the other hand, social media plays a vital role in helping us stay connected with friends over long distances, and organise catch-ups. Video conferencing can facilitate “meetings” when physically meeting is impractical. Platforms like Facebook and Instagram can be used to engage with new people who may turn into real friends later on. Similarly, sites like Meetup can help us find local groups of people whose interests and activities align with our own. Other social platforms like Placetochat can resolve both problems and give you an opportunity to make new friends online and meet in real life later. Placetochat is a safe place to establish new meaningful connections. Social media platforms are helpful for those searching to create friendships. If you are sick and tired of looking for a perfect place to connect with others, remember that connections are right in front of you.
This lesson was written for the 9th-10th grade level. However, this lesson can easily be adjusted for use in an upper-level class and corresponds to the following Common Core Standards. Student assessments and expectation may vary depending upon grade level and ability. Reading Standards for Literature Integration of Knowledge and Ideas (Grades 9-10) Standard 9: Analyze how an author draws on and transforms source material in a specific work - Students will analyze how songs and photographs, including Bruce Springsteen’s “The Rising” have drawn on primary source material in their treatment of the legacy of September 11. Text Types and Purposes (Grades 9-12) Standard 2: Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content. - Students will be compiling their own oral histories and will be using their interviewee’s stories to compose an informative text and will effectively select, organize, and analyze the content of their interview in order to present information clearly and accurately. Standard 3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. - Students will be using their interviews to conduct a narrative storytelling of the legacy of September 11th in the lives of the American people today. Production and Distribution of Writing (Grades 9-12) Standard 4: Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. - Students will work to ensure that their oral history project conforms to the teacher’s task and purpose and is appropriate for an audience of their peers. Research to Build and Present Knowledge (Grades 9-12) Standard 9: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. - Students will be using songs, photographs, as well as their own and their peers’ findings in their oral history projects to further and deepen their understanding of the legacy of September 11th. Speaking and Listening Standards Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas Standard 4: Present information, findings, and supporting evidence clearly, concisely, and logically such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audience, and task. - Students will be presenting their findings and reports on their oral history projects to the rest of the class and will do so in a way that their peers as well as any others who may be listening can clearly understand the organization and development of their ideas. Conventions of Standard English Standard 1: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking Standard 2: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. - Students will be expected to adhere to the conventions of standard English both in their writing and presentation
A prototype of a magnetite-based memristor. Photo courtesy of Maria Mikhailova What are magnetite nanoparticles and how they’re made Magnetite nanoparticles are extremely miniscule particles consisting of iron and oxygen; their properties differ from that of bigger pieces of the same material. Their nanoscale size endows them with powerful magnetic properties and shape-memory effect. There are different ways to produce such nanoparticles. The first, “top-down” method is to mill a ferriferous (iron-containing) macroobject into smaller particles. But this approach makes it difficult to control the size of the particles. The “bottom-up” method is to use magnetite crystals to grow nanoscale particles. “The novelty of our research is that we’ve learned how to use chemical methods to produce various phases of iron oxide. The conditions (temperature, time, heat-up rate) remain the same, we only change the alcohol type or water contents in order for the particles to exhibit different properties,” says Maria Mikhailova, an engineer at SCAMT. Origins of the method The scientists studied various methods of synthesis involving polyatomic alcohols. For their project, they decided to choose simpler alcohols, such as ethanol and propanol; the goal was to increase magnetite’s biocompatibility with cells of the human body and produce miniscule crystals of the material. One of the experiments resulted in the creation of nanoparticles, but for a period of time the researchers were unable to reproduce the synthesis. It was later found that the secret was in the pre-experiment treatment of lab equipment, precursors, and alcohols – including the removal of humidity, recrystallization, and the substitution of air for argon. This preprocessing affected the end result. That is when the researchers realized that minor deviations from the conditions of the initial synthesis could be used to produce various, controlled phases of the material. In other studies on this subject, researchers typically used oleic acids or ethers to stop the growth of particles at a needed stage. But this solution has a strong effect on the particles’ biocompatibility. One advantage of the new synthetic method developed by researchers from ITMO is that all of the reactions involve simple substances and result in a clean crystalline product that doesn’t require ultrasound processing. Magnetite nanoparticles are used to manufacture prototypes of memristor devices. These devices imitate synapses – the connections between neurons of the human brain. This synthetic material can transmit signals, “remember” them, and retransmit them back. “Our type of synthesis is more suitable for laboratory research, as it allows us to produce various phases of the material by simply changing the alcohol type. It would be difficult to scale it up for industrial use, as that usually involves physical methods rather than chemical ones, like in our case,” explains Maria Mikhailova. In the future, the researchers hope to be able to directly influence skin cells using memristor devices that would transmit phases of current at certain intervals – simply put, to establish a connection between an electronic device and a living organism. This technology could be used in the production of healing-accelerating bindings. In addition, memristor devices could be used in the treatment of neurocognitive diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, by restoring brain function. Reference: Mariia A. Mikhailova, Ivan Yu. Chernyshov, Georgii A. Illarionov, Denis S. Kolchanov, Oleg A. Kuchur, Alexandr V. Vinogradov, Sofia M. Morozova, Maxim I. Morozov, Revisiting syntheses of Fe3O4 nanoparticles in water and lower alcohols and their resistive switching properties (Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 2021).
Gravitational potential energy is defined as the “energy of an object due to Earth’s gravity”.OR it is the product of the object’s weight and height.It is the most common example of P.E. Its formula is: W = mgh It means the higher an object the higher will be its Gravitational P.E. Examples of gravitational potential energy in everyday life In many situations, it seems through energy has been stored in a system, to be recovered later. For example, you must do work to lift a heavy stone over your head. It seems reasonable that in hosting the stone into kinetic energy when you let the stone fall. This example points to the idea of energy associated with the position bodies in a system. This kind of energy is a measure of the potential or possibility for work to be done; when a stone is raised into the air, there is a potential for work to be done on it by the gravitational force, but only if the stone is allowed to fall to the ground. For this reason, the energy associated with the position is called potential energy. Our discussion suggests that there is potential energy associated with a body’s weight and its height above the ground. We call this gravitational potential energy. We now have two ways to describe what happens when a body falls without air resistance. One way is to say that GPE decreases and the falling body’s kinetic energy increases. The other way, which we learned, is that a falling body’s kinetic energy increases because the force of the earth’s gravity (the body’s weight) does work on the body. Later in the section, we’ll use the work-energy theorem to show that these two descriptions are equivalent. Let’s see the video to see more examples about gravitational P.E. Derivation of gravitational potential energy Let a body of mass m as shown in the figure is raised up through height h from the ground.The body will acquire potential energy equal to the work done is lifting it to height h. So potential energy P.E = (F)(h) Where the weight of the body is W= mg By putting the value of W in equation (1) we have: Related topics in our site: - Kinetic energy examples - Potential energy examples - Work energy theorem
The TestPattern applet fills its shapes with a number of colors, using the setColor() method of the Graphics object. setColor() sets the current color in the graphics context, so we set it to a different color before each drawing operation. But where do these color values come from? The java.awt.Color class handles color in Java. A Color object describes a single color. You can create an arbitrary Color by specifying the red, green, and blue values, either as integers between 0 and 255 or as floating-point values between 0.0 and 1.0. You can also use getColor() to look up a named color in the system properties table, as described in Chapter 7, Basic Utility Classes. getColor() takes a String color property name, retrieves the integer value from the Properties list, and returns the Color object that corresponds to that color. The Color class also defines a number of static final color values; these are what we used in the TestPattern example. These constants, such as Color.black and Color.red, provide a convenient set of basic colors for your drawings. The Color class I just described makes it easy to construct a particular color; however, that's not always what you want to do. Sometimes you want to match a preexisting color scheme. This is particularly important when you are designing a user interface; you might want your components to have the same colors as other components on that platform, and to change automatically if the user redefines his or her color scheme. That's what the SystemColor class is for. A system color represents the color used by the local windowing system in a certain context. The SystemColor class holds lots of pre-defined SystemColors, just like the Color Class holds some pre-defined basic colors. For example, the field activeCaption represents the color used for the background to the title of an active window; activeCaptionText represents the color used for the title itself. menu represents the background color of menu selection; menuText represents the color of a menu item's text when it is not selected; textHighlightText is the color used when the item is selected; and so on. You could use the window value to set the color of a Window to match the other Windows on the user's screen--whether or not they're generated by Java programs. myWindow.setBackground( SystemColor.window ); Because the SystemColor class is a subclass of Color, you can use it wherever you would use a Color. However, the SystemColor constants are tricky. They are constants as far as you, the programmer, are concerned; your code is not allowed to modify them. However, they can be modified at run-time by the Toolkit. If the user changes his color scheme, the system colors are automatically updated to follow suit; as a result, anything displayed with system colors will also change color the next time it is redrawn. For example, the window myWindow would automatically change its background color to the new background color. The SystemColor class has one noticeable shortcoming. You can't compare a system color to a Color directly; the Color.equals() method doesn't return reliable results. For example, if you want to find out whether the window background color is red, you can't call:
There have been tons of learning programs that were tried by us, educators, around the world, and it is not new to us to hear about and to seek the newly introduced approaches, techniques, and methods to use when it comes to facilitating learning. We all know that following just one program won’t be that helpful in the long run for the needs of our learners, and the situation we are in constant changes, and so do our techniques and styles. In 2013, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Novaliches Educational System (RCBN-ES) had implied the Dynamic Learning Program as a new teaching method in all catholic schools under it. With its implementation, challenges arose, but after years of observation and adjustment, the program has been found to be very effective, especially in instilling to the student the love for continuous learning. Dynamic Learning Program (DLP) was developed by Dr. Christopher Bernido and Dr. Ma. Victoria Carpio-Bernido, a couple who is the head of the Central Visayan Institute Foundation. Solely basing on the curriculum of the Department of Education (DepEd), they designed the DLP to improve the basic education with consideration to the multiple socioeconomic and cultural constraints. A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF DYNAMIC LEARNING PROGRAM (DLP) This program focuses on implementing activities in the classroom, which consider the multi-domain learning. According to Polintan (2013), through The Dynamic Learning Program, students can focus more on their academic studies and can engage more in Individual and Cooperative Learning. Less homework is also applied so that students can have more time for their family and to get involved in extracurricular activities. WHAT KIND OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES MUST BE GIVEN TO THE STUDENTS UNDER THE DYNAMIC LEARNING PROGRAM? - Activities that require students to develop independent learning. - Motivational activities that would help the students discover and understand the lesson on their own - Concept notes before the discussion - Comprehensive writing ( which gives more time to the students to focus allowing more time for the brain to absorb the topic) - Writing and drawing of figures (which activates both the psychomotor and visual faculties) AN INTERESTING THING ABOUT DYNAMIC LEARNING PROGRAM (DLP) Dynamic Learning Program is about developing mental work in progress. It aims to create a physiological effect (particularly to the brain) by activating the different structural parts of the brain. It is done through constant activities designed to accomplish certain learning tasks. Repeatedly accomplishing such kinds of learning tasks can compensate for the deficits or weakness of specific brain regions, which can allow parts of the brain to perform in multiple functions. Furthermore, myelination of the brain can also continue, especially for those who are in their adolescence and the teenage period. (Abegonia et al., 2017). The central idea of this program is that students learn more by doing rather than by merely listening. The students are not given an assignment for them to work at home giving them ample time to rest and to spend time with their family members, especially on the weekend. All activities are done in school, facilitated, and supervised by the teacher, making sure that all activities are done by the students themselves. Parents, on the other hand, are very much guided on every detail of the activities through the portfolios of the students. (RANCES, L. 2015) THE PEDAGOGICAL MAXIMS OF DYNAMIC LEARNING PROGRAM ACCORDING TO DR. LORNA E. RANCES, Ph.D., CESO VI - Learning by doing. For science and math, students need to think with their own minds and work with their own hands. - Sound fundamentals. Virtuoso levels are reached only by being well-grounded in the fundamentals. - Mastery, not vanity. Simple problems completely and clearly solved have greater educational value than advanced problems sloppily analyzed with forced final answers. - Adaptability. An educational program must be adaptive because no two learning situations are ever completely alike. - Honesty. Cheating is unscientific. Fraudulent data invalidate evaluation and assessment. THE CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS Introducing a new learning program also brings new challenges to the teachers. It is not that easy to jump from a certain approach to another one. Therefore, in implementing the DLP, the following expected challenges of teachers in embracing this must be given attention and solution to: - adjustment period - guidance and resources for lesson and unit planning for new teachers - ample time for teachers to gather learning resources and materials - too much workload that hinders the teacher from having time thinking of the suited learning activities for students.
A sutra (Sanskrit for “thread”) is a written work in the belief systems of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism which is understood to accurately preserve important teachings of the respective faiths and guide an adherent on the path from ignorance and entrapment in the endless cycle of rebirth and death (samsara) toward spiritual liberation. A sutra is, therefore, regarded as an integral aspect of the scripture of these respective faiths. The works are known as sutras because, like a thread (or twine or string), they bind in written form a previously oral tradition. The term was almost certainly also initially descriptive since the works were written on leaves or pressed bamboo slats which were then bound together with thread. The Hindu Vedas were preserved in oral form before being committed to writing during the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) and so were the scriptures of Jainism, known as the Agamas, whose written form dates from the 6th-3rd centuries BCE, with later sutras dating up through the 5th century CE, and those of Buddhism from the 1st century BCE - 6th century CE. Most sutras fit the above definition of authoritative representations of the original words of foundational sages, but a number are manuals on how one should conduct one's self, on political matters, or relate criticism and commentary on various other subjects. Hinduism (known by adherents as Sanatan Dharma, “Eternal Order”) maintains that it has no founder and its tenets were relayed by Brahman, creator of the universe and the Universe itself, who spoke the Vedas (knowledge) directly to humanity and its sutras, a part of the Vedas, are therefore considered wholly divine in origin. The sutras of Jainism purport to preserve the original teachings of the 24th tirthankara (“ford builder”), the sage Vardhamana (better known as Mahavira l. c. 599-527 BCE). The Jain sutras are also known as suyas and provide adherents with the essential guidelines for navigating a meaningful life toward the goal of liberation. The sutras of Buddhism (also known as suttas) follow the same paradigm in that they are understood as the authentic words of the sage Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) which were memorized by one of his closest disciples and later committed to writing to preserve his vision. The sutras of each faith have informed the belief systems from generation to generation down through the ages and are still referred to for guidance and proper understanding. Each of these belief system's sutras differ, sometimes significantly, from each other but their essential message is the same: humans are held in bondage through ignorance of the true nature of existence and, by freeing one's self from this bondage, one can attain complete spiritual liberation and break the cycle of rebirth and death. Ignorance of the true nature of life and one's self causes the soul to experience repeated incarnations in a physical body which must suffer sickness, loss, old age, and death and blinds one to transformative possibilities; the sutras serve as a kind of handbook guiding one toward recognition of a higher, and more meaningful, life. The works have been copied and preserved multiple times, in many different languages, since they were first committed to writing and still serve to guide adherents in the present day. Hinduism & the Nastika Schools As noted, Hinduism claims to have no founder as its tenets are said to have been first transmitted from the Universe directly to humanity. According to the belief system, the entity known as Brahman – creator and overseer of the universe and the Universe itself – set all things in motion and maintains them. Brahman is recognized as far too overwhelmingly majestic to be comprehended by a mortal mind, however and, remaining remote but still wishing for contact with humans, placed a divine spark of itself within each individual. This spark is known as the atman, and each person's atman links the individual to all other humans and all other living things as well as to Brahman. The purpose of life, according to Hinduism, is to be faithful to one's dharma (duty), a responsibility no one else can perform, in accordance with one's karma (right action) in order to escape from the cycle of rebirth and death and attain oneness with one's atman, which then draws one naturally back to unity with Brahman. This knowledge of the Eternal Order and the nature of life was spoken by Brahman in vibrations which were “heard” by Indian sages of the ancient past who preserved them in oral form. During the Vedic Period, these “vibrations” were committed to writing as the Vedas. At some point around 600 BCE, a general upheaval of social, political, and religious thought occurred in India which led some religious thinkers and reformers to question the basic tenets of Hinduism and its practices. The Vedas, after all, were written in Sanskrit – a language the common people could not understand – and so were interpreted for them by the Hindu clergy who lived at a level of luxury far above the common lot. Further, the Hindu priests told the people that whatever they might be suffering or think they were suffering, it was all a part of the Eternal Order and no one should complain. This perceived injustice led to a reformation movement, which resulted in a splintering of orthodox Hinduism. Many different schools were established which either agreed with the Hindu vision or dispensed with it to create their own. Those schools which recognized the divine authority of the Vedas were known as astika (“there exists”) while those which rejected orthodoxy and embraced heterodoxy were known as nastika (“there does not exist”). The three nastika schools which received the most attention and attracted the most followers were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism. Charvaka, founded c. 600 BCE by the reformer Brhaspati, completely rejected the supernatural aspects of Hinduism and claimed that direct, personal experience was the only way of establishing truth. The Charvakan school, emphasizing materialism as reality, also maintained that anything that was not able to be apprehended by the senses did not exist, that the observable elements of air, earth, fire, and water are all that do exist, that religion is an invention of the strong to control the weak, and that the pursuit of one's personal understanding of pleasure is the meaning and goal of life. Charvakan emphasis on the practical and empirical would influence the development of the scientific method in India and open possibilities for advancement in many fields which would never have been explored by the earlier orthodox theism which informed the thoughts of the people. The school's insistence on pleasure for pleasure's sake as the end goal in life, and its denial of an afterlife of rewards and punishments, failed to meet the needs of the people, however, and led to its decline. No Charvaka sutras have ever been discovered, and all that is known of the philosophy comes from later Buddhist and Jain texts which denounce it. Hindu sutras, on the other hand, are well known and have exerted a powerful influence on the lives of adherents, and world spirituality since they were first committed to writing. According to Hindu belief, that which Brahman originally spoke is known as Shruti (“what is heard”) and applies to the Vedas. Other texts, including the sutras, are known as Smritis (“what is remembered”) in that they preserve the concepts, teachings, and interpretations relating to the Vedas by earlier sages. There are a significant number of Hindu sutras and, owing to considerations of space, only a few will be discussed here. Brahma Sutras: Composed between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE, the earliest form of this text is attributed to the sage Badarayana, associated with Veda Vyasa, the traditional author of the great Indian epic Mahabharata. The Brahma Sutras discuss the fundamental nature of Brahman, provide commentary on the Upanishads, and criticize unorthodox schools of thought such as Buddhism, Jainism, Samkhya, and Yoga. It is the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, one of the six astika schools formed after c. 600 BCE, and maintains the orthodox Hindu tradition of the Vedic Period. Nyaya Sutras: Composed c. 300 BCE by the Vedic sage Gautama, this text comprises the view of another of the early astika schools, the Nyaya, whose primary focus was epistemology: how one knows what one knows. The work presents the four pramanas (ways of establishing truth/foundations of knowledge): sense perception, inference, comparison, testimony of an expert. The Nyaya school was primarily responsible for turning people away from Buddhism by debating Buddhist teachers publicly and defeating them. Yoga Sutras: Composed between c. 100 BCE - c. 500 CE and attributed to the sage Patanjali, this is the classic text on the philosophy and practice of yoga (“discipline”). There are many different kinds of yoga other than hatha yoga (which most people, especially in the West, know as “yoga”) such as jian yoga (intellectual discipline) or bhakti yoga (devotional discipline). The Yoga Sutras are the foundational text of the Yoga Darshana (philosophy of yoga) and the most popular of the Hindu sutras overall. Samkhya Sutra: The date of composition is unknown as it is attributed to the Vedic sage Kapila (dates unknown but possibly c. 620 BCE), founder of the astika school of Samkhya which emphasized rationalism and the duality of spirit and matter. Samkhya philosophy informs Yoga and so the Samkhya Sutra is often paired, with the Yoga Sutra in that the former establishes the spiritual condition and the latter addresses how one responds to it. Kapila, whose philosophy may have influenced the Buddha's later thought, introduced the concept of the three qualities of the soul to Hinduism known as the gunas (Sattva=Wisdom; Rajas=Passion; Tamas=Confusion), which became central to the belief system. Kama Sutra: Composed c. 300 BCE by the sage Vatsyayana, the Kama Sutra is another of the best-known Hindu texts in the West. Although it is often wrongly referenced as an esoteric “sex manual”, it is actually a treatise on the spiritual value of erotic love, sensory pleasure as a divine gift, and romantic attachment as a means to higher understanding and personal fulfillment. Jainism maintains an ancient and divine origin on par with Hinduism, also claiming that its basic tenets were first “heard” by sages long ago who are known as tirthankaras. A tirthankara (“ford builder”) is an enlightened soul who constructs spiritual “bridges” over the difficult aspects of existence, enabling others to cross over them and pursue the spiritual discipline which will release them from the suffering of samsara and grant liberation. The 24th tirthankara to appear from the time of the first revelation was Mahavira, and the Jain sutras contain his teachings. There are a number of Jain sutras which are regularly consulted by adherents such as the Chedasutras, Culikasutras, Malasutras, and Prakinasutras, but the foundational text is the Tattvartha Sutra (composed 2nd-5th centuries CE) which presents and expounds upon the essential vision of Mahavira including the Five Vows and the Seven Truths. Jainism redefines the Hindu concept of karma as action to mean karma as physical entrapment. The soul attracts karmic particles, becomes incarnated, believes it is the physical body it inhabits, and suffers accordingly, blindly subjecting itself to endless incarnations on the wheel of samsara. The Tattvartha Sutra presents the Seven Truths one must recognize to begin the process of awakening: - Jiva: The soul exists - Ajiva: Non-sentient matter exists - Aasrava: Karmic particles exist which are attracted to the soul - Bandha: These karmic particles adhere to the soul and cause incarnation - Samvar: The attraction of karmic particles to the soul can be stopped - Nirjara: Karmic particles can be caused to fall away from the soul - Moksha: Liberation from bondage is achieved once karmic particles are released After recognizing the Seven Truths, one commits to the Five Vows: - Ahimsa (non-violence) - Satya (speaking the truth) - Asteya (non-stealing) - Brahmacharya (chastity or faithfulness to a spouse) - Aparigraha (non-attachment) The Jain adherent then proceeds through 14 spiritual steps which lead the individual, under the guidance of the teachings of the tirthankara, to liberation. At the end of one's path, one either dies and is freed from rebirth or remains to teach others and become a "ford builder". Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, traditionally understood to have been a Hindu prince who became disillusioned with the ephemeral nature of life and renounced his position to pursue a spiritual path, leading to his enlightenment. Upon attaining awareness, he understood that people suffered (and so bound themselves to the wheel of endless suffering through samsara) because they failed to understand that the nature of life was constant change. In trying to hold on to ever-changing experiences as permanent states, one trapped one's self in a cycle of craving and fear which one could free one's self from through acknowledgement of the Four Noble Truths and the spiritual discipline of the Eightfold Path. The canonical scriptures of Buddhism, written by the Buddha's students after his death, are known as the Tripitaka (“three baskets”) because they are made up of three categories of teachings: the Vinaya, the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma which, respectively, address monastic life and conduct, the teachings of the Buddha, and commentary/analysis of those teachings. Other Buddhist sutras comment on or explain aspects of the Tripitaka or address and expand upon the core beliefs it expresses. As with the other two belief systems, there are many Buddhist sutras but the best-known is the foundational text of a collection of 38 sutras under the title Prajnaparamita – Perfection of Wisdom. These sutras were composed between c. 50 BCE - c. 600 CE and the two most famous are the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Diamond Sutra derives its name from a line of the Buddha's in which he states that the discourse should be so named because it will cut through ignorance like a diamond. The work addresses the difference between what one perceives as reality and true reality as well as how definitions of aspects of reality separate one from actual reality. Calling a piece of furniture with a flat surface and four legs a “table”, for example, prevents one from seeing the true nature of that object; one labels it a “table”, becomes comfortable with that definition, and never recognizes its true nature could be something different. In the same way, labels which are applied to anything separate one from true reality. The Diamond Sutra, like the rest of the works in Perfection of Wisdom, seeks to engage a reader fully in discarding accepted illusions and awakening to full awareness. The Heart Sutra, composed c. 660 CE, is a summary of the earlier sutras which distills their meaning to present a focused treatise on the importance of discarding illusion and recognizing truth. The Heart Sutra is the most popular and widely read Buddhist work, regularly recited, in whole or in part, by Buddhists of the Mahayana school who often memorize long passages from it. Through a series of dialogues, the work draws an audience toward the experience known as sunyata (“clear vision”), a state of mind in which one can rightly tell reality from illusion and is liberated from the ignorance which imprisons the soul and causes one to suffer. The reformist efforts of the nastika schools succeeded in establishing wholly new belief systems but Hinduism retained its hold on the religious imagination of the majority of the populace. The efforts of the Nyaya school, especially, dissuaded many from accepting Buddhist and Jain doctrines and Buddhism remained a small philosophical sect until it was embraced by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) who not only popularized the Buddha's teachings in India, but sent missionaries to spread his vision to other countries including Sri Lanka, China, Korea, and Thailand where it became far more popular than it had been (or remains even now) in its homeland. Chinese Buddhists embarked on pilgrimage to India, and some, such as the famous traveler Xuanzang (l. 602-664 CE), translated numerous Buddhist sutras into Chinese and brought them back to China. Among these was the Diamond Sutra, which was later printed from wooden blocks of text pressed to paper in 868 CE, pre-dating the Gutenberg Bible by centuries and establishing the Diamond Sutra as the first known printed book in the world. Although the sutras of Hinduism and Jainism have exerted their own significant levels of influence outside of India, Buddhist sutras are the most widely known simply because of its adoption by so many people of other nationalities. The works of all three religions complement each other, however, far more than they disagree on the essential message of ignorance as the foundation of human suffering and compassion as the first step toward a meaningful life and liberation from illusion.
People are social entities. They build complex relationships with others around them, form communities and social circles, belong to organizations. Every decision to make a connection to others is based a large variety of variables (called attributes). Every connection, in turn, affects people’s attitudes, behavior, and actions. This relationship between the structure of people’s connections to others and everything that this structure affects is called social dynamics. Social dynamics is the focus of social network analysis. In this course, we will introduce this exciting field, starting with the very basics – the definitions of network concepts. You will quickly learn that network analysis allows to answer questions and find insights not available with any other approaches. In business, where relationships are essential to efficiency and effectiveness of an organization, it is crucial that analysts know how to analyze these relationships. Therefore, we will not only show you the network concepts, but apply them immediately to real-life business datasets. The possibilities of network analysis are quite broad. In this course, we divide the complex field according to the three major theoretical concepts in social relations: social selection, social influence, and community building. Models of social influence help explain why networks can affect individual behavior. Models of social selection help us understand how people create their network. Community detection models allow us to find the communities that people build, to better understand the structure of such communities. Taken together with network statistics, these models are being demonstrated on real-life datasets collected in real companies. Learners can immediately see how much more powerful relational analysis (networks) are relative to standard statistics alone. They are designed to illustrate some of the specific state-of-the-art approaches within the broader areas. This Course is part of HSE University Master of Data and Network Analytics degree program. Learn more about admission into the program and how your Coursera work can be leveraged if accepted into the program here https://inlnk.ru/WMKM6.
Climate change is poised to make tropical ecosystems wetter — which will make them release more carbon dioxide, according to a new paper. The study focused on an analysis of ancient tropical soils from the submarine delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Throughout history, the data reveals, these soils have emitted higher levels of CO2 gas during warmer and wetter periods. The team writes that the same mechanism can amplify the effect of climate change as tropical soils today will release more CO2 into the atmosphere on top of (and due to) human emissions. A study in the May 6th issue of Nature indicates the increase in rainfall forecast by global climate models is likely to hasten the release of carbon dioxide from tropical soils, further intensifying the climate crisis by adding to human emissions of this greenhouse gas into Earth’s atmosphere. Worse with water “We found that shifts toward a warmer and wetter climate in the drainage basin of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers over the last 18,000 years enhanced rates of soil respiration and decreased stocks of soil carbon,” says Dr. Christopher Hein of William & Mary’s Virginia Institute of Marine Science, lead author of the paper. “This has direct implications for Earth’s future, as climate change is likely to increase rainfall in tropical regions, further accelerating respiration of soil carbon, and adding even more CO2 to the atmosphere than that directly added by humans.” Soil respiration represents the CO2 gas released by microbes into the atmosphere as they munch on and decompose organic material at or just below the ground surface such as leaves, roots, and dead organic matter. It’s not very different, actually, from the way humans and other animals generate CO2 from cellular processes that they then breathe out. Plant roots also contribute to soil respiration during the night when plants can’t photosynthesize, and so burn off some of the carbohydrates (sugars) they produced during the day for energy. The team analyzed three cores collected from the ocean floor at the mouth of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in Bangladesh — which form the world’s largest delta and abyssal fan with sediments eroded from the Himalayas. These cores allowed the team to track environmental changes in the region over the last 18,000 years. Their data showed that there is a strong link between soil age and runoff rates. Younger soils, which formed during wetter epochs, showed more rapid respiration rates, while older ones — which formed in cooler, drier times — showed less respiration and held higher quantities of carbon for longer periods of time. The wetter times correlate with periods of the Indian summer monsoon, the primary source of precipitation across India, the Himalayas, and south-central Asia, was stronger. The team confirmed this link by analyzing other paleoclimatic evidence in geologic formations and fossil phytoplankton. “Small changes in the amount of carbon stored in soils can play an outsized role in modulating atmospheric CO2 concentrations and, therefore, global climate, as soils are a primary global reservoir of this element,” Hein explains. The team notes that soils hold an estimated 3,500 billion tons of carbon or around four times as much as the quantity of this element in the atmosphere. The feedback process seen by the team here — where atmospheric CO2 drives global warming which increases the release of CO2 — is only one piece of a larger image. Similar findings on permafrost soils of the Arctic circle have been made in the past. There, widespread thawing is allowing for more extensive microbial activity and is responsible for an estimated 0.6 billion tons of carbon emissions to the atmosphere each year. The paper “Millennial-scale hydroclimate control of tropical soil carbon storage,” has been published in the journal Nature.
Food Poisoning by Krista Clark Foodborne illness, more commonly referred to as food poisoning, is an illness caused by eating contaminated, spoiled or toxic food. Food poisoning can affect one individual person or a group of people who all ate the same food. There are many ways to help prevent getting food poisoning. Ways to prevent food poisoning: - Wash your hands often and always before cooking or cleaning. Always wash them after touching raw meat and make sure to wash your cutting boards or surfaces that raw meat, fish or eggs has touched - Do not use or eat outdated foods or packaged foods with a broken seal - Don’t consume foods that have an unusual odor or spoiled color - Don’t drink water from streams or wells that aren’t treated. Only drink water that has been treated or chlorinated. Ways you can get food poisoning: - Eating raw or undercooked meats - Eating contaminated foods that contain infectious organisms, bacteria, parasites, or viruses - If you have a compromised immune system or are pregnant- eating foods that are raw (sprouts or eggs), unpasteurized cheeses (brie and feta), unpasteurized beverages (milk, juice, or ciders) increase the chance of food poisoning The symptoms of food poisoning include: - Abdominal pain - Watery diarrhea or constipation - Nausea and vomiting - Muscle aches - Eye swelling - Loss of appetite Food poisoning can even be fatal if left untreated. Symptoms of food poisoning can last from one to ten days. Food poisoning typically occurs when pathogens contaminate food or drinking water. These pathogens include: - Clostridium perfringens Salmonella and Norovirus are responsible for the most hospitalizations for food poisoning, but bacteria, parasites, mold, toxins, contaminants, and allergens can also cause it. Call the American Association of Poison Control Centers at 1-800-222-1222 if you experience severe symptoms. They track cases to help prevent an outbreak and can help determine if you should go to the hospital. Steps to recovery from food poisoning: - Let your stomach settle and avoid any food and drink altogether for a few hours. - If you are vomiting, try eating ice chips, popsicles, and small sips of fluids. - To avoid dehydration, you should be drinking up to 2 quarts of fluid every 2 to 4 hours. It’s better to drink small amounts of fluid often (sips every few minutes), because drinking too much fluid at once can induce vomiting. Suggested fluids include: - Sports drinks - Clear sodas - Decaf tea - Chicken or vegetable broth When you feel you might be able to hold down food, eat foods that are gentle on your stomach. Stick to bland, low-fat, low-fiber foods and avoid fatty foods to prevent upsetting it further. Recommended recovery foods: - BRAT DIET: bananas, rice, apples, toast - Egg whites - Soft fruits - Fruit juice Stomach acid expelled during vomiting can damage the enamel on your teeth. Brush your teeth after you vomit to protect your long-term oral health and to make yourself feel refreshed in the short term. Rest and relax! The information provided is for general interest only and should not be misconstrued as a diagnosis, prognosis or treatment recommendation. This information does not in any way constitute the practice of medicine, or any other health care profession. Readers are directed to consult their health care provider regarding their specific health situation. Marque Medical is not liable for any action taken by a reader based upon this information.
Q: What are throttling valves and how are they used to control flow rates? A: Throttling valves are a type of valve that can be used to start, stop and regulate the flow of fluid through a rotodynamic pump. When the flow of a pump is regulated using a throttling valve, the system curve is changed. The operating point moves to the left on the pump curve when the flow is decreased. Throttling valves are one way of controlling flow rates, by throttling flow directly or in a bypass line. Variable speed operation is an alternative method of controlling the flow of a system. With the throttling valve control method, the pump runs continuously, and a valve in the pump discharge line is opened or closed to adjust the flow to the required value. To understand how the throttling controls flow rate, see Figure 4.11. With the valve fully open, the pump operates at Flow 2. When the valve is in the partially open position, it introduces an additional friction loss in the system, resulting in a new system curve that intersects the pump curve at Flow 1, which is the new operating point. The head difference between the two curves’ operating points shown is the head (pressure) drop across the throttling valve. It is usual practice with throttling control to have the valve partially shut even at maximum system design flow to achieve controllability. Therefore, energy is wasted overcoming the resistance through the valve at all flow conditions. Radial flow (centrifugal pumps) have a reduction in pump power as flow rate is decreased, however the flow multiplied by the head drop across the valve is wasted energy that could be recovered if speed control was used as an alternative. On the other hand, using throttling control with mixed or axial flow pumps, where the pump power curve is normally increasing with deceased flow, could lead to unacceptable increases in power consumption, which results in overloading the driver in addition to wasted energy. When evaluating the life cycle cost, in addition to energy costs, maintenance cost of control valves need to be considered, particularly in oversized situations where excessive throttling is ongoing and results in cavitation across the valve. The result is that the life cycle costs of this widely used control method can be surprisingly high. For more information on controlling the flow rate in pumps, refer to the Hydraulic Institute’s Application Guideline for Variable Speed Pumping at www.pumps.org. Q: We have experienced corrosion issues with our pumps. Are there different types of corrosion I should evaluate, and how does the corrosive nature of a process fluid impact pump selection? A: Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. Chemical and electrochemical corrosion can be further divided into several subtypes of corrosion, which all pump users should be aware of in order to select proper construction materials and ensure the longevity of pump components. The following list provides general information about the different types of corrosion. - Uniform corrosion, also known as general attack corrosion. Uniform corrosion is the overall attack of a metal by a corroding liquid that results in a relatively uniform metal loss over the exposed surface. It is the most common type of corrosion, and it can be minimized with the proper selection of corrosion-resistant material. This kind of corrosion is typical of pumps handling chemicals. - Galvanic corrosion, also called dissimilar metal corrosion. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are located together in electrical contact in an electrolyte. One of the two metals becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode is the sacrificial metal and corrodes faster than it would alone, while the cathode deteriorates more slowly than it would otherwise. - Intergranular corrosion is a chemical or electrochemical attack on the grain boundaries of a metal. It is often due to impurities in the metal, which tend to be present in higher concentrations near grain boundaries. - Pitting corrosion is a localized type of attack. It is caused by a breakdown of the protective film and results in rapid pit formation at random locations on the surface. - Crevice corrosion is similar to pitting. This type of corrosion is often associated with a stagnant microenvironment, such as under gaskets or clamed surfaces. Portions of the liquid become trapped and a difference in potential is established due to the oxygen concentration difference in these cells. - Stress corrosion is a corrosion process that results from a combination of chemical, temperature and stress-related conditions. - Erosion corrosion, or flow-associated corrosion, results when the protective layer of film on a metal surface is destroyed by high-velocity fluids. This kind of corrosion can be especially harmful to pump components, as seen in Figure 6.8. For more information on how corrosion affects pumping systems, refer to Reliability of Pumping Equipment: Guidelines for Maximizing Uptime, Availability, and Reliability. To see corrosion allowances for different pump components, refer to ANSI/HI 1.3 Rotodynamic Centrifugal Pumps for Design and Application.
Bulbs, Corms & Rhizomes A bulb is a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases. The leaves often function as food storage organs during dormancy. A bulb's leaf bases generally do not support leaves, but contain food reserves to enable the plant to survive adverse conditions. The leaf bases may resemble scales, or they may overlap and surround the center of the bulb as with the onion. A modified stem forms the base of the bulb, and plant growth occurs from this basal plate. Roots emerge from the underside of the base, and new stems and leaves from the upper side. (Wikipedia) A corm (or bulbo-tuber, bulbotuber) is a short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat (estivation). A corm consists of one or more internodes with at least one growing point, with protective leaves modified into skins or tunics. The thin tunic leaves are dry papery, dead petiole sheaths, formed from the leaves produced the year before, which act as a covering that protects the corm from insects and water loss. Internally a corm is mostly made of starch-containing parenchyma cells above a circular basal node that grows roots. (Wikipedia) A rhizome (from Ancient Greek: rhízōma "mass of roots", from rhizóō "cause to strike root") is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes may also be referred to as creeping rootstalks or rootstocks. Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface, including some Iris species, and ferns, whose spreading stems are rhizomes. (Wikipedia) A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. The tops or sides of the tuber produce shoots that grow into typical stems and leaves and the under sides produce roots. They tend to form at the sides of the parent plant and are most often located near the soil surface. The below-ground stem tuber is normally a short-lived storage and regenerative organ developing from a shoot that branches off a mature plant. The offspring or new tubers, are attached to a parent tuber or form at the end of a hypogeogenous rhizome. In the fall the plant dies except for the new offspring stem tubers which have one dominant bud, which in spring regrows a new shoot producing stems and leaves, in summer the tubers decay and new tubers begin to grow. Some plants also form smaller tubers and/or tubercles which act like seeds, producing small plants that resemble (in morphology and size) seedlings. Some stem tubers are long lived such as those of tuberous begonia but many tuberous plants have tubers that survive only until the plants have fully leafed out, at which point the tuber is reduced to a shriveled up husk.
We have 10 projects in our Intro to JS: Drawing & Animation curriculum, where each project is an opportunity for students to be more creative and free-form with their newfound programming knowledge. They're also a great excuse to introduce more interactive elements to a classroom, like discussion, pair programming, joint brainstorming, etc. Many programming teachers also inject their own projects into the curriculum at opportune points, to give students even more opportunities for interaction and practice. When we discover new projects like that, we will list them here. - Higher/lower project: A short project where students play the higher/lower game, learn the concept of "binary search", and try to implement the code themselves. - Hangman project: A longer project, where students build up a game of hangman, thinking through the logic for word checking, win/lose states, and finally discuss "AI". - Craps project: A shorter project, where students must use if statements and loops to play Craps. If you want to suggest any based on what you've done in the classroom, please post a note in the discussion below or email us at compsci-feedback at khanacademy.org.
Introduction to Microbiology The person in charge (PIC) of a food establishment should have basic knowledge of microbiology and how bacteria, viruses, parasites and natural toxins play a role in foodborne illnesses. The FDA estimates that foodborne diseases cause 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and up to 5,000 deaths in the United States every year1. These preventable diseases are caused by microorganisms. A microorganism is any living thing that is too small to see without the aid of a microscope. Most are so small that they must be magnified 1,000 times before they can be seen. Some microorganisms are pathogens that can cause illness or disease others cause spoilage, which can result in objectionable textures and odors in foods. Some microorganisms are beneficial; they are used to make products like cheese, bread, pickles, yogurt, beer and wine. Bacteria are living single-celled organisms. There are two general types of bacteria, spore formers and non-spore formers. Think of spores as a plant seed that will grow when conditions are favorable. These spores are extremely resistant to heat, cold and chemical agents that would kill non-spore forming bacteria. They present a significant health hazard because they can survive pasteurization and sterilization and may reactivate after heating if the temperature of food falls below 135°F. Spore formers include Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, and Bacillus cereus. Bacteria can cause foodborne illness through infection, intoxication or toxin mediated infection. Foodborne infection occurs when a microorganism is eaten with food and then multiplies and grows in the body. Since the infection is a result of growth in the body, the time from ingestion until symptoms start to show is relatively long – usually days. Infection producing bacteria include Yersinia spp, Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7, Vibrio spp, and Listeria monocytogenes. Foodborne intoxication occurs when toxin producing bacteria grow in the food and release toxins into the food, which is consumed. It is the toxin produced by the microorganism that makes the person sick, not the microorganism. Since the illness is a result of absorption of the toxin by the intestinal tract, and not microbial growth in the host’s body, symptoms of intoxication start to show sooner than symptoms of foodborne infections – usually hours. Toxin producing bacteria include Campylobacter, Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus. Toxin-mediated infection combines features of foodborne infection and foodborne intoxication. The bacteria cause illness by producing toxins while growing in the human intestines. The time it takes for symptoms to show is generally, but not always, longer than those for intoxications, but less than those for infections. Microorganisms that are capable of causing the toxin-mediated infection include all Shigella species, Clostridium perfringens, and E. coli 0157:H7. Bacteria need six conditions to grow. These six conditions can be remembered by using the acronym, FAT TOM2. If you can remove any of these conditions, you will inhibit pathogen growth. - Food – Food, such as carbohydrates or proteins, provides the energy source the bacteria need to grow. Obviously, you can’t keep food out of a food establishment, but you can keep all areas clean and free of food debris. - Acidity – Pathogens (disease causing microorganisms) cannot grow in an acidic environment. Pathogens will not typically grow in food if the pH is below 4.6. - Temperature – Pathogens grow well at temperatures between 41°F and 135°F. This temperature range is known as the “temperature danger zone”. Keep foods below 41°F or above 135°F to inhibit pathogen growth. Check hot holding and cold holding equipment regularly to ensure it is maintaining proper temperatures. - Time – Pathogens need time to grow. Allow food to remain in the danger zone for as little time as possible. If you must hold potentially hazardous foods in the danger zone, develop a written process to use time as a control. - Oxygen – Some pathogens need oxygen to grow, some only grow in the absence of oxygen. - Moisture – Pathogens need moisture to grow. The amount of water available in a food is known as its Water Activity and is measured from 0.0 to 1.0. Water activity of 0.0 is no water, 1.0 is pure water. Pathogens generally need 0.85 water activity or higher to survive. Unlike bacteria, viruses are not alive. They cannot grow or reproduce outside a host cell. Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and have a relatively simple form. A virus enters an acceptable host cell in order to reproduce and the host cell is either harmed or killed by the invading virus. Essentially all foodborne viruses are transmitted through a fecal-oral route. That means the virus is in the feces of an infected person. The infected person gets some of the virus filled feces on his or her hands, and then touches food, which transfers the virus to the food. The food is served to another person who ingests the virus and the cycle continues. Hand washing is the most effective method for stopping the transmission of viruses in food. In addition to hand washing, bare hands should never touch ready-to-eat food. Employees who display symptoms of foodborne illness must be excluded from the facility. Viruses commonly associated with foodborne illness are Hepatitis A and Norovirus. Parasitic infections from food are much less common in the United States than bacterial or viral infections. However, because the number of parasitic infections from food is rising, they are of growing concern. The increase is due to globalization of the food supply, changes in eating habits, the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods, increased international travel, an aging population, more people with deficient immune systems, and an increasing number of immigrants from areas where parasites are common. Unlike bacteria, parasites are live multi-cellular organisms that do not multiply while in or on food. Like viruses, parasites require a specific host or chain of hosts to grow and reproduce themselves. Most parasites are transmitted from host to host. They may be transmitted from humans to humans and between animals (such as seafood) and humans. Several parasites have emerged as significant causes of foodborne and waterborne illness and can be prevented by proper cooking or freezing. Like viruses, some parasites are transmitted through a fecal-oral route. Hand washing is critical to prevent the spread of such parasites. Some common parasites are Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and Anisakis simplex. Toxins exist naturally in many plants, fungi and animals. Toxic substances may result from natural decomposition processes. Plants and animals that are normally safe can pick up natural toxins, chemicals and pollutants from their environment. Common natural toxins are Ciguatera poisoning, shellfish toxins, scromboid poisoning, and mushroom toxins. Use the following practices to prevent the spread of foodborne illness: - Get food from an approved source. - Use proper hygiene, hand washing, and gloves/utensils to avoid contamination of ready-to-eat food. - Keep cold food below 41°F to inhibit the growth of bacteria. - Keep hot food above 135°F to inhibit the growth of bacteria. - Cook food to recommended internal temperature to destroy vegetative bacteria. - Maintain a clean environment. - Cool food properly to prevent reactivation of spores. - ServSafe Coursebook Fifth Edition, Page 2-3. Phone: (702) 759-0588 Updated on: October 10, 2018

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.