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Unemployment and Inflation. Unemployment is very closely related to the business cycle. As well as experiencing fluctuations in unemployment, most countries have experienced an increase in average unemployment rates from one cycle to another. Unemployment occurs when people are actively looking for jobs but can't find one. The most common definition of unemployed people is those of working ages who are without work, but who are available for work at current wage rates. Measurement of unemployment: Unemployment is measured by the following formula: Unemployment rate = unemployed/ labor force * 100 Before applying thi… - How are automatic stabilizers used to combat inflation - How inflation and unemployement are related. - Unemployment and Inflation. E-pasta adrese, uz kuru nosūtīt darba saiti: Saite uz darbu:
U bent hier Health effects of black carbon General characteristics of black carbon Black carbon (BC), also known as soot, is an air pollutant that is emitted during combustion reactions. It consists of primary particles with a diameter between 20 and 150 nanometres (nm). BC is thus a subcategory of PM2.5 – fine particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 microns (µm). In accordance with Directive 2008/50/EC, the presence of PM2.5 particles in ambient air must now be monitored. For the next decade, the Directive lays down air quality objectives of ever-increasing rigour. These objectives relate both to concentrations of PM2.5 and exposure of the population in urban areas. BC particles are characterised by a very high capacity to absorb visible light. Pure BC particles are rarely observed in the atmosphere, because they have a tendency to clot and react with other compounds in the ambient air, such as organic carbon and sulphates. These bound forms are categorized as soot. The term ‘soot’ thus refers to a group of pollutants related to the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. The main sources of BC in the Brussels-Capital Region are transport (especially diesel engines) and heating. Soot was one of the first air polluting categories for which health effects were recognised. Its impact was evident during dramatic periods of carbon pollution such as the disastrous winter of 1952 in London, when nearly 4,000 people died in the space of five days. In 1956, the Clean Air Act was introduced, greatly reducing soot emissions in the UK. Other countries followed suit by taking similar initiatives. These efforts had a very positive impact on air quality, making research on soot less interesting. The subject was abandoned in major scientific studies and replaced by research on PM10 and PM2.5. As a result, BC has not been very well studied up to the present time. Measurement of BC concentration in the Brussels Region In the Brussels Region, the BC concentration in the ambient air has been measured using an aethalometer at the Woluwe (WOL1), Molenbeek (R001), Ixelles (R002) and Uccle (R012) measuring stations since July 2009, July 2010, June 2011 and February 2012 respectively. The results show a difference of a factor 10 between the concentrations of BC and those of PM10 particles (particles with a diameter of less than 10 µm). This finding is however not systematic: there are periods of very high concentrations of PM10 and lower concentrations of BC or vice versa, depending on the origin of the particles. The correlation factors between concentrations of BC and those of other substances are stronger when these substances also result from combustion processes (traffic and heating), e.g. NOx (> 0.9 for the daily values in 2011, which taken as a whole also gives a correlation factor of ten), and to a lesser extent CO and CO2 (~ 0.8 for the daily values in 2011). This would suggest that BC is a good tracer for the pollution emitted by the main polluting sectors in the Region, i.e. traffic and heating. Health effects of BC In general, fine particles can penetrate deep into the respiratory system. The particles with the smallest diameter can penetrate into the alveoli, causing hazardous substances to enter the bloodstream. It is assumed that there is no threshold below which exposure has no effect. While there is disagreement about the direct toxicity of black carbon, this substance acts beyond doubt as a carrier for various toxic substances, the most commonly cited being polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Cardiovascular diseases and carcinogenic effects of fine particles and/or BC Today it is still uncertain whether the health impact of exposure to BC differs qualitatively or quantitatively from the impact of fine particulate matter in general. The number of studies investigating the health effects of both BC and fine particles is still too limited. - There is no difference between the effects of black carbon and those of PM2.5 on the cardiovascular system in general, i.e. cardiac arrhythmia and heart failure, often leading to death. - In general, lung function may be reduced, especially in patients with a respiratory deficiency, such as asthma sufferers. Moreover inflammatory reactions may arise in the lungs and, by spreading, lead to degradation of the autonomous nervous system, which indirectly affects heart function. Especially in children, a high level of exposure to fine particulate matter can affect the development of the lungs. Respiratory diseases frequently occur: bronchitis, chronic cough, sinusitis and colds. - There is disagreement about the mechanisms of cancer development. Nevertheless it is clear that there is a link between exposure to fine particles and the risk of developing cancer. Among the PM2.5 particles, soot from diesel engines has the worst carcinogenic effect: it contains a high concentration of BC particles which can adsorb significant quantities of other compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. There are few studies that single out BC. Most studies only deal with PM2.5. Various links have been established between exposure to PM2.5 and lower life expectancy. For example Miller et al. (2007) found that an increase in PM2.5 of 10 µg/m³ may increase the risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in women by 76%. Groups at risk The population groups that are most affected by these health risks are: - children: as their lungs and respiratory system are still developing, exposure to fine particles can cause severe functional disorder; - older people as their cardiovascular system is especially vulnerable; - asthmatics and people who suffer from respiratory diseases.
By Erin Black Did you know that children who are helpful and share in kindergarten are more likely to graduate college and have a full-time job by the age of 25? Children who have problems resolving conflicts, sharing, cooperating and listening as kindergarteners may be less likely to finish high school and college. The American Journal of Public Health published a comprehensive study, a 20-year examination of 800 children from kindergarten through their mid-20s. The results of the study show that when young children are able to interact with their peers and control their emotions, it can have an enormous impact on how their adult lives take shape. So what does this mean? We are taught to believe that grades matter, test scores matter, and high IQ’S will get you ahead in life. While these accomplishments are something to be proud of and important, we should be focusing on much more when helping our children obtain the tools needed to carve out a successful future for themselves. According to the study, kids should be spending more time on social-emotional skills in school. These skills include behavioral characteristics, emotion regulation, attention, self-regulation, and social skills. There are physical differences in our brains that make learning easier for some people than others. And this is something we cannot control or teach. But getting along with peers, displaying positive social-emotional skills and showing empathy are all things that can be taught and demonstrated, not just in school, but at home as well. Young children learn many social behaviors by observing others, we need to do our part by setting a good example. 3 resources to help build social-emotional skills in young children We need to invest in teaching children how to relate to others and how to handle the things they’re feeling inside. Here are three resources to help build social-emotional skills in young children. - 7 guiding rules for building empathy in children. Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. Developing empathy in young children can prevent bullying behavior, build positive relationships with others, and even lead to better communities. This is a fantastic place to start. Here are 7 guiding rules for building empathy in your child. - 4 tips for teaching compassion and kindness. Broaden your definition of achievement to include kindness and compassion towards others to help prevent your child from becoming a bully. - 12 tips for teaching gratitude to children. An attitude of gratitude and the positive behaviors associated with it can build and strengthen relationships. People who practice gratitude are considered by others to be more helpful, trustworthy, and optimistic. About The InvestiGator Club®: The InvestiGator Club family of early childhood resources delivers play-based learning programs for children from birth through transitional kindergarten. Standards-based curricula are approved and adopted in states throughout the U.S., including Texas, Florida, Arkansas, Georgia, Virginia, Maryland, Louisiana, Illinois, Minnesota, South Carolina, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Delaware, and more. The delightful InvestiGator Club characters engage young children in developmentally appropriate experiences that bring joyful learning to classrooms, childcare providers, and families. For more information, email Robert-Leslie Publishing, The Early Childhood Company®, or call 773-935-8358. About the Author: Erin Black is a mom of three young children. She graduated from the University of Iowa with an English major and a Communications minor. She loves spending time with her family and is enjoying the daily discoveries, laughs, struggles and pride that come along with being a mom.
The words a, an and the are called articles. Actually they are demonstrative adjectives and are used to point out people or things. A and An are indefinite articles and The is definite article. Uses of An We use An before a countable noun in the singular number beginning with a vowel (a., e, i, o, u) sound. For example: an ant, an axe, an apple All the three nouns ant, axe, and apple are countable, they are in the singular, and they being with vowel sound. Many words begin with a silent h. So they also begin with a vowel sound and therefore take an: For example: an hour, an honest servant, an honorable man Uses of A We use A before a countable noun in the singular number beginning with a consonant sound. For example: a man, a flower, a cow All the three nouns ant, axe, and cow are countable, they are in the singular, and they being with consonant sound. Note the use of the article A with some words beginning with vowels: For example: A university, a European, a one rupee note, a one eyed man The words university and European begin with vowels – u and e both these words are pronounced with the yoo sound and, which is a consonant sound. The words one begins with the vowel – o but one is pronounced with the w sound which is also a consonant sound. Therefore we say a one rupee note or a one eyed man. Uses of The We use The 1. Before any noun when we want to particularize it: For example: We lost the ball with which we are playing (As we are not talking of any ball but the ball with which we were playing) 2. With the superlatives: For example: Mr. Gupta is the richest person in town. 3. With the words like first , last, next , only : For example: Madhu is the only daughter of her parents. 4. With the common nouns when they represent the whole class: For example: The rose is a beautiful flower. 5. With the nouns such as earth, mood, sun, sky as these are unique and cannot be duplicate: For example: The earth revolves around the sun. 6. With the names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, name of directions, holy books: For example: The Narmada falls into the Arabian Sea. The Himalayas lie in the north of India. The Ramayana was written by Valmiki. 7. With the names of trains, ships, airplanes etc. For example: We traveled by the Rajdhani Express 8. With the name of some countries: For example: The U.K. and the U.S.A. are developed countries. 9. With the names of newspapers and well known buildings: For Example: We read The Times of India and The Indian express daily. We Visited the Taj Mahal last week. 10. It is also used to show the position of any object like : For example: This tree is in the middle of the road 11. It is used to show the status of any person like : For example: She is the old woman. there are some places where we cannot use any articles this is called Omission of Articles 1. No Article is used with proper nouns: For example: Ashok was a kind ruler or New Delhi is the capital of India. 2. No Article is used wit abstract Noun: For example: Beauty pleases our eyes or Wisdom is admired everywhere 3. No article is used with such Nouns as gold, silver, water etc. which name materials: For example: Gold is an expensive metal or Children should drink milk everyday Please Note the following: 1. Whenever a noun (any kind of noun) is particularized, we have to use the definite article the: Water is essential for life (In this sentence, the water name is material. So we have not used any article with it) The water in the tank is contaminated (here, water has been particularized, so we used the with it.) When we say English, it means the English language. When we say the English, it means the English people. 1. I can't ride a horse. 2. The Sky is very clear tonight. 3. His sister is an intelligent girl. 4. What did you have for lunch? 5. Who is the best player in your cricket team? 6. Everest is the highest mountain in the world. 7. We had an interesting program last night. 8. Her mother is a doctor, her father is an engineer. 9. Leena was ill last week, so he didn't go to the School. 10. The Sun sets in the west.
Year 7 & 8 TOC Unicellular & Multicellular Identifying structures within cells and describing their function There are over 8.7 million organisms on earth! Many of them are made up of only 1 cell, these organisms are called unicellular. Unicellular organisms are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but multicellular organisms, like plants & animals, can be seen. Multicellular organisms are made up of different types of cells. Each type of cell in a multicellular organism has a specialised job. Unicellular organisms are living things that are made up of just one cell. Bacteria, protozoa and unicellular fungi are all examples of unicellular organisms. Now you might think, that since they are only one cell they’re really simple but unicellular organisms can be very complex. Since they are completely exposed to the external environment they have adaptations which help them survive. A typical bacteria cell is only a few micrometers across. While they are microscopic they play a very big part in our lives. You’ve probably heard of bacteria causing infections and disease. Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Anthrax and Cholera are all examples of diseases caused by bacteria. Different bacteria tend to affect different areas of the body. Tuberculosis, for example, affects the lungs, while Leprosy affects nerve cells. However! Bacteria aren’t all bad! We have 100s of bacteria in our gut and on our body which keep us healthy and prevents bacteria causing us infections. We also use bacteria to make cheese and yoghurt. The structure of a bacterial cell is different to animals, fungi & plant cells. They are are unicellular and lack organelles or other internal membrane-bound structures. This makes them prokaryotes. Select the information icons on the bacterial diagram below. You may have heard of the black plague or black death in history class, but did you know it was caused by a bacteria! click the button to learn more. Protozoa live in water or damp places. While these protozoa are just a single cell, they have adaptations that let them behave like an animal. They can move, engulf food and remove waist from their cell. The video below shows an Amoeba moving around a paramecium and engulfing it. From the past section you’ve probably learnt that some fungi are multicellular, while of others, like yeast, are unicellular. Yeast is common in the production of beer, wine and bread. Yeast have cell walls like plant cells but no chloroplast, this means they need to absorb sugars for their nutrition. Yeast reproduce by creating a bud. The bud grows until it is large enough to split from the parent cell as a new yeast cell. Multicellular organisms are things like humans, fish, plants etc. They are made of millions of cells! All the cells work together and perform a specific function to keep the organism alive. Learn more about multicellular cells on the next page. Something that all organisms have in common, is their need to replicate or reproduce. Unicellular organisms will reproduce by dividing them selves into 2 identical new cells. For bacteria this is called, binary fission. Multicellular organisms have cells which divide by a process called Mitosis. This process also produces 2 identical cells. At the beginning the nucleus divides into 2, then the cytoplasm and by the end we have 2 identical cells. Each time you cut yourself or damage your body, your cells will replicate to fix you. In fact, you started life off as just a single cell and now you are around 1 billion cells!
What is Pertussis (Whooping Cough)? Pertussis is a contagious respiratory disease caused by bacteria that causes violent coughing episodes. It is spread person to person through coughing and sneezing. Though babies are vaccinated, the vaccine protection wanes and teenagers and adults are susceptible to the disease at a later stage in life. Initial symptoms occur 7-10 days after exposure and are cold like. Symptoms include sneezing, fever and mild cough that progresses to a violent cough usually ending in a “whoop” and often followed by vomiting. The cough can last 1- 2 months. Fatality rate is 1%. The cough in infants less than 6 months and teenagers and adults does not usually end in a “whoop” but is persistent and lasts for many weeks or months. Is there a vaccine? The vaccine for pertussis is a combination shot. It includes tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis or tetanus, diptheria, pertussis and polio. It is called Adacel (TDP) or Adacel with polio (TDAP). The vaccine is part of normal childhood vaccines and is given at 2 months, 4 months and 6 months. It is given again at age 4-6 and in British Columbia a booster is give at age 14-16. Where is it found? Pertussis is found worldwide, even in areas where vaccination rates are high. Almost every year there are outbreaks in Canada and the USA. People are at risk if they come into contact with an infected individual. Why should you get vaccinated? Germs can be spread before the coughing spells appear. The vaccine is important for parents/grandparents who will be in contact with young infants who have yet to finish their routine vaccinations. Adults often carry the bacteria that could potentially infect young children. Possible Complications from pertussis: Pneumonia, convulsions or seizure, brain damage (1 out of 100 cases) and about 1 infant out of every 170 who gets pertussis will die. Is there a treatment once infected? Pertussis is treated with antibiotics for those greater than 1 month old.
What does it mean? Radiation Belt – Regions around planets that contain high-energy charged particles which are trapped within the planet’s magnetic field. In human speak please! Earth’s radiation belts are also known as the Van Allen Radiation Belts, after Dr. James Van Allen who discovered their existence in 1958. These regions of high-energy charged particles can wreak havoc on electronics, which is the reason why scientists avoid placing satellites in orbits inside the strongest regions of the belts. Satellites need additional shielding to help protect their electronics from the radiation. In some cases, scientists power-down their satellites when they enter strong regions of the belts. INTEGRAL is a gamma-ray satellite currently (as of 2020) in operation. Its orbit takes it outside the Earth’s radiation belts. INTEGRAL is a joint mission between the European Space Agency (ESA), the Russian Space Agency, and NASA. It was launched in 2002, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and has had great success, including the detection of black holes and other x-ray and gamma-ray emitting objects. Is that all? INTEGRAL mission – ESA’s INTEGRAL website.
The objectives of this experiment are to extract DNA from a fruit sample, learn about fingerprinting, identify foreign substances and perform blood typing to investigate a crime scene. The DNA will be extracted using the basic biochemical techniques for isolating, purifying, and digesting DNA molecules. The drug test will be completed using various testers. A blood typing kit will be used for the blood tests. Cellular Biology and Location of DNA DNA is the blueprint of life and is found in almost all living organisms. These organisms can be as simple as a single-celled bacteria or as complex as a multi-celled human: the human body contains approximately 50 trillion cells. There are two different types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. An example of prokaryotic organism is bacteria. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nuclear membrane and so do not have a distinct nucleus. Only eukaryotic cells, which make up plants and animals, will be considered in this lab. Eukaryotic cells have a distinct, membrane-bound nucleus that isolates the DNA from the rest of the cell. The structure of plant cells is different from those of animal cells in structure and cellular contents. Only plant cells will be used in this experiment. Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall. It has high mechanical strength and protects the cell. Directly beneath the cell wall lies the plasma membrane (Figure 1), which contains the cytosol. The various cell organelles, including the nucleus, are found within the cytosol. The nucleus houses the DNA in the form of chromatin. Chromatin is the active form of DNA in the cell when it is not preparing for cell division. It is comprised of DNA wrapped around protein particles called histones. DNA Extraction Technique In this experiment, a goal is to extract the DNA from a fruit sample. Some knowledge of the scientific background behind DNA extraction is needed to do this. The DNA extraction process is a fairly simple biochemical procedure that can be divided into three major steps: breaking open the cell (lysis), destroying membranes within the cell, and precipitating the DNA out of the solution. The following sections describe how each step relates to the physical and biochemical properties of DNA. Cell Lysis (Breaking Open the Cell Wall and Membranes) Plant cells have a very rigid external structure — the cell wall — which protects it. To get to the DNA, the very first step would be to break open that wall. The cell wall is the first barrier in that must be broken to extract the DNA molecule inside the cell. It is very rigid and acts as a protector and filter. It is made of cellulose, and is responsible for making wood hard and durable. To destroy the cell wall, a mechanical method is used to break apart the cellulose molecules. In this experiment, the fruit sample is mashed manually. Destroying Membranes Within the Cell The cell's plasma membrane is made of phospholipid bilayers; they are made of fat. To disrupt them, that mesh of fat molecules is broken up with soap. The structure of soap is very similar to that of fat and grease. A soap molecule has two parts: a head and a tail. The head is polar and is attracted to water while the tail is non-polar and is attracted to oil and fat. When soap molecules are in water, they group themselves into micelles — a roughly spherical structure in which all the polar heads point outwards (in contact with water) and all the non-polar tails point inwards at the center of the sphere (away from the water). They can effectively trap the fat molecule inside the micelle and dissolve the cell membranes. How does this micelle break down the phospholipid bilayer? The molecules in the phospholipid bilayer (Figure 5) also contain molecules that are made up of a hydrophobic head and a hydrophilic tail. The soap molecules orient themselves so that their head associates with the tail of the phospholipid bilayer. In this way, the soap is able to break up the bilayer molecule by molecule. Precipitating the DNA When the membrane is successfully disrupted, the DNA is released from the cells into the solution along with protein molecules and other cellular miscellanea. The DNA molecule is a double-helical polymer consisting of a sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases running perpendicular to the backbone. These bases, often represented by letters — A (adenine), G (guanine), C (cytosine), and T (thymine) — are the elementary components making up the coded genetic information (Figure 7). The base sequence acts as the instruction manual of the cell, directing it on how to make proteins and other important molecules that an organism needs to survive and function. With the cell's contents mixed into a solution, the DNA is separated from the rest; this process is called precipitation. Salt is used because it disrupts the structure of the proteins and carbohydrates found in the solution. Also, the salt provides a favorable environment to extract the DNA by contributing positively charged sodium ions that neutralize the negative charge of DNA. After the addition of salt and soap, the manner by which the DNA is being extracted out of the solution cannot be seen as it is too small to distinguish from the rest of the solution. To aid in precipitating the DNA, alcohol is added since it cannot dissolve DNA. A translucent white substance will begin to form at the top; this is DNA. Once it is thick enough, it can be spooled out. This simple procedure is a rough extraction process that needs further purification before it can be successfully run on a gel for analysis. Often times, larger fragments of DNA are cut, or restricted, to extract a particular fragment. This is made possible by the action of restriction enzymes, which are used by bacteria to cut up foreign or enemy DNA. Restriction enzymes are catalytic proteins that recognize specific palindromic DNA sequences and cut the double-stranded DNA at particular sites. The sites that the restriction enzymes recognize are called restriction sites. There are many different types of restriction enzymes. Each type recognizes a different restriction site. In this lab, Lambda DNA, which is a commercially available DNA normally found in a virus called Phage Lambda, will be restricted with the restriction enzyme BamH1. The technique of DNA electrophoresis (Figure 10), will be performed on uncut and cut Lambda DNA, a commercially available DNA on an agarose gel, to visualize the characteristic banding patterns that differentiate between different DNA fragments. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used for separating molecules based on their charge and molecular weight. The sample is loaded in a gel matrix and an electric field is applied across it. The electric field enables the DNA, which is negatively charged to migrate to the end, which is positively charged. Opposites attract and so the negatively charged DNA is attracted to the positive end of the gel. Lighter molecules will migrate to the opposite end of the gel faster than heavier molecules. The following is a gel after the samples have been run. Each column is referred to as a lane, representing one sample each. The individual bands (Figure 11) contain fragments of DNA that are identical in weight. Below is a description of the three most common fingerprint types. Spend the next 15 min researching other rarer types and see if your fingerprint type is Fingerprints are unique patterns, made by friction ridges (raised) and furrows (recessed), which appear on the pads of the fingers and thumbs. Prints from palms, toes and feet are also unique; however, these are used less often for identification, so this guide focuses on prints from the fingers and thumbs. The fingerprint pattern, such as the print left when an inked finger is pressed onto paper, is that of the friction ridges on that particular finger. Friction ridge patterns are grouped into three distinct types—loops, whorls, and arches—each with unique variations, depending on the shape and relationship of the ridges: Loops - prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape. Divided into radial loops (pointing toward the radius bone, or thumb) and ulnar loops (pointing toward the ulna bone, or pinky), loops account for approximately 60 percent of pattern types. Whorls - form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools. There are four groups of whorls: plain (concentric circles), central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl at the end), double loop (two loops that create an S-like pattern) and accidental loop (irregular shaped). Whorls make up about 35 percent of pattern types. Arches - create a wave-like pattern and include plain arches and tented arches. Tented arches rise to a sharper point than plain arches. Arches make up about five percent of all pattern types. Materials and Equipment - Fruit sample - Non-iodized table salt (NaCl) - Hand soap (clear, unscented) - 95% isopropyl alcohol (0 °C) - Distilled water - Plastic cups - Ziploc bag - Lambda DNA - Variable micropipette and tips - Microcentrifuge tube - Precast agarose gel - Electrophoresis system - Bioimaging system - DNA sample containers - Disposable pipets - Iron Magic Wand - Iron powder - Arduino software - Arduino moisture sensor - Blood typing kit - Milk, water, vinegar, dye Before you can go out into the field and investigate into your first crime, you must first go through basic training to become an official EG forensic scientist. In this time, three tests will be done to enhance your knowledge of the forensic science and how the modern forensic scientist would start an investigation. Part 1: DNA Extraction - Put a bottle of isopropyl alcohol in a freezer. We’ll come back to it later. Measure 6T (90 ml) of water into a small glass container. - Stir in a ¼-tsp salt and mix until the salt dissolves. This is the extraction mixture. - Stir in a ¼-tsp salt and mix until the salt dissolves. This is the extraction mixture. - Place one banana into a plastic zipper-lock bag. - Pour the extraction mixture into the bag with the banana. - Remove as much air from the bag as possible and seal it closed. - Use your hands and fingers to mash, smash, and moosh the strawberry inside of the bag. You don’t want any large pieces remaining. - Pour the resulting strawberry pulp and extraction mixture through a strainer and into a medium glass bowl or similar container. - Use a spoon to press the mashed bits of strawberry against the strainer forcing even more of the mixture into the container. 10. From the container it’s in now, pour the extraction mixture into a smaller glass container that holds ¼- to ½-cup (50-100 ml) of fluid. This will help to isolate the DNA on the surface of the mixture. - Add 1 tsp (5 ml) of the chilled isopropyl alcohol to the solution and hold the mixture at eye level. You’re looking for a separation of material that shows up as a white layer on top. That’s the DNA of the strawberry! - Use the tweezers to gently remove the DNA from the solution and lay it on a dish to examine. Part 2: Fingerprinting - Obtain a clean piece of Plexiglass and thoroughly clean it with a baby wipe. - Apply your thumb onto the glass, and put pressure onto the glass, while holding the glass by its edges. - Keep applying pressure for 30 seconds. - Once the time is up, hold the glass against the light to view the imprint and is it if it came out clearly. If not, clean the glass and redo the process. - Take the fingerprint powder and spread a generous amount in the region of the imprint. - Take the magic wand and slowly lift the top to extract the excess iron filament from the glass panel. - Place the excess back into the black powder container and seal the container. - Closely observe the remaining fingerprint and identify which type of fingerprint it is. Part 3: Drug Testing - MDMA (Ecstasy) - Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Congratulations, you have now completed the Forensic Academy and now are certified to fight crime in the greater EG area. Individual Lab Report Follow the lab report guidelines laid out in the page called Specifications for Writing Your Lab Reports in the Technical Communication section of this manual. The following discussion points should be addressed in the appropriate section of the lab report: - Discuss the structure of a plant cell. - Justify the use of salt, soap, and alcohol in the extraction procedure. - Explain how to reach the DNA and the barriers that were overcome to get to it. - Describe the major techniques used in this lab: DNA Restriction, Gel Electrophoresis, etc. - Important properties of DNA directly having an impact on the extraction procedure. - Clearly describe the procedural steps the way they were carried out in lab. - Describe the steps carried out with the TA. - Explain the test results for the Biuret test and Benedict's test. - Include appropriate figures to support the observations made. - Specify the location in the gel of the DNA sample that belonged to the team. - Compare the results with the control group. - How would procedure change if meat was used instead of fruit? Remember: Lab notes must be taken. Experimental details are easily forgotten unless written down. EG1004 Lab Notes Paper can be downloaded and printed from the EG1004 Website. Use the lab notes to write the Procedure section of the lab report. At the end of each lab, a TA will scan the lab notes and upload them to the Lab Documents section of the EG1004 Website. One point of extra credit is awarded if the lab notes are attached at the end of the lab report. Keeping careful notes is an essential component of all scientific practice. Team PowerPoint Presentation Follow the presentation guidelines laid out in the page called EG1003 Lab Presentation Format in the Introduction to Technical Presentations section of this manual. When preparing the presentation, consider the following points: - Rely heavily on graphics and pictures. - Make sure the Experimental Work is described simply and thoroughly. - Discuss the real-life application of DNA sequencing. - Demonstrate clear understanding of each procedural step carried out and why it worked. The Science Creative Quarterly
Posted on Mar 9, 2022 218 When we pinch it, cut it, hit it with a hammer, etc., we instinctively pull our finger to our mouth: we put it there, or at least start blowing on it. So why do we do this? To answer this simple question, science has had to go quite a long way in studying the human nervous system. Back in the 17th century, scientists speculated that there were receptors throughout the human body that signaled the brain about tissue deformation. These signals are interpreted by the brain as pain. It took a long time before neurons, the principles of the nervous system, and the transmission of nerve impulses were discovered. One of the most interesting stimuli for scientists, strongly influencing the emotional state of a person, is the sensation of pain. Therefore, it is not surprising that the methods of transmission of pain sensations have received a great deal of attention in science. In 1965, two researchers Patrick Wall and Ronald Melzack developed a theory they called the “Gate control theory of pain”. It tells us that there are several types of axons (branches of nerve cells through which impulses are transmitted), some of which open so-called “gates” through which pain signals are transmitted to nerve cells, while others close these “gates. Our pain sensations are determined by the efficiency of these neurites. The theory states that the axons blocking the influx of pain signals can be activated by a physical action: vibration of a certain frequency, massage or temperature. What do we do when, for example, we hit our knees painfully against something hard? We immediately start rubbing it instinctively: of course, this will not benefit the irritated tissue after the strike, but it activates those axons that reduce the transmission of nerve impulses that are transformed into painful sensations. The same is true of the injured finger - squeezing it with your lips or the flow of air affects the nerve endings, which reduce the pain sensation. Over tens of thousands of years of evolution, we have learned to do this instinctively, without thinking about the reasons, but it is only recently that man could understand the essence of his actions.
In this course, you’ll be introduced to sonata form; how it works, where it came from, and how sonatas are put together as multi-movement compositions. We will analyze the early history of the piano sonata and discover the important early masters of this style (Scarlatti, CPE Bach, Haydn, and Mozart). You’ll then investigate the relationship between the keyboard instruments of the time and the musical style, and be able to differentiate between Baroque, Galant, and Classical styles. ミシガン大学（University of Michigan） The mission of the University of Michigan is to serve the people of Michigan and the world through preeminence in creating, communicating, preserving and applying knowledge, art, and academic values, and in developing leaders and citizens who will challenge the present and enrich the future. Exploring Piano Literature: The Piano Sonata専門講座について In this 3-course specialization, learners will analyze important passages and components of the piano sonata repertoire, while gaining a solid knowledge of the sonata’s inner workings and a better sense of historical developments in the genre. Across the series, learners will dive into compositions by Scarlatti, CPE Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, Chopin, Liszt, Scriabin, Medtner, Rachmaninov, Prokofiev, and others.
Researchers investigate if antibodies from other viral infections help fight COVID-19 When people get vaccinated or get infected by a pathogen, their bodies fight the foreign substance by producing antibodies. They also create memory cells to remember the foreign invasion, so that future infections can be readily fought by the body by quickly producing the right antibodies. Each human being has different antibodies because an individual’s body remembers the unique vaccines and infections he or she was exposed to over the years. Through a National Science Foundation RAPID Award, researchers at FIU’s College of Engineering & Computing (CEC), College of Arts, Sciences & Education and Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine (HWCOM) are investigating whether it’s possible that antibodies people carry from other viral infections are fighting COVID-19. This research could explain why some countries, such as New Zealand, may have beaten the coronavirus and why other countries have been more impacted with cases still rising at drastic rates. Read more at FIU News.
(2000. 6. 29) [ PREAMBLE ] We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future. As the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We must join together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations. Earth, Our Home Humanity is part of a vast evolving universe. Earth, our home, is alive with a unique community of life. The forces of nature make existence a demanding and uncertain adventure, but Earth has provided the conditions essential to life’s evolution. The resilience of the community of life and the well-being of humanity depend upon preserving a healthy biosphere with all its ecological systems, a rich variety of plants and animals, fertile soils, pure waters, and clean air. The global environment with its finite resources is a common concern of all peoples. The protection of Earth’s vitality, diversity, and beauty is a sacred trust. The Global Situation The dominant patterns of production and consumption are causing environmental devastation, the depletion of resources, and a massive extinction of species. Communities are being undermined. The benefits of development are not shared equitably and the gap between rich and poor is widening. Injustice, poverty, ignorance, and violent conflict are widespread and the cause of great suffering. An unprecedented rise in human population has overburdened ecological and social systems. The foundations of global security are threatened. These trends are perilous—-but not inevitable. The Challenges Ahead The choice is ours: form a global partnership to care for Earth and one another or risk the destruction of ourselves and the diversity of life. Fundamental changes are needed in our values, institutions, and ways of living. We must realize that when basic needs have been met, human development is primarily about being more, not having more. We have the knowledge and technology to provide for all and to reduce our impacts on the environment. The emergence of a global civil society is creating new opportunities to build a democratic and humane world. Our environmental, economic, political, social, and spiritual challenges are interconnected, and together we can forge inclusive solutions. [ PRINCIPLES ] Ⅰ. Respect and care for the Community of Life - Respect Earth and life in all its diversity. a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings. b. Affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all human beings and in the intellectual, artistic, ethical, and spiritual potential of humanity. - Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion, and love. a. Accept that with the right to own, manage, and use natural resources comes the duty to prevent environmental harm and to protect the rights of people. b. Affirm that with increased freedom, knowledge, and power comes increased responsibility to promote the common good. - Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful. a. Ensure that communities at all levels guarantee human rights and fundamental freedoms and provide everyone an opportunity to realize his or her full potential. b. Promote social and economic justice, enabling all to achieve a secure and meaningful livelihood that is ecologically responsible. - Secure Earth’s bounty and beauty for present and future generations. a. Recognize that the freedom of action of each generation is qualified by the needs of future generations. b. Transmit to future generations values, traditions, and institutions that support the long-term flourishing of Earth’s human and ecological communities. In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is necessary to: Ⅱ. Ecological Integrity - Protect and restore the integrity of Earth’s ecological systems, with special concern for biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life. a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development plans and regulations that make environmental conservation and rehabilitation integral to all development initiatives. b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and biosphere reserves, including wild lands and marine areas, to protect Earth’s life support systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve our natural heritage. c. Promote the recovery of endangered species and ecosystems. d. Control and eradicate non-native or genetically modified organisms harmful to native species and the environment, and prevent introduction of such harmful organisms. e. Manage the use of renewable resources such as water, soil, forest products, and marine life in ways that do not exceed rates of regeneration and that protect the health of ecosystems. f. Manage the extraction and use of non-renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels in ways that minimize depletion and cause no serious environmental damage. - Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach. a. Take action to avoid the possibility of serious or irreversible environmental harm even when scientific knowledge is incomplete or inconclusive. b. Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed activity will not cause significant harm, and make the responsible parties liable for environmental harm. c. Ensure that decision making addresses the cumulative, long-term, indirect, long distance, and global consequences of human activities. d. Prevent pollution of any part of the environment and allow no build-up of radioactive, toxic, or other hazardous substances. e. Avoid military activities damaging to the environment. 7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and reproduction that safeguard Earth’s regenerative capacities, human rights, and community well-being. a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials used in production and consumption systems, and ensure that residual waste can be assimilated by ecological systems. b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using energy, and rely increasingly on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. c. Promote the development, adoption, and equitable transfer of environmentally sound technologies. d. Internalize the full environmental and social costs of goods and services in the selling price, and enable consumers to identify products that meet the highest social and environmental standards. e. Ensure universal access to health care that fosters reproductive health and responsible reproduction. f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of life and material sufficiency in a finite world. - Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open exchange and wide application of the knowledge acquired. a. Support international scientific and technical cooperation on sustainability, with special attention to the needs of developing nations. b. Recognize and preserve the traditional knowledge and spiritual wisdom in all cultures that contribute to environmental protection and human well-being. c. Ensure that information of vital importance to human health and environmental protection, including genetic information, remains available in the public domain. III. Social and Economic Justice - Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative. a. Guarantee the right to potable water, clean air, food security, uncontaminated soil, shelter, and safe sanitation, allocating the national and international resources required. b. Empower every human being with the education and resources to secure a sustainable livelihood, and provide social security and safety nets for those who are unable to support themselves. c. Recognize the ignored, protect the vulnerable, serve those who suffer, and enable them to develop their capacities and to pursue their aspirations. - Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner. a. Promote the equitable distribution of wealth within nations and among nations. b. Enhance the intellectual, financial, technical, and social resources of developing nations, and relieve them of onerous international debt. c. Ensure that all trade supports sustainable resource use, environmental protection, and progressive labor standards. d. Require multinational corporations and international financial organizations to act transparently in the public good, and hold them accountable for the consequences of their activities. - Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity. a. Secure the human rights of women and girls and end all violence against them. b. Promote the active participation of women in all aspects of economic, political, civil, social, and cultural life as full and equal partners, decision makers, leaders, and beneficiaries. c. Strengthen families and ensure the safety and loving nurture of all family members. - Uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities. a. Eliminate discrimination in all its forms, such as that based on race, color, sex, sexual orientation, religion, language, and national, ethnic or social origin. b. Affirm the right of indigenous peoples to their spirituality, knowledge, lands and resources and to their related practice of sustainable livelihoods. c. Honor and support the young people of our communities, enabling them to fulfill their essential role in creating sustainable societies. d. Protect and restore outstanding places of cultural and spiritual significance. Ⅳ. Democracy, Nonviolence, and Peace - Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and accountability in governance, inclusive participation in decision making, and access to justice. a. Uphold the right of everyone to receive clear and timely information on environmental matters and all development plans and activities which are likely to affect them or in which they have an interest. b. Support local, regional and global civil society, and promote the meaningful participation of all interested individuals and organizations in decision making. c. Protect the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, peaceful assembly, association, and dissent. d. Institute effective and efficient access to administrative and independent judicial procedures, including remedies and redress for environmental harm and the threat of such harm. e. Eliminate corruption in all public and private institutions. f. Strengthen local communities, enabling them to care for their environments, and assign environmental responsibilities to the levels of government where they can be carried out most effectively. - Integrate into formal education and life-long learning the knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life. a. Provide all, especially children and youth, with educational opportunities that empower them to contribute actively to sustainable development. b. Promote the contribution of the arts and humanities as well as the sciences in sustainability education. c. Enhance the role of the mass media in raising awareness of ecological and social challenges. d. Recognize the importance of moral and spiritual education for sustainable living. - Treat all living beings with respect and consideration. a. Prevent cruelty to animals kept in human societies and protect them from suffering. b. Protect wild animals from methods of hunting, trapping, and fishing that cause extreme, prolonged, or avoidable suffering. c. Avoid or eliminate to the full extent possible the taking or destruction of non-targeted species. - Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace. a. Encourage and support mutual understanding, solidarity, and cooperation among all peoples and within and among nations. b. Implement comprehensive strategies to prevent violent conflict and use collaborative problem solving to manage and resolve environmental conflicts and other disputes. c. Demilitarize national security systems to the level of a non-provocative defense posture, and convert military resources to peaceful purpose s, including ecological restoration. d. Eliminate nuclear, biological, and toxic weapons and other weapons of mass destruction. e. Ensure that the use of orbital and outer space supports environmental protection and peace. f. Recognize that peace is the wholeness created by right relationships with oneself, other persons, other cultures, other life, Earth, and the larger whole of which all are a part. [THE WAY FORWARD ] As never before in history, common destiny beckons us to seek a new beginning. Such renewal is the promise of these Earth Charter principles. To fulfill this promise, we must commit ourselves to adopt and promote the values and objectives of the Charter. This requires a change of mind and heart. It requires a new sense of global interdependence and universal responsibility. We must imaginatively develop and apply the vision of a sustainable way of life locally, nationally, regionally, and globally. Our cultural diversity is a precious heritage and different cultures will find their own distinctive ways to realize the vision. We must deepen and expand the global dialogue that generated the Earth Charter, for we have much to learn from the ongoing collaborative search for truth and wisdom. Life often involves tensions between important values. This can mean difficult choices. However, we must find ways to harmonize diversity with unity, the exercise of freedom with the common good, short-term objectives with long-term goals. Every individual, family, organization, and community has a vital role to play. The arts, sciences, religions, educational institutions, media, businesses, nongovernmental organizations, and governments are all called to offer creative leadership. The partnership of government, civil society, and business is essential for effective governance. In order to build a sustainable global community, the nations of the world must renew their commitment to the United Nations, fulfill their obligations under existing international agreements, and support the implementation of Earth Charter principles with an international legally binding instrument on environment and development. Let ours be a time remembered for the awakening of a new reverence for life, the firm resolve to achieve sustainability, the quickening of the struggle for justice and peace, and the joyful celebration of life.
An objective world has only one type of movement, that of the object, but virtual worlds always have two. In Figure 5.6, one can move the avatars to the left by moving their pixels left or by moving the forest pixels behind them right. A program can create movement by moving the object or its background as the avatars move relative to the forest. Programs can move images by bit-shifting the foreground or the background. In the first case, avatar pixels move across the screen and in the second case, the background pixels scroll behind the center-screen object’s frame of reference. Our reality also has two movement types, of light that is absolute and of matter that is relative to its frame of reference. Light and matter move differently in our reality just as in a virtual reality. Light moves like a pixel crossing a screen while matter moves like a center-screen image whose background scrolls. The standard model assumes particles move on a stationary background but relativity describes the option to bit-shift the background. In a fast car, one can imagine being still with the world scrolling by, perhaps because it is actually so.
— Parents should play an active role in ensuring that their kids develop healthy eating habits to prevent too much weight gain. Excessive weight gain is associated with health issues such as breathing problems, type 2 diabetes, joint pain, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. The U.S. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases suggests how you can help your child develop healthy eating habits for life: - Be a good role model by eating healthy foods and exercising regularly. - Teach your child about healthy portion sizes. - Limit fast food. Opt for healthy, fresh foods and drinks. - Make mealtime a family event and limit eating food in front of the TV, computer or game console. - Discuss with your child what it means to be healthy. Emphasize the importance of exercise, getting enough sleep and limited screen time. Posted: June 2018 Source: Read Full Article
What is an Element? An element is a substance which is made of the same kind of atoms. The smallest piece of an element is the single atom. The chemical elements combine together to produce new substances. Atomic Number – How elements are distinguished? Each element has its own type of unique atoms. These atoms are classified according to the number of protons present in its nucleus. For example, if an atom contains 8 protons than it will be the atom of oxygen element. The number of protons present in an atom is known as its atomic number. There are 118 discovered elements. These elements were discovered in different time periods. Some elements were known to human beings since ancient times e.g. Gold, copper, and Iron. While some are discovered recently. The elements are widely distributed in our universe. But, Hydrogen is the most abundant element found in the universe. Families of the Elements There are 118 discovered elements. It is hard to remember each element with its properties. So, atoms are grouped together according to their properties. Elements with similar properties are placed in their respective group. Here are few groups: Alkali Metals: These are the most reactive elements. They have only one electron in their outermost shell (valence shell). This group of elements includes Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium. Halogens: Halogens are deficient of one electron to complete their valence shell. When these elements react with metals, they produce different kinds of salts. This group of elements contains Fluorine, Chlorine, and Iodine. Noble Gases: These are the gases whose valence shells are complete. Noble gasses don’t react with other elements in their normal state, that’s why they are called noble gases. This group of elements contains Helium, Neon, and Argon. All the elements are listed according to their characteristics, properties, and behaviors into a table called the periodic table. The periodic table lists all the elements into the columns and rows. The columns are called groups and rows are called periods. - There are 118 discovered elements, out of which 94 are naturally occurring on the Earth. While other elements are prepared synthetically. There are 24 synthetic elements. - Hydrogen element is the most abundant element in the universe. - Our Sun is composed of 75% Hydrogen and 25% Helium. - Carbon is a unique element and an important constituent of living things. Carbon can produce 10 million different compounds by reacting with other elements.
ESA / NASA - Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) / ESA / NASA - Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) patch. March 15, 2013 Images above:The ESA and NASA Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) captured these images of the sun spitting out a coronal mass ejection (CME) on March 15, 2013, from 3:24 to 4:00 a.m. EDT. This type of image is known as a coronagraph, since a disk is placed over the sun to better see the dimmer atmosphere around it, called the corona. Credit: ESA & NASA/SOHO. On March 15, 2013, at 2:54 a.m. EDT, the sun erupted with an Earth-directed coronal mass ejection (CME), a solar phenomenon that can send billions of tons of solar particles into space and can reach Earth one to three days later and affect electronic systems in satellites and on the ground. Experimental NASA research models, based on observations from the Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) and ESA/NASA’s Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, show that the CME left the sun at speeds of around 900 miles per second, which is a fairly fast speed for CMEs. Historically, CMEs at this speed have caused mild to moderate effects at Earth. ESA / NASA - Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) spacecrafts. Credit: ESA & NASA The NASA research models also show that the CME may pass by the Spitzer and Messenger spacecraft. NASA has notified their mission operators. There is, however, only minor particle radiation associated with this event, which is what would normally concern operators of interplanetary spacecraft since the particles can trip on board computer electronics. ESA / NASA - Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft. Credit: ESA & NASA Not to be confused with a solar flare, a CME is a solar phenomenon that can send solar particles into space and reach Earth one to three days later. Earth-directed CMEs can cause a space weather phenomenon called a geomagnetic storm, which occurs when they connect with the outside of the Earth's magnetic envelope, the magnetosphere, for an extended period of time. In the past, geomagnetic storms caused by CMEs such as this one have usually been of mild to medium strength. NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center (http://swpc.noaa.gov) is the United States Government official source for space weather forecasts, alerts, watches and warnings. Updates will be provided if needed. Active Region Release Two CMEs Video above: Solar material can be seen blowing off the sun in this video captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) on the night of Feb. 5, 2013. This active region on the sun sent out two coronal mass ejections (CMEs) that night. Credit: NASA/SDO. What is a CME? For answers to this and other space weather questions, please visit the Spaceweather Frequently Asked Questions page: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/spaceweather/index.html View Past Solar Activity: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/multimedia/Solar-Events.html Images (mentioned), Video (mentioned), Text, Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / Karen C. Fox.
19 search results The American Civil Rights Movement: An Overview Given background information, students will be able to trace the historical development of the civil rights movement in the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, and describe the roles of political organizations that promoted civil rights. The Gilded Age Given background information, students will be able to identify economic, social, and political issues surrounding the Gilded Age. Students will identify significant historical figures associated with the Gilded Age. The Causes of the Great Depression The student understands the causes of the Great Depression. Political Influences of the Great Depression Given primary and secondary sources of information about selected New Deal measures (e.g., the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps or the passage of the Agricultural Adjustment Act), students will analyze how these measures affected various regions of the United States. World War II Impact on U.S. Economy and Society Given background information, students will identify the social and economic impact of World War II on the American home front, such as the Great Depression, rationing, and increased opportunity for women and minority employment. The Cold War and the American Home Front Students will identify ways in which Cold War tensions were intensified. The U.S. Role in the World (1970's into the 21st Century) Given a timeline, students will understand the political, economic, and social impact of selected U.S. political leaders on the world from the 1970s into the 21st century. America as a World Power in the Modern Era: The Carter Administration Given background information, students will describe the changing role of the United States as a world power during the Carter Administration. Conservative Resurgence of the 1980s and 1990s Given information about social issues throughout U.S. history, students will describe the causes and effects of significant societal issues. The American Identity: An Artistic Reflection Given selected examples of American art, music, and literature, students will be able to identify the era of U.S. history that is reflected in the art. The American Spirit: Defending and Building Our Nation Given background information about selected historical figures, students will be able to analyze the importance and contributions of women and people of various racial, ethnic, and religious groups to the national identity and the cultural landscape. Origins of the Progressive Era Given broad categories that describe the major goals of the progressive movement and general information about selected issues of the late 1800’s/early 1900’s, students will categorize the issues according to corresponding progressive era goals. The Problem of Child Labor in the Progressive Era After analyzing primary and secondary resources about the child labor, the students should be able to draw conclusions about the need to reform child labor practices. Upton Sinclair: A Progressive Era Muckraker Students will describe how Upton Sinclair's The Jungle reflected issues of the Progressive Era. Roosevelt’s Square Deal Given information about Roosevelt’s Square Deal, students will create cause-and-effect diagrams to explain the reasons for and impact of selected reforms sponsored by the Roosevelt administration. The Civil Rights Movement and Voting Rights Given the voting rights amendments, students will create an annotated time line that illustrates how voting rights have been extended to various groups of people throughout the history of the United States. Separate But Equal: A Study of Segregation Given Supreme Court case summaries, students will compare and contrast the impact of the Plessy v. Ferguson and Brown v. Board of Education decisions. The Progressive Era: Political Reforms Given information about political reforms of the Progressive Era, students will evaluate the impact of those reforms. The American Government: The Democratic Process Given background information, students will be able to identify and analyze various methods of expanding the right to participate in the democratic process.
Today, July 29th, marks Global Tiger Day. It is a day to celebrate this unique apex predator, but also to remember that tigers around the globe are under threat. The IUCN Red List includes several subspecies of tiger as endangered or vulnerable, and tiger numbers have declined from an estimated 100,000 in 1990 to under 4,000 today. The three primary causes of the decline in wild tiger populations are poaching, trafficking, and habitat loss. Tiger products, which are falsely considered by some to have medicinal benefits, and are also seen as a status symbol, are in high demand on the black market. This demand continues to drive poaching and trafficking. At the same time, tiger habitats are being destroyed due to forest clearing of forests and fragmentation of habitats from human development.
Plants reproduce in a number of ways. Many plants produce seeds that mature and fall to the ground, growing new plants the following spring. Others reproduce through tubers, suckers and runners. You can propagate many types of plants by taking vegetative cuttings. Also known as asexual reproduction, cuttings can produce new growth that closely resembles the original plant or tree. Knowing which section of the plant to cut, as well as the correct timing, can provide you with numerous, new plants from a single specimen. Although only a few plants propagate well from leaf cuttings, this method can quickly produce new plants from certain varieties. Take leaf cuttings from African violets, begonias, jade plants and sedum plants. Cutting these leaves from their parent plant and inserting them into a sterile, rooting medium will encourage roots to form and new plants to emerge. Simply trim off one-quarter of the leaf and dip into a rooting hormone, before placing about one-third of the leaf below the surface of your rooting medium. The most common method for propagating new houseplants, stem cuttings provide new plants from individual stems. Stem cuttings should include about 2 to 4 inches of healthy stems, each containing at least 2 or 3 leaves. Removing the lower leaves and dipping the bottom portion into a rooting hormone will encourage new roots to form on the severed bottoms of the cuttings. These cuttings require damp conditions for adequate moisture during root formation. Young, flexible branches on vines and flowering shrubs provide material for softwood cuttings. Water your shrubs the night before harvesting your softwood cuttings. These cuttings require about 2 to 10 inch segments of new growth, grown during the current year. A cut made slightly below a leaf node on a healthy branch, dipped in rooting hormone and placed about one-third its length in soil, will produce new roots. Some needled evergreen trees and shrubs, as well as some deciduous shrubs, grow from hardwood cuttings. Unlike softwood cuttings, these segments of branches come from dormant trees and contain firmer growth. These cuttings require a period of cool storage in moist sand or vermiculite before planting in the spring. Some plants grow new stems and leaves from segments of roots. The best time to take root cuttings is during the dormant period, when the roots contain plenty of stored energy. This works well for some types of perennial herbs, such as comfrey. Root segments than contain at least 2 to 3 inches of healthy growth provide adequate vegetation to form new plants in moist soil. - Propagate Calibrachoa - Root Ivy Plants - Propagate Mock Orange Shrubs - Plant Succulent Cuttings - Propagate Joe Pye Weed - Root Blueberry Plants From Cuttings - Ecological Uses of Seedless Vascular Plants - Grow a New Plant From a Leaf - Take Cuttings From Rose Bushes - Grow Roots From Plant Cuttings - Propagate Weigela - Propagate Dracaena
Indian Polity – Amendments – Article 370 Article 368 : There are three types of amendments in India: (a) Amendment by Simple Majority like creation of new States. (b) Amendment by Special Majority. The bulk of the Constitution can be amended in this way. (c) Amendment by Special Majority by Parliament and ratifications by legislature of half of the state - Seventh Amendment 1956 : Necessitated on account of reorganization of States on a linguistic basis. - Twenty first Amendment 1967 : Included Sindhi as the Fifteenth Regional language. - Forty second Amendment 1976 : Provided supremacy of Parliament and gave primacy to Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights. It also added 10 Fundamental Duties. New words – Socialist, Secular and Unity and Integrity of the Nation, were added in the preamble. - Forty fourth Amendment 1978 : The Right to Property was deleted from Part III. Article 352 was amended to provide ‘Armed Rebellion’ as one of the circumstances for declaration of emergency. - Sixty first Amendment 1989 : Reduced the voting age from 21 to 1 8 years for the LS as well as Assemblies - Seventy third Amendment 1993 : (Panchayati Raj Bill) Provided among other things Gram Sabha in Villages, constitution of panchayats at the village and other levels, direct elections to all seats in panchayats and reservation of seats for the SC and ST and fixing of tenure of 5 years for panchayats. - Seventy fourth Amendment 1993 : (Nagarpalika Bill) Provides for, among other things, constitution of three types of municipalities, reservation of seats in every municipality for the SC and ST, women and the backward classes. - Eighty sixth Amendment 2002 : Makes education a fundamental right for children in the age group of 6 – 14 years - Ninety first Amendment 2003 : Amended the Anti – Defection Law and also made a provision that the number of ministers in the Central & State Govts, cannot be more than 15% of the strength of LokSabha& respected VidhanSabha - Ninety second Amendment 2003 : Bodo, Maithili, Santhali and Dogri added into the VIII Schedule - 98th Amendment, January 2013 : To insert Article 371J in the Constitution which empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region Separate Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir: - According to this article, except for defence, foreign affairs, finance and communications, Parliament needs the state government’s concurrence for applying all other laws. - Thus the state’s residents live under a separate set of laws, including those related to citizenship, ownership of property, and fundamental rights, as compared to other Indians. As a result of this provision, Indian citizens from other states cannot purchase land or property in Jammu & Kashmir. - Under Article 370, the Centre has no power to declareFinancial emergency under Article 360 in the state. It can declare emergency in the state only in case of war or external aggression. - The Union government can therefore not declare emergency on grounds of internal disturbance or imminent danger unless it is made at the request or with the concurrence of the state government.
Learn the 11 things you must know about disease classification, causes and diagnosis of disease, fever and immunity, tissue repair, inflammation, cell changes and more. This course gives you a solid introduction to animal health with a focus on agricultural animals. Learn to examine animal health, explain various conditions and distinguish the suitable treatments and responses to a range of more common complaints or illnesses. This course is different from our other online animal health courses in that its main focus is practical skills for managing health issues in agricultural animals. This course is suitable for anyone involved in animal husbandry. However, it is not suitable for veterinary nursing. - 100 hours - Online and self-paced - 12 months to complete - Printed Notes Available - Get expert tutor support from practicing Australian Vets. - Explain common health problems affecting animals, including the circumstances under which animals contract health problems, and methods used to prevent the development of ill health. - Analyse physical indicator symptoms of ill health in animals. - Determine the taxonomic class of animal pests and diseases. - Explain the diagnostic characteristics of the main types of animal pathogenic microorganisms. - Explain the methods used in the treatment of pests and diseases in farm animals. - Explain the role of inflammation, including its symptoms and causes, in animals. - Explain the biological processes which affect and control the immune system in animals. - Explain the biological processes which affect and control tissue repair in animals. - Determine procedures for the management of wounds to animals, on a farm. - Explain the processes involved in cellular change in animals. - Diagnose simple health problems in farm animals. Detailed Course Outline This course is made up a number of lessons or units. Each having self assessment questions, set tasks (practical homework), and an assignment which you can upload online. Click below to read about each of the lessons and what you will learn. There are 10 Lessons in this course: Introduction to Animal Health - Learn to describe common diseases affecting farm animals and the circumstances under which animals contract these diseases - The healthy animal - Causes of ill health - Preventing ill health Signs & Symptoms of Diseases - The physical symptoms of diseases in farm animals - Common methods of handling animals during health assessments - Recognising ill health - Restraining a horse - Sheep handling facilities - Methods used in classifying animal diseases - Viral diseases - Bacterial diseases - Parasitic diseases - Protozoal diseases - Disease types in beef cattle - Diseases in sheep Causes and Diagnosis of Disease - The causes of disease and the relevant methods of diagnosis - Examining cattle - Examining a horse - Tick-borne diseases - Diagnosis of diseases Treatment of Disease - Methods used in the treatment of diseases in farm animals - The animal first aid kit - Tetanus antiserum - Animal nursing - Post mortem - Disease prevention in cattle - Disease prevention in sheep - Treatment of parasites in sheep - Outline the nature and causes of inflammation in farm animals - The inflammatory response - Causes of inflammation - Types of inflammation - Symptoms of inflammation - Inflammatory exudate - Treatment of inflammation Fever and Immunity - The biological mechanisms underlying fever and the immune system in farm animals - The fever mechanism - Other temperature related disorders - Effect of temperature on enzymes - The biological mechanisms underlying tissue repair in farm animals - Healing of a clean incised wound - Healing of an open wound - Common horse ailments to recognise - The biological mechanisms of wounds in farm animals and address different treatment methods for repair of common ailments - Types of wounds - First aid treatments - Bandaging horses - The causes and biological mechanisms of cell change in farm animals - Tumours and cancers - The cause of an infectious disease, death, cancers etc. When you have completed the lessons of your Certificate course, you will be given the option of taking the optional exam. It's okay if you don't want the exam, we still issue your Careerline Certificate. For Advanced Certificates however, the exam is compulsory (per module) and are included in the course fee. Dr Karen Catchpole B.VSc. (Hons) Karen brings to Careerline great experience and expertise in animal Science. Karen is a practicing veterinarian, now in her own small animal hospital, after working in varied roles over 17 years since graduation from Sydney University with first class honours. Karen continues to maintain active involvement in education in both professional development and in tutoring both vocational and university students. Karen's field of expertise is in internal animal medicine & surgery of cats & dogs. Dr. Karin Dreyer-Haasbroek B.V.S. M.Sc. (Parasitology) Karin’s love and passion for animals stem from growing up on a farm in South Africa. After gaining her Veterinary Science degree she worked in mixed general practice while completing a master’s degree in Veterinary Parasitology. Living and working in South Africa exposed Karin to a vast range of experiences in the clinical veterinary field: treating patients ranging from marmoset monkeys to lions to the everyday cat, dog or horse. Two years as a Laboratory Vet resulted in helping farmers tackling livestock health problems in a variety of farm production systems. Since her move to Western Australia with her family, Karin has been working in a small animal practice. During her 20 years as a vet, she has been involved in several research projects and the tutoring of students in various fields of animal science. She enjoys mentoring students and sharing her knowledge and she loves helping students flourish and realise their full potential. How It Works 1. Learn Online Get access to your course content anywhere, anytime and study at your own pace. 2. Get Help & Support Connect with other like-minded students and get help from the teacher whenever you have a question. 3. Receive Certificate Graduate from your course knowing that you have what it takes to reach your next step. Frequently Asked Questions Can I pay in installments? Yes! We offer great payment plans, however full payment up front is the cheapest. You can choose the best payment plan for you from the course page, or call us on 07 55368782 to talk to one of our course consultants for a custom plan. Can I study from anywhere in the world? We have many international students. Careerline's range of courses are suitable for any one, anywhere in the world. Do I get a discount if I enroll in a second course? Yes. You may claim a 5% fee discount when you enroll in a second course, and a further 10% off a three-course package. Do I have to sit an Exam? No. If you are enrolled in a Certificate course (100hrs), the exam is optional. You will be issued with a certificate which proves that you are competent in all units, if you choose not to sit the exam. Do you have set start dates? There are no set start dates, you may start at any time. Our courses are all self-paced. As our home page says, ‘Courses for Anyone, Anywhere, Anytime’. ‘Anytime’ includes the start time of your choice. However, we do encourage our students to submit assignments on a regular basis. Wherever possible, we suggest developing a study routine.
Is community important to learning? The first response is perhaps….“If my child is learning, developing skills and achieving…well yes, community is a good bonus.” But, I would like to suggest that success begins with community and that our children in fact learn better, improve skills and meet their goals because of the influence of community. Research shows that children learn better when they feel confident, have a sense of belonging and can make connections from themselves, their interests and their learning to the wider world. This helps them to build relationships and connect to others. This begins at home but then to the extended family, the school, their immediate living environment, (building, compound, street), the local community, the city and as they grow, further beyond into the global community. This connection is crucial not only for the student themselves but for also building a global awareness and involvement to support future contributions. As educators we recognize this and believe in building community, connecting with community and honouring community. This is the starting point for learning in every way as children must know how to connect, interact and interpret their environment and the people with in it physically, factually and emotionally. This needs to occur first because it effects a child’s conditions for learning as the community can effect a child’s well being physically and emotionally. At school we support children in feeling physically and emotionally safe, we support them in making connections to the environment and the people in it. We encourage children to explore and feel safe, to wonder and be risk takers, to create and be curious and to connect and be open. We achieve this by: - making links from the content of their learning to their community - making relationships with organisations and experts within the community to support student learning and build relationships for sharing skills - developing a sense of empathy and awareness in students in order to value how they can contribute - recognizing the efforts of others in improving student learning and well being - developing a sense of responsibility in students for their contributions to the community - supporting students in using important skills of communication, research, analysis and self management within this context to allow them to practice and improve these skills - supporting, communicating with and connecting to all members of the school community and local community to build and celebrate learning for all Understanding the value of these relationships and how they contribute to learning and developing skills offer important foundations to the learning environment for children. The community is an important influencing factor to learning beginning with the family community, the school community, the local community, the regional community, the national community and ultimately the global community.
Why Are Parks Important? Parks are complex elements of a city. They can serve scores of different uses, may be specialized in their function, or can simply provide visual appeal for residents. However they work, they act to define the shape and feel of a city and its neighborhoods. They also function as a conscious tool for revitalization. Parks provide intrinsic environmental, aesthetic, and recreation benefits to our cities. They are also a source of positive economic benefits. They enhance property values, increase municipal revenue, bring in homebuyers and workers, and attract retirees. CREATE SAFER NEIGHBORHOODS For those concerned that green spaces may foster crime and illegal activity, evidence now exists that the opposite may be true. When adjacent to residential areas, green spaces have been shown to create neighborhoods with fewer violent and property crimes and where neighbors tend to support and protect one another. The factors that explain these findings emphasize the importance of greenery in community and personal wellness. Community engagement is the process of working collaboratively with individuals and groups to achieve specific goals. For parks and open spaces, community engagement allows mayors and public officials to directly involve their constituencies in the ongoing design, planning and management of these resources. This process results in informed and engaged residents that feel better connected to their communities. While sometimes contentious, but more often productive and rewarding, community engagement is an essential ingredient of making successful urban open space. Just as growing communities need to upgrade and expand their built infrastructure of roads, sewers, and utilities, they also need to upgrade and expand their green infrastructure, the interconnected system of green spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions, sustains clear air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife. Green infrastructure is a community's natural life support system, the ecological framework needed for environmental and economic sustainability. HELP CHILDREN LEARN Childhood is a holistic process, different for each individual child. Many children do not learn effectively exclusively within a classroom. They need alternative, hands-on learning environments to match their varied learning styles. Parks can help. PROMOTE PUBLIC HEALTH People value the time they spend in city parks, whether walking a dog, playing basketball, or having a picnic. Along with these expected leisure amenities, parks can also provide measurable health benefits, from providing direct contact with nature and a cleaner environment, to opportunities for physical activity and social interaction. A telephone survey conducted for the American Public Health Association found that 75 percent of adults believe parks and recreation must play an important role in addressing America's obesity crisis. PROMOTE THE ARTS AND CULTURAL PROGRAMS Urban parks have always been an important setting for arts and cultural programs. During the late 19th centruy, parks commonly hosted musical events. By the beginning of the 20th century, dance, theatre, and even the new medium of film began to be represented in parks programming. Public parks are often the "engine" that drives tourism in many communities. In a simplified tourism model, visitors use some mode of transportation to leave their homes and travel to attractions, which are supported by various kinds of services, such as hotels/motels, restaurants, and retailing. The attractions and support services provide information and promote their offerings to target groups they have identified as potential visitors. Parks are commonly thought of as the venue for "fun and games," but that is only one role they play in a metropolitan environment. Urban parks, which broadly include parkland, plazas, landscaped boulevards, waterfront promenades, and public gardens, significantly define the layout, real estate value, traffic flow, public events, and the civic culture of our communities. With open spaces, our cities and neighborhoods take on structure, beauty, breathing room and value. American Planning Association Briefing Papers on City Parks Click the links below to download - How Cities Use Parks for Community Revitalization - How Cities Use Parks for Community Engagement - How Cities Use Parks for Economic Development - How Cities Use Parks to Create Safer Neighborhoods - How Cities Use Parks for Green Infrastructure - How Cities Use Parks to Help Children Learn - How Cities Use Parks to Improve Public Health - How Cities Use Parks for Arts and Cultural Programs - How Cities Use Parks to Promote Tourism - How Cities Use Parks for Smart Growth - How Cities Use Parks for Climate Change Management
Yet again Moore, Oklahoma has been hit with a monstrous tornado. In 1999 Moore suffered a EF-5 tornado, the most intense in the rating system. The 2013 storm followed essentially the same path, and is quite likely to be another record breaker in terms of intensity and damage. It’s no coincidence that the National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center is in Norman, OK as this region is known as tornado alley. The area is where collisions of cold fronts from the plains are most likely to collide with warm moist air from the Gulf, the conditions which generate storms and tornadoes. Generally the warmer and more moist the air, the stronger the tornado. So the big question is why this storm now? Is it just a random occurrence or is there a connection with global warming? There is no question that global warming is occurring and is driven by human activities such as burning fossil fuels and worldwide deforestation. 2012 was the hottest year in recorded history in the United States. Last year’s drought in the midwest was the most severe since the 1950’s. Globally, eleven of the hottest years on record since 1880 have occurred in the last twelve years. The United Nation’s weather agency has confirmed that 2012 was the 27th consecutive year that global land and ocean temperatures were above average. Last year exceeded the global average temperature of 58 degrees Fahrenheit despite the cooling influence of a La Nina weather pattern, according to the World Meteorological Organization’s annual climate report. As human activities continue to flood the atmosphere with heat trapping gases, the temperature of the atmosphere rises. A warmer atmosphere over time means climate change. Attendant with climate change are variations in weather patterns. Warmer air is wetter air. Precipitation events can become more intense, meaning flooding is more likely. Severe storms which spawn tornadoes are the result of warm moist air colliding with cooler air- the warmer and more moist the air, the more severe the storms. Paradoxically droughts in mid-continental regions are predicted due to changes in weather patterns. Examples abound. At the expense of repeating myself, no one weather event can be blamed on global warming, but the pattern of events we are seeing are consistent with what one would expect as a result of global warming and climate change. Are EF-5 tornadoes to be the new normal? Only time will tell, but if these conditions persist in future years not only will the environment be impacted but also the economy. And that is dangerous. Denial of the risk of global warming persists but is waning. Something like sixty per cent of Americans now believe global warming is happening, and is due to human activities. The denial is somewhat understandable because to accept the reality of global warming is to accept culpability. We individually and collectively don’t want to recognize that when it comes to global warming we are the major actor. Each and every one of us is to blame to some degree.
Carotenoids represent one of the most widely distributed and structurally diverse classes of natural pigments, with important functions in photosynthesis, nutrition, and protection against photooxidative damage. In the eubacterial community, yellow, orange, and red carotenoids are produced by anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria, and certain species of nonphotosynthetic bacteria. Many eukaryotes, including all algae and plants, as well as some fungi, also synthesize these pigments. In noncarotenogenic organisms, such as mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, crustaceans, and insects, dietary carotenoids and their metabolites also serve important biological roles. Within the last decade, major advances have been made in the elucidation of the molecular genetics, the biochemistry, and the regulation of eubacterial carotenoid biosynthesis. These developments have important implications for eukaryotes, and they make increasingly attractive the genetic manipulation of carotenoid content for biotechnological purposes. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Carotenoids occur primarily in photosynthetic organisms but sometimes in nonphotosynthetic bacteria and eukaryotes as well. The carotenogenic organisms that predominantly carried out anoxygenic photosynthesis were eubacteria and cyanobacteria. Red and green algae, and terrestrial plants acquired stable endosymbionts complement carotenoids to prokaryotes, other fungi, and other algae, which have a diverse spectrum of pigments. Though, carotenoids cannot be synthesized by animals, they are gaining a vital role in protecting against damage caused by singlet oxygen thereby preventing chronic human diseases. The biological roles of carotenoids in chronic diseases and the growth of aquaculture in the last decade have increased the carotenoids market demand. Carotenoids- Distribution and Application Carotenoids occur in nature showing diversity in distribution, function, and structure. Carotenoids primarily function as protectants against porphyrin-mediated photo- oxidations and as accessory pigments (light harvesting) in photosynthetic organisms. With its specific catalytic ability, carotenoids can quench singlet oxygen (O 2) that is generated from triplet-state porphyrins reaction or from metabolism. In nonphotosynthetic organisms, carotenoids sequester species with toxic oxygen from the environment or from metabolism. Just like sterols and hormones, carotenoids occurred in some organisms by necessity and in other organisms by gratuity. Initially, carotenoids were synthesized by oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes and anoxygenic phototropic bacteria. In eukaryotes, carotenoids synthesis was acquired with eukaryotic chloroplasts or by bacterial symbiosis. In green and red algae and terrestrial plants, stable symbiosis was established with prochlorophytes or cyanobacteria. Though, carotenoids cannot be synthesized by animals, carotenes can be modified in some animals by isomerization or by oxidation or by converting to retinoid and Vitamin A. occur primarily in photosynthetic organisms. Carotenoids- Biological Functions Carotenoids have many health benefits in humans. They delay or prevent certain chronic diseases including cataracts, cancer, arteriosclerosis, and other maladies. Further, carotenoids provide as good feed supplements for the poultry industry and in the aquaculture of crustaceans and fishes. Apart from providing nutrition and disease resistance, carotenoids give aesthetic value and brilliant pigmentation to animals, crustaceans, and birds. These developments have significantly contributed to the medical and industrial interests of carotenoids. Traditionally, carotenoids for food and agriculture uses were generated by extracting sources from natural plants (example, corn or marigold flowers) and by chemical synthesis. Microbial synthesis offers a substantial portion of pigments that are used in marine aquaculture and terrestrial agriculture and as potential human nutrients or 'nutraceuticals'. Carotenoids- Disease Prevention in Humans In the past 10 years, interest in carotenoids has considerably risen due to the growing evidence of health benefits to humans and also in certain areas including the poultry industry, agriculture, and aquaculture. In the area of human benefits, carotenoids propose several protective roles in certain chronic diseases. For example, carotenoids are said to play an important role in the prevention of cancer and other degenerative diseases including immune-system decline, cancer, cataracts, cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and brain dysfunction. According to research, life expectancy has a relation to oxidative damage of proteins, lipids, and DNA, where carotenoids and other antioxidants play an important role in preventing these oxidations. The basal metabolic rate also plays a vital role in prolonging human life since metabolism generates oxidative by-products that cause significant damage to cellular components. The oxidants that are primarily generated during metabolism are superoxide, lipid epoxides, hydroxyl radical, hydroperoxides, lipid alkoxyl, and singlet oxygen (O 2). Antioxidant defenses against such damaging agents include carotenoids, ascorbate, and tocopherol. Carotenoids were the first compounds to effectively quench singlet oxygen. β-carotene was proposed as an important dietary anti-carcinogen by scientists with evidence proving that β-carotene has the ability to prevent cancers caused by viruses and chemicals. Few studies also proved that α-carotene had better effects than β- carotene in preventing skin and lung carcinogenesis in mice. Recently, it was also shown that astaxanthin effectively prevented carcinogenesis of the urinary bladder. Further, carotenoids prevent oxidation of human lipoprotein (LDL). Carotenoids- Functions in Plants, Animals, and Microorganisms Carotenoid and its derivatives have several functions in eukaryote's and photosynthetic bacteria. Besides performing the roles of a photoprotectorant and light-harvesting pigments, carotenoids have additional biological functions. For example, in corn coleoptiles, the carotenoid zeaxanthin acts as a receptor for blue light-induced phototropism. Carotenoids are a rich source of hormones and stress response in many plants. In algae, carotenoids are split to retinoid that combine with opsin forming the phototaxis photoreceptor. Developments are being undertaken to ascertain specific roles of carotenoids pertaining to the medical industry. About Author / Additional Info: Trending Articles ( Receiving maximum views in the last few days )
According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, more than a billion people—roughly one in every seven people on the planet—suffered from undernourishment in 2009. Using a different methodology, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that the number of people experiencing “food insecurity” reached 833 million in 2009, and the USDA expects this issue to worsen over the next 10 years in 70 developing counties. The issue primarily affects those people living in rural areas in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, who (in the ultimate irony) rely on agriculture for their livelihood. Because of this problem, the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG) is to reduce world hunger by one half by 2015. Since the MDGs were created in 2000, the issue of “food security”—the guarantee that people worldwide have access to safe, nutritious food—has taken on greater prominence for governments, multilateral organizations, and the food industry due to the recent rise of agricultural and food prices, the growing use of agricultural crops to make fuel, and the outbreak of food-related social conflicts. Although still largely viewed as the responsibility of governments, the creation and maintenance of food security nonetheless has implications for the policies and operations of companies involved in the food, beverage, and agricultural industry. Food Security Then and Now Since the early 1970s, when the concept of food security entered the mainstream, its definition has changed substantially. Initially focused on the supply of food necessary to support growing consumption and balance short-term fluctuations in production and prices, by the mid-1980s, “food security” had evolved to account for the fact that while the planet produced enough food for all people, economic or physical limitations were causing some people to go hungry due to lack of access to food. Then, at the World Food Summit in 1996, the concept of food security was further expanded to include nutrition, safety, and cultural issues, and the definition coming out of this meeting is one of the most readily accepted today: “Food security, at the individual, household, national, regional, and global levels is achieved when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” As with the definition of food security, there has been an evolution of thought on the causes of food insecurity and the remedies most likely to produce positive results. Originally conceived as a supply problem, food insecurity is now viewed as resulting from “structural” issues such as low incomes, extreme poverty, underinvestment in agricultural infrastructure, and market imperfections, and “transitory” issues caused by events like natural disasters, wars, and severe political upheaval. Given the primary influence of governments over the factors that cause food insecurity, it is not surprising that solutions have most often been sought at the government level. But given the complex nature of the problem—which is caused by a combination of factors, not just a single event, action, or issue—efforts to bolster food security are most effective when they are multifaceted. And given that we’re unlikely to meet the first MDG without a radical change in our current approaches, this means there’s a critical opportunity for the private sector in addressing this challenge. The Role of the Private Sector From wheat farmers and grain millers to meat and dairy processors and retailers, companies all along the food and beverage value chains have opportunities to positively impact the level and nature of food security. Many other industries—including finance, infrastructure, extractives, and information and communications technology—also have an impact on food security. Although it is not (yet) a legal responsibility for companies to directly address food security, many are directly or indirectly supporting enhanced food security through efforts to increase production and improve access and nutrition. There are two primary ways companies can address food security: Invest in agriculture. Over the past 30 years, underinvestment in the agricultural sector has been the norm in the developing world and in some industrialized nations. In particular, the lack of advances in agricultural science and technology, as well as inadequate or destructive policies and institutional structures, have combined to retard the development of the industry’s “productive capacity”—including sound farming practices, appropriate physical and government infrastructures, and technological advances in areas such as seeds and irrigation. Companies have played a supporting role in reversing this trend but can do much more to: - Increase the allocation of funds to new crop varieties and sustainable production processes that minimize the environmental impacts and maximize the social benefits of agriculture. - Use financial resources and political engagement to support the creation of rural cooperatives and agricultural extension services across the developing and developed world. Some companies have provided direct support to farmers to supplement (or take the place of defunct) state programs. Nestlé, for instance, supports a large network of agronomists that work with smallholder farmers around the world. - Contribute technical and financial resources to the efforts to anticipate the impact of climate change on agricultural production and to devise solutions for those communities that will be most severely affected. Support efforts to overcome economic and distributional barriers to food security. As noted earlier, food security is not just a matter of inadequate levels of production; it is also driven by economic, political, and social issues that restrict individual or group access to food. Companies alone can’t solve these problems, but they can contribute to solutions by taking the following actions: - Support public policy frameworks that provide economic incentives for production and the resources to build the necessary rural infrastructure. - Increase access to markets and global supply chains for small- and medium-sized farmers through support for independent research and experimentation with new supply chain processes and business models. Examples of this include the efforts of Unilever to guarantee access to finance and technical assistance for thousands of small farmers of soybeans in Indonesia; the innovative program of J Sainsbury to provide access to its supply chain for small coffee producers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and the joint program of Danone and the Grameen Bank to locally produce affordable yogurt in Bangladesh. The Way Forward With food insecurity affecting up to a billion people today, it’s unlikely that those numbers will decline substantially unless all important stakeholders are engaged in solving what is a complex and multifaceted problem. The business sector has an opportunity to use its technical, operational, and financial expertise to increase the aggregate supply of food, as well as to work toward eliminating some of the economic, distributional, and structural impediments to access to food that exist in many countries. In addition to contributing to solving one of humankind’s most serious and intractable problems, business can also look forward to larger consumer markets, more sustainable supply chains, and enhanced political stability around the world.
Flying Machines Heavier than Air—The Flapping Machine—The Soaring or Gliding Machine—How Man has beaten the Birds— The Ever-increasing Uses of the Aeroplane. FROM earliest times nothing was more familiar to man than the flight of birds, and all his earlier efforts to fly were attempts to copy birds. The "ornithopter" was his first flying machine. This was made with flapping wings, and we read of men making wings and trying to use them throughout the Middle Ages. But a bird’s bones are hollow, and its weight extraordinarily small for its size, while its muscles are, comparatively speaking, enormously more powerful than those of a man, so it is not surprising that most of the earlier experimenters failed to rise from the ground, or, if they started from a height, broke themselves up. In 1809 an Englishman named Degen constructed a machine with deeply concave wings which were covered with taffeta bands arranged like the feathers of a bird’s wings. With these he is said to have risen to a height of fifty-four feet, but the fact is that his apparatus lifted only seventy out of the one hundred and sixty pounds of the weight of the operator and his machine, the other ninety pounds being balanced by a counterweight attached to a rope passing over a pulley. So what Degen’s invention really proved was man’s inability to fly by means of his own muscles. Next came an ingenious flying machine invented by a Frenchman named Trouvé. It was worked by a U-shaped Bourdon tube, the tendency of which is to flatten out when subjected to sudden internal pressure. This pressure Trouvé obtained by firing cartridges inside the tube. The machine (it was only a small model) did actually fly for a distance of nearly a hundred yards. The tube, flattening out at each explosion, worked a pair of wings which flapped like those of a bird. In the early eighties of the last century, Hargrave, an Australian, began a series of experiments with box kites, and went on to build little flying machines driven successively by clockwork, rubber bands, compressed air, and steam. In the last of these machines the wings flapped at a speed of 342 strokes to the minute, and the total weight of the whole thing, including twenty-one ounces of fuel and water, was only seven pounds. The wings were thirty-six inches long and from four to nine inches wide. The lightness of Hargrave’s power plant has never been surpassed except by the latest gasoline engines, and his model flew for a distance of several hundred feet. A number of experiments were also made during the nineteenth century with what are called "helicopters"— that is, machines made to rise straight into the air by the drive of a wide-winged propeller. It is interesting to note that the wonderful Italian artist and inventor, Leonardo da Vinci, who was born in 1452, made a plan for a helicopter to be built of iron and bamboo framing, but dropped the idea because he had no power suitable for driving the screw. Several of the model helicopters made during the nineteenth century were capable of flight. In 1870 Penaud invented one driven by a rubber band, which had quite a run as a popular toy, for it would rise to the ceiling of a lofty room with the greatest ease. Edison, Renard, and Maxim have all done much work on helicopters; and Mr. Louis Brennan, inventor of the Brennan torpedo, is busy on similar researches, and at the time of writing has, I understand, constructed a helicopter which will lift a considerable weight. But the helicopter, to be useful, must not only be able to rise; it must also fly like an aeroplane. This will probably be achieved in the near future. The aeroplane was the first successful type of flying machine. As the ornithopter was modeled after the flapping flight of birds, so the aeroplane has been designed to imitate their soaring flight. As we all know, birds that soar, such as the hawks, eagles, and vultures, are much the strongest fliers, and habitually fly at a height greater than that attained by the birds that merely flap their wings. Asked who invented the modern aeroplane, your answer would, no doubt, be the two brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright; but without in the least detracting from the wonderful work done by these two brilliant Americans, the fact is that the real pioneer of aeroplane flight was Clement Ader. So long ago as 1872 this inventor was busy with flapping machines, but, finding them useless, in 1890 he built a real aeroplane with funds furnished by the French Government. Its wings had a fifty-four-foot span, and the machine was drawn through the air by two four-bladed screws driven by a steam engine of about thirty horsepower. Ader’s experiments cost more than twenty thousand pounds, and the result was that when first tried in October, 1891, the machine rose and flew for a distance of 164 feet. Seven years later, at Satory in France, Ader’s machine made a semicurcular flight of nearly a thousand feet. But Ader had not succeeded in getting a proper balance, and both his machines were wrecked for this reason. At the same time Professor S. P. Langley was making his interesting experiments in America, and was working on the lines along which more recent inventors have reached success. Langley built several flying machines, beautiful little models which he endeavored to launch from the top of a house boat anchored in the Potomac River. His engines, driven by steam, were triumphs of strength and lightness. After many failures, on May 6, 1896, one of these models did fly for more than a quarter of a mile. This, mind you, was a very wonderful feat, for the machine was of considerable size, yet did not run along the ground, but had to take off instantly from a height of a few feet above the water. Its pace was nearly twenty-five miles an hour, and when steam gave out it settled quite quietly on the water. Langley was on the right track, but the trouble was that people at large would not take him seriously. Even thirty years ago anyone who experimented with flying machines was looked upon as a lunatic. Langley, however, who was President of the Smithsonian Institution, did eventually obtain a grant from the United States Government, and built a man-carrying machine weighing 830 pounds and provided with a gasoline engine of fifty-two horsepower. If only Langley had realized that such a machine required a run to launch it, I verily believe that he, and not the Wrights, would have been recognized as the pioneer of flying. But on each occasion that he tried it, the attempt was made to launch it from the top of a house boat, and on each occasion it failed to get up the necessary speed and so plunged into the river. Ridicule was heaped upon Langley, and he died, some say, of a broken heart. Fifteen years after this unsuccessful experiment, that is, in May, 1914, Mr. Glenn Curtiss, the well-known American aviator, got Langley’s machine out of the museum where it was kept, fitted it with wheels, and made a successful flight with it at Bath in New York State. In the nineties a number of experimenters were at work upon gliders. First, Octave Chanute, then the two Lilienthals, and also Percy Pilcher. Gustav Lilienthal and Pilcher were both killed in the course of their experiments, but the work they did proved of immense value to those who came after them. In the Scientific American for May 20, 1905, it is stated: "An aeroplane has been constructed that in all circumstances will retain its equilibrium, and is subject in its gliding flight to the control and guidance of an operator." This machine, constructed by Professor John J. Montgomery, was, however, not an aeroplane but a glider, and it was given its first public trial at Santa Clara, in California, on April 29, 1905. It was sent up in an ordinary hot-air balloon, and at the height of about four thousand feet it was cut loose. Its pilot was Daniel Moloney, a well-known parachute jumper. The thousands who watched from the ground saw Moloney glide downward, making the most extraordinary and complex evolutions. He circled, did figure-of-eight turns and the most hairraising dives. At times his speed was estimated at nearly seventy miles an hour, yet after a flight of about eight miles he brought the machine to rest upon a spot previously marked out, and so lightly that, although compelled to land upon his feet, he was not even jarred. Octave Chanute saw the flight and so did Alexander Graham Bell, and the latter said positively that all subsequent attempts in aviation must begin with the Montgomery machine. So great was the stability of Montgomery’s glider that, on one occasion, Moloney, when in the air, made a side-somersault. Yet the machine righted itself and continued on its regular course. We come now to the Wright brothers. The Wrights began by reading everything they could find on the work of previous experimenters, and their first glider was a modification of Chanute’s biplane glider. They both, however, believed more in practice than in theory, and, choosing a lonely place among the sandhills of the coast of North Carolina, set to work to make experiments in gliding. For many months they were out on every possible day, making hundreds and hundreds of gliding flights from the summits of the taller dunes. They began work in 1896, but it was not until 1903 that they first fitted a motor into one of their machines. On a dull winter morning, December 17, 1903, they launched their motor-driven glider, and with it made four flights, the longest being 852 feet. This distance was not so great as the flight of Langley’s model in 1896, nor as that covered by Ader in 1897. But it was the first time that a power-driven machine had carried a man into the air and had landed safely without accident of any sort. All through 1904 the Wrights continued their experiments and increased the length of their flights to 1377 feet. It was in 1905 that real success crowned their efforts, for in September of that year they flew a distance of twelve miles in eighteen minutes at Dayton, Ohio, and before the end of the year had increased this to no less than twenty-four miles. Meantime, others were at work in France, among them Gabriel Voisin, who designed the box-kite type of machine on which Farman and Delagrange made their first flights. But it must not be forgotten that it was Santos-Dumont who made the first European flight in a heavier-than-air machine. That was on August 22, 1906. True, it was only 220 yards, but the machine ran on wheels, rose like a modern ‘plane, and came down safely, and this constituted a record. Farman’s first flights, made in 1907, were very short, but in October of that year he covered 440 yards in one flight at a speed of 33.7 miles an hour. A prize of £2000 was then offered for a circular flight of one kilometre, and on the following January 13 this was won by Farman. Farman’s machine was a biplane. The next great success was won by M. Blériot on a monoplane. He crashed again and again, but always escaped serious injury. You must remember that these early flights were, as a rule, made at a height of only a very few feet from the ground. By 1908 distances of ten and twelve miles had been covered, and in 1909 the Wrights opened their first flying school. In the early summer of 1909 Blériot flew from Etampes to Orleans, a distance of twenty-five miles, skimming low over houses and trees and keeping pace for a time with the Paris-Orleans express, the windows of which were crowded with amazed faces. Then, on July 25, Blériot, rising in a slight mist from the French side of the Channel, flew to England, and so achieved the most memorable feat in all the story of aviation up to that time. The distance he covered was twenty-seven miles and the time taken forty-three minutes. He attained a height above the sea of three hundred feet, and, although he landed with rather a bad bump, breaking his propeller, yet he himself escaped injury. Since that date the progress of the aeroplane has been steady and swift, so that in 1924 Farman’s speed of forty miles an hour has been increased to 240 miles, or four miles a minute. This feat was achieved by Adjutant Bonnet at Istres in France on November 7, 1924. The largest aeroplanes are enormous in size. The Barling bomber weighs nearly twenty tons as against the 750 pounds of the Wrights’ first machine, and has engines of nearly three thousand horsepower. It carries pilot, observer, two or three mechanics, two thousand gallons of fuel, and five thousand pounds’ weight of bombs. The wings of a giant monoplane used for carrying passengers in Germany are so long that sixty men can stand upon them at one time. The modern aeroplane flies at an average height of about a mile, but ‘planes have climbed to nearly seven miles above the earth, where a temperature of sixty-nine degrees below zero was experienced. As for distance records, the Atlantic has been flown; but since that date an airman has flown right across the American continent from Jacksonville, Florida, to San Diego, California, a distance of 2775 miles, with only one stop. In July, 1924, an aeroplane remained in the air for no less than thirty-eight hours. The heroes of this exploit were two French pilots, Coupet and Drouhin. In 1925 the first "around-the-world" flight was made by six American aviators in three specially built American planes. A fourth plane started but met with an accident and was unable to complete the trip, which started and ended at Seattle. The distance covered was 26,345 miles at an average rate of seventy-two and one half miles an hour, while the flying time was fifteen days, three hours and seven minutes. The early machines were flimsy things of wood and canvas, but to-day metal is being more and more used. Professor Hugo Junkers, the German designer, has plans for a huge all-metal seaplane, with a hull one hundred feet long and four engines, each of a thousand horsepower. The single all-metal wing is 260 feet from tip to tip, and the machine will run not on expensive gasoline but upon crude oil. The total weight of this giant seaplane is nearly fifty tons. The aeroplane is now rivaling the motor car and train for the conveyance of passengers and mails. So long ago as 1920, nearly five thousand passengers were carried between England and the Continent in a twelvemonth, and the number is increasing year by year. New aerodromes are being constructed everywhere, also aerial lighthouses, and all the big passenger machines are fitted with wireless, by means of which the pilot can be kept informed as to sudden changes in weather. Quite apart from its use as a carrying machine in peace or in war, every year finds new uses for the aeroplane. For instance, ‘planes are used in "spotting" for fishing fleets. Shoals of herring, mackerel, and pilchards can be easily seen from the air when quite invisible from the shore or boats. In similar fashion, aeroplanes spot the seal herds on the ice off Newfoundland, thus enabling the fleet to sail at once for the scene of action, instead of wasting time searching for the animals. There are swampy districts in Alsace and Lorraine, where the anopheles mosquito spreads malaria. The French sanitary authorities have used aeroplanes to spray oil on the marshes, and so destroy these deadly insects. In the spring of 1920, when the town of Port Deposit in Maryland was threatened with destruction from flood water piling up behind ice barriers on the Susquehanna River, army airmen dropped large charges of explosive upon the ice barriers, smashed them to atoms, and released the pent-up stream. But what is, perhaps, the strangest use to which the flying machine has yet been put is to combat the plant disease known as blackstem rust, which every year destroys two hundred million bushels of North American wheat. The rust spores are so small that they are invisible to the naked eye, and it is therefore most difficult to trace the path they travel as they are blown on the winds. Observers employed by the United States Department of Agriculture have overcome this difficulty by using aeroplanes. Small oil-smeared glass plates are exposed as the ‘plane flies across country, and microscopic examination at the end of the journey reveals to the experts the direction of the dreaded enemy’s advance. The aeroplane was made possible by the invention of an engine of enormous power which at the same time was light and compact. The improvement of these essential features has been the constant aim of all inventors during recent years, and it is difficult to imagine anything more simple than the ten-cylinder engine shown in the accompanying illustration. It was exhibited in Paris on the eve of the War, and was capable of developing one hundred horsepower.
Kephale (Byzantine Empire) It entered use in the second half of the 13th century, and was derived from the colloquial language. Consequently, it never became an established title or rank of the Byzantine imperial hierarchy, but remained a descriptive term. In essence, the kephalē replaced the Komnenian-era doux as the civil and military governor of a territorial administrative unit, known as a katepanikion (κατεπανίκιον, katepaníkion), but also termed a kephalatikion (κεφαλατίκιον, kephalatíkion). In size, these provinces were small compared to the earlier themata, and could range from a few villages surrounding the kephale's seat (a kastron, "fortress"), to an entire island. This arrangement was also adopted by the Second Bulgarian Empire (as Bulgarian: кефалия, kefaliya) and Serbian Empire (as Serbian: кефалиja, kefalija). In the 14th century, superior kephalai were appointed (katholikai kephalai, "universal heads") overseeing a group of provinces under their respective [merikai] kephalai ("[partial] heads"). The former were usually kin of the emperor or members of the senior aristocratic clans. By the late 14th century, with the increasing decentralization of the Empire and the creation of appanages in the form of semi-independent despotates, these senior posts vanished.
The arrays of fine adhesive hairs or 'setae' on the foot pads of many insects, lizards and spiders give them the ability to climb almost any natural surface. Research by James Bullock and Walter Federle from the University of Cambridge in England found that the different forces required to peel away these adhesive hairs from surfaces are what allows beetles to adhere to diverse surfaces, thereby reducing the risk of detachment. Their study, published online in the Springer journal Naturwissenschaften -- The Nature of Science, reports the first adhesive force measurements from single microscopic setae in a live animal. The adhesive hairs on the feet of leaf beetles are known to take three distinct shapes; pointed, flat (spatula-tipped) and disk-like. They are arranged in specific patterns across the beetle's feet, indicating different biological functions for each hair type. Given their small size (only 1/200th of a millimeter across), there existed no way to determine their individual properties. Bullock and Federle therefore devised a method for measuring the in vivo stickiness of each hair using a fine glass cantilever. By observing the deflection of the cantilever through a microscope, the force needed to detach each hair was calculated. Results in male beetles showed that the disk-like hairs adhered with the highest force, followed by spatula-tipped and then pointed hairs. Disk-like hairs were also stiffer than either flat or pointed hairs, likely providing stability to the pad. Bullock and Federle suggest that it is these disk-like hairs in particular which allow male beetles to achieve strong adhesion on smooth surfaces. This ability is also important for the males during copulation to hold on firmly to the back of the females. The other hair types, being easier to 'un-stick', may help the beetle to rapidly detach its feet when running upside down. Before these natural structures can be replicated as synthetic adhesives, a better understanding of their detailed function is needed. The authors conclude, "The question of how forces in natural adhesive systems run from the single-hair to the whole-animal level is a central, unresolved problem. Its understanding will be a prerequisite for the design of bio-inspired synthetic adhesives." Cite This Page:
Lungs exchange the gases between the blood and the air (we breathe in). They help to remove carbon dioxide from the blood stream besides supplying oxygen from the air (we breathe in) to the blood stream. Lung Cancer is a life threatening disease. It results from the abnormal growth of cells in lungs. Abnormal cells in the lungs proliferate at a fast pace when compared with normal lung tissue cells resulting in the formation of tumors. Such tumors disrupt normal functioning of lungs. Tumors are classified into benign tumors and malignant tumors. Benign tumors would result in bleeding and discomfort. They do not spread to other parts of the body and can be easily removed. On the other hand, malignant tumors spread to other parts of the body destroying normal tissues. Lung Cancers are also called bronchogenic cancers or bronchogenic carcinomas. Lung Cancers, which develop in the pleura, are known as mesotheliomas. Lung cancer may begin in any part of the lungs or respiratory system and takes long time to develop. It generally affects the people aged between 55 and 65 years. Cancer cells can spread to tissues in the chest apart from spreading to liver, brain or bones. About 90-95% of lung cancers begin from the epithelial. Several people including men and women across the world die because of lung cancer. Fresh lung cancer cases in the US are estimated at 215021 in 2008. People aged above 65 years are generally diagnosed with lung cancer in the US. Lung cancer saw a phenomenal growth due to increased smoking of tobacco since 1930. Lung cancer is declining gradually in developing nations with improved public awareness about the dangers of cigarette smoking. Lung cancer deaths are more predominant in the US. Causes for Lung Cancer More than 90% of lung cancer cases are due to increased smoking of tobacco. People are advised not to smoke to reduce the risk of lung cancer. People, who smoke more, are likely to suffer from lung cancer. People, who are addicted to cigarette and pipe smoking, may also suffer from lung cancer. Tobacco consists of more than 4000 chemical compounds, which may cause cancer. Passive smoking would also result in lung cancer. It is estimated that 3000 people die in the US due to passive smoking every year. People, who are exposed to asbestos fibers, are likely to suffer from lung cancer. Radon gas, which is released from uranium, would also cause lung cancer. Symptoms of Lung Cancer include weight loss, breathlessness, cough, chest pain and swollen fingertips. Endoscopic examination of the lungs would help to detect lung cancer. Consult your physician at the earliest to cure lung cancer. Treatment may vary depending on the severity and type of lung cancer.
About Protective Behaviours Protective Behaviours (PBs) is a safety awareness and life skills programme which builds confidence and resilience by exploring our right to feel safe. It starts from the belief that we cannot be scared into feeling safe, and therefore it avoids a focus on scary scenarios and rigid sets of rules for how to deal with unsafe situations. Instead it teaches an ability to recognise when we are not feeling safe, and provide skills and tools to enable individuals to take action and get help when they need it. The PB framework helps children and adults to recognise any situation where they feel worried or unsafe, such as feeling stressed, bullied or threatened. It can be used as an abuse prevention strategy, as well as promoting good citizenship. Additionally it recognises that life is also about challenging ourselves and taking safe risks in order that we try new things, and that this is both part of our development and an important life skill. The programme also looks at identifying support networks for times when we need someone to listen and help. Protective Behaviours is based on two key messages: - We all have the right to feel safe all of the time - We can talk with someone about anything, even if it feels awful or small Here are some resources for you as parents to use at home with your child. Please make sure that you read the on-line booklets first before using their contents with your child.
The basic idea of LPG is simple. If you’re far from a gas main (the ordinary system of natural gas supplied to buildings through a network of pipes), simply get your gas from a large fixed tank or a portable canister or bottle. As its name suggests, LPG is a fossil fuel closely linked to oil. Chemically, LPG is a mixture of two flammable but nontoxic gases called propane and butane. Both of these are hydrocarbons (their molecules are made from different combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms): propane molecules (C3H8) have eight hydrogen atoms attached to three carbon atoms, while butane molecules (C4H10) have ten hydrogen atoms bonded to four carbon atoms. LPG sometimes contains a variation of butane called isobutane, which has the same component atoms (four carbons and ten hydrogens) connected together in a slightly different way. Exactly which of the gases is present in LPG depends on where it comes from, how it is supplied, and what it is being used for. LPG typically contains a mixture of butane and propane gases, and tiny quantities of other gases are also naturally present. Since LPG is normally odorless, small amounts of a pungent gas such as ethanethiol (also known as ethyl mercaptan) are added to help people smell potentially dangerous gas leaks, which might otherwise go undetected. Pure butane tends to be used more for small, portable LPG supplies in such things as boats and gas-powered barbecue stoves. Since butane doesn’t burn well at low temperatures, portable canisters often contain a blend of 20 percent propane and 80 percent butane; propane has a much lower boiling point so it’s less affected by freezing temperatures and generally better for year-round outdoor use in cold climates. Larger household tanks are more likely to contain a majority of propane (typically 90 percent propane in North America). If you could see inside an LPG tank or bottle, you’d see a liquid not a gas. That’s because the propane and butane have been compressed so they take up something like 274 times less space than normal. Compressed in this way, LPG takes up relatively little space, so those big LPG tanks you see next to people’s homes actually contain far more “gas” (in liquid form) than you might suppose. In the same way, even a tiny canister of camping gas (slightly bigger than a jam jar) contains a surprising amount of energy for your cooking. When you use LPG, it’s released slowly and safely from the container through avalve and, at that point, turns back into a gas. In that form, it’s just like natural gas: it’s a fuel rich in energy that you can burn to release heat for cooking, heating, or powering something like a car engine.
Sp02 can be broken down into the following components: 'S' indicates saturation; P indicates pulse, also SP can stands for serum pressure and 02 is oxygen. The abbreviation is a measure of the amount of oxygen affixed to hemoglobin cells within the circulatory system. In short, this reading indicates the amount of oxygen being carried by red blood cells. As a measurement, SPO2 indicates how effectively a patient is breathing and how well blood is being transported throughout the body. SPO2 uses a percentage to indicate this measurement. The average reading for a normal, fit adult is 96%. What is it? SPO2 is measure using a pulse oximeter, which consists of a computerized monitor and probe. The probe may be attached to a patientís finger toe, nostril or earlobe. The monitor then displays a reading of how saturated the patientís blood is with oxygen. It achieves this using a wave form which can be visually interpreted and an audible signal that corresponds to the patientís pulse. The tone of this signal decreases with decreases in blood saturation. The monitor also illustrates heart rate and an alarm is available to alert the user to fast/slow pulse rates and high/low saturation levels. What does it do? The SPO2 device measures both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Two different frequencies are used to measure these two different types of blood: red and infrared. This method is called spectrophotometry. The red frequency is used to measure desaturated hemoglobin while the infrared frequency is used to measure oxygenated blood. If the greatest absorbance is shown in the infrared band, this indicates high saturation. Conversely, if the greatest absorbance is in the red band, this indicates low saturation How does it work? Light is shone through the finger and the resultant rays are monitored by a receiver. Some of the light is absorbed by the tissues and blood and as the artery fills with blood, absorption increases. Similarly, as the arteries empty, the level of absorption decreases. Since the only variable in this exercise is the pulsating blood, the static components (i.e. skin and tissue) can be subtracted from the calculation. Therefore, using the two wavelengths of light collected during measurement, the pulse oximeter calculates the saturation of Oxyhemoglobin. This chart depicts a PaO2 of 80 with 92% oxygen saturation in the hemoglobin. As the oxygen pressure increases, so too does the hemoglobin saturation levels. The hemoglobin reaches a maximum capacity at 105 or above. The PaO2 facilitates the indirect assessment of PaO2 through the measurement of Sp02. 97% Saturation = 97% PaO2 (normal) 90% Saturation = 60% PaO2 (danger) 80% Saturation = 45% PaO2 (severe hypoxia)
Course module: Introduction to soil science \|Course title:\|\|Introduction to soil science\| \|Subject areas (Curriculum):\|\|Soil science\| \|Short description:\|\|This course provides an general introduction to soils. It includes terminology used in soil science; soil and their physical, chemical and biological properties; soil formation; soils and spatial variability; soils inventory; examples of the use of soil information in crop production estimation and land use and management planning.\| \|Moderators:\|\|S. (Stephan) Mantel (including other colleagues) G.V.L (Godert) van Lynden (land conservation and degradation)\| \|Target audience:\|\|BSc and MSc level students in agriculture, hydrology and other environmental sciences\| Basic knowledge of geography, biology and chemistry. Good knowledge of English Lectures (each of about 45 min) on: 1) introduction and soil formation, 2) soil properties, 3) soil variation and soil survey, 4) soils and limits and potential for use, 5) soils degradation and conservation. Exercises and visits: Soil auger description in the field (optional). Visit to the ISRIC World Soil museum with an introduction to soils of the world and their properties, exercise on world soils and their assessment. \|Objective:\|\|After this introductory course, participants should have a (general) understanding of: 1) terminology and concepts in soil science, 2) how soils form, 3) the variation that exists in soils and of their properties, 4) how soils are mapped, 5) how the quality of soil affects land use potential, 6) how land use affects soil quality.\| \|Software / materials:\|\|-\| \|Case studies:\|\|Course materials and supporting booklets will be made available to course participants\| \|Literature:\|\|Van Reeuwijk, L.P., Spaargaren, O.C. & Mantel, S. Soil Science: soil, soil classification, problem soils, land evaluation, land resources information systems. ISRIC World Soil Information, Wageningen.\| \|Minimum number of participants:\|\|15\| \|Maximum number of participants:\|\|25\|
News outlets might claim impartiality, but nearly every paper or broadcast station has a discernible bias inherent in its work, some more evident than others. To avoid news bias and potentially misleading coverage, it is important to critique the articles you read. Learning to critique news outlets, the stories they cover and the articles they produce is a valuable step on the path to media literacy. Journalism and writing courses in school might even require you to write a formal critique. Summarize the article. If you are writing a formal critique, this is an important step. A summary should be brief, and it should demonstrate that you know what the article is about. You cannot accurately or appropriately critique an article you did not understand. Summarizing helps you clarify what you did not understand at first. If you found an article difficult to follow, you might want to include that in your critique after your summary. Discuss what works and what doesn't. The balance of an effective critique of a newspaper article will be the discussion of its strengths and weaknesses. Talk about whether the article was engaging, whether the headline was accurate, intriguing or sensationalist and your overall impressions of the article. Be sure to use specific examples when making general observations and try to suggest how you would fix what you perceive to be negative aspects of the article. Analyze the article's slant and focus. Many articles have a slant, a unique way of looking at the subject. Even straight reporting of a newsworthy event has a slant that sets it apart from coverage in other outlets. You might also find, depending on the paper, a distinct bias in the article. Consider the language used and whether the article's writer treats both sides of the issue fairly. Consider the use of words like "claims" rather than "says" after a quote and its connotations — it suggests the writer does not believe the person quoted. Research the article's accuracy. If you suspect something in the article has been misstated or is outright false, research it yourself. Most major newspapers have strict fact-checking rules, but mistakes can be made. Multiple factual errors in the same article or paper could point to a strong bias, an issue with the paper's credibility or a lack of journalistic standards at the paper.
This article can best be read with a previous article which can be accessed by clicking the link below: Education is a powerful tool to cultivate values in an individual. The main function of education is to enrich the character. Therefore parents, teachers, educational institutes have greater responsibility to impart learning and cultivation of values through education. Values that education inculcate in the learners: - Education encourages imagination, creativity and interest in knowledge. - Education is an essential part of intellectual freedom, and one of its main values is improving how students view, exist in and participate in the world. - Because education is a social event for most people, it encourages sharing of ideas and experiences among students, which helps students become better members of the community by teaching morals, ethics and community responsibility. Without education, for example, students would be unable to understand the benefits of volunteering. - In addition, education helps encourage students to educate themselves and seek out information. It provides students with the opportunity to learn about many different things, including art, sports, math, literature and history, so that the students are able to discover what interests them. This gives them the basic building blocks needed to succeed in life later on through a career and further education. - Education provides students the ability to improve their socio-economic standing and enable them to lead a better quality of life. - Education inculcates the values of scientific temper of mind, large heartedness, cooperation, tolerance and respect for the culture of other groups. - Efficiency, integrity, discipline, good temper.
Black-figure pottery painting, also known as the black-figure style or black-figure ceramic (Greek, μελανόμορφα, melanomorpha) is one of the styles of painting on antique Greek vases. It was especially common between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, although there are specimens dating as late as the 2nd century BC. Stylistically it can be distinguished from the preceding orientalizing period and the subsequent red-figure pottery style. Figures and ornaments were painted on the body of the vessel using shapes and colors reminiscent of silhouettes. Delicate contours were incised into the paint before firing, and details could be reinforced and highlighted with opaque colors, usually white and red. The principal centers for this style were initially the commercial hub Corinth, and later Athens. Other important production sites are known to have been in Laconia, Boeotia, eastern Greece and Italy. Particularly in Italy individual styles developed which were at least in part intended for the Etruscan market. Greek black-figure vases were very popular with the Etruscans, as is evident from frequent imports. Greek artists created customized goods for the Etruscan market which differed in form and decor from their normal products. The Etruscans also developed their own black-figure ceramic industry oriented on Greek models. Black-figure painting on vases was the first art style to give rise to a significant number of identifiable artists. Some are known by their true names, others only by the pragmatic names they were given in the scientific literature. Especially Attica was the home of well-known artists. Some potters introduced a variety of innovations which frequently influenced the work of the painters; sometimes it was the painters who inspired the potters’ originality. Red- as well as black-figure vases are one of the most important sources of mythology and iconography, and sometimes also for researching day-to-day ancient Greek life. Since the 19th century at the latest, these vases have been the subject of intensive investigation. - 1 Production techniques - 2 Developments - 2.1 Corinth - 2.2 Attica - 2.3 Laconia - 2.4 Boeotia - 2.5 Euboea - 2.6 Eastern Greece - 2.7 Italy including Etruria - 2.8 Other regions - 3 Research and Reception - 4 See also - 5 References - 6 Further reading The foundation for pottery painting is the image carrier, in other words, the vase onto which an image is painted. Popular shapes alternated with passing fashions. Whereas many recurred after intervals, others were replaced over time. But they all had a common method of manufacture: after the vase was made, it was first dried before being painted. The workshops were under the control of the potters, who as owners of businesses had an elevated social position. The extent to which potters and painters were identical is uncertain. It is likely that many master potters themselves made their main contribution in the production process as vase painters, while employing additional painters. It is, however, not easy to reconstruct links between potters and painters. In many cases, such as Tleson and the Tleson Painter, Amasis and the Amasis Painter or even Nikosthenes and Painter N, it is impossible to make unambiguous attributions, although in much of the scientific literature these painters and potters are assumed to be the same person. But such attributions can only be made with confidence if the signatures of potter and painter are at hand. The painters, who were either slaves or craftsmen paid as pottery painters, worked on unfired. leather-dry vases. In the case of black-figure production, the subject was painted on the vase with a clay slurry (a glossy slip, in older literature also designated as varnish) which turned black after firing. This was not a "color" in the traditional sense, since this surface slip was of the same material as the vase itself, only differing in the size of the component particles. The area for the figures was first painted with a brush-like implement. The internal outlines and structural details were incised into the slip so that the underlying clay could be seen through the scratches. Two other earth-based pigments were used to add details—red and white for ornaments, clothing or parts of clothing, hair, animal manes, parts of weapons and other equipment. White was also frequently used to represent women’s skin. The success of all this effort could only be judged after a complicated, three-phase firing process which generated the red color of the vase clay and the black of the applied slip. Specifically, the vessel was fired in a kiln at a temperature of about 800 °C, with the resultant oxidization turning the vase a reddish-orange color. The temperature was then raised to about 950 °C with the kiln's vents closed and green wood added to remove the oxygen. The vessel then turned an overall black. The final stage required the vents to be re-opened to allow oxygen into the kiln, which was allowed to cool down. The vessel then returned to its reddish-orange colour due to renewed oxidization, while the now-sintered painted layer remained the glossy black color which had been created in the second stage. Although scoring is one of the main stylistic indicators, some pieces do without. For these, the form is technically similar to the orientalizing style, but the image repertoire no longer reflects orientalizing practice. The evolution of black-figure pottery painting is traditionally described in terms of various regional styles and schools. Using Corinth as the hub, there were basic differences in the productions of the individual regions, even if they did influence each other. Especially in Attica, although not exclusively there, the best and most influential artists of their time characterized classical Greek pottery painting. The further development and quality of the vessels as image carrier are the subjects of this section. The black-figure technique was developed around 700 BC in Corinth and used for the first time in the early 7th century BC by Proto-Corinthian pottery painters, who were still painting in the orientalizing style. The new technique was reminiscent of engraved metal pieces, with the more costly metal tableware being replaced by pottery vases with figures painted on them. A characteristic black-figure style developed before the end of the century. Most orientalizing elements had been given up and there were no ornaments except for dabbed rosettes (the rosettes being form by an arrangement of small individual dots) The clay used in Corinth was soft, with a yellow, occasionally green tint. Faulty firing was a matter of course, occurring whenever the complicated firing procedure did not function as desired. The result was often unwanted coloring of the entire vase, or parts of it. After firing, the glossy slip applied to the vase turned dull black. The supplemental red and white colors first appeared in Corinth and then became very common. The painted vessels are usually of small format, seldom higher than 30 cm. Oil flasks (alabastra, aryballos), pyxides, kraters, oenochoes and cups were the most common vessels painted. Sculptured vases were also widespread. In contrast to Attic vases, inscriptions are rare, and painters’ signatures even more so. Most of the surviving vessels produced in Corinth have been found in Etruria, lower Italy and Sicily. In the 7th and first half of the 6th centuries BC, Corinthian vase painting dominated the Mediterranean market for ceramics. It is difficult to construct a stylistic sequence for Corinthian vase painting. In contrast to Attic painting, for example, the proportions of the pottery foundation did not evolve much. It is also often difficult to date Corinthian vases; one frequently has to rely on secondary dates, such as the founding of Greek colonies in Italy. Based on such information an approximate chronology can be drawn up using stylistic comparisons, but it seldom has anywhere near the precision of the dating of Attic vases. Mythological scenes are frequently depicted, especially Heracles and figures relating to the Trojan War. But the imagery on Corinthian vases does not have as wide a thematic range as do later works by Attic painters. Gods are seldom depicted, Dionysus never. But the Theban Cycle was more popular in Corinth than later in Athens. Primarily fights, horsemen and banquets were the most common scenes of daily life, the latter appearing for the first time during the early Corinthian period. Sport scenes are rare. Scenes with fat-bellied dancers are unique and their meaning is disputed up to the present time. These are drinkers whose bellies and buttocks are padded with pillows and they may represent an early form of Greek comedy. The transitional style (640-625 BC) linked the orientalizing (Proto-Corinthian) with the black-figure style. The old animal frieze style of the Proto-Corinthian period had run dry, as did the interest of vase painters in mythological scenes. During this period animal and hybrid creatures were dominant. The index form of the time was the spherical aryballos, which was produced in large numbers and decorated with animal friezes or scenes of daily life. The image quality is inferior compared with the orientalizing period. The most distinguished artists of the time were the Shambling Bull Painter, whose most famous work is an aryballos with a hunting scene, the Painter of Palermo 489, and his disciple, the Columbus Painter. The latter’s personal style can be most easily recognized in his images of powerful lions. Beside the aryballos, the kotyle and the alabastron are the most important vase shapes. The edges of kotyles were ornamented, and the other decorations consisted of animals and rays. The two vertical vase surfaces frequently have mythological scenes. The alabastrons were usually painted with single figures. Early- and Middle Corinthian The most important early Corinthian painter (625-600 BC) was the Duel Painter, who depicted fighting scenes on aryballos. Starting in the Middle Corinthian period (600-575 BC), opaque colors were used more and more frequently to emphasize details. Figures were additionally painted using a series of white dots. The aryballos became larger and were given a flat base. The Pholoe Painter is well known, his most famous work being a skyphos with a picture of Heracles. The Dodwell Painter continued to paint animal friezes although other painters had already given up this tradition. His creative period extended into Late-Corinthian times[clarification needed] and his influence on vase painting of that time cannot be overestimated. Likewise of exceptional reputation were the master of the Gorgoneion Group and the Cavalcade Painter, given this designation because of his preference for depicting horsemen on cup interiors; he was active around 580 BC. Two of his masterpieces are a cup showing the suicide of Ajax and a column krater showing a bridal couple in a chariot. All figures shown on the bowl are labeled. The first artist known by his name is the polychrome vase painter Timonidas, who signed a flask and a pinax. A second artist’s name, Milonidas, also appears on a pinax. The Corinthian olpe was replaced by an Attic version of the oinochoe with a cloverleaf lip. In Middle Corinthian time, depictions of people again became more common. The Eurytios krater, dated around 600 BC, is considered to be of particularly high quality; it shows a symposium in the main frieze with Heracles, Eurytios and other mythical figures. In Late Corinthian times (sometimes designated Late Corinthian I, 575-550 BC) Corinthian vases had a red coating to enhance the contrast between the large white areas and the rather pale color of the clay vessel. This put the Corinthian craftsmen in competition with Attic pottery painters, who had in the meantime taken over a leading role in the pottery trade. Attic vase forms were also increasingly copied. Oinochoes, whose form had remained basically unchanged up until that time, began to resemble Attic forms; lekythos also started to be increasingly produced. The column krater, a Corinthian invention which was for that reason called a korinthios in the rest of Greece, was modified. Shortening the volutes above the handles gave rise to the Chalcidic krater. The main image field it was decorated with various representations of daily life or mythological scenes, the secondary field contained an animal frieze. The back often showed two large animals. Cups had become deeper already in Mid-Corinthian times and this trend continued. They became just as popular as kotyles. Many of them have mythological scenes on the outside and a gorgon grimace on the inside. This type of painting was also adopted by Attic painters. On their part, Corinthian painters took over framed image fields from Athens. Animal friezes became less important. During this time the third Corinthian painter with a known name, Chares, was active. The Tydeus Painter should also be mentioned, who around 560 BC liked to paint neck amphoras with a red background. Incised rosettes continued to be put on vases; they are lacking on only a few kraters and cups. The most outstanding piece of art in this period is the Amphiaraos krater, a column krater created around 560 BC as the major work of the Amphiaraos Painter. It shows several events from the life of the hero Amphiaraos. Around 550 BC the production of figured vases came to an end. The following Late Corinthian Style II is characterized by vases only with ornaments, usually painted with a silhouette technique. It was succeeded by the red-figure style, which however did not attain a particularly high quality in Corinth. With over 20,000 extant pieces, Attic black-figure vases comprise the largest and at the same time most significant vase collection, second only to Attic red-figure vases. Attic potters benefitted from the excellent, iron-rich clay found in Attica. High quality Attic black-figure vases have a uniform, glossy, pitch-black coating and the color-intensive terra cotta clay foundation has been meticulously smoothened. Women’s skin is always indicated with a white opaque color, which is also frequently used for details such as individual horses, clothing or ornaments. The most outstanding Attic artists elevated vase painting to a graphic art, but a large number of average quality and mass-market products were also produced. The outstanding significance of Attic pottery comes from their almost endless repertoire of scenes covering a wide range of themes. These provide rich testimonials especially in regard to mythology, but also to daily life. On the other hand, there are virtually no images referring to contemporary events. Such references are only occasionally evident in the form of annotations, for example when kalos inscriptions are painted on a vase. Vases were produced for the domestic market on the one hand, and were important for celebrations or in connection with ritual acts. On the other hand they were also an important export product sold throughout the Mediterranean area. For this reason most of the surviving vases come from Etruscan necropolises. The black-figure technique was first applied in the middle of the 7th century BC, during the period of Proto-Attic vase painting. Influenced by pottery from Corinth, which offered the highest quality at the time, Attic vase painters switched to the new technology between about 635 BC and the end of the century. At first they closely followed the methods and subjects of the Corinthian models. The Painter of Berlin A 34 at the beginning of this period is the first identified individual painter. The first artist with a unique style was the Nessos Painter. With his Nessos amphora he created the first outstanding piece in the Attic black-figure style. At the same time he was an early master of the Attic animal frieze style. One of his vases was also the first known Attic vase exported to Etruria. He was also responsible for the first representations of harpies and Sirens in Attic art. In contrast to the Corinthian painters he used double and even triple incised lines to better depict animal anatomy. A double-scored shoulder line became a characteristic of Attic vases. The possibilities inherent in large pieces of pottery such as belly amphoras as carriers for images were also recognized at an early date. Other important painters of this pioneer time were the Piraeus Painter, the Bellerophon Painter and the Lion Painter. Early Attic vases The black-figure style became generally established in Athens around 600 BC. An early Athenian development was the horse-head amphora, the name coming from the depiction of horse heads in an image window. Image windows were frequently used in the subsequent period and were later adopted even in Corinth. The Cerameicus Painter and the Gorgon Painter are associated with the horse-head amphoras. The Corinthian influence was not only maintained, but even intensified. The animal frieze was recognized as generally obligatory and customarily used. This had economic as well as stylistic reasons, because Athens competed with Corinth for markets. Attic vases were sold in the Black Sea area, Libya, Syria, lower Italy and Spain, as well as within the Greek homeland. In addition to following Corinthian models, Athens vases also showed local innovations. Thus at the beginning of the 6th century BC a "Deianaira type" of lekythos arose, with an elongated, oval form. The most important painter of this early time was the Gorgon Painter (600-580 BC). He was a very productive artist who seldom made use of mythological themes or human figures, and when he did, always accompanied them with animals or animal friezes. Some of his other vases had only animal representations, as was the case with many Corinthian vases. Besides the Gorgon Painter the painters of the Komast Group (585-570 BC) should be mentioned. This group decorated types of vases which were new to Athens, namely lekanes, kotyles and kothons. The most important innovation was however the introduction of the komast cup, which along with the "prekomast cups" of the Oxford Palmette Class stands at the beginning of the development of Attic cups. Important painters in this group were the elder KX Painter and the somewhat less talented KY Painter, who introduced the column krater to Athens. These vessels were designed for use at banquets and were thus decorated with relevant komos scenes, such as komast performers komos scenes. Other significant painters of the first generation were the Panther Painter, the Anagyrus Painter, the Painter of the Dresden Lekanis and the Polos Painter. The last significant representative of the first generation of painters was Sophilos (580–570 BC), who is the first Attic vase painter known by name. In all, he signed four surviving vases, three as painter and one as potter, revealing that at this date potters were also painters of vases in the black-figure style. A fundamental separation of both crafts seems to have occurred only in the course of the development of the red-figure style, although prior specialization cannot be ruled out. Sophilos makes liberal use of annotations. He apparently specialized in large vases, since especially dinos and amphoras are known to be his work. Much more frequently than his predecessors, Sophilos shows mythological scenes like the funeral games for Patroclus. The decline of the animal frieze begins with him, and plant and other ornaments are also of lower quality since they are regarded as less important and thus receive scant attention from the painter. But in other respects Sophilos shows that he was an ambitious artist. On two dinos the marriage of Peleus and Thetis is depicted. These vases were produced at about the same time as the François vase, which depicts this subject to perfection. However, Sophilos does without any trimmings in the form of animal friezes on one of his two dinos, and he does not combine different myths in scenes distributed over various vase surfaces. It is the first large Greek vase showing a single myth in several interrelated segments. A special feature of the dinos is the painter’s application of the opaque white paint designating women directly on the clay foundation, and not as usual on the black gloss. The figure’s interior details and contours are painted in a dull red. This particular technique is rare, only found in vases painted in Sophilos’ workshop and on wooden panels painted in the Corinthian style in the 6th century BC. Sophilos also painted one of the rare chalices (a variety of goblet) and created the first surviving series of votive tablets. He himself or one of his successors also decorated the first marriage vase (known as a lebes gamikos) to be found. Pre-Classical Archaic period Starting around the second third of the 6th century BC, Attic artists became interested in mythological scenes and other representations of figures. Animal friezes became less important. Only a few painters took care with them, and they were generally moved from the center of attention to less important areas of vases. This new style is especially represented by the François vase, signed by both the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias (570–560 BC). This krater is considered to be the most famous Greek painted vase. It is the first known volute krater made of clay. Mythological events are depicted in several friezes, with animal friezes being shown in secondary locations. Several iconographic and technical details appear on this vase for the first time. Many are unique, such as the representation of a lowered mast of a sailing ship; others became part of the standard repertoire, such as people sitting with one leg behind the other, instead of with the traditional parallel positioning of the legs. Four other, smaller vases were signed by Ergotimos and Kleitias, and additional vases and fragments are attributed to them. They provide evidence for other innovations by Kleitias, like the first depiction of the birth of Athena or of the Dance on Crete. Nearchos (565–555 BC) signed as potter and painter. He favored large figures and was the first to create images showing the harnessing of a chariot. Another innovation was to place a tongue design on a white background under the vase lip. Other talented painters were the Painter of Akropolis 606 and the Ptoon Painter, whose most well-known piece is the Hearst Hydria. The Burgon Group is also significant, being the source of the first totally preserved Panathenaic amphora. The Siana cup evolved from the komast cup around 575 BC. While the Komast Group produced shapes other than cups, some craftsmen specialized in cup production after the time of the first important exemplifier of Siana cups, the C Painter (575-555 BC). The cups have a higher rim than previously and a trumpet-shaped base on a relatively short hollow stem. For the first time in Attic vase painting the inside of the cup was decorated with framed images (tondo). There were two types of decoration. In the "double-decker" style the cup body and the lip each have separate decorations. In the "overlap" style the image extends over both body and lip. After the second quarter of the 6th century BC there was more interest in decorating especially cups with pictures of athletes. Another important Siana cup painter was the Heidelberg Painter. He, too, painted almost exclusively Siana cups. His favorite subject was the hero Heracles. The Heidelberg Painter is the first Attic painter to show him with the Erymanthian boar, with Nereus, with Busiris and in the garden of the Hesperides. The Cassandra Painter, who decorated mid-sized cups with high bases and lips, marks the end of the development of the Siana cup. He is primarily significant as the first known painter to belong to the so-called Little Masters, a large group of painters who produced the same range of vessels, known as Little-master cups. So-called Merrythought cups were produced contemporaneously with Siana cups. Their handles are in the form of a two-pronged fork and end in what looks like a button. These cups do not have a delineated rim. They also have a deeper bowl with a higher and narrower foot. The last outstanding painter of the Pre-Classical Archaic Period was Lydos (560-540 BC), who signed two of his surviving pieces with ho Lydos (the Lydian). He or his immediate ancestors probably came from Asia Minor but he was undoubtedly trained in Athens. Over 130 surviving vases are now attributed to him. One of his pictures on a hydria is the first known Attic representation of the fight between Heracles and Geryon. Lydos was the first to show Heracles with the hide of a lion, which afterward became common in Attic art. He also depicted the battle between the gods and the giants on a dinos found on Athens’ acropolis, and Heracles with Cycnus. Lydos decorated other types of vessels besides hydriai and dinos, such as plates, cups (overlap Siena cups), column kraters and psykters, as well as votive tablets. It continues to be difficult to identify Lydos’ products as such since they frequently differ only slightly from those of his immediate milieu. The style is quite homogenous, but the pieces vary considerably in quality. The drawings are not always carefully produced. Lydos was probably a foreman in a very productive workshop in Athens’pottery district. He was presumably the last Attic vase painter to put animal friezes on large vases. Still in the Corinthian tradition, his figure drawings are a link in the chain of vase painters extending from Kleitias via Lydos and the Amasis Painters to Exekias. Along with them he participated in the evolution of this art in Attica and had a lasting influence. A special form of Attic vases of this period was the Tyrrhenian amphora (550-530 BC). These were egg-shaped neck amphora with decorations atypical of the usual Attic design canon of the period. Almost all of the c. 200 surviving vases were found in Etruria. The body of the amphora is usually subdivided into several parallel friezes. The upper or shoulder frieze usually shows a popular scene from mythology. There are sometimes less common subjects, such as a unique scene of the sacrificing of Polyxena. The first known erotic images on Attic vases are also found at this vase location. The painters frequently put annotations on Tyrrhenian amphora which identify the persons shown. The other two or three friezes were decorated with animals; sometimes one of them was replaced with a plant frieze. The neck is customarily painted with a lotus palmette cross or festoons. The amphoras are quite colorful and recall Corinthian products. In this case a Corinthian form was obviously deliberately copied to produce a particular vase type for the Etruscan market, where the style was popular. It is possible that this form was not manufactured in Athens but somewhere else in Attica, or even outside Attica. Important painters were the Castellani Painter and the Goltyr Painter. The years of mastery The period between 560 and the inception of red-figure pottery painting around 530/520 BC is considered to be the absolute pinnacle of black-figure vase painting. In this period the best and most well-known artists exploited all the possibilities offered by this style. The first important painter of this time was the Amasis Painter (560–525 BC), named after the famous potter Amasis, with whom he primarily worked. Many researchers regard them as the same person. He began his painting career at about the same time as Lydos but was active over a period almost twice as long. Whereas Lydos showed more the abilities of a skilled craftsman, the Amasis Painter was an accomplished artist. His images are clever, charming and sophisticated and his personal artistic development comes close to a reflection of the overall evolution of black-figure Attic vase painting at that time. His early work shows his affinity to the painters of Siana cups. Advances can be most easily recognized in how he draws the folds of clothing. His early female figures wear clothes without folds. Later he paints flat, angular folds, and in the end he is able to convey the impression of supple, flowing garments. Drawings of garments were one of his chief characteristics; he liked to depicted pattered and fringed clothing. The groups of figures which the Amasis Painter shows were carefully drawn and symmetrically composed. Initially they were quite static, later figures convey an impression of motion. Although the Amasis Painter often depicted mythological events—he is known for his pig-faced satyrs, for example—he is better known for his scenes of daily life. He was the first painter to portray them to a significant extent. His work decisively influenced the work of red-figure painters later. He possibly anticipated some of their innovations or was influenced by them toward the end of his painting career: on many of his vases women are only shown in outline, without a black filling, and they are no longer identifiable as women by the application of opaque white as skin color. Group E (550–525 v. Chr.) was a large, self-contained collection of artisans, and is considered to be the most important anonymous group producing black-figure Attic pottery. It rigorously broke with the stylistic tradition of Lydos both as to image and vessel. Egg-shaped neck amphoras were completely given up, column kraters almost entirely abandoned. Instead, this group introduced Type A belly amphoras, which then became an index form. Neck amphoras were usually produced only in customized versions. The group had no interest in small formats. Many scenes, especially those originating in myths, were reproduced again and again. Thus several amphoras of this group show Heracles with Geryon or the Nemean Lion, and increasingly Theseus and the Minotaur, as well as the birth of Athena. The particular significance of the group is, however, in the influence it exerted on Exekias. Most Attic artists of the period copied the styles of Group E and Exekias. The work of Lydos and the Amasis Painter was, by contrast, not imitated as frequently. Beazley describes the importance of the group for Exekias as follows: "Group E is the fertile ground from which the art of Exekias sprouts, the tradition which he takes up and surpasses on his way from an excellent craftsman to a true artist". Exekias (545-520 BC) is generally considered to be the absolute master of the black-figure style, which reaches its apex with him. His significance is not only due to his masterful vase painting, but also to his high quality and innovative pottery. He signed 12 of his surviving vessels as potter, two as both painter and potter. Exekias probably had a large role in the development of Little-master cups and the Type A belly amphora mentioned above, and he possibly invented the calyx krater, at least the oldest existing piece is from his workshop. In contrast to many other comparable craftsmen, as a painter he attached great importance to the careful elaboration of ornaments. The details of his images—horses’ manes, weapons, clothing—are also outstandingly well executed. His scenes are usually monumental and the figures emanate a dignity previously unknown in painting. In many cases he broke with Attic conventions. For his most famous vessel, the Dionysus cup, he was the first to use a coral-red interior coating instead of the customary red color. This innovation, as well as his placing of two pairs of eyes on the exterior, connects Exekias with the classic eye cups. Probably even more innovative was his use of the entire inside of the cup for his picture of Dionysus, reclining on a ship from which grapevines sprout. At this time it was in fact customary to decorate the inside surface merely with a gorgon face. The cup is probably one of the experiments undertaken in the pottery district to break new ground before the red-figure style was introduced. He was the first to paint a ship sailing along the rim of a dinos. He only seldom adhered to traditional patterns of depicting customary mythological subjects. His depiction of the suicide of Ajax is also significant. Exekias does not show the act itself, which was in the tradition, but rather Ajax’ preparations. About as famous as the Dionysus cup is an amphora with his visualization of Ajax and Achilles engaged in a board game. Not only is the portrayal detailed, Exekias even conveys the outcome of the game. Almost in the style of a speech balloon he has both players announce the numbers they cast with their dice—Ajax a three and Achilles a four. This is the oldest known depiction of this scene, of which there is no mention in classical literature. No fewer than 180 other surviving vases, dating from the Exekias version up to about 480 BC, show this scene. John Boardman emphasizes the exceptional status of Exekias which singles him out from traditional vase painters: "The people depicted by earlier artist are elegant dolls at best. Amasis (the Amasis Painter) was able to visualize people as people. But Exekias could envision them as gods and thereby give us a foretaste of classical art". Acknowledging that vase painters in ancient Greece were regarded as craftsmen rather than artists, Exekias is nevertheless considered by today’s art historians to be an accomplished artist whose work can be compared with "major" paintings (murals and panel paintings) of that period. His contemporaries apparently recognized this as well. The Berlin Collection of Classical Antiquities in the Altes Museum contains the remnants of a series of his votive tablets. The complete series probably had 16 individual panels. Placing such an order with a potter and vase painter is likely to be unique in antiquity and is evidence of the high reputation of this artist. The tablets show grieving for a dead Athenian woman as well as her lying in state and being transported to a gravesite. Exekias conveys both the grief and the dignity of the figures. One special feature, for example, is that the leader of the funeral procession turns his face to look at the viewer directly, so to speak. The depiction of the horses is also unique; they have individual temperaments and are not reduced to their function as noble animals, as is otherwise customary on vases. There was further specialization among producers of vessels and cups during the mature Classical Period. The large-volume komast and Siana cups evolved via Gordion cups into graceful variants called Little-master cups because of their delicate painting. The potters and painters of this form are accordingly called Little Masters. They chiefly painted band cups and lip cups. The lip cups got their name from their relatively pronounced and delineated lip. The outside of the cup retained much of the clay background and typically bore only a few small images, sometimes only inscriptions, or in some cases the entire cup was only minimally decorated. Also in the area of the handles there are seldom more than palmettes or inscriptions near the attachment points. These inscriptions can be the potter’s signature, a drinker’s toast, or simply a meaningless sequence of letters. But lip cup interiors are often also decorated with images. Band cups have a softer transition between the body and the rim. The decoration is in the form of a band circling the cup exterior and can frequently be a very elaborate frieze. In the case of this form the rim is coated with a glossy black slip. The interior retains the color of the clay, except for a black dot painted in the center. Variations include Droop cups and Kassel cups. Droop cups have black, concave lips and a high foot. As with classic band cups the rim is left black, but the area below it is decorated with ornaments like leaves, buds, palmettes, dots, nimbuses or animals on the cup exterior. Kassel cups are a small form, squatter than other Little Masters cups, and the entire exterior is decorated. As in the case of Droop cups, primarily ornaments are painted. Famous Little Masters are the potters Phrynos, Sokles, Tleson and Ergoteles, the latter two being sons of the potter Nearchos. Hermogenes invented a Little Master variety of skyphos now known as a Hermogenes skyphos. The Phrynos Painter, Taleides Painter, Xenokles Painter and the Group of Rhodes 12264 should also be mentioned here. The last quarter of the 6th century BC Until the end of the century the quality of black-figure vase production could basically be maintained. But after the development of the red-figure style around 530 BC, presumably by the Andokides Painter, more and more painters went over to the red-figure style, which provided many more possibilities for adding details within the figure contours. The new style also permitted many more promising experiments with foreshortening, perspective views and new designs for arrangements. Scene contents, as always, reflected trends in taste and the spirit of the times, but the red-figure style created better preconditions for presenting more elaborate scenes by exploiting the new arrangement possibilities. But in the meantime, a few innovative craftsmen could still give new impulses to the production of black-figure vases. The most imaginative potter of the time, also a talented businessman, was Nikosthenes. Over 120 vases bear his signature, indicating that they were made by him or in his workshop. He seems to have particularly specialized in producing vases for export to Etruria. In his workshop the usual neck amphoras, Little Masters, Droop and eye cups were produced, but also a type of amphora reminiscent of Etruscan bucchero pottery, named the Nikosthenic amphora after its creator. These pieces were found particularly in Caere, the other vase types usually in Cerveteri and Vulci. The many inventions in his workshop were not limited to forms. In Nikosthenes’ workshop what is known as the Six’s technique was developed, in which figures were painted in reddish brown or white atop a black glossy slip. It is not clear whether Nikosthenes also painted vases, in which case he is usually presumed to be identical with Painter N. The BMN Painter and the red-figure Nikosthenes Painter are also named after Nikosthenes. In his workshop he employed many famous vase painters, including the elderly Lydos, Oltos and Epiktetos. The workshop tradition was continued by Nikosthenes’ successor, Pamphaios. Two black-figure vase painters are considered to be mannerists (540-520 BC). The painter Elbows Out decorated primarily Little Masters cups. The extended elbows of his figures are conspicuous, a characteristic responsible for his pragmatic name. He only seldom depicted mythological scenes; erotic scenes are much more common. He also decorated a rare vase form known as a lydion. The most important of the two painters was The Affecter, whose name comes from the exaggeratedly artificial impression made by his figures. These small-headed figures do not seem to be acting as much as posing. His early work shows scenes of daily life; later he turned to decorative scenes in which figures and attributes are recognizable, but hardly actions. If his figures are clothed they look as if they were padded; if they are naked they are very angular. The Affecter was both potter and painter; over 130 of his vases have survived. The Antimenes Painter (530–500 BC) liked to decorate hydria with animal friezes in the predella, and otherwise especially neck amphoras. Two hydria attributed to him are decorated on the neck region using a white ground technique. He was the first to paint amphoras with a masklike face of Dionysus. The most famous of his over 200 surviving vases shows an olive harvest on the back side. His drawings are seldom really precise, but neither are they excessively careless. Stylistically, the painter Psiax is closely related to the Antimenes Painter, although the former also used the red-figure technique. As the teacher of the painters Euphronius and Phintias, Psiax had a great influence on the early development of the red-figure style. He frequently shows horse and chariot scenes and archers. The last important group of painters was the Leagros Group (520-500 BC), named after the kalos inscription they frequently used, Leagros. Amphoras and hydria, the latter often with palmettes in the predella, are the most frequently painted vessels. The image field is usually filled absolutely to capacity, but the quality of the images is still kept very high. Many of the over 200 vases in this group were decorated with scenes of the Trojan War and the life of Heracles Painters like the witty Acheloos Painter, the conventional Chiusi Painter, and the Daybreak Painter with his faithful detailing belong to the Leagros Group. Other well-known vase painters of the time are the Painter of the Vatican Mourner, The Princeton Painter, the Painter of Munich 1410 and the Swing Painter (540-520 BC), to whom many vases are attributed. He is not considered to be a very good artist, but his figures are unintentionally humorous because of the figures with their large heads, strange noses and frequently clenched fists. The work of the Rycroft Painter bears a resemblance to red-figure vase painting and the new forms of expression. He liked to depict Dionysian scenes, horses and chariots, and the adventures of Heracles. He often uses outline drawings. The approximately 50 usually large-size vessels attributed to him are elegantly painted. The Class of C.M. 218 primarily decorated variations of the Nikosthenic amphoras. The Hypobibazon Class worked with a new type of belly amphora with rounded handles and feet, whose decoration is characterized by a key meander above the image fields. A smaller variant of neck amphora was decorated by the Three Line Group. The Perizoma Group adopted around 520 BC the newly introduced form of the stamnos. Toward the end of the century, high quality productions were still being produced by the Euphiletos Painter, the Madrid Painter and the imaginative Priam Painter. Particularly cup painters like Oltos, Epiktetos, Pheidippos and Skythes painted vases in both red- and black-figure styles (Bilingual Pottery), primarily eye cups. The interior was usually in the black-figure style, the exterior in the red-figure style. There are several cases of amphoras whose front and back sides are decorated in the two different styles. The most famous are works by the Andokides Painter, whose black-figure scenes are attributed to the Lysippides Painter. Scholars are divided on the issue of whether these painters are the same person. Only a few painters, for example the Nikoxenos Painter and the Athena Painter, produced large quantities of vases using both techniques. Although bilingual pottery was quite popular for a short time, the style went out of fashion already toward the end of the century. At the beginning of the 5th century BC until 480 BC at the latest, all painters of repute were using the red-figure style. But black-figure vases continued to be produced for some 50 additional years, with their quality progressively decreasing. The last painters producing acceptable quality images on large vases were the Eucharides Painter and the Kleophrades Painter. Only workshops which produced smaller shapes like olpes, oenoches, skyphos, small neck amphoras and particular lekythos increasingly used the old style. The Phanyllis Painter used the Six technique, among other methods, and both the Edinburgh Painter and the Gela Painter decorated the first cylindrical lekythos. The former primarily produced casual, clear and simple scenes using a black-figure style on a white ground. The white ground of the vases was quite thick and no longer painted directly on the clay foundation, a technique which became the standard for all white-ground vases. The Sappho Painter specialized in funerary lekythos. The workshop of the Haimon Painter was especially productive; over 600 of their vases have survived. The Athena Painter (who is perhaps identical with the red-figure Bowdoin Painter) and the Perseus Painter continued to decorate large, standard lekythos. The scenes of the Athena Painter still radiate some of the dignity inherent in the work of the Leagros Group. The Marathon Painter is primarily known for the funerary lekythos found in the tumulus for the Athenians who died in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The last significant lekythos painter, the Beldam Painter, worked from around 470 BC until 450 BC. Except for the Panathenaic prize amphoras, the black-figure style came to a close in Attica at this time. Panathenaic prize amphoras → Main article: Panathenaic amphora Among black-figure Attic vases, the Panathenaic prize amphoras play a special role. After 566 BC—when the Panathenaic celebrations were introduced or reorganized—they were the prize for the winners of sport competitions and were filled with olive oil, one of the city's main export goods. On the front they routinely bore the image of the goddess Athena standing between two pillars on which roosters perched; on the back there was a sports scene. The shape was always the same and was only modified slightly over the long period of its production. The belly amphora was, as its name suggests, originally especially bulbous, with a short neck and a long, narrow foot. Around 530 BC the necks become shorter and the body somewhat narrower. Around 400 BC the vase shoulders were considerably reduced in width and the curve of the vase body looked constricted. After 366 BC the vases were again more elegant and become even narrower. These vases were primarily produced in the leading workshops of the Kerameikos district. It seems to have been an honor or particularly lucrative to be awarded a commission for producing the vases. This also explains the existence of many prize amphoras by excellent vase painters. In addition to superior black-figure painters like the Euphiletos Painter, Exekias, Hypereides and the Leagros Group, many red-figure master craftsmen are known as creators of prize amphoras. These include the Eucharides Painter, the Kleophrades Painter, the Berlin Painter, the Achilleus Painter and Sophilos, who was the only one to have signed one of the surviving vases. The first known vase was produced by the Burgon Group and is known as the Burgon vase. Since the name of the ruling official (Archon) occasionally appears on the vase after the 4th century BC, some of the vases can be precisely dated. Since the Panathenaia were religious festivals, the style and the type of decoration changed neither during the red-figure period nor after figured vases were no longer really traded in Athens. The prize amphoras were produced into the 2nd century BC, and about 1,000 of them have survived. Since for some dates the number of amphorae awarded to a winner is known, it is possible to deduce that about one percent of the total production of Athenian vases has survived. Other projections lead to the conclusion that in all about seven million vases with painted figures were produced in Athens. In addition to the prize amphoras, imitative forms known as Pseudo-Panathenaic prize amphoras were also manufactured. (See also Laconian vase painting) Starting already in the 7th century BC painted pottery was being produced in Sparta for local consumption as well as for export. The first quality pieces were produced around 580 BC. The zenith in black-figure pottery was reached between about 575 and 525 BC. Besides Sparta, the main discovery sites are the islands of Rhodes and Samos, as well as Taranto, Etruscan necropolises, and Cyrene, which was at first considered to be the original source of the pottery. The quality of the vessels is very high. The clay was well slurried and was given a cream-colored coating. Amphoras, hydriai, column kraters (called krater lakonikos in antiquity), volute kraters, Chalcidic kraters, lebes, aryballoi and the Spartan drinking cup, the lakaina, were painted. But the index form and most frequent find is the cup. In Lakonia the deep bowl was usually put on a high foot; cups on low feet are rare. The exterior is typically decorated with ornaments, usually festoons of pomegranates, and the interior scene is quite large and contains figures. In Laconia earlier than in the rest of Greece the tondo became the main framework for cup scenes. The main image was likewise divided into two segments at an early date, a main scene and a smaller, lower one. Frequently the vessel was only coated with a glossy slip or decorated with just a few ornaments. Inscriptions are uncommon but can appear as name annotations. Signatures are unknown for potters as well as painters. It is probable that the Laconian craftsmen were perioeci pottery painters. Characteristic features of the pottery often match the fashion of known painters. It is also possible that they were migrant potters from eastern Greece, which would explain the strong eastern Greek influence especially on the Boreads Painter. In the meantime at least eight vase painters can be distinguished. Five painters, the Arkesilas Painter (565–555), the Boreads Painter (575–565), the Hunt Painter, the Naucratis Painter (575–550) and the Rider Painter (550–530) are considered to be the more important representatives of the style, while other painters are regarded as craftsmen of lesser ability. The images are usually angular and stiff, and contain animal friezes, scenes of daily life, especially symposia, and many mythological subjects. Of the latter, Poseidon and Zeus are depicted especially frequently, but also Heracles and his twelve labors as well as the Theban and Trojan legend cycles. Especially on the early vases, a gorgon grimace is placed in a cup tondo. A depiction of the nymph Cyrene and a tondo with a rider with a scrolling tendril growing from his head (name vase of the Rider Painter) are exceptional. Also important is a cup with an image of Arcesilaus II. The Arcesilas cup supplied the pragmatic name for the Arcesilas Painter. It is one of the rare depictions on Greek pottery of current events or people. The subjects suggest Attic influence. A reddish purple was the main opaque color. At present over 360 Laconian vases are known, with almost a third of them, 116 pieces, being attributed to the Naucratis Painter. The decline around 550 BC of Corinthian black-figure vase painting, which had an important influence on Laconian painting, led to a massive reduction in the Laconian production of black-figure vases, which came to an end around 500 BC. The pottery was very widely distributed, from Marseille to Ionian Greece. On Samos, Laconian pottery is more common than Corinthian pottery because of the close political alliance with Sparta. (See also Boeotian vase painting) Schwarz-figure vases were produced in Boeotia from the 6th to the 4th century BC. As late as the early 6th century BC many Boeotian painters were using the orientalizing outline technique. Afterward they oriented themselves closely on Attic production. Distinctions and attributions to one of the two regions are sometimes difficult and the vases can also be confused with Corinthian pottery. Low-quality Attic and Corinthian vases are often declared to be Boeotian works. Frequently, good Boeotian vases are considered to be Attic and poor Attic vases are falsely considered to be Boeotian. There was probably an exchange of craftsmen with Attica. In at least one case it is certain that an Attic potter emigrated to Boeotia (the Horse-Bird Painter, and possibly also the Tokra Painter, and among the potters certainly Teisias the Athenian). The most important subjects are animal friezes, symposia and komos scenes. Mythological scenes are rare, and when present usually show Heracles or Theseus. From the late 6th century through the 5th century a silhouette-like style predominated. Especially kantharos, lekanis, cups, plates and pitchers were painted. As was the case in Athens, there are kalos inscriptions. Boeotian potters especially liked to produce molded vases, as well as kantharos with sculptured additions and tripod pyxides. The shapes of lekanis, cups and neck amphoras were also taken over from Athens. The painting style is often humorous, and there is a preference for komos scenes and satyrs. Between 425 and 350 BC Kabeiric vases were the main black-figure style in Boeotia. In most cases this was a hybrid form between a kantharos and a skyphos with a deep bowl and vertical ring handles, but there were also lebes, cups and pyxides. They are named after the primary place where they were found, the Sanctuary of the Kabeiroi near Thebes. The scenes, usually painted on only one side of the vase, depict the local cult. The vases caricature mythological events in a humorous, exaggerated form. Sometimes komos scenes are shown, which presumably related directly to the cult. (See also Euboean vase painting) Black-figure vase painting in Euboea was also influenced by Corinth and especially by Attica. It is not always easy to distinguish these works from Attic vases. Scholars assume that most of the pottery was produced in Eretria. Primarily amphoras, lekythos, hydria and plates were painted. Large-format amphoras were usually decorated with mythological scenes, such as the adventures of Herakles or the Judgment of Paris. The large amphoras, derived from 7th century shapes, have tapering lips and usually scenes relating to weddings. They are apparently funerary vases produced for children who died before they could marry. Restrained employment of incising and regular use of opaque white for the floral ornaments were typical features of black-figure pottery from Eretria. In addition to scenes reflecting Attic models, there were also wilder scenes like the rape of a deer by a satyr or Heracles with centaurs and demons. The vases of the Dolphin Class were previously regarded as being Attic, but are now considered to be Euboic. However, their clay does not match any known Eretrian sources. Perhaps the pieces were produced in Chalcis. The origin of some black-figure regional styles is disputed. For example, Chalcidian pottery painting was once associated with Euboea; in the meantime production in Italy is considered to be more likely. (See also East Greek vase painting) In hardly any other region of Greece are the borders between the orientalizing and black-figure styles as uncertain as in the case of vases from eastern Greece. Until about 600 BC only outline drawings and empty spaces were employed. Then during the late phase of the orientalizing style incised drawings began to appear, the new technique coming from northern Ionia. The animal frieze style which had previously predominated was certainly decorative, but offered few opportunities for further technical and artistic development. Regional styles arose, especially in Ionia. Toward the end of the Wild Goat style, northern Ionian artists imitated—rather poorly—Corinthian models. But already in the 7th century high quality vases were being produced in Ionia. Since approximately 600 BC the black-figure style was used either entirely or in part to decorate vases. In addition to regional styles which developed in Klazomenai, Ephesus, Milet, Chios and Samos there were especially in northern Ionia styles which cannot be precisely localized. Oil flasks which adhered to the Lydian model (lydions) were common, but most of them were decorated only with stripes. There are also original scenes, for example a Scythian with a Bactrian camel, or a satyr and a ram. For some styles attribution is controversial. Thus the Northampton Group shows strong Ionian influence but production was probably in Italy, perhaps by immigrants from Ionia. In Klazomenai primarily amphoras and hydria were painted in the middle of the 6th century BC (c. 550 to 350 BC), as well as deep bowls with flat, angular-looking figures. The vessels are not very elegant in workmanship. Dancing women and animals were frequently depicted. Leading workshops were those of the Tübingen Painter, the Petrie Painter, and the Urla Group. Most of the vases were found in Naukratis and in Tell Defenneh, which was abandoned in 525 BC. Their origin was initially uncertain, but Robert Zahn identified the source by comparison with images on Klazomenian sarcophagi. The pottery was often decorated with sculptured women’s masks. Mythological scenes were rare; fishscale ornaments, rows of white dots, and stiff-looking dancing women were popular. The depection of a herold standing in front of a king and a queen is unique. In general, men were characterized by large, spade-shaped beards. Starting already in 600 BC and continuing to about 520 BC rosette cups, successor to the eastern Greece bird cups, were produced, probably in Klazomenai. Samian pottery first appeared around 560/550 BC with forms adopted from Attica. These are Little Masters cups and kantharos with facial forms. The painting is precise and decorative. Samos along with Milet and Rhodes was one of the main centers for the production of vases in the Wild Goat style. Rhodian vase painting is primarily known from Rhodian plates. These were produced using a polychrome technique with many of the details being incised as in black-figure painting. From about 560 to 530 BC situlas were common, inspired by Egyptian models. These show both Greek subjects, such as Typhon, as well as ancient Egyptian themes like Egyptian hieroglyphics and Egyptian sport disciplines. Italy including Etruria "Caeretan hydria" is the name used for an especially colorful style of black-figure vase painting. The origin of these vases is disputed in the literature. Based on an assessment of the painting the vases were long considered to be Etruscan or Corinthian, but in recent years the view predominates that the producers were two pottery painters who emigrated from eastern Greece to Caere (modern Cerveteri) in Etruria. Inscriptions in Ionic Greek support the emigration theory. The workshop existed for only one generation. Today about 40 vases produced by the two master craftsmen in this style are known. All are hydriai except for one alabastron. None were found outside of Etruria; most came from Caere, which is the reason for their name. The vases are dated to approximately 530 to 510/500 BC. The Caeretan hydria are followed stylistically by neck amphoras decorated with stripes. These technically rather inferior hydriai are 40–45 cm. high. The bodies of these vases have high and very prominent necks, broad shoulders, and low ring feet in the form of upside-down chalices. Many of the hydriai are misshapen or show faulty firing. The painted images are in four zones: a shoulder zone, a belly zone with figures and one with ornaments, and a lower section. All but the belly zone with figures are decorated with ornaments. There is only one case of both belly friezes having figures. Their multiple colors distinguish them from all other black-figure styles. The style recalls Ionian vase painting and multicolored painted wooden tablets found in Egypt. Men are shown with red, black or white skin. Women are almost always portrayed with an opaque white color. The contours as well as the details are incised, as is typical for the black-figure style. Surfaces of black glossy slip are often covered with an additional colored slip, so that the black slip which becomes visible where there is scoring supplies the various shapes with internal details. On the front side the images are always full of action, on the back heraldic designs are common. Ornaments are an important component of the hydrias; they are not subsidiary to other motifs. Stencils were used to paint the ornaments; they are not incised. The Busiris Painter and the Eagle Painter are named as painters. The latter is considered the leading representative of this style. They were particularly interested in mythological topics which usually revealed an eastern influence. On the name vase by the Busiris painter, Heracles is trampling on the mythical Egyptian pharao Busiris. Heracles is frequently depicted on other vases as well, and scenes of daily life also exist. There are also uncommon scenes, such as Cetus accompanied by a white seal. The Pontic vases are also closely related stylistically to Ionian pottery painting. Also in this case it is assumed that they were produced in Etruscan workshops by craftsmen who emigrated from Ionia. The vases got their misleading name from the depiction on a vase of archers thought to be Scythians, who lived at the Black Sea (Pontus). Most of the vases were found in graves in Vulci, a significant number also in Cerveteri. The index form was a neck amphora with a particularly slender shape, closely resembling Tyrrhenian amphoras. Other shapes were oenochoes with spiral handles, dinos, kyathos, plates, beakers with high bases, and, less often, kantharos and other forms. The adornment of Pontic vases is always similar. In general there is an ornamental decoration on the neck, then figures on the shoulder, followed by another band of ornaments, an animal frieze, and finally a ring of rays. Foot, neck and handles are black. The importance of ornaments is noticeable, although they are often rather carelessly formed; some vases are decorated only with ornaments. The clay of these vases is yellowish-red; the slip covering the vases is black or brownish-red, of high quality, and with a metallic sheen. Red and white opaque colors are generously used for figures and ornaments. Animals are usually decorated with a white stripe on their bellies. Scholars have identified six workshops to date. The earliest and best is considered to be that of the Paris Painter. He shows mythological figures, included a beardless Heracles, as was customary in eastern Greece. Occasionally there are scenes which are not a part of Greek mythology, such as Heracles fighting Juno Sospita ("the Savior") by the Paris Painter, or a wolf demon by the Tityos Painter. There are also scenes of daily life, komos scenes, and riders. The vases are dated to a time between 550 and 500 BC, and about 200 are known. Locally produced Etruscan vases probably date from the 7th century BC. At first, they resemble black-figure models from Corinth and eastern Greece. It is assumed that in the early phase primarily Greek immigrants were the producers. The first important style was Pontic pottery painting. Afterward, in the period between 530 and 500 BC, the Micali Painter and his workshop followed. At this time Etruscan artists tended to follow Attic models and produced primarily amphoras, hydriai and jugs. They usually had komos and symposia scenes and animal friezes. Mythological scenes are less common, but they are very carefully produced. The black-figure style ended around 480 BC. Toward the end a mannerist style developed, and sometimes a rather careless silhouette technique. Chalcidian vase painting was named from the mythological inscriptions which sometimes appeared in Chalcidian script. For this reason the origin of the pottery was first suspected to be Euboea. Currently it is assumed that the pottery was produced in Rhegion, perhaps also in Caere, but the issue has not yet been finally decided. Chalcidian vase painting was influenced by Attic, Corinthian and especially Ionian painting. The vases were found primarily in Italian locations like Caeri, Vulci and Rhegion, but also at other locations of the western Mediterranean. The production of Chalcidian vases began suddenly around 560 BC. To date, no precursors have been identified. After 50 years, around 510 BC, it was already over. About 600 vases have survived, and 15 painters or painter groups have been so far identified. These vases are characterized by high quality pottery work. The glossy slip which covers them is usually pitch-black after firing. The clay has an orange color. Red and white opaque colores were generously used in the painting, as was scoring to produce interior details. The index form is the neck amphora, accounting for a quarter of all known vases, but there are also eye cups, oenochoes and hydria; other vessel types being less common. Lekanis and cups in the Etruscan style are exceptions. The vases are economical and stringent in construction. The "Chalcidian cup foot" is a typical characteristic. It is sometimes copied in black-figure Attic vases, less often in red-figured vases. The most important of the known artists of the older generation is the Inscription Painter, of the younger representatives the Phineus Painter. The former is presumably the originator of the style; some 170 of the surviving vases are attributed to the very productive workshop of the latter. He is probably also the last representative of this style. The images are usually more decorative than narrative. Riders, animal friezes, heraldic pictures or groups of people are shown. A large lotus-palmette cross is frequently part of the picture. Mythological scenes are seldom, but when they occur they are in general of exceptionally high quality. Pseudo-Chalcidian vase painting is the successor to Chalcidian painting. It is close to Chalcidian but also has strong links to Attic and Corinthian vase painting. Thus the artists used the Ionian rather than the Chalcidian alphabet for inscriptions. The structure of the clay is also different. There are about 70 known vases of this type, which were first classified by Andreas Rumpf. It is possible that the artisans were successors to the Chalcidian vase painters and potters who emigrated to Etruria. Pseudo-Chalcidian vase painting is classified into two groups. The elder of the two is the Polyphemus Group, which produced most of the surviving vessels, primarily neck amphoras and oinochoes. Groups of animals are usually shown, less seldom mythological scenes. The vessels were found in Etruria, on Sicily, in Marsellle and Vix. The younger and less productive Memnon Group, to which 12 vases are currently attributed, had a much smaller geographical distribution, being limited to Etruria and Sicily. Except for one oinochoe they produced only neck amphoras, which were usually decorated with animals and riders. The vases of the Northhampton Group were all small neck amphoras with the exception of a single belly amphora. They are stylistically very similar to northern Ionian vase painting, but were probably produced in Italy rather than in Ionia, perhaps in Etruria around 540 BC. The vases of this group are of very high quality. They show rich ornamental decorations and scenes that have captured the interest of scholars, such as a prince with horses and someone riding on a crane. They are similar to the work of the Group of Campana Dinoi and to the so-called Northampton Amphora whose clay is similar to that of Caeretan hydriai. The Northampton Group was named after this amphora. The round Campana hydriai recall Boeotian and Euboean models. Alabastrons with cylindrical bodies from Andros are rare, as are lekanis from Thasos. These are reminiscent of Boeotian products except that they have two animal friezes instead of the single frieze common for Boeotia. Thasian plates rather followed Attic models and with their figured scenes are more ambitious than on the lekanis. Imitations of vases from Chios in the black-figure style are known. Local black-figure pottery from Halai is also rare. After the Athenians occupied Elaious on the Dardanelles, local black-figure pottery production began there as well. The modest products included simple lekanis with outline images. A small number of vases in black-figure style were produced in Celtic France. They too were almost certainly inspired by Greek vases. Research and Reception → For a description of the research and reception prior to the 19th century refer to the kindred article Red-figure pottery as there are no significant differences in the research on both styles. Scholarly research on these vases started especially in the 19th century. Since this time the suspicion has intensified that these vases have a Greek rather than an Etruscan origin. Especially a Panathenaic prize amphora found by Edward Dodwell in 1819 in Athens provided evidence. The first to present a proof was Gustav Kramer in his work Styl und Herkunft der bemalten griechischen Tongefäße (1837). However it took several years for this insight to be generally accepted. Eduard Gerhard published an article entitled Rapporto Volcente in the Annali dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica in which he systematically investigated the vases; he was the first scholar to do so. Toward this end in 1830 he studied vases found in Tarquinia, comparing them, for example, with vases found in Attica and Aegina. During this work he identified 31 painter and potter signatures. Previously, only the potter Taleides was known. The next step in research was scientific cataloging of the major vase collections in museums. In 1854 Otto Jahn published the vases in the Munich State Collection of Antiquities. Previously, catalogs of the Vatican museums (1842) and the British Museum (1851) had been published. The description of the vase collection in the Berlin Collection of Classical Antiquities, put together in 1885 by Adolf Furtwängler, was especially influential. Furtwängler was the first to classify the vessels by region of artistic origin, technology, style, shape, and painting stye, which had a lasting effect on subsequent research. In 1893 Paul Hartwig attempted in his book Meisterschalen to identify various painters based on kalos inscriptions, signatures and style analyses. Edmond Pottier, curator at the Louvre, initiated in 1919 the Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum. All major collections worldwide are published in this series, which as of 2009 amounted to over 300 volumes. Scientific research on Attic vase painting owes a great deal to John D. Beazley. He began studying these vases in about 1910, making use of the method developed by the art historian Giovanni Morelli for studying paintings, which had been refined by Bernard Berenson. He assumed that each painter created original works which could always be unmistakably attributed. He made use of particular details such as faces, fingers, arms, legs, knees, and folds of clothing. Beazley studied 65,000 vases and fragments, of which 20,000 were black-figure. In the course of his studies, which lasted almost six decades, he could attribute 17,000 of them by name or by using a system of pragmatic names, and classified them into groups of painters or workshops, relationships and stylistic affinity. He identified over 1,500 potters and painters. No other archaeologist had such a decisive influence on the research of an archaeological field as did Beazley, whose analyses remain valid to a large extent up to the present time. After Beazley, scholars like John Boardman, Erika Simon and Dietrich von Bothmer investigated black-figure Attic vases. Basic research on Corinthian pottery was accomplished by Humfry Payne, who in the 1930s made a first stylistic classification which is, in essence, being used up to the present time. He classified the vases according to shape, type of decoration and image subjects, and only afterward did he make distinctions as to painters and workshops. He followed Beazley’s method except for attributing less importance to allocating painters and groups since a chronological framework was more important for him. Jack L. Benson took on this allocation task in 1953 and distinguished 109 painters and groups. Last of all, Darrell A. Amyx summarized the research up to that point in his 1988 book Corinthian Vase-Painting of the Archaic Period. It is however a matter of scholarly dispute whether it is at all possible in the case of Corinthian pottery to attribute specific painters. Laconian pottery was known since the 19th century from a significant number of vases from Etruscan graves. At first they were erroneously attributed, being considered for a long time to be a product of Cyrene, where some of the earliest pieces were also found. Thanks to British excavations carried out in Sparta’s Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, their true origin was quickly identified. In 1934, Arthur Lane put together all the known material and was the first archaeologist to identify different artists. In 1956 the new discoveries were studied by Brian B. Shefton. He reduced the number of distinct painters by half. In 1958 and 1959 other new material from Taranto was published. A significant number of other vases were also found on Samos. Conrad Michael Stibbe studied anew all 360 vases known to him and published his findings in 1972. He identified five major and three minor painters. In addition to research on Attic, Corinthian and Laconian vase painting, archaeologists are frequently especially interested in minor Italian styles. The Caeretan hydriai were first identified and named by Carl Humann and Otto Puchstein. Andreas Rumpf, Adolf Kirchhoff and other archaeologists erroneously suspected the origin of Chalkidischen Pottery to be Euboea. Georg Ferdinand Dümmler is responsible for the false naming of the Pontic vases, which he assumed to come from the Black Sea area because of the depiction of a Scythian on one of the vases. In the meantime, research on all styles is carried out less by individuals than by a large international group of scientists. - List of Greek Vase Painters#Black Figure Period - Pottery of Ancient Greece - Red-Figure Pottery - See also w:de:Liste der Formen, Typen und Varianten der antiken griechischen Fein- und Gebrauchskeramik in the German Wikipedia for a useful set of tables classifying vase shapes and variations, with distinguishing shape outlines and typical examples. - See also w:de:Liste der griechischen Töpfer und Vasenmaler/Konkordanz - On vase production and style see Ingeborg Scheibler: Griechische Töpferkunst. München 1995, S. 73–134; Matthias Steinhart: Töpferkunst und Meisterzeichnung, von Zabern, Mainz 1996, S. 14–17; Heide Mommsen, Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 12, Metzler, Stuttgart 1996–2003, ISBN 3-476-01470-3, Sp. 274–281. - "Black-figure." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Barbara Ann Kipfer, ed. New York: Springer, 2000, p. 71. ISBN 0-306-46158-7;Ashmolean Museum Department of Antiquities. Select Exhibition of Sir John and Lady Beazley's Gifts to the Ashmolean Museum, 1912-1966. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1967, p. 40; Grant, Neil. The Greeks: How They Lived. New York: Mallard Press, 1990, p. 18. ISBN 0-7924-5383-2 - On Corinthian vase paintings see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 100–104; Matthias Steinhart: Korinthische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 6, Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01476-2, Sp. 738–742.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, S. 178–185. . - Chronologies vary somewhat. In Matthias Steinhart: Korinthische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 6, Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01476-2, Sp. 738–742 the following is given: Early Corinthian (620/615–595 BC), Middle Corinthian (595–570 BC) and Late Corinthian I (570–550 BC) and II (after 550 BC). - On the Dodwell Painer see Matthias Steinhart: Dodwell-Maler. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 3, Metzler, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-476-01473-8, Sp. 726–727. - On the Cavalcade Pinter see Matthias Steinhart: Kavalkade-Maler. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 6, Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01476-2, Sp. 370–371. - Mannack, S. 101. - today in Basel. - On Tomonidas see Matthias Steinhart: Timonidas. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 12/1, Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01482-7, Sp. 594–594. - Now in Athens. - Now in the Berlin Collection of Classical Antiquities, Altes Museum. - On Chares see Matthias Steinhart: Chares . In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 2, Metzler, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-476-01472-X, Sp. 1099–1099. - On the Tydeus Painter see Matthias Steinhart: Tydeus-Maler. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 2, Metzler, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-476-01472-X, Sp. 939–940. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 7. - Heide Mommsen: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 12, Metzler, Stuttgart 1996–2003, ISBN 3-476-01470-3, Sp. 274–281. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 104. - Fragment in Leipzig, found in Cerveteri, with gorgons on the belly as on the Nessos vase. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 105; John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 18f. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 20. - Found on the Akropolis in Athens, now in the Akropolis Museum, inventory number 587. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 21. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 111. - on the François vase see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 37f. und Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 111f. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 113. - On Lydos see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 57–58, Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 113. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 57. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 60. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 61. - On the Amasis Painter see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 60–62; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 120. - Quote translated from John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 62. On Group E see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 62 und Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 120. - For an assessment see, for example, John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 62. - Now in the Munich State Collection of Antiquities, inventory number 2044. - Now in the Boulogne Museum, inventory number 558. - Now in the Vatican Museums, inventory number 344 - On Exekias see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 63f. and Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 121–123. - Back-translated from John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 64. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 64. - On votive tablets see Heide Mommsen: „Bleib stehn und erhebe die Klage…". Zu den wiedervereinigten Fragmenten der Grabtafeln des Exekias, in EOS 12 (August 2000), S. IV-VII. and also: Exekias I. Die Grabtafeln, von Zabern, Mainz 1997 (Forschungen zur antiken Keramik. Reihe 2, Kerameus, Bd. 11) ISBN 3-8053-2033-7. - On the Gordion cup see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 65; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 118. - On lip cups see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 65–67; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 118. - On band cups see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 66f.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 118. - On Droop cups see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 68f.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 119. - On Kassel cups see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 69; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 119. - On the Hermogenes Skyphos see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 69. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 73. - On Nikosthenes’ workshop see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 71–73, Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 123f. - On Elbows Out and The Affecter see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 73f., Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 124. - On the Antimenes Painter see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 119f.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 124. - On Psiax siehe John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 115; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 124. - On the Leagros Group see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 120f.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 124. - On the painters of the Leagros Group see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 121f. - On the Swing Painter see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 71. - On the Rycroft Painter see Heide Mommsen: Rycroft-Maler. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0, Sp. 1174–1174., John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 124. - On the bilingual style see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 124f. - On these late painters see siehe Boardman op. cit. p. 158–164; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 125. - For the statistics see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 114. - On the Panathenaic prize amphoras see John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, von Zabern, Mainz 1979, S. 180–183; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 113–117. - Now in the British Museum London, inventory number B1. - Found in Vulci, now with the inventory number 189 in the Paris Cabinet des Médailles de la Bibliothèque Nationale de France. - On Lakonian pottery see Matthias Steinhart: Lakonische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 6, Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01476-2, Sp. 1074–1075.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 125–128; Conrad M. Stibbe: Das andere Sparta, von Zabern, Mainz 1996, S. 163–203; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 185–188 - On Boeotian pottery see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 128f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281., John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998 pp. 213–215. - On Boeotian pottery see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 129; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 277–277., John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 258. - John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 215f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281. - On Ionian pottery see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 81f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 141–151. - On Klazomenian pottery painting see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 81f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 148f. - On Samian pottery painting see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 81f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 146f. - On Rhodian vase painting see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 81f.; Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 150. - On Caeretan hydriai see Rolf Hurschmann: Caeretaner Hydrien. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 2, Metzler, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-476-01472-X, Sp. 907–908.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 219–223; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 132f. - On Pontic vase painting see Matthias Steinhart: Pontische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0, Sp. 138–139.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 133; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 219–223. - On Etruscan vase painting see Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 219–223. - The Chalkidian alphabet was not only used in Chalcis, but also in other places in Euboea and in Etruria. The fact that many vases had trademarks not used elsewhere in this part of Magna Graecia is an argument against localization in lower Italy. The argument against production in Etruria is that Etruscan pottery was not generally exported to southern Italy. The painting style has no Euboic features, so it cannot have originated there either - On Chalcidian vase painting see Matthias Steinhart: Chalkidische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 2, Metzler, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-476-01472-X, Sp. 1088–1089.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 129–131; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 217–219. - On Pseudo-Chalkidischen pottery see Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 131; Matthias Steinhart: Pseudochalkidische Vasenmalerei. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0, Sp. 516–517.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, pp. 217–219. - On the Northampton Group, the Group of Campana Dinoi and Campana hydriai see Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting, Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 220; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Eine Einführung. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 132. - On Etruscan pottery siehe Matthias Steinhart: Schwarzfigurige Vasenmalerei II. Ausserattisch. In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Band 11, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01481-9, Sp. 276–281.; John Boardman: Early Greek Vase Painting., Thames and Hudson, London 1998, p. 219–223. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, S. 17. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, S. 18. - John Boardman: Schwarzfigurige Vasen aus Athen, S. 7f.; Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei, S. 18f. - On Corinthian ceramics research for the archaic period see the summary in Christiane Dehl-von Kaenel: Die archaische Keramik aus dem Malophoros-Heiligtum in Selinunt, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1995, S. 22–31, ISBN 3-88609-371-9. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 125–128. - Thomas Mannack: Griechische Vasenmalerei. Theiss, Stuttgart 2002, S. 129–133. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black-figure pottery.\| - J.D.Beazley The Development of Attic Black-Figure - J.D. Beazley, Attic Black-figure vase painters, London, 1956 - John Boardman, Athenian Black Figure Vases, London, 1974 - D. Williams, Greek Vases, London, 1985 - P. Arias, M. Hirmer, History of Greek Vase Painting, 1962. - J. D. Beazley, Potter and Painter in Ancient Athens, 1944. - J. D.Beazley, Paralipomena, 1971. - H. Payne, Necrocorinthia, 1931. - D. A. Amyx, Corinthian Vase Painting of the Archaic Period, 3 vols, 1988. - Joseph Veach Noble: The Techniques of Painted Attic Pottery. New York 1965. - Von Bothmer, Dietrich (1987). Greek vase painting. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870990845.
There are two categories of monopoly: The basic economic logic used by the monopolist is the same as that used by the competitive firm -- Understanding the application of this logic by a monopolist requires, however, careful attention to both the COST side and the BENEFIT side. We know that Variable cost = sum of the marginal costs, but if marginal cost is constant at k, we can compute this more easily as VC = kQ , where Q is the Quantity of output. Since total cost = fixed cost + variable cost, and since average cost = Total Cost/Quantity, we have for the natural monopoly: As Q becomes larger, the first term will tend to zero; another way of saying this is that average cost will fall as output increases, and as output becomes very large, AC will approach MC. Graphically, the average cost curve for a natural monopoly looks like this: A competitive wheat farmer will take the price of wheat as given by the market at (say) $5 a bushel. Sellinganother bushel of wheat brings the farmer a marginal revenue of another $5. The monopolist does not take the price of his product as given. Indeed, he knows that in order to sell more he will have to REDUCE the price of his product. In our introductory model of monopoly, we assume that the monopolist cannot price discriminate ; that is, that he must sell all output at the same price. In calculating marginal revenue, the monopolist will have to consider consumer demand. Monopolists may be the only one selling the product, but they cannot force consumers to buy more than they wish. Let us assume thAt demand is given by the equation Note that it is convenient to write the demand equation with price on the left hand side of the equation. To find REVENUE we need only multiply the demand equation through by Q. This equation may be used to calculate marginal revenue. Simply consider the revenue at quantities of (say) 500 and 501 and calculate the CHANGE IN REVENUE. At Q = 500, P = 3000 - 2(500) = 2000 and hence revenue = PQ = 1,000,000. At Q = 501, P = 3000 - 2(501) = 1998 and hence revenue = PQ = 1,000,998. Marginal revenue at Q = 500 is $ 998. Note that Marginal revenue is less than price ; marginal revenue is $998 and price was $2000. Note for those who haVe taken calculus: marginal revenue, like all marginal concepts, deals with changes. In calculus, you learn that to find the change in a function, you differentiate the function; if we differentiate the revenue function above with the aid of the power rule we find that MR = 3000 - 4 Q Note for those who have not taken calculus: The MARGINAL REVENUE function may be derived from a straight line demand equation by: With the previous demand equation, marginal revenue is: A full justification of this trick requires calculus, but note that it works: at Q = 500, MR = 3000 - 4 (500) = $1000, close to the $998 calculated above. (If we had used 500.5, halfway between our two values, we would be exactly on target) GRAPHICALLY, the marginal revenue curve will be sloping downward and falling exactly twice as steeply as the demand curve. Choose the output level at which MC = MR. If we assume that MC = 500 and DEMAND is given by Q = 1500 - .5 P we find as above that MR = 3000 - 4 Q. Monopoly output will be found by setting Monopoly price will be found by looking at the demand curve and charging as much as the market will bear for the level of output chosen. Since DEMAND is at Q = 375, the price charged by the monopoly will be P = 3000 - 2 (625) = 3000 - 1250 = $ 1750. Price is much higher than the marginal cost of $ 500. Operating profit = REVENUE - VARIABLE COST In the case above, REVENUE = PQ = ($1750) (625) = $ 1,093,750 VARIABLE COST = MC x Q = $500 x 625 = $ 312,500 OPERATING PROFIT = PQ - VC = 1,093,750 - 312,500 = $781,250 Without a figure given for fixed costs, we cannot tell if the monopoly is making an overall profit or not. You can however vary the output decision and see if the monopoly has in fact found the profit-maximizing output level.
Art and Culture The area of artistic education provides the knowledge to reflect the transcendent dimension of human life, of the universe and of history. Only the work of art can express the feelings, emotions, experiences of the human being through interpretation, creation and visualization. Art directly influences motor development, sharpens visual and auditory capacity, promotes the practice of social skills and stimulates creativity. The four components of art are: Theater, Plastic Arts, Music and Dance. The student develops artistic abilities: Appreciation and Artistic Expression, as well as the values of honesty, responsibility, respect and solidarity. Our goal is to educate so that the student is able to configure the development of their talents, express their ideas, feelings feelings for their emotional and social benefit, motivating creativity and indicate the Christian experience as the irruption of God in history through their action liberating and as a welcome of the person, by faith, to the revelation of God. The skills developed in the course are: - Critically appreciates artistic - cultural manifestations. - Create projects from artistic languages.
Manganese in Water Manganese metal is not found pure in nature, but its ores are very common and widely distributed. Although manganese is much less abundant than iron in the Earth’s crust, it is one of the most common elements and is widely distributed in rocks and soils In igneous rock minerals, manganese is usually in the reduced form Mn+2. The ferromagnesian minerals such as biotite and hornblende commonly contain some manganese. The most common forms of manganese in rocks and soils, however, are oxides and hydroxides in which the oxidation state of the element is +2, +3 or +4. These oxides tend to absorb other metallic ions very strongly and the common naturally occurring species of the manganese oxides usually have many impurities. Manganese is an essential element in plant metabolism and it is to be expected that organic circulation of manganese can influence its occurrence in natural water. Manganese oxide deposits also occur in fresh water lakes apparently as a result of processes similar to those causing deposits of bog iron ore. In reservoirs and lakes when thermal stratification occurs, the water near the bottom may be able to dissolve considerable concentrations of manganese from deposits left there under oxidizing conditions prevailing at an earlier time. Sometimes this is the reason why water withdrawn from many public supply reservoirs contains excessive concentration of manganese at times. Aquatic plants have been noted to be accumulators of manganese. Manganese in plant parts that die back or are shed, as for example in leaves, become available for solution in runoff and soil moisture. The possible importance of suspended manganese oxide in streams as controls over the behavior of minor cations has been pointed out. However, the importance of this source of manganese in river water is not completely understood. One of the notable properties of manganese oxide is a tendency to form coatings on other mineral surfaces. This is a further complicating factor in determining the amounts present in ordinary stream flow. Although manganese forms complexes with many kinds of organic material, the divalent Mn+2 ion is relatively stable in uncomplexed form in the conditions normally to be expected in river water. Studies to established correlation between organic color and manganese concentrations in river water are ongoing. Manganese is often present to the extent of more than 1 mg/L in streams that have received acid drainage from coal mines. Manganese usually persists in the river water for greater distances downstream from the pollution source than the iron contained in the same drainage inflows. As the acidity is gradually neutralized, ferric hydroxide precipitates first, however, manganese also disappears from solution after a longer time. Some ground waters that contain objectionable concentrations of iron also have considerable amounts of manganese, but ground waters that contain more manganese than iron are rather unusual. Many of the ground waters reported to carry large manganese concentrations are from thermal springs. In many places, these springs seem to be closely associated with manganese oxide deposits. The drinking water limits established for manganese have been established for manganese on the basis of aesthetic and economic considerations rather than physiological hazards. In concentrations not causing unpleasant tastes, manganese is regarded by most investigators to be of no toxilogical significance in drinking water. However, manganese is essential for plant growth apparently as an enzyme activator. It is especially abundant in the reproductive parts of plants, seeds being the highest, while woody sections contain the least manganese. The toxicity of manganese towards fish is dependent upon many factors. The toxic action is slow and manganese does not appear to precipitate on gill secretions as does iron. The following concentrations of manganese have been tolerated by fish under the stated conditions. Concentration in Mg/L Time of Exposure Type of Fish 1 - River Crayfish 15 7 days Tench Carp and Trout 40 4 days Fingerling Catfish 50 3 days Stickle back 2700 50 hours Eels It should be noted that the permanganates are much more toxic to fish than the manganous salts. Permanganates killed fish in 8 to 18 hours at concentrations of 2.2 to 4.1 mg/L of manganese. However, permangates are not stable for long.
Nuclear Chain Reactions A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons). If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of fissions doubles each generation. In that case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a mole) fissions. Energy Released From Each Fission ~ kinetic energy of fission products
Whether made by hand by a late-19th century foundryman or by a modern automated molding production line, the basic methodology for the manufacture of cast iron cookware remains fundamentally the same. The process begins with the creation of a pattern. The pattern can be considered an original from which many duplicates are made. It is in most respects identical to the pieces it was created to produce, with the exception of its size. The pattern is always made slightly larger than the duplicates, to account for the fact that the molten iron shrinks as it cools and solidifies. The pattern is used repeatedly to create many molds, each of which are ultimately destroyed in the course of making, typically, a single pan. A mold consists of a damp sand-based mixture packed around the pattern in a two-piece box which is made to be separated to remove it, and then put back together leaving a cavity in the pattern's shape. Molten iron is then poured into the mold cavity via a passageway created through the packed sand. Once the iron solidifies, the hardened sand is broken away to release the casting, and any excess iron not a part of the finished piece is trimmed or ground off. That's the simplified explanation. The actual process is a little more involved, requiring the observance of close manufacturing tolerances, and the accommodation of variances in how the molten iron might tend to flow into the mold cavity for a particular shape. Patterns may consist of multiple components used to create the cope and drag separately, and with casting channels attached. Sand composition and grain size define the texture of the casting's surface, as do preparations applied to the mold which also facilitate the piece's release from it. At the level of production of the major foundries, multiple working patterns were required for high demand pieces. To insure consistency, a reference, known as a master pattern would be created. Initially carved from wood, it would then be cast in brass, aluminum or other materials. Often, a master pattern would be made up of various component parts, perhaps to ease replication, or to accommodate variations. Tricks Of The Trade While the basics of sand mold casting may extend even to present day automation, there are instances where a good degree of creativity was required to accomplish certain design features. A prime example can be found in the casting of lids with loop handles. As sand must be tightly packed around a pattern to create a mold, loop handles present a unique challenge. As a fixed protruding part of the pattern, a loop handle would not be feasible, as the pattern could not be removed from the sand mold without disturbing the sand packed around it. Through handle designs and casting artifacts one can observe the usage of removable or hinged sections in the manufacture of loop-handled lids. Early loop handles were usually wider at their "attachment" points, and tapered narrower in the middle. In order to facilitate this design, two removable segments were required, one for each half of the handle, as a single piece in this case would still not allow for its removal without disturbing the sand already carefully packed around it. This was achieved by having each half of the handle on the pattern hinged so that they could extricate themselves from the sand mold as the pattern was removed, but without ruining the mold. That two part handle patterns were used is evidenced by the casting line which can often be seen and felt at the apex of such handles. Essentially, most early loop handles are actually two curved prongs whose tips are tightly touching. Later handle designs, while appearing to be aesthetic or ergonomic improvements, were more likely labor saving innovations. Rather than two hinged segments forming the handle, a single handle pattern with a long, linear taper and a gentle curvature could likely have been more easily retracted from the sand mold than the earlier design requiring two pieces. The above is true of lids whose undersides show no evidence of handle attachment. Those that do indicate the maker chose instead to cast the handle as a separate piece in advance, and used a technique to embed it in the sand mold before pouring the iron for the main casting. The molten metal surrounded the tips of the embedded handle, firmly anchoring it once cooled. More About Metal Casting Hand Molding Method of Sand Casting Metal Forming and Foundry Science Sand Casting - Wikipedia FOUNDRY CASTING Making a Sand Mold part 1 TUBALCAIN FOUNDRY CASTING Making a Sand Mold part 2 tubalcain june 09 British Pathé: Casting In Iron (1940-1949) Modern cast iron manufacture at Lodge Official Lodge Cast Iron Foundry Tour Video
Do you know the names and numbers of your teeth? Can you only say “The pointy one in the top right side!” Let’s get to know your teeth better here; it will make you a better communicator with your dental professional – you’ll even be able to pinpoint specific teeth over the phone! The universal numbering system, pictured above, identifies each tooth in a person’s mouth with an individual number. This system references all the teeth that should be in your mouth, so if you have wisdom teeth (or other teeth) which have been removed, those numbers still exist. # 1 is your upper right wisdom tooth. Each tooth then progresses up one number all the way across to the 3rd molar (wisdom tooth) on the left side of the mouth (# 16). #17 will be the lower left wisdom tooth, and counting clockwise, the last tooth will be #32, the lower right wisdom tooth. Because most people do not have 32 teeth, due to wisdom tooth extraction, congenitally missing them or extraction due to un-restorable dental conditions, we will skip over any missing numbers. It is also important to know the names of the teeth! Your front four teeth (7, 8, 9, 10) and your front lower four teeth (23, 24, 25, 26) are incisors. Incisors are mainly used for gripping, cutting and shearing food, and are the first thing a person sees when you flash your smile. Incisors also play a dominant role in speech. Moving further back are the canines (or cuspids).On the upper jaw, canines are also named “eye teeth” because the long root almost points to the eye socket. They are #6 and 11 (upper jaw) and #22 and 27 (lower jaw). Canine teeth are relatively long and pointed, used primarily for holding food while it is being ripped in the mouth.They are an important guide for the bite of your teeth; usually they are the first to wear away. Once canines are worn, other teeth will wear away quickly. Behind the canines lie the bicuspids (or premolars), #4, 5, 12, 13 (upper jaw) and #20, 21, 28, 29 (lower jaw). Bicuspids are a sort of “inbetween tooth,” with the properties of both the canine and molar teeth. These teeth transfer food from the canines to the molars for proper grinding. Finally, the molars make up the rear-most teeth in your mouth. Depending on if you have your wisdom teeth or not, you will have 8 or 12 molars, which lie directly behind the two biscuspids in each quadrant of your mouth, #2, 3, 14, 15 (upper jaw) and #18, 19, 30, 31 (lower jaw). Molars are like a grinding table, carrying out the smashing and grinding of food for digestion. Next time, try to communicate with your dental professional the name or number of your tooth that is being discussed. It would impress and earn great respect from your dental professional, and would also be the first step to knowing your teeth! Once you know your teeth better, you will likely find taking care of your dental health easier more interesting. If you learn these numbers, you will be one step ahead of most people regarding dental communication!
Preparing for Learning Circles takes some time on the part of facilitators. Factors to consider are how new this form or interaction is to the participants, the degree of community building that is required, and the development of a guide or materials that will help the group understand their shared Purpose and Objectives: Learning Circles are used to help groups of people build their knowledge in a collaborative setting with participatory leadership. Learning circles blend individual leadership with collective responsibility. This is a different form of collaborative learning and it is important to understand when this structure is and is not appropriate. Learning circles are ideal where there is an open area of inquiry and a value on distributed learning of the participants. Learning Circles would not be a good choice where there is a highly specified outcome, with well defined protocols for participants to follow. The facilitators may find that the information on this site is sufficient to help orient the participants or they might find it helpful to modify or adapt this information into a handbook or guide that serves a specific purpose. Depending on the audience this guide may take many different forms. For organizing Learning Circles in schools, there is a learning circle guide for teachers that has been modified and adapted to a number of projects and translated into a number of languages. For a list of these, check the opening page of iEARN learning circles. (You are free to use these materials to create your own guide, or evolve your own models, however we ask that you acknowledge the source by including a link to this site.) Here are some prompts to help you develop the purposes and objectives of your learning circle: Participants: Part of the process of getting ready for the learning circle is thinking about how to persuade others to join the circle. The participants will need to be clear on what they will gain by being in a learning circle. Part of circle leadership is helping others to value collective development of social capital. The more people share their resources and learning who has access to what resources, the more effective the organization will be at learning as a group. Working in collaborative processes like learning circles can build the social capital of an organization. Here are some suggestions for how you might present learning circles as a form of workplace learning. Do you have trouble keeping up with all that is happening in our field? Do you feel that you and all of your colleagues are doing the same thing and not moving as fast as you need to? What if we could distribute the learning and find a way to know what our colleagues know? Learning circles are a way to help you learn more effectively, more quickly and more deeply than if you worked alone. It is a way to harness the power of distributed minds to better understand new ideas, develop innovative practices, find better answers to challenging questions or try out new approaches. By working in a circle we share the benefit of reading, thinking, researching and we find collective ways of sharing and storing what we learn.This work builds our shared capacity as an organization to be more innovative and efficient. The first of many decisions will be how many people (or classes) to place in a learning circle. This decision will depend on part in how knowing how likely the participants are to be active in the circle. The size of the circle should optimize the balance between diversity and level of commitment. The larger the circle size the more diversity but the increase in the overall work of the circle. Since each person adds a project to the circle work, the higher the commitment. For most groups, five active individuals or classes is ideal. Depending on how people are assigned to circles, it may take placing 6-12 people in a circle to achieve the goal of five active participants. Here are some questions to consider about participants: Meeting Structure and Technology Designs: While this site describes "online" learning circles, where it is possible for the group to meet face-to-face for some part of the work, there will be a deeper sense of community. If distances prohibit meeting in the same location, the use of video conferencing or voice links will enhance the sense of common purpose and group commitment. There are many free tools to facilitate both "real time" meetings and knowledge building over the internet. Basically there needs to be a place for the group to interact with each other around conceptional artifacts (Berieter, 2004). Finding the right set of social networking tools will be a continual challenge as the set of possible tools evolve rapidly. Currently, a wiki-web space for shared work, a discussion tool, and way to leave both verbal and text messages are needed. You can create short tutorials to share with participants with tools like JING. Here are some questions to consider for structuring the meeting space: Schedule for school-based learning circles Schedule for AEA Researchers where the projects were to create learning circle designs Preparation for the Phases: The first time organizing a learning for a new group is a challenge as everyone will be learning as they work through the process. Once there has been some experience, it will be easier to save examples which help participants understand the structure. Participants in learning circles often like to sponsor ideas that have been successful in the past. So collecting these examples can help create a level of comfort for new circle members. However, participation in learning circles is an exercise in inventive thinking so be careful that your participants don't see the suggestions as a set of choices. It is important to continually emphasize their ownership and leadership and the collective power of the circle to change any part of the process to suit the needs of the participants. Over time, learning circles facilitators and participants realize that they can develop a set of tools and framing messages that can be used with different groups. As each of the phases are introduces, information and ideas for phase letters will be discussed. Here are some questions to consider for preparing to facilitate the circle: Learning circles end. They are short term activities but they may lead to sustained professional development or international relationships among teachers or learners. A second way in which they lead to sustainable action is a schedule for repetition. The learning circles for elementary and high schools have been available every year for over two decades. Some of the same teachers with their classes participate year after year. But each year, it is a new set of people. This continual change leads to innovation in the learning that takes place. l Continue to ...
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| A wage is a form of remuneration paid by an employer to an employee calculated on some piece or unit basis. Compensation in terms of wages is given to workers and compensation in terms of salary is given to employees. Compensation is a monetary benefit given to employees in return for the services provided by them. Determinants of wage ratesEdit Depending on the structure and traditions of different economies around the world, wage rates are either the product of market forces (supply and demand), as is common in the United States, or wage rates may be influenced by other factors such as tradition, social structure and seniority, as in Japan. Even in countries relying primarily on market force to set wage rates, studies show that there are still differences in remuneration for work based on sex and race. For example, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2007 women of all races made approximately 80% of the median wage of their male counterparts. Similarly, white men made about 84% the wage of Asian men, and black men 64%. Wages in the United StatesEdit In the United States, wages for most workers are set by market forces, or else by collective bargaining, where a labor union negotiates on the workers' behalf. The Fair Labor Standards Act establishes a minimum wage at the federal level that all states must abide by, among other provisions. Fourteen states and a number of cities have set their own minimum wage rates that are higher than the federal level. For certain federal or state government contacts, employers must pay the so-called prevailing wage as determined according to the Davis-Bacon Act or its state equivalent. Activists have undertaken to promote the idea of a living wage rate which account for living expenses and other basic necessities, setting the living wage rate much higher than current minimum wage laws require. See also Edit - Compensation of employees - Employee benefit (non-monetary compensation in exchange for labor) - Labour in Economics - List of Average Wages per Country - Performance-related pay - Wage labour - Wage share - Real wage - Minimum wage - List of sovereign states in Europe by net average wage - ↑ - Education 2020 Homeschool console, Vocabulary Assignment, definition entry for "wage rate" (may require login to view) - ↑ U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "Earnings of Women and Men by Race and Ethnicity, 2007" Accessed June 29, 2012 - U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics - Wealth of Nations - click Chapter 8 - Understanding Capitalism Part III: Wages and Labor Markets - Critical of capitalism - U.S. Department of Labor: Minimum Wage Laws - Different laws by State - Average U.S. farm and non-farm wage - LaborFair Resources - Link to Fair Labor Practices - The Truth Behind Wages in Mining - Link to An Article Abouth How Wages are measured and Current Standards for Mining Professionals - Database Central Europe - Data on average wages in Central Europe and in Emerging Markets \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
An international team of researchers has determined from DNA that in addition to Neanderthal and modern man a third species of humans, dubbed Denisovans, lived in Siberia as recently as 30,000 years ago. A draft genome sequence revealed the species to be a sister group of Neanderthal and that a significant amount of the DNA (about 5%) exists in at least some modern day Melanesians. Per the article: "The Denisovans appear to have been quite different both genetically and morphologically from Neanderthals and modern humans. The tooth found in the same cave as the finger bone shows a morphology that is distinct from Neanderthals and modern humans and resembles much older human ancestors, such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus. DNA analysis showed that the tooth and the finger bone came from different individuals in the same population." The findings have been published in the 12-23-10 issue of the journal, Nature.
Stars Form Surprisingly Close to Milky Way's Black Hole George Deutsch/Erica Hupp Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala. Chandra X-ray Center, Cambridge, Mass. News release: 05-166 NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed a new generation of stars spawned by a super-massive black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy. This novel mode of star formation may solve several mysteries about these super-massive black holes that reside at the centers of nearly all galaxies. "Massive black holes are usually known for violence and destruction," said Sergei Nayakshin of the University of Leicester, United Kingdom. "So it's remarkable this black hole helped create new stars, not just destroy them." Black holes have earned their fearsome reputation because any material, including stars, that falls within their "event horizon" is never seen again. These new results indicate immense disks of gas, orbiting many black holes at a safe distance from the event horizon, can help nurture the formation of new stars. This conclusion comes from new clues that could only be revealed in X-rays. Until the latest Chandra results, researchers have disagreed about the origin of a mysterious group of massive stars discovered by infrared astronomers. The stars, orbiting less than a light year from the Milky Way's central black hole, are known as Sagittarius A* (Sgr A). At such close distances to Sgr A, the standard model for star forming gas clouds predicts they should have been ripped apart by tidal forces from the black hole. Two models, based on previous research, to explain this puzzle have been proposed. In the disk model, the gravity of a dense disk of gas around Sgr A* offsets the tidal forces and allows stars to form. In the migration model, the stars formed in a cluster far away from the black hole and then migrated in to form the ring of massive stars. The migration scenario predicts about a million low mass, sun-like stars in and around the ring. In the disk model, the number of low mass stars could be much less. Researchers used Chandra observations to compare the X-ray glow from the region around Sgr A* to the X-ray emission from thousands of young stars in the Orion Nebula star cluster. They found the Sgr A* star cluster contains only about 10,000 low mass stars, thereby ruling out the migration model. Because the galactic center is shrouded in dust and gas, it has not been possible to look for the low-mass stars in optical observations. X-ray data have allowed astronomers to penetrate the veil of gas and dust and look for these low mass stars. This research, coauthored by Nayakshin and Rashid Sunyaev of the Max Plank Institute for Physics in Garching, Germany, will appear in an upcoming issue of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. "In one of the most inhospitable places in our galaxy, stars have prevailed," Nayakshin said. "It appears star formation is much more tenacious than we previously believed. We can say the stars around Sgr A* were not deposited there by some passing star cluster, rather they were born there," Sunyaev said. "There have been theories that this was possible, but this is the first real evidence. Many scientists are going to be very surprised by these results." The research suggests the rules of star formation change when stars form in the disk surrounding a giant black hole. Because this environment is very different from typical star formation regions, there is a change in the proportion of stars that form. For example, there is a much higher percentage of massive stars in the disks around black holes. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for the Science Mission Directorate. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass. For more information about this research on the Web, visit: Additional information and images are available at:
The history of Caribbean Britain cannot be considered separately from that of the rest of the world. The Caribbean people in Britain are closely bound to their ancestral homes in the Caribbean and Africa. Also the British and Caribbean links to other countries, through trade, politics, migration, war and cultural shifts of all kinds, has affected the collaborations, interests and struggles of the people portrayed in this blog. This is where we will analyse the migration history of black Caribbeans who have created their own unique mobile culture. The Africans who were transported to the Caribbean by the British and then relocated to Britain are historically the most dislocated people of the Empire. They have been displaced and dislodged and travelled further within the Empire than any other group of peoples. This blog will documents the lives and achievements of people who migrated from the Caribbean, and people of Caribbean heritage who have lived and worked in Britain between 1960 and 2000. Existing within the heart of the old British Empire these people have been ‘40 years in the wilderness’ and they have their own stories to tell. This is a Caribbean Cultural and Biographical Directory: an intersection of history and geography. Each decade will be discussed in a series of separate entries that will be introduced with an outline of the relevant political and social conditions in Britain and the Caribbean of that period. Significant births, events, and deaths of each decade are noted with major event entries appearing in date order. This is followed by a more detailed summary of events in the six areas of Arts and Entertainment, Business, Media, Politics, Society, and Sport. The individual entries in the biographical section which follows can then be better understood when cross-referenced to these entries. The biographical entries will be linked to the six areas noted above: each entry in these sub-sections refers to an individual. The people referred to are descendants or migrants from the black Caribbean who have lived in Britain. In the framework of this directory the term ‘black’ refers to any individual or group whose identity is defined by reference to visibility in relation to the effects of racial discrimination. This racial discrimination may be on the grounds of their colour, culture, nationality or religious practices. The term ‘black’ incorporates people and groups from evident minority communities, including those with African and / or Asian origins.
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave \|Publisher\|\|Dover Publications, Inc.\| Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is an 1845 memoir and treatise on abolition written by famous orator and former slave Frederick Douglass. It is generally held to be the most famous of a number of narratives written by former slaves during the same period. In factual detail, the text describes the events of his life and is considered to be one of the most influential pieces of literature to fuel the abolitionist movement of the early 19th century in the United States. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass encompasses eleven chapters that recount Douglass' life as a slave and his ambition to become a free man. Douglass begins by explaining that he does not know the date of his birth (February 3, 1818), and that his mother died when he was 7 years old. He has very few memories of her (children were commonly separated from their mothers), only of the rare night time visit. He thinks his father is a white man, possibly his owner. At a very early age he sees his Aunt Hester being whipped. Douglass details the cruel interaction that occurs between slaves and slave holders, as well as how slaves are supposed to behave in the presence of their masters, and that even when Douglass says that fear is what kept many slaves where they were, when they tell the truth they are punished by their owners. At this point in the Narrative, Douglass is moved to Baltimore, Maryland. This is rather important for him because he believes that if he had not been moved, he would have remained a slave his entire life. He even starts to have hope for a better life in the future. At this point, he discusses his new mistress, Mrs. Sophia Auld, who begins as a very kind woman but eventually turns cruel. Douglass learns the alphabet and how to spell small words from this woman, but her husband, Mr. Auld, disapproves, and states that if slaves could read, they will not be fit to be a slave, being unmanageable and sad. Upon hearing why Mr. Auld disapproves of slaves being taught how to read, Douglass realizes the importance of reading and the possibilities that this skill could help him. He takes it upon himself to learn how to read and learn all he can, but at times, this newfound skill torments him. Douglass then gains an understanding of the word abolition and develops the idea to run away to the North. He also learns how to write and how to read well. At the age of ten or eleven, Douglass' master dies and his property is left to be divided between his son and daughter. The slaves are valued alongside with the livestock, causing Douglass to develop a new hatred of slavery. He feels lucky when he is sent back to Baltimore to live with the family of Master Hugh. He is then moved through a few more situations before he is sent to St. Michael's. His regret at not having attempted to run away is evident, but on his voyage he makes a mental note that he traveled in the North-Easterly direction and considers this information to be of extreme importance. For some time, he lives with Master Thomas Auld who is particularly cruel, even after attending a Methodist camp. He is pleased when he eventually is lent to Mr. Covey for a year, simply because he would be fed. Mr. Covey is known as a "negro-breaker," who breaks the will of slaves. While under the control of Mr. Covey, Frederick Douglass bit his hand and has an especially hard time at the tasks required of him. He is harshly whipped almost on a weekly basis, apparently due to his awkwardness. He is worked and was beaten to exhaustion, which finally causes him to collapse one day while working in the fields. Because of this, he is brutally beaten once more by Covey, and eventually complains to Thomas Auld, who ultimately sends him back to Covey. One day, Covey attempts to tie up Douglass, but he fights back. After a long, two-hour physical battle, Douglass ultimately conquers. After this fight, he is never beaten again. Douglass is not punished by the law, which is believed to be due to the fact that Covey cherishes his reputation as a "negro-breaker ," which would be jeopardized if others knew what happened. He is sent to live on another plantation where he befriends other slaves and teaches them how to read. He and the others make a plan to escape, but before doing so, they are caught and Douglass is put in jail. After he was released 2 years later, he is sent to Baltimore once more, but this time to learn how to trade. He becomes an apprentice in a shipyard where he is abused by several white people; then 4 whites nearly gouge out his left eye. When this happens, Douglass goes to Master Hugh, who is kind regarding this situation and refuses to let Douglass return to the shipyard. Master Hugh tries to find a lawyer but all refuse, saying they can only do something for a white person. Sophia Auld, who had turned cruel, felt pity for Douglass and tended to the wound at his left eye until he is healed. At this point, Douglass is employed to be a caulker and receives wages, but is forced to give every cent to Master Auld in due time. Douglass eventually finds his own job and plans the date in which he will escape to the North. He succeeds but does not give details of how he did so in order to protect those who helped him, and to ensure the possibility of other slaves escape. At this point Douglass unites with his fiancée and begins working as his own master. He ultimately attends an anti-slavery convention and supports the cause from then on. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass was published in 1845, and within four months of this publication, five thousand copies were sold. By 1860, almost 30,000 copies were sold. After publication, he sailed to England and Ireland for two years in fear of being recaptured by his owner in the United States. While in Britain and Ireland, he gained supporters who paid $710.96 to purchase his emancipation from his legal owner. One of the more significant reasons Douglass published his Narrative was to offset the demeaning manner in which white people viewed him. When he spoke in public, his white abolitionists established limits to what he could say on the platform. More specifically, they did not want him to analyze the current slavery issues or to shape the future for black people. However, once Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass was published, he was given the liberty to begin more ambitious work on the issue rather than giving the same speeches repetitively. Because of the work in his Narrative, Douglass gained significant credibility from those who previously did not believe the story of his past. While in Ireland the Dublin edition of the book was published by the abolitionist printer Richard D. Webb to great acclaim and Douglass would write extensively in later editions very positively about his experience in Ireland. His newfound liberty on the platform eventually led him to start a black newspaper against the advice of his "fellow" abolitionists. The publication of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass opened several doors, not only for Douglass' ambitious work, but also for the anti-slavery movement of that time. Reactions to the text Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass received many positive reviews, but there was a group of people who opposed Douglass' work. One of his biggest critics, A. C. C. Thompson, was a neighbor of Thomas Auld, who was the master of Douglass for some time. As seen in "Letter from a Slave Holder" by A. C. C. Thompson, found in the Norton Critical Edition of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, he claimed that the slave he knew was "an unlearned, and rather an ordinary negro." Thompson was confident that Douglass "was not capable of writing the Narrative." He also refuted the Narrative when Douglass described the various cruel white slave holders that he either knew or knew of. Prior to the publication of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, the public could not fathom how it was possible for a former slave to appear to be so educated. Upon listening to his oratory, many were skeptical of the stories he told. After Douglass' publication, however, the public was swayed. Many[who?] viewed his text as an affirmation of what he spoke of publicly. Also found in The Norton Critical Edition, Margaret Fuller, a very prominent book reviewer and literary critic of that era, had a very positive opinion of Douglass' work. She claimed, "we have never read [a narrative] more simple, true, coherent, and warm with genuine feeling." She described the preface in which two white men wrote on behalf of Douglass, establishing his credibility in the eyes of the public. She also suggested that "every one may read his book and see what a mind might have been stifled in bondage - what a man may be subjected to the insults of spendthrift dandies, or the blows of mercenary brutes, in whom there is no whiteness except of the skin, no humanity in the outward form . . ." Douglass' work in this Narrative was an influential piece of literature in the anti-slavery movement. - My Bondage and My Freedom (1855), Douglass' next slave narrative memoir - Self-Made Men (Frederick Douglass) - The Heroic Slave, a heartwarming Narrative of the Adventures of Madison Washington, in Pursuit of Liberty, (1852), a fiction book by Douglass based on the experiences of Madison Washington. - As reported in "The Autobiographies of Frederick Douglass" in Phylon by James Matlack, March 1979. - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself in "A Norton Critical Edition" - Judith Mattson Bean, Joel Myerson (2000). Margaret Fuller, critic: writings from the New-York Tribune, 1844-1846, Volume 1. Retrieved January 28, 2011. \|Wikisource has original text related to this article:\| - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML). - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions illustrated) - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass audio book at FreeAudio.org. - James Matlack. "The Autobiographies of Frederick Douglas". Phylon (1960-), Vol. 40, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1979), pp. 15–28. via JSTOR - Zachary McLeod Hutchins "Rejecting the Root: The Liberating, Anti-Christ Theology of Douglass's Narrative. Nineteenth-Century Literature 68.3 (2013): 292-322. - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, a SparkNotes study guide. - Frederick Douglass and the White Negro, a documentary film on Frederick Douglass in Ireland. - EDSITEment's lesson Frederick Douglass Narrative: Myth of the Happy Slave
If you want to convert number to text format, you can use TEXT function to achieve the output. It is one of the most used functions in Excel, providing flexibility the way you want to convert numbers to text. It converts a numeric value into text & allows you to specify the way the value will be displayed. This is a great help when you want to show numbers in readable format or if you want to join digits with text or symbols. There is a negative side of using the TEXT function:it converts a numeric value to formatted text, hence the result cannot be calculated. TEXT: Converts a value to text in a specific number format. value: A numeric value that you want to be converted into text format_text: Text string that defines the formatting that you want to be applied to the given value. Let us understand with an example: To figure out the difference between the number & text in the alignment, you will find the numbers in column A are right aligned whereas numbers in column B are left aligned. The applications/code on this site are distributed as is and without warranties or liability. In no event shall the owner of the copyrights, or the authors of the applications/code be liable for any loss of profit, any problems or any damage resulting from the use or evaluation of the applications/code.
An epiretinal membrane, also known as a macular pucker, is a thin layer of scar tissue that forms over the macula, the center part of the retina that is located at the back of the eye. The macula is the area of the retina that provides clear, sharp central vision. Causes of an Epiretinal Membrane An epiretinal membrane often develops as part of the natural aging process. The vitreous gel, which makes up most of the eye's volume, begins to thin and pull away from the retina. As a result, damage is caused to the retina and leads to the formation of scar tissue on the retina. When the scar tissue contracts, the retina wrinkles, or puckers, causing blurry or distorted central vision. Wrinkling of the retina can be caused by: - Vitreous detachment - Traumatic ocular injury or inflammation - Ocular blood vessel abnormalities - Retinal detachment or retinal tearing Symptoms of an Epiretinal Membrane Patients with an epiretinal membrane may experience difficulty seeing fine details and reading small print, and may also see straight lines appear as wavy. There may also be a gray area or blind spot in the center of the vision. While the cause of the condition is similar to that of a macular hole, an epiretinal membrane is different. A macular hole is usually a much more serious condition that can progressively worsen. Diagnosis of an Epiretinal Membrane After a thorough examination of the eye, a physician at Retina Macula Specialists of Miami will perform a series of diagnostic tests. These tests may include: - Dilated eye examination - Fluorescein angiography - Optical coherence tomography (OCT) Treatment of an Epiretinal Membrane Most cases of an epiretinal membrane do not progress and do not require treatment. The symptoms of distortion and blurriness are usually mild and patients are able to adjust to the vision changes without much impact on their daily lives. Noninvasive treatments such as eye drops or medications will not improve vision that is distorted from an epiretinal membrane. If visual distortion is severe, a vitrectomy may be performed to repair this condition. During a vitrectomy the vitreous humor is removed from the eye followed by the scar tissue. This allows the macula to flatten out into a more normal configuration.
Learn Before You Go - Scientific Name: Edmontonia - Pronunciation: ed-mon-TONE-ee-ah - Name Means: from Edmonton (the formation where the first fossil was found) - Diet: Herbivore - Fossils Found: Montana and Alberta, Canada - Wikipedia: Edmontonia Edmontonia was a herbivore. Paleontologists look at the shape of the teeth and fossilized stomach contents to determine what a dinosaur ate. No stomach contents have been found for Edmontonia yet, but its beak and flat cheek teeth resemble other plant-eating dinosaurs as well as other herbivores alive today. The landscaping along the trail features plants that are related to the plants that lived during the Late Cretaceous period and were likely food sources for herbivores like Edmontonia. Look for ferns, palms, magnolias, and cedars. How are a Panda and an Edmontonia Similar? The Edmontonia on the trail is shown with black-and-white striped spikes. While paleontologists have no information on the color of Edmontonia (or any dinosaur) right now, because even when dinosaur skin is preserved the color pigments are lost, the colors shown on the Edmontonia model are certainly reasonable speculation. You might think the bold patterns on the Edmontonia model would call attention to it. A panda is pure black and white, which you would also think should make it stand out. But in its natural forest environment with alternating spots of sun and shade, the alternating colors actually blend into the shadows more than a single solid color would. Keep that in mind next time you see pandas, porcupines, or boldly colored dinosaurs!
Focus: Why Like Charges Attract Two negatively charged beads floating in water repel one another, but not if they’re near a wall, according to experiments going back to 1994. This and similar puzzling results have led to a long list of complex theories attempting to explain the apparent attraction between like charges in some situations. Now, in the 4 December PRL, a team proposes a simple explanation for at least some of the results: Each bead is repelled by the charged wall, and as it moves away, it drags water–and its partner bead–along for the ride, in a flow that brings the beads together. The team’s computer simulations agree with experiments, and the theory seems to solve the mystery for at least one class of the surprising phenomena. But it remains unclear how other closely related results fit into the picture. One set of experiments by David Grier and Amy Larsen of the University of Chicago in 1997 involved positioning a pair of 1-µm-diameter plastic beads in water at a series of separations using laser tweezers and releasing them many times. Grier and Larsen followed the particle positions with time after release, and found that for certain starting separations–and whenever the beads were close to the chamber’s glass bottom–the negatively charged beads moved toward one another. According to other experiments, large collections of like-charged beads in water can form “crystals” whose properties seem to require that the beads attract one another. The attraction of beads in these cases “completely stands knowledge of electrostatics on its head,” if taken at face value, says Michael Brenner of MIT. Brenner and graduate student Todd Squires of Harvard University realized that the apparent attraction in the Chicago experiments could be caused by movement of the beads away from the glass, which becomes negatively charged in water. That slight vertical motion might not have been picked up in the Chicago team’s automated experiments. From a small bead’s perspective, water is thicker than honey, and as a particle is pushed away from a surface, water is drawn behind it, from both sides, setting up a long-distance fluid flow that could pull in another particle, Squires and Brenner found. Imagine the amount of fluid flow caused by lifting a plate lodged at the bottom of a sink full of water, Squires suggests. The fluid flow is quite different for particles far from a surface. Squires and Brenner worked out the equations and then ran computer simulations of the Chicago experiments. With just one undetermined parameter (the charge on the glass), their results agreed well with the experimental data. “This could very well settle a long-standing controversy,” says Grier, although “the jury’s still out” on the value of that one parameter. According to Grier, most of the other experiments showing anomalous attraction between beads were done in equilibrium, with the beads in Brownian motion around their average positions. The new results don’t directly explain those cases, so there may be some other still unexplained mechanism operating. Some other experts are concerned that a single theory should cover both types of experiments. But David Weitz of Harvard says the paper gives “a very simple and elegant explanation” for the effect and accounts for the data better than any of the complex theories did. “Coulomb is still correct,” adds Weitz. The Larsen/Grier experiments are in Nature (London) 385, 230 (1997).
Jakob and Wilhelm Karl Grimm Facts The brothers Jakob Karl (1785-1863) and Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859) Grimm were German scholars, known for their "Fairy Tales" and for their work in comparative linguistics, which included the formulation of "Grimm's law." The romantic movement in Germany awakened the Germans' interest in the past of their own country, especially its cultural origins, early language, and folklore. Although some work in the rediscovery and edition of medieval German literature had already been undertaken in the 18th century, it was the first generation of romantic poets and theorists about the beginning of the next century, especially Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, and the Schlegel brothers, who first focused national attention on the origins of German culture and literature. While most of the poets viewed medieval literature chiefly as an inspiration for their own writings, others turned their attention to the methodical investigation of the past. The Grimm brothers were the most important of these romantic historians of early medieval language and folklore. Jakob Grimm was born on Jan. 4, 1785, in Hanau. His brother, Wilhelm, was born on February 24 of the following year. As small children, they were inseparable and, aside from a brief period of living apart, they were to remain together for the rest of their lives. Their eventempered dispositions assured cooperation on all the projects they undertook together. The main difference in their personalities seems to be that Jakob, the more robust of the two, had more taste for grueling research work, and it was he who worked out most of their grammatical and linguistic theories. Wilhelm was physically weaker but had a somewhat warmer temperament and more taste for music and literature. His literary talent was responsible for the pleasant style of their collection of fairy tales. The brothers first attended school in Kassel, then began legal studies at the University of Marburg. While there, however, the inspiration of Friedrich von Savigny awakened in them an interest in past cultures. In 1808 Jakob was named court librarian to the King of Westphalia in Wilhelmshöhe, and in 1816 he became librarian in Kassel, where Wilhelm had been employed since 1814. They were to remain there until 1830, when they obtained positions at the University of Göttingen. "Grimm's Fairy Tales" For some years the brothers had been in contact with the romantic poets Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim, who in Heidelberg were preparing a collection of German folk songs. Following their own interests in folklore and legends, the brothers brought out their first collection of tales, Kinder-und Hausmärchen (Tales of Children and the Home), in 1812. These tales were collected by recording stories told by peasants and villagers. Wilhelm put them into literary form and gave them a pleasant, childlike style. The brothers added many scholarly footnotes on the tales' sources and analogs. In addition, the Grimms worked on editing remnants of other folklore and primitive literature. Between 1816 and 1818 they published two volumes of Deutsche Sagen (German Legends), and about the same time they published a volume of studies in early literary history, Altdeutsche Wälder (Old German Forests). In later years their interest in older literature led the Grimm brothers increasingly to a study of older languages and their relationship to modern German. Jakob, especially, began to specialize in the history and structure of the German language. The first edition of his Deutsche Grammatik (German Grammar) was published in 1819. Later editions show increasing development of a scientific method in linguistics. The brothers, and especially Jakob, were also working to codify the relationship between similar words of related languages, such as English apple and German Apfel. Their formulation of the rules for such relationships became known as "Grimm's law." It was later elaborated to account for all word relationships in the Indo-European group of languages. The Grimm brothers were not the first to take note of such similarities, but they can be credited with amassing the bulk of linguistic data and working out the details of the rules. In 1830 the brothers moved to the University of Göttingen, where Jakob was named professor and head librarian and Wilhelm was appointed assistant librarian. As professor, Jakob held lectures on linguistics and cultural history. Wilhelm also attained the rank of professor in 1835. Both were dismissed in 1835 for political reasons:they had joined in signing a protest against the King's decision to abolish the Hanover constitution. They first moved back to Kassel but later obtained professorships at Berlin, where they were to remain until their deaths. Their last years were spent in preparing the definitive dictionary of the German language, tracing the etymological derivation of every word. The first volume, published in 1854, has 1, 824 pages and gets only as far as the word Biermolke. Four pages are devoted to the letter A alone, which is termed "the most noble and primeval of all sounds." The Grimms' dictionary was carried on by generations of scholars after the brothers' deaths, and it was finished in 1960. Its completed form consists of 16 weighty volumes. Wilhelm died in Berlin on Dec. 16, 1859. Jakob continued the work on the dictionary and related projects until his death in Berlin on Sept. 20, 1863. Further Reading on Jakob and Wilhelm Karl Grimm A good biographical study of the Grimm brothers is Murray B. Peppard, Paths through the Forest:A Biography of the Brothers Grimm (1971). Informative brief discussions of their lives and works can be found in more general studies of the German romantic movement. Perhaps the best is Ralph Tymms, German Romantic Literature (1955), which discusses the romantics' attitudes toward folklore and legends. A brief treatment of the brothers, chiefly as editors of the Tales, is also in L. A. Willoughby, The Romantic Movement in Germany (1966). Further helpful discussions, with literary background material, may be found in Oskar Walzel, German Romanticism (trans. 1932).
Cooperation: It’s in the bird’s brain! She asks if she’s overweight, and you wait half-a-second before responding, “Of course not, dear! I’ve just been noticing how slim you look these days.” Any well-schooled husband knows the pitfalls of faltering in this “marital duet.” Video courtesy Science/AAAS And now, we find a similar phenomenon among a singing duet by plain-tailed wrens, natives of the cloud forest in Ecuador. Pairs of these wrens engage in a high-speed duet that relies on perfect timing: She utters a call, and if he chimes in on cue, she sings her part, and the duet continues. If he’s late or silent, she is slow to resume the song. This is cooperative behavior, but close examination also reveals a new mental phenomenon, says Eric Fortune, an associate professor of psychological and brain sciences at Johns Hopkins University. Fortune, first author of a study of the wrens that appears today, says his research “indicates that the full mental representation of the song exists in both birds, even though each one contributes only half of the song.” The study looked at the interaction between the hearing and motor circuits in the brain via a concept called “mirror neurons.” Discovered in 1983 by Dan Margoliash of the University of Chicago, mirror neurons were “a key discovery that has profoundly shaped our thinking,” Fortune says. “He showed that an area of the brain used to control song responded only when the bird heard a playback of its own song, but not of any other bird’s song.” These nerve cells, since seen in people, other primates and birds, are now called mirror neurons. In simple terms, mirror neurons allow a bird that hears its own song to “imagine” singing that song. In the new study, however, the mirror response occurs when an individual in a pair hears both birds singing — a sound that each bird cannot produce by itself. In 2006, scientists identified the plain-tailed wren’s song as a two-part composition that required cues from both partners. “When we heard about these wrens, where one-half of the song is produced by the female, and the other half by the male, we thought, ‘This is amazing. Here’s a song this bird has learned completely in the sensory part of the brain, but it has only half of the motor program.'” How could this work? To unravel the sensory-motor linkage, Fortune, with Gregory Ball of Johns Hopkins and Melissa Coleman of Claremont McKenna College, recorded pairs of plain-tailed wrens, manipulated the songs in various ways, and then played them back. They found that the birds not only sang in pairs, but sometimes also sang solo, making the same calls it would otherwise contribute to the duet, but with altered timing. They found that when a male flubbed his lines, the female might continue to sing, but with a measurable delay. “She’s waiting for him, then gives up and sings anyway,” Fortune says. The birds were basing their behavior on what they heard — not very surprising. But the fascinating part emerged from the fact that they were engaged in a truly cooperative, back-and-forth behavior that was deeply embedded in the mirror neurons. Such cooperation, also evinced by dancers and musical ensembles, requires each party to know its own part, but the brain studies showed that they knew much more than that, says Fortune, who is also a visiting professor at Catholic University in Quito, Ecuador. “Both birds had very similar patterns of activity. The neurons responded most strongly to the combined song, not to their own part. The brain knows that they were trying to do this together.” Got my eye (and ear) on you, mister! Although Fortune says the songs are probably used to defend territory, he suspects she is also checking him out, gauging his evolutionary fitness, much as female birds rate a fellow’s feathers. “The female is testing the male’s ability to cooperate,” Fortune says. “She produces a long song, and the male has to work hard to insert his syllables at exactly the right time.” These wrens, he says, “are wired to cooperate. There is a set of rules and the male’s job is to respond rapidly and accurately to the female’s challenge.” It’s not just feathery guys that fail to respond on cue, and the evolutionary significance could extend far beyond birds. “This happens a lot in people,” Fortune speculates. “Why do women get annoyed when you forget their birthday? They are challenging your neural circuitry. It’s not like flexing your muscles; they are probing your brain. That’s a stronger cue for sexual selection.” Bringing it back to birds, Fortune says, “It’s most surprising that these animals have a memory of their cooperative behavior in the brain, which includes the performance of another animal; this had not been shown before on a neurological basis. You can take their own half of the song, and play it back, and the motor neurons fire,” but the response is much more powerful when the bird hears the full, two-part song. — David J. Tenenbaum Terry Devitt, editor; S.V. Medaris, designer/illustrator; Jenny Seifert, project assistant; David J. Tenenbaum, feature writer; Amy Toburen, content development executive - Neural Mechanisms for the Coordination of Duet Singing in Wrens, Eric S. Fortune et al, 4 November 2011, Science ↩
How To Teach Spelling On Learning LevelsAmerican English is not a difficult language to learn if the right approach is taken with the basics of the language. In beginning to learn this language it might be of interest to know that in grades 1 and 2 of elementary school a child learns 700 spelling words. In grade 3 there are an additional 915 words added to the language basics and then each year from grades 4-9 there are 1000 words per year that are added. By the end of the 9th grade a total of 6,615 words are in the vocabulary of the learner. During this same learning time, rules of the language are used to make use of the American English language an easy flow for the learner. Each student learns at a different level and at a different time so the value of knowing a simple system is primary to the success of the person trying to learn American English. That can be a child or an adult. Anyone who is learning American English but who speaks a different language in the home can experience a difficulty in becoming good at English. This is because of the constant switch between the languages giving less practice with speaking the English language and using the English rules of sentence structure. English is best learned with enough practice so it becomes easier to flow with the new language if English is the 2nd language being learned. While children find learning different languages easier, anyone can learn to speak and use American English fluently with just a little bit of effort in learning and applying the basic spelling of the 6,615 words that form the foundation of the language and then using the few rules of American English sentence structure. A unique multilevel spelling program for American English was developed by an elementary teacher as a result of a 12 year old sixth grader who was struggling with spelling because he was only spelling at a second grade level and his family spoke a different language at home. He also was struggling with reading since students who have trouble spelling often function at a lower reading level. In an effort to assist this young child, words that matched the second grade reading level were developed and given to the child who was able to ace the next spelling test. He was so happy he cried for joy because he had never received a 100 score before. That perfect spelling score proved to be a turning point in the young child's education. He went on and worked diligently and continued to steadily improve. The language arts program that was the tool that this elementary teacher used to help this young man then was used for other students some challenged by the language and some who were bored with where they were asked to learn who found the regular spelling program for the grade level they were on far too easy for them. Online access to the material is available 24/7. Those interested can see what is included in the language lessons on learning level by reviewing the information at http://waystoteachspelling.com The pretest to determine the beginning learning level can be purchased at http://waystoteachspelling.com/pretest This information is valuable whether you have your own spelling program in place or decide to move forward with the lessons provided on learning level in this recommended language arts program.
Daily Schedule & Curriculum \|\|6 weeks - 24 months \|\|Kari Stetler & Karey Bayba\| \|\|2 - 3 1/2 years \|\|Rachel Hansard & Kheidi Davis\| \|\|3 - 4 1/2 years \|\|Alicia Utke \| \|\|4 - 5 1/2 years *Ages may vary. e.g. Bunny (2 to 2 1/2), Playhouse (2 1/2 to 3 1/2), and Rainbow (3 1/2 to 5) from Creative Curriculum: For Pre-School, Diane T. Dodge;Laura Colker; Kate Heroman; Teaching Strategies, Washington, DC. 2002, Fourth Edition, direct quotes from pages 19-22 & 530. - Social/Emotion Development Goals - There are three goals for social/emotion development: - Achieving a sense of self: knowing oneself and relating to other people-both children and adults. - Taking responsibility for self and other: following rules and routines, respecting others, and taking initiative. - Behaving in a pro-social way: showing empathy and getting alone in the world for example, by sharing and taking turns. - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Sense of Self": - Shows ability to adjust to new situation - Demonstrates appropriate trust in adults - Recognizes own feelings and manages them appropriately - Stands up for rights - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Responsibility for Self and Others": - Demonstrates self-direction and independence - Takes responsibility for own well-being - Respects and cares for classroom environment and materials - Follows classroom routines - Follows classroom rules - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Pro-Social Behavior": - Plays well with other children - Recognizes the feelings of others and responds appropriately - Shares and respects the rights of others - Uses thinking skills to resolve conflicts - Goals for Physical Development - There are two goals for physical development: - Achieving gross motor control: moving the large muscles in the body, especially the arms and legs, consciously and deliberately. Gross motor control includes balance and stability; movements such as running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and skipping; and physical manipulations such as throwing, kicking, and catching. - Achieving fine motor control: using and coordinating the small muscles in the hands and wrists with dexterity. As these fine muscles develop, children are able to perform self-help skills and manipulate small objects such as scissors and writing tools. The achievement of fine motor skills generally lags behind gross motor development. - Goals/Objectives to Achieve for "Gross Motor": - Demonstrates basic locomotors skills (running, jumping, hopping, galloping) - Shows balance while moving - Climbs up and down - Pedals and steers a tricycle(or other wheeled vehicle) - Demonstrates throwing, kicking, and catching skills - Goals/Objectives to Achieve for "Fine Motor": - Controls small muscles in hands - Coordinates eye-hand movement - Uses tools for writing and drawing - Goals for Cognitive Development - There are three goals for cognitive development: - Learning and problem solving: being purposeful about acquiring and using information, resources, and materials. As children observe events around them, ask questions, make predictions, and test possible solutions, learning reaches beyond just acquiring facts. Persistence and knowing how to apply knowledge expands their learning even further. - Thinking logically: gathering and making sense of the information by comparing, contrasting, sorting, classifying, counting, measuring, and recognizing patterns. As children use logical thinking, they organize their world conceptually and gain a better understanding of how it works. - Representing and thinking symbolically: using objects in a unique way, for instance, a cup to represent a telephone, a broom to represent a horse, pretending, for instance, to be mommy or a firefighter; portraying the world through charts or pictures, for instance, making a graph to show changes in the weather over time a drawing to show what happened to a character in a story. Representations and symbols free children from the word of literal meaning and allow them to use materials and their imagination to explore abstract ideas. - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Learning and Problem Solving": - Observes objects and events with curiosity - Approaches problems flexibly - Shows persistence in approaching tasks - Explores cause and effect - Applies knowledge or experience to a new context - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Logical Thinking": - classifies objects - Arranges objects in a serious manner - Recognizes patterns and can repeat them - Shows awareness of time concepts and sequence - Shows awareness of position in space - Uses one-to-one correspondence - Uses numbers and counting - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Representation and Symbolic Thinking": - takes on pretend roles and situations - Makes believe with objects - Makes and interprets representations - Goals for Language Development - There are two goals for language development: - Listening and speaking: using spoken language to communicate with other, enlarging one’s vocabulary, expressing oneself, understanding the oral speech of others, participating in a conversation, and using language to solve problems. As children learn to listen and speak, they gain control of themselves and their world, relate effectively to other, and gather and store more and more information. - Reading and writing: making sense of written language, understanding the purpose of print and how it works, gaining knowledge of the alphabet, writing letters and words. When children begin to read they gain access to new worlds of information and faraway places, including the world of imagination. Writing things down expands memory, communication, and understand. - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Listening and Speaking": - Hears and discriminates the sounds of language - Expresses self using words and expanded sentences - Understand and follows oral directions - Answers questions - Asks questions - Actively participates in conversations - Goals/Objectives to Meet for "Reading and Writing": - Enjoys and values reading - Demonstrates understanding of print concepts - Demonstrates knowledge of the alphabet - Uses emerging reading skills to make meaning from print - Comprehends and interprets meaning from books and other texts - Understands the purpose of writing - Writes letters and words
Vitamin C Background and Benefits Vitamin C is a collective term for a group of structurally similar compounds that are based on the ascorbate anion (C6H8O6). It is an essential nutrient in humans, meaning that it is necessary for life and cannot be synthesized in the body. In addition to free ascorbate, vitamin C compounds also include ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbic acid and many of their salts and esters. Ascorbic acid and ascorbate readily interconvert in the body, depending on the pH. Fruits and vegetables are generally abundant sources of vitamin C. The camu camu fruit and Kakadu plum have the highest concentrations of vitamin C. However, citrus fruits such as oranges are the most abundant sources of vitamin that are widely available. Organ meats such as liver also have high levels of vitamin C. Vitamin C is a cofactor in multiple enzymatic reactions, especially those dealing with collagen synthesis. It also has strong antioxidant properties that help to protect cells from oxidative stress, which can cause a variety of age-related conditions. All plants and animals require vitamin C, but only a few of them are unable to biosynthesize it. Humans and guinea pigs are the most notable exceptions, as are most bats and some other primates. L-ascorbic acid is the most common form of vitamin C used in health supplement, primarily because of its low production cost. However, more expensive forms such as ascorbyl palmitate and calcium ascorbate have greater antioxidant activity. Ascorbyl palmitate (C22H38O7) is an ester of ascorbic acid and palmitic acid that is commonly known as vitamin C ester. It is primarily used to add vitamin C to both health supplements and food additives. Ascorbyl palmitate breaks down into its individual components during digestion, allowing the ascorbic acid to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid, which makes ascorbyl palmitate fat soluble. This property allows palmitic acid to penetrate cell membranes, enhancing ascorbyl palmitate’s antioxidant effect. Calcium ascorbate is the calcium salt of ascorbic acid and has the chemical formula CaC12H14O12. It is a natural form of vitamin C and is also a source of calcium, since calcium comprises about 10 percent of its mass. Calcium ascorbate breaks down easily in the stomach and the HCL converts the ascorbate ion to ascorbic acid. This process allows vitamin C to be quickly absorbed into the bloodstream without increasing the acidity in the stomach. Uses of Vitamin C The benefits of vitamin C as a health supplement generally relate to its antioxidant properties and its role in collagen synthesis. These benefits include support for the immune system, cardiovascular system, healthy blood pressure and joint function. Immune system support High doses of vitamin C may support the immune system by shortening the duration of systemic infections. Most studies show that this regimen may reduce the course of a cold by at least one day. Joint health support Calcium ascorbate supplements may help to retain healthy levels of cartilage in the joints, especially for older people. Oral supplements of vitamin C may support cardiovascular health by helping to manage the rate at which calcium is deposited into the arterial walls. This may be a preventative as well as a therapeutic effect.Vitamin C may help to maintain healthy circulation, especially systolic pressure. Signs You May Need Vitamin C Signs you may need vitamin C are generally the result of unstable collagen. The first signs of a vitamin C deficiency are often brown spots on the skin that gradually increase in size. Additional signs include soft gums and spontaneous bleeding from mucous membranes. A prolonged vitamin C deficiency can cause open wounds on the skin. Synonyms and Similar Forms of Vitamin C Ascorbic acid, Ascorbyl palmitate
What is a National Bank? A national bank is a bank that is a member of the Federal Reserve system and the FederalInsurance . How Does a National Bank Work? For example, let's say Company XYZ is a bank. To become a national bank, it must receive a charter from the Comptroller of the Federal Reserve for more on how this works). The bank also receives coverage for its depositors, meaning that most depositors' be protected even if Company XYZ goes bankrupt.and pay premiums to the . In return, the bank can become a member of the Federal Reserve and thus borrow from the Federal Reserve when necessary (see our definition of The Federal Reserve is the bank for the U.S. Treasury. In this capacity, local Federal Reserve banks hold receipts and make payments on behalf of the Treasury. The Federal Reserve banks maintain Treasury savings bonds.accounts, clear checks drawn against the Treasury, and manage the physical issuance, servicing and redemption of Treasury securities and Why Does a National Bank Matter? National banks have existed since the 1860s, when the U.S. implemented the National Bank Acts of 1863 and 1864. The U.S. didn't have a consistent national government bonds. (National bank notes don't exist anymore.)then, and the laws allowed chartered banks to their own bank that were backed by U.S. National banks hold the vast majority of the country's real estate development.. Until 2004, they were almost never allowed to underwrite insurance or engage in merchant banking or
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
Hepatitis is simply an inflammation of the liver, which can be caused by many reasons. Viral Hepatitis, as the name suggests, is caused by a virus, and there are currently five individually identified viruses, Hepatitis virus A through E, which can cause this disease. The most common viruses that cause Hepatitis in the United States are Hepatitis A, B, and C. The illness resulting from all three of these viruses is similar but also different in many aspects. Hepatitis A spreads from a fecal-oral transmission route, while Hepatitis B and C are blood-borne viruses. Hepatitis A only causes acute inflammation of the liver, while both Hepatitis B and C can cause acute and chronic Hepatitis. Hepatitis A and B are preventable with a vaccine, but there is no vaccine for Hepatitis C. There is also a difference in their individual risk factors, treatments, and prognosis. Viral Hepatitis caused by all three viruses is similar in pathology, but almost all other aspects of the disease caused by these viruses are different. HEPATITIS C VS HEPATITIS A AND B All three viruses, Hepatitis A, B, and C, cause liver inflammation that is termed Hepatitis. The underlying pathology is the same: the virus infects a cell's genome and takes over its protein-creation mechanism. This way, the virus survives inside host cells replicating its way to immortality until the host cells die of damage and exhaustion. The result of all three types of Hepatitis mentioned above is a damaged liver that cannot perform its normal functions. However, all three of these viruses are very different in many aspects. For starters, Hepatitis C and B can be both acute and chronic. It means that both of these viruses can cause a short-term illness that either resolves on its own or develops into a long-term illness. Hepatitis C is much more likely to cause the chronic phase of Hepatitis than Hepatitis B. However, Hepatitis A only causes an acute illness that lasts for almost 6 months and then resolves independently. As is evident, a disease caused by Hepatitis A is usually much milder than that caused by the other two viruses. The way these viruses are transmitted is also different. Hepatitis C and B are both blood-borne viruses, which spread when a person comes into contact with infected blood. Hepatitis B can also spread when a person comes into contact with other infected bodily fluids, such as semen or breast milk. On the other hand, the Hepatitis A virus has a fecal-oral route of transmission and spreads most commonly through infected food made or handled by someone who does not care for their hygiene as much as they should. Since the transmission route is different for all three of these viruses, their risk factors are also different. Blood transfusions, sharing needles, unprotected intercourse, and getting tattoos and piercings are risk factors for Hepatitis B and C, while consuming street food is a common risk factor for Hepatitis A. Similarly, Hepatitis C is prevented by lowering the risk factors listed above, while Hepatitis A and B both have an effective vaccine against them. Since Hepatitis C and B both cause the acute and chronic phases of the disease, their symptoms are almost similar. However, Hepatitis C is much more likely than Hepatitis B to cause liver fibrosis (formation of scar tissue in the liver due to prolonged disease) and liver carcinoma. Hepatitis A, on the other hand, only causes the symptoms of an acute phase, which may include abdominal pain, nausea, jaundice, and diarrhea. Hepatitis C is treated with direct-acting anti-retroviral drugs (DAA). In contrast, Hepatitis A and B are treated with supportive measures, such as bed rest, fluid rehydration, and abstaining from alcohol and medication passing through the liver. The chronic phase of Hepatitis B is also treated with DAA drugs. CAN YOU GET HEPATITIS WITH MORE THAN ONE VIRUS AT A TIME? Yes. It is possible to get infected with more than one type of Hepatitis virus at one time. Hepatitis B, C, and D viruses are all transmitted through blood and therefore have the highest likelihood of co-infecting a person at one time. Dual infections or triple infections are common with these Hepatitis viruses. Fulminant Hepatitis, a severe liver inflammation, is caused by a co-infection with Hepatitis B and D virus. Similarly, a person can have both Hepatitis B and C at the same time as well. HOW IS HEPATITIS DIAGNOSED? The diagnosis of Hepatitis involves a series of steps that help a physician eliminate all possible differential diagnoses along the way. Your doctor will first take a detailed history of your presenting symptoms. This may include questions about any abdominal pain that you might be feeling, questions about your past medical history, and questions about your family history as well. Once a detailed history is taken, you will undergo a physical examination. Your doctor may try to look for any abdominal tenderness, signs of jaundice, abdominal distension, or other related signs pointing to a diagnosis of Hepatitis. Your doctor may order multiple investigations to confirm a diagnosis of Hepatitis. Blood tests are very useful in detecting Hepatitis. There are two kinds of blood tests that aid in this diagnosis: an antibody detecting test and a surface antigen detecting test. Antibody detecting test confirms the presence of antibodies against the Hepatitis virus. However, these tests cannot discern whether the antibodies are due to a current ongoing infection or a past infection that may have been resolved on its own or by treatment. Surface antigen detection tests are useful in confirming the presence of active viral Hepatitis. Surface antigens are detected when an ongoing viral infection is infecting the liver. Both of the blood tests are extremely useful in diagnosing Hepatitis accurately. Imaging studies are also very helpful in establishing a diagnosis of Hepatitis. Ultrasound provides very useful information and confirms the diagnosis. Similarly, MRI and CT scans also show radiographic changes consistent with an active liver infection, but they are a little expensive. In some cases, a liver biopsy may be necessary to diagnose Hepatitis. THE CHRONIC PHASE OF HEPATITIS Viral Hepatitis mostly has both an acute phase and a chronic phase. The disease is labeled chronic when the disease process lasts for more than 6 months. Chronic liver disease has a different set of symptoms than those of the acute phase. Most of these symptoms are silent, meaning that the patient is not always aware of the damage caused to the liver in chronic disease. Once chronicity develops, the most frequent outcome for the liver is to undergo cirrhosis. Cirrhosis of the liver results when the disease process continues to damage the tissues, replacing healthy tissue with scar tissue. Scar tissue cannot perform normal tissue function, so a healthy liver's function is gradually lost. Symptoms of liver cirrhosis may include: - Decrease in appetite - Drastic weight loss - Itchy skin - Tenderness in the abdomen - Distension of the abdomen - Ankle swelling Liver cirrhosis may result in complete scarring and ultimately liver failure. Liver failure results in a complete shutdown of the liver and its functions. Liver failure is an emergency and needs urgent medical care. Liver cirrhosis may also allow the development of hepatic carcinoma, i.e., liver cancer. COMPLICATIONS CAUSED BY HEPATITIS Hepatitis can cause multiple complications if left untreated. Some of these complications appear short-term. However, other complications can have lasting effects and can persist for much longer. Sometimes, these complications can even cause irreversible damage, such as liver fibrosis and scarring. Liver failure is one of the most dreaded complications of Hepatitis. Hepatitis B, C, and D can all cause liver failure depending on the severity of the infection. Liver failure can cause all sorts of problems because the liver performs some of the most important functions in the body. One of the most serious effects of liver failure is coagulopathy. The liver manufactures important clotting factors that function to maintain hemostasis. A failing liver can't manufacture these clotting factors as effectively as needed, and thus, the patient starts to lose blood due to internal bleeding. This is characterized by bruising all over the body. This is a serious medical emergency and needs to be corrected immediately. Chronic Hepatitis can trigger immune responses that damage other organs of the body as well. For example, a complication of chronic Hepatitis includes glomerulonephritis, where hyperactive immune response causes damage to the kidneys and inflames them. Portal hypertension may develop as a result of chronic Hepatitis. Portal hypertension develops when the liver undergoes cirrhosis. The follow-up to portal hypertension is ascites, i.e., fluid buildup in the abdominal cavity. Massive ascites can be troublesome for the patient in multiple ways. Hepatic encephalopathy can also develop once a liver undergoes failure following a chronic course of the disease. Hepatic encephalopathy is simply the inflammation of the brain. The patient may experience delirium, confusion, loss of memory, altered conscience, and even go into a coma.
Opossums are one of America’s most notorious scavengers. Feasting on the scraps from garbage bins, roadkill, and virtually any small animal that crosses their path, it’s only natural to assume that these marsupials are prone to catching deadly diseases that can be spread amongst other animals and humans. Their unusual appearance doesn’t exactly help this assumption. That assumption is partly true. Opossums are prone to a variety of diseases that can be spread to other animals, domestic pets, and humans, but what about the biggest disease of all – rabies? What Exactly Is Rabies? Rabies is a rare but dangerous disease that is spread from the scratch, bite, or exposure to saliva from an infected animal. The most common animals that catch rabies are foxes, rabbits, bats, and skunks, all of which can easily infect a domestic dog, which can then lead to human infection. Fortunately, there is a vaccination and similar treatments for infected individuals. If left untreated, the infected animal or human will cause inflammation to the brain, which leads to a variety of horrible symptoms. In America, the most common source of rabies infected amongst humans is from bats and domestic dogs. So…Can Opossums Get Rabies? While it’s not impossible, the Opossum has many genetic traits that significantly reduce its ability to contract rabies. And, in the unlikely event it does contract the rabies virus, an opossum is likely to recover without spreading the virus. Here is a look at a 2013 breakdown of reported rabies cases: - 1,898 raccoons (32.4%) - 1,598 bats (27.2%) - 1,447 skunks (24.7%) - 344 foxes (5.9%) - 247 cats (4.2%) - 86 cattle (1.5%) - 89 dogs (1.5%). in this same report, 2 opossums total, were included in “other” wildlife. It’s a common misconception that opossums can catch and spread rabies like other scavenger animals (such as raccoons and skunks) due to their exposure to bacteria and other potential viruses. How Opossums Respond to Rabies Exposure The reason why opossums aren’t as likely to contract rabies or die from rabies, is because opossums have a naturally low body temperature. Rabies requires a particular body temperature to survive – in fact, the virus cannot survive in most normal temperatures. It seems ironic that for an animal like an opossum that exists off scavenging for food that they probably won’t get rabies, but their scavenging lifestyle means that their immune systems have evolved to serve them well. This immune system will slow down the multiplication of the virus, so even if the viral parts manage to linger in the opossum’s low-temperature body, it probably won’t multiply enough to be a real risk. Even if an opossum catches rabies, the virus isn’t likely to survive in the marsupial due to their low body temperature which is an inhabitable environment for the virus to survive and spread. Still, this doesn’t mean that it’s impossible for an opossum to not catch and spread rabies. Young opossums will have a weaker immune system compared to their adult counterparts, which makes them more prone to catching any type of disease. And opossums with an elevated temperature become susceptible. What Diseases Do Opossums Carry? Just because the chances of an opossum getting rabies are very small, it doesn’t mean they are immune to other diseases. Sure, these marsupials might have a strong immune system due to their scavenging lifestyles, but they’re not exempt from other nasty infections and viruses. Here are some of the most common diseases carried by opossums: Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) Opossums are known to carry and transmit bovine tuberculosis amongst deer and cattle, which is why these marsupials are considered vermin to some farmers. The most common symptom of tuberculosis are large boils that are filled with the bacteria, which then leads to weakness, enlarged lymph nodes, fever, and even death. Leptospirosis is a blood infection carried by wild animals that can affect dogs and humans. The bacteria are generally spread by exposure to bodily fluids such as urine found in contaminated bedding, plants, soil, foods, and water. This infection spreads to the liver and kidneys resulting in liver and kidney failure, and can be treated with antibiotics. This is why it’s really important to have your dogs up to date on Lepto vaccines…especially if they have access to possum (or rats) on a regular bases. Opossums can carry one of the most common bacterial infections in the world – salmonella. This is mostly because opossums will eat virtually anything, including contaminated foods, and they often won’t exhibit symptoms of the illness themselves due to their strong immune systems. If a human comes into contact with an infected opossum or anything it has contaminated, however, this can spread the bacteria, leading to vomiting and diarrhea. You can read more about salmonella here. If a human comes into contact with an opossum or its fleas, they could catch tularemia, which results in a horribly high fever. Some cases have led to an ulcer or even pneumonic tularemia, which can lead to difficult breathing. As with virtually any animal, opossums are prone to catching fleas. This is an inevitable problem due to their scavenging lifestyles – especially if they consume flea-ridden roadkill. This is why most people don’t like to have opossums in their backyards where the fleas could latch on to domestic animals like dogs and cats. As for ticks, definitely read this article here about opossums and ticks. To conclude, it is very rare for an opossum to get and spread rabies. This is because rabies thrives in animals with a high body temperature, and while opossums are scavengers that can pick up a multitude of bacteria, their low body temperature means their bodies are an inhospitable environment for rabies to thrive. If you see an opossum playing dead, foaming at the mouth, or swaying around as if it is sick – don’t worry too much. This is a defense mechanism adapted by opossums to trick predators into thinking they are sick. That doesn’t mean to approach the opossum. Use good sense and leave the animal alone or be on the safe side and call animal control.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the Variability Chart Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is commonly used to analyze experimental results. We often experiment to find out what factors have a significant impact on a response variable. For example, we might want to know if temperature and/or the type of material have a significant impact on battery life. Just like most techniques, it takes some thought to determine how to design the experiment and how to interpret the results. There are different types of ANOVA designs: crossed, nested and mixed. Designs can have different types of factors – fixed or random – or a mixture of the two. The analysis method changes depending on the type of design and factors that you have. Misclassify and you may draw the wrong conclusions. ANOVA will tell you which factors have a significant effect on a response variable. But it doesn't tell you what the factors should be set at to optimize the response variable. A variability chart can be used to help do this. In this issue: - ANOVA Definition - Hypothesis Testing in ANOVA - The Experimental Design - Crossed and Nested Designs - Fixed and Random Factors - The ANOVA Table - Variability Chart - Quick Links The SPC for Excel software was used to analyze the results in this publication. This software includes ANOVA for up to 5 factors as well as the variability chart. Please feel free to leave a comment at the end of this publication. You can also download a pdf copy of this publication at this link. ANOVA is a statistical technique that determines if the means of two or more treatment combinations are the same. It is basically used to analyze the results of a properly planned experiment to find out if certain factors impact a response variable. Hypothesis Testing in ANOVA The null hypothesis in an ANOVA is that all treatment means are the same. If µi is the mean for one treatment combination out of k treatment cominbations, then: H0: µ1 = µ2 = µ3 = µ4 = .... = µk H1: µi ≠ µj where H0 is the null hypothesis and H1 is the alternate hypothesis. The alternate hypothesis is simply that not all the means are equal. The Experimental Design One of the simplest types of ANOVA involves only two factors. This is the example that we will use in this publication. It is from Design and Analysis of Experiments, 6th Edition by Douglas Montgomery. In this example an engineer is designing a battery that will be subjected to some large variations in temperature. The engineer wants to test three different materials to be used for the plate. He has no control over the temperature in the field but can control them in the laboratory. He selected three temperatures that represent the range of temperatures that the battery will see in the field (15, 70 and 125 °F). So, the engineer has selected the factors to include in the design (two factors: temperature and material) and the levels for each factor (material: 1, 2 and 3; temperature: 17, 70, 125). The factors are the independent variables in this experiment. The response variable is battery life – the dependent variable in this experiment. In generic terms, the factors are often represented by capital letters, e.g., A and B in this case. The levels of each factor are represented by small letters with subscript numbers, e.g., a1, a2, etc., represent the levels of factor A; b1, b2, etc. represent the levels of factor B. A treatment combination represents the levels of each factor where an experimental run is done, e.g., a1b1 is the experimental run when factor A is at its level a1 and Factor B is at is level b1. It sounds like this experiment is going to determine what impact temperature and material have on battery life, if any. This is true, but there is more. There is something referred to as interaction effects. Interaction effects represent the combined effects of factors on the response variable. If there are only two variables, like temperature and type of material, you are investigating not only the effect of temperature and material but also the interaction effect of temperature and material. This effect is denoted by temperaturematerial or AB. If there is an interaction effect present, the impact of material on the battery life depends on the level of temperature. There can be interaction effects for any number of factors. For example, if you have three factors, you will have the main effects of each factor by itself (A, B and C) as well as the two-factor interactions (AB, AC, BC) and the three-factor interaction (ABC). The next thing the engineer must decide is how many times he wants to replicate each treatment combination. The replications are used to determine the "normal" variation in the process. This "normal" variation is used to determine if any of the treatment means are significantly different, as you will see below. The engineer decides to replicate each treatment combination 4 times. The experimental runs are conducted in a random order. The results from the experiment are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Battery Life (Hours) Results Crossed Designs and Nested Designs A design is crossed when every level of a factor occurs in a treatment combination with every level of the other factors. In our example, every level of material occurs with every level of temperature. This design is crossed. The layout for the design in Table 1 is shown in Table 2 below. Table 2: Crossed Design with Four Replications The first treatment is for A = 1 and B = 1. The four replications are given as Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4. It is easy to see that every level of A is associated with each level of B during the experiment. It is not always possible though to have each level of a factor occur with every level of the other factors. In this case, you will use a nested design. This occurs when fewer of all levels of at least one factor occur with each level of the other factors. Table 3 is an example of a two-factor nested design with four replications. Table 3: Nested Design with Four Replications The only difference between Tables 2 and 3 are the levels of B. In the crossed design, the three levels of B are repeated for level of A. In the nested design, this is not possible and each level of A is combined with different levels of B. If Factor B is nested within Factor A (as in Table 3), then a level of Factor B can only occur within one level of Factor A. Here is an example of a nested design. You have three suppliers for a raw material you use in your process. You want to see if there is a difference in purity of the raw material they send you. The suppliers are Factor A in this case. For each supplier, you select 3 batches. This is Factor B. You select four samples from each batch. This is the design shown in Table 3. Just to complicate things a little bit, you can have a mixed design where you have both fixed and nested combined. An example is shown in Table 4 for Factor A with three levels, Factor B with two levels, and Factor C with 12 levels. Table 4: Mixed Design with Four Replications In this design, Factors A and B are crossed – each level of B occurs in each level of A. This is not true for Factor C. It is nested under Factors A and B. Fixed and Random Factors Factors in ANOVA are either fixed or random. And it does make a big difference because the analysis is will change depending on the type of factors. A fixed factor is controlled. In our example, there are three temperature levels. These are controlled. You only care about the results from these temperatures. You are not trying to say anything about all the other temperatures. A random factor has many possible levels, and you are interested in exploring all the levels. You can't include all the levels in the design, so you randomly select levels to use in the design. Fixed factors and random factors require a different type of analysis. If you misclassify a factor, you can generate incorrect results. The ANOVA Table The results are presented in an ANOVA table. It is a method of summarizing data from an experimental design. It divides the sources of variation into two major categories: within treatment combinations and between treatment combinations. The objective is to determine if there are any differences between treatments. This is done by comparing the variance between treatments with the variance within treatments. If the variance between treatments can be explained by the within variance, we will conclude that there are no differences between the treatments. If the variance between treatments cannot be explained by the within variance, we will conclude that there are differences between the treatments. The ANOVA table for battery life is shown below in Table 5. This is a crossed design with fixed factors. Table 5: ANOVA Table for Battery Life (Crossed Design) \|Source\|\|Sum of Squares\|\|Degrees of Freedom\|\|Mean Square\|\|F\|\|p Value\| The first column is the source of variation. The ANOVA table separates the between treatment variation (temperature, material, and temperaturematerial in the table) from the within treatment variation (within in the table). The second column is the Sum of Squares (SS). The SS is a measure of the variation that is attributed to each source of variation. The calculations for this example are shown below. These calculations assume that this is a crossed design with fixed factors, where a = number of levels of factor A, b = number of levels for factor B and n = the number of replications. Also, the value of Ai is the sum of the results when A is at level i. Bj and ABij are found similarly. The "Within" source is often called "Error." The third column contains the degrees of freedom (df). It is a measure of how much independent information you have. For a main factor, like A, it is given by the number of levels for factor A minus 1. For interaction factors, like AB, the degrees of freedom are the degrees of freedom for Factor A times the degrees of freedom for Factor B. So, with the total number of samples = 36, the degrees of freedom are given by: df A = a – 1 = 2 df B = b – 1 = 2 df AB = (a – 1)(b – 1) = 4 df Error = (N – 1) – (df A + df B + df AB) = 27 df Total = N - 1 The fourth column contains the mean square values for the various sources of variation. These are obtained by dividing the sum of squares for each source by the degrees of freedom for each source. The treatment mean squares (e.g., A, B and AB) represent the variation between sample means. The mean square error (MSE) is obtained by dividing the "within" sum of squares by the "within" degrees of freedom. The MSE represents the variation within the samples. The mean squares are used to determine if a source is statistically significant. This is done by calculating the F value for each source. For the crossed design with fixed factors, this is done by dividing each mean square for a source by MSE, the mean square error. For example, the F value for factor A is: F for Factor A = Mean Square for Factor A/MSE = 19559/675.2 = 28.968 The F values are shown in the fifth column. The sixth column is key to determining which factors or interactions have a statistically significant impact on the response variable. This column contains the p value for the F value. This represents how likely it is that you could get the calculated F value if the null hypothesis of no difference in means was true. The smaller the value, the more likely it is that the null hypothesis is not true. Quite often, the p value is compared to alpha = 0.05. If the p value is less than alpha, then the null hypothesis is rejected. In this example, the p value for temperature, material and the interaction of temperature*material is less than 0.05. All are statistically significant and impact battery life. If you would like to see the calculations for one factor ANOVA, please see our SPC Knowledge Base article One Factor ANOVA. The Variability Chart The ANOVA table tells you which factors and interactions significantly impact the response variable. But it doesn't tell you what levels are best. It is helpful to construct a chart that plots the results. The variability chart does this. The variability chart plots the following: - Individual sample results - Treatment averages - Subgroup averages - Overall mean The variability chart for the battery life experiment is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Variability Chart for Battery Life This variability chart groups the results by temperature and shows the results for each level of material. The individual black squares are the sample results (4 replications per treatment condition). The blue diamonds are the average of each treatment condition (the average of the 4 replicates). The blue line is the average of the results for each temperature in this case. The green line is the overall average. The variability chart shows that the lower temperature (15) gives longer battery life. It averages around 140+ hours while the temperature of 70 averages around 105 and the temperature of 125 averages around 60+ for the three materials. You can see the interaction between temperature and material in this figure as well. As you move up each temperature level through the three materials, you see different responses. For 15 degrees, there is little difference in the average battery life regardless of material type. For 70 degrees, the average battery life increases as you move from material 1 to material 3. For 70 degrees, the battery life is highest for material 3. If there is no interaction, you would expect the change in response to be the same, not different as shown in the figure. It appears that a temperature of 15 and material type 3 (across all temperatures) gives the best result for battery life. You can switch the factors on the x-axis to make it easier to see different factors. Figure 2 shows the variability chart with the results grouped by material. Figure 2: Variability Chart with the Results Grouped by Material The conclusions are still the same, it is just sometimes easier to see the results by looking at the different views the variability chart gives you. This publication examined the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine what factors and/or interactions significantly impact a response variable. The variability chart was used to determine what the factor levels should be to give the optimized response variable. An example using a crossed design and fixed factors was used to demonstrate this. Designs can be crossed, nested or a mix of the two. Factors used in a design can be fixed, random or a combination of the two. Thanks so much for reading our publication. We hope you find it informative and useful. Happy charting and may the data always support your position. Dr. Bill McNeese BPI Consulting, LLC Connect with Us Root Cause Analysis - << Return to Categories - Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the Variability Chart - Analyzing Cause and Effect Diagrams - Correlation Analysis - Creating Cause and Effect Diagrams - Failure Mode and Effects Analysis - Linear Regression (Part 1) - Linear Regression (Part 2) - Scatter Diagrams - Scatter Plot Matrix - Single Factor ANOVA - Stepwise Regression - Understanding Regression Statistics – Part 1 - Waterfall Charts SPC Knowledge Base Click here to see what our customers say about SPC for Excel! SPC Around the World SPC for Excel is used in 80 countries internationally. Click here for a list of those countries.
Students enter words in the gaps, based on the context within a given article, individually or collaboratively. This activity helps improve your vocabulary and sentence structure and your communication skills. Type: Individual or Group collaboration Instructions: Click on the gap and type in a word. Click on the light bulb icon (if any) for help. The words of sentences are scrambled and students must sort them into their original order. This activity helps you study sentence structure by providing you with genuine text and allowing you to select suitable materials to practice on. Instructions: Put the bold words in the correct order by drag-drop them into the correct position. This activity is for image collections only. A randomly chosen image is shown to one player (called the "describer"), while the other player (the "guesser") must identify it by asking questions. This activity helps improve your communication skills and vocabulary. Type: Collaboration in pairs Instructions: The "describer" sees a single image and describes it to their partner through the chat box. Based on what their partner says, the "guesser" selects one of the images by double-clicking. Both score a point if it is the correct image. If a timer is shown, the "guesser" must make their choice before time runs out. Students collaborate to predict words they think will occur in a given text, This activity provides a learning environment in which you help each other by sharing information and exchanging ideas. Type: Group collaboration Instructions: In the text box, type your guesses of what words you think might be in the article. Use the title and/or image to help you think of words.
Imagine for a moment that today is September 1, 2056, and you have been charged to investigate the status of mathematics instruction in elementary, middle, and high schools. What will you find? What mathematics will be taught? How will teachers teach? How will students learn? Will the mathematical knowledge and skills that are taught be directed toward students becoming mathematically proficient? Will you see that the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics’ (NCTM) vision for school mathematics has been realized? Imagine a classroom, a school, or a school district where all students have access to high-quality, engaging mathematics instruction. There are ambitious expectations for all, with accommodation for those who need it. Knowledgeable teachers have adequate resources to support their work and are continually growing as professionals. The curriculum is mathematically rich, offering students opportunities to learn important mathematical concepts and procedures with understanding. Technology is an essential component of the environment. (NCTM, 2000, p.3) Will the vision of the National Research Council (NRC, 2001) be implemented in a way that all students can become mathematically proficient, a proficiency that is an integration and balanced development of five key strands: conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition? Will technology play a role in the development of this mathematical proficiency? Will the technology be an integral component or tool for learning and communication within the context of mathematics, as called for by the National Education Technology Standards for Students (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2000)? Will students be learning about various technologies as they learn mathematics with the technologies? Will students be actively engaged in mathematics using technologies as productivity, communication, research and problem-solving and decision-making tools? Time will tell! The challenge lies in the actions that must occur to move toward these visions by 2056. Perhaps one of the most critical respondents for actualizing this vision is the mathematics teacher. What will these teachers need to know and be able to do? Here in 2006, most teachers have not learned mathematics using technology tools. So the question now is to identify what and how to prepare mathematics teachers to teach in the 21st century. What do teachers need to know and be able to do and how do they need to develop this knowledge for teaching mathematics? Technology Pedagogical Content Knowledge In 1986, Shulman proposed a more in-depth look at what teachers must know in order to teach, highlighting that future teachers need to be prepared to be able to transform that subject matter content through teaching strategies to make that knowledge accessible to learners. To teach, teachers need to have developed an integrated knowledge structure that incorporates knowledge about subject matter, learners, pedagogy, curriculum, and schools; they need to have developed a pedagogical content knowledge, or PCK, for teaching their subjects. But for technology to become an integral component or tool for learning the subject, teachers must also develop “an overarching conception of their subject matter with respect to technology and what it means to teach with technology – technology pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)” (Niess, 2005, p. 510). To be prepared to teach mathematics, then, teachers need an in-depth understanding of mathematics (the content), teaching and learning (the pedagogy), and technology. More importantly, however, they need an integrated knowledge of these different knowledge domains, the overlap and integration of these domains. TPCK for teaching with technology means that as teachers think about particular mathematics concepts, they are concurrently considering how they might teach the important ideas embodied in the mathematical concepts in such a way that the technology places the concept in a form understandable by their students. The challenge is to identify teacher preparation programs that lead toward the development of TPCK for teaching mathematics. Grossman (1989, 1991) developed four central components as a means of thinking about PCK; Niess (2005) extended these components as a means of clarifying TPCK development for teacher preparation programs: - An overarching conception of what it means to teach a particular subject such as mathematics integrating technology in the learning. - Knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching particular mathematical topics with technology. - Knowledge of students’ understandings, thinking, and learning with technology in a subject such as mathematics. - Knowledge of curriculum and curriculum materials that integrates technology with learning mathematics. Teacher Preparation and Professional Development How will current teachers have the opportunity to develop a TPCK for teaching mathematics? How should the teacher preparation programs guide their students in developing this TPCK? These questions are plaguing teacher preparation and professional development programs alike. The students and teachers have, at best, a limited knowledge of potential technologies for use in mathematics. And, more importantly, they have not learned mathematics with these technologies. Beck and Wynn (1998) described the integration of technology in teacher preparation programs through a continuum that on one end there is a course separate from the teacher preparation program and on the other end technology is integrated throughout the program. Niess (2005) examined the development of TPCK in a program that integrated teaching and learning with technology throughout a science and mathematics program. This program modeled integration of technology with teaching of mathematical concepts, guided student teachers in designing lessons, and practiced teaching the lessons with their peers and taught the lessons in their student teaching. Margerum-Leys and Marx (2002) studied the impact of field practices on broadening the development of TPCK through attention to the importance of the student teaching placement. They argued that from a constructivist perspective, “opportunities for authentic experiences are a necessary condition” for this learning to occur (p. 434). Other researchers, including Pierson (2001), Mishra and Koehler (in press), and Zhao (2003), have provided additional support and direction for the importance of the development of TPCK as an important body of knowledge for teaching specific subject matter and for the importance of integrating its development within the coursework in teaching and learning, as well as within coursework directed at developing subject matter knowledge. A vision for implementing lesson processes that improve instruction is possible through reflective practice. For the preservice programs, though, much more research needs to clarify essential conditions for the development of TPCK and to develop guidelines for integrating technology and the development of TPCK through content courses, methods courses, assessment courses, and pedagogy courses as well as in student teaching. As summarized in a technology position statement prepared by the Technology Committee for the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (2005) and approved by the AMTE Board (2006), teacher preparation programs need to focus on strengthening the preservice teachers’ knowledge of how to incorporate technology to facilitate student learning of mathematics through experiences that: - Allow teacher candidates to explore and learn mathematics using technology in ways that build confidence and understanding of the technology and mathematics. - Model appropriate uses of a variety of established and new applications of technology as tools to develop a deep understanding of mathematics in varied contexts. - Help teacher candidates make informed decisions about appropriate and effective uses of technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics. - Provide opportunities for teacher candidates to develop and practice teaching lessons that take advantage of the ability of technology to enrich and enhance the learning of mathematics. TPCK is an important body of knowledge for teaching mathematics, for the importance of integrating its development within the coursework in teaching and learning, as well as within the coursework directed at developing knowledge of mathematics. For the preservice programs, much more research needs to clarify the essential conditions for the development of TPCK and develop guidelines for integrating technology with teaching and learning of mathematics in content courses, methods courses, assessment courses, and pedagogy courses, as well as in student teaching. For in-service teachers, this coursework must be focused in professional development programs dedicated to helping the teachers become knowledgeable about the technology while being challenged to integrate technologies in their teaching. These programs need to recognize and emanate from the teachers’ experiences and provide them with extended experiences in teaching mathematics with technology. More research is needed to provide the frameworks for professional development programs toward developing TPCK for in-service teachers. This research must build on critical aspects for high quality professional development. Sparks and Hirsh (2000) highlighted the importance of sustained, rigorous, and cumulative programs directly linked to what teachers do in their classrooms. In concert with the idea of providing authentic experiences, these professional development programs need to provide in-service teachers with opportunities to collaborate in planning lessons, to practice and share new teaching methods, and to practice solving problems with peer teachers. Recognition of the success of peer-coaching and peer observations in their classrooms is essential. Unraveling the Complexities: Challenging Research Areas and Questions Preparing teachers to teach mathematics with technology is far more complex than identifying TPCK as an important knowledge base for teachers. Several areas highlight the complexities and the challenges for mathematics education researchers. What Technologies Are Tools for Learning Mathematics? Technology has become an essential tool for doing mathematics in today’s world. It can be used in a variety of ways to improve and enhance the learning of mathematics. As NCTM (2000) highlights in its standards, technology can facilitate mathematical problem solving, communication, reasoning, and proof; moreover, technology can provide students with opportunities to explore different representations of mathematical ideas and support them in making connections both within and outside of mathematics (NRC, 2000). Which technologies make useful tools for learning and communicating mathematics? Since their emergence, calculators have stimulated an ongoing debate among educators. They appear to be tools for adults to use as they wish but not for children to use in learning mathematics. The challenge continues for mathematics educators to investigate how calculators may be used as tools to think with rather than as tools to replace thinking. What will the use of calculators at all grade levels mean for teaching mathematics? How do calculators and similar technologies influence students’ developing knowledge of mathematical processes? Are students mindlessly using these technologies? Or are they thinking about mathematics differently? What is the minimum mathematical knowledge needed before a student can use calculators to meaningfully explore mathematical understandings of specific concepts? Spreadsheets are often described as a mathematical tool. They offer access to advanced functions for exploration of problems. But should students understand the mathematics behind the functions before making use of the functions? How can students’ development of mathematics be supported by an integration of the development of their knowledge of designing spreadsheets? Designing solutions to problems with spreadsheets seems to mirror the issues that surround the development of programming in computer science. If teachers do not guide students in the design of spreadsheets, students are more apt to create spreadsheets that are not reliable when changes are made in some of the cell values. Thus, the result is a spreadsheet that only solves one problem reliably. Can spreadsheets be designed to dependably and reliably solve more than one problem? What mathematics can students learn as they learn to design spreadsheets to generalize problems? Geometer’s Sketchpad and some applets provide students with wide-ranging opportunities for mathematical exploration and sense-making. With these tools students are encouraged to make mathematical conjectures and use the dynamic capabilities to visualize an idea under a wide variety of situations. Do students develop the idea that they are proving their conjecture? Is their conception of mathematical proof influenced by these explorations? What mathematics are students learning as they use these tools for exploration and problem solving? What About Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs About Teaching Mathematics With Technology? These technologies are only examples. What other technologies are available or are emerging that might support learning mathematics? Teachers need to be prepared for exploring the current and emerging possibilities. They need to develop a professional attitude of evaluation and reflection about tools for teaching mathematics – a thoughtful visioning that investigates and considers the impact of the tools for teaching mathematics. Niess, Lee, and Kajder (in press) identified six important areas of questions for which teachers must be prepared: - Curricular needs in mathematics in the 21st century. Can the technology be used as a productivity, communication, research or problem-solving and decision-making tool for learning in the subject area? Does the technology offer the capabilities to facilitate technology-enhanced experiences that address subject matter content standards and student technology standards? Does the technology offer capabilities that challenge the accepted standards, opening the possibility for a shift in what students need to know to be productive citizens in the 21st century? - Instructional needs in mathematics in the 21st century. Can the technology support learner-center strategies for learning the subject? Can use of the technology as a learning tool help students develop a more robust understanding of the content? Can the technology address the diverse needs of students in learning the subject? How must the instruction be scaffolded to guide student learning with and about the technology? - Student learning in the 21st century. Can the technology engage students in important experiences that support their learning? Can the technology provide multiple perspectives for the students to view of mathematics? Can the technology be applied to developing students’ higher order thinking and reasoning skills? Can the technology maximize student learning? - Unique capabilities of the new tool. What are the capabilities of the tool? How are these capabilities useful in accomplishing 21st century skills? Do the capabilities challenge accepted ways of knowing and doing? What must be learned before incorporation of the tool as a learning tool? - Student knowledge, access, and management concerns. Will inclusion of the new tool create student access issues? What preparation must be provided for students working with the technology as a tool for learning? What management issues need consideration if the tool is incorporated in the classroom situation? - Assessment and evaluation with the new tool. How will assessment of students’ learning of mathematics be affected by the incorporation of the new tool? Will performance assessments be important to demonstrate students’ knowledge of the content with use of the new tool? What Are the Barriers? Although billions of dollars have been spent on technologies for schools, access continues to be labeled a major barrier. Many studies have documented this barrier, but on the other hand, in some situations where technology is readily available, some teachers do not know how to take advantage of it and still others are against it. Is lack of knowledge of integration the barrier or is the issue the teachers’ beliefs about how mathematics is to be learned? Norton, McRobbie, and Cooper (2000) investigated this question by studying a mathematics staff in a technology-rich secondary school where the technology was rarely used in teaching mathematics. Their results suggested that these teachers’ resistance was related to their beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning and their existing pedagogies. In essence then, knowledge and beliefs may be the actual barriers. Perhaps these teachers are either uncomfortable with technology, are unsure how to incorporate technology into their curricula, or have not seen examples of effective use. The result challenges teacher educators as they identify requirements to support the development of TPCK through the student teachers’ program. While some programs simply make the requirement and provide access through classroom sets to be used during student teaching, others are more carefully investigating the classroom barriers. Garofalo and Bell (J. Garofalo, personal communication, January 15, 2005) at the University of Virginia plan to provide their secondary mathematics and science student teachers with a laptop, projector, and Smartboard for use during field practice with actual students. Their plan is to study the role of student teachers’ beliefs and TPCK on classroom use of technology when access is less of an issue. Continued research needs to be undertaken to expose real barriers so that teacher preparation and professional development programs are to be able to deal with the issues. What are some areas to search in teaching and learning mathematics? Mathematics anxiety is certainly an issue in mathematics education. Does mathematics anxiety extend to technology anxiety? What about the discontinuity in the mathematics curriculum from precollege to college level? Students at the precollege level have relatively few opportunities to use technology in learning mathematics. But when they enter college they are confronted with a ubiquitous incorporation of technology in learning mathematics. Calculators are expected. Students need to be able to readily use MATLAB as a tool for developing mathematical models for solving problems. How will students’ mathematics technological toolkit develop if teachers in the precollege level are resistant to teaching mathematics with technology? Another barrier is the knowledge base about how students learn and how to design the curriculum that supports students in learning mathematics with technology. Will students learn about the technologies on their own or will teachers have to carefully scaffold learning about technologies within the mathematics instruction? Does Vygotzky’s Zone of Proximal Development have importance in this area? What are other issues for student learning? What about the knowledge, skills, and beliefs of mathematics teacher educators? And, of course, the same needs to be asked of the mathematicians who are teaching the college level mathematics courses. A Research Agenda The National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (ISTE, 2002) provided a framework for a research agenda around technology integration in teaching and learning mathematics. The question(s) are provided only to initiate discussions about theory, research, and projects in each standard: - Technology operations and concepts. What are the general operations and concepts for all technologies and how do they apply to mathematics-specific technologies? What mathematics-specific concepts are important in technologies? - Planning and designing learning environments and experiences. What strategies are essential when guiding students in learning particular mathematics concepts with specific technologies? - Teaching, learning, and the curriculum. How should student learning about the technologies be scaffolded with learning mathematics? Should students learn mathematics concepts before using the technology tools? - Assessment and evaluation. How is assessment different in a technology-rich educational experience? - Productivity and professional practice. How do teachers’ develop the professional attitude toward continuing to develop their TPCK? - Social, ethical, legal and human issues. How do mathematics teachers deal with a diversity of access to technologies? The research agenda needs to consider each of these areas, along with learning and teaching mathematics, if teachers are to develop a TPCK for teaching mathematics. Ultimately, mathematics teacher preparation programs must ensure that all mathematics teachers and teacher candidates have opportunities to acquire the knowledge and experiences needed to incorporate technology within the context of teaching and learning mathematics. The mathematics strand of SITE is designed to encourage the sharing of theory, research, and applications of results from innovative projects that result in the distribution of uses of information technology in mathematics teacher education, along with instruction in preservice, in-service, and graduate teacher education and faculty and staff development. The immediate concern regards teachers and teacher candidates who have primarily learned mathematics without the use of technologies as tools for exploring mathematics. However, as Everett Rogers (1995) explained, teachers need to progress through a five-step process in the process of facing the ultimate decision as to whether to accept or reject a particular innovation for teaching mathematics with technology: - Knowledge, where teachers become aware of integrating technology with learning mathematics and has some idea of how it functions. - Persuasion, where teachers form a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward teaching and learning mathematics with technology. - Decision, where teachers engage in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject teaching and learning mathematics with technology. - Implementation, where teachers actively integrate teaching and learning with technology. - Confirmation, where teachers evaluate the results of the decision to integrate teaching and learning with technology. Thus, as more and more teachers teach mathematics with technology as a tool, the shift must be toward the evolving issues more directly focused on student learning of mathematics – evaluating the results of the decision and its impact on the mathematics curriculum and instructional strategies needed so that all students are able to learn mathematics. Ultimately, if technology is used to improve the learning of mathematics at all levels, students will be better prepared to use technology appropriately, fluently, and efficiently to do mathematics in technology rich environments in which they will study and work in the future. Will this result be in effect in the mathematics classroom in 2056? Time will tell! Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators’ Technology Committee. (2005). Preparing Teacher to Use Technology to Enhance the Learning of Mathematics (draft position statement). Beck, J. A., & Wynn, H. C. (1998). Technology in teacher education: Progress along the continuum. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 424 212). Grossman, P. L. (1989). A study in contrast: Sources of pedagogical content knowledge for secondary English. Journal of Teachers Education, 40(5), 24-31. Grossman, P. L. (1991). Overcoming the apprenticeship of observation in teacher education coursework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7, 245-257. International Society for Technology in Education. (2000). National educational technology standards for students: Connecting curriculum and technology. Eugene, OR: Author. International Society for Technology in Education. (2002). National educational technology standards for teachers: Preparing teachers to use technology. Eugene, OR: Author. Margerum-Leys, J., & Marx, R. W. (2002). Teacher knowledge of educational technology: A study of student teacher/mentor teacher pairs. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 26(4), 427-462. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (in press). Designing learning from day one: A first day activity to foster design thinking about educational technology. Teacher’s College Record. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Research Council. (2000). How people learn. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Niess, M. L. (2005). Preparing teachers to teach science and mathematics with technology: Developing a technology pedagogical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 509-523. Niess, M. L., Lee, J., & Kajder, S. (in press). Guiding learning WITH technology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Norton, S., McRobbier, C. J., & Cooper, T. J. (2000). Exploring secondary mathematics teachers’ reasons for not using computers in their teaching: Five case studies. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(1). Pierson, M. E. (2001). Technology integration practice as a function of pedagogical expertise. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(4), 413-429. Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press of Simon & Schuster Inc. Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (2000). A national plan for improving professional development. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from the National Staff Development Council Web site: http://www.nsdc.org/library/authors/NSDCPlan.cfm Zhao, Y. (Ed). (2003). What teachers should now about technology: Perspectives and practices. Greenwich, Ct: Information Age Publishing. This editorial was originally posted on the Web site for the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education, 2006 (http://site.aace.org/pubs/foresite/MathematicsEd.pdf). The original version has been edited for publication in CITE Journal. 1,040 total views, 1 views today
The purpose of this lesson is to heighten the awareness of the public about oil spills and the environmental issues they can cause. Learners will actively participate in an advertising campaign advocating for legislation to protect wildlife from human caused disasters like oil spills.... Filter by subjects: Filter by audience: Filter by unit » issue area: find a lesson Unit: Oil Changes Everything Unit: Animal Shelters This lesson will allow learners to voice their thoughts on and reflect on this unit, the activities contained in it, and their animal welfare service project. They will have an opportunity to share their new knowledge with their peers, family members and other adults. Unit: You Light up My Life The purpose of this lesson is to increase the learners’ knowledge of various types of renewable energy. The learners will research those resources and develop a plan for an area to implement its energy stewardship. This lesson introduces children to the understanding that people have different ideas/priorities about how to spend money (or time) as well as the value of money (or time). Students compare ways they would like to spend money (or time), and consider perceptions of money around the world.... Raise the learners' awareness of responsible energy usage in their school. Learners propose ways to promote environmental stewardship of renewable and non-renewable energy sources. To produce paintings or drawings that represent their “Dream of Peace” and that are submitted to an art competition. A teacher using this lesson can look for art competitions locally or nationally that are sponsored by a museum, organization, or school district; a teacher might... Unit: What Respect Means to Me Learners define respect first without any input from the teacher or class discussion. Then as a group, they discuss the meaning of respect and differentiate it and contrast it with disrespectful behavior to self and others. Through an introductory pre-test, the learners will establish their prior knowledge of key terms and concepts important to creating and sustaining a democratic society. The learners then will expand this knowledge and understanding through guided reading and presentations. This lesson provides students with insight into the reasons why people flee their homes and what nonprofits and individuals do to support these vulnerable people and help them rebuild their lives. Through video and research, students gain the opportunity to imagine the life of a refugee, his/her...
Could space be the best medicine for COVID-19? Earlier today a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket blasted-off to the International Space Station (ISS) with two American astronauts on board, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken, who will live and work there for a few months as part of Expedition 63. Why is exploring space so important to understanding our health on Earth—including COVID-19? “The ISS is a laboratory and our astronauts perform experiments every day to study how the body adapts in space,” says Dr. Saralyn Mark, who served as a Senior Medical Advisor to NASA for 18 years and led two decadal reviews to study the effects of sex and gender on adaptation to space. “The human body adapts very quickly and very dramatically to space—every single system changes; cardiovascular, muscular skeletal, neurosensory, immunological, even the reproductive system and behavioural health.” That’s similar to COVID-19, which appears to impact every single system in the body. “It’s forcing us to take a multi-system evaluation, just as we do when we look at health in space,” says Mark. Astronauts and microgravity She cites how the human body adapts to microgravity; it quickly loses bone mass—as much as 3-5% in just a month—just as hospitalised patients often do. A loss of bone mass means a loss of muscle mass, which means rehabilitation for astronauts after they return from space. “What we’ve learned from space has correlates for how we take care of patients who become extremely debilitated, and certainly with COVID-19, patients can be,” said Mark. Astronauts’ bodies change quickly in space. “The body changes in space—fluid flows from the legs to the brain—and some astronauts experience space-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS),” said Mark. SANS is associated with increased pressure in the brain, and can result in impaired vision, which is generally more severe in male astronauts. A potential cause of SANS is the cephalad distribution of fluid; fluid shifts from legs to brain in space, which can result in “moon facies”—a puffy face—and even nasal congestion impairing the sense of smell and taste (though equally in men and women). Patients with COVID-19 have also reported a loss of smell and taste. “Space sickness” is something else; that occurs generally early on in the flight and is caused by a disconnect between what the inner ear and eyes are sensing. Astronauts with “space sickness” can experience nausea and vomiting, but it tends to resolve as the body adapts to microgravity. Space medicine and gender differences That’s similar to COVID-19, where sex and gender differences also haven’t gone unnoticed; men are twice as likely to die from COVID-19, across all age groups, compared to women. “There are a whole variety of biological and behavioural reasons for that—women tend to be more resistant to infection, and when they are affected they tend to mount very robust responses,” said Mark, who founded iGIANT (which stands for “impact of gender and sex on innovation and novel technologies”), a non-profit accelerator for gendered innovation across health, IT, transportation and retail sectors—including PPE, medications and vaccines. “We're studying sex differences in space with regard to the immune system.” Astronauts and PPE There’s another, connected issue; personal protective equipment (PPE), which has been a big issue during the COVID-19 crisis. Just as spacesuits don’t fit female astronauts well, PPE doesn’t fit female health care workers well, which could be why 73% of the 9,000 healthcare workers infected in the U.S. are women. Astronauts and isolation Another example of how the experience of astronauts can help the fight against COVID-19 is isolation and extended separation. After all, astronauts are isolated from their family members and their loved ones for months at a time. “There are important lessons to be gleaned from the space program on how you maintain connection to your loved ones from a distance,” said Mark. Assessing how people cope with isolation, how they interact, their mood, their sleep patterns—it’s all live research in space medicine. Space medicine and vaccines Mark also mentions research into vaccines on the ISS. “Space allows you to grow cells in three dimensions because of microgravity and that may play a role in vaccine development,” she explains. “Space is an incredible platform for studying cell growth.” Space medicine and telehealth Another correlate between the ISS and COVID-19 is telemedicine/telehealth/remote diagnosis. It’s all the rage now, but it’s been going on at NASA since human spaceflight began. “When Neil Armstrong landed on the surface of the Moon he had a very fast heart rate—it was a very dramatic example of how the health of astronauts has been monitored from afar since the beginning of the space program,” said Mark. “That was the genesis of telehealth.” NASA’s ‘Twins Study’ NASA’s famous “Twins Study,” published in 2019, discovered that extended spaceflight affects the human gut microbiome. The subjects were Scott Kelly, the first American astronaut to spend nearly one full year in space from 2015 through 2016, and his identical twin brother, retired astronaut Mark Kelly, who acted as the baseline for observation on Earth. Scott Kelly experienced a shift in the ratio of two major categories of bacteria in his gut microbiome, probably caused by microgravity. Gut health affects digestion, metabolism and immunity. More recently, changes in the microbiome have been linked to changes in bones, muscles and the brain. “We cannot send humans to Mars without knowing how spaceflight affects the body, including the microbes traveling with humans to Mars," said Northwestern University’s Fred W. Turek, who led the microbiome study. "And we need to know sooner rather than later. The plan is to send people to Mars in 2035, so we cannot wait until 2033 to gain this information." If today’s launch is a step forward into a new era of human spaceflight, that’s only going to be a good thing for human health. “I hope that as we democratize space and everyone can have an opportunity to experience space travel that there will be an enhanced interest in the benefits of space exploration even for our lives on Earth,” said Mark. “The SpaceX launch is a monumental step in that direction.” Wishing you clear skies and wide eyes.
The incredibly diverse Rocky Intertidal Ecosystems are located on rocky shores ranging in the area of land that is exposed between high and low tide. This is a very extreme environment that has selected for organisms that are uniquely adapted to tolerate both exposure to air and high wave action, among other physical environmental factors. Frequent disturbance makes this a stressful habitat to live in, but intensity of stress varies among the high-, mid-, and low-intertidal zones. The high-intertidal zone, ending at the landward region of the intertidal zone, experiences the most extreme conditions and can be exposed to air and sunlight for long periods of time between high and low tide. Organisms that live in this region, including barnacles, limpets, chitons, and other encrusting species, are tough critters that have to withstand desiccation (loss of water) and sun exposure (over-heating). The mid-intertidal zone experiences the most frequent disturbance because it is submerged and exposed while the tide goes out and comes back in. In geographic areas that have semi- or mixed-diurnal tides, such as the western coast of the US, intertidal zones are exposed to two high and two low tides per day. This subjects organisms living in the mid-intertidal zone, including mussels and fucoid algae, to four periods of intense wave action per day. These organisms must develop strong attachment techniques to avoid dislodgment from the rocky shore, which would ultimately lead to death. The low-intertidal zone, the least stressful zone that is submerged in water for the majority of the day, is home to eel grass, sponges, and tunicates. Without the imminent threat of forceful waves, many delicate invertebrates thrive in the low intertidal.
Prek 4 ( Adele Leeds ) F is the letter of the week. We’ll take a nature walk and look for signs of Fall: orange, red, yellow and brown leaves, acorns and the squirrels and chipmunks collecting them. We’ll be busy at project time making flags, fish( with our handprints ), frogs and the faces of our families. We’ll practice writing Fs, 4s and 5s and use goldfish for a math counting/ addition activity. To challenge the childrens’ visual observation skills and introduce the concept of symmetry, I’ll give each child a paper with one half of a jack-o-lantern face and ask the child to complete the picture by drawing the missing parts of the face to match the other side. Ask your child to do the “Five Little Pumpkins” poem and finger play. We’ll be practicing it at circle time! The children are working so well in their workbooks and on their worksheets! Prek 3 ( Susan Adesina ) Overall goal: To explore the season of Fall. Learn to identify and explore general,items associated with Fall harvest and farming FRIDAY : Fall party In- school Fire visit THEME – Leaves, trees and pumpkins This week each child will be encouraged to join in and participate during singing, story time and circle time. They will also be encouraged to play with each other in a kind and respectful manner. ENGLISH- Letter “G” and its sound, naming as many “G” words as we can. MATH – We will be continuing to practice counting 1-10 and putting the numbers in order. Writing numbers 1 to 5. pointing to each object as we count- idea of one to one correspondence. we will review days of the week. STORY-“The three Billy Goats Gruff” by Paul Galdone CIRCLE TIME ACTIVITIES- “G” words, color recognition, shape recognition ( especially triangle, square and rectangle) – number math and days of the week. We will read at least one story each day. ART AND CRAFT PROJECTS: - Make a GARDEN with 3 GOATS eating GREEN GRASS - “G” collage - Leaves, trees and pumpkin picture,counting objects in our picture. HEALTH- What is exercise and how do we stay healthy?
That's Not Cool: Healthy and Respectful Relationships Online Level: Grades 7 to 8 About the Author: Matthew Johnson, Director of Education, MediaSmarts Duration: 1-2 hours This lesson is part of USE, UNDERSTAND & CREATE: A Digital Literacy Framework for Canadian Schools. In this lesson, students begin by considering one of five scenarios that illustrate unhealthy relationship behaviours relating to digital media: pressuring others to share private content, cyberstalking, harassment and abuse of trust. Students then relate the scenarios to their own experience by brainstorming other examples of these behaviours and voting on which they feel are most relevant to their lives. The teacher then leads a guided discussion on the reasons why unhealthy behaviours may be more common when we communicate through digital media and ways in which they can be avoided or mitigated. Finally, students act out their own scenario in which they portray young people successfully dealing with one of the unhealthy relationship behaviours. - Learn how to recognize healthy and unhealthy elements of relationships - Consider aspects of digital communication that may lead to unhealthy relationships - Reflect on the role of digital relationships in their lives - Learn strategies for dealing with unhealthy online and offline relationships - Create a media product Home and School Connection - Talking to Your Kids About Sexting - Online Sexual Exploitation: Who Is At Risk? - Talking to Your Kids About Gender Stereotypes This lesson and all associated documents (handouts, overheads, backgrounders) are available in an easy-print, pdf kit version
A permanent or relatively permanent impairment inHEAD INJURY (CHRONIC TRAUMATIC DISORDERS)brain functions resulting from a severe blow to the head. Chronic, or “post- traumatic,” disorders occur when the blow, or trauma, does lasting damage to the brain.The damage is usually confined to one area, and produces such symptoms as persistent headaches, dizziness, fatigue, irritability, anxiety, impaired memory, and defective concentration. Extensive damage may result in a general loss of intellectual ability, or produce specific defects, such as paralysis, aphasia or deafness, depending on the site of the destruction. Post-traumatic epilepsy occurs in 2 to 4 per cent of all cases, although some estimates are far higher. Seizures occur most commonly after penetrating wounds, and may take a Jacksonian, petit or grand mal form. The epileptic reactions sometimes occur months or even years after the injury took place. See EPILEPSY (SYMPTOMS AND TYPES).Personality changes are found in a small number of post-traumatic cases, perhaps 2 to 3 per cent. The less severe reactions are sometimes termed post-concussion syndrome, and are characterized by anxiety plus such symptoms as headache, oversensitivity to stimuli, vertigo, insomnia, inability to concentrate, and sudden emotional changes. These patients also have a reduced tolerance for alcohol, and frequently develop an intense “head consciousness.”The more severe reactions are sometimes classed as post-traumatic personality disorder. Adults who suffer from this condition show marked changes in attitude. Some of these patients become indifferent and withdrawn, but they are more likely to be irascible, petulant, impulsive, extremely selfish, and irresponsible. Older patients and those suffering from frontal lobe damage often show impaired memory with confabulation— that is, they fill in missing details with fictional material. See CONFABULATION,KORSAKOFF’S SYNDROME.Although children withstand head injury better than adults, their behavior is likely to be more disorganized and their reactions more extreme. A small percentage of children who have suffered head injury become disobedient, destructive, quarrelsome, distractible, and cruel. Like some post-encephalitic children, they are constantly restless, disruptive, and show little interest in school work. Many of them show intellectual impairment, and some have to be institutionalized.It is difficult if not impossible to determine the extent to which the personality changes are due to organic as opposed to psychological factors. Injured children usually suffer from headaches, dizziness, and sensitivity to light and noise. It is also known that brain injury tends to distort perception and to weaken the child’s ability to think abstractly, concentrate on problems, and carry out instructions. All these factors are due to organic damage. But they also show psychological reactions to these physical effects. They are deeply affected by the attitude of their parents or teachers to their handicap— for instance, if adults show impatience and lack of understanding, they are bound to feel resentful. They also react to their own feelings of frustration, inadequacy, and anxiety aroused by the sudden loss of key abilities. See MINIMAL BRAIN DYSFUNCTION.Among adults, the personality changes seem to be related to a number of different psychological factors. The most important is the premorbid personality. Post-traumatic disorders are most likely to develop in poorly adjusted or restricted, rigid individuals, even when the injury itself is relatively minor. In these patients the usual sequelae, such as perceptual disturbance, intellectual disability, physical symptoms, and headconsciousness, have a particularly disturbing effect. A number of other factors may also play a part in developing and fixing neurotic symptoms. Among them are family tensions, financial or occupational problems, anxiety about the future, fear of permanent defect, repeated examinations, and a desire for compensation. It is not surprising, therefore, that many people who have suffered head injuries become neurasthenic and hypochondriacal, and that in some instances the combined organic and psychological stresses bring latent psychotic tendencies to the surface.Treatment of chronic traumatic disorders takes three major forms: medical and surgical care, preventive psychotherapy, and carefully planned rehabilitation. Medical care is given as promptly as possible in order to repair lesions and stem hemorrhaging. Mild cases are released from the hospital and returned to work as soon as practicable. With other patients, preventive psychotherapy is given immediately in order to forestall neurotic reactions. This includes reassurance and emotional support, as well as explanation of the type of injury sustained.A rehabilitation program is launched as soon as possible. It consists not only of physiotherapy, recreational therapy and occupational therapy, but of re-education of the brain itself, so that new areas will take over lost functions. This is followed by a program of careful psychological testing and retraining aimed at preparing the patient for a return to vocational life. The specific nature of the rehabilitation program depends upon the location and severity of the injury, the patient’s motivation for recovery and resumption of work, the stability of his personality, and the possibility of returning to a favorable life situation. If these factors are generally positive, the prognosis will be good. If they are unfavorable or complicated by special factors such as alcoholism, drug addiction, arteriosclerosis, or severe emotional conflicts, it is likely to be poor.In a recent article (1968) Howard A. Rusk, director of the Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine, New York University Medical Center, summarized the results of a rehabilitation program involving 127 severely brain-injured patients. All were suffering from crippling disabilities due to brain hemorrhages, brain lacerations, contusions, or diffuse edema (swelling) resulting from automobile accidents, industrial accidents, assault, or attempted suicide. On the average, they had spent three weeks in coma and five weeks more in different stages of stupor, and their brain injury disabilities were in most cases compounded by fractures, amputations, lung damage, or other complications.In spite of the fact that most of these patients were not referred to the Institute until about a year after injury, all but 25 were judged feasible for rehabilitation. The program consisted of individualized training, including mat exercises, muscle re-education, gait training, and hand-eye activities, as well as bowel and bladder training and speech therapy where needed. An integral part of the program was retraining in everyday activities necessary to achieve independence. In addition, prevocational testing was provided to determine their ability to work, and the families were counseled and instructed on the management of the patient at home.In spite of the severity of the disabilities, the results of this “total approach” were most encouraging. Out of the 102 patients capable of participating, 55 were able to return to reasonably satisfactory and productive lives as housewives, students, executives, or artisans; 43 learned to dress and feed themselves independently; and 30 others required only moderate help.
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No matter how perfect your circuit or SPICE simulation, an analog circuit always produces less-than-perfect signals. That lack of perfection stems from slight mismatches between components, noise, offset voltages, nonlinear responses, component tolerances, temperature and other characteristics that affect a signal as it goes from input to output. To create a design's error budget that lists error sources and amounts so as to determine beforehand how a circuit will affect a signal, you first need a goal. Say you have a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter that resolves one part in 4096 or 244 parts per million (ppm). Thus, any errors should not affect the input signal by more than 1/2 LSB, or 122 ppm, which becomes your target error-budget figure. (Some might argue this figure should be higher or lower.) A typical instrumentation amplifier (in-amp), for example, will contribute offset and gain errors and add noise to a signal (see figure). And the resistor used to adjust the in-amp's gain will contribute a small error due to normal tolerances, which is why you use a high-precision external resistor or internal gain choices. In general you compare all errors to the original input signal and express errors in parts per million. By comparing errors to the original input signal, you have a common reference point. An Analog Devices' application note (see references) provides a good example of how to create an error budget for two in-amps and also how the budget for a monolith in-amp compares to that for a "home brew" in-amp circuit. Small errors caused by differential nonlinearity, offset, gain and drift also contribute to errors during the conversion process. As a first step, determine the errors for your signal based on component characteristics and represent them in ppm. For a worst-case analysis, simply add the errors. But in most cases the circuit will not experience the maximum error values simultaneously. So, the root-of-the-sum-of-squares (RSS) method can offer a more realistic error-budget value. You square each error, add the sums and take its square root. Keep in mind that you can often adjust for offset and similar static errors and adjust measurements to account for errors due to temperature changes. So, your first error budget might look bad, but all hope is not lost.
New computer models suggest life on the nearest exoplanets may already be thriving (Natural News) There are rocky exoplanets around the size of Earth that lie within a few light-years of the solar system. While these relatively nearby worlds receive intense radiation from their active stars, they might eventually bear alien life – if they haven’t already done so. These planets lie well within the habitable zone of stars like Proxima Centauri, Ross-128, and TRAPPIST-1. When they got discovered, they triggered excitement over the chances of hosting biological life. Unfortunately, bad news followed the good tidings. The newly discovered exoplanets bathed in potentially lethal amounts of radiation from their parent stars. One example is the exoplanet Proxima Centauri b. It orbits Proxima Centauri, the closest stellar neighbor of the sun. Earth gets enough X-ray and ultraviolet radiation from its star to support life. But Proxima-b endures 250 times the amount of X-rays and lethal levels of UV radiation. However, a new study by researchers from Cornell University suggested that the exoplanets might support organic lifeforms despite their high radiation levels. They cited a well-known planet that received far more radiation over long periods during its youth, but eventually developed the ability to support life. (Related: Do the rules of environmental protection extend to exoplanets beyond our solar system?) The young Earth was once drenched in deadly amounts of UV radiation Cornell researchers Lisa Kaltenegger and Jack O’Malley-James reported that all life on Earth traced their existence to ancestral organisms that flourished on the harsh surface of the young planet. Sponsored solution from CWC Labs: This heavy metals test kit allows you to test almost anything for 20+ heavy metals and nutritive minerals, including lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, aluminum and more. You can test your own hair, vitamins, well water, garden soil, superfoods, pet hair, beverages and other samples (no blood or urine). ISO accredited laboratory using ICP-MS (mass spec) analysis with parts per billion sensitivity. Learn more here. Four billion years ago, Earth not only experienced intense volcanic activity, but it also soaked up tons of UV radiation from the young sun. Proxima Centauri b and other exoplanets appeared tolerably warm in comparison. Despite the heat, radiation, and turmoil on the surface of the young Earth, primitive life found ways to persist and thrive. And the planet eventually cooled and settled down into the only currently known habitable world. The Cornell team proposed that something similar may be taking place on Proxima Centauri b and other nearby exoplanets. The planets may never support human life, but they may host other lifeforms. For their study, Kaltenegger and O’Malley-James selected the four exoplanets nearest Earth: Proxima Centauri b, TRAPPIST-1e, Ross-128b, and LHS-1140b. All candidates circle red dwarf stars. This type of star experiences numerous stellar flares that bombard the exoplanets with UV radiation. Stellar flares may erode the atmospheres of planets. They are also deadly to organic life. Their intense amounts of UV radiation cause mutations and lethal shutdowns in nucleic acids and other biological molecules. There may be hope that “inhospitable” exoplanets may host alien life The Cornell experiment ran computer models of the UV radiation environment on the surface of the exoplanets. They tested different atmospheric conditions. Some of the models resembled the Earth’s current atmosphere. Others featured eroded and anoxic conditions. Eroded atmospheres were thin and did a poor job of screening UV radiation. Anoxic atmospheres, on the other hand, lacked ozone, an oxygen molecule that blocked UV radiation. Their results demonstrated that thinning atmospheres and decreasing ozone levels coincide with a rise in energetic UV radiation that reaches the surface. They took the results and compared them to the conditions on Earth from four billion years ago to recent times. The researchers found that the young Earth received much higher UV radiation from the similarly young sun than the exoplanets did today. “Given that the early Earth was inhabited, we show that UV radiation should not be a limiting factor for the habitability of planets orbiting M stars,” they reported. “Our closest neighboring worlds remain intriguing targets for the search for life beyond our solar system.”
The bark HMS Endeavour was built in 1764 as the collier Earl of Pembroke. A type known locally as a Whitby Cat, it had a broad, flat bow, a square stern, a long box-like body with a deep hold, and a flat bottom. Originally ship-rigged, it was converted to a bark-rig when acquired by the Royal Navy in 1768 for a scientific voyage to the South Pacific. The original purpose of the voyage was to observe the transit of Venus across the face of the sun on 3 June 1769. Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the solar system. Utilizing the principle of parallax, multiple observations of the 1639, 1761, and 1769 transits provided astronomers with the first realistic calculation of the astronomical unit, the distance from the earth to the sun. Even before Endeavour departed Plymouth on 26 August 1768, its mission was expanded to include exploration and charting of the South Pacific and a search for the unknown landmass Terra Australis Incognita. The junior naval officer James Cook was selected to command the expedition based on his background in mathematics and cartography and he was promoted to Lieutenant. After observing and recording the transit of Venus, near the site in Tahiti still called Venus Point, Endeavor departed for the Society Islands, which Cook charted and claimed for Britain. The islands, though, are now administered by France as part of French Polynesia. In October, Endeavor reached New Zealand. Cook spent the next six months charting the two main islands, which he again claimed for Britain (this time with greater long-term success). In April 1770, Endeavor reached the east coast of Australia, which Cook again claimed for Britain, when he landed in Botany Bay, New South Wales. During the extended exploration and charting of the east coast of Australia, Endeavour grounded hard on what is now called Endeavour Reef in the Great Barrier Reef. Much of what could be spared, including ballast and most of the ship’s guns, were jettisoned to lighten ship and it eventually floated free on a high tide. In a process called fothering, an old sail impregnated with oakum and wool, was drawn under the hull to where it had been holed. The sail partially blocked the hole, decreasing the flow of water into the ship. Endeavour was careened for temporary repairs. Permanent repairs were effected in Batavia, the capital of the Dutch East Indies. Endeavour returned to Britain, via Cape Town, on 12 July 1771 to great acclaim. The ship was sold in 1775 and renamed Lord Sandwich. Requisitioned by the Royal Navy to assist in quelling the growing unrest in North America, in February 1776, it embarked a contingent of Hessian mercenaries for New York and Rhode Island. Lord Sandwich was then used in Narragansett Bay as a prison ship for captured rebels. When a French fleet threatened the bay in 1778 to support the rebel forces, thirteen British vessels, including Lord Sandwich, were scuttled to block the fleet’s entry. Lost cannons were recovered off Endeavour Reef in 1969. Timber frames from a sunken hull, believed to be that of the Endeavour/Lord Sandwich have been recovered earlier this year in Narragansett Bay. A replica vessel was built in Australia, retraced much of the original ship’s voyage, and is now a museum ship in Sydney Harbour.
There are a lot of skills necessary to succeed in school that aren’t directly about mastering content, including the ability to recognize, name and control ones emotions. The school day often comes with lots of emotion, everything from elation to frustration, which makes it the perfect place to practice self-regulation. “One of the most authentic ways for me to help them expand their own vocabulary is to use my personal experience with my own emotions in the classroom,” said Lindsey Minder, a second grade teacher. She regularly models describing how she’s feeling and why throughout the school day, as well as demonstrating simple practices like taking a deep breath to calm down. “One of the critical features of learning is modeling,” said Linda Darling-Hammond, president and CEO of the Learning Policy Institute in an Edutopia series on the science of learning. “We learn by watching others. In this classroom, we see the teacher modeling her recognition of her emotions and also modeling how she deals with them in productive ways. And that is the first step in helping children learn to manage their own emotions.” This type of modeling also helps students recognize that their teachers are people too, and that like students, they get frustrated when no one listens or follows directions. It builds empathy to know that all humans experience a range of emotions across a day and each person is doing their best to manage them productively. Students must also learn and practice how to prioritize and tackle tasks for academic and life success. Executive function often develops in middle school when the skills become even more important as students juggle work from multiple classes with many deadlines. Learning how to prioritize work not only makes it feel more manageable, it also helps students use work time efficiently. “Mark Twain said if you wake up every morning and eat a frog, everything else will taste great,” said eighth grade teacher Catherine Paul. “So, I taught them to take their frog from the list, which is the thing they want to do the least, and get it out of the way, because everything else will seem easy.” Paul guides her students through the process of creating a priority list together so they have a tool to do it on their own later. “Then you can know what to do first and categorize it and get it done efficiently,” said Arius, an eighth grader. Source : MindShift
The sea cucumber, or the Holothuroidea, is an echinoderm akin to sea urchins and starfish. It is a worm-like creature which usually has a soft body. It is called a sea cucumber because it does resemble cucumbers. It can be found in practically every marine environment, although tropical coral reefs that exist in shallow water are where it is found in the most diverse abundance. While it only dwells in the oceans, its habitat can range from intertidal areas where it can be exposed when the tide ebbs, to the deepest of the ocean floors. It inhabits the floor of the ocean, sometimes partially burying itself inside it. It crawls across the sea floor using the hundreds of minute suction cups that are present in its tubular feet. The oldest sea cucumber fossils are of spicules, which date back to the Silurian period, about 425 million to 405 million years back, which makes this echinoderm a very ancient creature. Since then, there has been a considerable amount of diversification that has taken place, with about 1400 species in existence today in various forms. While the adults of some midget species may not be more than a single centimeter, others can measure up to 20 cm in length. One species of large-sized cucumbers, the Synapta maculata, can grow up to 5 m in length. While many of the species can swim, there are even types that live like plankton all their lives, floating with the currents of the ocean. The three most common types are the white star cucumber, the California cucumber, and the warty sea cucumber. The color of the white cucumber ranges from white to light-orange. It has non-retractable, long spines that cover its body, which can grow up to 4 inches in length. The California cucumber's color ranges from reddish-brown to brown. Its body is covered with cone-like, pointed projections. This species grows up to 16 inches in length. The color of the warty cucumber is chestnut-brown. It has black-tipped, wart-like growths all over its body. These grow up to 10 inches in length. Generally, this creature is a scavenger, making a meal of the debris at the bottom of the ocean. Most varieties feed on decaying organic matter that occurs in the sea, tiny algae, plankton, and minute marine animals, which they collect with their 8-30 feet long tubular feet, which surround their mouth and look like tentacles. Sometimes, they also sift through the sediments at the bottom with their tentacles. The food that this creature eats is broken down into even smaller particulate matter, which in turn becomes food for bacteria. This helps in recycling them back into the ecosystem of the ocean. It has the ability of breeding both asexually as well as sexually. Although, typically it tends to reproduce sexually, it is not a particularly intimate process. Both sperm and eggs are released into the water and fertilization takes place when they meet. For this method of reproduction to be successful, it is important for there to be many creatures in one place. This indeed can be seen in many areas of the ocean depth, where it occurs in large herds, feeding on the microscopic organisms of the aquatic waters. When threatened, some species have the ability of discharging sticky threads with which they trap their enemies. Other species even go to the extent of mutilating their bodies as a mechanism of defense. They do this by violently contracting their muscles and jettisoning a part of their innards through their anus. These ejected parts of the body are regenerated very quickly. Various types of fish as well as other aquatic animals prey on sea cucumbers, especially their eggs and larvae. Some Asian people also farm some species for food as well as medicinal purposes.
These facts about lymphoma explain what type of blood cell cancer it is and include terminology that haematologists use when diagnosing lymphoma and discussing treatment options. WHAT IS LYMPHOMA? Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that comes from the lymphoid tissue. The main cells of lymphoid tissue are lymphocytes. These are part of our immune system and play a very important role in protecting our body against infection and other diseases. Lymphocytes are present in blood and in lymphoid tissue throughout the human body. When lymphocyte development becomes abnormal, people may develop lymphoma. The main lymphoid tissue is present in lymph nodes (lymph glands), spleen, and bone marrow. Lymphoma usually develops in these sites, although it may affect any human organ. There are many lymphocyte subtypes, with different functions and each one may give rise to a different type of lymphoma. The main subtypes of lymphocytes are B cells and T cells, both of which themselves have many subtypes. Most B cells are involved in production of antibodies, whilst T cells are involved both in direct destruction of infections and in the regulation of protection against infections. B cell lymphomas are more common (90%) than T cell lymphomas. Each lymphoma subtype has its own natural course. Presenting symptoms, response to treatment and prognosis vary significantly among the different lymphoma subtypes. WHAT CAUSES LYMPHOMA? The exact cause of lymphoma is not known, but there are risk factors that may increase a person’s likelihood of developing lymphoma. Exposure to certain chemicals, including benzene, some pesticides, cigarettes and chemotherapy drugs used for cancer treatment increase the risk of developing lymphoma. Radiation including radiotherapy also increases the risk for lymphoma. Certain diseases of the immune system, including illnesses that impair the body’s ability to fight infection predispose to lymphoma. Also, certain infections may make people more susceptible. Viruses such as Epstein-Barr virus, HIV or Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) increase the risk for lymphoma. HOW DO I KNOW I HAVE LYMPHOMA? Lymphoma often develops in lymph nodes: the lymph nodes swell and patients may notice lumps in the neck, underarms, groins or elsewhere. Sometimes patients develop fever, drenching night sweats and weight loss. There may also be loss of appetite and fatigue. All these together are called B symptoms. They are not specific for lymphoma. These symptoms may be seen in many other diseases, including infections and other cancers, so diagnosing lymphoma is not always straightforward. To reach a diagnosis, it is necessary to perform a biopsy of the affected lymph nodes or other affected lymphoid tissue. The biopsy result not only confirms the diagnosis, but also establishes the exact type of lymphoma. Sometimes, special genetic tests may also be required to reach an accurate diagnosis. This is very important, as lymphoma is not really a single type of cancer but rather a large group of distinct entities. WHAT IS LYMPHOMA STAGING AND WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF LYMPHOMA? The stage measures how widely has a lymphoma spread around the body. The Ann-Arbor staging system is the most commonly used and has four stages. Stages I and II are referred to as early stage and III and IV are considered advanced stages. In addition to this the system uses the letter A for patients without significant night sweats, significant weight loss or lymphoma-associated fever, and the letter B for patient with these symptoms. The letter S is used for lymphoma that has spread to the spleen and the letter E if it has spread outside lymph nodes or spleen. WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF LYMPHOMA? There are two main types of lymphoma: Hodgkin lymphoma and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Each of these main types has many subtypes. All these can be distinguished by examining the biopsy sample. Hodgkin lymphoma was named after Dr Thomas Hodgkin who described it in 1832. There are two major subtypes: Classical Hodgkin lymphoma, which is characterised by the presence of large cells called Hodgkin and Reed-Stenberg cells. These are abnormal cancer cells that are surrounded by inflammatory tissue. According to the appearance of this surrounding inflammatory tissue, different subtypes of classical Hodgkin lymphoma can be recognised. The rarer subtype of Hodgkin lymphoma is called nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma and this has slightly differently looking malignant cells called variant Reed-Stenberg cells or popcorn cells. The treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma is very successful. Most patients, particularly those with early stage disease will be cured with chemotherapy alone or in combination with radiotherapy. A few patients may fail treatment or experience lymphoma relapses after the initial treatment. Many of these patients will be cured with further chemotherapy and a stem cell transplant. The majority of patients with lymphoma are diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Like Hodgkin lymphoma this is not a single disease but a large group of very different cancers. Some of them are slow growing, indolent and may not even require any treatment. Other types can be very aggressive, fast growing and make patients unwell rapidly. Some types are well known to respond favourably to treatment and some are not. The subtypes are characterised by their appearance under the microscope, the pattern of proteins within the membranes of lymphoma cells and by changes in different genes. New types of rare lymphoma are still being described. Most non-Hodgkin lymphomas are related to lymphocytes called B cells and are therefore called B cell lymphomas. Some lymphomas are related to T cells and rarely lymphomas can be related to other types of lymphocytes. Common B cell lymphomas are: - Diffuse large B cell lymphoma – this is the most common rapidly growing (aggressive) lymphoma. It can affect people of any age but is more common in older individuals. Treatment includes chemotherapy infused into the vein, often together with monoclonal antibodies (immunotherapy). Stem cell or bone marrow transplantation may sometimes be useful, particularly if the lymphoma relapses after initial treatment. Although aggressive lymphomas present with severe symptoms and complications, most patients will be cured with immunotherapy and chemotherapy. - Marginal zone lymphoma – slow growing (indolent) lymphomas that affect older people. There are three subtypes of this lymphoma. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma affects lymphoid tissue in stomach, bowels and endocrine glands. Sometimes a microorganism is responsible for causing MALT lymphoma. In these cases, treatment sometimes does not require chemotherapy but antibiotics may suffice. Nodal marginal zone lymphoma affects lymph nodes and splenic marginal zone lymphoma affects the spleen. Marginal zone lymphomas sometimes do not require therapy. If treatment is necessary it may be with localised radiotherapy or chemotherapy in combination with monoclonal antibodies. - Follicular lymphoma – this is the most common type of slow growing (indolent) lymphoma. Follicle means a small sac, gland or an aggregate of cells and this type of lymphoma is called follicular because of the appearance of the affected lymph nodes under the microscope. Under magnification there are apparent aggregates or clumps of abnormal cells. (see figure below). - Follicular lymphoma is more common in people aged over 50 years, but it can occur in people of any age. It usually grows slowly but occasionally it is known to change into fast growing diffuse large B cell lymphoma. This change is called transformation. - Treatment of follicular lymphoma depends on its stage, the problems that it causes, but also on each individual patient’s fitness to cope with the side effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Sometimes, if patients have no or only few medical complaints no treatment is needed. In stage I, radiotherapy to the affected lymph nodes offers a good treatment option with few side effects and can be suitable for frail patients. More advanced stages require chemotherapy given together with immunotherapy (monoclonal antibodies) to control the disease. Stem cell (bone marrow) transplantation is sometimes used. Chemotherapy can provide very good control of this lymphoma in most patients. However, the only treatment that can cure advanced follicular lymphoma is transplantation using stem cells from a different person (allogeneic transplantation). Because this treatment is complex and associated with many side effects, it is typically offered to fit patients who have relapsed several times. - Mantle cell lymphoma – this type of lymphoma originates from the mantle zone of lymph nodes. Mantle cell lymphoma has the appearance of a slow growing lymphoma under the microscope, however it usually behaves as a relatively aggressive disease. It sometimes spreads to the bowel or bone marrow and is treated with chemotherapy given together with immunotherapy (monoclonal antibodies). Young and fit patients should also undergo Stem cell (bone marrow) transplantation to achieve a long-lasting remission. - Burkitt lymphoma – this is a relatively rare type of lymphoma, which exists in many forms. It is very aggressive and grows very fast. Burkitt lymphoma tends to spread outside of lymph nodes. Sometimes Burkitt lymphoma presents as a medical emergency. Despite its aggressive presentation, Burkitt lymphoma can be cured in many patients with prompt treatment including inpatient, intensive chemotherapy and supportive care. The most common T-cell lymphomas are: - Peripheral T-cell lymphoma – this is not a single lymphoma but a group of many relatively rare T-cell lymphomas. The most common subtype in this group is peripheral lymphoma not otherwise specified (PTCL - NOS) and it is itself made of many different subtypes of peripheral T-cell lymphoma. These are more common in people over the age of 60 and they usually grow rapidly. Therapy is with chemotherapy given into the vein and Stem cell (bone marrow) transplantation is recommended in young and fit patients. - Angioimmunoblastic lymphoma – this rare lymphoma is usually fast growing (aggressive) and it is more common in older individuals. Sometimes patients with this type of lymphoma develop itchy skin rashes or joint pains. It is also sometimes associated with other blood diseases in which the immune system attacks its own body such as autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Treatment includes administration of corticosteroids and chemotherapy. Young and fit patients should be treated with Stem cell (bone marrow) transplantation.
What is the Security Council? The United Nations Charter established six main organs of the United Nations, including the Security Council. It gives primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security to the Security Council, which may meet whenever peace is threatened. According to the Charter, the United Nations has four purposes: - to maintain international peace and security; - to develop friendly relations among nations; - to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights; - and to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations. All members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to member states, only the Security Council has the power to make decisions that member states are then obligated to implement under the Charter. MAINTAINING PEACE AND SECURITY When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council’s first action is usually to recommend that the parties try to reach agreement by peaceful means. The Council may: - set forth principles for such an agreement; - undertake investigation and mediation, in some cases; - dispatch a mission; - appoint special envoys; or - request the Secretary-General to use his good offices to achieve a pacific settlement of the dispute. When a dispute leads to hostilities, the Council’s primary concern is to bring them to an end as soon as possible. In that case, the Council may: - issue ceasefire directives that can help prevent an escalation of the conflict; - dispatch military observers or a peacekeeping force to help reduce tensions, separate opposing forces and establish a calm in which peaceful settlements may be sought. Beyond this, the Council may opt for enforcement measures, including: - economic sanctions, arms embargoes, financial penalties and restrictions, and travel bans; - severance of diplomatic relations; - or even collective military action. A chief concern is to focus action on those responsible for the policies or practices condemned by the international community, while minimizing the impact of the measures taken on other parts of the population and economy. The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946 at Church House, Westminster, London. Since its first meeting, the Security Council has taken permanent residence at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. It also travelled to many cities, holding sessions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1972, in Panama City, Panama, and in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1990. A representative of each of its members must be present at all times at UN Headquarters so that the Security Council can meet at any time as the need arises.
The goal for this final lesson is to deepen students’ understanding of how the Bible views hope, through the use of biblical passages and related texts that explore the picture offered by the biblical meta-narrative. You might begin by asking students to summarize the story arc of the Bible. Follow this with a discussion specifically on hope and how the biblical narrative offers a picture of hope, using one or more of the following biblical passages: Use studying these passages to practice slow and attentive reading. Mention that patience applied to reading means not leaping to conclusions, but slowing down enough to listen carefully to the text and test your own assumptions. Read the passages aloud and then have students read them silently and write down some thoughts about what stands out from the passages. Students can discuss each passage with a partner, before a discussion with the whole class. Turn to a brief text such as N. T. Wright’s “Jesus is Coming, Plant a Tree” and/or Wendell Berry’s “Manifesto: The Mad Farmer Liberation Front” for a discussion of hope in relation to action, shalom, and the world around us: Consider ending the course with an actual tree-planting ceremony of your own, as a sign of hope and commitment to care for creation.
Journal ArticleDigital resources are stored online in your NSTA Library. Helping students read science textbooks and other substantive material does not have to interrupt the flow of content delivery. A variety of strategies, both instructive and effective, are available to help students become more competent and independent readers. The lessons in this article have worked well. They all involve participation and can be easily differentiated to help diverse learners. Unlike the typical chapter quiz, these cooperative strategies have students discussing, interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating the assigned reading in challenging yet supportive ways.
\|Global warming has, for a significant time, been a topical subject which attracts the attention of different interest groups and the influence on agriculture can be substantial. Global warming is the result of increasing concentrations of the so called greenhouse gasses – carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen sub oxide and ozone – which are liberated in the atmosphere. These gasses are absorbed in the atmosphere where the contained heat is then liberated. It leads to a temperature increase of the atmosphere. Different indicators are utilised to monitor the temperature change like the increase in soil surface temperature, atmospheric temperature, ocean temperature and sea levels and the decrease in the appearance of glaciers, snow coverage and ice formation. Global agriculture industries had to adjust out of sheer necessity over years due to changing climatic conditions or natural disasters like droughts, floods, fires or diseases. This is also applicable to different international wine industries. Phylloxera as an insect or a fungal disease like downy mildew has for example nearly destroyed some wine industries if the necessary solutions were not found. Global warming is also a natural reality which needs to be addressed by different wine industries. Seeing that wine industries are only one of different agricultural industries, governments will be nationally responsible to attend to global warming. The extremity of global warming. If the average temperature of the global soil surface will be 1.5°C higher in 2030 than in 1900 different changes will occur. The suitability of certain cultivars in certain regions will for example change considerably. The cultivation of a climate sensitive cultivar like Pinot noir will for example be limited to only a few areas. Climate change may however also lead to a more reliable climate in certain regions with potentially better harvests and opportunities for new cultivars and wine styles. In Anatolia, Turkey, where the average maximum temperatures during the harvest range from 42 – 45°C and the annual rainfall is only slightly more than 100 mm, the cultivars Emir, Bogaskere and Okuzgozu are cultivated successfully. Rainfall projections until 2030 indicate that drier winters but wetter summers can be expected due to global warming. This can lead to wetter conditions during ripening and the harvest, as well as possible floods during these periods. Seeing that the potential occurrence of fungal diseases can be promoted by these conditions, the managing of sound quality grapes, as well as the resulting wines will become a challenge. In general ripening will be earlier, harvest times will be compressed, an increased need for irrigation and increased frost risk will develop. More heat radiation as result of higher soil temperatures may lead to earlier ripening, grapes and juice with higher sugar and potassium concentrations and lower concentrations of total acid, nitrogen and flavour precursors. Viticulture practices to delay ripening can be applied as counter actions for the influence of high temperatures. Increased canopy to protect the grapes against heat waves can however create more humid conditions which will increase the pest and disease risks in the vineyard. The management of vineyards during heat waves as result of global warming, in order to maintain the grape quality is one of the most important challenges. The South Australian definition of a heat wave is five successive days with a maximum daily temperature above 35°C or three successive days with a maximum daily temperature above 40°C. Heat damage can influence the yield and quality of the grapes and cultivars also differ regarding the magnitude of the damage. The potential damage includes acid reductions and less colour development which cannot necessarily be compensated by additional irrigation. It is essential that the irrigation equipment of farms function well and is also maintained properly to manage heat waves successfully. Prior to heat waves the following actions must be implemented: - Sufficient irrigation must be applied to saturate the root zone area. - The possible application of a sunscreen spray like Surround™ must be considered. It must however be ensured that these products are approved for use on grapes for winemaking. - Actions like leaf removal or canopy manipulation must be reconsidered if it may lead to increased berry exposure. During heat waves sufficient irrigation should be applied to ensure that the turgor of the vines is recovered during the night prior to another heat wave. If overhead irrigation is applied it must be done overnight to avoid foliage burn. Sufficient irrigation after a heat wave is also important to replace lost soil moisture and decrease the soil temperature. The later pruning of vineyards can also delay ripening, which can decompress the harvest and delay the maturation of certain cultivars to cooler periods (Krstic & Barlow, 2014). Global warming will have an important influence on grapes, but cellar activities will also have to be adjusted to accommodate the changes in the grapes. The cooling burden of cellars will most probably be increased, but acid adjustments by means of acid additions or pH adjustment will also become more important. New additives, which are presently unknown, will most probably be developed to neutralise the negative impact of global warming. Krstic, Mark & Barlow, Snow, 2014. Vintage 2030 and beyond: Producing quality wines in warmer times. Wine & Viticulture Journal, March/April 2014: 52 – 57.
Prohibition in the United States was a national ban on the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol, in place from 1920 to 1933. The ban was mandated by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and the Volstead Act set down the rules for enforcing the ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that were prohibited. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol was not made illegal. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, on December 5, 1933. The introduction of alcohol prohibition and its subsequent enforcement in law was a hotly debated issue. The contemporary prohibitionists (“dries”) labeled this as the “Noble Experiment” and presented it as a victory for public morals and health. The consumption of alcohol overall went down by half in the 1920s; and it remained below pre-Prohibition levels until the 1940s. Anti-prohibitionists (“wets”) criticized the alcohol ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant and Catholic everyday life. Effective enforcement of the alcohol ban during the Prohibition Era proved to be very difficult and led to widespread flouting of the law. The lack of a solid popular consensus for the ban resulted in the growth of vast criminal organizations, including the modern American Mafia, and various other criminal cliques. Widespread disrespect of the law also generated rampant corruption among politicians and within police forces. On November 18, 1918, before the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the United States Congress passed the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of greater than 2.75%. (This act, which was intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.) The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, and July 1, 1919 became widely known as the “Thirsty-First”. Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilson‘s veto on October 28, 1919, and established the legal definition of intoxicating liquor, as well as penalties for producing it. Though the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government did little to enforce it. By 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity. Many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes (such as Chicago’s St. Valentine’s Day massacre), when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen-Harrison Act, legalizing weak beers and wines. On December 5, 1933, the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use. Alcohol and alcoholism have been a contentious topic in America since the colonial period. In general, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable. “Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony. Excess was a personal indiscretion.” When informal controls failed, there were always legal ones. One of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, Benjamin Rush, argued in “The Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind” in 1784 that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health and went so far as to label drunkenness as a disease (he believed in moderation rather than prohibition). Apparently influenced by Rush’s widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. Within the next decade, other temperance organizations were formed in eight states, some being statewide organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to embrace the ideology of ‘true motherhood’ refrained from consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women were considered the moral authorities of their households and consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which was considered a threat to the home. Development of the Prohibition movement The American Temperance Society (ATS), 1826, helped to initiate the first temperance movement and consequently served as a foundation for many later groups. By 1835, the ATS had reached 1.5 million members, with women constituting 35-60% of individual chapters. The prohibition, or “dry”, movement continued in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists. The late 19th century saw the temperance movement broaden its focus from abstinence to all behavior and institutions related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A. Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with prostitution. Some successes were registered in the 1850s, including Maine’s total ban on the manufacture and sale of liquor, adopted in 1851. However, the ban in Maine was repealed in 1856. The movement soon lost strength, and was marginalized during the American Civil War (1861–1865). The issue was revived by the Prohibition Party, founded in 1869, and the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1873. The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for preventing possible abuses from the alcoholic husbands. One of its methods to achieve that goal was education. It was believed that if it could “get to the children” it could create a “dry” sentiment leading to prohibition. Frances Willard, the second president of the WCTU, held the aims of the organization were to create a “union of women from all denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and removing the dram-shop from our streets by law.” While still denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed Frances Willard’s “Do Everything” doctrine and used temperance as a method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues such as prison reform and labor laws. In 1881, Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution, with Carrie Nation gaining notoriety for enforcing the provision herself by walking into saloons, scolding customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation Prohibition Group, which Nation also led. While Carrie Nation’s vigilante techniques were rare, other activists enforced the cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloon keepers to stop selling alcohol. Many other states, especially in the South, also enacted prohibition, along with many individual counties. Many court cases also debated the subject under different lights and for different situations, there was an overall lean towards prohibition, however, many cases still ruled opposed to the believed effects. In Mugler v. Kansas, 1887, Justice Harlan, wrote, “We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree… traceable to this evil.” In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen, 1890, said, “The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source.” The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era was a phenomenon of an increasingly industrialized, urban workforce. “Workingmen” bars were popular social gathering places of respite from both the workplace and the domesticity of home and family life. The brewing industry itself was actively involved in establishing a lucrative consumer base in the business chain. The saloons were more often than not “tie-ins” where the saloon keeper‘s operation was financed by a brewer and was contractually obligated to sell the brewer’s product to the exclusion of any and all other competing brands. The business model often included the concept of the “free lunch” —a bill of fare commonly consisting of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of drink. In the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility to saloons and their political influence became widespread, with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union as the most influential advocate of prohibition, when the latter two groups chose to piggyback other social reform issues, such as women’s suffrage, onto their prohibition platform. Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. The political forces involved were ethnoreligious in character, as demonstrated by numerous historical studies. Prohibition was demanded by the “dries” – primarily pietistic Protestant denominations, especially the Methodists, Northern Baptists, Southern Baptists, New School Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, Quakers and Scandinavian Lutherans. They identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations included the Women’s Church Federation, the Women’s Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the “wets” – primarily liturgical Protestants (Episcopalians, German Lutherans) and Roman Catholics, who denounced the idea that the government should define morality. Even in the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups and African-American labor activists who believed that Prohibition would benefit workers, especially African-Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported Prohibition, thinking a ban on alcohol would increase sales of their products. Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of immigrants to the urban dwellings of the United States, many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of the cities of America with their large immigrant populations. In a backlash to the new emerging realities of the American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of “nativism” in which they endorsed the notion that America was made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This fostered xenophobic sentiments towards urban immigrant communities who typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition. Additionally, these nativist sentiments were a part of a larger process of Americanization taking place during the same time period. Two other amendments to the constitution were championed by “dries” to help their cause. The Federal income tax replaced the alcohol taxes that funded the federal government.p.57 Also, since women tended to support prohibition, temperance organizations supported women suffrage. In the 1916 presidential election, both Democratic incumbent Woodrow Wilson and Republican candidate Charles Evans Hughes ignored the Prohibition issue, as was the case with both parties’ political platforms. Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions, and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his political base. In January 1917, the 65th Congress convened, in which the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans. With America’s declaration of war against Germany in April, German-Americans—a major force against prohibition—were sidelined and their protests subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of alcoholic beverages would allow more resources—especially the grain that would otherwise be used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort. While “war prohibition” was a spark for the movement, by the time Prohibition was enacted, the war was over. A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had been ratified by thirty-six of the forty-eight states. On October 28, 1919, the amendment was implemented by the Volstead Act. Start of national prohibition (January 1920) Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect. A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition agents (police) were given the task of enforcing the law. Although it was highly controversial, Prohibition was widely supported by diverse groups. Progressives believed that it would improve society as generally did women, southerners, those living in rural areas and African-Americans. There were a few exceptions such as the Woman’s Organization for Prohibition Reform who fought against it. Will Rogers often joked about the southern pro-prohibitionists: “The South is dry and will vote dry. That is, everybody sober enough to stagger to the polls.” Supporters of the Amendment soon became quite confident that it would not be repealed, to the point that one of its creators, Senator Morris Sheppard, joked that “there is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail.” At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act; after Edward, Prince of Wales, returned to Britain following his 1919 tour of Canada, he recounted to his father, King George V, a ditty he’d heard at a border town: \|“\|\|Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry, Went across the border to get a drink of rye. When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to sing, “God bless America, but God save the King!” The issue of Prohibition became a highly controversial one among medical professionals, because alcohol was widely prescribed by physicians of the era for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to medicinal liquors. While the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol was illegal in the U.S., Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed the making at home of wine and cider from fruit (but not beer). Up to 200 gallons per year could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. Also, one anomaly of the Act as worded was that it did not actually prohibit the consumption of alcohol; many people actually stockpiled wines and liquors for their own use in the latter part of 1919 before sales of alcohol became illegal the following January. Alcoholic drinks were not always illegal in all neighboring countries. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled to the U.S. The Detroit River, which forms part of the border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control. And when the United States Government complained to the British government that its law was being undermined by officials in Nassau, The Bahamas, the British Colonial Office head refused to intervene. Winston Churchill believed that Prohibition was “an affront to the whole history of mankind”. Chicago became a haven for Prohibition dodgers during the time known as the “Roaring Twenties“. Many of Chicago’s most notorious gangsters, including Al Capone and his enemy Bugs Moran, made millions of dollars through illegal alcohol sales. By the end of the decade Capone controlled all 10,000 speakeasies in Chicago and ruled the bootlegging business from Canada to Florida. Numerous other crimes, including theft and murder, were directly linked to criminal activities in Chicago and elsewhere in violation of prohibition. Three separate Federal Agencies were to enforce the Volstead Act: - United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement - US Treasury Department IRS Bureau of Prohibition - US Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition Unpopularity of prohibition and repeal movement As the prohibition years continued, more of the country’s populace came to see prohibition as illustrative of class distinctions, a law unfairly biased in its administration favoring social elites. “Prohibition worked best when directed at its primary target: the working-class poor.” Historian Lizabeth Cohen writes: “ A rich family could have a cellar-full of liquor, but if a poor family had a bottle of home-brew, there would be trouble.” Working-class people were inflamed by the fact that their employer could dip into a cache of private stock while they, the employee, was denied a similar indulgence. Indeed, before the date that the Eighteenth Amendment became national law, many of the well- to- do stockpiled alcohol for home consumption. They bought out the inventories of warehouses, saloons, club store rooms, they emptied out liquor retailers and wholesalers. American lawmakers themselves followed these practices at the highest levels of government. President Woodrow Wilson moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His successor, Warren G. Harding relocated his own large supply into the White House after inauguration. In October 1930, just two weeks before the Congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday, “the man in the green hat,” came forward and told how he had bootlegged for ten years for Congress. One of the few bootleggers ever to tell his story, he wrote five front page articles in The Washington Post. He estimated that eighty percent of congressmen and senators drank, even though these same people were the ones passing dry laws. This had a significant impact on the midterm election, which saw Congress shift from a dry Republican majority to a wet Democratic majority. The Democrats understood that Prohibition was unpopular and called for its repeal. As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in the big cities, “Repeal” was eagerly anticipated. Economic urgency played no small part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. Prior to 1920, and the institution of the Volstead Act, approximately fourteen percent of federal, state and local tax revenue was derived from alcohol commerce. The government badly needed income and further felt that reinstating the manufacture and sale of alcohol would create desperately needed jobs for the unemployed. On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act known as the Cullen-Harrison Act, allowing the manufacture and sale of “3.2 beer” (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines. The original Volstead Act had defined “intoxicating beverage” as one with greater than 0.5% alcohol. Upon signing the amendment, Roosevelt made his famous remark; “I think this would be a good time for a beer.” Repeal of prohibition (April 1933) The Cullen-Harrison Act became law on April 7, 1933, and on April 8, 1933, Anheuser-Busch, Inc. sent a team of Clydesdale horses to deliver a case of Budweiser to the White House. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933 with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment. Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant, a man who would later become a prophet in the LDS Church, a Utah convention helped ratify the 21st Amendment. While Utah can be considered the deciding 36th state to ratify the Amendment and make it law, the day Utah approved the Amendment, both Pennsylvania and Ohio approved it as well. One of the main reasons why enforcement of prohibition did not proceed smoothly was the inefficient means of enforcing the laws set forth by the 18th amendment. From its very inception, the law lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the public who had previously been drinkers and yet completely law-abiding citizens. The public in some instances viewed the laws as being “arbitrary and unnecessary” and therefore were willing to breach them. Consequently, law enforcements agents who had not been bribed to turn a blind eye, found themselves overwhelmed by the dramatic rise in the illegal distribution of alcohol on such a wide scale due to the Volstead Act. The scale of the task was not anticipated and consequently the necessary resources to pursue it were not allocated. Additionally, enforcement of the 18th amendment lacked centralized authority and many attempts to impose prohibitionist laws were deterred due to the lack of transparency between federal and state authorities. Furthermore, the reality of American geography contributed significantly to the difficulties in enforcing prohibition. The terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes and swamps as well as the extensive seaways, ports and massive borders running along Canada and Mexico made it exceedingly difficult for prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced was not pragmatic, and that in many cases the legislature did not match the general public opinion. Prohibition was a major blow for the alcohol industry and repeal was therefore a step toward the amelioration of one sector of the economy. A perfect example for this is the case of St. Louis. The city had been one of the most important alcohol producers before prohibition started and was ready to take back its position as soon as possible. Its major brewery had “50,000 barrels” of beer ready to be sent since March 22. It was the first alcohol producer to refill the market, but others followed. This slowly allowed stores to obtain alcohol after, of course, having obtained a license. The restart of beer production allowed thousands of workers to find jobs again. Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which already was under pressure.[clarification needed] Roosevelt was elected based on the New Deal, which promised improvement to the economy that was only possible if the formal economy competed successfully against various economic forces, including the effects of prohibition’s black market. This influenced his support for ratifying the 21st amendment, which repealed the 18th amendment that had established prohibition. The Twenty-first Amendment does not prevent states from restricting or banning alcohol. This led to a patchwork of laws in which alcohol may be legally sold in some but not all towns or counties within a particular state. After repeal of the 18th amendment, some states continued to enforce prohibition laws. Mississippi, which had made alcohol illegal in 1907, was the last state to repeal Prohibition in 1966. Kansas did not allow sale of liquor “by the drink” (on-premises) until 1987. To the present day, there are still numerous “dry” counties and towns in America that restrict or prohibit liquor sales. Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations. Federal law also prohibits alcohol on Indian reservations, although this law is currently only enforced if there is a concomitant violation of local tribal liquor laws. The federal law prohibiting alcohol in Indian country pre-dates the Eighteenth Amendment. No constitutional changes were necessary prior to the passage of this law, as Indian Reservations and federal territories have always been considered areas of direct federal jurisdiction. When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened; and crime has increased to a level never seen before. It is not clear if Prohibition did reduce per-capita consumption of alcohol. While some historians claim that not until the 1960s did consumption in the United States exceed pre-Prohibition levels. others claim that the consumption levels of alcohol reached the pre-prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and have risen afterwards. Cirrhosis of the liver, normally a result of alcoholism, dropped nearly 2/3 during Prohibition. Regardless, in the decades after Prohibition Americans gradually shed any stigma they might have had against alcohol. According to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, some two-thirds of American adults 18 and older drink alcohol. Prohibition and pietistic Protestantism Prohibition in the early to mid-twentieth century was fueled by the Protestant denominations in the U.S. Pietistic churches in the U.S. sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System. Liturgical (“high”) churches (Catholic, Epsicopal, German Lutheran) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the government deciding what was and was not moral. Revivalism in Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid and late 19th century set the stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: “The greater prevalence of revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population.” Historian Nancy Koester expressed the belief that Prohibition was a “victory for progressives and social gospel activists battling poverty”. Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists. Effects of the Prohibition Organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. Mafia groups limited their activities to prostitution, gambling, and theft until 1920, when organized bootlegging manifested in response to the effect of Prohibition. A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. Powerful gangs corrupted law enforcement agencies, leading to racketeering. In essence prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to flourish. Rather than reducing crime it seemed prohibition had transformed the cities into battlegrounds between opposing bootlegging gangs. In a study of over 30 major U.S cities during the prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicide by 12.7%, assaults and battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 44.6% and police department costs rose by 11.4%. It has been speculated[clarification needed] that this was largely the result of “black-market violence” as well as law enforcing resources having been diverted elsewhere. Despite the beliefs of the prohibitionist movement that by outlawing alcohol crime would surely be reduced, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to worse social conditions than were experienced prior to prohibition as demonstrated by more lethal forms of alcohol, increased crime rates, and the establishment of a black market dominated by criminal organizations.[clarification needed] Furthermore, stronger liquor surged in popularity because its potency made it more profitable to smuggle. To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the government ordered the poisoning of industrial alcohols. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully renatured the alcohol to make it drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the particularly deadly methyl alcohol. New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition ended. In the “Chemist’s War” it does not appear that the government intended to kill Americans with these poisons. They wrongly assumed that people out of fear would stop drinking alcohol. New York City medical examiner Charles Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not detering people and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Charles Norris said, “The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol…”[Y]et it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible.” Another lethal substance that was often substituted for alcohol was “canned heat,” also commonly known as Sterno. By forcing the substance through a makeshift filter, such as a handkerchief, to create a rough liquor substitute. However, the result was poisonous, though not often lethal. Many of those who were poisoned as a result united to sue the government for reparations after the end of Prohibition. Making alcohol at home was very common during Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. As well, some drug stores would sell a “medical wine” with around a 22% alcohol content; in order to justify the sale, the wine was given a medicinal taste. Home-distilled hard liquor was referred to as “bathtub gin” in northern cities, and moonshine in the rural areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. Home-brewing good hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer. Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed taxation by the government, the law relentlessly pursued manufacturers. In response, the bootleggers in southern states started creating their own souped-up, stock-looking cars by enhancing their cars’ engines and suspensions to create a faster vehicle. Having a faster vehicle during Prohibition, they presumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition, commonly called “revenue agents” or “revenuers.” These cars became known as “moonshine runners” or “‘shine runners”. Ships were also known to collaborate with the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients for liquors, which anyone could legally purchase (these include: benedictine, vermouth, scotch mash, and even ethyl alcohol). Prohibition also had a large effect on the music industry in the United States, specifically with jazz. Speakeasies became far more popular during that time and the effects of the Great Depression caused a migration that led to a greater dispersal of jazz music. Movement began from New Orleans and went north through Chicago and to New York. This also meant developing different styles in the different cities. Because of its popularity in speakeasies and the development of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very popular very fast. It was also at the forefront of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white crowds. Along with other economic effects, the enactment of prohibition and the resulting enforcement and the resources dedicated to that enforcement increased. During the 1920s, the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from $4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on prohibition. These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments. When repeal of Prohibition occurred in 1933, organized crime lost nearly all of its black market alcohol profits in most states (states still had the right to enforce their own laws concerning alcohol consumption) because of competition with low-priced alcohol sales at legal liquor stores. As a result of prohibition, the advancements of industrialization within the alcohol industry were essentially reversed. This was achieved by large scale alcohol producers being shut down for the most part and individual citizens taking it upon themselves to produce alcohol illegally. This process reversed the efficiency of mass producing and retailing alcoholic beverages. Closing manufacturing plants and taverns resulted in economic reversal. The Eighteenth Amendment originally did not have this effect on the industry due to its failure to define what an “intoxicating” beverage was. The Volstead Act’s definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume constituting “intoxicating” shut down the brewers who had expected to still be able to produce beer of moderate strength. As the saloon began to die out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies. This new norm established women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele. And in the year before the Volstead Act became law, it was estimated by the 1930 Prohibition Commissioner, that the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished the supply, this had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period), resulting in an illegal alcohol beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income. Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected parties during prohibition. Those who were determined to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in finding the help they sought. The self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry and in 1935 a new self-help group was founded: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. When Prohibition ended, only half the breweries that previously existed reopened. Wine historians also note Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive wine quality grape vines were replaced by lower quality vines growing thicker skinned grapes that could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether. Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition, and because of its higher alcohol content in comparison to fermented wine and beer, mixing and watering down the hard alcohol also became common. Winemaking during Prohibition The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines “on the legal fiction that it was a non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption”, and many people did so. Enterprising grape farmers produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called “wine bricks” or “wine blocks”. This demand led California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% in the first five years of prohibition. The grape concentrate was sold with a warning: “After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it would turn into wine.” One grape block producer sold nine varieties: Port, Virginia Dare, Muscatel, Angelica, Tokay, Sauterne, Riesling, Claret and Burgundy.
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) is one of five Working Groups of the Arctic Council. The primary function of AMAP is to advise the governments of the eight Arctic countries (Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States) on matters relating to threats to the Arctic region from pollution, and associated issues including climate change. The AMAP is a process integrating both monitoring and assessment activities, in order to produce integrated assessment reports on the pollution status and trends of the conditions of Arctic ecosystems; identify possible causes for changing conditions; detect emerging problems, their possible causes, and the potential risk to Arctic ecosystems including indigenous peoples and other Arctic residents; and to recommend actions required to reduce risks to Arctic ecosystems. AMAP has produced a series of high quality scientifically-based assessments of the pollution status of the Arctic available for download, including 'Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment' (2004).
Purchasing Power Parity Definition Purchasing power parity (PPP) is a theory that says that in the long run (typically over several decades), the exchange rates between countries should even out so that goods essentially cost the same amount in both countries. The Theory of Purchasing Power Parity explains that there should be no arbitrage opportunities (where price differences between countries can result in profit). Purchasing power parity is used to compare the gross domestic product between countries. PPP is based on the Law of One Price, which implies that all identical goods should have the same price. It is usually calculated using a similar basket of goods in two countries and is also used to evaluate under-/overvalued currencies. The basket of goods and services priced for the PPP exercise is a sample of all goods and services covered by GDP. The final product list covers around 3,000 consumer goods and services, 30 occupations in government, 200 types of equipment goods and about 15 construction projects. A large number of products are provided so as to enable countries to identify the goods and services that are representative of their domestic expenditures. Purchasing Power Parity Example For example: A loaf of bread in the US costs $2, and that amount in Indian Rupees is Indian Rupee ₹90, but a loaf of bread in India costs around Indian Rupee ₹10–that’s about 20 cents. This creates an arbitrage opportunity where people in India can stock up on bread and bring it to the US, where they can sell it to make a nice profit. The concept of purchasing power parity says that since they are the same goods, the purchasing power in the two countries should be the same. This doesn’t mean the exchange rate should be equal to one; it means the ratio of price to exchange rate should be one. In this example, it implies that exchange rate should be $2 = Indian Rupee ₹10, and $1 = Indian Rupee ₹5. So, the Rupee here is undervalued. The Real Exchange Rate The real exchange rate (RER) is a related concept to PPP. It calculates, for example, how many iPods in country A are equal to one iPod in country B. It usually is calculated with a basket of goods. The Real Exchange Rate Formula The formula for RER is as follows: Real Exchange Rate = (Nominal exchange rate) x (Price of the good X abroad / Price of good X at home) For example, an apple in the US costs $1, and in Mexico, it costs 2 Pesos. The nominal exchange rate is, for example, $0.25 to a Peso. The real exchange rate would be = 0.25 x (2/1) = 0.50. This rate means that half an apple is the US is the equivalent of one apple in Mexico. This creates an arbitrage opportunity, but if the RER were 1, then we would have a situation of purchasing power parity. Relative Purchasing Power Parity The theory of relative purchasing power parity (otherwise known as RPPP) builds upon the idea of standard purchasing power parity so as to account for shifts in inflation as time passes. Relative purchasing power parity includes the idea that countries with higher levels of inflation are likely to end up with their currencies devalued. RPPP suggests that, between two countries, differing inflation rates, as well as different costs for commodities, will produce shifts in the two countries’ exchange rates. In other words, according to the theory of RPPP, alterations in countries’ inflation rates are directly linked to alterations in their exchange rates. For example, let’s say there are two countries: Country A and Country B. The average cost of goods in Country A rises 5% in a year due to inflation; meanwhile, the average cost of goods in Country B increases by 7%. Country B has had 2-point higher levels of inflation than Country A over that year. RPPP states that this 2-point difference should lead to a two-point shift in the exchange rate between the two countries. Country A’s currency should appreciate at 2% annually, while Country B’s currency should likewise depreciate at 2% annually. Relative Purchasing Power Parity Formula RPPP is calculated as follows: S = P1 ÷ P2 In this equation, S is equal to the exchange rate of currency #1 and currency #2. Meanwhile, P1 is the cost of a particular good (let’s say good X) in currency #1, while P2 is the cost of good X in currency #2.
At this age, a child's handwriting needs to develop greater letter legibility. This is so they can use lovely descriptive words to demonstrate their new learning. A child's writing should have clear ascender and descender letters. Using the example of the letters b and p. The letter b should be on the line with the vertical stroke higher than the main body of text. The letter p is clearly below the line. They should also be joining their alphabet letters and using diagonal strokes to link each letter with another. At school, they will be learning about a variety of science, history, and geography topics. Topics include forces, magnets and electricity, Tudors and the Tudor life, Ancient Egyptians, Stone/Bronze/Iron Ages, and explorers. In geography, they will be learning about rainforests, Artic/Antarctic and hearing about countries across the world that are different from the UK. During this time a child's stories will be expected to have more descriptive elements. They should be creating settings, characters, and plots. A child should still be evaluating their own work including their handwriting and they are expected to be using punctuation with limited prompting. Handwriting practice should be... About improving letter legibility. A child should still be evaluating their own work including their handwriting and they are expected to be using punctuation with limited prompting. You can help them by teaching them about how letters need to sit clearly below or above the line. Writing on graph paper is helpful as a visual guide for improving letter formation and word spacing. What can you do to help? At this age children can often become aware of their own handwriting difficulties. If they become de-motivated it is important to ask them to continue to practice by doing activities that capture their interest and imagination. Mazes and word searches continue to help develop pencil control skills. Crosswords can help a child practice reducing their letter size and story writing can help them capture their imagination as well as give them an opportunity to write legible words/sentences. Want to know more? Transform your child's handwriting in 7 days *names changed for confidentiality
In this lecture, we will discuss the human papilloma virus and the herpes virus. Let’s start with human papilloma virus. This is a double stranded DNA virus with more than 100 genotypes. It causes genital warts which are a condyloma acuminata in sexually active adolescents. It also causes anal, oral, and cervical cancer in adults. Early sexual debut and having multiple sex partners increases a patient's risk for the HPV. Let’s review the epidemiology of HPV before the vaccine came out. There used to be 6 million new infections per year and at least half of sexually active people got HPV. A low risk HPV, serotypes 6 and 11 caused 90% of genital warts. High risk HPV, serotypes 16 and 18 caused 70% of cervical cancer. But that risk is reduced but not prevented through condom use. Most cases of HPV are completely asymptomatic. Most people don’t know they ever got it. It can be transmitted through hand, oral, or genital sexual contact. It’s transmitted to newborns during birth. That newborn rarely can present with disease years later. The virus tends to infect the basal layer of epithelial cells in skin and mucous membrane. This can cause a cellular proliferation and hyperplasia which leads to wart formation or it can lead to anogenital and cervical carcinoma. So, important questions to ask in patients where there is a concern for genital warts is has there been sexual activity? Does the patient have bumps in the genital region? These are usually non tender. And has the patient gotten an HPV vaccine? This is because the HPV vaccine is reasonably effective at preventing genital warts. Generally on exam, in patients, adolescents or children, you can see fleshy, exophytic, pedunculated lesions with a cauliflower like appearance. These can be small, discrete, sessile, or smooth-topped papules. They may be single or they can come in great number. In males, they can be found on the penis, the scrotum, the inguinal area, and the perianal areas. In females, they may be found on the vulva, the cervix, inside the vagina, in the urethra, or in the perianal area. Generally, our diagnosis is based on the clinical appearance of the lesions. A Pap smear or a liquid-based cytology can be used to screen for cervical dysplasia. We typically do this starting at the age of 21. This is because there is a low yield early in adolescence. Generally, as things are moving along, we’re moving more towards PCR as the standard of care as opposed to Pap smears. In general, the natural history of this problem is that spontaneous regression of most genital warts will occur into 70%-90% of women within two years if they are untreated. Treatments include for patients a patient applied imiquimod 5% cream or podofilox solution or gel. Providers can apply cryotherapy, trichloroacetic acid, or a surgical, or a laser removal of these warts. Recurrence is common because the virus is not eliminated, just the wart. Recurrence can occur many years later. The HPV vaccine has done a great job at reducing the risk of not only warts but more importantly, cervical and anogenital cancer. The HPV vaccine is a 3-dose series that is given beginning at age 11 for males and females. It currently protects against types 6, 11, 16, and 18 with the quadrivalent vaccine or if patients are using the bivalent vaccine, it protects against serotypes 6 and 11.
What is Croup Cough? Croup Cough is an infection commonly seen in young children below the age of 5 or 6, but it could also affect children of any age. Croup is characterized by a barky cough that arises due to swelling of the vocal cords of a child. Vocal cords tend to be the narrowest parts of airways, so if there is an infection causing swelling, it makes them narrower thus obstructing breathing. Croup is not that dangerous as it was in the past. Today, various vaccines such as those for Haemophilus influenzae (Hib), measles, and diphtheria can adequately protect a child from dangerous forms of croup. The condition becomes worse at night and it is common in times of fall and winter. It lasts for a period of about 5 to 6 days. Usually, symptoms of this condition will peak after the second or third night and at the beginning, there may be no warning signs whereby a child sits up in bed and suddenly has a barking cough. At other times, it could begin just as a cold, but gradually, it escalates to become a croupy cough. 1 So, parents should watch over their children and be able to recognize when the condition is serious and when it’s not. Usually, croup cough is not a serious condition, though it is contagious. However, sometimes, there can be complications, which may result in more serious conditions. Croup is almost always caused by a virus, though sometimes, there may be other causes and triggers. The common viruses responsible in causing croup are the human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs). This is a characteristic group of four virus. These viruses are airborne and tend to spread from the infected individual to a healthy individual through sneezing or coughing. They also spread through ‘hand to mouth activity’ often associated with young children, where a child picks the viruses from surfaces and puts them in her or his mouth. Other viruses that trigger croup cough are such as: - Respiratory syncytial virus Other triggers of the croup are such as allergies, inhaled irritants, and bacteria. A telltale sign of croup is a barking cough that may be compared to the barking of a seal and it’s usually accompanied by a raspy voice. The child can make a high-pitched squeaking noise when they are breathing. A parent should watch out for the following symptoms and signs in a her or his child, which often manifest with a case of croup cough: - A cough that is bark-like - Croaky or hoarse voice - Difficulties in breathing A harsh grating sound that occurs when a child breathes in. Usually, stridor is noticed when a child coughs or cries, but in serious cases of this condition, the harsh grating sound may even be heard when the child is at rest or asleep. Some children may have symptoms that resemble those of cold and these could manifest for some days before the croup symptoms appear. The cold like symptoms are such as: - runny nose - sore throat - high temperatures - and cough. Children with this disease will breathe fast and at times, they need to sit up so that they breathe better. The symptoms tend to improve at day time and get worse during the night. Sometimes, kids who have an attack of croup, they will wake up during the night (at middle of night) and this may happen a couple of days. But unless the disease is severe, you may notice that the child will be active and alert. The temperature also remains normal, but at times, it may be slightly higher. Croup cough does not last for long and it improves in about 2 to 5 days. When Should You Seek Medical Help? With proper home care, treatment of croup can be attained at home, however, it is advisable you consult a doctor if a child shows the following symptoms: - Worsening cough - The child develops stridor or rasping sound - Has severe breathing problems - There is increased rate in breathing- the child may be too breathless to talk or feed. He or she may have ‘silent chest’, a cases where you can’t hear breathing sounds - Pale, blue-tinged, or dark skin - Having abnormal sleepiness or drowsiness - High temperature - Rapid heartbeat or sometimes, a falling heart rate - Agitation and distress - Inability to take fluids - The skin around child’s ribs and check appearing like its pulled in and seemingly tight. This may make the bones of ribs and chest to be more visible. Some of these symptoms could indicate a life threatening condition other than croup cough, for example epiglottitis, which is an inflamed and swollen epiglottis. A doctor may use a number of ways to diagnose croup cough, and they include: In diagnosing croup, a doctor will take history of how the cough set in. The doctor may want to know more about the hoarse voice, stridor during inhalation, barky cough, and low- grade fever. And, while the child may look ill, he or she may not show signs of terror or panic. There may be cases of sitting in a forward position, high fever, and excess drooling. If there has been recent exposure to some other child who had croup, this could help in confirming diagnosis. Remember that this disease is contagious. A doctor may conduct other diagnosis routines such as: These are rare, however, a doctor may order a lab test, especially if he or she feels that there may be a secondary bacterial infection attacking the child, and which is superimposed or masking itself under the primary viral cause. An imaging test like X-ray is able to show an elongated narrowing area of the trachea, which is what the doctors call steeple sign or wine bottle sign. This is a tapered upper trachea region. When the X-ray shows this finding, it can confirm a case of croup. Is Croup Contagious? Yes, it is contagious. However, children having this disease tend to be more contagious in the first days of having fever or the illness. In households, the infection is likely to spread fast. In case of children, teens, or adults in the household, they are likely to develop cough or sore throat, but may not have the characteristic signs and symptoms of croup such as the stridor and barky cough. Croup spreads when airborne infectious droplets are coughed or sneezed by the infected child. If a healthy kid inhales the droplets, she or he may develop symptoms in about three days. Croup infection may also be spread through mucus being deposited on furniture, doors, toys, and other surfaces or objects. When a healthy child touches the infectious mucus, he or she may be accidentally infected. The child who picks the infectious mucus transfers it to her or his mouth. The incubation period for croup is about 24 to 75 hours. This is the time it takes for a child to show symptoms. Although a child having croup may have difficulties in breathing and a disturbing cough, home treatment can ease the symptoms. Here is what you need to do: - Be calm at time of the attack and ensure you soothe the child. When the child cries, it could worsen the swelling of windpipe or have more troubles breathing. - Try to run a hot shower to have steam in the bathroom. Make sure you don’t put your child in that hot shower. After the bathroom is filled with steam, let the child breathe in the steam or hot moist air for about 15 minutes. - Sometimes, breathing the cool night air may seem helpful, however, ensure the child does not allergies to cold air or is not asthmatic. You may want to dress the child in warm clothing and take her or him outside for about 10 minutes. - In case you see the symptoms improving after applying these methods, you can take her or him back to bed. If the symptoms tend to occur during the night, be in company of your child in her or his bed until morning. - Always ensure the child is hydrated. You can offer her or him water, crushed-ice drinks, or flavored ice pops. - Let no one smoke near or around the house - Avoid giving the child OTCs for treating cold or cough because they don’t seem to help in the case of croup. Again, these medicines may not be safe for the young child. In the event that the symptoms don’t subside with home care, you may visit a doctor. The doctor will prescribe medications such as: These medicines help in decreasing the swelling of airways. They are given in office of a doctor or in a hospital emergency room. - Croup Symptoms and Treatment. https://www.askdrsears.com - Croup? http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/croup.html - Croup Symptoms. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Croup/Pages/Symptoms.aspx - Croup http://www.medicinenet.com/croup/page2.htm
Water is one of earth痴 richest resources. It not only helps in the growth of humans, plants and animals but it also helps generate electricity. One can say then that there is indeed power in water. Hydroelectric energy refers to an alternative energy resulting from the hydrologic cycle of water. It is the force behind the generation of power through the use of falling water痴 gravitational force. The flow or fall of water determines the amount of available energy. It is important to understand that a big river with fast flowing water can provide a huge amount of energy in the same way that water that falls rapidly from a high position such as the water falls carries a great amount of energy. Worldwide, hydropower is one of the commonly used forms of renewable energy and one of the oldest energy sources. Its major application is in generating electricity and its main benefit is that it produces no direct waste. Hydroelectric Energy Uses This form of energy mainly comes from dammed water that drives a water turbine and generator. Energy produced, however, is dependent on the volume of water as well as on the difference in height between the source and the outflow of water. Power for high peak demands is usually provided by pumped storage hydroelectricity. Moving water between reservoirs at different elevations is instrumental in producing power. When electricity needs are low, water is pumped into the higher reservoir and when demand rises again, water is released back into the lower reservoir via the turbine. Apart from supplying power to public electricity networks, hydroelectric projects are also utilized in certain industrial enterprises. For instance, they provide electricity to aluminum electrolytic plants such as those found in the Scottish Highlands, in the U.S. (Bellingham, Washington), Suriname, Iceland and New Zealand. Hydroelectric power plants can either be large scale or small scale. The small hydro plants that supply up to 10 megawatts of electricity are ideal for irrigation and flood control. They are common in China which has more than half of the world痴 small hydro capacity. Pros and cons of Hydroelectricity With hydroelectricity, use of fuel is totally eliminated. This being so, the operating cost of hydroelectric plants is not affected by the rising cost of A big advantage of hydropower is the absence of waste products when used in electricity generation. And since it does not produce harmful elements, it does not cause pollution in water and in the air. This type of power plant is also seen to be more durable compared to one that uses fuel. In fact, some hydroelectric plants have been in existence for 50 to 100 years already. Cost of labor is also low for this power plant because it is normally automated with a need for only a few people on site during operation. Construction may entail low cost as well thereby offsetting the costs of operating a dam that serves a variety of purposes. On the other side of the coin, hydroelectric projects have a tendency to affect the surrounding ecosystems. Dams, for example, have been found to reduce fish population. In addition, hydropower can change the downstream river environment. Another concern is the emission of methane and carbon dioxide in power plant reservoirs located in tropical areas. Alternative Energy Articles
A common theme on this blog is that we can often get a lot of information from very incomplete material. Even so, as a general rule, the more remains we have from a given fossil organism, the more we can say about it. But sometimes we can have multiple bones, and even something as basic as a species identification can be elusive. The small field jacket shown above was collected from the West Dam of Diamond Valley Lake. There are several bones present, all consistent with a single individual. An annotated version is shown below: The bone highlighted in blue is the distal end of the left femur. Those in red are ribs, the yellow are thoracic vertebrae, and the purple are unidentified. The size and general shape indicate that these are proboscidean bones, but there are two species from Diamond Valley Lake: the mammoth Mammuthus columbi and the mastodon Mammut americanum. While mastodons are much more common at DVL, numerous mammoth remains were also found. Which species is represented by these bones? Obviously our unidentified bones are not going to be of much help here. Ribs are also notoriously difficult to identify, especially if they’re incomplete. The femur is potentially more useful. Femora have lots of distinctive features, and they differ between mammoths and mastodons. The most obvious difference is that mastodon femora are much more robust, while mammoth femora are rather long and slender. Unfortunately, this is difficult to evaluate unless a substantial portion of the femur (roughly half) is preserved. We only have about the distal fourth of the femur, and that is poorly preserved and partially hidden under the other bones. The medial condyle (the large curved knob at the end of the femur) does seem quite large, and this may suggest that a mastodon is more likely, but that’s not much to go on. How about the vertebrae? In most vertebral positions mammoth and mastodon vertebrae are quite different. For example, in anterior view the lumbar vertebrae of mastodons have nearly rectangular centra that are wider than tall, while in mammoths they are more heart-shaped and are taller than wide. These vertebrae appear to be posterior thoracic vertebrae. Unfortunately, mammoth and mastodon posterior thoracics are very similar to each other. Mammoths tend to have much longer neural spines on these vertebrae, but the spines are incomplete in this specimen. Mastodons have a slightly taller and differently shaped neural canal, that seems a little more similar to these bones, but it seems this trait is quite variable. The only other hint may be the size. By proboscidean standards, these bones are not particularly large. Even though they’re fairly small, they come from a more-or-less adult animal; the condyles are fused to the femur, and the vertebral epiphyses are fused to their centra, both of which indicate an animal that was mostly finished growing. Mammoths were larger than mastodons on average, so that suggests that a mastodon might be more likely (and, of course, mastodons are three times more common at DVL than mammoths). So, which is it? I don’t know. I lean toward mastodon, and most of the observations seem to point that way, but that’s with a lot of “mays”, “seems”, “suggests”, and other tentative qualifiers. Sometimes, it’s hard to say for sure.
The reason that solutes, pH, and temperature need to be at such specific levels is because of enzymes. Enzymes are the keys that catalyze chemical reactions in the cells and allow them to take place. As shown in the graphs below, enzyme activity levels can vary greatly depending on temperature and pH levels. If the proper levels of everything are not maintained in the cell, the consequences can be deadly. For example, an imbalance of potassium and sodium can cause the heart muscle to fail. The graph on the left shows the % of activity (vertical y-axis) that an enzyme has over a range of temperatures (horizontal x-axis). Notice that the enzyme only reaches near 100% activity at one temperature. The graph on the right shows the % activity (y-axis) for three different enzymes (blue, yellow, and green) over a range oh pHs (x-axis). Notice that each enzyme works best at only a single pH. The process of regulating and maintaining the internal environment is called homeostasis. All forms of homeostasis involve three stages: sensing, processing, and responding. The sensing stage is completed by thousands of internal receptors that detect the levels of a variety of things in the body. These sensors then report the information to the brain, which processes the information. If necessary, the brain will start orchestrating an appropriate response to fix the disruption of homeostasis. Think of it like a thermometer, a thermostat, and a furnace. The thermometer senses the temperature in the house is low, the thermostat processes the measurement and sends the signal to the furnace, the furnace carries out the response and increases the temperature of the house. The circle of homeostasis. The communication steps that divide the three stages of homeostasis are performed by the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system communicates via electrical signals, and the endocrine system communicates via biological signals. The endocrine system is a system of glands that secrete chemical messengers throughout the body. It is also an important communication tool, especially in the final response stage. Just like the circulatory system, which has different names for the blood vessels to and from the heart, there are different names for the neural pathways leading to and from the brain. The neuron signaling pathway leading towards the brain is the afferent pathway, and the pathway traveling away from the brain is the efferent pathway. Electrical signals of the nervous system are often translated into the biological signals of the endocrine system. Diagram of the afferent and efferent nerves which lead towards and away from the brain. Most processes are regulated by negative feedback loops. Negative feedback means that a sensor somewhere in the body has reported a level occurring outside the tolerated limits. The body then must correct the level until it returns to suitable levels. Gas RegulationWe discussed one type of homeostasis in the respiration section: gas exchange. In this situation the sensors are located within the walls of major arteries. They are constantly sending the brain reports of the carbon dioxide in the blood by measuring carbon dioxide and blood pH. If the brain receives a report that carbon dioxide levels are too high and pH levels are too low, it sends out the proper signals to increase respiration and circulation to bring in more oxygen. Solute RegulationSolutes are substances which are dissolved in water. If you put water in a tube and let it evaporate, the residue leftover would be the solutes that had been dissolved in the water. If you have ever taken a swim in the ocean then you have likely seen the white salt residue that is left on your skin afterwards. This was the salt that had been dissolved in the salt water. Sodium chloride, or salt, is a common solute found in the blood, and the levels of sodium ions and chloride ions are among many solutes that are regulated. Solutes are important for chemical reactions to occur, but only in the proper concentrations. Too much or too little of something can cause severe consequences. Iron deficiency, copper deficiency, and iodine deficiency are just a few examples that can cause serious problems in your body. Apart from specifics, overall ion levels control the pH inside the body, which is important for all biological processes. Luckily, the blood is filtered by the kidneys. It is the kidneys that remove excess solutes from the blood so that they may be excreted as urine. OsmoregulationAnother form of regulation is called osmoregulation. This is the control of the levels of water in the body, and the consequent control of the solutes dissolved within it. Diagram of water movement during osmosis from an area of low salt concentration to an area of high salt concentration. In order to understand why osmoregulation is important, it is first necessary to understand the movement of water. Water movement between two places is determined by the concentration of solutes in each location, and the process by which water moves is called osmosis. The endgame in osmosis is equalizing the concentrations of solutes by changing the amount of water in each location. Water flows from areas with low concentrations of solute into area of high concentrations of solute. The movement of water consequently equalizes the concentration of solute. Think about it. Adding more water in the highly concentrated area will decrease the concentration of solute. Conversely, removing water from the lowly concentrated area will increase the concentration of solute. When both areas have equal concentration of solute, the water stops moving. Since water movement is dependent on solute concentration, regulating solutes is one form of osmoregulation. Osmosis is an important player in all animals because water in the cell and water in the blood need to have similar concentrations of solute or water will move one direction or the other. Cells and blood vessels are finite spaces. If too much water moves in, it can cause the cell or the blood vessel to rupture. Diagram of what happens to red blood cells in three different environments due to osmosis causing water to move either into or out of the cells. Osmoregulation in Water AnimalsOsmoregulation is even more complicated for animals that live in the water. They have to worry about osmosis occurring between their environment and the insides of their bodies. There are two ways that water dwelling animals can handle this: osmoconformation and osmoregulation. Jellyfish and sea anemones are osmoconformers. They are unable to regulate the water levels inside of their bodies and are at the mercy of osmosis at all times. To prepare for water movement, they have elastic bodies that can handle slight changes in size, like a balloon. Osmoconformers also often live in environments that are relatively stable. However, most animals are osmoregulators. They need to keep a constant solute concentration. Think about it. What would happen to a fish if the inside of its body had a higher salt concentration than the surrounding water, like a freshwater fish? How would the water move? What would happen to their salt concentration? Diagram showing the movement of water and solutes (ions) in freshwater fish. Freshwater fish are naturally hypertonic, which means that they have a higher solute concentration than their surrounding water. This causes two things: 1) Water is always flowing into the fish towards the high concentration of solute. 2) Salt is diffusing out of the fish toward the lower concentration in the water. Both processes will increase the water level in the fish and reduce the salt level. Yet, the fish needs to keep its high salt concentration and its low water level. Therefore, fish osmoregulate by expelling highly diluted urine to remove the excess water. They also require special ion pumps in their gills to actively extract ions from the water. Marine fish have the opposite situation and are naturally hypotonic. They osmoregulate by removing concentrated urine. This allows them to reduce their internal salt concentration without losing too much water. They also actively transport ions out of their gills. Temperature RegulationAs mentioned above, internal temperature is very important for the body's chemical reactions to take place. Temperature regulation is a crucial part of homeostasis. Failure of HomeostasisHomeostasis can fail at any stage of the process. A problem with the sensor, the brain, or the communication pathway can wreak havoc on the entire body's homeostasis. Sometimes, the sensors and the brain work fine, but the body is not capable of completing the response. Diabetes mellitus is an example of this type of homeostatic failure. Blood glucose levels are controlled by sensors in the blood vessels. When the levels rise it signals the pancreas to produce a middle-man called insulin. Insulin is a hormone that is released from the pancreas and it travels around telling specific organs to remove glucose from the blood. However, if a person has Type I diabetes they are unable to produce insulin. If they have Type II diabetes, then the cells of the body do not respond when insulin tells them to suck up glucose. In both types, the body is not capable of completing the task that the brain is telling it to do, and it cannot remove the excess glucose from the blood. An excess of glucose in the blood is an example of a breakdown in maintaining homeostasis. It shows how if one part of the body's natural status is disrupted, multiple other systems can be affected. This is why diabetes causes symptoms throughout the body as diagrammed in the picture below. Diagram of the main symptoms of diabetes showing the wide-spread effects that failure of homeostasis can have.
What are substance use disorders/addiction? Based on the different theories surrounding the causes of addiction, the definition varies across schools. Addiction: A primary, chronic, and neurobiologic disease with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. It is characterized by behaviors that include one or more of the following: impaired control over medication use, compulsive use, continued use despite harm, and craving. What is the difference between Substance Abuse and Addiction? The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-R describes abusers as those who abuse substances despite recurrent social, interpersonal, and legal problems as a result of using. Harmful use implies substance use that causes either physical or mental damage. Abuse and addiction are not the same. Abuse always comes before addiction, which is chronic and treatable. Abuse starts when there is a conscious decision to abuse substances. Used too often, the individual eventually craves the substance because physical changes in the brain haven’t taken place. Substances interfere with the brain’s natural processes by making both temporary and structural changes in brain cells. Mood, memory, thinking, and even motor skills such as walking may be affected. When this happens, drug abuse turns into addiction. People who are addicted have a compulsive craving and cannot quit by themselves. What are the signs and symptoms? - Loss of/increase in appetite, any changes in eating habits - Unexplained weight loss or gain - Poor physical coordination - Inability to sleep, awake at unusual times, unusual laziness. - Red, watery eyes; pupils larger or smaller than usual; blank stare - Cold, sweaty palms; shaking hands - Puffy face, blushing or paleness - Smell of substance on breath, body or clothes - Extreme hyperactivity; excessive talkativeness - Runny nose; hacking cough - Needle marks on lower arm, leg, or bottom of feet - Nausea, vomiting or excessive sweating - Tremors or shakes of hands, feet, or head - Irregular heartbeat - Change in overall attitude/personality - Changes in friends or social circles - Change in activities or hobbies - Drop in performance at work or school - Change in habits at home; loss of interest in family - Difficulty in paying attention; forgetfulness - General lack of motivation, energy, self-esteem - Sudden oversensitivity, temper tantrums, or resentful behavior - Moodiness, irritability, or nervousness/giddiness - Excessive need for privacy - Unreachable/secretive or suspicious behavior - Problems with the law - Chronic dishonesty/stealing - Change in personal grooming habits - Possession of drug paraphernalia What causes substance abuse/addiction? While some researchers would say that there are a specific number of personality traits that precede the development of substance abuse, one cannot predict with certainty that any personality traits predispose a person to abusing substances. Therefore, we cannot determine with confidence that, based on someone’s personality alone, they will become a substance abuser. The medical model claims that addictions are a disease. This model states that addiction is an inherited disease, and an addicted individual is permanently ill, at a genetic level. The medical model also believes that like other medical diseases the person will remain ill even after years of sobriety. The Dual Diagnosis philosophy dictates that addiction is a dual problem consisting of both physical and mental dependency on chemicals, combined with a pre-existing mental disorder and that the mental disorder needs to be treated first as the primary cause of the addiction. This philosophy supports the idea that chemical dependency leads to chemical imbalances in the neurological system, which would be then a substance induced imbalance. What treatments are available? Cognitive Model of Addiction (CT) This theory is based on Aaron T. Beck’s work that examined thoughts as the originating factor of any behavior. An individual’s behavior and affect are determined by his or her view of the world and the way they structure their world. Beck’s work also explored what he called a “schemata”- a stable, mental representation of experiences that are involved in the evaluation of information. Basically, thoughts are interpreted based on experiences and activating emotions when new situations and events arise. Abnormal or dysfunctional thinking occurs when systematic distortions are applied to the new incoming situations or events affecting motivations, actions, and feelings. CT is utilized to change these cognitive distortions by assisting the client to change one’s actions, motivations, and feelings by assisting the client in challenging their own dysfunctional cognitive processes. There are many reasons people use and abuse substances; they range from pleasure, creativity, experimentation, relief from sadness, anxiety or even boredom. It is the underlying belief in any reason for substance use that shape the physiological sensations linked to the cravings and usage, and eventually addiction. These addicted behaviors are shaped from core beliefs that have to do with personal survival, autonomy, and freedom. An addict’s beliefs, in all three of these areas are dysfunctional. The dysfunctional thought patterns seem to take over, and, as the person becomes addicted, the drug appears to take control of the individual. The obstacle in addiction is eliminating the person’s dysfunctional beliefs that they hold about the substance. These dysfunctional beliefs can range from fear of side affects to the belief that they cannot function without the substance. Changing the maladaptive beliefs, thought patterns, and schemas are at the core of the CT approach for substance abuse and addiction. These beliefs must be changed in order for long-term behavioral change and sobriety. In CT, patients are taught to face the source that is leading to their emotional distress and to change the beliefs that substances can assist in the mending of these or any other problems. This is done by reducing the intensity and frequency of the urges by exploring the underlying beliefs and to teach the patient techniques for managing and controlling their urges. In all areas, the individual’s faulty beliefs about people, events, and their views on drug and alcohol use need to be fully examined. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) ACT, a form of CBT, uses a wide range of experiential exercises to examine the power of destructive cognitive, emotive, and behavioral processes that have contributed to and maintain substance abuse problems. It helps clients to fundamentally change their relationship with painful thoughts and feelings, to develop a clearer sense of self, to live in the present, and to take action, guided by personal values, and to create a rich and meaningful life without the use of substances. ACT takes the view that most psychological suffering is caused by ‘experiential avoidance’, i.e. by attempting to avoid unwanted private experiences, such as unpleasant thoughts, feelings, urges and memories. The individuals efforts at experiential avoidance might work in the short term, but in the long term they often fail, and in the process, they often create significant psychological suffering. In individuals with substance abuse disorders or any serious addiction: in the short term, the substance of choice makes a person feel good and helps rid of unpleasant thoughts and feelings – but in the long term, it destroys their health and vitality. In ACT, clients develop “mindfulness skills” which enable them to fundamentally change their relationship with painful thoughts and feelings and the connection these thoughts and feelings have with substances. When clients practice these skills in everyday life, painful feelings and unhelpful thoughts have much less impact and influence over them. Therefore, instead of wasting their time in a battle with their inner experiences, they can invest their energy on taking action to change their life for the better – guided by their deepest values and absent of drugs and alcohol. Emotion Regulation and Mindfulness Growing literature is supporting the importance of emotional regulation in the treatment of substance abuse. Research has mainly been done on nicotine cessation however, since nicotine and other psychoactive substances, such as cocaine, activate similar psychopharmacological pathways, an emotion regulation application may be applicable. This model focuses on negative reinforcement as the primary driving force for addiction. Patients are encouraged to identify and recognize their negative and emotional states and prevent the maladaptive, impulsive, and compulsive responses that they developed to deal with them. In the cases of addiction, these responses would be abusing substances. Like CBT this approach involves the thoughts involved in maladaptive and dysfunctional emotional states, but the focus here is the reaction to those states. Therefore, this could be used in conjunction with CBT if found effective. Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) MET is based on the principles of motivational psychology and is designed to produce rapid internally motivated change. This treatment employs techniques that mobilize the individual’s own change resources. CBT and MET share a focus in the beginning of exploration early in treatment of what the patient stands to lose and gain through continued substance use as a strategy to build on the patient’s own motivation to change the substance abuse. However, unlike CBT, it does not maintain that learning and practice of specific substance-related coping skills promote abstinences, but instead believes that motivation to use available resources is the patient’s responsibility and therefore no training is needed. For this reason MET would work most efficiently when combined with CBT because of the focus on the different aspects of the change process. Can Patients with Substance Abuse and Addiction have other illnesses? As mentioned in “What causes substance abuse and addiction,” many individuals with a substance abuse problem also suffer from a psychological/mental disorder. The combination of the two tends to complicate the diagnosis and treatment. When other disorders are present, the need to have multiple aspects of treatment increases significantly. Often times psychotropic medication is needed to treat a mental disorder before you can begin to work on the substance abuse problems, because many individuals chose to self medicate their mental disorders with drugs and alcohol. CBT can be combined with pharmacological treatment and has been found to be effective in the reduction of substance abuse. Where can I get more Information? - National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) (www.drugabuse.gov) - Substance Abuse (www.drugfree.org) - Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Organization (SAMHSA) (www.sanhsa.gov) - Alcohol and Substance Abuse (www.mentalhealth.net) Books for Patients and Families: - Anonymous (2002). Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How Many Men and Women Have Recovered from Alcoholism. Fourth Edition New York: Alcoholic Anonymous World Services, Inc. - Black,C. (2002). It will never happen to me: Growing up with addiction as a youngster, adolescents, adults. Bainbridge Island: MAC Publishing. - Johnson, V. (1973). I’ll quit tomorrow. New York: Harper & Row - O’Neil, J.T. & O’Neil, P. (1989). When Your Loved One Wont Quit Alcohol or Drugs. Oakland, California: New Harbinger Publications. Books for Clinicians: - Beck, A.T., Wright, F.D, Newman, B.L (2001). Cognitive Therapy for Substance Abuse. New York: Guilford Press. - Nace, E & Tinsley, J. (2007). Patients with substance abuse disorders: Effective identification, diagnosis and treatment. New York: Norton and Company. - Smith, D & Seymour, R. (2001). A clinicians guide to substance abuse: New York: McGraw-Hill Press. Referrals to Cognitive Therapy in Your Area:
Life may have started on Earth much earlier than previously thought, according to new research. Scientists from the University of Copenhagen and University of British Columbia (UBC) analyzed 3 billion year-old soil in South Africa and say they found evidence that low levels of oxygen had already started to accumulate then. That’s 700 million years earlier than prior estimates. The South African soils are believed to be Earth’s oldest. Oxygenation of the Earth’s atmosphere began at a dynamic time in Earth’s history called the “Great Oxygenation Event.” “We’ve always known that oxygen production by photosynthesis led to the eventual oxygenation of the atmosphere and the evolution of aerobic life,” says Sean Crowe, co-lead author of the study and an assistant professor in the Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences at UBC. “This study now suggests that the process began very early in Earth’s history, supporting a much greater antiquity for oxygen producing photosynthesis and aerobic life,” added Crowe. There was no oxygen in the atmosphere for at least hundreds of millions of years after the Earth formed, but today, the Earth’s atmosphere is 20 percent oxygen. This is due to photosynthetic bacteria that, like trees and other plants, consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen. The bacteria laid the foundation for oxygen breathing organisms to evolve and inhabit the planet. The research was published today in the journal Nature
Here’s the need-to-know stuff about the energy source, geothermal energy! The centre of the Earth is extremely hot – around 6000oC. Some of this heat rises up to heat rocks nearer the surface. Where can you find geothermal energy? Geothermal plants can be found wherever very hot rocks can be found near the surface, for example in the United States, New Zealand, Iceland and Japan. There is one small geothermal power plant in the UK, in Southampton. How is it made into electricity? Holes are drilled down to hot rocks – sometimes thousands of metres below the surface. Water is then pumped down to the rock, where it is heated and turned into steam. This steam is then drawn up to the surface and used to propel the blades of a turbine. This is attached to a generator, which produces electricity! What are the advantages of using geothermal energy? - It is a renewable source of energy, which means that it will not run out! - No fuel is needed, so once the geothermal plant is built the running costs of producing electricity are relatively low. - Once built, geothermal plants do not produce air pollution and do not contribute to the greenhouse effect. - The power stations do not take up much room. What are the disadvantages of using geothermal energy? - The right geographical location is needed, where suitable hot rocks are within drilling depth. Not many of these exist in the UK. - Sometimes the heat source can ‘dry up’ if too much heat energy is extracted. - Hazardous gases and minerals can be brought up which need to be safely disposed of. We’ve got a whole series about energy, electricity, and power generation! It’s called Curious Kate, and you can listen to it below! Energy Source Fact Files! Learn about different types of energy and how they help generate electricity!EXPLORE THIS SERIES
DetailsKingfisher _Designed by Rusty Smith ( https://grabcad.com/library/kingfisher-1 ) _Kingfisher, any of about 90 species of birds in three families (Alcedinidae, Halcyonidae, and Cerylidae), noted for their spectacular dives into water. They are worldwide in distribution but are chiefly tropical. Kingfishers, ranging in length from 10 to 42 cm (4 to 16.5 inches), have a large head, a long and massive bill, and a compact body. Their feet are small, and, with a few exceptions, the tail is short or medium-length. Most species have vivid plumage in bold patterns, and many are crested.These vocal, colourful birds are renowned for their dramatic hunting techniques. Typically, the bird sits still, watching ... (100 of 591 words). _There are three main types of kingfisher around the globe which are the river kingfishers, the tree kingfishers and the water kingfishers all of which have large heads, long sharp pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.The smallest species of kingfisher is the African Dwarf Kingfisher, which gets to an average of 10.4 g in weight and just 10 cm (4 inches) in length. The largest kingfisher species is the Giant Kingfisher, which gets to an average of 355 g (13.5 oz) and grows to 45 cm (18 inches). However, the familiar Australian kingfisher known as the Laughing Kookaburra may be the heaviest known kingfisher species, since large adult Australian kingfishers exceeding 450 g in weight are quite common.Kingfishers nest in tree hollows and holes dug into the ground, which tend to be in river banks or at the sides of lakes. Kingfishers dig small tunnels with their nest at the end, which can range in length depending on the species. The giant kingfisher is known to dig tunnels that are over 8 meters long! Female kingfishers lay up to 10 eggs (although normally less), and both the male and the female kingfishers help to incubate the eggs, which hatch in between 3 and 4 weeks. _Kingfishers are well known for their brightly coloured feathers which range in colour from black to red to green. Some species of kingfisher have tufts of feathers on their heads which stick upwards, although many species of kingfishers have smooth, flat feathers covering their bodies.Due to their generally small size, kingfishers have a number of predators wherever they exist around the world. The main predators of the kingfisher are foxes, raccoons, cats and snakes, but kingfishers are also preyed upon by other small mammals and large birds. The eggs of the kingfisher are also preyed upon by many of the kingfisher's predators. - Additional Information SKU 10000448 Length [mm] 71.61 Width [mm] 143.57 Height [mm] 70 Volume [cm³] 26.37 Area [cm²] 76.16
The blocks of optical objects with flat refined faces arranged at exactly controlled angles to each other. These objects can repelled, diverge and turn around the rays of light also dissolve their wavelengths this is known as Prism. There are several types of prism available each prism contains specific geometry to attain reflections needed to do specific imaging task. Reflecting prisms may overturn, rotate and diverge ray. Dispersing prisms make spectral separation for spectroscopic applications or for change laser output. Most of the selection of prisms are depends on the application. It can diverge an incident ray without upturn or reversing to 90 is independent of any revolving of the prism about an axis corresponding to the line of meeting point of the two reflecting countenances. The application of penta prism is it is used in Plumb Level, Surveying, Alignment and Optical Tooling. Beam splitter Penta Prism: The application of this prism is used in Plumb Level, Surveying, Alignment, Range finding and Optical Tooling. Right Angle Prism: Right angle prism is differing or redirects a ray of light with 90 or 180°. The application of this prism is used in telescope, periscope and other optical system. Dove prism contains two applications. It is used in terrestrial telescopes, presentation systems and rangefinders. Corner Cube Retroflector: It is used to measure the distance, process of optical signal and interferometer laser. The main application of this prism is it is very easy to revolve elliptical ray into circular ray. The application of this is wedge prism is to create a few divergence, which don’t permit go back to the basis.
Signs Your Child Is Being Bullied Bullying is an intentional, aggressive and repeated behavior that involves an imbalance of power or strength. It can take several forms: - Physical (hitting, punching, beating) - Verbal (teasing, name calling, threats) - Emotional (intimidation using gestures, social exclusion, threats) - Racist Bullying - Cyberbullying (Online harassment, hate messages, threats, impersonation, and other digital abuse) • Your child comes home with torn, damaged, or missing pieces of clothing, books, or other belongings • Has unexplained cuts, bruises, and scratches • Has few, if any friends, with whom he or she spends time • Seems afraid of going to school, walking to and from school, riding the school bus, or taking part in organized activities with peers • Finds or makes up excuses as to why they can’t go to school • Takes a long out of the way route when walking to or from school • Has lost interest in school work or suddenly begins to do poorly in school • Appears sad, moody, teary, or depressed when he or she comes home • Complains frequently of headaches, stomachaches or other physical ailments • Has trouble sleeping or has frequent bad dreams • Experiences a loss of appetite • Appears anxious and suffers from low self-esteem Note: Children with disabilities may be at a higher risk of being bullied than other children. What to do if you suspect your child is a victim of bullying The above signs are signs of bullying but are also signs of other abuse as well. If your child displays any of these signs talk with them and talk with the school staff to learn more about what’s going on. When talking with your child, don’t just ask if they’re being bullied. A better way to approach it is to say: - “I’ve heard a lot about bullying in the news. Is that going on at your school?” - “I’m worried about you. Are there any kids at school who may be picking on you or bullying you?” - “Are there any kids at school who tease you in a mean way?” - “Are there any kids at school who leave you out or exclude you on purpose?” Some subtle questions: - “Do you have any special friends at school this year? Who are they? Who do you hang out with?” - “Who do you sit with at lunch and on the bus?” - “Are there any kids at school who you really don’t like? Why don’t you like them? Do they ever pick on you or leave you out of things?” If your kids or teens are being bullied do not over-react. Assure them that you love them that this is not your fault and you will help them. Let them know they can talk to you about anything. Talk with your kid’s/teen’s school. Call or set up an appointment to talk with their teacher. Teachers are likely in the best position to understand the relationships between your child and other peers in their school. Share your concerns about your child and ask the teacher such questions as: - “How does my child get along with other students in his or her class?” - “With whom does he or she spend free time?” - “Have you noticed or have you ever suspected that my child is being bullied by other students?” Offer some examples of some ways that kids and teens are bullied so the teacher fully understands that you’re not focused on one form of bullying - Ask the teacher to talk with other faculty and staff who interact with your child at school to see whether they have observed your child being bullied by his or her peers - If you are not comfortable talking with your child’s teacher, or not satisfied with the conversation, make an appointment to meet with your child’s guidance counselor or principal to discuss these concerns - If you believe your child is being bullied take quick action as bullying can have serious effects on kids and teens If, after talking with your child and his or her school and you don’t feel that your child is being bullied, stay alert to other possible problems that your child may be experiencing serious problems that could cause depression, social isolation, and loss of interest in school and share your concerns with a school counselor or psychologist. © STOMP Out Bullying™ 2007 - 2015 www.STOMPOutBullying.org STOMP Out Bullying™, NO MATTER™ and Blue Shirt Day™ World Day of Bullying Prevention™ are trademarked names of the organization STOMP Out Bullying™, and may not be used by any other parties. Permission to reproduce any information or images contained on this site must be requested in writing and submitted to the attention of STOMP Out Bullying™ Media Relations. Unauthorized usage of these trademarks are considered to be intellectual property infringements.
The value (in cents) of the change in a purse that contains twice as many nickels as pennies, four more dimes than nickels, and as many quarters as dimes and nickels combined; p = number of pennies? Number of nickels = twice as many as number of pennies = . Each nickel is worth 5 cents. So the value of the nickels = cents Number of dimes = four more than the number of nickels = . Each dime is worth 10 cents. So the value of the dimes = ??? cents. Number of quarters = number of dimes plus number of nickels = ??. Each quarter is worth 25 cents, so the value of the quarters is ??? cents. Add together all four value totals; remove the brackets and simplify the result. You'll then arrive at an expression like , where and are two whole numbers. That will be your final answer, if you don't have any more information. Can you complete it now?
Human Occupation and Land Use Although estimates of the number of archaeological sites within Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument range from 18,000 to 100,000, detailed excavations have been limited in number. Existing evidence suggests that humans have used the lands within the current monument boundaries for at least 8,000 years, beginning with the nomadic Archaics. Artifacts of this ancient culture within the monument consist only of scattered flaked stone tools, indicating only that Archaic peoples foraged on the plants and animals of the region. By 400 A.D., both Anasazi and Fremont peoples had settled in the area, remaining until the widespread exodus of the region by both cultures in the 1300s. Most of the settlements of these two cultures consisted of small villages of pithouses and adobe pueblos, although several larger villages with large structures of forty to fifty rooms were also located in the area. The Anasazi and Fremont both grew crops of maize and beans, foraged native plants, and hunted game such as deer, bighorn sheep, and rabbits. Several archaeological sites in the monument represent cultural mingling between the Anasazi and Fremont, a rare event in southwestern prehistory. Around 1000 A.D., several new cultural influences moved into the area: Shoshonean peoples, ancestors of the modern Southern Paiute and other tribes; Athabaskan peoples, ancestors of the Navajo and Apache; and Kayenta Pueblo peoples. Southern Paiutes view the monument area as their tribal homeland. For many centuries, small bands of the tribe harvested local plants, hunted game and grew irrigated crops within the area. The Southern Paiute were one of the few North American tribes that did not incorporate horses into their culture, as the sparse vegetation of most of the Grand Staircase-Escalante region could not readily sustain grazing. Like many Native American tribes during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Southern Paiute were subjected to slave trading at the hands of recently arrived Spanish explorers and aggressive bands of Navajos and Utes. This practice continued until the establishment of Mormon settlements in the 1860s. By this time, Southern Paiutes occupied most of the monument, with Utes inhabiting the northeast corner. In addition, Hopi peoples occasionally made use of the land's seasonal resources. Between 1860 and 1880, several Mormon communities were established in the region, including Escalante, Boulder, Tropic and Kanab. These historic settlements were largely limited to the periphery of the modern monument's borders due to the difficult topography, arid conditions, and great distances between reliable water sources. The boundaries of the monument were carefully drawn to exclude these towns due to traditional local opposition to increased protection for public lands. Despite the imposing landscape, the Mormons were determined and hardy, building homes, dams, irrigation systems, reservoirs, and trails across south-central Utah. As with other settlements across the west, the settlement of the monument region was part of their religious mission to gain control of large expanses of "unclaimed" land in order to freely practice their faith. Much of the "unclaimed" land settled by Mormons was, of course, the traditional land of Native Americans. This lead to conflict between the newcomers and the natives, especially since the Mormon pioneers were attracted to the most verdant agricultural and prolific gathering areas. Most of the conflict was between the Mormons and Navajos, although some occurred with the Southern Paiutes. Yet some Southern Paiutes also went to work for the Mormons, receiving food, clothes, and other goods. In 1917, the Kaibab Reservation was established in northern Arizona, southwest of the monument, allowing the Southern Paiute an opportunity to preserve their traditions and culture. While early Mormon settlers subsisted on agriculture, the scarcity of water and arable land restricted this economy. By the turn of the century, livestock operations were the basis of the local economy in the towns bordering the monument. In later decades, tourism and filmmaking became increasingly important sources of employment. Today, the presence of Bryce Canyon and Capitol Reef National Parks, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, and numerous national forests, wilderness areas, and state parks in the regions surrounding the monument has continued to both cause and reflect a shift from traditional activities such as mining, agriculture and logging to recreation and tourism. These shifts in the economy of southern Utah have had mixed impacts. Although traditional jobs have been lost, the increasing demand for recreational open space is increasing both the economic value of these protected lands and the associated job opportunities for the residents of southern Utah. Follow these links to:
DNA - From Nature to Technology DNA is a chemical compound found inside the nucleus of a living cell which contains all the genetic information about an organism. DNA molecules act like little factories—they produce proteins, which then build or maintain all the systems of the body. The makeup of DNA varies from species to species, and as a result the proteins made by the DNA also vary from species to species. These differences account for all the varieties of organisms found in nature from bacteria, to plants, to humans. The DNA molecule itself consists of a large number of chemical compounds, bound together into a sort of rope-like structure. When it comes into contact with the various chemicals in the body, the DNA causes chemical reactions that result in the formation of certain proteins. Also, when a cell divides (which happens regularly), the DNA replicates itself: the molecule splits down its length, and each half forms a new DNA strand. In more recent years, scientists and engineers have looked to DNA for ideas about the next generation of molecule-size chemical “factories,” not only for natural products but for all sorts of new materials. Because DNA so readily makes and breaks chemical bonds, reconnecting and modifying materials at the atomic level, engineers believe that studying it may reveal ways to make molecule size machines called “assemblers,” or even molecule size computers. DNA, in other words, is likely to be modified to suit entirely new purposes, becoming the first in what engineers imagine will be a flood of new, tiny “nanotechnologies” that will become much more important in coming years.

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