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What is one of the most significant issues in modern education? The lack of motivation in students. Unfortunately, some learners have zero motivation to study. They do not want to read books and complete assignments. As a teacher, you have the power to change the situation. By combining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, you can spark interest in your students and get them to study harder. Explain the goals Goal setting is the key to intrinsic motivation. If you want to motivate your students to push their limits, you should set clear learning objectives. The learners should have a clear understanding of what they study, why they study, and what results they should get in the end. Set ground rules Once the goals are clear, it’s time to discuss the ground rules. What resources your students are allowed to use? What writing guidelines should they follow? What deadlines should they strive to meet? Explain every rule in detail and encourage your students to ask you questions. It will allow you to prevent any misunderstandings that tend to corode intrinsic motivation. Just remember that the ground rules should be easy-to-understand and easy-to-follow. If you set too many sophisticated rules, it will not help you to boost students’ motivation. Treat your students as your own kids Whether you teach adults or young learners, you should treat them as your own kids. You should help them with solving difficult tasks, answer all their questions, and praise them for their small achievements. Once your student reaches out to you, you should be ready to assist him. Do you remember how you helped your own kids to resolve a room-sharing issue and how you prevented them from fighting? Use the same pedagogical approach when working with your students, and you will succeed. Provide positive feedback Studies show that positive feedback increases their feeling of competence, and also gives the learners more intrinsic motivation. It means that every time you tell your students that they did “a great job”, you motivate them to study harder. Well, it might be easy for you to praise the achievements of the brilliant students. But what about students who do not perform well? You should try to find something good in their works too. Let’s say a student submitted a poorly-structured essay that is full of spelling and proofreading errors. Yet, the essay is interesting to read. What kind of feedback would you provide? To boost motivation, you should better put it this way: “Dear student! Your essay is interesting to read, and it seems that you have high creative skills. However, your grammatical skills need some improvement. Please, look through your mistakes and comments in red. To improve the grammar of your writing and get higher grades in the future, you can use academic writing sites and proofreading services.” Take advantage of positive competition If you want to motivate your students extrinsically, try to foster a friendly spirit of competition in your classroom. Use points, badges, leaderboards, and other elements of gamification to engage the learners. Trying to collect more points and get to the top of the leaderboard, your students will study harder and perform tasks better. These competitive elements might not help you to keep your students motivated in the long-run. But they will help you and your learners to achieve short-term objectives. Provide your students with options What do all students want? They want to have some choice and control over what happens in the classroom. So if you want to keep your students engaged, allow them to make “little choices” on a daily basis. For instance, you can ask your students whether they prefer to take a multi-choice test or answer open-ended questions. Or, when assigning an essay, you can allow them to pick a topic to write about. Use these tricks, and you will cultivate a positive classroom culture in which every student feels valued and respected. You will make your students feel heard, motivated, and thrive in school, work, and life. Don’t use a one-size-fits-all approach If you want to succeed as a teacher, never use a one-size-fits-all approach in a classroom. All students are different. And if you want to maximize your efforts, you should use different strategies to motivate different individuals. In some cases, you will need to focus more on extrinsic motivation, in other cases – on intrinsic one. So don’t hesitate to test different strategies in your classroom and find out what works for you the best. As a teacher, you are responsible for your students’ success. So don’t waste precious time and develop an effective motivation strategy today. Follow the rules given in this article, and you will combine intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the right way. About the author: Daniela McVicker is a freelance writer and an educational blogger for AllTopReviews, a reviews page for academic services. She graduated from Durham University and has an MA in psychological science. Her passion is traveling and finding ways to enrich students’ learning experiences.
Available with Spatial Analyst license. Straight-line distance can be altered when a barrier is present and when a surface raster is specified. A surface raster incorporates the actual distance encountered adjusting for the ups and downs in the landscape surface. Once the adjusted straight-line distance is identified, the rate that distance is encountered by a traveler can be determined. The adjusted straight-line distance must be accurate to capture the true movement of the traveler. The basic straight-line distance without a surface raster or barrier applied theoretically models the traveler as if it were flying just above the surface. When the landscape surface is incorporated in the distance calculations, it accounts for the additional distance the traveler will cover because they are moving over the undulations in the landscape. The landscape surface is identified by a surface raster and is typically an elevation surface. The image below illustrates how the general calculations are performed. Since the route from point A to point B is uphill, the traveler needs to travel farther than if the route were flat. The distance that would be traveled is referred to as the surface distance. Unless the cell is flat, the surface raster will always increase the distance to move through it. The rate at which the adjusted distance is encountered can be controlled by a cost surface, the source characteristics, a vertical factor and a horizontal factor. If any of these factors are specified, the distance to move through a cell (adjusted for the surface raster) is multiplied by the cost associated with the cell. The surface distance is not to be confused with the vertical factor. The surface distance increases the actual distance the traveler will travel. The vertical factor is the effort to overcome the slopes the traveler encounters when moving over the landscape. Surface raster use examples A surface raster can be used to help solve various scenarios, such as the following: - Determine how much water will be required to protect a neighborhood in a mountainous area from an advancing brush fire when you need to spray a 500-meter straight-line protection buffer around the houses. It is necessary to determine the actual surface area that needs to be covered. - Determine the actual distance that must be traveled by rescuers to reach an injured hiker. - Determine the number of steps you will register on your fitness tracker when you go for a run. Adjust straight-line distance analysis with a surface raster Distance analysis can be divided conceptually into the following related functional areas: - Calculate straight-line distance and, optionally, adjust the calculations with a barrier or surface raster. - Optionally determine the rate the distance will be encountered using a cost surface, source characteristics, vertical factor, and horizontal factor. Create the accumulative distance raster. - Connect regions over the resulting accumulative distance surface using an optimal network, specific paths, or a corridor. From the first functional area, the straight-line distance is adjusted with a surface raster as illustrated below. The scenario involves a collection of four forest ranger stations (purple dots), and some rivers (blue lines). When also adjusting the straight-line distance for the surface distance, there are only slight spatial changes in the overall raster, but the range of the values does change. Create an accumulative distance raster that adjusts for the surface To create an accumulative distance map that incorporates the actual surface distance, complete the following steps: - Open the Distance Accumulation tool. - Provide the source in the Input raster or feature source data parameter. - Name the output distance raster. - Identify the surface raster in the Input surface raster parameter. - Specify any other necessary parameters. - Click Run. Surface raster affects distance calculation The input surface raster is used to determine the actual surface distance traveled from one cell to the next. The surface distance is an adjustment to the straight-line distance. Elevation data is often used as the input surface raster. When locating a new building complex, the closer the building is to existing power lines, the better. In the following image, the distance to the closest power line (blue lines) is identified for each cell. The more green a cell is, the closer it is to a power line. The distance was calculated with a barrier, the ridge line (the purple line), but without specifying a surface raster. In the following image, that same distance is calculated, but this time with a surface raster input specified. The two maps appear similar but the ranges are different in their legends. The surface distance increases the overall distance that must be traveled. If the landscape is not flat, the accumulative distance is always greater when a surface raster is provided. When one or multiple rate controlling factors—a cost surface, source characteristic, vertical factor, or horizontal factor—are also provided, greater distance means that more cost is incurred at the rate determined by these factors. The surface raster can affect the output back-direction, source direction and distance allocation rasters when calculating straight-line distance, particularly in rugged terrain. When a cost surface, vertical factor, horizontal factor, and source characteristic input are provided, these three outputs may change depending on the undulations and their steepness in the surface raster and the variation in the cost surface. Steep locations have a greater surface distance, and if the location has high cost, the final output accumulative distance and accompanying values may increase significantly. Often the same elevation raster that is used for the surface raster is also used as the vertical factor raster. Additional applications incorporating a surface raster The following are sample applications in which straight-line distance is adjusted to account for the surface distance to address specific problems. Identify the shortest surface distance To calculate the shortest surface distance between two points, use one of the points as the input to Distance Accumulation, along with an elevation surface for the Input surface raster parameter. Use the accumulative distance and back direction outputs, along with the second point, as inputs to the Optimal Path As Line tool. The generated path will be the shortest surface distance back to the first point. Calculate distances along a network Using the Distance Accumulation tool with a surface raster, you can calculate the surface distance along a network from a set of locations on that network. This can be useful, for example, to calculate the distance along streams upstream from stream gauges or the distance along roads from bus stops. The stream gauges or bus stops are provided as the sources and an elevation surface is provided for the Input surface raster parameter. The network over which the distance is to be computed is provided for the Input cost raster parameter. The cost raster will have a value of 1 assigned to all cells on the network and NoData to all cells that are not on the network. To obtain more accurate results, set a smaller cell size when you rasterize the network to create the cost surface. Then apply a thickening operator to the rasterized versions of the network features. Focal Statistics is a good way to thicken a raster representing a linear network. It widens the paths in the raster network while generally preserving the individual cell values on the network. Calculate actual travel distance between cells The tool applies the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the actual travel distance between two cells. The Pythagorean theorem calculates the actual surface distance as the hypotenuse of the distance between the cells and the difference in elevation. If the cost distance is being calculated to one of the four adjacent neighbors, the length of the base (a) is equal to the cell size (the distance from the center of one cell to the center of another). If the cost distance is being determined to a diagonal cell, the base is derived from the cell size times approximately 1.414214 (or, √2). To determine the height (b) of the triangle, the height of the first cell on the surface raster is subtracted from the height of the second cell. This is a conceptual description of the calculations. For detailed information, see Distance accumulation algorithm. On occasion, the linear x and y units of an input surface raster may differ from the vertical units. However, the units must be the same when performing the calculations. To ensure they are, the tool will make the necessary adjustments for the following situations: - If the input surface raster is projected and has a vertical coordinate system (VCS), when the units differ, the tool converts the necessary units to make sure they are all the same. - If the surface raster is projected and does not have a VCS, it is assumed that the surface units are the same as the horizontal units. If the surface raster is in an unprojected (geographic) coordinate system, such as having units of decimal degrees, do not use the Planar distance method. You can use the Geodesic method on an unprojected raster. If there is an associated VCS, the units will be converted to meters if they are not already. If there is no VCS, it is assumed the vertical values are meters. All calculations in Geodesic are in meters.
Water as rocket fuel can be a giant leap for space research, by reducing the cost of space travel, making it safer and lightweight alternative solution than the currently available one. Space travel is a matter of high interest to not only modern-day scientists, but it was even in ancient times as well. However, with the progress of science, human started becoming ambitious and finally entered the space and deep space, stepped onto other space objects as well. Since early 1950, efforts are being made to make space travel possible, feasible and affordable. It was a giant leap for mankind’s quest for knowledge and space mystery, when in 1969, NASA sent Edwin Aldrin and Neil Armstrong to the moon. Since then, various space agencies from across the world have sent their men to explore the outer world. A lot of research and development goes into the making of different requirements for space travel. But, the biggest requirement to travel to space is the vehicle or what is better known as rockets, spaceships. A lot of fuel is required to power the 10-story size rockets that go into space. For that, scientists have kept on searching and researching about fuels that can easily propel rockets into the outer atmosphere or in the orbits of other planets without much hassle. In the past, petrol and diesel were seen as the best alternative for propelling rockets into space, but now scientists have come up with new fuel and a new method to send rockets into space. Currently, the space going rockets use solid fuel propellant, which is very expensive. Solid fuel: A safe but costly solution The solid rocket fuel is a composite consisting of a solid oxidizer such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium dinitramide, ammonium perchlorate, potassium nitrate that come in a polymer binder mixed with energetic compounds such as HMX, RDX, along with metallic additives like beryllium, aluminium etc. It also uses plasticizers, stabilizers, and burn rate modifiers such as copper oxide, iron oxide. While finding the liquid propellant costs for rockets is relatively easy, finding costs for solid fuels is more difficult. But, considering the necessity of utmost safety of rockets, solid fuel comes as the best solution for the space going models. The cost of a solid rocket propellant is estimated at approximately $5/kg. Water is the new age rocket fuel However, it seems the day is not very far away when the space-bound rockets from around the world will make their journey fuelled by water. Yes you read it right. Water will be the new fuel for rockets. Water as rocket fuel certainly is an innovative and path-breaking scientific discovery. Water is an element that is available plenty across the world. Using it as rocket fuel can actually bring down the space research cost massively, especially when mankind is mulling the idea to send astronauts to Mars and beyond. Also, NASA is planning to send a human to the moon again. NASA scientists have discovered a very unique method of using water as rocket fuel in rockets, which breaks the water into hydrogen and oxygen and then liquefy those elements to fuel the space vehicle. The current system of propelling rockets is a high-risk operation, but as of now, there’s no viable alternative to it. The system works by firing gas out of the rear of the vehicle in a way that pushes it forward, thanks to the laws of physics. Such propulsion systems are very tightly packed but have a lot of power so as to keep the spacecraft hovering in the orbits for weeks, months or even decades at times. But using the current propulsion system can pose a variety of threats too! Packing energy into a small volume and mass in the form of fuel means even the slightest issue can have disastrous consequences, as we saw with the recent SpaceX rocket explosion. Putting satellites in orbit with any form of unstable fuel onboard could spell disaster for expensive hardware or even worse, human life. Water, in this case, is an alternative solution to resolve this issue because it is essentially an energy carrier rather than a fuel. The Cornell University team working on this technology isn’t planning to use water itself as a propellant but to rather use electricity from solar panels to split the water into hydrogen and oxygen and use them as the fuel. These two gases, when recombined and ignited will burn or explode, churning out the energy that they took in during the splitting process. The outcome of the burning of these two gaseous elements will carry forward the rocket into outer space. What’s making water as rocket fuel more interesting? Think about the moon as the refuelling base for future interplanetary and deep-space missions. A lunar base can actually act as a refuelling base for the rockets. This way, the rockets can go without taking all its propellant onboard, which will make the vehicles lightweight and faster as well. Instead, shedding the weight can accommodate for more astronauts or scientific equipment etc. It will also make the spacecraft launch way much cheaper. Such a step is important because the earth’s atmosphere and gravitational pull necessitate the use of tons of fuel per second when the rockets are launched towards space. Creating a sustainable source of fuel in space could reduce the costs and hazards associated with heavy liftoffs. As research has revealed that moon has a huge reserve of billion-year-old water, if that can be converted into rocket fuel, shooting a rocket to Mars or Jupiter will become a more frequent and less expensive affair. Sending satellites in space too is an expensive affair for the countries and space agencies across the world. With water as rocket fuel, the satellites can be powered by water as well. This will reduce the cost of space research drastically for sure. Solar panels have negative movable parts and are very highly reliable. Hence, they’re the ideal power source in zero gravity and extreme environment of outer space. They can effectively harness the power of the sun and in turn help the satellites to actively engage on their targets. This is why the satellites use solar panels for energy sources. Traditionally this energy is stored in batteries on board the satellites. But the Cornell University scientists want to use it to create their fuel source by splitting the on-board water. Water as rocket fuel: Any other option? Researchers led by NASA’s former chief technologist are hoping to launch satellite-carrying water as the source of its fuel. A team from Cornell University, guided by Mason Peck, wants their device to become the first shoebox-sized ‘CubeSat’ to orbit the moon while demonstrating the potential of water as a source of spacecraft fuel. It’s a safe, stable substance that’s relatively common even in space, but could also find greater use here on Earth as we search for alternatives to fossil fuels. Yes, water can then power the car, motorcycle, trucks and bus engines as well. Considering the fact that the ICE engines are built to be fuelled by liquid propellants like petrol or diesel, water can become a viable alternative solution, with more research and invest going into it. NASA PTD: Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator NASA’s Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator or PTD is a series of missions demonstrating novel CubeSat technologies in low-earth orbit, providing significant enhancements to the performance of small and effective spacecraft. The first mission of the series, dubbed as PTD-1, is slated to launch in January 2021 using a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket on the Transporter-1 mission from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. In another project, NASA is sending a swarm of three CubeSats, known as V-R3x, to demonstrate the autonomous radio networking and navigation technology. PTD-1’s propulsion system will produce gas propellants, a mix of hydrogen and oxygen after breaking water, only when activated in orbit. The system applies an electric current through the water to chemically separate water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen gases, a process christened as electrolysis. The CubeSat’s solar arrays harness energy from the Sun to supply the electric power needed to operate the miniature electrolysis system. These gases are more energetic fuels than water; burning hydrogen and oxygen gas in a rocket nozzle generates more thrust than using “unsplit” liquid water as a propellant. It strikes a better balance between performance and safety for spacecraft propulsion, meaning CubeSats will get more bangs for the buck. David Mayer, Project Manager, PTD-1 said that this system uses water as the fuel in an energetic way, with an inherently safe system, which is new in this technology. “We are disallowed from using high-performance propulsion systems in CubeSats because of the nature of how we launch these missions, namely by being attached to other spacecraft,” said Mayer, adding “Water is the safest rocket fuel I know of.” The propulsion system is named Hydros, developed by Tethers Unlimited Inc., in Bothell, Washington. This water-based propulsion technology was initially developed under a NASA Small Business Innovation Research contract and then developed under a NASA Tipping Point partnership. Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems Inc. developed the PTD spacecraft bus in Irvine, California. Tyvak is also performing payload integration and operations for the PTD-1 mission. The Spaceflight Inc. of Seattle is providing integration and rideshare services for the PTD-1 spacecraft.
5 meaningful ways to make a difference this Earth Day Celebrate Earth Day with these hands-on science experiments that will teach your little scientists about taking care of the Earth 1. Learn about the Water Crisis The water crisis is a major problem across the world, not only access to safe and clean water, but the amount of clean fresh water we have is depreciating rapidly. Women are impacted significantly by the water crisis because most of their time is spent walking to collect fresh water for their families and in their traditional roles. Which limits their ability to pursue a career and contribute to household income. Check out this link to learn more about how women are impacted by the water crisis. https://water.org/our-impact/water-crisis/ Teach kids about clean water by beginning with a trip to a local pond or natural water source to get a “dirty water sample.” Then, follow the water treatment steps using supplies you have at home! Step 1: Coagulation and Sedimentation Begin the cleaning process by using Alum (potassium aluminum sulphate) if you don't have this at home it can be found in the spice aisle. It is traditionally used in the pickling and canning process to keep the vegetables crunchy. The Alum forces the sediment to the bottom of the jar. Add a few tablespoons (or more depending on the size of your water sample) place the lid back on the jar and give the jar a good shake. Nothing will happen right way, so let the jar sit for a few hours. In a real water treatment plant, the added Alum forms clumps with the dirt which are called "floc" and it pulls the floc down to the bottom of the basin (or jar). Step 2: Filtration The next step in cleaning is typically to pass the water through a Sand and Gravel Filter. If you can’t find any clean sand, you can find some gravel (make sure to use large and small pieces of gravel) outside and clean it with soap and water. Put the gravel into a clean berry container or a strainer. Make sure to place the berry container or the strainer over a bowl to catch the clean water. Pour the pond water sample over the DIY gravel filter. Try to pour the water out and leave the floc in the jar. Look at the water sample after it has gone through the gravel filter, you may still see some small specks of dirt and this is a great time to talk about how the sand would have caught those small specks during the filtration process. If you don't have sand and want to continue to filter out the small particles you can use a coffee filter inside the berry container and pour the water over the filter. This will help catch those smaller particles. The water should come out looking clean, maybe even good enough to drink?? (WE DON'T RECOMMEND DRINKING THIS WATER) This is a great time to talk about how even though the water may look clean and safe to drink there could still be things (like bacteria or parasites) in the water that we can't see but that could make us very sick if we drink it. Before we drink water from our tap it has been disinfected with a chlorine solution. For safety reasons we suggest to either boil the water and then pour it in back in the jar or you can skip this step and discuss how chlorine kills bacteria and parasites so we can drink the water without getting sick. The process made a huge difference to both the look (and the smell!) of the water sample. Don’t you think? 2. Recycle, Recycle, Recycle Statistics show estimates that nearly 100,000 pounds of waste will be created from your very being over your lifetime, creating a substantial impact on environmental issues such as landfills, energy conservation, contamination and the diminishing of resources. Recycling is a practice that can be implemented in your day-to-day life that can help you maintain a green home and reduce your negative effect on the earth. Here are five recycling tips to help you out. Ways you can help: 1. Start small, learning how to recycle properly can be overwhelming at first, you don't have to jump in 100% at first. Pick 1-2 things you want to recycle properly and then you can advance from there as you learn more information. 2. Reduce the amount of single use plastic that you consume, pay attention to how things are packaged. Do you need to use all those plastic bags at the grocery store or can you replace them with cloth bags? 3. Reuse things multiple times before disposing of them. Wash out ziplock bags, containers and use them for food storage or crafts. 4. Buy things that are made from recyclable materials. This helps support green businesses and reuse products that would otherwise be wasted. 5. Make sure you wash and rinse out every container you put into the recycling. Sometimes if containers have too much food in them they will not get recycled. Its an easy and effective way to ensure the things you put in the recycling won't end up in the trash! 3. Garbage pick up Every little piece of garbage that gets picked up helps save the planet. Even if it feels like it doesn't make a meaningful impact, it does! As we have experienced a pandemic over the last year and have had to be cautious of transmission and contamination of the virus on objects. We have reverted back to using single use plastics and garbage. There are disposable masks left everywhere. Let's put on some gloves and do a quick garbage clean up in your neighbourhood! 4. Commute Less One good thing the pandemic has done for the earth has been a massive reduction in the amount of people commuting in and out of the city everyday, reducing our carbon footprint. Hopefully in a post-pandemic world lots of jobs continue to operate out of people's home and we can continue to reduce the amount of commuting. Let's continue to make smart choices and walk or ride our bikes as much as possible. 5. Teach children about their carbon footprint The generally accepted definition of carbon footprint is the amount of carbon dioxide, or greenhouse gases, produced as a result of our daily living. In other words, many things we do creates carbon dioxide, or greenhouse gases. If you add up the amount of emissions our daily activity produces you have an idea of the size of the impact we have on the environment. This might seem like a hard concept for kids to understand, but when we started brainstorming a list of things we do that use energy and emit carbon dioxide the idea of a carbon footprint became a whole lot clearer. 1. Paint a footprint on a piece of paper 2. With a marker come up with a list of things they do every day that increase their carbon footprint (rides to school, leaving the lights on, flying in an airplane, using insufficient lights etc.) 3. Then write a list about ways you could reduce your carbon footprint (turn off hte lights, walk to school, travel less on an airplane)
Is deceleration something new or just acceleration in the opposite direction? Deceleration is simply a special case of acceleration. An object decelerates by accelerating in the direction opposite its current velocity. For example, if your car is heading toward Washington at 60 mph (100 km/h) and you push on the brake pedal, your car will begin to accelerate in the direction pointing away from Washington and your forward velocity (toward Washington) will decrease with time. Since an object that accelerates in the direction opposite its velocity always slows down, it has become conventional to say that it is decelerating.
Mouse's House is a fun guessing game. Draw a mouse shape on a piece of paper and cut it out. Cut rectangles of four to six different colors, just large enough to cover the mouse. Hide the mouse under one of the rectangles and ask, "Which house is the mouse in?" Let your child point to a rectangle to guess. Name the color they point to and say, "Little mouse, little mouse, are you in the ____ house?" Flip over the appropriate rectangle and keep guessing until you find the mouse. What a fun way to explore colors! Two little blackbirds, sitting on a hill, (Hold up two hands, fingers spread) One named Jack, (Flap fingers on one hand) One named Jill. (Flap fingers on other hand) Fly away, Jack. (Bring one hand behind back) Fly away, Jill. (Repeat with other hand) Come back, Jack. (Jack flies back out) Come back, Jill. (Jill flies out) Our interactive storytimes introduce young children to books, reading and language with stories, songs and activities. Parents learn fun ways to build the early literacy skills their children need to learn to read.
The Suebi (or Suevi, Suavi, or Suevians) were a large confederation of Germanic tribes, which included the Marcomanni, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones, Lombards and others, sometimes including sub-groups simply referred to as Suebi. In the broadest sense, the Suebi are associated with the early Germanic tribal group Irminones, also mentioned by classical authors. Beginning in the 1st century BC, various Suebian tribes moved south-westwards from the Baltic Sea and the Elbe and came into conflict with Ancient Rome. They are first mentioned by Julius Caesar in connection with the invasion of Gaul by the Suebian chieftain Ariovistus during the Gallic Wars. During the reign of Augustus, the Suebi expanded southwards at the expense of Gallic tribes, establishing a Germanic presence in the immediate areas north of the Danube. During this time, Maroboduus of the Marcomanni established the first confederation of Germanic tribes in Bohemia. Under the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni, under pressure from East Germanic tribes, invaded Italy. By the Crisis of the Third Century, new Suebian groups had emerged, and Italy was invaded again by the Juthungi, while the Alamanni ravaged Gaul and settled the Agri Decumates. The Alamanni continued exerting pressure on Gaul, while the Alamannic chieftain Chrocus played an important role in elevating Constantine the Great to Roman Emperor. By the late 4th century AD, many Suebi were migrating westwards under Hunnic pressure, and in 406 AD, Suebian tribes led by Hermeric crossed the Rhine and briefly overran Hispania, where they eventually established the Kingdom of the Suebi. During the last years of the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Suebian general Ricimer was its de facto ruler. The Lombards later settled Italy and established the Kingdom of the Lombards. The Alammani, Bavarii and Thuringii who remained in Germania gave their name to the German regions of Swabia, Bavaria and Thuringia respectively. The Suebi are thought to encompass the High German cultures and dialects predominant in Southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria. Etymologists trace the name from Proto-Germanic swēbaz, either based on the Proto-Germanic root swē- meaning "one's own" people or on the third-person reflexive pronoun; or from an earlier Indo-European root *swe- (Polish swe, swój, swoi, Latin sui, Sanskrit swa, each meaning "one's own"). The etymological sources list the following ethnic names as being from the same root: Suiones, Samnites, Sabellians, and Sabines, indicating the possibility of a prior more extended and common Indo-European ethnic name, "our own people". Notably, the Semnones, known to classical authors as one of the largest Suebian groups, also seem to have a name with this same meaning, but recorded with a different pronunciation by the Romans. Caesar placed the Suebi east of the Ubii apparently near modern Hesse, in the position where later writers mention the Chatti, and he distinguished them from their allies the Marcomanni. Some commentators believe that Caesar's Suebi were the later Chatti or possibly the Hermunduri, or Semnones. Later authors use the term Suebi more broadly, "to cover a large number of tribes in central Germany". While Caesar treated them as one Germanic tribe within an alliance, albeit the largest and most warlike one, later authors, such as Tacitus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo, specified that the Suevi "do not, like the Chatti or Tencteri, constitute a single nation. They actually occupy more than half of Germania, and are divided into a number of distinct tribes under distinct names, though all generally are called Suebi". Although no classical authors explicitly call the Chatti Suevic, Pliny the Elder (23 AD – 79 AD), reported in his Natural History that the Irminones were a large grouping of related Germanic gentes or "tribes" including not only the Suebi, but also the Hermunduri, Chatti and Cherusci. Whether or not the Chatti were ever considered Suevi, both Tacitus and Strabo distinguish the two partly because the Chatti were more settled in one territory, whereas Suevi remained less settled. The definitions of the greater ethnic groupings within Germania were apparently not always consistent and clear, especially in the case of mobile groups such as the Suevi. Whereas Tacitus reported three main kinds of German peoples, Irminones, Istvaeones, and Ingaevones, Pliny specifically adds two more genera or "kinds", the Bastarnae and the Vandili (Vandals). The Vandals were tribes east of the Elbe, including the well-known Silingi, Goths, and Burgundians, an area that Tacitus treated as Suebic. That the Vandals might be a separate type of Germanic people, corresponding to the modern concept of East Germanic, is a possibility that Tacitus also noted, but for example the Varini are named as Vandilic by Pliny, and specifically Suebic by Tacitus. At one time, classical ethnography had applied the name Suevi to so many Germanic tribes that it appeared as if, in the first centuries AD, that native name would replace the foreign name "Germans". The modern term "Elbe Germanic" similarly covers a large grouping of Germanic peoples that at least overlaps with the classical terms "Suevi" and "Irminones". However, this term was developed mainly as an attempt to define the ancient peoples who must have spoken the Germanic dialects that led to modern Upper German dialects spoken in Austria, Bavaria, Thuringia, Alsace, Baden-Württemberg and German speaking Switzerland. This was proposed by Friedrich Maurer as one of five major Kulturkreise or "culture-groups" whose dialects developed in the southern German area from the first century BC through to the fourth century AD. Apart from his own linguistic work with modern dialects, he also referred to the archaeological and literary analysis of Germanic tribes done earlier by Gustaf Kossinna In terms of these proposed ancient dialects, the Vandals, Goths and Burgundians are generally referred to as members of the Eastern Germanic group, distinct from the Elbe Germanic. In the time of Caesar, southern Germany was Celtic, but coming under pressure from Germanic groups led by the Suebi. As described later by Tacitus, what is today southern Germany between the Danube, the Main river, and the Rhine had been deserted by the departure of two large Celtic nations, the Helvetii in modern Schwaben and the Boii further east near the Hercynian forest. In addition, also near the Hercynian forest Caesar believed that the Celtic Tectosages had once lived. All of these peoples had for the most part moved by the time of Tacitus. Nevertheless, Cassius Dio wrote that the Suebi, who dwelt across the Rhine, were called Celts, which could mean that some Celtic groups were absorbed by larger Germanic tribal confederations. Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD), in Book IV (6.9) of his Geography also associates the Suebi with the Hercynian Forest and the south of Germania north of the Danube. He describes a chain of mountains north of the Danube that is like a lower extension of the Alps, possibly the Swabian Alps, and further east the Gabreta Forest, possibly the modern Bohemian forest. In Book VII (1.3) Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples the Marcomanni, who under King Marobodus had moved into the same Hercynian forest as the Coldui (possibly the Quadi), taking over an area called "Boihaemum". This king "took the rulership and acquired, in addition to the peoples aforementioned, the Lugii (a large tribe), the Zumi, the Butones, the Mugilones, the Sibini, and also the Semnones, a large tribe of the Suevi themselves". Some of these tribes were "inside the forest" and some "outside of it". Tacitus confirms the name "Boiemum", saying it was a survival marking the old traditional population of the place, the Celtic Boii, though the population had changed. Tacitus describes a series of very powerful Suebian states in his own time, running along the north of the Danube which was the frontier with Rome, and stretching into the lands where the Elbe originates in the modern day Czech Republic. Going from west to east the first were the Hermunduri, living near the sources of the Elbe and stretching across the Danube into Roman Rhaetia. Next came the Naristi, the Marcomanni, and then the Quadi. The Quadi are on the edge of greater Suebia, having the Sarmatians to the southeast. Claudius Ptolemy the geographer did not always state which tribes were Suebi, but along the northern bank of the Danube, from west to east and starting at the "desert" formerly occupied by the Helvetii, he names the Parmaecampi, then the Adrabaecampi, and then a "large people" known as the Baemoi (whose name appears to recall the Boii again), and then the Racatriae. North of the Baemoi, is the Luna forest which has iron mines, and which is south of the Quadi. North of the Adrabaecampi, are the Sudini and then the Marcomanni living in the Gambreta forest. North of them, but south of the Sudetes mountains (which are not likely to be the same as the modern ones of that name) are the Varisti, who are probably the same as Tacitus' "Naristi" mentioned above. Jordanes writes that in the early 4th century the Vandals had moved to the north of the Danube, but with the Marcomanni still to their west, and the Hermunduri still to their north. A possible sign of confusion in this comment is that he equates the area in question to later Gepidia, which was further south, in Pannonia, modern Hungary, and east of the Danube. In general, as discussed below, the Danubian Suebi, along with the neighbours such as the Vandals, apparently moved southwards into Roman territories, both south and east of the Danube, during this period. Caesar describes the Suebi as pressing the German tribes of the Rhine, such as the Tencteri, Usipetes and Ubii, from the east, forcing them from their homes. While emphasizing their warlike nature he writes as if they had a settled homeland somewhere between the Cherusci and the Ubii, and separated from the Cherusci by a deep forest called the Silva Bacenis. He also describes the Marcomanni as a tribe distinct from the Suebi, and also active within the same alliance. But he does not describe where they were living. Strabo wrote that the Suebi "excel all the others in power and numbers." He describes Suebic peoples (Greek ethnē) as having come to dominate Germany between the Rhine and Elbe, with the exception of the Rhine valley, on the frontier with the Roman empire, and the "coastal" regions north of the Rhine. The geographer Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168), in a fairly extensive account of Greater Germany, makes several unusual mentions of Suebi between the Rhine and the Elbe. He describes their position as stretching out in a band from the Elbe, all the way to the northern Rhine, near the Sugambri. The "Suevi Langobardi" are the Suevi located closest to the Rhine, far to the east of where most sources report them. To the east of the Langobardi, are the "Suevi Angili", extending as far north as the middle Elbe, also to the east of the position reported in other sources. It has been speculated that Ptolemy may have been confused by his sources, or else that this position of the Langobardi represented a particular moment in history. As discussed below, in the third century a large group of Suebi, also referred to as the Allemanni, moved up to the Rhine bank in modern Schwaben, which had previously been controlled by the Romans. They competed in this region with Burgundians who had arrived from further east. Strabo does not say much about the Suebi east of the Elbe, saying that this region was still unknown to Romans, but mentions that a part of the Suebi live there, naming only specifically the Hermunduri and the Langobardi. But he mentions these are there because of recent defeats at Roman hands which had forced them over the river. (Tacitus mentions that the Hermunduri were later welcomed on to the Roman border at the Danube.) In any case he says that the area near the Elbe itself is held by the Suebi. From Tacitus and Ptolemy we can derive more details: Note that while various errors and confusions are possible, Ptolemy places the Angles and Langobardi west of the Elbe, where they may indeed have been present at some points in time, given that the Suebi were often mobile. It is already mentioned above that stretching between the Elbe and the Oder, the classical authors place the Suebic Semnones. Ptolemy places the Silingi to their south in the stretch between these rivers. These Silingi appear in later history as a branch of the Vandals, and were therefore likely to be speakers of East Germanic dialects. Their name is associated with medieval Silesia. Further south on the Elbe are the Baenochaemae and between them and the Askibourgian mountains Ptolemy names a tribe called the Batini (Βατεινοὶ), apparently north and/or east of the Elbe. According to Tacitus, around the north of the Danubian Marcomanni and Quadi, "dwelling in forests and on mountain-tops", live the Marsigni, and Buri, who "in their language and manner of life, resemble the Suevi". (Living partly subject to the Quadi are the Gotini and Osi, who Tacitus says speak respectively Gaulish and Pannonian, and are therefore not Germans.) Ptolemy also places the "Lugi Buri" in mountains, along with a tribe called the Corconti. These mountains, stretching from near the upper Elbe to the headwaters of the Vistula, he calls the Askibourgian mountains. Between these mountains and the Quadi he adds several tribes, from north to south these are the Sidones, Cotini (possibly Tacitus' Gotini) and the Visburgi. There is then the Orcynian (Hercyian) forest, which Ptolemy defines with relatively restricted boundaries, and then the Quadi. Beyond this mountain range (probably the modern Sudetes) where the Marsigni and Buri lived, in the area of modern southwest Poland, Tacitus reported a multitude of tribes, the most widespread name of which was the Lugii. These included the Harii, Helveconae, Manimi, Helisii and Naharvali. (Tacitus does not mention the language of the Lugii.) As mentioned above, Ptolemy categorizes the Buri amongst the Lugii, and concerning the Lugii north of the mountains, he named two large groups, the Lougoi Omanoi and the Lougoi Didounoi, who live between the "Suevus" river (probably the Saale (Sorb Soława) or Oder river) and the Vistula, south of the Burgundi. These Burgundians who according to Ptolemy lived between the Baltic sea Germans and the Lugii, stretching between the Suevus and Vistula rivers, were described by Pliny the Elder (as opposed to Tacitus) as being not Suevic but Vandili, amongst whom he also included the Goths, and the Varini, both being people living north of them near the Baltic coast. Pliny's "Vandili" are generally thought to be speakers of what modern linguists refer to as Eastern Germanic. Between the coastal Saxons and inland Suebi, Ptolemy names the Teutonari and the "Viruni" (presumably the Varini of Tacitus), and further east, between the coastal Farodini and the Suebi are the Teutones and then the Avarni. Further east again, between the Burgundians and the coastal Rugiclei were the "Aelvaeones" (presumably the Helveconae of Tacitus). Tacitus called the Baltic sea the Suebian sea. Pomponius Mela wrote in his Description of the World (III.3.31) beyond the Danish isles are "the farthest people of Germania, the Hermiones". North of the Lugii, near the Baltic Sea, Tacitus places the Gothones (Goths), Rugii, and Lemovii. These three Germanic tribes share a tradition of having kings, and also similar arms - round shields and short swords. Ptolemy says that east of the Saxons, from the "Chalusus" river to the "Suevian" river are the Farodini, then the Sidini up to the "Viadua" river, and after these the "Rugiclei" up to the Vistula river (probably the "Rugii" of Tacitus). He does not specify if these are Suevi. In the sea, the states of the Suiones, "powerful in ships" are, according to Tacitus, Germans with the Suevic (Baltic) sea on one side and an "almost motionless" sea on the other more remote side. Modern commentators believe this refers to Scandinavia. Closely bordering on the Suiones and closely resembling them, are the tribes of the Sitones. Ptolemy describes Scandinavia as being inhabited by Chaedini in the west, Favonae and Firaesi in the east, Finni in the north, Gautae and Dauciones in the south, and Levoni in the middle. He does not describe them as Suebi. Tacitus describes the non-Germanic Aestii on the eastern shore of the "Suevic Sea" (Baltic), "whose rites and fashions and style of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is more like the British." After giving this account, Tacitus says: "Here Suebia ends." Therefore, for Tacitus geographic "Suebia" comprises the entire periphery of the Baltic Sea, including within it tribes not identified as Suebi or even Germanic. On the other hand, Tacitus does clearly consider there to be not only a Suebian region, but also Suebian languages, and Suebian customs, which all contribute to making a specific tribe more or less "Suebian". Caesar noted that rather than grain crops, they spent time on husbandry and hunting. They wore animal skins, bathed in rivers, consumed milk and meat products, and prohibited wine, allowing trade only to dispose of their booty and otherwise they had no goods to export. They had no private ownership of land and were not permitted to stay resident in one place for more than one year. They were divided into 100 cantons, each of which had to provide and support 1000 armed men for the constant pursuit of war. ...they do not till the soil or even store up food, but live in small huts that are merely temporary structures; and they live for the most part off their flocks, as the Nomads do, so that, in imitation of the Nomads, they load their household belongings on their wagons and with their beasts turn whithersoever they think best. Notable in classical sources, the Suebi can be identified by their hair style called the "Suebian knot", which "distinguishes the freeman from the slave"; or in other words served as a badge of social rank. The same passage points out that chiefs "use an even more elaborate style". Tacitus mentions the sacrifice of humans practiced by the Semnones in a sacred grove and the murder of slaves used in the rites of Nerthus practiced by the tribes of Schleswig-Holstein. The chief priest of the Naharvali dresses as a woman and that tribe also worships in groves. The Harii fight at night dyed black. The Suiones own fleets of rowing vessels with prows at both ends. While there is debate possible about whether all tribes identified by Romans as Germanic spoke a Germanic language, the Suebi are generally agreed to have spoken one, and classical sources refer to a Suebian language. In particular, the Suebi are associated with the concept of an "Elbe Germanic" group of early dialects spoken by the Irminones, entering Germany from the east, and originating on the Baltic. In late classical times, these dialects, by now situated to the south of the Elbe, and stretching across the Danube into the Roman empire, experienced the High German consonant shift that defines modern High German languages, and in its most extreme form, Upper German. Modern Swabian German, and Alemannic German more broadly, are therefore "assumed to have evolved at least in part" from Suebian. However, Bavarian, the Thuringian dialect, the Lombardic language spoken by the Lombards of Italy, and standard "High German" itself, are also at least partly derived from the dialects spoken by the Suebi. (The only non-Suebian name among the major groups of Upper Germanic dialects is High Franconian German, but this is on the transitional frontier with Central German, as is neighboring Thuringian.) \|Wikisource has original text related to this article:\| Caesar confronted a large army led by a Suevic King named Ariovistus in 58 BC who had been settled for some time in Gaul already, at the invitation of the Gaulish Arverni and Sequani as part of their war against the Aedui. He had already been recognized as a king by the Roman senate. Ariovistus forbade the Romans from entering into Gaul. Caesar on the other hand saw himself and Rome as an ally and defender of the Aedui. The forces Caesar faced in battle were composed of "Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii, and Suevi". While Caesar was preparing for conflict, a new force of Suebi was led to the Rhine by two brothers, Nasuas and Cimberius, forcing Caesar to rush in order to try to avoid the joining of forces. Caesar defeated Ariovistus in battle, forcing him to escape across the Rhine. When news of this spread, the fresh Suebian forces turned back in some panic, which led local tribes on the Rhine to take advantage of the situation and attack them. Also reported within Caesar's accounts of the Gallic wars, the Suebi posed another threat in 55 BC. The Germanic Ubii, who had worked out an alliance with Caesar, were complaining of being harassed by the Suebi, and the Tencteri and Usipetes, already forced from their homes, tried to cross the Rhine and enter Gaul by force. Caesar bridged the Rhine, the first known to do so, with a pile bridge, which though considered a marvel, was dismantled after only eighteen days. The Suebi abandoned their towns closest to the Romans, retreated to the forest and assembled an army. Caesar moved back across the bridge and broke it down, stating that he had achieved his objective of warning the Suebi. They in turn supposedly stopped harassing the Ubii. The Ubii were later resettled on the west bank of the Rhine, in Roman territory. Cassius Dio (c. 150 - 235 AD) wrote the history of Rome for a Greek audience. He reported that, shortly before 29 BC, the Suebi crossed the Rhine, only to be defeated by Gaius Carrinas who, along with the young Octavian Caesar, celebrated a triumph in 29 BC. Shortly after they turn up fighting a group of Dacians in a gladiatorial display at Rome celebrating the consecration of the Julian hero-shrine. Suetonius (c. 69 AD – after 122 AD), gives the Suebi brief mention in connection with their defeat against Nero Claudius Drusus in 9 BC. He says that the Suebi and Sugambri "submitted to him and were taken into Gaul and settled in lands near the Rhine" while the other Germani were pushed "to the farther side of the river Albis" (Elbe). He must have meant the temporary military success of Drusus, as it is unlikely the Rhine was cleared of Germans. Elsewhere he identifies the settlers as 40,000 prisoners of war, only a fraction of the yearly draft of militia. Florus (c. 74 AD – c. 130 AD), gives a more detailed view of the operations of 9 BC. He reports that the Cherusci, Suebi and Sicambri formed an alliance by crucifying twenty Roman centurions, but that Drusus defeated them, confiscated their plunder and sold them into slavery. Presumably only the war party was sold, as the Suebi continue to appear in the ancient sources. Florus's report of the peace brought to Germany by Drusus is glowing but premature. He built "more than five hundred forts" and two bridges guarded by fleets. "He opened a way through the Hercynian Forest", which implies but still does not overtly state that he had subdued the Suebi. "In a word, there was such peace in Germany that the inhabitants seemed changed ... and the very climate milder and softer than it used to be." In the Annales of Tacitus, it is mentioned that after the defeat of 9 BC Augustus divided the Germans by making a separate peace with the Sugambri and Suebi under their king Maroboduus. This is the first mention of any permanent king of the Suebi. However, Maroboduus was in most sources referred to as the king of the Marcomanni, a tribal name that had already been distinct from the Suebi in Caesar's time. (As discussed above, it is not sure which Suebi were the Suebi of Caesar, but at least they were distinguished from the Marcomanni.) However, Maroboduus was also described as Suebian, and his association with the Marcomanni more specifically comes after the Langobards and Semnones were specifically said to have left his kingdom, having previously been under his rule. At some point in this period the Marcomanni had come to be settled in the forested regions once inhabited by the Boii, in and around Bohemia, under his rule. Augustus planned in 6 AD to destroy the kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be too dangerous for the Romans. The later Emperor Tiberius commanded twelve legions to attack the Marcomanni, but the outbreak of a revolt in Illyria, and the need for troops there, forced Tiberius to conclude a treaty with Maroboduus and to recognize him as king. After the death of Drusus, the Cherusci annihilated three legions at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest and thereafter "... the empire ... was checked on the banks of the Rhine." While elements of the Suevi may have been involved, this was an alliance mainly made up of non-Suebic tribes from northwestern Germany, the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri, Chauci, and Sicambri. The kingdom of the Marcomanni and their allies stayed out of the conflict and when Maroboduus was sent the head of the defeated Roman leader Varus, he sent it on to Rome for burial. Within his own alliance were various Suebic peoples, Hermunduri, Quadi, Semnones, Lugii, Zumi, Butones, Mugilones, Sibini and Langobards. Subsequently, Augustus placed Germanicus, the son of Drusus, in charge of the forces of the Rhine and he, after dealing with a mutiny among his troops, proceeded against the Cherusci and their allies, breaking their power finally at the battle of Idistavisus, a plain on the Weser. All eight legions and supporting units of Gauls were required in order to accomplish this. Germanicus' zeal led finally to his being replaced (17 AD) by his cousin Drusus, Tiberius' son, as Tiberius thought it best to follow his predecessor's policy of limiting the empire. Germanicus certainly would have involved the Suebi, with unpredictable results. Arminius, leader of the Cherusci and allies, now had a free hand. He accused Maroboduus of hiding in the Hercynian Forest while the other Germans fought for freedom, and of being the only king among the Germans. The two groups "turned their arms against each other." The Suebic Semnones and Langobardi rebelled against their king and went over to the Cherusci. Left with only the Marcomanni and Herminius' uncle, who had defected, Maroboduus appealed to Drusus, now governor of Illyricum, and was given only a pretext of aid. The resulting battle was indecisive but Maroboduus withdrew to Bohemia and sent for assistance to Tiberius. He was refused on the grounds that he had not moved to help Varus. Drusus encouraged the Germans to finish him off. A force of Goths under Catualda, a Marcomannian exile, bought off the nobles and seized the palace. Maroboduus escaped to Noricum and the Romans offered him refuge in Ravenna where he remained the rest of his life. He died in 37 AD. After his expulsion the leadership of the Marcomanni was contested by their Suebic neighbours and allies, the Hermunduri and Quadi. In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples including the Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatians, against the Roman Empire. The war began in 166, when the Marcomanni overwhelmed the defences between Vindobona and Carnuntum, penetrated along the border between the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum, laid waste to Flavia Solva, and could be stopped only shortly before reaching Aquileia on the Adriatic sea. The war lasted until Marcus Aurelius' death in 180. In the third century Jordanes claims that the Marcomanni paid tribute to the Goths, and that the princes of the Quadi were enslaved. The Vandals, who had moved south towards Pannonia, were apparently still sometimes able to defend themselves. In 259/60, one or more groups of Suebi appear to have been the main element in the formation of a new tribal alliance known as the Alemanni who came to occupy the Roman frontier region known as the Agri Decumates, east of the Rhine and south of the Main. The Alamanni were sometimes simply referred to as Suebi by contemporaries, and the region came to be known as Swabia - a name which survives to this day. People in this region of Germany are still called Schwaben, a name derived from the Suebi. One specific group in the region in the 3rd century, sometimes distinguished from the Alamanni, were the Juthungi, which a monument found in Augsburg refers to as Semnones. These Suebi for the most part stayed on the right bank of the Rhine until 31 December 406, when much of the tribe joined the Vandals and Alans in breaching the Roman frontier by crossing the Rhine, perhaps at Mainz, thus launching an invasion of northern Gaul. It is thought that this group probably contained a significant amount of Quadi, moving out of their homeland under pressure from Radagaisus. Other Suebi apparently remained in or near to the original homeland areas near the Elbe and the modern Czech Republic, occasionally still being referred to by this term. They expanded eventually into Roman areas such as Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria, possibly pushed by groups arriving from the east. Further south, a group of Suebi settled in parts of Pannonia, after the Huns were defeated in 454 in the Battle of Nedao. Later, the Suebian king Hunimund fought against the Ostrogoths in the battle of Bolia in 469. The Suebian coalition lost the battle, and parts of the Suebi therefore migrated to southern Germany. Probably the Marcomanni made up one significant part of these Suebi, who probably lived in at least two distinct areas. Later, the Lombards, a Suebic group long known on the Elbe, came to dominate the Pannonian region before successfully invading Italy. Another group of Suebi, the so-called "northern Suebi" were mentioned in 569 under the Frankish king Sigebert I in areas of today's Saxony-Anhalt which were known as Schwabengau or Svebengau at least until the 12th century. In addition to the Svebi, Saxons and Lombards, returning from the Italian Peninsula in 573, are mentioned. Suebi under king Hermeric, probably coming from the Alemanni, the Quadi, or both, worked their way into the south of France, eventually crossing the Pyrenees and entering the Iberian Peninsula which was no longer under Imperial rule since the rebellion of Gerontius and Maximus in 409. Passing through the Basque country, they settled in the Roman province of Gallaecia, in north-western Hispania (modern Galicia, Asturias, and Northern Portugal), swore fealty to Emperor Honorius and were accepted as foederati and permitted to settle, under their own autonomous governance. Contemporaneously with the self-governing province of Britannia, the kingdom of the Suebi in Gallaecia became the first of the sub-Roman kingdoms to be formed in the disintegrating territory of the Western Roman Empire. Suebic Gallaecia was the first kingdom separated from the Roman Empire to mint coins. The Suebic kingdom in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania was established in 410 and lasted until 584. Smaller than the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy or the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania, it reached a relative stability and prosperity—and even expanded military southwards—despite the occasional quarrels with the neighbouring Visigothic kingdom. The Germanic invaders and immigrants settled mainly in rural areas, as Idacius clearly stated: "The Hispanic, spread over cities and oppida..." and the "Barbarians, govern over the provinces". According to Dan Stanislawski, the Portuguese way of living in Northern regions is mostly inherited from the Suebi, in which small farms prevail, distinct from the large properties of Southern Portugal. Bracara Augusta, the modern city of Braga and former capital of Roman Gallaecia, became the capital of the Suebi. Orosius, at that time resident in Hispania, shows a rather pacific initial settlement, the newcomers working their lands or serving as bodyguards of the locals. Another Germanic group that accompanied the Suebi and settled in Gallaecia were the Buri. They settled in the region between the rivers Cávado and Homem, in the area known as Terras de Bouro (Lands of the Buri). As the Suebi quickly adopted the local language, few traces were left of their Germanic tongue, but for some words and for their personal and land names, adopted by most of the Galicians. In Galicia four parishes and six villages are named Suevos or Suegos, i.e. Sueves, after old Suebic settlements. The Visigoths were sent in 416 by the Emperor Honorius to fight the Germanic invaders in Hispania, but they were re-settled in 417 by the Romans as foederati in Aquitania after completely defeating the Alans and the Silingi Vandals. The absence of competition permitted first, the Asdingi Vandals, and later, the Suebi, to expand south and east. After the departure of the Vandals for Africa in 429 Roman authority in the peninsula was reasserted for 10 years except in northwest where the Suevi were confined. In its heyday Suebic Gallaecia extended as far south as Mérida and Seville, capitals of the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Betica, while their expions reached Zaragoza and Lleida after taking the Roman capital, Merida in 439. The previous year 438 Hermeric ratified the peace with the Gallaeci, the local and partially romanized rural population, and, weary of fighting, abdicated in favour of his son Rechila, who proved to be a notable general, defeating first Andevotus, Romanae militiae dux, and later Vitus magister utriusque militiae. In 448, Rechila died, leaving the crown to his son Rechiar who had converted to Roman Catholicism circa 447. Soon, he married a daughter of the Gothic king Theodoric I, and began a wave of attacks on the Tarraconense, still a Roman province. By 456 the campaigns of Rechiar clashed with the interests of the Visigoths, and a large army of Roman federates (Visigoths under the command of Theodoric II, Burgundians directed by kings Gundioc and Chilperic) crossed the Pyrenees into Hispania, and defeated the Suebi near modern-day Astorga. Rechiar was executed after being captured by his brother-in-law, the Visigothic king Theodoric II. In 459, the Roman Emperor Majorian defeated the Suebi, briefly restoring Roman rule in northern Hispania. Nevertheless, the Suebi became free of Roman control forever after Majorian was assassinated two years later. The Suebic kingdom was confined in the northwest in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania where political division and civil war arose among several pretenders to the royal throne. After years of turmoil, Remismund was recognized as the sole king of the Suebi, bringing forth a politic of friendship with the Visigoths, and favoring the conversion of his people to Arianism. In 561 king Ariamir called the catholic First Council of Braga, which dealt with the old problem of the Priscillianism heresy. Eight years after, in 569, king Theodemir called the First Council of Lugo, in order to increase the number of dioceses within his kingdom. Its acts have been preserved through a medieval resume known as Parrochiale Suevorum or Divisio Theodemiri. In 570 the Arian king of the Visigoths, Leovigild, made his first attack on the Suebi. Between 572 and 574, Leovigild invaded the valley of the Douro, pushing the Suebi west and northwards. In 575 the Suebic king, Miro, made a peace treaty with Leovigild in what seemed to be the beginning of a new period of stability. Yet, in 583 Miro supported the rebellion of the Catholic Gothic prince Hermenegild, engaging in military action against king Leovigild, although Miro was defeated in Seville when trying to break on through the blockade on the Catholic prince. As a result, he was forced to recognize Leovigild as friend and protector, for him and for his successors, dying back home just some months later. His son, king Eboric, confirmed the friendship with Leovigild, but he was deposed just a year later by his brother-in-law Audeca, giving Leovigild an excuse to attack the kingdom. In 585 AD, first Audeca and later Malaric, were defeated and the Suebic kingdom was incorporated into the Visigothic one as its sixth province. The Suebi were respected in their properties and freedom, and continued to dwell in Gallaecia, finally merging with the rest of the local population during the early Middle Ages. The Suebi remained mostly pagan, and their subjects Priscillianist until an Arian missionary named Ajax, sent by the Visigothic king Theodoric II at the request of the Suebic unifier Remismund, in 466 converted them and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until the conversion to Trinitarian Catholicism the 560s. Mutually incompatible accounts of the conversion of the Suebi to Orthodox Catholic Trinitarian Christianity of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils are presented in the primary records: Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemir must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Catholic synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong. Reinhart suggested that Chararic was converted first through the relics of Saint Martin and that Theodemir was converted later through the preaching of Martin of Dumio. Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemir, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism. It has also been suggested that Theodemir and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic. In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Tours and never existed. If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Dumio died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest. Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suebi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Catholic synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; Thoedemir was responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom to root out their heresy. The name of the Suebi also appears in Norse mythology and in early Scandinavian sources. The earliest attestation is the Proto-Norse name Swabaharjaz ("Suebian warrior") on the Rö runestone and in the place name Svogerslev. Sváfa, whose name means "Suebian", was a Valkyrie who appears in the eddic poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar. The kingdom Sváfaland also appears in this poem and in the Þiðrekssaga. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Suebi.\| Suebi, also spelled Suevi, group of Germanic peoples, including the Marcomanni and Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones, and Langobardi (Lombards). The Alemanni were also part of the Suebi tribal group, which gave its name to the German principality of Swabia. \|contribution=ignored (help); compare Suiones \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Suebi.\|
A filter is a circuit that is capable of passing a specific range of frequencies while blocking other frequencies. As you discovered in Chap. 2, the four major types of filters include low-pass filters, high-pass filters, bandpass filters, and notch filters (or band-reject filters). A low-pass filter passes low-frequency components of an input signal, while a high-pass filter passes high-frequency components. A bandpass filter passes a narrow range of frequencies centered around the filter’s resonant frequency, while a notch filter passes all frequencies except those within a narrow band centered around the filter’s resonant frequency. Filters have many practical applications in electronics. For example, within a ...
Summary and Keywords Science and religion provide alternative ways to understand the world. In American history, they have each commanded authority at different times and for different people and groups based on the varying appeal of knowledge and belief, of inquiry and conviction, and of liberal and traditionalist values. Science and religion have interacted with each other in many ways ranging from widespread harmony between them until the late 19th century to a spectrum of interactions that have included conflict, separation, integration of their insights, and spiritual kinship. Colonial American science was dominated by religion, both in the concentration of ministers practicing what was then called natural philosophy and in the conviction that such inquiries would inevitably support religious truths. Common Sense philosophy articulated this calm confidence and buttressed the assurance of harmony between science and religion that dominated until the 1860s. However, even during this period, the tremendous growth in scientific information strained the harmonious relations of science and religion. Darwinism presented the most significant challenge to traditional religion by inaugurating a new approach to science: it was a theory supported by probabilistic plausibility rather than deterministic proof; Darwinian theory served as a synthetic framework for organizing natural facts and ongoing research, and its investigations did not require religious assumptions. Since the late 19th century, science began to grow still more rapidly with greater professional organization and specialized investigations into a vast amount of information about the natural world, while religion became more pluralistic and more private on the American scene. With their distinct social and intellectual paths, science and religion could no longer operate with assumed harmony. Some advocates of each field took this as a reason to understand them in sharp conflict, however many more sought to renew their harmony, but on new, more intricate and diverse terms. The simplest ground for harmony, consideration of each domain in separate spheres, was suggested by their very distinct practices. However, when the very inquiries and reflections of these fields spilled beyond each of their own domains, other practitioners and observers in science and religion comprehended them in relation, with science adapting to religious questions or religion adopting scientific answers. For those who sought still deeper integration, inquiry about the relation of science and religion took them beyond the mainstreams in both fields for embrace of their spiritual kinship. The varied methods and insights championed by science and religion have provided Americans with their deepest guideposts for being and doing: these fields supply varied paths of inquiry and conviction for comprehending the deepest character of the world and for choosing ways of living. Access to the complete content on Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion requires a subscription or purchase. Public users are able to search the site and view the abstracts and keywords for each book and chapter without a subscription. If you are a student or academic complete our librarian recommendation form to recommend the Oxford Research Encyclopedias to your librarians for an institutional free trial. If you have purchased a print title that contains an access token, please see the token for information about how to register your code.
Ecosystem-wide survey of the deep seafloor biome to help assess and manage the impacts of polymetallic nodule mining The international mining community continues to develop deep-sea mining as an industry. One target area is the seafloor in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) of the central Pacific Ocean, which is home to polymetallic nodules. However, the environment in the CCZ is poorly explored and very little is known about what lives there. The CCZ covers a large area – it is almost 80% of the size of the contiguous 48 states. Within this area there are large environmental differences, such as the detritus input from the surface (the food supply), and bathymetric differences, particularly many seamounts dotting the landscape. Such factors have been shown to influence the faunal communities elsewhere in the deep-sea. Top: A map of the Clarion Clipperton Zone in the central Pacific Ocean (adapted from the International Seabed Authority, 2018). Coloured areas are those licensed for mining, and shaded squares are areas currently protected from mining. Bottom: Seamounts across the CCZ (adapted from Wedding et al 2015). The Smith Lab is part of an international program that is using the best available technology in deep-sea ecological, taxonomic, and connectivity studies in the western CCZ, and targeting the abyssal plain and seamounts. Data collected in this study will be used in a regional synthesis, along with data from the eastern CCZ collected recently, including the Smith lab’s ABYSSLINE project. This regional synthesis will be used to make recommendations about the environmental protection and management needed in relation to deep-sea mining. We will address the following key questions: 1) How do biodiversity, abundance, and species composition vary for key benthic fauna across the CCZ? 2) How does ecosystem function, specifically sediment community respiration and processing of organic detritus, vary across the CCZ? 3) Are areas protected from mining similar to nearby mining claims in terms of biodiversity, species composition, and ecosystem function? 2) How do abundance, biodiversity and community structure and function vary between seamounts and the adjacent plains? 3) What is the connectivity at species and population levels between seamounts and across the western CCZ? We are working in collaboration with lead scientists and their teams from the Natural History Museum in London, UK, Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh, UK, the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, the University of Montana, US, and Hawaii Pacific University. International Seabed Authority: https://www.isa.org.jm/
The ingredients that created the conditions for life on Earth may not be native to our home planet. According to a new hypothesis, the essential elements of life were carried on a Mars-sized planet that collided with Earth 4.5 billion years ago. This hypothetical planet is called Theia, and some believe it is responsible for breaking off a lump of earth and sending it into space to become our moon. But also, say researchers from Rice The university brought the volatile elements such as carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and sulfur, so that the earth could be brought to life. Based on our findings, it is unlikely that the Earth could have produced the volatiles that fed the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere biosphere alone. It is believed that the volatiles of the earth were carried away by meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites. These primitive meteorites that have bombarded our planet are much more volatile than the early Earth (aka Gaia) and other rocky bodies inside the solar system, which is a pretty good reason for this hypothesis. But according to the researchers, the ratio of these volatiles in the chondrites is shut off, especially for a pair of elements. The carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of the bulk silicate is more than 20 times the ratio in carbonaceous chondrites. Therefore, the research team began a mission to find out if the volatile components could have been released using a different method, such as Theia. In a series of hands-on experiments with silicate and alloy-loaded capsules, the team restored the high-temperature and high-pressure conditions under which Theia's core might have formed. This helped to determine what percentage of sulfur the nucleus could have excluded carbon and nitrogen, and left them in the bulk of the planet. Equipped with this information, the team conducted computer simulations of around one billion different scenarios to determine how Earth had come to be volatile. "What we found is that all the evidence ̵ This does not mean that carbonaceous chondrites have not contributed in any way, but suggests that Theia has contributed the majority. a finding suggesting that a planet may have a better chance of developing life as it goes through violent clashes. "From the study of primitive meteorites scientists have long known that E arth and other rocky planets inside the solar system are volatilely exhausted," said geologist Rajdeep Dasgupta. "But the timing and mechanism of volatile delivery has been hotly debated, and our first scenario can explain the timing and delivery in a manner consistent with all geochemical evidence." The team's research has been published in the journal Science Advances published.
Vaccines containing inactivated versions of disease-causing germs are traditionally not as effective as live vaccines made with weakened pathogens. But new research from Weill Cornell Medicine scientists reveals how a molecule found in live vaccines produces a robust immune response, and adding it to an inactivated vaccine can create the same strong results. These insights may provide a blueprint for engineering more potent inactivated or “dead” vaccines that can deliver strong immunity while overcoming concerns about the health risks of live vaccines. “There has been a reluctance in the general population to get vaccinated, but vaccines are the single most effective medical intervention proven to prevent disease,” said senior author Dr. Julie Magarian Blander, a senior faculty member in the Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease at Weill Cornell Medicine, who was recruited as a professor of immunology in medicine. “We have known that live vaccines provide better protection, often for life, in one dose, compared to dead vaccines that frequently require multiple doses or boosters over time.” In the study, published March 13 in Immunity, the scientists identified how a molecule called bacterial RNA signals the immune response to stimulate the generation of specialized immune cells, called follicular T helper cells. Those cells play a critical role to help another type of immune cell, called B cells, make antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and neutralize invading germs before they cause infections. “Making a follicular T helper response has been one of the Holy Grails in vaccine research,” Dr. Blander said. “We found that dead vaccines are not very good at generating follicular T helper cells, and adding bacterial RNA increased the numbers of follicular T cells and led to higher antibody titers.” The study’s findings suggest a path for creating effective modified dead vaccines for bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococcus (which causes staph infections), Neisseria (which causes gonorrhea and bacterial meningitis), Shigella (which cause intestinal disease), Vibrio cholera, Listeria and Salmonella. The findings may also help improve the performance of existing subunit vaccines, which contain only part of the pathogen, and salvage vaccines that may have been shelved due to inefficacy. “We’re excited that we identified the signal and the pathways, but bacterial RNA is very unstable,” Dr. Blander said. “The next step is to develop stable small compounds that target these pathways.” Dr. Blander and Dr. Gaetan Barbet, lead author on the study, collaborated with colleagues, including Dr. Iliyan Iliev at Weill Cornell Medicine, Dr. Leif Sander at Charité University Hospital in Berlin, and Dr. Andrea Cerutti at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and the Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies in Barcelona. They are currently exploring how to modify a vaccine for the anthrax bacterium and expanding their sights to viruses, starting with H1N1 influenza, the strain responsible for the flu epidemic in 2009. Most commonly administered in an inactivated form, the flu vaccine is a high-interest target for improvement. Its effectiveness usually varies between 50 and 70 percent but can be as low as 36 percent, as seen in the 2017-18 season. This study and the investigators were supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (AI095245, AI127658, AI57653, AI95613, AI61093, U19 096187, AI123284, AI073899, DK072201, DK111862), the Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation, the European Research Council, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovatión, Marie Curie, the German Research Council, the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, and the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society.
The Big Idea: Kids have more things in common than they have differences! - Tell kids that although everyone is different, we all share important feelings. Explain that in the video they will learn what some children with autism like to do. Watch the video together (when words appear on screen, read them aloud to children). - Talk about what you have seen. Ask, “What is your favorite food?” “What is your favorite color?” “What is your favorite thing to do?” Invite children to share their answers. - Talk about what Nasaiah experienced during his day. Ask, “Do you remember some new things Nasaiah was learning to do?” (jump into his father’s arms, talk to new children, share with his sister). Explain that we are all learning new things all the time. Ask, “What is something that you have learned how to do?”
The standard social brain theory seems in conflict with standard anthropologist accounts of ancestral forager lifestyles. Might “man the sly rule bender” resolve this conflict? Why do we have ginormous brains? Animals tend to have big brains when they have big bodies, but beyond that the main brain pattern is social: bigger brains are found in birds and mammals that compete with predators or prey, and who manage pair-bonding mate relations. The extra costs of big brains is outweighed by benefits of not being out-witted by others. Primates (and hyenas) hit on the trick of reusing pair-bonding skills to manage friendships in large social groups. Primates have huge expensive brains, which are bigger in species with larger social groups, and these groups spend more of their time managing social relations. Bigger groups better protect against predators, though the coalition politics of dominance gets more complex in bigger groups. Primates not only manage relations and coalitions, but they also track the relations and coalitions of others. They are adept at judging how to help their coalitions, and when to switch sides. The top chimp is often not the strongest, but instead the one with the strongest coalition, which gets to dominate food and mating, and stay best protected from predators; chimp investments in big brains often pay off handsomely. Humans have the biggest primate brains of all. Over the last two million years hominid brains grew more where climates were variable, but they grew most where population densities were high. This suggests that human brains were also big mainly due to social pressures. The “mating mind” sexual selection hypothesis seems at odds with this density effect, and with the more general fact that polygamous species tend to have smaller brains. “Man the tool user” stories seem to confuse broad group gains with individual benefits – smaller brains seem sufficient for copying others’ tool skills. But even if social pressures were key, which pressures exactly? Isolated nomadic forager bands today are “fossils” with crucial clues about our distant ancestors. Anthropologists who study them report that overt dominance is rare, and long distances make war rare (as 4 million year old fossils suggest). Foragers live in tight quarters and use language to express and enforce social norms on food sharing, non-violence, mating freedom, communal decision making, and norm enforcement. Anger, bragging, giving orders, and anything remotely resembling dominance among men is punished by avoidance, exile, and death as required. Human’s unusual hidden female fertility also limits male dominance temptations. The puzzle here is that consistent enforcement of such norms seems to drastically reduce the payoff to expensive coalition-politics-savvy brains. If you can’t collude to grab the food or the women, and everyone is treated fairly based on their contributions, why bother to be so clever? Yes, some brain innovations were required to support language, and maybe they wouldn’t have occurred in a small brain, but after that innovation human brains could have shrunk (as perhaps with hobbits). Why did humans keep huge expensive brains? In a messy real world, social norms expressed in language typically have many iffy boundary cases and ambiguities. How much of what sort of food of what quality offered how conveniently counts as food sharing? How big a frown is a grimace? Sex with how close a relative counts as incest? And so on. This wouldn’t matter if boundary cases were decided randomly, but that seems unlikely. Instead big brain gains come five ways: Unnormed – coalition politics on acts uncovered by norms. Skirt – keep actions near but not over edge of violating norms. Cover – politics of observers on if to report an act to others. Frame – lawyer-like arguing on if acts violate social norms. Conspire – form coalitions on how to publicly interpet iffy acts. Most norms have meta-norms against consciously trying to evade them. Self-deception should help here; foragers might sincerely believe they usually just do their job and “tell it like it is”, and then unconsciously try to act, selectively report and frame acts, and support interpretation coalitions, to their advantage. Instead of “man the tool user”, we might be better understood as “man the sly rule bender.” Gains to rule bending could be greatly reduced via social norms with very clear simple rules. But humans seems to usually prefer complex and ambiguous rules that require “judgment” to apply. For example, foragers often have complex incest rules, forbidding a much wider range of sex partners than is needed to prevent genetic problems. And acts of sorcery are allowed to count as acts of aggression that violate social norms and must be punished, even without concrete evidence showing such acts. Both complex broad incest rules and allowing sorcery complaints greatly increase the scope for gains to large rule-bending brains, and suggest that we tend to prefer to allow such scope. The idea that the main reason we have huge brains is to hypocritically bend rules seems to me a dramatic change in how we think about human nature. If true, it should change how we understand a great many things in psychology and social science. I’ve been obsessing about his topic for weeks, and last Thursday I ran it past Robin Dunbar, famed for his contributions to the social brain account, and he said it was pretty close to his view on the subject, and he suggested the incest example. 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On November 20, 1989, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child and opened it for signature. It came into force on September 2, 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. 194 countries, including Canada, have ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child, making a promise to children to protect and promote their rights to survive and thrive, to learn and grow, to make their voices heard and to reach their full potential.1 Article 24 and Article 29 of The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child provide child rights protections related to the environment. Article 24 is related to a child’s right to the highest attainable standard of health, including the right to nutritious food and safe drinking water as well as protection from environmental pollution. Article 29 is related to the child’s right to information on environmental health issues and defines environmental education as one of the goals of education. Together these Articles, as well as many other Articles within the Convention on the Rights of the Child, help protect children’s rights, including their right to a safe and healthy environment. 1 United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Convention on the Rights of the Child. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx– accessed March 12th, 2017. 1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to such health care services. 2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures: (a) To diminish infant and child mortality; (b) To ensure the provision of necessary medical assistance and health care to all children with emphasis on the development of primary health care; (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking-water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution. 1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: (a) The development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential; (b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations; (c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations different from his or her own; (d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin; (e) The development of respect for the natural environment.
EGD - esophagogastroduodenoscopy Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) is a test to examine the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and first part of the small intestine. How the Test is Performed EGD is done in a hospital or medical center. The procedure uses an endoscope. This is a flexible tube with a light and camera at the end. The procedure is done as follows: - During the procedure, your breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen level are checked. Wires are attached to certain areas of your body and then to machines that monitor these vital signs. - You receive medicine into a vein to help you relax. You should feel no pain and not remember the procedure. - A local anesthetic may be sprayed into your mouth to prevent you from coughing or gagging when the scope is inserted. - A mouth guard is used to protect your teeth and the scope. Dentures must be removed before the procedure begins. - You then lie on your left side. - The scope is inserted through the esophagus (food pipe) to the stomach and duodenum. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. - Air is put through the scope to make it easier for the doctor to see. - The lining of the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum is examined. Biopsies can be taken through the scope. Biopsies are tissue samples that are looked at under the microscope. - Different treatments may be done, such as stretching or widening a narrowed area of the esophagus. After the test is finished, you will not be able to have food and liquid until your gag reflex returns (so you do not choke). The test lasts about 5 to 20 minutes. Follow any instructions you're given for recovering at home. How to Prepare for the Test You will not be able to eat anything for 6 to 12 hours before the test. Follow instructions about stopping aspirin and other blood-thinning medicines before the test. How the Test will Feel The anesthetic spray makes it hard to swallow. This wears off shortly after the procedure. The scope may make you gag. You may feel gas and the movement of the scope in your abdomen. You will not be able to feel the biopsy. Because of sedation, you may not feel any discomfort and have no memory of the test. You may feel bloated from the air that was put into your body. This feeling soon wears off. Why the Test is Performed EGD may be done if you have symptoms that are new, cannot be explained, or are not responding to treatment, such as: - Black or tarry stools or vomiting blood - Bringing food back up (regurgitation) - Feeling full sooner than normal or after eating less than usual - Feeling like food is stuck behind the breastbone - Low blood count (anemia) that cannot be explained - Pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen - Swallowing problems or pain with swallowing - Weight loss that cannot be explained - Nausea or vomiting that does not go away Your doctor may also order this test if you: - Have cirrhosis of the liver, to look for swollen veins (called varices) in the walls of the lower part of the esophagus, which may begin to bleed - Have Crohn disease - Need more follow-up or treatment for a condition that has been diagnosed The test may also be used to take a piece of tissue for biopsy. The esophagus, stomach, and duodenum should be smooth and of normal color. There should be no bleeding, growths, ulcers, or inflammation. What Abnormal Results Mean An abnormal EGD may be the result of: - Celiac disease (damage to the lining of the small intestine from a reaction to eating gluten) - Esophageal varices (swollen veins in the lining of the esophagus caused by liver cirrhosis) - Esophagitis (lining of the esophagus becomes inflamed or swollen) - Gastritis (lining of the stomach and duodenum is inflamed or swollen) - Gastroesophageal reflux disease (a condition in which food or liquid from the stomach leaks backwards into the esophagus) - Hiatal hernia (a condition in which part of the stomach sticks up into the chest through an opening in the diaphragm) - Mallory-Weiss syndrome (tear in the esophagus) - Narrowing of the esophagus, such as from a condition called esophageal ring - Tumors or cancer in the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum (first part of small intestine) - Ulcers, gastric (stomach) or duodenal (small intestine) There is a small chance of a hole (perforation) in the stomach, duodenum, or esophagus from the scope moving through these areas. There is also a small risk of bleeding at the biopsy site. You could have a reaction to the medicine used during the procedure, which could cause: Subodh K. Lal, MD, Gastroenterologist with Gastrointestinal Specialists of Georgia, Austell, GA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. This information should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. © 1997- 2007 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
p block elements are those elements in which the last (valence) electron enters the p-subshell of their outermost energy level. This block is situated at the extreme right of the periodic table. The maximum number of electrons that can occur in a set of p orbitals is six since there are three p orbitals. As a result, the periodic table has six groups of p-block elements group (IIIA), 14 (IVA), 15 (VA), 16 (VIA), 17 (VIIA), and 18 (zero) of the periodic table. The electronic configuration of p block elements is ns2np1-6 (except Helium). Characteristics of p block elements - p-block elements consist of metals, non-metals, and metalloids. - Mostly, they form covalent compounds. - The p-block parts are often shiny and function well as both electrical and thermal conductors. - P-block elements have considerably greater ionization enthalpies than s-block elements. - p-block elements do not give characteristic color to the flame. - They mostly form acidic oxides. - In a group, the electronegativity decreases from top to bottom and increases in a period from left to right. - Reducing property decreases from left to right in a period while increasing in a group from top to bottom. - The non-metallic character steadily increases in the period from left to right. But from top to bottom, non-metallic property reduces in the groups. - The total amount of valence electrons, or the sum of the ns and np electrons, determines the maximum oxidation state that a p-block element can exhibit. As one proceeds from left to right in the p-block, the number of potential oxidation states increases. - The allotropy phenomenon is demonstrated by a number of elements of the p-block series. These elements include arsenic, carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, boron, germanium, tin, and phosphorus. - Numerous elements in the p-block series, including carbon, silicon, germanium, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, exhibit the catenation property. p block elements electronic configuration \|Group\|\|13 (IIIA)\|\|14 (IVA)\|\|15 (VA)\|\|16 (IVA)\|\|17 (VIIA)\|\|18 (VIIIA)\| Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn) Properties of p block elements The differences in an element’s inner core have a significant impact on both its chemical and physical properties, including atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, and several others. The characteristics of the elements in a group of p-block are thus shown to vary significantly. The initial p-block element is different from the other elements in two key ways: - The size and any other characteristics that depend on size come first. - The second distinction only affects the p-block element, which is created as a result of the interactions between d-orbitals and the valence shells of heavier elements. Uses of p block elements - Germanium, silicon, arsenic, and gallium are all employed as semiconductors. - Alum is extensively used for water purification. - The glass and pottery industries use the boron compound borax. - Steel’s hardness is increased with boron. - Numerous applications include the usage of carbon and its compounds. What are p block elements? p block elements are those elements in which the last electrons enter into the p-subshell of their outermost energy level How many elements in p block? There are 35 elements in the p-block. What is the general electronic configuration of p block elements? The general electronic configuration of p block elements is ns2np1-6 (except Helium). Why s and p block elements are called representative elements? Representative elements are those that have all of their shells completed, with the exception of the outermost shell, which is incomplete. Since the outermost shells are incomplete in all the groups of p block and s block, these elements are called representative elements. Moreover, these are the active, abundant elements that can be found in nature. This is why these elements are known as representative elements.
Here’s something to digest: Scientists in Cincinnati have grown miniature versions of an esophagus, the organ responsible for guiding your food to your stomach. And in a first, they did it entirely using human stem cells. Called organoids, these tiny balls of lab-grown tissue resemble a real human esophagus, the researchers report today in the journal Cell Stem Cell. Previously, scientists succeeded in growing all sorts of organoids—stomachs, kidneys, brains, and even an esophagus made using mature patient tissue as the starting material. (Here’s how one team used a spinach leaf to create a mini beating heart.) These tiny organs-in-a-dish help scientists study how organs develop normally, and they’re used to figure out how these body parts go wrong, giving rise to cancer and other disorders. “Three-dimensional laboratory models of human esophagus are badly needed, especially since the mouse anatomy is fundamentally different to a human’s,” says Rebecca Fitzgerald, an esophageal cancer researcher at the University of Cambridge who wasn’t involved in the study. And since organoids act as a kind of stand-in for the real thing, they can also be used to test drugs to better predict how patients might respond to different treatments. (For instance, artificial wombs may help with premature births.) “Because they grow in a petri dish, we can poke and prod them all we want,” says James Wells, senior author on the new study and chief scientific officer of the Cincinnati Children's Center for Stem Cell and Organoid Medicine. Follow the Recipe Wells and his colleagues started with induced pluripotent stem cells, a kind of “master” cell that has the ability to become any other cell in the body. To make them turn into specialized esophagus cells, investigators added a mixture of chemicals and proteins to the stem cells. “These act as cues or signals that help to guide those pluripotent stem cells into specifically forming esophageal tissues,” Wells says. “It’s like following a recipe.” One key step in this recipe was the gene Sox2 and its associated protein, which have been linked to esophageal conditions. The team found that this gene plays a central role in helping the esophagus develop in a human embryo. It took about two months to grow the tiny blobs—each about a millimeter wide—in the lab. (Other researchers have used human stem cells to grow sheep-human hybrids to help with organ regeneration.) Wells and his Cincinnati team are already growing a few organoids to help diagnose patients who have medical conditions that affect the esophagus, like congenital birth defects. It’s part of the hospital’s bigger effort to create personalized mini-organs from pediatric patients with gastrointestinal disorders. “So let’s just say, in the clinic they’ve done everything they can to figure out what’s wrong with the patient using all the standard clinical tests,” Wells explains. The patient gets put into a custom-made MRI machine, which renders a 3-D image of the child’s organs. That image is sent to a team of surgeons, who will try to figure out if the organs can be surgically repaired. Meanwhile, doctors take a tiny piece of tissue from the patient and send it off to Wells’ lab, which makes stem cells from the tissue sample and then grows the organoids. Being able to examine these mini-organs up close, outside of a patient, can lead to a diagnosis. Opening Up Possibilities In the future, Wells hopes to be able to grow organoids that could be transplanted back into patients born with unhealthy or missing esophagus tissue. He says this could also work in adults who have had parts of their esophagus removed due to cancer. “In the long term, we want to make tissue to help the surgeons reconstruct the esophagus in cases where there’s too much missing for the surgeon to correct,” Well says. But that’s likely several years away. Using stem cells as a starting material “may be a major plus, since some patients may lack healthy esophageal tissue from which to try to engineer a new esophagus,” says Paul Knoepfler, a stem cell biologist at the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine. It’s also possible that esophageal organoids made from stem cells rather than patient tissue may grow bigger or produce more types of cells that occur naturally in the esophagus, he says. One thing that was missing from the esophagus-in-a-dish, for instance: The open space where food and liquids would go, called the lumen. Follow Emily Mullin on Twitter.
This cumulonimbus cloud has the characteristic anvil-shaped top. Click on image for full size Courtesy of UCAR Digital Image Library Thunderstorms are one of the most thrilling and dangerous types of weather phenomena. Over 40,000 thunderstorms occur throughout the world each day. Thunderstorms form when very warm, moist air rises into cold air. As this humid air rises, water vapor condenses, forming huge cumulonimbus clouds. There are two main types of thunderstorms: ordinary and severe. Ordinary thunderstorms are the common summer storm and usually last about one hour. The precipitation associated with these storms includes rain and occasionally small hail. With ordinary thunderstorms, cumulonimbus clouds can grow up to 12 kilometers high. Severe thunderstorms are very dangerous. They are capable of producing baseball-sized hail, strong winds, intense rain, flash floods, and tornadoes. Severe thunderstorms can last several hours and can grow 18 kilometers high. Several phenomena are associated with severe thunderstorms, including gust fronts, microbursts, supercell thunderstorms, and the squall lines. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! The Fall 2009 issue of The Earth Scientist , which includes articles on student research into building design for earthquakes and a classroom lab on the composition of the Earth’s ancient atmosphere, is available in our online store You might also be interested in: Condensation is the process by which water changes its state from a vapor or gas to a liquid. Condensation is responsible for the formation of clouds. Common examples of condensation are: dew forming on...more Cumulonimbus clouds belong to the Clouds with Vertical Growth group. They are generally known as thunderstorm clouds. A cumulonimbus cloud can grow up to 10km high. At this height, high winds will flatten...more Rain is precipitation that falls to the Earth in drops of 5mm or more in diameter according to the US National Weather Service. Virga is rain that evaporates before reaching the ground. Raindrops form...more A supercell thunderstorm is a huge rotating thunderstorm. It can last for several hours as a single storm. These storms are the most likely to produce long-lasting tornadoes and baseball-sized hail. Tornadoes...more Wind is moving air. Warm air rises, and cool air comes in to take its place. This movement creates different pressures in the atmosphere which creates the winds around the globe. Since the Earth spins,...more Dangerous flash floods have killed hundreds of people and caused hundreds of millions of dollars of damage in the Front Range of Colorado’s Rocky Mountains. The area gets summer flash floods when intense...more Scientists and students have designed a new satellite called Firefly for the CubeSat program. The Firefly satellite is the size of a loaf of bread and consists of three cubes attached end to end in a rectangular...more
Revolutionary France had a Black general. His name was Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and he was born a slave in Haiti — then a French colony — the son of a French nobleman and his African slave. Dumas’ father had little money and actually pawned the boy in 1776, when he was fourteen, but then bought him back. Father and son moved to France, where Dumas gained his freedom and a gentleman’s education. He enlisted as a private in the army at age twenty-four and soared to the rank of general by thirty-one. That was thanks to courage, brains, and charisma — and thanks to the French Revolution, which created unheard-of opportunities for humble-born men. Dumas repeatedly distinguished himself in combat, and France’s Austrian enemies called him the Schwarzer Teufel: the black devil.
The Sparkling Enope Squid is found in the Western Pacific ocean at depths of 600 to 1200 feet and exhibits bioluminescence. Each tentacle has an organ called a photophore, which produces light. By flashing these lights, the Sparkling Enope Squid can attract little fish to feed upon. The Sparkling Enope Squid is the only species of cephalopod in which evidence of color vision has been found. While most cephalopods have only one visual pigment, firefly squid have three, along with a double-layered retina. These adaptations for color vision may have evolved to enable firefly squid to distinguish between ambient light and bioluminescence. The Sparkling Enope Squid measures about 3 inches long at maturity and dies after one year of life.
Mucolipidosis type IV is an inherited disorder characterized by delayed development and vision impairment that worsens over time. The severe form of the disorder is called typical mucolipidosis type IV, and the mild form is called atypical mucolipidosis type IV. Approximately 95 percent of individuals with this condition have the severe form. People with typical mucolipidosis type IV have delayed development of mental and motor skills (psychomotor delay). Motor skills include sitting, standing, walking, grasping objects, and writing. Psychomotor delay is moderate to severe and usually becomes apparent during the first year of life. Affected individuals have intellectual disability, limited or absent speech, difficulty chewing and swallowing, weak muscle tone (hypotonia) that gradually turns into abnormal muscle stiffness (spasticity), and problems controlling hand movements. Most people with typical mucolipidosis type IV are unable to walk independently. In about 15 percent of affected individuals, the psychomotor problems worsen over time. Vision may be normal at birth in people with typical mucolipidosis type IV, but it becomes increasingly impaired during the first decade of life. Individuals with this condition develop clouding of the clear covering of the eye (cornea) and progressive breakdown of the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye (retina). By their early teens, affected individuals have severe vision loss or blindness. People with typical mucolipidosis type IV also have impaired production of stomach acid (achlorhydria). Achlorhydria does not cause any symptoms in these individuals, but it does result in unusually high levels of gastrin in the blood. Gastrin is a hormone that regulates the production of stomach acid. Individuals with mucolipidosis type IV may not have enough iron in their blood, which can lead to a shortage of red blood cells (anemia). People with the severe form of this disorder usually survive to adulthood; however, they may have a shortened lifespan. About 5 percent of affected individuals have atypical mucolipidosis type IV. These individuals usually have mild psychomotor delay and may develop the ability to walk. People with atypical mucolipidosis type IV tend to have milder eye abnormalities than those with the severe form of the disorder. Achlorhydria also may be present in mildly affected individuals. Mucolipidosis type IV is estimated to occur in 1 in 40,000 people. About 70 percent of affected individuals have Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry. Mutations in the MCOLN1 gene cause mucolipidosis type IV. This gene provides instructions for making a protein called mucolipin-1. This protein is located in the membranes of lysosomes and endosomes, compartments within the cell that digest and recycle materials. While its function is not completely understood, mucolipin-1 plays a role in the transport (trafficking) of fats (lipids) and proteins between lysosomes and endosomes. Mucolipin-1 appears to be important for the development and maintenance of the brain and retina. In addition, this protein is likely critical for normal functioning of the cells in the stomach that produce digestive acids. Most mutations in the MCOLN1 gene result in the production of a nonfunctional protein or prevent any protein from being produced. A lack of functional mucolipin-1 impairs transport of lipids and proteins, causing these substances to build up inside lysosomes. Conditions that cause molecules to accumulate inside the lysosomes, including mucolipidosis type IV, are called lysosomal storage disorders. Two mutations in the MCOLN1 gene account for almost all cases of mucolipidosis type IV in people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry. It remains unclear how mutations in this gene lead to the signs and symptoms of mucolipidosis type IV. This condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, which means both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive condition each carry one copy of the mutated gene, but they typically do not show signs and symptoms of the condition. - ganglioside sialidase deficiency
Objective: Children will learn about a bird’s habitat by creating a bird’s nest.‹ Return to Theme What You Will Need - Pictures of a variety of birds’ nests - Brown coffee filters - 1 for each child and labeled with their name - Paper lunch bags – 1 for each child and labeled with their name - Permanent marker - Newspaper or wax paper What To Do Note: This activity includes a nature walk outside. - Examine the pictures of the different nests and have the class brainstorm about what materials the birds use to make their nests. - Ask them what materials found in nature could be used to make nests. - Give each child a paper bag with their name on it, and take them outside to find materials to build their own nests. - Upon returning to the classroom, give each child a brown coffee filter and glue. Have the children build their own nests in the coffee filter. - Encourage them to share their materials. - When the glue dries, ask each child to talk about his or her creation. Guiding Student Inquiry - Have you ever seen a bird nest? Where did you see the nest? - Was anything in the nest? Did you see any birds near the nest? - We used glue to hold our nests together. Birds do not have glue! What do you think they do to make the materials hold together to make their nests? - On our nature walk outside, how did you decide what you wanted to collect to make your nest? - What do birds do in their nests? Explore, Extend & Integrate - Put any leftover materials in the art or science center so that children can create additional nests. Include some clay or play dough so that the children can make pretend eggs for the nests. - Transform your dramatic play area into a Habitat Haven. Provide stuffed animals and materials to create habitats. Children could use boxes to create caves or burrows, blankets to make nests, and pillows to create piles of leaves. Artificial flowers and plants can represent food, and large pieces of tin foil or a blue colored tray could be a pond. Check for Children’s Understanding - Did the children demonstrate an understanding that nests are part of a bird’s habitat? - Were the children able to talk about birds’ nests and how they were a place where birds lived? - Were children able to understand that birds build their nests from a variety of things found in nature? Did You Know? Most birds build nests in which they lay their eggs. Most nests are made from materials that birds collect in their environment such as string, sticks, grass and other materials from plants. Some birds make a nest in a shallow depression made in sand or in a knothole left by a broken branch. Not all birds build nests. Birds keep their eggs warm by brooding or sitting on the eggs. Birds sit on their eggs until they hatch. For some birds, such as gulls, both males and females share brooding. In many species of songbirds, the female broods the eggs and the male brings food to the brooding female. In a few species, only the male broods the eggs. Perching birds have special adaptations for resting on branches. Songbirds make up a large part of this group of birds. When a perching bird lands in a tree, its feet automatically close around a branch. If the bird falls asleep while it is perching, its feet will stay closed. The sleeping bird will not fall off the branch. - bird - an animal with two wings, two feet, and feathers; most birds can fly. - nest - a place that animals use to hold their eggs. - habitat - the natural environment or home of an animal. - egg - an object that is a covering or shell for a baby animal. - hatch - when young animals develop inside their eggs, they break out when they are born. - twigs - small branches of a tree or other plant. - Have extra materials (twigs, grass, leaves, yarn) that you have collected in advance, available in case some children do not collect enough items to complete a nest. - Instead of glue, you could use paste or modeling clay. - A Nest Full of Eggs by Priscilla Belz Jenkins - Birds by Kevin Henkes - The Best Nest by P.D. Eastman Content provided by: Common Core State These lessons are aligned with the Common Core State Standards ("CCSS"). The CCSS provide a consistent, clear understanding of the concepts and skills children are expected to learn and guide teachers to provide their students with opportunities to gain these important skills and foundational knowledge.
In the midst of a challenging situation, it’s critical to make time and space for social emotional supports for learners. Simply put, social emotional skills are the foundation for overall well-being. Kids and teens need to feel safe, respected, loved, and valued. They need to have strong coping skills to work their emotional challenges and they need to improve cognitive flexibility to deal with the changes that are happening, so many outside of their control. For these reasons, it’s important that social emotional skills take the front seat when it comes to distance learning. While these skills are important all of the time, it’s easy to argue that learners need them now more than ever. Whether you are a classroom teacher, school counselor, social worker, paraeducator, or parent, this list includes specific strategies and ideas to help support all learners during this distance learning experience. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Read Stories It’s easy to say that literature is a great way to integrate SEL into the day. Pretty much any book or short story targets a variety of social emotional skills like kindness, empathy, perspective-taking, and more. It’s important to note that picture books aren’t just for little kids. Many older kids love a good read aloud, too! Record a video of you reading a text (making sure the author gives permission for this first) and send to your students. You could even do a live read aloud with some videochat tools, like Zoom or Screencastify. Use this free digital and printable list with ideas for SEL read alouds. If technology isn’t an option, you can always recommend students and families read books as use. Use this free printable that highlights picture books for every area of social emotional learning. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Virtual Morning Meeting Morning meeting is the semi-structured time of day when students and educators greet each other, check-in, and learn some important skills before starting the day. While it’s certainly preferable to lead a morning meeting in a face-to-face way, it’s also important to note that virtual morning meetings can work, too! One of my favorite ways is to use a video conversation app, like Flipgrid, to start the conversation on a daily SEL topic. Topics you could choose might be positive self-talk, staying organized, or showing kindness. The specific topic is really up to you. After choosing the topic, record a video of you briefly explaining the skill. Then, ask a question you want kids to respond to. If you are focusing on kindness, you might ask them to share a kind act they’ve done in the past week. If you are highlighting strengths and abilities, you might ask kids to talk about something they are great at doing. The best part is that with a video conversation app like Flipgrid, kids get to connect with you and each other. Another option is to schedule a weekly or daily time with your learners to meet online using the software or programs your school is encouraging. That might be Zoom or any other program, depending on your school or student needs. If you need some extra ideas for morning meeting topics to discuss, I’ve created this set of morning meeting cards for older learners and this set of morning meeting cards for elementary students. They specifically target one SEL skill every day, making it easy to go over all the skills kids need in every domain of social emotional learning. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Virtual Emotions Check-Ins This is a stressful time for everyone, kids and teens included. Spend 1:1 time with individual students and check-in with how they are doing. Use this virtual conference time to ask students how they are feeling, what strategies they are using to focus on wellness, and techniques for managing stress. Virtual check-ins can be simple messages through emails or Remind, or they can be in the form of videos using Google Hangout or other video programs. Use this free digital and printable activity as a mindful morning check-in. I also created this free digital and printable mindful morning activity to help learners start off the day in the right way. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Digital Task Cards As an educator, I have always loved task cards. They are a simple activity to teach skills in a way that feels so different from a worksheet. Of course, in times of distance learning, it might not be as practical to send sets of task cards to each of your students. That’s where digital task cards come in. For many of my favorite social emotional task cards I’ve already created, I have added a digital component. This makes it easy for kids and teens to still get the social practice they need, while responding to the cards right on the digital Google Drive page. While there are many distance learning activities to choose from, these social problem-solving task cards are a free set to get learners started. Use these free digital task cards to help learners work on social skills. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Video Instruction Using videos can be a valuable tool in teaching a variety of skills. Some educators are using pre-recorded YouTube videos to share with their learners, while others are recording their very own personalized videos to send to their students. If you aren’t quite sure how to get started, try recording yourself on your phone while teaching a mini-lesson to your students. For example, you might record a lesson teaching about using coping strategies, using positive self-talk, or practicing mindfulness (all skills that are extremely important right now). Make a quick video just to practice and get started. Then, send it to your learners. Not only will you be sending valuable skills, but your students will love seeing you teach again. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Digital Lessons and Workbooks One of the best ways to provide lessons through digital learning is Google Classroom. Using Google Drive digital-friendly resources, students can respond right on the workbooks and activities. Not only does this make things much easier for the student and families at home, but your students can then send their completed assignments straight back to you for review. Browse a complete collection of digital resources for kids and teens. I have added digital versions to a number of social emotional resources already. The reason why I’m adding digital version to pre-existing materials is simple. If you have already purchased a social emotional activity from me, you get the update for free. You deserve to have both options so that you can use digital materials now, but always have the choice to using print/paper copies in the future. Browse through the complete collection of digital resources to get started. Many resources are paid, but some are free, too! SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Using Apps and Websites There are a number of websites and apps that students can use to practice social emotional skills. Some are free all of the time, while others have offered free membership for a period of time. Some possible apps and sites to try out include: - Breathe, Think, Do - Emotional ABCs - Smiling Mind SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Daily Journal More than ever, now is a great time to get kids journaling on a daily basis. Not only is writing in a journal a calming and mindful activity, but it’s also a great way to help kids share thoughts and feelings. Even more, you can use journaling as a specific way to target social emotional skills. Each day, assign a journal topic for kids to write about. For example, you might have them list out some positive thoughts and then writing in a journal about how positive thoughts can be helpful. Another simple strategy is to encourage kids to journal about their thoughts and feelings each day. Not only will this help them in the moment, but we are living through historic times, so it will be meaningful to them later on. If you are looking for a simple solution, there are many pre-made digital journals to choose from. You might have students fill out a daily mindfulness journal, for example. Use a daily journal to target social emotional skills. My favorite journal, though, is a daily SEL Journal, with every week targeting a different social emotional skill. I created this SEL Journal for elementary students and this SEL Journal for older learners. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Family Check-Ins With all that is going on, it’s also important to check in with families. If we want kids and teens to do well, we need to also support the families they live with. Provide a weekly check-in with families just to briefly ask how things are going and if they need any support. With a weekly check-in, educators can also suggest a couple of simple activities for families to help build SEL skills at home, such as reading literature, playing board games, having conversations, or even watching a movie together and talking about how characters feel. It’s important to note that there are numerous strategies to work on SEL at home, but we have to give families the tools to get there. SEL Distance Learning Strategy: Assign Mindful Activities Whether learners have technology or not, educators can always encourage mindful activities at home. Assign 10 minutes of mindful time each day. You can ask students to complete a specific activity or have them choose from some ideas below: - Drawing or coloring - Free journal writing - Spending time outside - Go on a mindful scavenger hunt - Practicing deep breathing - Listening to music Use digital mindful breathing cards to help focus on self-regulation skills. One of my favorite mindful activities is mindful breathing because it’s a strategy kids can use anytime. I recently added a digital version to these mindful breathing cards, making it easy for kids and teens to carry them along with them wherever they go. If you’re still looking for ideas, know that I have several free digital resources you can download and send home to students and families right away. Side note: I’ve recently gotten some questions about how to properly send materials to students/families, so I’ll share here, too. All of my resources, free and paid, can be sent to families and students through e-mail or any other password-protected means, like Google Classroom or an app. Just please don’t post openly on a website, since these can be found from a Google search. As always, if you have any questions or feedback, please reach out. Thank you for all you do.
MRSA is short for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, which is a staph infection that doesn’t respond to many commonly used antibiotics. It was originally caused by the overuse of antibiotics and antibiotic treatment not being long enough to kill the more resistant, stronger bacteria. The bacteria are commonly found on skin and many surfaces that come in contact with skin. Contact with MRSA bacteria doesn’t mean that it will cause MRSA because many infections can be prevented. The following are some of the causes for this infection: - Antibiotic Use Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is caused by staph bacteria that has mutated and adapted to survive antibiotic treatment. This occurs because the antibiotics aren’t taken properly and resistant strains survive and reproduce. Past overuse and short administration lengths contributed to this. When there are no MRSA symptoms, but there are bacteria present, it is called colonization. Most often, the bacteria will colonize in the nose, groin, armpits, and folds of skin. A person with colonization can cause the infection to spread to others. - Poor Hygiene MRSA bacteria can be found on most commonly on the skin. Simply washing with soap and water can prevent the bacteria from causing an infection. When people don’t shower after using shared equipment, they can increase their risk of an infection. - Medical Procedure When proper sanitizing of medical equipment is not done, a person can get a MRSA infection. It can also be caused by healthcare workers who don’t wash their hands between patients. MRSA is caused by a variety of things, but the risks of an infection can be reduced by following preventive procedures.
Aim a beam of near-infrared light at an otolith, and it reflects a literal spectrum of information on the biological and environmental history of a fish. NOAA Fisheries scientists are developing ways to use near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) analysis of otoliths (fish ear stones) to provide accurate information for sustainable fisheries management faster. NIRS has already proven its value as a time- and cost-effective method to determine the age of fish. Now, for the first time, scientists have used NIRS analysis of otoliths to identify fish species and populations. The new technique successfully differentiated 13 marine fish species from four large marine ecosystems around the country. “Our study shows the potential of NIRS as a fast and reliable method of identifying fish species and populations,” said Irina Benson, Alaska Fisheries Science Center biologist. She led the study with Age and Growth Program colleague Thomas Helser and Beverly Barnett of the Southeast Fisheries Science Center. “This technology could provide information for stock assessment and management faster than traditional methods. It expands the possibilities for collecting data to support ecological studies. It is a big step forward for NOAA Fisheries’ strategic initiative to develop NIRS technology for fisheries science.” Biography of a Fish Otoliths are small calcified structures in the inner ear of a fish, also known as ear stones. Otoliths help fish with hearing and balance. Their value to scientists, however, lies within their layers. An otolith grows incrementally over the lifetime of a fish, recording a timeline of information about the fish’s biology and environment. These layers can be counted visually under a microscope to determine the age of a fish. That is the traditional method for ageing many commercial species to support fisheries management. Recent developments of more sophisticated and sensitive instruments have allowed scientists to explore the microchemical information contained in otoliths. Trace chemicals reflect water properties and physiological changes the fish experienced throughout its life.From this information scientists can reconstruct a history of the fish’s movements, diet, habitat use, and environmental conditions in addition to its age. NIRS is widely used in industry and science. For example, in the dairy industry, NIRS is used to determine the butterfat content of milk. In others, such as agriculture and pharmaceuticals, it is used as an efficient, accurate, and non-destructive way to measure product quality. In neuroscience, NIRS is being used to map cognitive brain function. To determine the age of a fish using NIRS technology, near-infrared light is focused on an otolith. The amount and wavelengths of light absorbed by the otolith are measured and recorded by a machine called a spectrometer. These spectral data reflect the molecular make-up of the otolith, which is correlated with fish age. Scientists at the Alaska Fisheries Science Center’s Age and Growth Program conducted the first extensive feasibility study using NIRS to age walleye pollock. NIRS age estimation was almost 10 times more efficient than traditional microscope techniques. It promises a faster, reliable method to meet the growing demand for fish age data. NOAA Fisheries funded a 5-year strategic initiative to develop this technology for use nationwide. Beyond Ageing: NIRS in Fisheries Science “The project began with developing NIRS to age fish from different regions around the country,” said Benson. “Now we are exploring new ways to get fish life history information using this technology on samples we are already collecting.” Recently, scientists have begun to investigate the use of NIRS technology in biodiversity and ecological studies. But only a few studies have looked at applications in fisheries science. “If we could identify fish species from otoliths using this technology, it could provide essential information for ecological studies,” said Benson. “For example, you could look at diets of marine predators based on NIRS analysis of otoliths in their stomachs. NIRS is much faster than other methods like otolith shape analysis, otolith microstructure analysis, or genetic research. And besides saving time, NIRS does not destroy otoliths like other methods do. It leaves them intact and ready for other analyses.” NOAA Fisheries scientists from across the country worked together to apply NIRS to differentiate fish species, and differentiate the same species from different regions. “One of the most exciting things about this project was the synergy,” Benson said. “We had so many people from different NOAA Fisheries labs working closely together. Everyone exchanging information and progress. Scientists brought otoliths from their own regions all over the country. It is rare to have access to that.” “I participated in the NOAA Rotational Assignment Program to work at the Alaska Fisheries Science Center for about 3 months in 2019. During that time I worked closely with Tom and Irina in the Age and Growth lab to scan otoliths using NIRS,” said Barnett. “Funny to admit, but I am always thinking about otoliths and how we can use them to make our science at NOAA Fisheries better. NIRS opens the door to do just that. There are so many unanswered questions about the chemical and molecular constituents in otoliths. This project gave us the opportunity to learn more about these constituents and how they vary among species and across different ecosystems.” Classifying Fish Species Within Ecosystems The NIRS analysis distinguished individual species, groups of species from individual ecosystems, and groups from combined ecosystems. It had an overall accuracy of 92 percent, 98 percent, and 100 percent, respectively. Species Identification and Environmental Influences The accuracy of species predictions varied depending on where they came from. Most misclassifications happened between: - Same species from different geographic areas (for example, red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico versus North Atlantic) - Different species from the same area (walleye pollock, Pacific cod, and yellowfin sole in the Bering Sea) “These results suggest that habitat, diet, and environmental conditions such as temperature may influence the spectral signature of otoliths,” said Benson. “That suggests that NIRS may prove useful in answering ecological questions. For example, it could help us understand how ocean warming affects food webs.” Ecosystems and Oceanography NIRS discriminated otoliths of all species analyzed from the eastern Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean large marine ecosystems with 100 percent accuracy. North Atlantic Ocean (97 percent) and Gulf of Mexico (93 percent) ecosystems were slightly more difficult to discriminate. These results may reflect the oceanography and ecology of each region. North Pacific Ocean currents split along the U.S. West coast and support different large marine ecosystems in the North Pacific and eastern Bering Sea. Differences between fish otoliths from the two regions may be explained in part by annual sea ice. It has a strong impact on marine chemistry and biology in the eastern Bering Sea, but not on the North Pacific Ocean. Gulf of Mexico water is transported north along the Atlantic coast of the United States by the Gulf Stream. Around Cape Hatteras, the Gulf Stream swings away from the coast. There it creates a boundary between the Gulf of Mexico and North Atlantic Ocean ecosystems. Fish and fauna are known to move across in both directions. The success of this pilot project promises many future possibilities for NIRS analysis of otoliths. Benson describes a few paths for further exploration: - See if NIRS can differentiate fish species that are of similar appearance and difficult to identify taxonomically. - Take this technology out to sea on fishing boats and research cruises to provide immediate, real-time data for stock assessment and management. - Look into how water temperature or other changes in water chemistry associated with climate change influences the NIR signature of otoliths. - Create a library of NIRS signatures to identify otoliths from the stomachs of marine predators for food web studies. “We are just beginning to discover the benefits of using this technology in fisheries science,” said Benson. “As we continue to learn how to use NIRS to read the information stored in otoliths, we will be able to answer more fisheries questions more quickly. It can help us better understand the big ecological picture.” This research was funded by NOAA Fisheries’ FT-NIR Spectroscopy Age Estimation Strategic Initiative.
A team of researchers from IFPRI, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)—with support from the World Bank—collected data from more than 700 farm households in Kenya distributed across various agroecological zones and soil types. The team then used the data in simulations to show how various farming practices would affect crop yields, soil quality, and greenhouse gas emissions. More Than Fertilizer Several farm practices came up triple winners. One such practice, says Elizabeth Bryan, a senior research analyst with IFPRI and member of the research team, is soil nutrient management—which involves more than sprinkling some fertilizer on a plot of land. “This isn’t just about using inorganic fertilizers,” says Bryan, “but also manure, mulch, and crop residues.” By combining crop residues, fertilizer, mulch, and manure, farmers in most agroecological zones and on most soil types significantly boosted their net revenue from maize. They did face costs—they had to purchase fertilizer, and sometimes feed for livestock to replace maize stover—but in most cases these costs were outweighed by the increased profits from productivity gains. This combination of soil inputs also improves soil’s fertility and water-holding capacity, making farms more resilient to climate change. And it helps soils store carbon, reducing future climate change. Another promising strategy is improved livestock feeding. Kenyan farmers feed their dairy cattle crop residues such as maize stover or graze them on rangelands or roadsides. If farmers replaced some of the stover in the cows’ diets with locally available, higher-energy feeds like napier grass and Desmodium, they could both increase production of milk and cut emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, for each liter of milk produced. These practices have great potential to increase farmers’ crop and livestock production in Kenya’s various agroecological zones, says Barrack Okoba, principal research scientist at KARI and a member of the research team. “The findings should be of great interest to policymakers who want to reduce conflicts over resources and find ways to help the most vulnerable farming communities adapt to climate change,” he says. And given that resources are scarce everywhere, practices that address several problems at once can be especially cost-effective. As Bryan says, “Why not promote practices that provide multiple benefits for producers and for the environment?” For more information on this topic: Detailed results from the study of “triple wins” - Agricultural Management for Climate Change Adaptation, Greenhouse Gas Mitigation, and Agricultural Productivity: Insights from Kenya, by Elizabeth Bryan et al., 2011. A blog about the research project
Students will have practised listening for main idea in the context of alternative medicine To practise free speaking Procedure (44 minutes) Prior to the class time,stick pictures of various types of alternative medicine on the walls. Give two sets of names of alternative medicine to work in groups. Ask ss to go around and recognise the type of medicine and stick it below the picture. Pre teach vocabulary. Elicit the word from the students using definitions or visuals. For every word, follow MPF and then drill it. Alternative Medicine- Medicine that uses different methods other than the conventional western medicine. awful - unpleasant determined - a strong will to do something you have decided upon. ache - pain disease - illness energy - physical power or strength miracle - an event that cannot be explained as natural but as an act of God. swear - To make a promise Check the key language - Retain all the words on the board. In pairs, ask ss to take turns - choose a word - define it and ask the pair to identify the correct word. Demonstrate the first one with a student. Now change the pairs. /activity 1 After they settle down, tell them about the listening activity. While listening to the story, they have to arrange the pictures in order. Give them time to study the pictures and predict the order. While listening, let them arrange. Tell the pairs to check other pairs. Meanwhile monitor. Then play the recording again. Arrange it on board. Let students take turn to put it on board. Activity 2 Tell the students to narrate the story to their partner using the pictures as a guide. Activity 3 First demonstrate the activity by writing 10 key words on the board. Ask the students to guess the story using the words as a guide. Check whether it is a true story. Ask students to think about a story that happened to them. It could be a health problem they once had or about their friend or family member. It can be a true story or they can make one. Ask them to note down 10 key words on a piece of paper. Then exchange the paper. Let the partner guess the story. They should say whether the story is false or true.
The theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. Now largely discredited, social Darwinism was advocated by Herbert Spencer and others in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism and to discourage intervention and reform. - ‘Although they are often portrayed as apologists for social inequality, most evolutionary psychologists distance themselves from social Darwinism, racial eugenics and absolute genetic determinism.’ - ‘In private Darwin complained about social Darwinism, which was being used to justify laissez-faire capitalism.’ - ‘Making the situation worse were the quasi-scientific theories of social Darwinism, which helped justify Congress's refusal to grant full citizenship to the territorial inhabitants.’ - ‘The popular form of social Darwinism readily became a facile assumption of racial superiority, linked to imperialism, as the popular press reported the successes of the many small-scale colonial military expeditions.’ - ‘Sumner was a fierce defender of social Darwinism and of free trade and, for this reason, was the only major economist who stayed out of the American Economic Association at its launching in 1885.’
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Drum tabs are a method of writing down drum music other than by using standard musical notation. Many consider tablature easier to read and more user friendly than traditional music notation, although it may not provide the same level of detail. Drum tabs have rows running from left to right which represent each individual drum and have an indication of timing in columns running along the top. The positions of various symbols in the rows and columns show the player which drum to hit on which beat. Different symbols for the type of hit also instruct the drummer on how specifically to play a certain note. Music tablature is a non-standard way of showing how to play music on a particular instrument. Other instruments, such as the guitar and piano, also have a tablature form of music specifically designed for them. Music notation is the technically correct method of displaying music, and this is done on five lines, called a staff, with different lines representing different notes. The complexity in understanding the meaning of the various symbols used in music notation has led to the creation of “tabs,” simpler methods of showing how to play a song. The most important things to look at when trying to decipher drum tabs are the specific rows and columns the notes fall on. Each row is labeled to the far left of the tab, with letters such as “HH,” “BD,” and “SD,” to represent the hi hat, bass drum, and the snare drum. Any mark in the row corresponds to a hit of that specific drum. Most drum tabs will have a “key” if the drums have been referred to in a non-standard way. Along the top row of drum tabs are columns representing the passing of time in the song. Each bar is split into the beats that make it up, ordinarily four. Along the top, the drum tab will show something like “1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &,” and the notes will be arranged into those columns. This example assumes a song which uses eighth notes and has four beats in a bar, but sixteenth notes may also be used, which are displayed as “1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a” on drum tabs. This is what drummers are taught to say when they are learning the instrument to stay in time, so is intuitive for most players. Different symbols can be used in the place of a hit to show different types of hit in drum tabs. The standard symbol for a strike of a cymbal is “x” and for a drum is “o.” Other techniques, such as an accent and a ghost note are shown by different symbols. For example, an “O” represents an accent and a “g” represent a ghost note. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
Astronomy has come a long way in the past 100 years, with revelations from Einstein, Bohr, Hubble and other great astronomers, physicists, and scientists. While certainly some of the greatest discoveries in astronomy of all time include the discovery of the other planets of the solar system, the true relation of the Earth to the Sun, and the mathematical calculations for planetary orbits by Kepler and universal gravitation by Newton, more shocking discoveries have been made in modern astronomy than in times past, and shows us just how cool our universe actually is. As we’ll discuss later in this article, it has been discovered using the Hubble constant and measurements of supernovae of distant stars that the universe is not contracting, nor is it static (as Einstein thought), but instead, the universe is expanding, and the expansion is speeding up. To account for this, a hypothetical form of energy known as Dark Energy has been proposed and is being investigated by leading astrophysicists and cosmologists. Whether it is a scalar property of space time itself, as proposed through a cosmological constant, or something dynamic, known as quintessence, is a matter of large debate, but current astrophysics places a full 74% of the energy in the universe as being dark energy. Dark matter (different from Dark Energy) is a type of matter that has been proposed to exist to explain gravitational effects within galaxies. When astronomers were able to measure the mass of galaxies and the orbital speed of stars within a galaxy, they noticed discrepancies between the expected results and the calculated results. Thus, a new type of matter was classified as dark matter, which is matter that is simply not detected using current measurement techniques involving electromagnetic radiation. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Cosmic microwave background radiation, or CMBR, is a form of electromagnetic radiation that fills the universe and is left over from the Big Bang. Two Bell Telephone employees were working on a radiometer for satellite communication experiments, when they discovered 3.5 K in excess temperature that they could not account for. The CMBR is essentially the remaining radiation left from a previous stage in the universe’s history, currently theorized as the Big Bang. After discovering the various planets and non-planetary objects in our solar system, astronomers began looking at other stars in attempts to discover new planets. By analyzing the light spectra coming from distant stars, and also their brightness plotted over time, astronomers have been able to discover a large number of planets, starting in 1992 with the discovery of several planets orbiting a pulsar. Black holes, which are largely known due to Stephen Hawking’s work, are a region of space where nothing, not even light, can escape, due to the massive gravitational pull from a single point in space with infinite density, known as a singularity. Beyond the event horizon, nothing can be seen and nothing can escape. Now, astrophysicists believe that black holes form as the result of larger stars collapsing and the electron and neutron degeneracy pressure cannot hold even atoms intact. Astrophysicists now believe that super-massive black holes exist at the center of most spiral galaxies and most galaxies in general. General relativity is one of the theories presented by Albert Einstein, which proposes a unified description of gravity as a property of space and time, and allows for proper explanation of redshift of light and bending of light by massive objects. Largely verified through a variety of tests, one of the most famous proofs of general relativity occurred during a solar eclipse, during which the light from visible stars was mapped and extrapolated to locate the stars, which appeared in a different place than the stars actually were, due to the warping of light. Redshifting and The Hubble Constant Hubble’s Law allowed for the calculation of the speed at which galaxies are receding away from Earth, which demonstrates that galaxies are moving away from us, and thus provided the general basis for the Big Bang Theory. This then later contributed to the work by astronomers that demonstrated that galaxies are expanding away from us even faster than predicted, based on the redshifts of distant supernovae, as mentioned earlier in this article. Gamma Ray Bursts Gamma ray bursts are, quite literally, bursts of gamma rays coming from distant galaxies, that are suspected to come from extremely energetic explosions. GRBs are the most luminous electromagnetic events in the universe, and most astrophysicists believe that GRBs come from supernova explosions and occasionally the merger of binary neutron stars. The Age of the Universe Thanks to the use of redshifting measurements, the discovery of cosmic background radiation, and the age of the globular clusters of ancient stars in galaxies, astrophysicists have been able to calculate the age of the universe, which is currently estimated at 13.75 billion years. The Big Bang and Inflationary Theory As mentioned previously, the discovery of the CMBR, redshifting, and the faster than expected recession of galaxies led astronomers and astrophysicists to theorize the Big Bang, which is currently accepted as the model for the formation of the universe. The Big Bang was not an explosion within space and time, but instead, the creation of spacetime from nothing. While implications for our role in the universe, the possible existence of other universes, and what, if anything, occurred before, are the subject of speculation, the Big Bang model has survived a variety of tests and scrutiny to become widely accepted. However, with the discovery of the CMBR, it was discovered that the temperature of the universe is widely uniform, which would be impossible through traditional thermal interactions (the concept of the universe being flat, homogeneous and isotropic is known as the cosmological principle). Thus, Inflationary Theory was introduced, which suggests that the universe started with extremely rapid exponential expansion, driven by a negative pressure energy (somewhat reminiscent of Dark Energy), but before inflation, the universe was causally connected and thus had a balanced temperature.
Due to population growth, rapid urbanisation, rising farming and climate change, the world is facing a severe shortage of fresh water, particularly in developing economies. A lack of water will put pressure on food prices, constrain developing countries’ poverty reduction efforts and hamper economic growth. This will however create opportunities for businesses in the water and wastewater industry as well as those providing water saving products and technologies. - Due to rapid population growth, urbanisation and increasing farming, there will be a growing shortage of fresh water all over the world. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about one fifth of the world’s population in 2009 lived in countries that did not have enough water for their use; - Environmental degradation and climate change has further weighed on the water shortage problem as they contaminate water resources and reduce the natural storage of water; - Water shortage will pose major global challenges as it would depress agricultural production and lead to an increase in food and water prices. This will affect consumers’ disposable income, businesses’ profits and economic growth. Water can also become a source of conflicts between communities and countries; - Developing countries are more severely affected by water shortages problem. Lack of clean water results in health concerns and human loss caused by poor sanitation and high levels of poverty. These will in turn hamper their economic growth. Countries in North Africa are amongst the most affected by degraded water quality in the world; - In 2009, only 46.6% of the rural world population had improved access to sanitation facilities compared to 78.8% of the urban world population and over 80.0% of the sewage in developing countries is discharged untreated in receiving water bodies; - Water scarcity will prompt countries, individuals and businesses to implement water saving measures. This will create opportunities for businesses providing water saving products and technologies as well as businesses in the water and wastewater industry. A liquid asset under pressure - Water is an essential resource to sustain life. While the planet has a finite supply of fresh water, the demand for it is growing rapidly as a result of population growth, rapid urbanisation and increasing farm production - The world’s population rose from 6.1 billion people in 2000 to 6.8 billion in 2009 and is forecast to reach 7.6 billion in 2020. This will lead to an enormous rise in the demand for fresh water; - Rapid urbanisation puts a strain on access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities, particularly in developing countries that are already suffering water shortages. By 2020, 55.6% of the world population will live in urban areas, up from 46.8% in 2000. Between 2004 and 2009, the urban population in emerging and developing countries recorded a period growth of 12.6%, compared to 4.5% in the developed world; - Agriculture accounts for the largest share of the world’s total fresh water consumption, mainly because agriculture requires large amounts of water. According to the United Nations (UN), agriculture uses about 70.0% of all water withdrawals while industry and domestic activities take about 22.0% and 8.0% respectively; - Globally, agricultural production has increased significantly to feed the growing number of people. For example, India’s agricultural output index, an index measuring the growth of agricultural output with 1999-2001 as the base period, rose from 103.0 in 2004 to 132.2 in 2009. Rising farm production means an increasing amount of water will be needed; Source: Euromonitor International from UN Food and Agriculture Organisation. - Water is also needed for the production of energy of all types. An expansion of energy supply, therefore, also affects water resources. Due to rising demand driven by economic and population growth, energy production all over the world has been on a swift rise. Between 2004 and 2009, the world’s production of electricity saw a period growth of 30.8%; - According to WHO, in 2009, about 1.2 billion people lived in areas where water is physically scarce such as in the Middle East, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. One quarter of the world population live in developing countries which face water shortages due to a lack of infrastructure to fetch and withdraw water. Pollution and climate change weigh on water resources While demographic and economic changes exert pressures on water resources, environmental degradation and climate change has worsened the global water shortage problem: - Water supply has been affected by the loss of watersheds due to deforestation and soil erosion. A watershed is a drainage basin which allows for natural water to drain into a body of water like a lake or a reservoir. In Latin America, for example, the total forest land area declined from 993 million hectares in 1990 to 908 million hectares in 2009; - Due to rapid industrialisation and a lack of wastewater treatment system, a large number of surface and ground water is contaminated and thus not safely available for human use. According to Greenpeace International, about 70.0% of lakes, rivers and reservoirs in China are polluted. Water pollution is also severe problem in Brazil’s two largest cities Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; - Climate change has affected the entire water cycle, reducing water resources. Also, global warming has speeded up the hydrological cycle and increased evaporation will make drought conditions more prevalent. Australia, for example, has experienced more droughts since early 2000s. On the other hand, flooding becomes more frequent and damaging due to more intense rainfall events. Floods contaminate water resources and destroy water supply systems in affected areas. The implications of water shortage problem on economies, businesses and consumers Water shortages will have major impacts on consumers, businesses and the global economy: - Water shortages will depress agricultural yields, thus posing a severe threat to the global food security. This adds pressure on food prices and imports. In developing and emerging economies, food prices have been rising significantly due to population growth and a growing demand for more resource intensive food. The index of food prices in Russia almost doubled from 449 in 2004 to 831 in 2009 (1995=100). Rising food prices will weigh on people’s disposable income, thus impacting consumption and economic growth; - A lack of clean water and sanitation cause more diseases, thus increasing health concerns and human loss, particularly for the poor. This will, in turn, exacerbate poverty incidents in developing countries, having a negative impact on private consumption and economic growth. In 2008, less than 10.0% of the population in African countries like Uganda, Zambia and Rwanda had access to water supply; - Also, developing countries are more severely affected by water shortage problems than developed economies due to a large share of agriculture in their economy. A lack of water will distress the growth of economies such as India and China which do not posses enough reserves of fresh water while water demand is exploding; - Conflicts may arise in water-stressed areas among local communities and between countries, undermining business environment. India and Pakistan have long disputed over hydropower on the river Indus. Also, there have been ongoing disagreements between Southeast Asia countries in governing the Mekong River; - Water scarcity has urged consumers and companies to implement water saving measures. This will create opportunities for businesses that focus on producing water saving products and technologies. Businesses in the water and wastewater industry will also have opportunities to expand due to the rising demand for clean water as well as the demand for wastewater treatment and recycling. Water shortages will continue to be a critical problem which prompts governments, businesses and consumers’ actions: - According to the forecast of the UN Food and Agricultural Organization, by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two thirds of the world population could be under water stress conditions. This will pose a major challenge to countries; - China and India will continue facing severe water shortages problem due to fast economic growth and urbanisation. According to the World Bank, China may have a supply shortfall of 201 billion cubic metres by 2030. Water shortages will hamper economic growth in these countries; - Water scarcity is also likely to worsen where population growth is still high, as in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and some countries in South America. This will affect poverty reduction efforts in these regions. India, Indonesia and Pakistan have high poverty rates – defined as population living below international poverty line (US$1 per day), which stood at 41.6%, 29.4% and 22.6% of the population in 2007 respectively; - To tackle water shortages, countries have called for more efficient use of water, a restraint in water usage as well as to protect the ecosystems and prevent water pollution. India, for example, has made it mandatory for new houses and condominiums in cities to collect rainwater in an effort to curb a decline in groundwater levels. In the United Kingdom, 21 leading food and drink manufacturers signed in 2008 an agreement to pledge to reduce their water use by 20.0% by 2020. Conscious consumers have reduced their consumption of meat in an effort to save water; - Due to water scarcity, there will be a continuing transformation in industrial production and technologies. Household appliance manufacturers, for example, are already focussing on water savings right alongside energy savings in their product designs. There has been research to find out agricultural technologies which use less water. Desalination of seawater is set to become more widely used as technological developments are causing desalination prices to fall.
Our third grade class has been studying gravity and the motion of objects. We had a question: If the Earth no longer had gravity, would buildings and other structures attached to the Earth float away? We would like to start our answer by saying that we're sure you realize that this could never happen. The Earth has mass, just like every other solid object does (including you). It is the Earth's mass that causes it to have gravity, and so in order to not have gravity the Earth would have to not have mass. But if the Earth didn't have mass, it wouldn't be there anymore! Having said that, though, let's now imagine that we could magically turn off the gravity while leaving the Earth behind. What would happen to the things on Earth depends on how they are attached. As you know, the Earth is rotating at quite a speed (you're moving at over a thousand miles per hour at the equator due to the Earth's rotation alone). Now if you spin something around your head on a string, it goes around in a circle until you let go of the string. Then it flies off in a straight line. If the circle is very big, then at first the straight line is almost the same as the circle -- however, after a short amount of time, the two paths will be very different, since the circle bends around but the straight line does not. "Switching off" gravity is analogous to letting go of the string. Things not attached to the Earth in any other way would fly off into space in a straight line that would take them away from the surface of the Earth. In buildings, people would start floating gently upwards until they bumped into the ceiling. Outdoors, however (or in buildings with GIANT ceilings), things would start floating away from the Earth gently but eventually go much faster, as their straight lines took them farther and farther away from the circular path that the spinning Earth takes. The Earth's atmosphere itself would also float off into space, for the same reason! Some things (like trees and most buildings) are rooted into the Earth. They would not fly off because they are being held down. In fact, the force you would need to hold on and keep yourself from flying away from the Earth is very weak, only about 0.3% as strong as the force of gravity (and even weaker away from the equator). However, things which are holding on to the Earth would eventually have problems too -- the Earth itself would most likely break apart into chunks and float off into space, since it is only held together by gravity also! Anyway, we hope that you enjoyed the answer. Like we said to start with, though, you should remember that this could never happen! This page was last updated on June 27, 2015.
Lesson Plan: Lesson plans were written by Maryland mathematics educators and could be used when teaching the concepts. Goal 2 Geometry, Measurement, And Reasoning Expectation 2.2 The student will apply geometric properties and relationships to solve problems using tools and technology when appropriate. Indicator 2.2.3 The student will use inductive or deductive reasoning. Concurrent Lines in Triangles The student will investigate points of concurrency in triangles and apply these concepts to real-world situations. Other Indicators Addressed 2.1.4 The student will construct and/or draw and/or validate properties of geometric figures using appropriate tools and technology. Two to three 50-minute lessons or one to two 90-minute lessons Prerequisite Concepts Needed Basic vocabulary: line, line segment, angle, ray, distance, congruence, perpendicular, bisector, midpoint, distance between two points, distance between a point and a line, median of a triangle, altitude of a triangle Students should understand the relationship of a figure and its image after a reflection over a line.
(Nanowerk News) Nanotechnologists from the MESA+ research institute of the University of Twente have discovered that the photosynthesis system of bacteria can be used to transport light over relatively long distances. They have developed a type of 'molecular glass fibre', a thousand times thinner than a human hair. The results of their research are published in the April edition of the leading journal Nano Letters ("Long-Range Energy Propagation in Nanometer Arrays of Light Harvesting Antenna Complexes"). All plants and some bacteria use photosynthesis to store energy from the sun. Researchers from the MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology of the University of Twente have now discovered how parts of the photosynthesis system of bacteria can be used to transport light. In their experiments the researchers used isolated proteins from the so-called Light Harvesting Complex (LHC). These proteins transport the sunlight in the cells of plants and bacteria to a place in the cell where the solar energy is stored. The researchers built a type of 'molecular glass fibre' from the LHC proteins that is a thousand times thinner than a human hair. In the experiment the researchers fastened the proteins onto a fixed background. They positioned them in a line, and in this way formed a thread. They then shone laser light to one point in the thread, and observed where the light went to. The line with the LHC proteins did not only transport the light, but transported it over much longer distances than the researchers had initially expected. Distances of around 50 nanometres are normally bridged in the bacteria from which the LHC proteins were isolated. In the researchers' experiments the light covered distances at least thirty times greater. Learning from nature According to Cees Otto, one of the researchers involved, we can learn a lot from nature in experiments such as this. "The LHC proteins are the building blocks that nature gives us, and using then we can learn more about natural processes such as the transport of light in photosynthesis. When we understand how nature works, we can then imitate it. In time we will be able to use this principle in, for example, solar panels."
\|Activity 2: Magnetic Reversals and Sea-Floor Striping\| A key factor in establishing the theory of plate tectonics was recognition of past reversals in the Earth’s magnetic field and the mapping of normal and reverse magnetic striping on the ocean floor. The motion of the Earth’s molten outer core produces a magnetic field that is characterized by force lines emanating from near the geographic poles (Fig. 1). At present, the magnetic field causes compasses to point toward magnetic north. This polarity is normal polarity. At various times in the past, the magnetic field was oriented in the opposite direction, and compasses would have pointed toward magnetic south. These time periods were ones of reverse polarity (Fig. 1). New oceanic crust inherits the Earth’s magnetic field at the time it solidifies. Reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field produce magnetic anomalies or variations in the magnetic character of the oceanic crust. Thus the sea floor has regions where its magnetic minerals point north (normal) and areas where they point south (reverse). These magnetic rocks produce highs and lows in the local magnetic field. Because they were originally produced at the midocean ridge crest, the anomalies are oriented parallel the midocean ridge. We can map these anomalies by towing a magnetometer behind a ship and measuring the strength of the local magnetic field. The resulting map of the sea floor will have a distinctive magnetic signature (Fig. 2).
A species native to eastern North America, Opossums (sometimes just called possums) arrived in the Pacific Northwest in the early twentieth century. Their introduction to Oregon appears to have been accidental, probably the result of a careless pet owner allowing some to escape into the wild. Regardless of how they arrived, they seem intent on staying. Like many other invasive animals, the Opossum benefits from being a generalist – an animal that can thrive in a wide variety of environments because it can easily adapt to changing conditions and make use of different resources. This is especially true of the Opossum’s diet – where no food seems unpalatable. In fact, these animals can and will eat everything from berries to road kill. Dextrous paws make them excellent climbers so fences present little challenge to them. Like raccoons, they may invade yards, raid trash cans or tear up gardens in search of a quick meal; and are therefore considered nuisance animals by many home owners. There are a variety of Oregon predators which hunt these mammals, including Coyotes, Raccoons, Bobcats and Great-Horned Owls. When they encounter a threat, Opossums will often “play dead” by lying motionless and excreting a foul-smelling liquid from their anal glands. Because they are both solitary and nocturnal, it may be difficult to spot an Opossum in the wild. They can grow to be the size of a domesticated cat, but with physical features more reminiscent of a rat. Their fur on their face is generally white but becomes mottled toward the long, thin tail. The ears and tail are virtually hairless and dark in color. Opossums prefer to live in forested areas close to water. They will often take over burrows created by other species or find shelter in tree hollows, logs and rock piles. A common invasive species in Oregon
More information about our Moon. \|The Moon has many, many different names. It is called Luna by the Romans, Selene and Artemis by the Greeks, and many other names in other mythologies.\| \|This is the symbol for the Moon:\| The Moon is the Earth's only natural satellite. It is the second brightest object in the sky (after the Sun). \|The Moon was first visited by the Soviet spacecraft Luna 2 in 1959. It is the only extraterrestrial body to have been visited by humans. The first landing was on July 20, 1969. The last time we visited the Moon was in December 1972. The Moon is also the only body from which samples have been returned to Earth. In the summer of 1994, the Moon was very extensively mapped by the little spacecraft Clementine.\| \|A total of 382 kg of rock samples were returned to the Earth by the Apollo and Luna programs. These provide most of our detailed knowledge of the Moon. They are particularly valuable in that they can be dated. Even today, 20 years after the last Moon landing, scientists still study these precious samples.\| \|There are two primary types of terrain on the Moon: the heavily cratered and very old "highlands" and the relatively smooth and younger "maria." The maria are the large dark spots you see when you look up at the moon.\| \|What happens during a lunar eclipse? The Moon becomes dark and a reddish-copper color for a short time. This occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow. The reddish-copper coloration comes from the sunlight being deflected through the Earth's atmosphere.\| \|Check out the phases of the Moon! The Moon changes phases on a regular cycle. This cycle takes about 29 days to complete. Starting at what's called the "New Moon," the Moon goes through four main stages: First quarter (1 week), Full Moon (2nd week), Third quarter (3rd week) and New Moon (4th week). "Moonlight" is really light from the Sun being reflected off of the Moon's surface. As the Moon orbits the Earth, it changes position. How much light is reflected from the Moon depends on where in its orbit (or "path").\| Animation about our Moon
Viruses are “pieces of bad news wrapped in protein (biofilm)”. Peter Medawar, Nobel Prize winner in medicine. Lyme bacteria can create a shield called a biofilm. These bacteria are shielded from many medications. The biofilm blocks our immune system from finding the bacteria. This can create a safe house that protects the bacteria from being killed by medications or our immune system. Lyme bacteria is not the only bacteria that can create biofilms, other bacteria can as well. According to Microbial Biofilms by Ghannoum and O’Toole, different bacteria like staphylococcus and streptococcus also create biofilms. In these biofilms, many different bacteria can hide. When different bacteria congregate under a biofilm, they frequently swap genetic information with each other. This may lead to a dangerous mutated form of the Lyme bacteria. Lyme bacteria may obtain drug resistant genes from other bacteria. Drug resistant Lyme bacteria may be an explanation for why it can survive despite years of multiple courses of antibiotics. Repressing or suppressing viral conditions (with drugs or medications) may lead to severe, chronic and/or degenerative symptoms. Persons diagnosed with Lyme disease should find a form of regular detoxification that works for them. Toxins held in our body weaken our immune system and can damage the nervous system leading to many forms of illness, chronic disease, premature aging and oxidative stress to the body. Toxins are stored throughout our bodies in our liver, body fat, lymphatic system, joints, muscles, intestines and brain. For more information please read the following two PDFs by Dr. Paul Cosman regarding Lyme disease and then continue to our page on Neurotoxin Release Detox: - Understanding Lyme disease and Lyme disease as a causative factor in Cancer links! - Stealth virus infections could be misdiagnosed as chronic Lyme disease.
Learn Electrical Circuits from Four Examples Simple electrical circuit examples are quite useful for learning complex electrical circuits. Better understand electrical circuits from the below four electrical circuit examples. An electrical circuit is a closed connection of batteries , resistors , wires, switches, etc. An electrical circuit consists of voltage loops and current nodes. Many people are confused with complex electrical circuits, however, if they develop a solid understanding of the below four electrical circuit examples, it will be easier for them to read complex electrical circuits. You may try electrical drawing software which has built-in standard electrical symbols to rapidly and correctly draw electrical circuits. Electrical Circuits Examples - Energy Meter or Motor Meter Motor meter is also called energy meter. Energy is the total power consumed over a period of time and it can be measured by a motor meter or energy meter. Moreover, energy meters are used in all power supply lines to every house in order to measure the power consumed in both DC and AC circuits. Energy meter is an instrument that measures the amount of electric energy used by a consumer. The meter is calibrated in kilowatt-hours. One kilowatt-hour is the amount of electric energy required to provide 1,000 watts of power for a period of one hour. There is an aluminum disc which rotates continuously when power is consumed. Energy meters have a pressure coil and a current coil. When the voltage is applied across the pressure coil, current flows through the coil and produces a flux which exerts torque on the disc. The resultant torque acts on the disc and results in a rotation on the aluminum disc which is proportional to the energy utilized and which is recorded in the energy meter. Electrical Circuits Examples - Multimeter Circuit A multimeter is a black box of electronic circuitry that allows you to troubleshoot just about any type of electrical wiring or device. With all its numbers, dials and switches, a multimeter (also known as a volt-ohm meter, or VOM) can be pretty intimidating. VOM can pay for itself quickly by simply analyzing whether the dozens of batteries devoured by toys and electronic devices are still good. VOM consists of a galvanometer connected in series with a resistance. The current flow in a circuit, that is, voltage across the circuit can be measured by connecting the terminals of the multimeter across the circuit. A multimeter is a handy tool that you use to measure electricity, just like you would use a ruler to measure distance, a stopwatch to measure time, or a scale to measure weight. Electrical Circuits Examples - Current Transformer Circuit The current transformer is a type of "instrument transformer" aiming to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary. Current transformers can reduce or "step-down" current levels from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation. The secondary winding of the transformer is connected to an ammeter. The transformer will step down the current to a value that can be measured by the connected ammeter. Current transformers can perform circuit control, measure current for power measurement and control, and perform roles for safety protection and current limiting. They can also cause circuit events to occur when the monitored current reaches a specified level. Electrical Circuits Examples - Single Phase Motor Circuit Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors. Single-phase motors are designed to operate from a single phase supply and can perform a wide variety of useful services however, they need additional circuits for starting, and such motors are uncommon above 10 or 20 kW in rating. A single phase motor has two terminals in the terminal box of the outer casing. One of these terminals is connected with the live wire of the power circuit and the other is connected with the neutral wire. When the electrical supply goes to the motor, the motor will run until the power supply is cut. Even a fan works on this single phase motor. Sometimes the fan will not start when we switch it on. The reason is that the capacitor employed for making the single phase motor self starting is not functioning. The best way to solve this problem is to replace the capacitor. Three Basic Electrical Circuits Capable Engineering Solutions Engineering Diagram Examples Simple Electrical Circuits Introduction
From Raj Nallari and Breda Griffith's lecture notes. Land Inequality and Rural Poverty On average, rural poverty accounts for nearly 63 percent of poverty worldwide with wide geographical spread. The rural poor account for 90 percent of poverty in China and Bangladesh and between 65 and 90 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa whereas poverty is concentrated in urban areas in the Latin America region (Khan, 2000 ). Among the rural poor, those who are landless suffer more than landholders. The rural poor depend mainly on the primary sector—agriculture, forestry and fishing—and some small scale industries. One area that holds promise for the rural poor is agricultural growth. Khan (2000) and others (Gaiha, 1993; Datt and Ravallion, 1998 ) argue that agricultural growth even when land holdings are low and technology is sparse has almost always contributed to a reduction in poverty. In spite of this, government policy has oftentimes disfavored the agricultural sector and rural infrastructure, both social and physical. These elements and other characteristics have been identified by Jazairy and others (1992), Gaiha (1993) and reproduced in Khan (2000) in highlighting how rural poverty is created. These studies suggest that rural poverty arises from: - political instability and civil strife; - systemic discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or caste; - ill-defined property rights or unfair enforcement of rights to agricultural land and other natural resources; - high concentration of land ownership and asymmetrical tenancy arrangements; - corrupt politicians and rent-seeking public bureaucracies; - economic policies that discriminate against or exclude the rural poor from the development process and accentuate the effects of other poverty-creating processes; - large and rapidly-growing families with high dependency ratios; - market imperfections owing to the high concentration of land and other assets and distortionary public policies; and - external shocks stemming from natural causes (for example, climatic changes) and changes in the international economy. The ‘land factor’ is particularly evident in accounting for rural poverty. It plays a direct role in terms of whether an individual or household has access to or ownership of land and also indirectly in terms of gender discrimination, rent-seeking, market imperfections and poorly defined property rights. The ‘land factor’ plays a direct role in differentiating the rural poor - cultivators have access to land as small landowners and tenants, and non-cultivators are landless, unskilled workers (Khan, 2000). Cultivators account for the majority of the rural poor and are directly involved in agricultural production. In most cases they are unable to sustain themselves from their own landholdings and thus offer their labor to other landholders. Thus there is some functional overlap between cultivators and non-cultivators. The latter are the poorest of the rural poor and their numbers have been increasing. Natural increase has contributed to their rising numbers but also “depeasantization”—public policies aimed at moving small landholders out of agricultural production. Non-cultivators are particularly vulnerable to changes in the demand for labor, wage rates and food prices. Furthermore, they are typically isolated from public infrastructure services and public sector safety nets such as food rations. Also rural women suffer more than rural men because of lower social status and discrimination, for example in inheritance laws. Khan (2000) offers some policy prescriptions that include land titling and redistribution for helping the rural poor and these are outlined below. Efforts to help the rural poor should take into consideration initial conditions, the level of institutional development and incentives. A four-way classification of the rural poor is recommended that would take into account: (i) small landholders who cultivate their land; (ii) landless tenants who cultivate other peoples’ land; (iii) landless laborers who depend on casual or long-term employment in farm or non-farm sectors; and (iv) women who transcend the other three groupings. Based on Khan (2000) and Lipton (1998) , a policy to reduce rural poverty might include the following elements: - land reform through land titling, land redistribution and/or fair and enforceable tenancy contracts; - improvements in the social (health, education) and physical (irrigation, transport and communications) infrastructure and the involvement of local government and civil society in devising and implementing improvements; - public sector rural credit programs that target the needs of the rural poor – perhaps the extension of community-based credit programs; - a flexible public works program to smooth out household consumption and avoid transient poverty for the near landless and landless. This could also strengthen the bargaining power of the poor in rural areas; and - public sector safety nets such as food supplement programs in times of need that could be provided through schools, health care clinics, and community centers. In summary, the nature of the rural poor’s links to the economy—cultivators, tenants, laborers, male and female—should inform public policy so as to improve their access to land and also to credit, education and health care, public work programs and public sector safety nets such as food rations.
Species that share similar kinds of brain anatomy have been caught using different neural circuits to perform identical behaviours, and it challenges a basic assumption on the relationship between behaviour and neurology. The team is yet to figure out why this strange overlap exists among species, but the discovery points to how important behaviours can be retained as certain animals evolve. Scientists at Georgia State University based their conclusions on their studies involving two different species of marine animal called a nudibranch. If you’re yet to have the pleasure of seeing these amazing molluscs, nudibranches are an incredibly diverse group of gastropod that resemble a cross between a Pokémon and sea slugs. The lion’s mane nudibranch (Melibe leonina) is a 10 centimetre (about 4 inch) long, translucent, slug-like animal with a fringed hood that’s used to catch prey. Then there’s the giant nudibranch (Dendronotus iris), which varies between 10 and 30 centimetres (4 inches to a foot) in length, with a branching hood and a body covered in spiny-looking protrusions. One thing these two species happen to have in common is the way they swim – both flatten themselves a little like a fish, and flex their bodies side to side in bursts for several seconds to get from one place to another. These closely related species moving in identical ways isn’t surprising, nor is the fact that both have simple nervous systems with similar kinds of neurons in much the same positions. It’s easy to see why biologists would assume the neural circuits for this basic side-to-side squirming behaviour in Melibe leonina would be the same circuits for the same behaviour in Dendronotus iris. But as Paul Katz from the Neuroscience Institute at Georgia State University as his team discovered, they’re not. Previous research by Katz and his colleagues had already shown that in spite of having the same basic brain structures, each species of nudibranch used a different arrangement of pathways between neurons to achieve the same swimming pattern. So the big question was whether it was possible to rewire the brain of one nudibranch to match the pattern of neural connections in the other nudibranch and observe the same behaviour. The team used a toxic plant extract called curare to block individual connections between neurons in the giant nudibranch, preventing its brain from producing the sequence of impulses that would allow it to swim. They then used electrode implants to artificially simulate the connections between the brain cells of the hooded nudibranch. This allowed the giant nudibranch to swim again, only this time using the same neurons in a completely different way. “This and previous studies show that connectivity of the neural circuits of two different species of sea slugs differ substantially from each other despite the presence of homologous neurons and behaviours,” says Katz. The results indicate deviations in small scale ‘microcircuitry’ between groups of neurons could lead to the evolution or conservation of certain behaviours. In other words, if a behaviour is important, the brain can devise new circuits to keep it, without needing to develop whole new bits of anatomy. At this stage, it’s not yet clear why the two species have used their neurons to do the same thing in two different ways. “Perhaps some of the neurons in one or the other species have taken on additional functions that provide selective pressure to alter the ancestral connectivity,” the researchers suggest. On the other hand, maybe neither pattern makes any difference, and it’s a nervous system equivalent of genetic diversity ‘drifting’ in different directions. In any case, the take-home message seems to be that just because two species seem to behave the same and have the same neural anatomy, it doesn’t necessarily mean they’re using them in exactly the same way. This research was published in the Journal of Neurophysiology.
Many of you will be able to give an answer to the question ‘what are literary techniques’ without much problems by giving some names as metaphor, simile, etc. However, how many of you can tell the actual purpose of using literary techniques in a text or a poem? Some may say that by adding literary techniques to stories writers add artistic value to the story. Still, can you all define what literary techniques are? If not, this article is for you to understand what literary techniques are from the beginning. Here, we will first see what literary techniques are and then go on to discussing a few of those techniques. Definition of Literary Techniques Different methods are employed to make a piece of fiction more appealing to the reader, and all these methods are commonly known as literary devices. These devices are divided into two groups as literary techniques and literary elements. Literary elements are the basic elements such as plot, setting, and theme that are essential to a story. They are unavoidable characteristics of a story. On the other hand, literary techniques are the way language is used in order to add more beauty to the work. Literary techniques are also added to make the author’s message clear to the reader. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are avoidable. That means, if the author chooses, he can avoid using literary techniques. Examples for literary techniques are metaphor, simile, personification, onomatopoeia, alliteration, etc. Examples of literary techniques Now, let us discuss some basic literary techniques. This is one of the literary techniques that are the easiest to understand. In a simile, the author compares one object to another object using words such as ‘like’ and ‘as.’ Look at the following example. Her face glowed like the moon. Here, the glowing face of the female is compared to the moon by using the word ‘like.’ In doing so, the author has made us understand what he means when he says her face glowed. Glowing can happen in different degrees. The glowing of the sun is harsh. By using the word moon, the author is telling us that the face had a soft glow like that of the moon. Metaphor is a direct comparison between two objects. What is meant by direct comparison? Let us see. Metaphor is known as a direct comparison because metaphor does not use any words such as ‘like’ and ‘as’ when comparing two things. For example, That vile snake, called my mother, did this. Here, someone is referring to their mother as vile snake. Does that mean the mother of this person is a snake? Of course, that is not that case. It is a comparison made by the speaker. He or she compares his or her mother to a vile snake because of the mother’s evil nature. This is another way of making comparisons. Onomatopoeia is one of the most interesting literary techniques that are relevant to sound. Onomatopoeia uses words that resemble the actual sound. For example, The door banged open. Here, the word bang is a word that is similar to the sound made when someone is opening a door fast and without a regard to anyone else. Personification gives life or bestows human qualities to an idea, object or an animal. For example, See my new bike. She is awesome! Bike is an inanimate object. However, here the speaker uses the word she to talk about the bike. She is used to speak about human females. Therefore, by using that pronoun that is used for humans, the speaker has given life to the bike. So, the bike is personified in this example. Literary techniques is one of the major categories under literary devices. Literary techniques are the ways in which the writers use different language formats to attract the readers. Literary techniques are also used to add more value to the text as well as to deliver the message he or she wants to deliver effectively. However, an important fact about literary techniques is that they are avoidable. That means, if the writer chooses, he can choose not to use literary techniques. Some of the literary techniques are simile, metaphor, onomatopoeia, and personification.
Asthma is one of the most common forms of a respiratory problem. Asthma is usually caused by: Smoking, or being in an enclosed area full of smoke (bar/pub) Heredity, previous family members have experienced asthma problems Allergies, those who are allergic to pollen, dust, mold, animal hair or dander are more likely to develop asthma Medications, blood pressure, heart drugs, aspirin, and sleeping pills will worsen asthma Some foods can cause people to develop asthma Other forms of Respiratory problems include: \|Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease\|\|Pulmonary Embolism\| \|Emphysema\|\|Sleep Apnea - Infants\| Bronchitis occurs when the bronchial tubes thicken, and become inflamed and or infected. This causes less air to flow into and out of your lungs. A thick greenish or yellowish mucous is produced. Coughing will be frequent and painful. A brief episode of bronchitis is brought on by a severe cold or viral infection.Chronic bronchitis is often referred to as "smoker's cough". A cough that lasts a month or more is a chronic cough. A chronic cough can occur at any time in the day, it may only occur in the morning for one person, and in the afternoon for another person. It is also true whether it is a dry cough or a productive cough, one that brings up sputum. A productive cough that lasts for several weeks or comes back every year is usually a sign of chronic bronchitis. Allergies are one of the most common causes of a chronic cough. In some cases, a decongestant drug may decrease allergic coughing. A chronic cough can also signal asthma, or even cancer. A cough that causes shortness of breath, extreme pain, or blooding of the throat should get medical attention right away. Taking cough drops or syrups for more than a week may only mask the illness while it gets worse. Long term use of cough syrups will only hide an illness as it keeps getting worse. Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease, also called Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, COPD. Chronic bronchitis or emphysema, are the most common causes of COPD. Early symptoms of COPD include chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Chronic lung disease is the fifth leading cause of death in the United States. Smoking is the leading cause of COPD. If you want to know more about chronic obstructive lung disease, call your local chapter of The American Lung Association or (800) LUNG-USA. Emphysema is a chronic disease that makes it hard to breathe because of physical changes in the air passages. When a person has emphysema the walls of the air sacs within the lungs, called alveoli, break down and over-inflate. The oxygen and carbon dioxide gas exchange that occurs in the lungs is slowed down. This person will experience chronic cough, shortness of breath, and ongoing lung infections. It is possible in extreme cases of emphysema that the person will have severe difficulty breathing, especially exhaling. Emphysema is known to lead to COPD Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs, caused by a build-up of fluid in the lung's tiny air sacs. This means that less oxygen is being delivered to the blood. Resulting in an enormous strain on the heart and lungs. Pneumonia usually strikes people who are ill or elderly . It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. The lung infection can be caused by several agents, including bacteria, virus, fungus, and parasites. Pneumonia symptoms include coughing, sputum, chest pain, shaking chills, and fever. A small cold or flu may be your first symptom. Pneumothorax is a collapsed lung. This happens when air collects in the space between the lung and the chest wall. The more air on the outside of the lung, the greater the risk. If the pressure on the outside is greater than the pressure on the inside it can result in fatality. Pneumothorax may be a result from a puncture due to surgery, biopsy or other medical procedures. A gunshot or knife wound are also causes. A lung can rupture during exercise or coughing, this is the most sudden form of pneumothorax. Collapsed lung is a common problem in premature infants. These infants may have rapid, grunting breathing and bluish color. Adult signs of collapsed lung are sudden, sharp chest pain, uneven chest wall movement, shortness in breath, and blue colored lips and fingernails. In severe cases the person may have a very weak yet rapid pulse, pale skin, bulging neck veins, and a hard time breathing. A minor rupture may cause no symptoms at all. Pulmonary embolism is a blockage in a lung artery by a blood clot. About 2% of cases are fatal do to the blood supply to a large part of the lung being cut off. Blood clots in the lungs often begin with clots in the legs. You are more likely to have clots after surgery, stroke, long term bed rest or inactivity. Symptoms of clots in the lungs include a sudden shortness of breath, chest pain, coughing up blood, or a low fever. A person with a large clot can pass out, appear blue in color, and have bulging neck veins. Most clots resolve with 10 to 14 days. Oxygen therapy and blood thinners will help prevent further blood clots. *Extreme cases may require emergency surgery. Sleep Apnea - Infants Sleep Apnea occurs when normal breathing stops during sleep. If it happens to infants it can be fatal. Premature babies have a higher risk. As the baby reaches their original due date, the risk goes down. Apnea often occurs in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, or SIDS, which refers to unexplained death. Possible causes include: immature breathing control in the brain bleeding in the brain during delivery exposure to drugs or poisons a blocked airway, for example by a relaxed tongue a birth defect low blood sugar. The hospital staff often notice sleep apnea soon after birth. Sometimes an extended hospital stay is required. Ways to prevent sleep apnea in high risk infants include: laying the baby flat on their back or on their sides keeping the neck slightly extended drugs similar to asthma drugs Snoring and Sleep Apnea - Adults 20% of adults have a sleep disorder known as "obstructive sleep apnea". The muscles at the back of the roof of the mouth relax and sag during sleep, this causes snoring. "Apnea" came from the Greek word "without air". Snoring is interrupted with pauses in breathing, then loud gasps, when the loud snoring resumes. Most sleep apnea sufferers are overweight, middle-aged men. Loud chronic snoring is the first sign of obstructive sleep apnea. This will also disrupt the sleep of the snorer's partner. Sleep apnea will effect the daytime performance of the suffer anxiety, irritability, or depression greater potential for falling asleep while driving cardiovascular problems, such as high blood pressure, heart attack, or stroke. CLICK HERE for list of our Respiratory Products Same day and next day shipments are normally the case with the exception of any out-of-stock items. Test Medical Symptoms TMS Fan Posts
Although students primarily use their augmentative communication devices in school, they must also learn how to use them at home and within their community. This not only reinforces the communication skills that are learned in school, but helps students generalize them in other settings (Dell, Newton, Petroff, 2012). In order to help students use their communication devices outside of the learning environment, the teacher must build family involvement and must help with carrying over what is taught in the classroom and how it can be used in the home and the community. Providing parents and family members with appropriate training's will help them support their child outside of the learning environment. It might seem simple to increase the use of augmentative communication at home, however, when it comes to expanding the device into the community, it becomes more difficult. The community is a large environment that may include individuals who are not familiar with augmentative communication devices. For this reason, it is important that the teacher not only informs family members, but also make the community knowledgeable by taking students on field trips. By using augmentative communication devices in public areas, community members will become more aware of how they work and how to interact with those individuals who use them. The student will not only be able to reinforce what they are learning in the classroom environment, but will also learn ways to communicate while in public areas such as the grocery store. Dell, A.G., Newton, D.A., Petroff, J.G. (2012). Assistive Technology in the Classroom; Enhancing the School Experiences of Students with Disabilities. 2nd Edition.
Vitiligo is a disease that causes depigmentation of the skin. Due to the melanocytes the cells may cause skin pigmentation, or even die. The cause of vitiligo is unidentified, but research suggests that it may cause due to autoimmune, genetic, oxidative stress, neural, or viral causes. It occurrence to person less than one percent but most common from is non-segmental vitiligo, it appear in symmetric patches, large areas of the body The most common symptom of this disease is disorders affect the color of your skin. At initial stage patches are small but often they will be enlarging and at same time change their shape. Due to skin lesions, area affect such as face, hands and wrists. Most common occurrence of loss of pigment around body orifices, such as Other less common signs may include: Non-segmental vitiligo is usually some shape of regularity in the location of the patches in the skin. The patches also come into view by time on over large portions or some particular areas of the body. In this condition little pigmented skin remains is mention to as vitiligo universalis and may occur at any age. Classes of non-segmental vitiligo include: Conditions with similar symptoms include: There are a various treatments for vitiligo but most effective treatment is steroids and ultraviolet light in combination with creams. Higher risk due to the vitiligo is skin cancer; the NHS suggests that the primary ineffective treatment is phototherapy and such as
A key glacier in Antarctica is breaking apart from the inside out, suggesting that the ocean is weakening ice on the edges of the continent. The Pine Island Glacier, part of the ice shelf that bounds the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, is one of two glaciers that researchers believe are most likely to undergo rapid retreat, bringing more ice from the interior of the ice sheet to the ocean, where its melting would flood coastlines around the world. A nearly 225-square-mile iceberg broke off from the glacier in 2015, but it wasn't until Ohio State University researchers were testing some new image-processing software that they noticed something strange in satellite images taken before the event. In the images, they saw evidence that a rift formed at the very base of the ice shelf nearly 20 miles inland in 2013. The rift propagated upward over two years, until it broke through the ice surface and set the iceberg adrift over 12 days in late July and early August 2015. They report their discovery in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. "It's generally accepted that it's no longer a question of whether the West Antarctic Ice Sheet will melt, it's a question of when," said study leader Ian Howat, associate professor of earth sciences at Ohio State. "This kind of rifting behavior provides another mechanism for rapid retreat of these glaciers, adding to the probability that we may see significant collapse of West Antarctica in our lifetimes." While this is the first time researchers have witnessed a deep subsurface rift opening within Antarctic ice, they have seen similar breakups in the Greenland Ice Sheet—in spots where ocean water has seeped inland along the bedrock and begun to melt the ice from underneath. Howat said the satellite images provide the first strong evidence that these large Antarctic ice shelves respond to changes at their ocean edge in a similar way as observed in Greenland. "Rifts usually form at the margins of an ice shelf, where the ice is thin and subject to shearing that rips it apart," he explained. "However, this latest event in the Pine Island Glacier was due to a rift that originated from the center of the ice shelf and propagated out to the margins. This implies that something weakened the center of the ice shelf, with the most likely explanation being a crevasse melted out at the bedrock level by a warming ocean." Another clue: The rift opened in the bottom of a "valley" in the ice shelf where the ice had thinned compared to the surrounding ice shelf. The valley is likely a sign of something researchers have long suspected: Because the bottom of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet lies below sea level, ocean water can intrude far inland and remain unseen. New valleys forming on the surface would be one outward sign that ice was melting away far below. The origin of the rift in the Pine Island Glacier would have gone unseen, too, except that the Landsat 8 images Howat and his team were analyzing happened to be taken when the sun was low in the sky. Long shadows cast across the ice drew the team's attention to the valley that had formed there. "The really troubling thing is that there are many of these valleys further up-glacier," Howat added. "If they are actually sites of weakness that are prone to rifting, we could potentially see more accelerated ice loss in Antarctica." More than half of the world's fresh water is frozen in Antarctica. The Pine Island Glacier and its nearby twin, the Thwaites Glacier, sit at the outer edge of one of the most active ice streams on the continent. Like corks in a bottle, they block the ice flow and keep nearly 10 percent of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet from draining into the sea. Studies have suggested that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is particularly unstable, and could collapse within the next 100 years. The collapse would lead to a sea-level rise of nearly 10 feet, which would engulf major U.S. cities such as New York and Miami and displace 150 million people living on coasts worldwide. "We need to understand exactly how these valleys and rifts form, and what they mean for ice shelf stability," Howat said. "We're limited in what information we can get from space, so this will mean targeting air and field campaigns to collect more detailed observations. The U.S. and the U.K. are partnering on a large field science program targeted at that area of Antarctica, so this will provide another piece to the puzzle." Explore further: New study reveals when West Antarctica's largest glacier started retreating
What Is the Space-Time Continuum? Everyday Einstein explores the 4 dimensions of the space-time continuum Page 1 of 2 A few weeks ago, a listener wrote in with this question: "Can you please give me a brief description of the space-time continuum?" That's a big question, but I'll do my best. As you probably know, we live in space, which is a 3-dimensional thing. The fact that space is 3-dimensional means that you can move in three different ways. You could think of those as side-to-side, up and down, or forwards and backwards. Scientists usually assign letters to those directions: x, y, and z. So if you move 4 steps to the right, you would move 4 steps along the x direction or the x "axis" as scientists call it. If you move 4 steps to the left, you would move 4 steps along the negative (or opposite) x axis.. Of course you can also move diagonally, but this is really just a combination of two or more of those three ways of moving. So if you took one step forward and to the right, you would be moving along the x axis and z axis at the same time. Stand in the Place Where you Live Let's imagine that the middle of your living room is the centre of the universe. So we assign that spot the coordinates of x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0. This location is called the origin. We'll also say that if you move north or south from that spot, you're moving along the x axis, if you move up or down, you're moving along the y axis, and if you move east or west you're moving along the z axis. We could write the coordinates (or location) of your current position like this: (0, 0, 0). If you move one meter to the right, we could say that your new position is x=1, y=0, z=0, or (1, 0, 0). Then if you jump into the air, we could say that your new position (while in the air) is x=1, y=1, z=0, or (1, 1, 0). Now it's important to note that we arbitrarily said that x=1 means 1 meter of distance from the centre of the living room (or origin). We could have said that x=1 means 1 foot, or 1 inch, or even 1 mile. It doesn't matter as long as we're consistent with our measurements. The direction we assigned to x, y, and z also don't matter, as long as we keep them the same during our discussion. We could have just as easily said that z means left and right instead of x. Space-time adds a 4th dimension to this idea.
TIME to wave goodbye to Earth’s fiery twin. Next week, a European spacecraft will start a series of dives into the hellish atmosphere of Venus, marking the beginning of the end for the only probe now orbiting the planet. The dives will take the craft, called Venus Express, deeper into the atmosphere than it has gone before, allowing it to record conditions in a largely unstudied region. It will also be a test of the spacecraft’s endurance as it drags itself through the planet’s thick air, which will provide valuable data for future interplanetary missions. Venus Express may not survive the month-long campaign of daredevil plunges. Even if it does, the craft will run out of fuel later this year. No dedicated probe is due to launch in the next decade, and a damaged Japanese craft has just a slim chance of making it there next year. But there is still so much to discover about our neglected neighbour. Better knowledge of Venus could help answer two of the most important questions in modern science: how is Earth’s climate changing, and are we alone in the universe? Studying Venus could help us answer important questions like, are we alone in the universe? “Venus is so similar to Earth and yet so different,” says project scientist Håkan Svedhem at the European Space Agency (ESA). “One really needs to understand Venus to understand all terrestrial planets.” At first glance, Venus seems nothing like Earth. It is shrouded in a haze of carbon dioxide, with toxic sulphuric clouds and temperatures topping 450 °C. Its surface is bone dry, and the air pressure is high enough to rupture the hull of a submarine. However, Venus is almost exactly the same size and mass as Earth, and is made from similar materials. It is thought to have started out with a water-rich atmosphere like Earth’s, which may even have made the surface briefly habitable. But Venus is closer to the sun and lacks a global magnetic field, which is what protects Earth from our star’s harshest rays. Without this shield, young Venus was blasted by radiation that boiled away most of the water in its air, leaving dense carbon dioxide and triggering a runaway greenhouse effect. “Venus is like a controlled experiment: what would happen if you took another Earth and started it off in slightly different conditions,” says David Grinspoon, a NASA astrobiologist who worked on Venus Express. During its eight years in orbit, the Venus Express mission has made many discoveries about our “evil twin”, most notably about the planet’s wind patterns. “It has really been our first weather satellite on another planet,” says Grinspoon. “A lot of advantages have come from observing it over a long period of time and seeing the patterns of changes in the atmosphere.” Oddly, feeding atmospheric data from Venus Express into a variety of climate models throws up some surprising results. While these simulations can faithfully reproduce conditions on Earth, they all fail to recreate the climate of Venus, says Svedhem. Figuring out why could tell us about the underlying processes of climate change, and perhaps improve our models of climate on Earth. Such knowledge would also be useful to astronomers hunting for Earth-like worlds elsewhere in the galaxy. At the moment, we are able to identify planets with a similar mass and radius to Earth that orbit their stars at the right distance to support liquid water. Technically, Venus falls into this category, so worlds that look friendly from afar may be hellish up close. “If we can’t figure out Venus, we have no chance of predicting conditions on exoplanets,” says Grinspoon. For its swansong, Venus Express will perform aerobraking, a way to reduce the speed of a spacecraft and so reduce its altitude. This lets an orbiting probe get much closer to a planet’s surface and study it in greater detail. On 18 June, Venus Express will take its first dip into the clouds, where it will record the effects of friction from the atmosphere. During a series of these dives until 11 July it will also take readings on the atmosphere’s density and composition. ESA has never attempted aerobraking before, so lessons from the Venus experiment will be valuable for future probes. For instance, the agency plans to use the technique when the ExoMars satellite arrives at the Red Planet in 2017, says ESA’s Olivier Witasse. Learning more about aerobraking could also be useful for human missions. A related manoeuvre, called aerocapture, would help spacecraft land on Mars or return to Earth without needing prohibitively large landing rockets. “People think the hard part of space travel is going as fast as you can,” says Grinspoon. “There is also the hard part of slowing down when you get places, because you need a big rocket for that or you just keep going.” If Venus Express survives the ordeal, the plan is to take the probe back into a higher orbit and continue observations until its fuel runs out. However, neither NASA nor ESA has plans for another dedicated Venus mission. And other space agencies hold only faint hope. For the past decade, Russia has been talking of a follow-up to the Soviet Union’s successful Venera series of probes in the 1960s and 70s. “It is not doing very well,” says Oreg Korablev at the Space Research Institute in Moscow. “The Russian programme is dominated by lunar exploration.” The mission, known as Venera-D, is set for a 2024 launch at the earliest. Geopolitics has also become an obstacle. Last December, NASA expressed interest in a Venera-D collaboration. Then Russia invaded Crimea and NASA drew back from most joint operations. In 2012, the Indian space agency, ISRO, announced that a Venus orbiter would be launched next year, but no details have emerged since then. That leaves the Japanese space agency, JAXA. Its Akatsuki probe tried to enter Venus orbit in 2010. Though it was unsuccessful, due to engine damage, the craft is swinging back for another try next year. Mars, meanwhile, enjoys much greater popularity. Two spacecraft are en route, and at least four more are set to launch in the next decade (see chart). Venus Express only exists because ESA threw together spare parts from its Mars Express mission.FIG-mg29722801.jpg The difference in attitude to our two nearest planets is partly technological. On the surface of sweltering Venus, robotic probes survive for no more than a few hours. Even then, power is a problem. Other probes use solar panels, but thick clouds makes this impossible on Venus. The cloud barrier might be a mental block, too. “Imagining ourselves going there is easier on Mars. That’s a big part of it,” says Grinspoon. Geoffrey Landis at the NASA John Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, is working on Venus-specific technology, including electronics that operate at high temperatures and a solar-powered plane that would direct a rover on the ground. Perhaps an ambitious rover mission is key to reigniting interest in Venus. “We’ve discovered how fascinating Mars is because we have been able to land on the surface and rove around,” says Landis. “If we could drive around on Venus, we would discover: wow, it is just as interesting as Mars.” If we could drive around on Venus, we would discover: wow, it is just as interesting as Mars This article appeared in print under the headline “Last dive into Venus” More on these topics:
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic agrees with the true value. the difference between the measured value and the true value is known as the error of measurement. A practical difficulty in judging accuracy is that the method employed to determine the true value should be a method of high precision. It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true value and that is why a set of observations is made whose mean is taken to be the true value of the quality measured. Hence Accuracy is defined as "The closeness of mean value to the true value." The Mean chart helps to maintain the accuracy of data. Precision is the degree which determines how well identically performed measurements agree with each other. Precision carries no meaning for only one measurement. It exists when repeated measurements are made on a single quality characteristic of one particular article, under identical conditions. In such a set, the observations will scatter about the mean. The less this scattering, more precise is the measurement. Hence Precision is defined as "The closeness of individual values to each other." The Run chart helps to maintain the precision of the data.
Sun's Surface Capture Just Before Massive CME Explosion A new refined image of magnetic loops on the sun's surface, captured by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) was released by the Space Agency. It has been processed to highlight the edges of each loop to make the structure more clear. Like Us on Facebook The image (Blended 131 Angstrom and 171 Angstrom images of July 19, 2012 flare and CME) is depicting one moment in a series of loops, known as flux rope, that allowed scientists to discern the timing of a flux rope's formation for the first time. This was important to confirm which theory is correct about how eruptions on the sun known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are formed. These massive explosions on the Sun eject several billion tons of solar plasma into space, which occasionally hit Earth as well, although deflected by the strong magntosphere shield of our planet. The pattern observed supported a theory that solar scientists had long thought to be responsible - the formation of something termed a flux rope as magnetic field lines in the Sun's corona began to twist about, generating a coil of the hottest plasma on the Sun. The flux rope on 18 July was seen to form following an initial relatively small blast of light spotted in that area of the Sun. The flare was not accompanied by a CME, as is commonly the case, which allowed the observation of the developments in detail. Just eight hours later, on 19 July, there was another flare in the same region and the flux rope's link to the Sun was severed, allowing the magnetic fields to escape into space and the eruption in a massive CME.
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds. These are saturated hydrocarbons, so all carbons in the molecule are bonded to hydrogen at every available site. The general alkane formula is CnH2n+2. This means for every one carbon in the alkane, there are two times that number of hydrogens, plus two more. All alkanes have an "-ane" ending. The prefixes are determined by how many carbons are in the main chain. Some examples of alkanes are propane (C3H8), methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6). The subsequent prefixes are "but-," "pent-," "hex-," "hept-," "oct-," "non-" and "dec-." The flammability of alkanes make them excellent clean-burning fuels. Waste products from burning alkanes include water and carbon dioxide. Gaseous alkanes are used directly as fuel, and liquid alkanes can combine to form energy sources such as gasoline or kerosene. There are also solid types of alkanes in products such as petroleum jelly and even asphalt. If the end hydrogen is removed from an alkane, a functional group called an alkyl group results. These alkyl groups attach to other hydrocarbons to create alkane derivatives. Alkane derivatives have the same formulas as other alkanes, but they are structural isomers. Structural isomers have the same elements in the same proportions, but they are laid out differently in space. Most alkane derivatives are not combustible like regular alkanes. Instead, they are found in plastics, makeup and some liquid laundry detergents. The naming alkane derivatives follow the system established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The root word is the alkane's name indicated by the number of carbons in the main chain. The name of the alkyl group is taken from the name of the regular alkane with an identical number of carbons. The "-yl" suffix replaces the typical "-ane" ending. The alkyl group's position is given by a number indicating to which carbon it is attached. If there is more than one of the same alkyl group attached to the hydrocarbon, the Greek prefixes used in most sciences, such as "di-," "tri-," "tetra-" and so forth, are used to indicate how many. If more than one alkyl group is attached to the same carbon chain, they are listed in alphabetical order.
Let's start with what we know. The US DOE's Energy Information Administration's (EIA) Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2005 report details Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O) emissions as well as other GHG gases. CH4 is produced as part of normal digestive processes in animals(1). It is also a byproduct of landfills and decomposition, and landfills have already been tapped for this energy source. The EIA methane report shows that from what we measured in 2005 for anthropogenic methane emissions we know: - Methane has a GWP rating of 23. - Total U.S. Methane Emissions were 26.6 million metric tons - 611.9 million metric tons CO2 equivalent (CO2e) - Agriculture released 173.4 million metric tons CO2e - 28.3% of total emissions We need to calculate the other ag and food emissions from other data sets. N2O is found in ag primarily from fertilizer application and management of solid waste from animals . If applied properly as a fertilizer, nitrogen is taken up by the plants, but "Indirect emissions from nitrogen fertilization result from adding excess nitrogen to the soil, which in turn enriches ground and surface waters, such as rivers and streams, and results in emissions of nitrous oxide."(3) What we do know: - Nitrous oxide has a GWP rating of 296. - Total U.S. N2O emissions for 2005 were 1.2 million metric tons - 366.56 million metric tons CO2e - Agriculture (what is measured) released 279.9 million metric tons CO2e - 76.4% of total emissions Of note: "Nitrogen fertilization of agricultural soils accounted for 78 percent of U.S. agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide in 2005. Nearly all the remaining agricultural emissions (22 percent) can be traced to the management of the solid waste of domesticated animals."(4) This means that nitrogen fertilization adds 218.3 million metric tons of nitrous oxide emissions, which is 60% of total U.S. nitrous oxide emissions from this one act. Now, nitrogen is a critical component to plant fertilization. The question is: how do we make that fertilizer, and are we applying efficiently? Another question that arises is: why the increase in nitrous oxide in the last couple years? Is our land yielding less and therefore requiring more fertilizer?
Scientists say that along the coast of Western Australia sea levels are rising at a rate double that of the world average. Statistics from Australia's National Tidal Center show sea levels have increased by 8.6 millimeters a year off Perth and by 8.1 off the tropical Kimberley region over the past two decades. The global average is a rise of just over three millimeters. For much of the past century there were average global increases of 1.7 millimeters a year, but that rate doubled between 1993 and 2007. Some regions, notably Western Australia have suffered more than others, partly, scientists say, because of how gravitational pull affects tides. Scientists at CSIRO, Australia's government-funded scientific research institute, say that climate change has played a role in the increase. Warmer temperatures cause water to expand, a phenomenon called thermal expansion, and cause glaciers and polar ice caps to melt. Climatologists say that greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide from burning oil and coal, contribute significantly to global warming. John Church is a researcher at CSIRO. "I think the fact that sea levels are rising is a major reason for concern and it's a combination of the global average rise together with the natural variability leading to larger regional rises over certain periods and extreme events as in storm surges which will have the most impact," Church said. About 80 percent of Australians live in coastal areas. There are fears that some low-lying communities may have to be abandoned in years to come because of flooding and erosion. And with higher sea levels, heavy rains and massive tides known as storm surges, which often accompany tropical storms, can do unexpected damage. There are increasing demands that future development be more sensitive to rising sea levels and the threat of storm surges. Some climate scientists think the Australian continent is particularly susceptible to a shifting climate and predict a greater incidence of droughts, floods and storms as the Earth warms. Next month, global climate change talks will be held in Copenhagen. Nations hope to reach an agreement o ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the damage from global warming.
When it comes to learning, we all have different abilities. So what’s a teacher to do when faced with a classroom full of students who learn in various ways? The answer may shock you. Nothing According to Daniel T. Willingham, a professor of psychology at the University of Virginia, cognitive science demonstrates that “teaching the child in his best modality doesn’t affect his educational achievement. What does matter is whether the child is taught in the content’s best modality.” In other words, if a concept is most effectively taught by incorporating hearing or seeing or touching into a lesson, this is best way for all students to learn the material. One student may be a more visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learner. Another may be a naturally gifted musician, mathematician, or athlete. Nobody is going to take this away from them. It’s just that, as Willingham demonstrates, “All students learn more when content drives the choice of modality.” This does not mean “one size fits all” when it comes to learning. Clearly, some students learn quickly, while others require repetition to master concepts. One student may be ready to move on to the next math skills group, while another needs more time. Teachers can cater to their classes by modifying the pace of instruction or creating more opportunities for repetition, while at the same time letting content drive teaching methodology. Assuming instruction focuses on the best way to communicate content, introducing multiple modalities can prove effective, engage students, and reinforce the lesson. But what about the child’s individual learning style? Isn’t it more logical to present content in a way that addresses one’s best modality? And what about all those teachers working to prepare lesson plans that can accommodate the different types of learners in their classrooms? D-Ed Reckoning states that it’s easy to misinterpret student behaviors since an observed learning style could mask underlying complex cognitive traits. For example, a student may compensate for weakness in one area (e.g., reading) by asking lots of questions or talking through ideas. The teacher might conclude the child is an auditory learner, while unintentionally ignoring the basic problem. The post goes on to explain, “The myth of learning styles is based on three faulty premises: learning styles are intrinsic, learning styles can be assessed, learning styles can be matched to instructional styles… these differences may be expressed as learning styles and modalities, multiple intelligences, and differing interests, [none of which] has any empirical support nor has any been shown to have an effect on learning or instruction.” Willingham supports this claim, saying, “…the possible effects of matching instructional modality to a student’s modality strength have been extensively studied and have yielded no positive evidence.” While he does not dispute that students learn differently or that content may be best taught using more than one modality, he strongly recommends that teachers focus on the content’s best modality not the student’s.
Mousetrap Vehicles: Center of Mass The center of mass is the location where the mass of an object is considered to be located. Learn all about center of mass and how it applies to mousetrap racers. Center of mass is simply the average position of all the particles of mass that make up an object. For symmetric objects of uniform density, such as a ball or a book, this point is usually at the geometrical center. But an regularly shaped object, such as a baseball bat, will have more mass at one end, causing the center of mass to be located closer to the larger end. If a ball is thrown through the air, it will follow a smooth trajectory. In contrast, if a baseball bat is thrown through the air, it will seem to wobble all over the place. The bat is actually wobbling around a single point its center of mass and that center of mass will follow a smooth trajectory. bonus tip: Heat and sound are forms of energy caused by friction. Center of Mass and Wheels An object thrown into the are with a spin will rotate freely around their center of mass travels (i.e., most energy efficient). But objects that are fixed or that are forced to rotate around a point that is not their center of mass will in essence wobble around this point and consume more energy than if allowed to rotate around their center of mass. Larger wheels are affected more adversely by an offset center of mass than smaller wheels. If the center of mass of a large wheel is not in it's center then the wheel will tend to wobble through its journey wasting energy and decreasing the overall distance the car will travel. bonus tip: when the center of mass is not at a wheels center, the wheel will wobble and waste energy. Also, it is possible for a vehicle to lose distance after stopping and begin rolling backward if a wheels center of mass comes to rest on the wrong side of the wheel; this occurs when the center of mass for a large wheel becomes located in an unstable position. As the center of mass begins to fall towards a more stable position the wheel begins to rotate, causing the car to move either backward or forward. If the car moves forward, it will gain additional distance after stopping, but there is no way to predict where the center of mass will come to rest when the car stops. For this reason, it is best to balance a large wheel, forcing the center of mass to be located through the axle. bonus tip: if the center of mass for a large wheel is not at it's center, the wheel may come to rest at an unstable position causing the vehicle to rock backwards from it's stopping point. Large wheels should be balanced, especially if you have removed material from portions of the wheel in an effort to lighten the car. To balance a wheel, you should hold the wheel by the axle and allow it to turn freely. The heavier side of the wheel will fall to- wards the bottom. Once the heavier side is marked, mass can be added to the opposite side until the wheel has no tendency to rotate when suspended freely by the axle. Any material can be used to add mass to a large wheel, but clay and pennies are easy to work with bonus tip: A small amount of clay can be used as a balance weight in order to make sure a large wheel's center of mass is at it's point of rotation. *Can't find what you're looking for? Ask Doc Fizzix »
The International Fishery of the 16th Century More Europeans at the end of the 15th century were engaged in fishing than in any other occupation except farming. This fact reflects the importance that fish played in the everyday diet of Europeans. It was a source of protein that was easy to preserve, transport, purchase and prepare. Moreover, in an age of rising (and warring) nation-states, fish made an ideal military ration. Government Promotion of the Fishery National governments came to regard all maritime activities, including fishing, as essential to the training of seamen needed by their navies in time of war. Thus governments promoted fisheries not only because fish was valuable as food and as an article of trade, but because they were "nurseries for seamen". Even Protestant England would legislate "fish days" to increase the consumption of fish. The discovery of new fishing grounds as rich as those at Newfoundland was guaranteed to attract the interest of all Western European countries. News of what Cabot had found spread quickly throughout Europe. Within 10 years of his voyage, significant numbers of European fishermen had begun to make the annual trip to the "New Found Land" to catch cod. Few of these fishermen were English; instead, Bretons and Normans from France, and Portuguese, predominated during the opening decades of the 16th century. Breton fishermen were visiting Newfoundland as early as 1504, while Norman fishermen learned about the fishing grounds from Thomas Aubert, who had made a fishing and reconnoitering voyage in 1508. By the 1520s French ports regularly sent out between 60 and 90 vessels each year. The size of the Portuguese fleet is unknown. Limited English Involvement with the Fishery After about 1540, Basques from northern Spain added another element to what historians refer as the "International Fishery", so that by 1578 Anthony Parkhurst was able to count over 100 Spanish vessels at Newfoundland, all seeking cod. In contrast, the level of English activity during this period was quite small — Parkhurst claimed that in 1573 there were only four English vessels at Newfoundland. Why was this? Why were the French and Portuguese so quick to take advantage of Cabot's discovery, while the English, who after all had sponsored his explorations, were so slow? Part of the answer may be location. The forerunner of England's Newfoundland fishery was its Icelandic fishery. This was based in the seaports of England's north-eastern coast, on the North Sea, which were poorly located to exploit the Newfoundland fishing grounds. In contrast, the south-western seaports (in the so-called "West Country") were ideally situated to exploit fishing grounds on the other side of the Atlantic. Eventually they would come to dominate the Newfoundland fishery, but they could not develop a cod fishing industry overnight. Nor could they establish markets right away for a product that was so new to them. The French Atlantic seaports that were conveniently located to take advantage of the new discovery had already become skilled at cod-fishing in the North Sea. What is more important, they already had developed markets for cod in northern and eastern France. Markets were another important factor. The fish caught at Newfoundland by Breton and Norman fishermen ended up in inland markets such as Rouen and Paris. Portuguese and Spanish fishermen benefited from the fact that their countries were staunchly, even militantly, Catholic, with a strong demand for fish to consume on fast days. In addition, both countries had growing sea-borne empires in America and Asia, and needed cod to feed the mariners and soldiers who were associated with that growth. England, in contrast, had no comparable expanding domestic market. Its Icelandic and local fisheries satisfied the demand for fish. In the absence of some other market, there really was no incentive for English ports to develop a major fishery at Newfoundland. While a decline in the Icelandic fishery encouraged the expansion of the English fishery at Newfoundland, significant growth occurred only after the Spanish and Portuguese fisheries went into decline. This forced southern European consumers to look for foreign suppliers of cod. The English West Country ports had found the market they needed. The Decline of the Spanish and Portuguese Fisheries at Newfoundland The decline of the Iberian fishery (that is, the fishery of Spain and Portugal) had less to do with events in Newfoundland than with developments in Europe. The Spanish fishery was based in the Basque region in the northern part of the country. The enormous wealth which Spain was plundering from its American possessions helped to finance the development of a powerful and highly centralized government in Madrid. This government began to assert itself through all sorts of new regulations and restrictions. These interfered increasingly with various economic activities, including the fishery. At first the Spanish Basque seaports tried to ignore many of these measures. However, in time new taxes, combined with restrictions on trade and shipping, weakened the ability of the Spanish fishermen to compete with their European rivals. In addition, the great 16th century inflation caused significant price rises. So far as the Spanish fishery was concerned, this meant increased costs, while the rising price of fish encouraged foreign suppliers to penetrate the Spanish market even further. Worst of all was the crippling effect of Spain's war with England that began late in the 1580s. Not only did the government requisition commercial shipping and seamen (including those from the fishery) for military purposes, but Spanish trade was now exposed to attack by English privateers. In 1585 Sir Bernard Drake carried out an extensive attack on Spanish ships in Newfoundland, although he was careful to avoid Spanish centres like Placentia and the Strait of Belle Isle. The Spanish retaliated with attacks on English and French shipping in 1587 and 1588. However, the Spanish cod-fishing industry never completely recovered. Portugal suffered too, because in 1580 she had been absorbed by Spain. The Portuguese fishery was subjected to the same ill-effects of Madrid's policies as its Spanish counterpart. Until peace was restored in 1604, the English continued to be aggressive in seizing and destroying Iberian fishing ships. The destruction of the Iberian fishery at Newfoundland was not absolute and complete. Spanish and Portuguese fishermen continued to cross the Atlantic throughout the 1600s. There are French reports of Spanish fishermen at Placentia in 1655, and English reports of Spanish fishermen north of Bonavista after 1660. These suggest that a Spanish sedentary fishery may have struggled on to the end of the century. But their numbers were so reduced that, for all intents and purposes, they might not have existed. This created an exciting opportunity for the French and especially for the English. The French Fish Trade Spain and Portugal wanted cod, and so did other Mediterranean buyers, such as those in Italy. Since the Iberian fishery could no longer provide the necessary quantities of fish to satisfy that demand, southern Europe turned to anyone who could. The two countries that benefited the most from this situation were France and England. Between 1545 and 1565, the number of fishing vessels outfitted at Bordeaux increased from about 20 per year to 40, the number at La Rochelle increased from about 12 to over 40, while the number at Rouen increased from roughly 12 at the beginning of the 1540s to over 90 by the mid-1550s. Les Sables d'Olonne may have outfitted 100 vessels by the second half of the 16th century, and substantial increases also occurred at La Rochelle and Le Croisic. The English fishing fleets also expanded from around 30 ships per year to as many as 200 by the end of the 1500s. In 1615 Richard Whitbourne estimated there were 250 English vessels carrying 5,000 men and catching fish worth £120,000. However, there is really little doubt that France was by far the superior of the two. At mid-century, French fishing vessels outnumbered English ones by roughly two to one. Such growth did not necessarily lead to friction between the fishermen of the two countries. The French and English fisheries at Newfoundland were sufficiently different at this time that there was nothing intrinsically competitive or incompatible about them. The English, favoured a "dry" cure in which the fish were brought to shore where they were cleaned, split, and laid out on elaborate "flakes" to dry. Although this method used salt much more sparingly, the product was ironically known as "saltfish." The dry cure was undoubtedly a better cure; the fish was less likely to spoil, giving it a longer inventory life and thus more flexibility both in its sale and in its use. Although the French Basque fishery was a dry fishery, as were parts of the Breton and Norman fisheries, the French generally preferred a "wet" cure, in which the cod was heavily salted in the hold or packed in brine. The resulting product was called morue verte ("green cod"). Consequently the French did not feel compelled to challenge the English, who were quickly establishing themselves on the shores of the Avalon Peninsula. Although a French dry fishery had sprung up by 1600 in response to new market opportunities, there were plenty of places to catch and cure fish besides the Avalon Peninsula, such as the Gulf of St. Lawrence and even the North American mainland. Generally, the French were not interested in establishing territorial claims in Newfoundland before the middle of the 17th century. Market opportunities were not the only factors in defining the nature and growth of the English and French fisheries. Historians have often explained the choice between the dry or wet cure by reference to the availability of salt. France had an abundance of salt and in consequence its fishermen favoured a wet cure; England did not have an abundance of salt and in consequence its fishermen favoured a dry cure. It is now thought that it was the market which determined the choice of a dry cure by the English fishery, since this is what was wanted in Spain, Portugal and the Mediterranean. The French eventually responded in the same way, despite their abundance of salt. The two fisheries also differed in the trading patterns that had begun to take shape by 1600. The French fish trade served a diversity of markets, both domestic and foreign. The Breton and Norman ports initially responded to domestic markets for "green cod" in northern and eastern France. As a market for saltfish developed in Spain, French channel ports, and especially southern French Basque ports developed a dry fishery as well. In other words, we cannot characterize the French trade in fish any more easily than we could characterize the French fishing industry. It did not base itself in the ports of a single region, it did not favour a particular kind of cure, and it served a diversity of markets, both foreign and domestic. The English Fish Trade The English fish trade presents a striking contrast. Ignoring the domestic market, English merchants concentrated their efforts almost completely in the market ports of southern Europe. They had quickly recognized that the saltfish trade was a reliable way to redirect some of the riches of Spanish America to England: fish could be traded for bullion, or used to purchase fruits, wines, and other desirable southern European commodities. At first, the fish-laden ships returned to their home ports in England where the fish would be transshipped to market. Gradually this practice ended, and the fish was sent directly to Spain or Portugal from Newfoundland. By 1600, the fish was often stored on vessels whose sole purpose was to transport such cargoes, and which arrived at Newfoundland as the fishing season ended. Usually much larger than fishing vessels, they were known as "sack ships." The origin of this name is not clear. The preferred explanation is that these ships were also used in the Spanish sherry trade, and sherry was commonly called "sack." Or perhaps "sack" was a corruption of sec or sèche, the French word meaning dry, which identified the saltfish (morue sèche) which was the ships' cargo. Recently Peter Pope has argued that the term sack is almost certainly derived from "vino de sacca" or "wine for export" (Pope 264). The resulting pattern of ship movement (from England to Newfoundland to southern Europe and back to England) has been called the "triangular trade." This is something of an oversimplification. The vessels which carried the fishermen from England to Newfoundland were not necessarily the same vessels which carried the fish from Newfoundland to southern Europe. Nevertheless, there is some truth to the term, since it accurately describes the principal directions in which investment capital (in the form of shipping and cargoes) moved within the Newfoundland fishery. The Migratory Fishery and Potential Conflict During the period of the 16th century international fishery, the European migratory fishery at Newfoundland became firmly established , along with some of its fundamental characteristics. Who participated in the fishery, how and where they fished, how and where they disposed of their catch — these and other features were firmly in place by 1600. By this time France was dominant in the fishery and England was its only serious rival. Conflict between the two countries at Newfoundland was not inevitable: the fishery was a common property resource over which exclusive jurisdictional rights could not yet be exercised; the French favoured more than one curing process, which reduced the risk of conflict with the English; and the French fish trade did not necessarily respond to the same market demands as did the English trade. Yet as each country entered the age of competition for trade and empire, each would come to view the fishery as a national asset. As a result, control of the fishery would become an issue for conflict.
\|Executive Summary\|\|Table of Contents\|\|Geologic Hazards\| The Earthquake and Its Impacts At 4:30 on the morning of January 17, 1994, some 10 million people in the Los Angeles region of southern California were awakened by the shaking of an earthquake. The earthquake, named for its epicenter in the town of Northridge, was a magnitude 6.7 (M = 6.7) shock that proved to be the most costly earthquake in United States history. The shaking heavily damaged communities throughout the San Fernando Valley and Simi Valley, and their surrounding mountains north and west of Los Angeles, causing estimated losses of 20 billion dollars. Fifty-seven people died, more than 9,000 were injured, and more than 20,000 were displaced from their homes by the effects of the quake. Although moderate in size, the earthquake had immense impact on people and structures because it was centered directly beneath a heavily populated and built-up urban region. Thousands of buildings were significantly damaged, and more than 1,600 were later “red-tagged” as unsafe to enter. Another 7,300 buildings were restricted to limited entry (“yellow-tagged”), and many thousands of other structures incurred at least minor damage. The 10-20 seconds of strong shaking collapsed buildings, brought down freeway interchanges, and ruptured gas lines that exploded into fires. Fortuitously, the early morning timing of the earthquake spared many lives that otherwise might have been lost in collapsed parking buildings and on failed freeway structures. \|The 1994 Northridge earthquake (M = 6.7) occurred in a heavily populated urban area northwest of Los Angeles, and had many similarities to the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (M = 6.7). The 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake (M=5.9), like the Northridge shock, occurred on a buried, previously unknown fault. The three shocks and their effects on the surrounding urbanized areas (grey) are compared throughout this report.\| The Early Response -- Collecting Information and Organizing Communications Scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) responded quickly to the Northridge earthquake, many arriving on the day of the quake to investigate and report on its geological and engineering effects. Early on January 17, the USGS office at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena became the center for information processing. The network of seismic instruments for monitoring earthquakes in southern California is operated jointly with the USGS at Caltech and, within minutes of the main shock, scientists were analyzing data and broadcasting information about the quake to the public. Scientists maintained a steady flow of public information over the next few days as details about the earthquake and its effects were gleaned from seismic data and observed by field crews. The USGS maintained communications with emergency-response agencies using a liaison stationed at the nearby Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Disaster Field Office, while hosting at Caltech a liaison from the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (OES). The USGS continued data processing, communications, and liaison efforts throughout the following months while disaster cleanup continued and the Los Angeles area was rocked by hundreds of aftershocks. \|A USGS office is located at Caltech in Pasadena. The USGS and the Caltech Seismological Laboratory cooperate to maintain the Southern California Seismic Network (SCSN), process and archive earthquake information, conduct scientific research, and make earthquake data accessible to scientists and the public.\| The Long-Term Response -- New Experience with an Urban Earthquake The long-term response to the earthquake by the four NEHRP agencies (National Science Foundation, National Institute of Standards and Technology, FEMA and the USGS) was based upon four objectives. First, the agencies needed to apply their capabilities immediately by assisting local, State, and Federal jurisdictions to carry out the recovery, reconstruction, and mitigation processes in the aftermath of the quake. Secondly, the agencies needed to commence investigating a sequence of events associated with the earthquake. This sequence of events leads from the earthquake source, through the earth into the built environment, to the resultant economic and social impacts, and finally the response. Studying this continuum helps reveal the lessons the earthquake has to teach. As those lessons were revealed, the third objective was to collaborate in communicating the lessons throughout society. Finally, the lessons needed to be applied both in southern California and, as appropriate, throughout the rest of the United States. The Tasks of the NEHRP Agencies By March 14, 1994, the four NEHRP agencies had reached consensus on the highest priority post-earthquake investigations and activities to be funded by emergency disaster appropriations by Congress. In all, 84 specific tasks were assigned to the NEHRP agencies under the March 14 agreement, and an additional 22 tasks were assigned later under appropriations from the President’s Discretionary Fund. In general, the tasks were to be completed within a period of about 2years. The tasks were specifically oriented toward a timely, effective response to the Northridge earthquake, with longer term goals of readying the region and the nation for inevitable, future earthquakes. This document reports on the tasks assigned specifically to the USGS and summarizes the accomplishments of scientific investigations since the earthquake. \|Comparing Urban Earthquakes -- Northridge, California and Kobe, Japan Exactly 1 year after the Northridge earthquake, on January 17, 1995, a devastating earthquake struck the city of Kobe, Japan. This M = 6.9 event produced a massive disaster that overshadowed the impacts of the Northridge quake. In Kobe, 5,100 people died, 27,000 were injured, and 100,000 buildings were destroyed. The vast destruction, heavy casualties, and economic losses in both earthquakes underscore the importance of bettering our understanding and forecasting seismic hazards in urban areas. Earthquakes larger than those in Northridge and Kobe are certain to strike our cities and towns sometime in the future. The USGS approach to earthquake response and the studies that follow are the basis for the understanding needed to reduce life and property losses when the inevitable earthquakes occur.\| \|Frequency of M=6.0-6.9 Earthquakes Worldwide Thousands of earthquakes occur around the world every day, although most are so small they can only be detected by sensitive seismographs. As more and more seismographs are installed, more earthquakes can be located. The number of large earthquakes (M = 6.0 and greater) has stayed relatively constant, based on observations since 1900. For example, an average of 120 earthquakes per year worldwide in the magnitude range of 6.0 - 6.9 (like the Northridge and Kobe events) have occurred since 1900. For the past decade, the annual number of M = 6.0 - 6.9 shocks worldwide has ranged from 79 in 1989 to 141 in 1993. These numbers tell us that events like those affecting Northridge and Kobe are not unusual, and that we should be prepared for such shocks wherever our cities and towns are located in seismically active areas.\| \|Assisting Recovery\|\|Table of Contents\|\|Geologic Hazards\|\|TOP\| \|AccessibilityFOIAPrivacyPolicies and Notices\|
- I made this activity around Halloween but my students can’t get enough! I keep them out all year and they get plenty of use :). - We use EnVision math curriculum at our school, which requires the kids to practice writing the numbers that come before and after quite a bit. This activity is very helpful for that. - There are 2 versions…one for approaching-level students and one for on-level and beyond-level students. *download by swiping over spider-web-counting below CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.K.CC.B.5: Count to answer “how many?” questions about as many as 20 things arranged in a line, a rectangular array, or a circle, or as many as 10 things in a scattered configuration; given a number from 1-20, count out that many objects. CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.K.CC.A.2: Count forward beginning from any given number within the known sequence (instead of having to begin at 1). CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.K.CC.B.4: Understand the relationship between numbers and quantities; connect counting to cardinality. CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.K.CC.B.4.A: When counting objects, say the number names in the standard order, pairing each object with one and only one number name and each number name with one and only one object. CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.K.CC.B.4.B: Understand that the last number name said tells the number of objects counted. The number of objects is the same regardless of their arrangement or the order in which they were counted.
Botulism is caused by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, with a range of illnesses in humans and animals. Clostridium botulinum bacteria are found throughout the environment in soil, dust and some marine environments. On this page: Infant botulism is caused by spores being swallowed and growing in the intestines. The bacteria that have grown then produce a neurotoxin which is absorbed into the bloodstream and affects muscle strength. Babies up to 6 months old are more likely to get infant botulism but it can occur up to 1 year old. Symptoms can begin 3–30 days after the spores are swallowed. - The first symptom is constipation lasting 3 days or more. - This can be followed by: - reduced facial expressions - poor feeding (weak suck) - weak cry - Later symptoms include: - trouble swallowing saliva, which causes excessive drooling - generalised muscle weakness - breathing difficulties. These symptoms can develop over about a week. Infant botulism is a very rare condition. Constipation and poor feeding in babies will almost certainly have another cause, but medical advice should always be sought for these symptoms. If you are concerned that your child might have infant botulism please see your GP urgently, call Healthline on 0800 611 116 or PlunketLine on 0800 933 922 or present to your local emergency department. Over the age of 1 year the intestines are usually mature enough to prevent spores growing and botulism is rare. In this age group, botulism occurs when people eat food that has been kept in an environment where the bacteria can grow and produce the neurotoxin. This most commonly occurs with preserved vegetables, meat and fish. Symptoms usually develop 12–36 hours after eating the contaminated food. - The first symptoms are nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. - Later symptoms are paralysis of the eyes, mouth, and throat, and then progressively other muscles. Botulism can also develop when a wound is infected with the bacteria. The bacteria in the wound produce the toxin, which is absorbed from the wound site. Botulism can be treated and with appropriate care most people recover fully. If your doctor suspects that someone has botulism, they will be referred to hospital where they can be tested for bacteria and toxins. The affected person will be monitored and if necessary given the anti-toxin called ‘Botulism Immune Globulin Intravenous’ (BIGIV), which if given early in the course of the illness significantly reduces the time of intensive care required. The neurotoxin effects wear off over time but the affected person may require intensive care and ventilation during this process. Supplies of anti-toxin are available overseas if required. Find out more from the Ministry Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy Infants and Toddlers (Aged 0–2) – the guidelines contain information on infant botulism and honey.
Graphing Slope Intercept Date: 02/13/99 at 11:25:33 From: jeremy alexander Subject: Graphing slope when given in slope intercept form When given the slope intercept form, how do you know if you rise or drop when looking at the slope? Also, do you find the y-intercept and go from there in looking for the slope? I looked at examples in my Algebra book and it gives me no explanation of how to do it. Date: 02/17/99 at 18:24:54 From: Doctor Mike Subject: Re: Graphing slope when given in slope intercept form If the slope is greater than zero, the line goes up as you follow it going from left to right. If the slope is negative, the line goes down as you go from left to right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. For the 2nd question, I am not sure which situation you are dealing with. If you know the y-intercept, that gives you a point (0,B) on the line in question. If you also know another point (C,D) on the line, then you can use those 2 points to find the slope. In general, if you know 2 points (A,B) and (C,D) on the line, then the slope is D - B ------- C - A This can be remembered as 'Change in y over Change in x'. Notice that I subtracted the coordinates of (A,B) from the coordinates of (C,D). You might ask what would have happened if I had done it the other way and subtracted the coordinates of (C,D) from the coordinates of (A,B) giving B - D ------- A - C The result would be the same. Just be sure you use the same order for both the numerator and denominator. Example: Slope of line from (-1, 2) to (3, -4) is 2 - (-4) +6 ---------- = ---- = -1.5 -1 - (3) -4 and the slope is less than zero, so the line goes down to the right. If you do the slope using the 2 points in the other order, you will get (-6)/(+4), which also equals -1.5. I hope this helps. - Doctor Mike, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/ Search the Dr. Math Library: Ask Dr. MathTM © 1994-2013 The Math Forum
Moving on up Conservationists have begun to broach a taboo HUNDREDS of years ago, nobody worried about the deleterious effects of deliberately transplanting species. When Europeans migrated overseas, they brought wheat, barley, rye, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats for food and horses for transport. An angling society brought European fish to Australia. A group of bardophiles introduced all the species of birds Shakespeare mentioned into the United States. They released 100 pairs of starlings in New York's Central Park; today it is one of America's most common birds. These days people are more cautious about moving flora and fauna. The list of alien species that have upset ecosystems around the world is long and growing: the Japanese knotweed, Nile perch, Asian tiger-mosquito, brown tree-snake and even rabbits in Australia are just a few of the species that have turned from part of a balanced whole at home into invasive predators abroad. Roughly 40% of America's threatened native species can partly blame their decline on newcomers. This phenomenon is called “ecological release”: native species freed from their usual predators, diseases and parasites sometimes become hyper-successful, and thus seriously upset the ecological balance of their new home. Nonetheless, some conservationists have proposed the radical notion of “human-assisted migration”: a species in danger of extinction, they say, should be relocated to a place where it has a better chance of surviving. Earlier this year, the magazine Conservation reported that a group of American eco-vigilantes called the Torreya Guardians were trying to save a species of Floridian yew tree called Torreya taxifolia by spreading its seeds up to 1,000 km north of its current geographic range. The tree's decline is blamed on global warming, which is why cooler, more northerly spots are being sought. This is not unique to Florida, either: around the world species are responding to climate change by moving either to higher (and therefore cooler) ground or northwards—sometimes up to 300km. But some species move too slowly, while others may find themselves hemmed in by towns, roads, geographic barriers or different habitats. So groups like the Torreya Guardians have started to lend a helping hand to species that look doomed to extinction. This creates something of an ecological dilemma, pitting conservationists who want to prevent extinctions against those who want to preserve native ecosystems. But if current climate trends continue, the latter group may find their position increasingly untenable. It may not be possible to breed in captivity every species that gets into difficulty. Places will have to be found for them. More fundamentally, most ecosystems will probably change. Many plants and animals will be able to move without our help, and when they do, it will not be an orderly march northwards as one cohesive unit. New communities will form. Past periods of climate change produced arrangements of species that are no longer extant. Plants and animals that today are strangers to each other may once have co-existed; species foreign to a particular area today may once have dominated it. They came about through unusual combinations of temperature, rain, seasonality, fire, floods, soil type and topograph—combinations that today do not exist. Current climate trends might well produce climactic anomalies that allow new communities of species to form. They would be perfectly natural, yet entirely unlike any that we know. Who is to say that deliberately moved species do not belong in these new assemblages of species, and would not have made it there themselves had they not been trapped by human modification to the environment? Our concept of what is pristine—and therefore worth preserving—is informed by human experience, and therefore takes into account only a tiny fragment of evolutionary time. Still, leaving native ecosystems alone provides an ecological baseline. Without this, deciding what is natural or right for a piece of land becomes more subjective and therefore more difficult. Witness, for instance, the British tendency to hold up the countryside as a great example of pristine nature, rather than as a deeply and extensively man-modified habitat. People come to like what they know. As soon as conservationists start deliberately tinkering with ecosystems, might society not have more of a right to have an opinion about the aesthetics of what is produced? What if the majority of people want something that the scientific minority don't like? And might some say that if they can't keep something the way it is now—the way they like it—then why bother keeping it at all? Once the tinkering has started, who takes responsibility for negative outcomes, like losses to agriculture or changes to the aesthetic value of an area? There are too few good answers to these questions, and we need them, as the trend toward deliberate ecological modification looks set to continue.
A photograph taken in southern Tibet shows glaciers carving valleys and creating large piles of sediment. A big chill 2 million years ago bred glaciers that scoured mountains across the planet, pouring trillions of tons of muck into the oceans, researchers said today (Dec. 18) in a study published in the journal Nature. "We really see the ability of climate to quite dramatically change erosion rates on the surface of the planet," said Frédéric Herman, a geologist at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. Geologists have long suspected that a cold climate boosts erosion rates, thanks to clues in ocean floor sediments. When Earth entered a global freeze-thaw cycle starting 6 million years ago, huge pulses of sand and mud started appearing in sediment cores drilled from seafloor — a possible sign that glaciers were suddenly grinding down continents. Researchers are also intrigued by the link between glaciations and a burst in erosion because atmospheric carbon dioxide rises and falls with the waxing and waning of the ice ages, especially starting about 2.7 million years ago. - Crashing glacier causes panic - Glacier in the clouds - Melting Glaciers - New Report: How Do We Stop Global Warming? - Cleaning Carbon from the Air - American Recycling Photo Exhibit - Gathering Water From Thin Air - This Power Source Floats - Supervolcano Dying? - A Bold Warning For Climate Change - Climate Changes Widespread Impacts - Climate Change Affecting The World - Reports of Climate Change Is NOT GOOD - Could This Be the End? - Amazing Photos of Now and Then - 3 Ways Humans Could Go EXTINCT - Top Toxins Hurting Your Brain - 'Worst' Animal Hoarders EVER - Why Humans NEED Nature - Ancient Egyptian Tomb Discovered - 'Species Can't Keep Up With Change' - Polluted Air? 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Thus, glaciers, erosion and climate could all combine in one big feedback loop — glaciers advance, increasing erosion, which removes carbon dioxide and further cools the Earth, Herman said. But the link between big freezes and increased erosion has been hotly contested, because some scientists questioned whether seafloor sediments can accurately gauge erosion that took place millions of years ago. [The Power of Ice: Glacier Erosion] "Sediments are a proxy for erosion, and the problem is there are a lot of assumptions about what happens when you erode sediments and deposit them," Herman said. "The record you use is usually not complete." Rocks reveal the past So Herman and his colleagues turned to the actual rocks. The team assembled a global erosion database from nearly 18,000 cooling ages measured at mountains, plains and valleys. The cooling age technique, which is similar to measuring a rock's age from isotopes (atoms of different weights), tracks how quickly erosion exposed a rock buried below Earth's surface. Rocks cool as they rise to the surface from warmer depths. The big picture reveals global erosion rates for the past 8 million years, focusing on mountainous regions. Slowly eroding continental edges and plains do not rise quickly enough to reveal potential cooling ages in such a short time period, Herman said. The findings confirm that erosion picked up starting about 6 million years ago, when Earth's climate started cooling down, and doubled about 2 million years ago, the researchers report. The most striking speedup in erosion was at midlatitude ranges such as the Alaska Range, New Zealand's Southern Alps and the Chilean Andes, where glaciers are most likely to vanish when Earth warms between glacial cycles, the researchers found. "That variability might be causing these large changes," as mountains switch between erosion dominated by rivers of water or ice, Herman told LiveScience's OurAmazingPlanet. (Water and ice sand down rocks at different speeds.) Which came first? As for linking erosion with carbon dioxide, the cooling ages can't prove which came first, the uptick in glacial gouging or the downturn in atmospheric greenhouse gases. "This really highlights the large magnitude of the increase at midlatitudes," Herman said. However, "we don't know which one was first." Even though some areas can't be resolved, the new study convincingly demonstrates the global scale of recent erosion, David Egholm, a geophysicist at Aarhus University in Denmark, said in a commentary on the study also published today in Nature. "Their results suggest that climate drives erosion, because, unlike tectonic activity, climate can change synchronously on a global scale," Egholm, who wasn't involved in the study, said. - The World's Tallest Mountains - Infographic: Tallest Mountain to Deepest Ocean Trench - 50 Interesting Facts About The Earth MORE ON WEATHER.COM: Glaciers in Retreat Grinnell Glacier, Glacier National Park (1938 and 2009) A side-by-side comparison of Grinnell Glacier in Montana's Glacier National Park. The black-and-white photo on the left dates from 1938, while the color photo on the right was taken in 2009. (T.J. Hileman and Lindsey Bengtson, USGS) Copyright 2013 LiveScience, a TechMediaNetwork company. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
Sandy and critical land are usually not productive in terms of food productions. On the other hand, the need for land for agriculture has increased, and thus technologies are needed to transform marginal lands to become more arable. The first step that we perform is to improve the soil structure in the sand to reduce porosity and salinity by adding SAN Tanaman, SAN Pembenah Tanah and SNN to the soil. Next is to prepare for water usage to irrigate the land by building irrigation canals through the plot. For water needy plants, we use water proofing layer to reduce soil porosity. Beach sand possesses extreme climate, high humidity, and high salinity. To protect the soil, we create a micro climate by planting trees as wind breakers along the beach.
Combine literacy and social studies while letting your students have fun! Your students will love these 5 scavenger hunts about the U.S. Regions. This is a bundle of the 5 regions into one, so you can click print and have a great supplemental activity for your class. Each region contains 25 task cards for a total of 120 task cards and 120 questions for the bundle. Your students will learn at least one fact for state and also national monuments, famous buildings, national parks and tourist attractions. You can use these cards in anyway you want for your classroom, but this is how I use them in my class. 1. Print the region that you are currently working on in class. 2. Cut the task cards apart and print the student questions for students. 3. Tape the cards around your classroom or hallway. 4. Let the students hunt for the cards and answer the questions on their sheets. 5. Answer keys are included for quick grading. You can find this resource herehttps://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/US-Regions-Scavenger-Hunt-Bundle-of-5-products-1992502 My students beg me to keep working on this activity and I really truly believe that the movement of walking around the classroom searching for cards helps them remember more facts. Here is an example of the task cards and questions from the Northeast Region. Thank you for viewing this post. I hope this helps you in your classroom!
Why learn coding Everyone should learn to code because it teaches you how to think ~ Steve Jobs Our programmes combines various learning aspects such as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) as part of 21st-century education. We offered weekly coding class that offered a structured long term STEM programme to give your child a head start in an engaging and holistic technological education journey. Class Session is once a week Class size is up to 6 Students 18 Hours per Module, 12 Lessons Progressive learning through structured curriculum Students to receive certificates after completing each module Why Coding is Important? Develop your own games and story with Scratch Build your own robot with Mbot Learn Syntax Based Coding with Python Learn to solve real world problems with Micro Bit Code your own app with Thunkable For child under 7 years, Start your coding journey with Scratch Junior
Gastritis is an inflammation on the lining of the stomach. We can have a variety of triggers. The disease may be an acute or chronic issue that increases the risk of other problems, such as ulcers in the stomach, bleeding or cancer. The acute form normally gives rise to noticeable symptoms which resolve after a few days without treatment. However, chronic gastritis may remain unnoticed in the body but will complicate later. The bacteria Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori) is one of the main causes of gastritis, and is believed to be present in 50% of the global population. This article will discuss the signs, causes, and treatments of gastritis, as well as provide advice on what to eat when this disorder occurs and what to exclude from diets. Fast facts on gastritis - Gastritis can increase the risk of other gastrointestinal conditions, such as stomach ulcers and cancer. - People with gastritis typically report sharp, stabbing, or burning pains in the upper-center or upper-left part of the abdomen. - The two main types of gastritis are erosive and nonerosive. Erosive gastritis wears down the stomach lining, and nonerosive gastritis causes change to the stomach lining. - Smokers and people who regularly use pain medications are at risk of gastritis. - People with gastritis should eat celery, apples, and honey. Herbal teas are also safe to drink. Avoid caffeinated beverages, dairy produce, and spicy foods. - A range of medications is available to treat gastritis, including antibiotics and antacids. Gastritis is characterized by a variety of signs. Gastritis sufferers also experience abdominal pain. Pain is often in the upper-center portion of the abdomen, or in the upper-left part of the abdomen. Pressure also radiates to the leg. Other common symptoms include nausea and bloating. For cases of vomiting gastritis the vomit can appear red, yellow, or green. The vomit will contain blood, too. Blood shedding is a symptom of more serious gastritis. Some symptoms of severe gastritis include shortness of breath, chest pain, severe stomach pain, and bowel movements which are foul-smelling. Seek urgent medical evaluation if any of the following symptoms occur: - vomiting blood - bringing up excessive amounts of yellow or green vomit - black or bloody bowel movements - abdominal pain with fever - dizziness and fainting - rapid heartbeat - excessive sweating - shortness of breath Gastritis may occur without any symptoms at all. Symptoms of gastritis may sometimes worsen into more severe conditions. Bleeding from the stomach and ulcers can occur in people with gastritis who are yet to be treated. Chronic gastritis can occasionally increase the risk of developing tumors and stomach growths. Other forms of gastritis including atrophic autoimmune gastritis and H. Pylori gastritis, can decrease the body’s ability to absorb iron from the blood. That may also affect the absorption of vitamin B12 in autoimmune atrophic gastritis. Both types of anaemia can develop. Causes and types The causes and symptoms of gastritis are numerous. Gastritis develops after a loss of the stomach’s protective mucus lining. Digestive juices can then damage the stomach walls and swell them up. Two principal forms of gastritis occur. - Erosive gastritis: This form of gastritis is severe, and involves both inflammation and the gradual wearing down of the stomach lining. An example is acute stress gastritis, which follows changes due to critical illness. Erosive gastritis usually has a quick onset, but this may take longer with chronic gastritis. - Nonerosive gastritis: The nonerosive form of gastritis involves changes in the stomach lining The most common induce of the gastritis is H. Infection of pylori in the stomach lining. Many types arise though when the immune system mistakenly attacks the lining of the stomach, such as autoimmune atrophic gastritis. Other types result from trauma, or damage to the lining of the stomach. One example is postgastrectomy gastritis, where the lining of the stomach degenerates after a portion of the stomach is removed. How that happens isn’t known. Gastrectomy is thought to cause increased reflux, vagal nerve reactions or reduction in the number of hormone-triggered acids. Others types include: - Infectious gastritis not caused by H. pylori: Viruses or fungi can cause gastritis in people with immune difficulties or long-term illnesses. - Radiation gastritis: Exposure of the abdominal area to radiation can irritate the stomach lining. - Eosinophilic gastritis: This form of gastritis can occur due to an allergic reaction. The cause of the allergic reaction is not known. - Ménétrier disease: This disorder is rare and involves the development of thick folds and cysts on the stomach wall. Why gastritis spreads isn’t understood at the moment. Contaminated food, water, or cutlery are known to play a part in the transfer of H. Pylori from person till death. The wide array of stimuli, however, makes this difficult to prove. Some individuals are at greater risk of developing gastritis. There are many conditions and factors in lifestyle which can increase the chances of inflammation in the lining of the stomach. Risk factors for gastritis include: - bacterial infections, especially H. pylori infection - viral, fungal, or parasitic infections - caffeine intake - excessive alcohol intake - cocaine use - routine use of pain medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) - regularly taking medications such as prescription steroids, chemotherapy, potassium supplements, and iron - being an older adult - swallowing corrosives or foreign objects - having an autoimmune disorder such as Hashimoto’s disease or type 1 diabetes - vitamin B12 deficiency - Crohn’s disease - bile reflux after undergoing stomach surgery - a history of chronic vomiting - exposure to radiation, either by radioactive treatment or contamination - food allergies Other infections that can increase the risk of gastritis include tuberculosis and syphilis. Tests and diagnosis Gastritis may be diagnosed using the following: - physical examination - the medical history of an individual and their current symptoms - evaluation for H. pylori by way of blood, breath, or stool testing In some cases gastritis is diagnosed with esophagus, liver, and small intestine X-rays. Such X-rays are sometimes referred to as the upper or barium swallow series of gastrointestinals. Barium is a thin, metallic powder that is sometimes swallowed to help highlight any anomalies before a scan. A doctor may also request: - blood tests - urine tests - evaluations of kidney and liver function - checks for anemia - gallbladder and pancreas function tests - pregnancy tests - stool evaluation By using this set of tests a doctor will be able to diagnose gastritis. If those tests are inconclusive, an upper endoscopy may be performed by a doctor. This involves inserting a small, transparent, luminous viewing tube through the mouth into the abdomen to look at the stomach. Gastritis dietary choices can help manage symptom severity and allow the body to get rid of H. Bacteria of pylori. Though these steps alone are unlikely to cure the disease, they can provide valuable support for the active treatment of gastritis. Foods to eat Both broccoli sprouts and probiotic yogurt have shown useful effects which counteract H. Hey, pylori. No concrete evidence remains, however, that broccoli sprouts consistently hold gastritis at bay. As a supportive treatment alongside antibiotics, probiotic yogurt has shown great promise but more research is needed to validate this. Many studies have demonstrated that probiotics help flush out infection. Other foods which are safe to eat in a gastritis case include: - olive oil - herbal teas Rather than searching for foods to cure the infection, eating foods that do not further inflammate the infection is safer. Foods to avoid Some foods and drinks can make gastritis symptoms worse, and should not be consumed while the disease is active. Including: - caffeinated drinks - regular and decaffeinated coffee - mint, green, and black teas - orange and grapefruit juices - alcohol beverages - spicy foods, such as chili powder, hot peppers, nutmeg, and black pepper - dairy foods made from whole milk and strong or spicy cheeses - tomato products When adjusting the diet during a case of gastritis, be sure of the following: - Eat 5 to 6 small meals a day, as this can reduce the impact of stomach acids. - Hydrate often by frequently consuming water. - Add omega-3 supplements to the diet, as they may play a role in resolving gastritis. There is no single diet intended to treat gastritis. However, it may help a treatment regimen to accept dietary changes that soothe inflammation. The foods consumed are an important part of the treatment of gastritis. Gastritis care is dependent upon a number of factors. These include the cause of the disease, and whether it is acute or chronic to present gastritis. Gastritis treatment options include a variety of pharmaceutical items, such as: - Antibiotic medications: A 10-to-14-day course of antibiotics can directly attack H. pylori. Regimens may include clarithromycin and metronidazole. - Proton pump inhibitors: These include omeprazole and lansoprazole. Proton pump inhibitors block the production of acid and aid healing. - Histamine (H-2) blockers: Histamine blockers, such as ranitidine and famotidine, can decrease acid production. - Antacids: These can neutralize stomach acid. - Coating agents: Sucralfate or misoprostol can coat and protect the stomach lining. - Anti-nausea medications: This type of medication can reduce sickness symptoms. The treatment is causal based. For instance, if the gastritis cause isn’t bacterial, antibiotics will have no effect. The most effective way to tackle gastritis is to combine these therapies with the prescribed dietary changes. A person can reduce the risk of developing gastritis by following these steps: - Practice good hand-washing hygiene and eat well-cooked food. This reduces the risk of contracting H. pylori. - Avoid certain medications, smoking, caffeine, and alcohol. As some causes are unknown, there is no way to fully prevent gastritis.
More than a decade ago, a team of scientists decided they wanted to shoot neutrinos from Fermilab outside Chicago to a target buried in an abandoned gold mine 810 miles away. It was a big idea, one that promised to finally answer decades-old questions about these vexing particles that flood our universe. It would also take some big components: the most powerful neutrino beams ever created, 10,000 tons of ultra-pure liquid argon, and 800,000 tons of excavated rock. And $1.7 billion, to be provided mostly by the Department of Energy. Neutrinos have defied definition for nearly 100 years. After some haggling, the DOE signed on to $850 million, and with some adjustments—and external funding—the epic neutrino experiment now known as DUNE was born in 2015. Or at least began. Since then, there’s been lots of digging, lots of preparations at Fermilab, and lots of refinements in detector technology. But no zapped neutrinos. And now, as DUNE’s scientists ask for more time and more money, the DOE is pausing to ask: How much investment should they—and society—make in big, basic physics experiments? The Department of Energy has amplified its backing of foundational science research in recent decades, which partly explains its interest in DUNE. But it also happens to have a vested interest in understanding neutrinos. If their scientists can understand how neutrinos work, they—and the rest of us—can gain a much clearer understanding of nuclear reactions, including fusion and fission and radioactive decay (important processes for the DOE as it shoulders rather high-stakes responsibilities of designing and storing nuclear weapons and overseeing nuclear power generation). That potential understanding remains a big if. Neutrinos have defied definition for nearly 100 years. In the late 1920s, physicists studying a process called beta decay, in which a neutron spontaneously transforms itself into a proton and an electron, found those events didn’t entirely add up. Either their understanding of those reactions was askew, or some little trickster was invisibly carrying away a little bit of momentum. And thus they found traces of the neutrino: a massless, chargeless particle that only participated in a rare set of subatomic reactions. Despite this discomfort—of not having predicted neutrinos’ existence with theory first—science plodded along, with the neutrinos mostly minding their own business, aside from some weird interfaces in various radioactive processes we could ascertain (such as the ferocious fusion reactions in the core of the sun). As experiments evolved, however, new problems emerged. Devices designed to measure the number of neutrinos pouring out of the sun only registered a fraction of what they were supposed to. Once again, either we were misunderstanding something about nuclear reactions, or we were misunderstanding something about neutrinos. To everybody’s chagrin, neutrinos were to blame. It turns out that they weren’t massless after all, nor were they uniform entities, nor were they stable, nor were their masses consistent. As they fly from the sun’s core, they can flip from electron-neutrinos to muon-neutrinos to tau-neutrinos—and even back again—their masses oscillating along the way. A 2021 review revealed that DUNE was over budget and behind schedule. We haven’t the faintest idea how or why these shapeshifters do what they do. But getting to the bottom of that could yield more precise research and applications in nuclear physics (DOE-speak for weapons and energy). The problem lies in catching these dang particles to study. Frustratingly, neutrinos are everywhere. There are trillions—literally, trillions—of neutrinos coursing through your body every single second. We are awash in an endless sea of them. Despite those dizzying numbers, however, if you’re lucky, you might—might—interact with one in your entire life. And that is because they barely even count as existing. The charge-free particles do not partake in the electromagnetic or strong nuclear forces. The current upper limits on their masses put them at something like 500,000 times lighter than an electron, and electrons are really tiny. This all makes actual interactions with them exceedingly rare. So rare that decades of searching and billions of dollars have managed to capture only a handful of them to learn from so far. The Super-Kamiokande detector, which came online in 1996, had a startup cost around $100 million. Housed in Japan, Super-K (as it’s affectionately known) uses 50,000 metric tons of ultrapure water to try to catch neutrinos, to varying success. (In 1987 its predecessor observatory detected a burst of neutrinos from a distant supernova—and by “burst” I mean 12 particles.) An upgrade to Super-K, called appropriately enough Hyper-K, is now slated at half a billion dollars. In Antarctica, the IceCube array uses kilometer-long strings of sensors drilled into the South Pole’s ice sheet. With a construction cost of $279 million, plus more to keep running it, in the 12 years since IceCube started science operations, it has captured a grand total of about 100 high-energy neutrinos. We haven’t the faintest idea how or why these shapeshifters do what they do. All of this is perhaps why funders, namely the Department of Energy, are taking a close look at DUNE’s slow, expensive trajectory. DUNE, which would beam neutrinos from Fermilab to Lead, South Dakota (home of the former Homestake experiment which originally studied solar neutrinos), promises the current holy grail of neutrino physics: understanding the masses of neutrinos, understanding deep nuclear processes, and possibly even understanding the earliest moments of the big bang (which produced a lot of neutrinos). Results that could potentially unlock new understandings of fundamental nuclear physics (and plenty of those other things the DOE is interested in). But a 2021 review revealed that DUNE was over budget and behind schedule. Original plans had the operation scheduled for completion next year. Now that target is nearly a decade away. The original budget has ballooned to more than $3 billion. The DOE has deferred full approval of the project until sometime this year. After all, there are surely other promising avenues of science that could use a $3 billion boost. And perhaps scientists could find even cleverer, less heavyweight methods to probe the elusive neutrino. As the future of DUNE hangs in the balance, pit half-dug, Argon detectors half-tested, it is just one of many current difficult conversations between physicists and the people that pay for their work. As we learn more about Nature, it becomes frustratingly difficult to learn even more. In response, science’s tendency so far has been to turn to ever-larger experiments to gather—and then sort through—massive quantities of data, hoping for a revelation. But funders are becoming more wary of big price tags. The James Webb Space Telescope famously cost nine times as much as originally planned, and finally arrived 15 years late. There’s no doubt the James Webb will reveal stunning new information about the cosmos, but only future generations might be able to assess if we got our $10 billion worth. Basic physics experiments can be an even harder sell, especially when we haven’t made much progress on neutrino physics in decades. DUNE would likely reveal something new about these pesky little particles that have annoyed high-energy physics for almost a century. But the question is what—and would it be important enough to justify the accelerating cost? Unfortunately the only way to find out would be to build it out and flip it on. Alas, physicists are not in charge of the universe that we find ourselves in—or its budgets. In the midst of escalating costs and delayed schedules, with no hope of neutrino salvation in sight, we are forced to grapple with the big, uncomfortable question: What is scientific discovery worth? Paul M. Sutter is a research professor in astrophysics at the Institute for Advanced Computational Science at Stony Brook University and a guest researcher at the Flatiron Institute in New York City. He is the author of Your Place in the Universe: Understanding our Big, Messy Existence. Lead image: 35-ton-capacity Prototype cryostat for LBNF / DUNE, Anode Plane Assemblies – Construction of the DUNE 35-ton prototype detector. Credit: Reidar Hahn / Fermilab.
How to learn basic calligraphy techniques Simple basics of calligraphy and hand lettering The word “calligraphy” originates from the Greek language, and means the art of beautiful writing. Even centuries ago, it gave people all over the world the opportunity to communicate with each other. Whether in the form of cave painting, hieroglyphics, Asian characters or in the form of Arabic or western writing, calligraphy was and always will be seen as an art of communication. What is calligraphy at Faber-Castell? With this content, Faber-Castell wants to introduce you to the world of calligraphy. Using our Pitt Artist Pen, we want to show you how you can magically change simple things to great artworks in a personal way. Your imagination knows no limits! The basic equipment at the workstation Just minor preparations can help you to express yourself freely at your workstation. Righthanded writers can arrange all the materials on the right side of the workstation. Left-handed writers can do the opposite. A tilted surface or tilted drawing board is great for ensuring that you have a perfect view of your drawing. It’s best to fix a few sheets of paper to the drawing board as an underlay to provide a stable base. This is how to do it: - Use a triangular set square instead of a ruler to draw guiding lines for the slant of the letters. - Softer grades like 4B are great for the first practice runs - Hardness grades like 2H are perfect for delicate guiding lines For calligraphy to work, it is important to use the right paper. Layout paper is great for practising due to its extremely smooth surface. It is also slightly transparent, meaning that guiding lines drawn previously on a sheet of paper placed underneath the layout paper are visible. Because hot-pressed watercolour paper has a smooth surface texture, it is also perfect for calligraphy drawings. Drawing cardboard with a smooth surface is ideal for beginners in the field of calligraphy. Cold-pressed papers, on the other hand, have a rough surface. Good to know: Hot-pressed means that the paper runs through heated rollers. This smooths the paper. Cold-pressed paper is pressed without the influence of heat. This gives the paper a rough surface. To give the letters a uniform appearance in calligraphy, it is advisable to use guiding lines. Practice paper with printed guiding lines is already available for this. But you can also draw in guiding lines easily yourself. Start with simple basic shapes like curves, crosses or circles to develop a feeling for the properties of the chisel tip Techniques - The basics of calligraphy and hand lettering - Base line: The writing line upon which the body of a letter sits - Ascender line: The guideline which sets the height of an ascending letter - Cap line: The guideline which sets the height of a capital letter - Ascender: The portion of a letter that is between the 7 x-line and the 2 ascender line - Descender: The portion of a letter that lies below the 1 base line - x-height: The height of a letter or the portion the script that is located between the 1 base line and the 2 ascender line (the height of the lower case „x“) - x-line:The guideline showing correct position for upper limit of the 6 x-height - Slant line: The guideline showing the correct slant Slant: The slope of a letter, measured from the vertical. Nib width: The width of the writing tool. A letter written at 4 nib widths high will appear twice as heavy as one written at 8 nib widths using the same writing tool. Ductus: The number, the direction and sequence of the strokes which make up a letter. Hairline: A very thin line. Pen Angle: The angle at which the nib meets the paper, relative to the base line. Downstroke: A stroke directed downwards towards the base line or descender line. Cross bar: Horizontal stroke forming part of a letter (such as the „t“ or „H“). The brush nib Calligraphy with a brush nib is a lot of fun, but needs some practice. Because of this, it is advisable to draw some lines with greater or lesser pressure before starting to exercise using the alphabet. Writing rhythm and pen angle The writing rhythmIn the art of calligraphy, the rhythm is especially important. This means that making each stroke should take roughly the same time. To work with control, you should start working at a slower pace, and increase your pace only later. Spacing and widthThe width of a letter is based on the type of lettering as well as the structure of the word. Two thin letters next to each other, like the “double l”, will need an increased internal separation, and also from the next letters than an “A”, for example. Choose the spacing between the letters so that the script has a harmonious effect.
Kidney Stones: Types and Causes Kidney stones, or renal calculi, are small, hard masses that form in the kidneys. They usually originate in the kidneys but can develop anywhere along the urinary tract, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra, and can cause extreme pain to the person. The stones are made up of small, solid crystals that usually develop when there is a decrease in urine or an increase in certain substances in the body, such as minerals and salts. That said, not every kidney stones are of the same composition as it can have different causes like diet, kidney infections or other health conditions. Therefore, to better understand, here are some of the various types of kidney stones and their causes: - Calcium stones These are often made of calcium oxalate and are one of the most common types of kidney stones. Consuming too much of foods rich in calcium oxalate can increase the risk of developing this type of kidney stone. That said, while avoiding oxalate-rich foods is important, getting the right amount of calcium in your diet can also help in preventing kidney stones formation. - Uric acid Next to calcium, this type of stone is considered the second most common and usually develops when urine becomes too acidic. People who are dealing with conditions such as gout, diabetes, obesity and other types of metabolic syndrome are prone to getting this type of kidney stone. Diet excessively rich in purines, which is a colourless substance mostly found in animal protein including fish, shellfish, meats, can significantly increase the acidic level in the urine. Although not as common as the other two, kidney stones made of struvite can be often large and can cause urinary obstruction. They are usually formed due to kidney infections and are mostly found in patients with urinary tract infections (UTIs). Nonetheless, treating an underlying infection can help prevent the development of Struvite stones. Cystine stones are the least common. In fact, studies have shown that only about 1 in 7000 people worldwide get this type of kidney stone. This is mainly because cystine kidney stones only affect people with cystinuria, which is a type of genetic disorder. With cystine kidney stone, an acid that occurs naturally in the body leaks from the kidneys into the urine. Kidney Stones Diet and Prevention Tips Kidney stones can happen to anyone. Even a healthy person is susceptible to the condition. This is because diet plays a major role in the development of kidney stones. And although there may be no certain ways to prevent kidney stones formation, especially if you have a family history of the condition, that does not mean you cannot reduce the risk. Taking care of your diet, drinking enough water, adopting healthy lifestyle habits, along with some medications, can go a long way as far as reducing the risk of kidney stones formation is concerned. Here are some of the things to look out for to help reduce the risk of kidney stones: - Oxalates – These are organic compounds that easily bind to certain minerals like calcium, which can lead to kidney stones formation. Spinach, peanuts, sweet potatoes, etc are all packed with these compounds. - Sodium or salt – Too much of sodium consumption can increase calcium concentration in the urine, which then increases the risk of kidney stones. - Animal protein – Purines are a substance found in animal protein that can increase the level of acid in urine. This includes meat, eggs, chicken and seafood. - Medications – Certain over-the-counter drugs, such as antacids, antibiotics, decongestants, diuretics, steroids and certain medicines for cancer, HIV and epilepsy may contribute to kidney stones. - Previous case – Unless taken preventive measures, one is more likely to get kidney stones again, especially if they have already experienced it in the past. - Family history – Genes also plays a significant role in kidney stones formation. Studies have shown that 40% of the people with kidney stones have family members or relatives who also have kidney stones at some point in their lives. What You Can Do To Prevent Kidney Stones Naturally As mentioned earlier, diet plays a significant role in the case of kidney stones. What you eat or do not eat can contribute to the formation of kidney stones, even if you are physically fit and healthy. Here is what you have to know to prevent kidney stones naturally: 1. Take control of your diet Choose your foods wisely and carefully. Make sure to check food labels and read the ingredients. Avoid foods that are high in oxalates, sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, monosodium glutamate (MSG), and make sure to cut back on salt, soft drinks and animal protein. 2. Eat more citrus fruits. Lemons and limes are rich sources of citrate, which is a chemical that prevents calcium stones from forming, as well as breaking up small stones, allowing them to pass more easily. Drinking fresh-squeezed lemon juice regularly is just as beneficial to eating the fruit. 3. Drink lots of water. One of the best ways to prevent kidney stones naturally is to drink lots of water, especially if you exercise a lot or have a history of cystine stones. If you do not drink enough water, your urine will become more concentrated and less likely to dissolve urine salts that can cause stones. The colour of your urine is an indicator of whether you are hydrated or not. A clear or pale yellow colour means you are hydrated. If it’s too yellow or too dark, that means you need to drink more water. 4. Get plenty of calcium. Most people are under the impression that avoiding calcium is the solution to preventing calcium oxalate stones. But this is not true. In fact, a diet low in calcium can increase the chances of kidney stones. However, it is recommended to get your daily calcium intake from foods like low-fat milk, low-fat cheese, dairy products, rather than supplements as supplements may increase your risk of stones 5. Try herbal remedies Herbal concoctions such as basil juice, dandelion juice, wheatgrass juice, etc are well-known remedies for treating kidney stones for ages. These herbal remedies are known to help break stones or reduce the size of existing stones, allowing them to pass more easily. Some herbs are also known to prevent kidney stones formation altogether! Speaking of herbal goodness, Preserva’s Ayurveda-based Nephrogold Tablets and Daily Detox Tea are the perfect supplements for preventing kidney stones formation as well as reducing the risk of kidney diseases, and improving overall renal health naturally. They are made using various herbal ingredients best known for their potent medicinal properties. They are 100% vegetarian and clinically tested for safety and quality, making them completely safe for consumption. Disclaimer- This article is intended for informational purposes only. It is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Always consult with your healthcare provider in case of any health complications
Scientists discover Zooplankton species key to ocean food chain Census of Marine Life news release May 4, 2006 Census of Marine Life scientists trawled rarely explored tropical ocean depths between the southeast US coast and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to inventory and photograph the variety and abundance of zooplankton — small sea “bugs” that form a vital link in the ocean food chain — and other life forms. Though relatively few in number compared with the uppermost ocean layer, scientists were amazed by the variety of tiny animals found at depths of 1 to 5 km (0.6 to 3 miles). Among thousands captured, 500 species have been catalogued, 220 of them DNA sequenced at sea revealing a number of new species. The 20-day cruise, completed April 30, is part of an ambitious global inventory of zooplankton by 2010 (dubbed the Census of Marine Zooplankton, CMarZ), a Census of Marine Life initiative that sheds life on some important global ecosystem processes, including the ocean’s function as Earth’s largest carbon sink and the impact ocean acidification may have on life in the seas. While helping moderate climate, zooplankton species also provide a fundamental link in the food chain between ocean plant life and predators from fish to whales. Scientists are puzzling out the types, abundances, ranges and roles within nature of these thousands of tiny animal species. Sequencing the DNA at sea, they telescoped into just three weeks what would normally represent years of laboratory work, an experience that may revolutionize the way biological research at sea is conducted. The expedition took extraordinary samples in the ocean’s deepest waters — down to about the sea bottom at 5,000 meters. Biological oceanographers to now have focused almost exclusively on the oceans’ uppermost kilometer, which includes only one quarter of their volume. CMarZ is designed to illuminate these important little life forms in the remaining three quarters, below 1,000 m, the point at which the deep sea (bathypelagic zone) is generally agreed to begin. The expedition was funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as part of its Ocean Exploration program, and employed their largest vessel, NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown (www.moc.noaa.gov/rb/index.html). In addition to the nets and trawls to capture zooplankton and fishes, SCUBA divers made collections during day and night open ocean dives. “Among more than 1,000 individual organisms identified at sea, our team of 28 leading marine experts on board found what appear to be several undescribed species that may well prove new to science,” says the cruise’s scientific leader Peter Wiebe, senior scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA. The team of 28 experts from 14 nations, who have spent decades learning to distinguish species within a particular group, sorted through samples in a kind of assembly line “that would have made Henry Ford proud,” according to University of Connecticut post-doctoral investigator Rob Jennings, leader of the on-board “Team DNA.” Zooplankton species captured during the latest Atlantic expedition of the Census of Marine Life (aboard NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown). Oxygyrus keraudreni (top) Chelophyes appendiculata (bottom). Credit: CoML Corals may survive global warming by gorging themselves A new study published in Nature says some coral are able to survive bleaching events by gorging themselves. An experiment with Hawaiian corals showed that when bleached, one species sharply increased its intake of food, increasing the likelihood that it would survive elevated water temperatures. Rising carbon dioxide levels could devastate marine food chain Rising carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could make oceans too acidic for marine organisms to produce protective shells according to research published in the journal Nature. Such a development could be catastrophic for the ocean’s food chain and devastating for world fisheries. Scientific highlights from the cruise The plankton captured includes tail-kicking shrimp-like creatures (copepods and ostracods), swimming worms, flying snails (pteropods), and pulsing jellyfish. With experts glued to their microscopes for three weeks, the cruise captured and identified an astonishing fraction of the species diversity known in the Atlantic Ocean. All of these specimens are in the queue for DNA barcoding: - hundreds of species of the tiny shrimp-like animals, called copepods, that sustain commercial fish stocks throughout the world ocean; - nearly half (65 of 140 species) of all Atlantic species of ostracods — another shrimp relative — plus six species thought to be new to science; - half (24 of 48 species) of all known shelled pteropods (swimming snails) Most of all, the expedition yielded new understanding of the diversity of gelatinous plankton — the gooiest, stickiest, and most transparently fragile animals of the sea — which are usually destroyed by net sampling. Special sampling brought up comb jellies, jellyfish, and their meters-long chain-forming relatives in good enough shape to be identified and DNA sequenced. - Also captured were over 120 fish species, including: - A possible new species of black dragonfish from a genus that has not had a new species discovered since the 1950s; - A juvenile oarfish, which as an adult can reach 11 m (listed in Guinness Book of Records as the world’s longest bony fish); - A possible new species of fish known as the great swallower (genus Pseudoscopelus). The specimen, extremely large and in near perfect condition, is easily distinguished from its sister species by a unique combination of jaw teeth, lateral line pores a light-producing organ; and - Rare male anglerfishes, which use their jaws and teeth to attach themselves like parasites to the much larger females. A “grossly overdeveloped nasal rosette” takes up much of the male’s head and scientists theorize it is used to find females in the deep sea by smell, and that females may produce pheromones to attract them. Males from five families were captured, to be matched with females via genetic databanks, research that may one day help reveal the evolution and life history of this amazing group. The ship departed Charleston, South Carolina April 10 with scientists from 14 countries — US, UK, Canada, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, Norway, India, Japan, China, Turkey, Mexico, Australia, and Argentina — and visited five stations in the Northern Sargasso Sea, Southern Sargasso Sea, and North Equatorial Region east of the Windward Islands. “By 2010, the research conducted by this project will provide a baseline against which future generations can measure changes to the zooplankton and their provinces, caused by pollution, over-fishing, climate change, and other shifting environmental conditions,” says Ann Bucklin, lead scientist for CMarZ and head of the University of Connecticut Marine Sciences Department. “We are just starting to realize how little we know about species variety,” she adds. “We used to think we knew many species well, but the advent of DNA barcoding has radically altered that perception. Genetically distinctive species of zooplankton are being found with increasing frequency.” “This research is fundamental to our knowledge of the oceans and the basic processes sustaining life on Earth,” says Ron O’Dor, chief scientist for the Census of Marine Life (www.CoML.org), a 10-year, independent and unprecedented global scientific collaboration, started in 2000, to inventory biodiversity throughout the seas. “CMarZ is helping to explain: what species are present? What are the main patterns of their distribution and abundance? And what maintains the shape of these patterns?” Ocean’s tiniest creatures have huge importance Buildup of excess carbon in the atmosphere could cause global warming. The oceans soak up a lot of carbon through air/sea interaction. Many zooplankton migrate up and down the water column daily, eating their own weight in tiny carbon-absorbing plant plankton species (phytoplankton), which drift with currents in near-surface ocean layers. Like many land animals, lots of zooplankton prefer to work at night. Some of those that like to feed near the surface commute in about an hour each night more than 500 meters, farther than the elevators of the world’s tallest buildings. Through this grazing and migration, huge volumes of carbon are transported to the ocean depths. The biological redistribution of carbon down to depths and away from the surface is important for rates of CO2 accumulation and pH change — both conditions threaten ocean ecosystems. Thus, it is very important to know the current biodiversity of the oceans as a ‘baseline,’ so that the effects of climate change can be evaluated. By one rough estimate, 10,000 pounds of phytoplankton is needed to feed 1,000 pounds of small zooplankton, which in turn support 100 pounds of larger zooplankton, which supports 10 pounds of small fish species (like herring or anchovies), which support 1 pounds of a larger fish species such as those harvested for human consumption. Several bird and whale species depend directly on zooplankton; others rely on zooplankton-eating fish higher in the food chain. Nearly 7,000 zooplankton species in 15 phyla (the major groups of animals) are described now. With taxonomic analysis of new and existing samples — including molecular analysis — coordinated worldwide through CMarZ, the number of known species is likely to double. Dr. Wiebe explains the goal of CMarZ: “We are charting the plankton in the sea like astronomers chart the stars in the sky. With the zooplankton chart, we can assess what changes — man-made and natural – are taking place in the largest habitat on earth. Without it, no assessment is really possible.” CMarZ will also consolidate data from sources worldwide, for inclusion in the Census’ fast-growing meta-database, OBIS. “The growing number of snapshots from different parts of the world ocean have rarely been merged together, in part because the complicated and time-consuming task of compiling information from numerous individual publications is undervalued,” says Dr. Bucklin. “The zooplankton Census is enlarging human understanding of the pattern, flow, and development of life in the sea,” she adds. “We are exploring and sampling unique marine environments and those likely to be inhabited by unknown and undescribed species, including the seabed, the waters around hydrothermal vents and seeps, and deep-sea coral beds. “The work of CMarZ will contribute to the improved management of fisheries and oceans, guided by comprehensive understanding of the ecosystem, accurate estimates of species biodiversity, recognition of introduced and invasive species, and rapid assessment of ecosystem health,” she says. MOCNESS, the Zooplankton’s Monster The zooplankton specimens were captured with a novel device designed by Dr. Wiebe and dubbed MOCNESS (for Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sampling System), which deploys separate nets at each 1,000 m depth interval throughout the water column. The sampling emphasizes the under-sampled, deeper depths, where zooplankton species survive on organic material sinking from above, or by eating each other. The device also captures corresponding information about the water temperature and salinity at each depth. The molecular analysis on board uses an automated DNA sequencer to determine a DNA ‘barcode’ (i.e., a short DNA sequence used for species recognition and discovery). DNA barcodes are revealing unanticipated species diversity, in many cases by uncovering hidden variation within an existing species. “We believe this is the first team ever to sequence DNA of zooplankton on a rocking, rolling ship,” says Dr. Wiebe. “What was really surprising was how well the sequencer performed without any modification. It never got seasick.” The researchers are also able to use DNA technology to determine the gut contents of fish, thus revealing important clues about what each species eat. Aboard the ship was teacher Joe Catron of Billings West High School, bringing the oceans to land-locked students of Montana through the ARMADA Project, an NSF-funded program coordinated by the University of Rhode Island’s Office of Marine Programs. Through the program, Kindergarten to Grade 12 master teachers from across the country are provided with opportunities to participate in ocean, polar, and environmental research experiences under the guidance of host researchers. Master teachers develop ways to bring their research experiences, including scientific data, methodologies and technology, into their classrooms. They share their experience by mentoring new teachers in their school district and presenting their results at national education and science meetings. Census of Marine Life sponsors: Support for the Census of Marine Life comes from government agencies concerned with science, environment, and fisheries in a growing list of nations as well as from private foundations and companies. The Census is associated or affiliated with several intergovernmental international organizations including the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the UN, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, the UN Environment Programme and its World Conservation Monitoring Centre, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas, and the North Pacific Marine Science Organization. It is also affiliated with international nongovernmental organizations including the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research and the International Association of Biological Oceanography of the International Council for Science. The Census is led by an independently constituted international Scientific Steering Committee whose members serve in their individual capacities and a growing set of national and regional implementation committees. This article is a modified news release from the Census of Marine Life.
The idea that kids should code has been gaining traction in recent years. Researchers, educational institutions, and government leaders have realized the huge role of computers in today’s world and the future. The education that kids should receive should prepare them for the challenges and demands of the future. Nowadays, parents don’t have to wait for schools to start integrating computer science into their curricula. Children in their primary education years can already be learning the foundational skills and concepts of coding. But why do your kids need to learn to code? Coding offers many benefits that are hard to ignore and dismiss. This post covers the most common benefits. Here are the 7 reasons why kids should learn how to code: 1. Coding Develops Analytical and Problem-Solving Skills Coding is the practice of writing instructions for computers to execute. Coders need to learn and write in a language that computers can understand. The first set of codes written does not always work. Part of the coder’s job is to solve problems constantly and overcome challenges to achieve the desired results. Children who practice coding will hone their ability to look at a problem and find ways to overcome it efficiently. Most often, they need to break down a major problem into different sections and check each section one at a time. This is a similar analytical skill needed in subjects like mathematics and science. In addition, young coders also need to test out different solutions and approaches. 2. Coding Builds Creativity Creativity is innate in children but research suggests that they lose it as they get older. However, you need to cultivate and maintain creativity in your child because it allows them to make effective responses and solve issues they will encounter. Coding is an excellent way to enhance creativity amongst children. In the programming world, coders are builders and creators and builders. With coding, your child will need to apply the skills he/she learns to create games, animation, programs, stories, or simple robots. Coding projects and exercises prompt them to explore their creativity and experiment constantly. After learning basic coding principles and seeing the result, they will see what else they can make. 3. Coding Builds Resilience Coding requires patience and readiness to fail for the first time. More often than not, the first codes a programmer writes will not work smoothly. With coding, your child will learn to accept failure as part of the learning process. He/she will be uncomfortable with not finding solutions at first, but then will be able to build resilience that will be vital to professional and personal success. 4. Coding Makes Learning Fun and Relatable Many students find the traditional ways of learning subjects like mathematics and science boring and not engaging. In addition, kids can easily get too overwhelmed with information and theories. Over the years, teaching strategies have changed dramatically, and teachers are trying different approaches to make learning more engaging. Teaching kids to code can develop key skills that are important for their future. However, coding also has a hands-on and practical element to it that makes it enjoyable. Coding is fun because it does not pressure learners to succeed in their objectives right away. Making mistakes and going through a few or many trials and errors are part of the coding process. It is also a discipline that produces real-time results. When children work on coding projects like building games, interactive stories, and graphics, they can see the fruit of their efforts right away. It gives them a sense of accomplishment and responsibility. If something is wrong with the product, then students can re-examine the steps and make the necessary adjustments. 5. Coding improves collaboration and communication There is a common misconception that coding is a solo activity – which is far from the truth. In many professional settings, coders need to work in teams to finish a project. Coders usually join online communities that encourage collaboration and sharing of ideas. For example, members often discuss topics like the most efficient coding languages or the best switches for programming. Educators copy this model in classroom settings. Your kids can code together. They can ask questions and help each other find solutions to coding problems. Through collaboration, young coders will learn to communicate complicated ideas and become confident in expressing themselves. 6. Coding helps improve concentration These days, kids can get distracted easily by various stimuli. The act of coding encourages the children to stop and focus on the task at hand. Through coding, they will quickly learn that their concentration will result in a better product and a successful project. 7. Coding prepares children for stable and lucrative careers Programming(coding) is one of the most sought-after skills in many fields today. This is because technology is one of the main drivers of the economies around the world. Several computer science-related job vacancies will need talents to fill them in the years to come. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that jobs in software development, quality assurance, and testers will grow by 22 per cent between 2020 to 2030. This growth is much faster than other jobs, These jobs are not just in-demand, but they are also well-paying and more stable than others. Even if your child won’t take up computer programming-related courses or careers, coding is still a valuable skill that can give them a professional advantage. Coding is one of the most constructive activities for your child to take up. It does not only prepare the young learner for more promising career opportunities but also enables them to develop skills that will contribute to their success in whatever field they choose to pursue. Click here for more interesting posts on technology-related topics. About the Author Bash Sarmiento is a writer and an educator from Manila. He writes laconic pieces in the education, lifestyle and health realms. His academic background and extensive experience in teaching, textbook evaluation, business management and traveling are translated in his works. LinkedIn – Facebook – Instagram If you liked this article, maybe you will like these too. 5 reasons why you should do customer segmentation. How is machine learning used in Cybersecurity? Can data science be automated? How is Data Science used in Influencer Marketing? How to calculate the Customer Retention Rate on Shopify using Python? Can machine learning detect Fake News? Machine Learning project for Beginners
Despite their small brains, bees are capable of complex behavior, such as solving puzzles and learning skills through imitation. Now, researchers have discovered that honey bees also grasp the slippery concept of zero, marking the first time this ability has ever been observed in an insect. According to a study published Thursday in Science, honey bees can distinguish between zero and other numbers, and even exhibited similar patterns of recognition to humans. Led by Scarlett Howard, a PhD student at RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia, the team reached this conclusion by giving bees visual math quizzes using white placards with different quantities of black shapes on them. By rewarding the bees with food, the team trained one group to fly toward displays with higher quantities of black shapes, while a second group was given food for flying toward placards with fewer shapes. Once the “lesser than” bees figured out that they got treats for landing under displays with the smallest value, Howard’s team introduced a blank white display. The bees understood that this card represented zero, and that its value was lower than one, with greater than 80% accuracy. It also proved more difficult for them to distinguish zero from lower numbers, like one or two, than it was for them to pick it out from numbers like four, five, or six. This phenomenon, called the “numerical-distance effect,” has been observed in children and primates, and suggests that bees interpret numbers as part of a continuum. “Our findings show that honey bees can learn and apply the concepts of greater than and less than to interpret a blank stimulus as representing the conceptual number of zero and place zero in relation to other numerical values,” the team wrote. “Bees thus perform at a level consistent with that of nonhuman primates by understanding that zero is lower than one.” Similar experiments have shown that dolphins and parrots understand the concept of zero. But given that bees have only about one million neurons in their brains, compared to 86 billion in humans, it’s especially impressive that they are such sophisticated mathletes. "We know that bees are very efficient and quick learners, probably due to them living in a complex environment where they must remember the position and appearance of flowers," Howard told me in an email. "Perhaps they are adapted so well to learning and applying information from foraging that rule learning and application is the true evolved trait we are seeing in our study." Update: This article has been updated to include comments from Scarlett Howard. Get six of our favorite Motherboard stories every day by signing up for our newsletter.
A tensile test determines how a subject will react while being pulled apart, or, more formally, when a force is applied to it in tension. It may be performed to assess the joint strength of two components; a tensile test on a cell phone, for instance, could determine the disassembly force of the aerial from the body casing. More fundamentally, the tensile properties of the material from which the phone is fabricated also may be determined. Industrially, it provides manufacturers with a quick and cost-effective method of assessing quality in production, and designers a tool to physically characterize the functionality of products. Materials Under TensionWhen placed under tension, most materials behave in a similar manner initially. There is a linear relationship between the applied force (the stress), in this case a tensile load, and the amount by which the material deforms (the strain). This observation is defined by Hooke’s law: - Stress (s) / Strain (e) = E A bungee rope, for instance, must have a low enough Young’s Modulus to guarantee the jumper will achieve a long, thrilling jump without the rope jarring when the slack is taken up, but a high enough Young’s Modulus to ensure the rope is sufficiently stiff to bring the jumper springing back skywards prior to hitting the ground. However, this linear region is short lived, and any material will eventually reach a point beyond which the tensile load will cause permanent deformation. This is called the elastic, or proportional, limit, and the force at which this happens to a material is its yield strength. Beyond the elastic limit a material will eventually break, displaying its tensile strength at break, another clearly useful physical property. The material may break very soon after reaching the elastic limit (for example, steel) or it may continue to elongate for a long period of increased loading prior to breaking (for example, a polyethylene sheet). The distance of this elongation is again a useful parameter to determine, as is the total elongation at break. Many very brittle materials, however, such as glass and ceramics, do not have a clearly distinct yield point, and will break prior to undergoing permanent deformation. Joint StrengthTensile testing is commonly used to determine the joint strength of assembled parts, such as automotive and aerospace components, electronic devices, medical apparatus and packaging. Determining the tensile load at which a hypodermic needle breaks out of its plastic hub, for example, will provide a valuable indication of its expected performance in situ, to both its designer and manufacturer. Preparing the TestTo perform a materials test, sample strips of uniform thickness with the appropriate width and length should be prepared. Appropriate grips should then be selected that will exert an even stress across the width of the test piece. Care must be taken to ensure the test sample is accurately aligned with the axis of loading. There is a comprehensive range of versatile grips available on the market, offering a variety of clamping actions. For example, some grips close automatically as the tension increases (for example, a wedge grip), some are clamped shut manually (for example, a vice grip) and some rely on pneumatic power to close around the sample. Selection of appropriate, high-quality gripping fixtures will minimize the risk of sample slippage or premature failure at the jaw face. To assess the disassembly force of jointed components, specialized fixtures are available dedicated to specific applications, such as a pull-peel wheel for performing peel tests on adhesive films, and a cork-extraction test jig. This is in addition to universal fixtures, designed to accommodate a variety of awkwardly shaped samples. Performing the TestThe load should be applied at a uniform travel rate until the required parameter has been determined-tensile strength, elongation or disassembly force. The crosshead speed should be slow enough to capture a reliable tensile profile of the material, yet high enough to complete testing within a reasonable timeframe. A motorized, and ideally computer-controlled, test frame will guarantee the load is applied at a consistent rate. Bear in mind that to test the elongation of a particularly stretchy material, a test frame with sufficiently long travel will be needed to affect the required elongation distance. Sufficient repeat tests should then be performed to ensure statistical significance of results and observed trends. After testing is complete, results may be viewed, stored, exported or analyzed with varying degrees of sophistication depending on the tensile tester in use. All good motorized testing systems will provide a facility for electronic transfer of results to a peripheral device, such as a PC, printer or datalogger.
Blindness, as well as moderate to severe visual impairments (MSVI), affects hundreds of millions of people around the world. An estimated 217 million people suffer from MSVI, and 36 million are blind. However, despite the fact that 89 percent of all visually impaired people live in developing countries, blindness tends to be one of the more overlooked aspects of anti-poverty and development efforts around the world. In 1999, the World Health Organization (WHO), in partnership with more than 20 other organizations, launched the VISION 2020: The Right to Sight campaign, which intended to “eliminate the main causes of all preventable and treatable blindness as a public health issue by the year 2020.” Since the beginning of the campaign, much progress has been made in reducing preventable blindness around the world. However, preventable blindness continues to be an issue around the world, particularly in impoverished countries. Before diving into the origins, objectives and accomplishments of the VISION 2020 initiative, it will be useful to understand how blindness, MSVI and global poverty intersect. Blindness and Global Poverty Due to the fact that the overwhelming majority of blind and visually impaired people live in poor and middle-income countries, poor eye health has become deeply intertwined with global poverty. In general, blindness and MSVI are common among the global poor because of their inability to afford health services, which puts them at an increased risk of contracting eye diseases. Additionally, a lack of awareness about eye health exacerbates this problem. Unfortunately, poverty can cause blindness just as much as blindness can cause poverty. Blindness can impose severe economic burdens on those affected by drastically reducing their ability to work and provide for themselves. Ninety percent of blind people around the world cannot work. High levels of blindness also create economic problems for whole countries, and even the world economy. In 2000, it was estimated that visual impairment cost the global economy between $19,223 million and $22,764 million in GDP. Blindness can also bring negative social consequences, such as a loss of social standing and authoritative decision-making. This social stigma is particularly prevalent in blind women, 80 percent of whom report a loss of authority within their families. Additionally, the economic impact of blindness can lead the afflicted to feel an increased sense of social isolation and alienation from their communities. The VISION 2020 Initiative The VISION 2020 initiative is a multi-organization campaign, launched by the WHO in 1999, which aims to eliminate preventable blindness by the year 2020. In order to achieve this goal, VISION 2020 has used three core strategies. These include using specific programs to control and treat the major causes of blindness, training ophthalmologists and other eye doctors to provide eye care to those who need it, and improving technology and infrastructure to increase the accessibility of eye treatment. Since the VISION 2020 initiative launched, some progress has undeniably been made toward reducing preventable blindness worldwide. Between 1999 and 2015, the prevalence of visual impairment decreased from 4.58 percent to 3.38 percent. Additionally, many low and middle-income countries are seeing increased rates of cataract surgery. However, despite the fact that the campaign is in its final year, it will not achieve its goal of ending preventable blindness around the world. Compounding this problem, researchers are pointing to emerging global health trends that are expected to cause an increase in visual impairments around the world. For example, an increase in the elderly population will likely give rise to an increase in age-related visual impairments, like cataracts. Increased rates of diabetes around the world are causing higher rates of diabetic retinopathy. It is important to recognize that while these health developments may complicate efforts to reduce blindness worldwide, the fact that researchers have knowledge of these trends can shape the strategies of future anti-blindness campaigns. Despite the failure of the VISION 2020 initiative to end preventable blindness around the world, experts can learn from the program’s shortcomings and build on its successes going forward. – Andrew Bryant
You are about to leave jnjmedicaldevices.com. By clicking to continue, you will be taken to a web site governed by their own Legal and Privacy Policies. Vertebral Compression Fracture Overview The spine is made up of strong bones called vertebrae. A vertebra can break just like any other bone in the body. When the vertebral body collapses, it is called a vertebral compression fracture. These fractures happen most commonly in the thoracic spine (the middle portion of the spine), particularly in the lower part. Vertebral fractures are usually caused by a condition such as osteoporosis , a very hard fall, or another type of injury. Find a Doctor Compression fractures of the spine generally occur from too much pressure on the vertebral body. The fracture occurs when the vertebral body collapses, causing the front part of the vertebral body to become wedge shaped. The bone tissue on the inside of the vertebral body is crushed, or compressed. This can happen when the spine bends forward at the same time downward pressure builds on the spine. For example, falling to the floor in a sitting position causes the spine to bend and the head to be thrust forward. This posture combined with pressure on the buttocks concentrates pressure on the front part of the spine, the vertebral bodies. There are several causes of compression fractures. If the vertebra is too weak to hold normal pressure, it may take very little pressure to cause it to collapse. Most healthy bones can withstand pressure, and the spine is able to absorb the shock. However, if the forces are too high, one or more vertebrae may fracture. Osteoporosis is a common cause of compression fractures in the spine. This disease thins bones, often to the point they become too weak to bear normal pressure. They can eventually collapse during normal activity, leading to a spinal compression fracture. If the fracture is caused by a sudden, forceful injury, you will probably feel severe pain in your back, legs, and arms. You might also feel weakness or numbness if the fracture injures the nerves of the spine. If the bone collapse is gradual, such as a fracture from bone thinning, the pain will usually be milder. There might not be any pain at all until the bone actually breaks. In very severe compression fractures, parts of the back of the vertebral body may actually protrude into the spinal canal and put pressure on the spinal cord. Fortunately this is not a common occurrence. The most common treatments for a thoracic compression fracture are pain medications, decreasing activity, and bracing. Doctors are also using newer nonsurgical procedures called vertebroplasty and vertebral augmentation (often called kyphoplasty). These methods are minimally invasive and showing promise in the treatment of vertebral compression fractures. Vertebral fractures usually take about three months to fully heal. X-rays will probably be taken monthly to check on the healing progress. Surgery for compression fractures is rarely needed. No available references. IMPORTANT SAFETY INFORMATION As with any medical treatment, individual results may vary. There are potential risks and recovery takes time. People with conditions limiting rehabilitation should not have this surgery. Only a spine surgeon can tell if spine treatment is right for you.
Venus, the ‘Morning Star’, the second closest planet to the Sun after Mercury and our closest planetary neighbour, has fascinated mankind from the earliest times. Named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, it is the third brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon. Since the beginning of the space era, Venus has been an attractive subject for planetary science and it was one of the first natural targets to explore, due to its vicinity to Earth – twice as close to Earth as Mars at the closest approach point. An entirely different, exotic and inhospitable world Very similar to Earth in size and mass, Venus was expected to be very similar to our planet when the first Russian and American space probes approached it in the early 1960s and started returning the first data about its atmosphere. Observers soon realised that Venus is an entirely different, exotic and inhospitable world, hidden behind a curtain of dense clouds of noxious gases. It has an atmosphere mainly composed of carbon dioxide, with crushing surface pressure and burning-hot temperatures. Then the question arose: why did a planet apparently so similar to Earth evolve in a way so radically different over the last four thousand million years? Many missions were lost, many landers were destroyed. Up to the mid 1990s, many ground observatories and more than 20 spacecraft had attempted to explore Venus. A set of orbiters and descent probes - the Soviet Venera series and the Vega balloons and landers, the US Mariner, Pioneer Venus and the Magellan missions - tried to penetrate this hostile world to add pieces to the big puzzle that Venus represented for scientists. Many missions were lost, many landers were destroyed under the high pressure and temperature of the Venusian atmosphere while providing the first information about the planet. It is still due to such a dense atmosphere with thick cloud cover that, for years, scientists were prevented from seeing what lays below and from understanding the nature of the Venusian surface. Only when modern radar imaging systems became operational on space probes and ground observatories, did the first glimpses of the real face of Venus started to emerge.
What is Middle Schooling? Middle Schooling is a philosophy of education that revolves around the education of the “whole” student. This means that as well as academic learning, which is very important, students learn about how to take care of themselves socially and physically. To support this learning, Grant High School promotes consistency and stability for students in the Middle Years, in our case Years 8 and 9, when adolescence is bringing many other changes with it. Students have fewer teachers to encourage strong student-teacher relationships, and they remain in their homegroups for the majority of lessons to enable positive relationships to develop between students. This stable work environment supports students in their learning as it is generally consistent and predictable over the course of the year. In order to support the learning of students in the Middle School at Grant High School, teachers employ a variety of methodologies to ensure that every student is learning in their preferred way at least some of the time. We have a strong focus on Bloom’s Taxonomy, a hierarchy of skills, which encourages both deep and lateral thinking. This structure is used in many Year 12 subject areas, so students’ familiarity with it in Junior Secondary is a huge advantage for them as they move through the school. We also use Gardiner’s Multiple Intelligences as a way to encourage students to develop skills outside of their preferred learning styles, and De Bono’s Thinking Hats, with which many students are familiar from primary school, help to order thinking and ideas and are employed in may subject areas. Middle School Matters Collaborative skills are explicitly taught to all Middle School students, who are encouraged to work with people they might not know very well, or with whom they might not usually socialise, and they can then use these skills in all parts of their lives. These elements, combined with every teacher’s commitment to focusing on literacy and numeracy and aspects of Information and Communication Technologies and Higher Order Thinking Skills, ensure that every Grant High School student has access to a well-rounded education in the Middle Years. As of the beginning of 2010, all students in Year 8 will have developed their own Individual Learning Plan (ILP) in which they set their goals for the year and the longer term. This plan will be further developed throughout Year 8 and 9 and culminate in students undertaking the Personal Learning Plan (PLP) in Year 10, a compulsory element of the new SACE. At Grant High School the idea of integration in the Middle School is something on which we focus strongly. This can include teacher teams focusing on one idea through the lenses of English, Science and Society and Environment to reinforce learning and encourage the transference of skills from subject to subject. Other examples of integration in the Middle School curriculum include the teaching of Information and Communication Technologies, where each learning area takes responsibility for an aspect of ICT and incorporates it into the learning of the students. For example, Society and Environment teachers will focus on teaching students how to effectively use search engines throughout the course of the year. In a similar way, Higher Order Thinking Skills and specific Study Skills are incorporated into various learning areas. These areas of focus can be found on Assessment Plans that students receive from their teachers at the beginning of each semester or term. In addition, teachers at Grant High School have all taken responsibility for teaching literacy and numeracy skills, both in a subject specific and more general way. In these ways many skills and abilities are reinforced for students as part of integration in the Middle School.
The output impedance of an electrical network is the measure of the opposition to current flow (impedance), both static (resistance) and dynamic (reactance), into the load network being connected that is internal to the electrical source. The output impedance is a measure of the source's propensity to drop in voltage when the load draws current, the source network being the portion of the network that transmits and the load network being the portion of the network that consumes. Because of this the output impedance is sometimes referred to as the source impedance or internal impedance. All devices have some resistance and capacitance, and therefore no device can be a perfect source. The output impedance is often used to model the source's response to current flow. Some portion of the device's measured output impedance may not physically exist within the device; some are artifacts that are due to the chemical, thermodynamic, or mechanical properties of the source. This impedance can be imagined as an impedance in series with an ideal voltage source, or in parallel with an ideal current source (see: Series and parallel circuits). Sources are modeled as ideal sources (ideal meaning sources that always keep the desired value) combined with their output impedance. The output impedance is defined as this modeled and/or real impedance in series with an ideal voltage source. Mathematically, current and voltage sources can be converted to each other using Thévenin's theorem and Norton's theorem. In the case of a nonlinear device, such as a transistor, the term "output impedance" usually refers to the effect upon a small-amplitude signal, and will vary with the bias point of the transistor, that is, with the direct current (DC) and voltage applied to the device. The source resistance of a purely resistive device can be experimentally determined by increasingly loading the device until the voltage across the load (AC or DC) is one half of the open circuit voltage. At this point, the load resistance and internal resistance are equal. It can more accurately be described by keeping track of the voltage vs current curves for various loads, and calculating the resistance from Ohm's law. (The internal resistance may not be the same for different types of loading or at different frequencies, especially in devices like chemical batteries.) The generalized source impedance for a reactive (inductive or capacitive) source device is more complicated to determine, and is usually measured with specialized instruments, rather than taking many measurements by hand. Solving for Zsource, gives the small source impedance (output impedance) of the power amplifier. This can be calculated from the Zload of the loudspeaker (typically 2, 4, or 8 ohms) and the given value of the damping factor. Generally in audio and hifi, the input impedance of components is several times (technically, more than 10) the output impedance of the device connected to them. This is called impedance bridging or voltage bridging. In this case, Zload>> Zsource, DF > 10 In video, RF, and other systems, impedances of inputs and outputs are the same. This is called impedance matching or a matched connection. In this case, Zsource = Zload, DF = 1/1 = 1 . The actual output impedance for most devices is not the same as the rated output impedance. A power amplifier may have a rated impedance of 8 ohms, but the actual output impedance will vary depending on circuit conditions. The rated output impedance is the impedance into which the amplifier can deliver its maximum amount of power without failing. Internal resistance is a concept that helps model the electrical consequences of the complex chemical reactions inside a battery. It is impossible to directly measure the internal resistance of a battery, but it can be calculated from current and voltage data measured from a circuit. When a load is applied to a battery, the internal resistance can be calculated from the following equations: Internal resistance varies with the age of a battery, but for most commercial batteries the internal resistance is on the order of 1 ohm. When there is a current through a cell, the measured e.m.f. is lower than when there is no current delivered by the cell. The reason for this is that part of the available energy of the cell is used up to drive charges through the cell. This energy wasted by the so-called "internal resistance" of that cell. This wasted energy shows up as lost voltage. Internal resistance is r = (E - V)/I .
Students learn to determine the quality of various web sources I Heard it ’round the Internet: Sexual Health Education and Authenticating Online Information – Lesson Students learn to search more effectively online while searching myths on sexuality and contraception and then evaluate the resources found Students apply their searching and critical thinking skills to learn how to find legitimate online sources for downloading and streaming movies, music and videos. Students apply what they have learned in the first two lessons regarding searching and evaluating to find and verify information online. students learn how to authenticate online information by comparing “facts” from the website www.allaboutexplorers.com with more authoritative sources. Students determine the validity of information that is presented to them on the Internet. Students reflect on the importance of citing all sources when they do research. A handout that provides a checklist for students who are preparing to do research A lesson to teach younger students how to use keywords to find information Lesson plans, videos and activities to help develop student’s search skills
Knowledge and skills - Myths and legends - Critical thinking - Speaking and listening - Group discussion - Developing empathy Rediscover the legend of Robin Hood alongside our time-traveller, Amadeus Jones, and then get those critical thinking gears in motion and discuss the rights and wrongs of the merry men’s antics. Listen to the radio play ‘Slings and bows’ and talk to your class about the Robin Hood legend. What do the children know about it already – have they seen a film, read a book or heard the song? If the children are not familiar with the legend, share some books or watch video clips. Once they have a better idea of the narrative of the Robin Hood legend, you can begin to explore the rights and wrongs of what Robin and his merry men do. Is stealing from the rich to give to the poor ever acceptable?
Finding Your Voice Everyone should have a “voice.” A voice to say what you feel, to be heard, and understood. It’s especially important for kids to have a voice, to speak up for what they need and advocate for themselves. Having a voice gives kids a sense of independence, empowerment, and connection to the community. Kids with a voice assert their feelings and opinions and stand up for themselves when necessary. They are not afraid to try new things, take healthy risks and keep moving forward even when faced with obstacles. But having a voice can be difficult if it has never been encouraged or practiced. Summer camp teaches kids to find their voice and gives them a sense of identity, confidence, and empowerment. Being able to express their likes and dislikes, and having their thoughts and feelings heard is a valuable part of the camp experience, and lets campers know they are an important part of the community. The power to express yourself at camp is encouraged, authentic, and is thankfully in the moment. It goes beyond postings on social media, and allows kids to express themselves face to face, with reactions that are present and immediate. All allowing kids to develop better communication and social skills, conflict resolution, and more meaningful connections. Having a voice at camp goes beyond expressing opinions, it’s also about making choices and owning those choices. Mistakes may be made along the way, but campers learn to problem solve on their own, and build resilience. Mom and Dad are not there to step in and fix things, and kids learn to handle difficulties on their own and to trust themselves in the process. Each and every day, campers have the opportunity to decide what to wear, even if it’s the same few items of clothing for weeks at a time (sorry Mom). They choose what foods to eat, what electives to participate in, and what friendships they want to develop. For some campers, it’s the first time they are making these decisions and speaking up to get their needs met. Campers learn to speak up when they need something as simple as more toothpaste, or when they need some support working through homesickness or resolving a conflict with a bunkmate. Kids, often girls, struggle to find the balance of asserting themselves and worrying about being judged negatively. The camp environment takes away the judgement and provides a safe environment where kids feel safe to express themselves. Camp staff encourage, guide and model good choices, in order to give campers a voice and feeling of empowerment. They know that having a voice at camp will continue to serve them well all year long. Camp staff understand that confidence starts with trust, so they encourage kids to step outside of their comfort zone where they can build self-esteem and realize their capabilities. They may stumble along the way, but they receive the support needed to pick themselves up and develop greater confidence and determination. Expressing yourself at camp can also come through actions. Some campers find their voice through writing for the camp newspaper, The Iroquois Springs Times, or joining the camp theatre production. A voice can be heard through a leadership role during color week or participating in “girls on the run.” Having a voice is about finding something you care about and being present and open to being a part of the group. Camp helps kids develop their interests by exposing them to so many different activities. When kids find what they are passionate about, having a voice comes naturally. Having a voice at camp gives campers a sense of belonging, connectedness, and greater self-confidence that comes from being an active member in the camp community. Life will always present itself with moment we need to have a voice, and hopefully campers will remember that their voice is valued and should be heard!
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important : Prelims level : Earths magnetosphere Mains level : Earths magnetosphere and its significance for space missions Scientists at the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) have developed a generalized one-dimensional fluid simulation code capable of studying a wide spectrum of coherent electric field structures of earth’s magnetosphere which can be useful in the planning of future space missions. The newscard talks of not so new phenomenon but a basic terminology of space sciences. Kindly make a note of what the Magnotesphere is, how it is formed, role of solar winds, Geodynamo etc. - The magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding Earth where the dominant magnetic field is the magnetic field of Earth, rather than the magnetic field of interplanetary space. - It is generated by the interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s magnetic field. Features of the Earth’s magnetosphere 1) Bow shock, 4) Northern tail lobe, 5) Southern tail lobe, 7) Solar wind. How is it formed? - Sun is the major source of plasma deposition in space around the Earth. Sun forces some of its plasma towards the earth in the form of the solar wind. - The speed of this wind varies between 300 to 1500 km/s, which carries with it solar magnetic field, called as Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF). - The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in the Earth’s outer core. - These convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo. Why study the magnetosphere? - The Earth’s magnetosphere is a vast region which has a finite number of satellites hurtling through this realm. - The morphology of the plasma processes around the satellite can be understood quite well. - However, when they leave the observational domain of one satellite to enter into another, a vast blind arena is created. - How the morphology of these processes changes over space and time can be ideally deciphered only through computer simulations. Outcome of the study - Almost 99% of matter in the universe is in the form of plasma, Earth’s magnetosphere, too, contains this material and the plasma. - They have the ability to hamper the working of a number of satellites that have been placed in orbit in the magnetospheric region. - Apart from the well being of these expensive satellites, the academic understanding of this region is quite essential to comprehend the cosmos in its entirety. - The study will help advance the knowledge of plasma waves, instabilities, and coherent effects associated with wave-particle interactions that are useful in planning of future space missions. - It can also lead to precisely controlled fusion laboratory experiments for ever-expanding energy needs of humanity.
How to read critically What is critical reading? Critical reading does not necessarily mean that you are critical of what you read. Reading and thinking critically do not imply to be “critical” about an idea, argument, or piece of writing-claiming it is defective or defective somehow. Critical reading implies getting involved with what you read by asking questions like,’ What is the writer attempting to say? Or’ what is provided as the primary reasoning? There is a reasoned argument in the critical reading which assesses and analyzes what you have read. Therefore-in the educational sense – Being critical, therefore – in an academic sense – means advancing your understanding, not dismissing and therefore closing off learning. Critical reading means exercising your judgment on what you read, that is, not taking anything you read with a face value. You are confronted with the author’s interpretation and opinion when reading scholarly content. Of course, various authors will have distinct slants. You should always look at what you read critically and find constraints, omissions, inconsistencies, disregards, and arguments against what you read. In scholarly circles, while you are a student, you should comprehend and create your own judgments based on what you read. As a critical viewer, you should consider: • What the text says: you should be able to take notes after reading a piece, paraphrasing the main issues–in your own words. • What the text explains: you should be sure that the text has been adequately understood so that you can use your own example and compare it with other writings about the topic. • Text interpretation: this implies you should be able to analyze the text in full and indicate a significance for the entire text. Critical reading implies that you can think about what a text says, what it defines and what it means by examining the style, structure, and content of the writing, the language used, and the content. Proficient adult readers: - Know why they are reading the text - Preview and make predictions - Do selective readings - Connect text and associate it with, what they already know - Refine predictions, and expectations - Use context to define unfamiliar phrases - Rereading and making notes - Assess the quality of the text - Reviewing significant points in the text Reinforce your reading To help you take in and understand what you are reading, also remember to: • Stop for a few minutes at the end of each chapter to think about what you read and summarize the key points in your own words. • Tell another person what you read about. If they don’t know anything about the subject, what would you ask them to understand it? • Take part in group discussions and talk to your fellow learners about what you read. • Please consider why your assessor asked you to read the text. What questions would your lecturer ask to make sure that you understand the text? Write down these questions and then attempt your own words to answer them.
The exosphere is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of space. Air in the exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is almost the same as the airless void of outer space. The layer directly below the exosphere is the thermosphere; the boundary between the two is called the thermopause. The bottom of the exosphere is sometimes also referred to as the exobase. The altitude of the lower boundary of the exosphere varies. When the Sun is active around the peak of the sunspot cycle, X-rays and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun heat and "puff up" the thermosphere - raising the altitude of the thermopause to heights around 1,000 km (620 miles) above Earth's surface. When the Sun is less active during the low point of the sunspot cycle, solar radiation is less intense and the thermopause recedes to within about 500 km (310 miles) of Earth's surface. Not all scientists agree that the exosphere is really a part of the atmosphere. Some scientists consider the thermosphere the uppermost part of Earth's atmosphere, and think that the exosphere is really just part of space. However, other scientists do consider the exosphere part of our planet's atmosphere. Since the exosphere gradually fades into outer space, there is no clear upper boundary of this layer. One definition of the outermost limit of the exosphere places the uppermost edge of Earth's atmosphere around 190,000 km (120,000 miles), about halfway to the Moon. At this distance, radiation pressure from sunlight exerts more force on hydrogen atoms than does the pull of Earth's gravity. A faint glow of ultraviolet radiation scattered by hydrogen atoms in the uppermost atmosphere has been detected at heights of 100,000 km (62,000 miles) by satellites. This region of UV glow is called the geocorona. Below the exosphere, molecules and atoms of atmospheric gases constantly collide with each other. However, air in the exosphere is so thin that such collisions are very rare. Gas atoms and molecules in the exosphere move along "ballistic trajectories", reminiscent of the arcing flight of a thrown ball (or shot cannonball!) as it gradually curves back towards Earth under the pull of gravity. Most gas particles in the exosphere zoom along curved paths without ever hitting another atom or molecule, eventually arcing back down into the lower atmosphere due to the pull of gravity. However, some of the faster-moving particles don't return to Earth - they fly off into space instead! A small portion of our atmosphere "leaks" away into space each year in this way. Although the exosphere is technically part of Earth's atmosphere, in many ways it is part of outer space. Many satellites, including the International Space Station (ISS), orbit within the exosphere or below. For example, the average altitude of the ISS is about 330 km (205 miles), placing it in the thermosphere below the exosphere! Although the atmosphere is very, very thin in the thermosphere and exosphere, there is still enough air to cause a slight amount of drag force on satellites that orbit within these layers. This drag force gradually slows the spacecraft in their orbits, so that they eventually would fall out of orbit and burn up as they re-entered the atmosphere unless something is done to boost them back upwards. The ISS loses about 2 km (1.2 miles) in altitude each month to such "orbital decay", and must periodically be given an upward boost by rocket engines to keep it in orbit.
Class 12 Maths Three Dimensional Geometry – Get here the Notes for Class 12 Maths Three Dimensional Geometry. Candidates who are ambitious to qualify the Class 12 with good score can check this article for Notes. This is possible only when you have the best CBSE Class 12 Maths study material and a smart preparation plan. To assist you with that, we are here with notes. Hope these notes will helps you understand the important topics and remember the key points for exam point of view. Below we provided the Notes of Class 12 Maths for topic Three Dimensional Geometry. - Class: 12th - Subject: Maths - Topic: Three Dimensional Geometry - Resource: Notes CBSE Notes Class 12 Maths Three Dimensional Geometry Candidates who are pursuing in Class 12 are advised to revise the notes from this post. With the help of Notes, candidates can plan their Strategy for particular weaker section of the subject and study hard. So, go ahead and check the Important Notes for Class 12 Maths Three Dimensional Geometry The three mutually perpendicular lines in a space which divides the space into eight parts and if these perpendicular lines are the coordinate axes, then it is said to be a coordinate system. Distance between Two Points Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) be two given points. The distance between these points is given by PQ √(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2 The distance of a point P(x, y, z) from origin O is OP = √x2 + y2 + z2 (i) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n internally are (mx2 + nx1 / m + n, my2 + ny1 / m + n, mz2 + nz1 / m + n) (ii) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n externally are (mx2 – nx1 / m – n, my2 – ny1 / m – n, mz2 – nz1 / m – n) (iii) The coordinates of mid-point of P and Q are (x1 + x2 / 2 , y1 + y2 / 2, z1 + z2 / 2) (iv) Coordinates of the centroid of a triangle formed with vertices P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) and R(x3, y3, z3) are (x1 + x2 + x3 / 3 , y1 + y2 + y3 / 3, z1 + z2 + z3 / 3) (v) Centroid of a Tetrahedron If (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3) and (x4, y4, z4) are the vertices of a tetrahedron, then its centroid G is given by (x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 / 4 , y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 / 4, z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 / 4) If a directed line segment OP makes angle α, β and γ with OX , OY and OZ respectively, then Cos α, cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines of up and it is represented by l, m, n. l = cos α m = cos β and n = cos γ If OP = r, then coordinates of OP are (lr, mr , nr) (i) If 1, m, n are direction cosines of a vector r, then (a) r = \|r\| (li + mj + nk) ⇒ r = li + mj + nk (b) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 (c) Projections of r on the coordinate axes are (d) \|r\| = l\|r\|, m\|r\|, n\|r\| / √sum of the squares of projections of r on the coordinate axes (ii) If P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are two points, such that the direction cosines of PQ are l, m, n. Then, x2 – x1 = l\|PQ\|, y2 – y1 = m\|PQ\|, z2 – z1 = n\|PQ\| These are projections of PQ on X , Y and Z axes, respectively. (iii) If 1, m, n are direction cosines of a vector r and a b, c are three numbers, such that l / a = m / b = n / c. Then, we say that the direction ratio of r are proportional to a, b, c. Also, we have l = a / √a2 + b2 + c2, m = b / √a2 + b2 + c2, n = c / √a2 + b2 + c2 (iv) If θ is the angle between two lines having direction cosines l1, m1, n1 and 12, m2, n2, then cos θ = l112 + m1m2 + n1n2 (a) Lines are parallel, if l1 / 12 = m1 / m2 = n1 / n2 (b) Lines are perpendicular, if l112 + m1m2 + n1n2 (v) If θ is the angle between two lines whose direction ratios are proportional to a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 respectively, then the angle θ between them is given by cos θ = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 / √a21 + b21 + c21 √a22 + b22 + c22 Lines are parallel, if a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 = c1 / c2 Lines are perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0. (vi) The projection of the line segment joining points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) to the line having direction cosines 1, m, n is \|(x2 – x1)l + (y2 – y1)m + (z2 – z1)n\|. (vii) The direction ratio of the line passing through points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are proportional to x2 – x1, y2 – y1 – z2 – z1 Then, direction cosines of PQ are x2 – x1 / \|PQ\|, y2 – y1 / \|PQ\|, z2 – z1 / \|PQ\| Area of Triangle If the vertices of a triangle be A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3), then Angle Between Two Intersecting Lines If l(x1, m1, n1) and l(x2, m2, n2) be the direction cosines of two given lines, then the angle θ between them is given by cos θ = l112 + m1m2 + n1n2 (i) The angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos-1 (1 / 3). (ii) The angle between a diagonal of a cube and the diagonal of a face (of the cube is cos-1 (√2 / 3) Straight Line in Space The two equations of the line ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a’ x + b’ y + c’ z + d’ = 0 together represents a straight line. 1. Equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point A(x1, y1, z1) and having direction ratios a, b, c is given by x – x1 / a = y – y1 / b = z – z1 / c, it is also called the symmetrically form of a line. Any point P on this line may be taken as (x1 + λa, y1 + λb, z1 + λc), where λ ∈ R is parameter. If a, b, c are replaced by direction cosines 1, m, n, then λ, represents distance of the point P from the fixed point A. 2. Equation of a straight line joining two fixed points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is given by x – x1 / x2 – x1 = y – y1 / y2 – y1 = z – z1 / z2 – z1 3. Vector equation of a line passing through a point with position vector a and parallel to vector b is r = a + λ b, where A, is a parameter. 4. Vector equation of a line passing through two given points having position vectors a and b is r = a + λ (b – a) , where λ is a parameter. 5. (a) The length of the perpendicular from a point on the line r – a + λ b is given by (b) The length of the perpendicular from a point P(x1, y1, z1) on the line where, 1, m, n are direction cosines of the line. 6. Skew Lines Two straight lines in space are said to be skew lines, if they are neither parallel nor intersecting. 7. Shortest Distance If l1 and l2 are two skew lines, then a line perpendicular to each of lines 4 and 12 is known as the line of shortest distance. If the line of shortest distance intersects the lines l1 and l2 at P and Q respectively, then the distance PQ between points P and Q is known as the shortest distance between l1 and l2. 8. The shortest distance between the lines 9. The shortest distance between lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + μb2 is given by 10. The shortest distance parallel lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + μb2 is given by 11. Lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + μb2 are intersecting lines, if (b1 * b2) * (a2 – a1) = 0. 12. The image or reflection (x, y, z) of a point (x1, y1, z1) in a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by x – x1 / a = y – y1 / b = z – z1 / c = – 2 (ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) / a2 + b2 + c2 13. The foot (x, y, z) of a point (x1, y1, z1) in a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by x – x1 / a = y – y1 / b = z – z1 / c = – (ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) / a2 + b2 + c2 14. Since, x, y and z-axes pass through the origin and have direction cosines (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), respectively. Therefore, their equations are x – axis : x – 0 / 1 = y – 0 / 0 = z – 0 / 0 y – axis : x – 0 / 0 = y – 0 / 1 = z – 0 / 0 z – axis : x – 0 / 0 = y – 0 / 0 = z – 0 / 1 A plane is a surface such that, if two points are taken on it, a straight line joining them lies wholly in the surface. General Equation of the Plane The general equation of the first degree in x, y, z always represents a plane. Hence, the general equation of the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0. The coefficient of x, y and z in the cartesian equation of a plane are the direction ratios of normal to the plane. Equation of the Plane Passing Through a Fixed Point The equation of a plane passing through a given point (x1, y1, z1) is given by a(x – x1) + b (y — y1) + c (z — z1) = 0. Normal Form of the Equation of Plane (i) The equation of a plane, which is at a distance p from origin and the direction cosines of the normal from the origin to the plane are l, m, n is given by lx + my + nz = p. (ii) The coordinates of foot of perpendicular N from the origin on the plane are (1p, mp, np). The intercept form of equation of plane represented in the form of x / a + y / b + z / c = 1 where, a, b and c are intercepts on X, Y and Z-axes, respectively. For x intercept Put y = 0, z = 0 in the equation of the plane and obtain the value of x. Similarly, we can determine for other intercepts. Equation of Planes with Given Conditions (i) Equation of a plane passing through the point A(x1, y1, z1) and parallel to two given lines with direction ratios (ii) Equation of a plane through two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) and parallel to a line with direction ratios a, b, c is (iii) The Equation of a plane passing through three points A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3) is (iv) Four points A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3) and D(x4, y4, z4) are coplanar if and only if (v) Equation of the plane containing two coplanar lines Angle between Two Planes The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between the normal to them from any point. Thus, the angle between the two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is equal to the angle between the normals with direction cosines ± a1 / √Σ a21, ± b1 / √Σ a21, ± c1 / √Σ a21 and ± a2 / √Σ a22, ± b2 / √Σ a22, ± c2 / √Σ a22 If θ is the angle between the normals, then cos θ = ± a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 / √a21 + b21 + c21 √a22 + b22 + c22 Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two Planes Two planes are parallel or perpendicular according as the normals to them are parallel or perpendicular. Hence, the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are parallel, if a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 = c1 / c2 and perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0. Note The equation of plane parallel to a given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by ax + by + cz + k = 0, where k may be determined from given conditions. Angle between a Line and a Plane In Vector Form The angle between a line r = a + λ b and plane r • n = d, is defined as the complement of the angle between the line and normal to the plane: sin θ = n b / \|n\|\|b\| In Cartesian Form The angle between a line x – x1 / a1 = y – y1 / b1 = z – z1 / c1 and plane a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is sin θ = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 / √a21 + b21 + c21 √a22 + b22 + c22 Distance of a Point from a Plane Let the plane in the general form be ax + by + cz + d = 0. The distance of the point P(x1, y1, z1) from the plane is equal to If the plane is given in, normal form lx + my + nz = p. Then, the distance of the point P(x1, y1, z1) from the plane is \|lx1 + my1 + nz1 – p\|. Distance between Two Parallel Planes If ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 be equation of two parallel planes. Then, the distance between them is Bisectors of Angles between Two Planes The bisector planes of the angles between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 / √Σa21 = ± a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 / √Σa22 One of these planes will bisect the acute angle and the other obtuse angle between the given plane. A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in a space in such a way that its distance from a fixed point always remains constant. General Equation of the Sphere In Cartesian Form The equation of the sphere with centre (a, b, c) and radius r is (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 + (z – c)2 = r2 …….(i) In generally, we can write x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 Here, its centre is (-u, v, w) and radius = √u2 + v2 + w2 – d In Vector Form The vector equation of a sphere of radius a and Centre having position vector c is \|r – c\| = a Important Points to be Remembered (i) The general equation of second degree in x, y, z is ax2 + by2 + cz2 + 2hxy + 2kyz + 2lzx + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 represents a sphere, if (a) a = b = c (≠ 0) (b) h = k = 1 = 0 The equation becomes ax2 + ay2 + az2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d – 0 …(A) To find its centre and radius first we make the coefficients of x2, y2 and z2 each unity by dividing throughout by a. Thus, we have x2+y2+z2 + (2u / a) x + (2v / a) y + (2w / a) z + d / a = 0 …..(B) ∴ Centre is (- u / a, – v / a, – w / a) and radius = √u2 / a2 + v2 / a2 + w2 / a2 – d / a = √u2 + v2 + w2 – ad / \|a\| . (ii) Any sphere concentric with the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 is x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + k = 0 (iii) Since, r2 = u2 + v2 + w2 — d, therefore, the Eq. (B) represents a real sphere, if u2 +v2 + w2 — d > 0 (iv) The equation of a sphere on the line joining two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) as a diameter is (x – x1) (x – x1) + (y – y1) (y – y2) + (z – z1) (z – z2) = 0. (v) The equation of a sphere passing through four non-coplanar points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3) and (x4, y4, z4) is Tangency of a Plane to a Sphere The plane lx + my + nz = p will touch the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2 wz + d = 0, if length of the perpendicular from the centre ( – u, – v,— w)= radius, i.e., \|lu – mv – nw – p\| / √l2 + m2 + n2 = √u2 + v2 + w2 – d (lu – mv – nw – p)2 = (u2 + v2 + w2 – d) (l2 + m2 + n2) Plane Section of a Sphere Consider a sphere intersected by a plane. The set of points common to both sphere and plane is called a plane section of a sphere. In ΔCNP, NP2 = CP2 – CN2 = r2 – p2 ∴ NP = √r2 – p2 Hence, the locus of P is a circle whose centre is at the point N, the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the sphere to the plane. The section of sphere by a plane through its centre is called a great circle. The centre and radius of a great circle are the same as those of the sphere. Class 12 Key Points, Important Questions & Practice Papers Hope these notes helped you in your schools exam preparation. Candidates can also check out the Key Points, Important Questions & Practice Papers for various Subjects for Class 12 in both Hindi and English language form the link below. \|Class 12 Physics\|\|कक्षा 12 व्यावसायिक अध्ययन\| \|Class 12 Chemistry\|\|कक्षा 12 समाज शास्त्र\| \|Class 12 Maths\|\|कक्षा 12 अर्थशास्त्र\| \|Class 12 Biology\|\|कक्षा 12 भूगोल\| \|Class 12 Business Studies\| \|Class 12 Economics\| \|Class 12 Sociology\| Class 12 NCERT Solutions Candidates who are studying in Class 12 can also check Class 12 NCERT Solutions from here. This will help the candidates to know the solutions for all subjects covered in Class 12th. Candidates can click on the subject wise link to get the same. Class 12 Chapter-wise, detailed solutions to the questions of the NCERT textbooks are provided with the objective of helping students compare their answers with the sample answers. Class 12 Mock Test / Practice Mock test are the practice test or you can say the blue print of the main exam. Before appearing in the main examination, candidates must try mock test as it helps the students learn from their mistakes. With the help of Class 12 Mock Test / Practice, candidates can also get an idea about the pattern and marking scheme of that examination. For the sake of the candidates we are providing Class 12 Mock Test / Practice links below. Class 12 Exemplar Questions Exemplar Questions Class 12 is a very important resource for students preparing for the Examination. Here we have provided Exemplar Problems Solutions along with NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 12. Question from very important topics is covered by Exemplar Questions for Class 12. To get fastest exam alerts and government job alerts in India, join our Telegram channel.
In this colorful and bright worksheet, your students will have to work with the globe, which. Do they know what a globe is? Tell your kids that a globe represents the entire mass of the Earth, showing where each continent and country is. Use this opportunity to teach them where the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western Hemisphere are, and also the Equator and Prime Meridian. Then, help them circle the fraction that each shape drawn in the picture represents. Ask them to look at the shaded or colored sections.
The United States has engaged with Indigenous nations on a government-to-government basis via federal treaties representing substantial international commitments since the origins of the republic. The first treaties sent to the Senate for ratification under the Constitution of 1789 were treaties with Indigenous nations. Treaties with Indigenous nations provided the means by which approximately one billion acres of land entered the national domain of the United States prior to 1900, at an average price of seventy-five cents per acre – the United States confiscated or claimed another billion acres of Indigenous land without compensation. Despite subsequent efforts of American federal authorities to alter these arrangements, the weight of evidence indicates that the relationship remains primarily one of a nation-to-nation association. Integration of the history of federal relations with Indigenous nations with American foreign relations history sheds important new light on the fundamental linkages between these seemingly distinct state practices from the beginnings of the American republic.
The difference between the 12-hour clock and the 24-hour clock is just a difference in expression as both are time conventions with the former dividing the day into two periods and the latter counting the full 24 hours of the day continuously. Basically, the two-time conventions are used interchangeably with some regions of the world using both of them and others prefer one over the other. The 12-Hour Clock The 12-hour clock, which divides the day into two cycles, is mostly used in countries where English is the main language, you will still find it in use in several other countries. The time counting methodology has two equal periods of 12 hours, from midnight, denoted 12:00 a.m.(ante meridiem), to midday, denoted 12:00 p.m.(post meridiem), and from midday back to midnight, completing a full 24-hour cycle. The numbering runs from one to twelve in each period, with twelve representing zero as the starting point. The basis of counting with the 12-hour clock is the normal night and day version where the day consists of twelve hours characterized by the sun, and the night consists of twelve hours characterized by the moon. The majority of analog clocks and watches in use today use the 12-hour clock. Phrases of referring to time periods where the 12-hour clock is common include night time, morning time, afternoon time, and evening time. The 24-Hour Clock Basing its origins in ancient Egypt, the 24-hour clock has been used for centuries and will more than likely continue to be used for years to come. The 24 hour clock time convention runs the day from midnight to midnight for a period of twenty-four hours continuously. It is the most preferred time system in the world today, with many of the regions that have adopted the 12-hour clock using it concurrently as it is recommended by international standards. The time counting system has the start of the day at midnight, denoted 00:00, which the runs through to twenty-three fifty-nine. Most computers by default reflect the time in 24-hour formats, and it is also the most preferred time methodology of many militaries. Unlike the 12-hour clock, the 24-hour clock is viewed as being specific to timelines and being easy to interpret for most people. Medics throughout the world have preferred the 24-hour clock in recording patients history, as they argue that a difference in interpretation of time would make a significant difference in a patient’s treatment. If a different medical staff were to confuse the recorded time recorded and administer medicine to a patient at the wrong time, the resultant outcome could be fatal.
Paper is a very versatile material that has many different uses. But who invented paper? This post will answer that very question. Who Invented Paper? This question is best answered by looking at the history of writing tools and paper. History of Paper - The ancient Sumerians used clay tablets to write. - The ancient Egyptians used papyrus as a writing material. This was much better than writing on clay tablets. Papyrus was made from beaten strips of papyrus plants. There is evidence showing that the Egyptians used papyrus as early as 3700 BC. They later exported papyrus to Greek and Rome. The word ‘paper’ comes from the Greek work for ‘papyrus’. - From about 1600 to 250 BC, the ancient Chinese wrote on bamboo strips or bone. These were heavy and difficult to transport. - The first ‘paper’ was invented in ancient China sometime around 200 BC. However, this paper was made very differently modern paper. - Cai Lun, a court official during the Han Dynasty in China, is credited with inventing ‘modern’ paper. He first made paper from rags and plant fibers in 105 AD. While the papermaking process has changed throughout the years, modern paper is still quite similar to that made by Cai Lun. Paper became widely used as a writing implement by the 3rd century (200-300 AD). Other Great Inventions: Love my posts? Follow me on Twitter!
Who Killed SAV? Session 1 Lesson Plans Contents - Lesson Plans Home - Journey of a Raindrop to the Chesapeake Bay - Does It Soak Right In? - Wetlands: Here All Year? - Types of Pollution - Stream Creatures: Clues to Stream Health - Muddying the Waters - Grasses, Grasses Everywhere - Who Killed SAV? - A River Runs Through It - Riparian Buffers - Captain John Smith's Chesapeake Bay - Succession and Forest Habitats - Bay and Pond Food Webs - Native vs. Non-native Species: Who Will Win? - Wasting Water - Going for Water Who Killed SAV? Lesson Plan includes: - Who Killed SAV? Home - Session 1 - Session 2 - Classroom Assessment Suggestions - Extensions for Students Conduct this session in the classroom. - Begin reading aloud Who Killed SAV? (.pdf only). Stop at the bottom of page 5 to allow students to make predictions. What could possibly have caused SAV to disappear? - Continue reading, stopping after each suspect is described to summarize the ways in which that suspect harmed SAV. - Divide the class into groups of 3–4 students, and assign each group a suspect: Hurricane Agnes, Clam Dredging, Development, or Nutrients. Within each group, designate one student the "accused," one the "defender," and one or more the "prosecutor(s)." Distribute the appropriate trial worksheets (listed at right) as guides for students in preparing their cases. - Allow time for students to prepare and plan their cases as well as to do further research as needed. (See Using the Library Media Center for Project Research and Using the World Wide Web for Project Research in the Project Action Guide.)
\|Name: _________________________\|\|Period: ___________________\| This quiz consists of 5 multiple choice and 5 short answer questions through Chapters 9-12. Multiple Choice Questions 1. What power was missing from the Articles? (a) The power to amend the Articles. (b) The power to regulate foreign trade. (c) Executive power. (d) The power to conduct war. 2. What was the benefit of adopting the resolution that was ultimately adopted? (a) It allowed the federal government to be effective. (b) It resolved decades of inter-state tension. (c) It weakened the Articles of Confederation and gave the states more power. (d) It created a need for a lot of inter-state lawsuits. 3. What did George Mason say he feared, in his argument on June 4? (a) That government will degenerate into mob rule. (b) That government will not have enough funding. (c) That government will degenerate into a tool of businesses. (d) That government will degenerate into monarchy. 4. What were the delegates' intentions when they argued for election of Senators from state legislatures? (a) Improving upon the process by which the people were represented. (b) Raising the Senate above popular opinion. (c) Creating a check against popular democracy. (d) Insulating the federal government from individuals in the states. 5. Why did Mr. Wilson prefer the New Jersey Plan? (a) Because it provided for a standing army. (b) Because it centralized power in the executive. (c) Because it protected America from European influence. (d) Because it provided multiple legislative houses. Short Answer Questions 1. What were Americans and Britons discussing a great deal during the 1770s? 2. Why did many delegates support one resolution to this question? 3. What was cut out when the Constitutional Convention doted down part of the Virginia Plan? 4. Which form of government includes direct voting by the people? 5. Where on the political spectrum were Alexander Hamilton's opinions? This section contains 342 words (approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)
Native american cultural assimilation Do we really want immigrants to assimilate process was lost on most native-born americans americans social and cultural assimilation are so. Federal acts & assimilation if american indians did not adopt european-american culture they would laid out new rights for native americans. What were the impacts of the cultural assimilation of the native americans policy of assimilation of native americans in native americans so rich in culture. Assimilation through the dawes act for native americans effectively destroyed native american culture the dawes act also made indigenous individuals american citizens. Indian boarding schools and their efforts to assimilate native americans through education features photos, early film footage, federal government reports, cartoons. By: natalie caldwell and forced assimilation of the native americans dominique hernandez forced assimilation is a process of forced cultural assimilation of religious. Native americans and the federal government the success of the assimilation policy encouraged a renewed respect for native american culture and. Cultural assimilation of the native americans, treaties and european americans. Assimilation through education indian culture and a public fascination with a romanticized version of this culture native_americanhtml. Inclusion in the american public education system - assimilation of native american education. Discover librarian-selected research resources on assimilation and american indians from the questia online native american women cultural assimilation culture. Read this free american history essay and other term papers, research papers and book reports native americans: assimilation through education native americans. Ebscohost serves thousands of libraries with premium essays, articles and other content including the american indian: from assimilation to cultural pluralism get. The mascotting of native america: construction, commodity, and assimilation jason edward black the american indian quarterly, volume 26, number 4, fall 2002, pp. Indian boarding schools: cultural assimilation and destruction placed thousands of native american children into indian cultural assimilation and. The isolation and assimilation of native americans in herbert and redding’s natoma 5 despite social isolation and cultural suppression. Native american cultural assimilation In the nineteenth century, many native american children attended “indian schools” designed to blot out native cultures in favor of anglo assimilation. Free essay: native american cultural assimilation from the colonial period to the progressive october 2, 2011 introduction although the first european. - Assimilation of native americans is an important issue in the history of united states it describes how the federal government and land hungry whites tried to. - Find out more about the history of native american cultures, including disease and assimilation nearly exterminated the culture area’s native population. - Native american cultural revitalization today a blog post at folklife today on 2015-11-24. - Cultural assimilation occurs when members what is an example of cultural assimilation a: one example involves the forced assimilation of native americans. - Both the united states and canada developed assimilation policies for their native peoples americans and canadians both believed that the only way to save the. Free essay: native americans have had a long history of resistance to the social and cultural assimilation into white culture by employing various creative. Native american assimilation through education exit ticket: students wrote 1-2 sentences showing previous knowledge of native american culture day 3. Plan of investigation how did assimilation through institutionalization affect the native american people in order to answer this question, the institutionalization. Us multiculturalism or cultural assimilation by a b wilkinson ap photo/charlie neibergall native americans and african americans at alarming rates. As the american population grew and european culture became the norm in america, native american's were forced to assimilate, or be forced off their land. Many ethnic indians and persons with extensive western cultural and 101 tips for landing native american scholarships indian identity and assimilation.
Some Kanbi own land as shareholders while others work as tenant farmers. Agriculture is the major subsistence activity. Crops grown include several varieties of millet (including spiked millet), pigeon peas, rice, cluster beans, sesame, castor, chilies, and spices. Other vegetables are purchased from vendors locally and beyond the village confines. Cotton and tobacco are also cultivated. The more wealthy Kanbi supplement their income through investment, trade, industry, and commercial activities. The Kanbi have a cash economy and produce few implements. Wealthy Kanbi families engage in a variety of professional, industrial, and trade-related activities (foreign and domestic). In exchange for services rendered by several servant and specialized castes, the Kanbi settle their accounts in cash or by means of barter (e.g., with grain). Occupational specialization obtains in Kanbi villages. Specialized castes (e.g., Brahmans, barbers, washers, potters, carpenters, tailors, and shopkeepers) provide important services. Men work agricultural fields and women prepare meals, handle household chores, and care for domestic animals.
Answer to what is the difference between kg-mass and kg- force. To calculate force, use the formula force equals mass times acceleration, or f = m × a make sure that the mass measurement you’re using is in kilograms and the acceleration is in meters over seconds squared. Quiz 4 force 1 the weight in newtons of one 10-kg mass is approximately _____ a 10 n b 98 n c 320 n d 32 n 2 newton’s second law of motion deals with. Mass, force, & weight the units what is the difference in the weight in newtons of a 100 kg rocket at 10 km above the earth (g=976 m/s 2) as opposed to its. Diferent force units conversion from kilonewton to kilograms force between kn and kgf measurements conversion chart page convert 1 kn into kilogram force and kilonewtons to kgf. The international system of units (si) is widely used for trade, science, and engineering the si unit of force is the newton, symbol n. Converting mass units into force units r ecall from your physics course that force is defined by the relationship: whose units are kg. What force is required give a 12 kg mass an acceleration of 5 m/s 2 f net = ma = 12 kg 5 m/s 2 = 60 n a single force of strength 28 n acts on an object whose mass. Because f=ma, you simply need to multiply the mass with the acceleration for example: if you have an object with a mass of 2 kilograms on earth, then the force it is exerting on the ground is 20 newtons (g=10 m/sec2). I know that a 1 kilogram-force is the force of 1 kilogram acted upon by 1 standard unit of gravity (980665 m/s^2) however, in torque descriptions i find that some use $kgfcm$ while others us. An object has a mass of 5 kg how much force is needed to accelerate it at 6 m/s2 if an object accelerates at 5 m/s^2 with 20 newton of force, what is the mass. Since there is no vertical acceleration, normal force kate and rob use a hanging mass and pulley system to exert a 245 n rightward force on a 0500-kg cart to. Try these exercise 1) how much net force is required to accelerate a 1500 kg car at 600 m/s2 please enter your answer in the space provided:. The difference is that a kilogram of mass is correct, whereas a kilogram of force is wrong kilogram is a unit of mass. Student academic learning services 2 is a unit for force the same way that 1 n=1 kg ∙m/s 2 is a unit for force student academic learning services page 3 of 3. Conversion of newton to kilogram not for physic professors and science teachers :-) only for domestic use on earth force is not mass 1 n is the force of earth's gravity on a mass of about 102 g = (1 / 981 kg). Bar to kilogram force per square meter (bar to kg/m2) conversion calculator for pressure conversions with additional tables and formulas. Kilogram force per square meter to bar (kg/m2 to bar) conversion calculator for pressure conversions with additional tables and formulas. Weight, mass and gravity people often confuse mass and weight remember that weight is a force, and is measured in newtons mass is measured in kilograms (kg). Conversions of force units f newton is the si basic unit of force 1 n = 1 kg × m / s 2 the unit sign is n and the symbol of force is f (force) force of weight f g = m × g mass = m and gravity acceleration g = 980665 m/s 2.Download
Making Fruit-Shaped Kebabs Teach students to identify and compare shapes by helping them make fruit kebabs. - Grades: PreK–K, 1–2 Young children learn mathematical concepts best through hands-on activities. Help your students learn about shapes by making a sweet, healthy snack together. Note: Warn students to be careful with the plastic knives and bamboo skewers. Depending on the age of the children, you may want to have an adult cut the fruit into pieces. What You Need - Any type of fresh or canned fruit, such as grapes, apples, orange sections, bananas, pears, or pineapple chunks - Plastic knives - Small bowls - Paper plates - Bamboo skewers What You Do Together - First, cut the fruit into a variety of shapes. Your students can help by peeling and slicing a banana, cutting an apple into cubes, pulling grapes off their stems, or pouring out the canned fruits. - Together, sort the fruits into separate bowls and have a taste test. Talk about the different flavors and textures. Which fruit do your students like most? Least? Which are your favorites? Then sort the contents of the bowls into shape categories. Which are circles? Squares? Other shapes? Compare the shapes of the cut fruit with their original shapes. - Slide the fruit shapes onto bamboo skewers to create different patterns. As you do so, talk about the kinds and number of shapes you're each using and patterns you're creating. Cut new shapes from the fruits, such as half circles from banana slices or grapes, as you go. - Enjoy your snack together. Another time, try making vegetable kebabs with carrots, celery, green peppers, or other favorite vegetables. With any luck, your students will love these, too! More Ways to Learn Shape a game. Together, draw shape patterns on index cards. For example, on one card, draw two circles and two squares. Then draw matching shapes on construction paper. Ask children to help them out and match the cutouts to the game cards. Later, suggest that they find small items around the classroom to match to the card patterns. Categorize your kitchen. Ask children to help you sort the food in your cabinets or pantry. Let them group items in each category — boxes, canned goods, spices — by shape and size. Then create a system together for organizing them. A Spanish Version of this activity is also available.
Timing, as they say, is everything. Particularly in springtime, when you're waiting for the tulips to bloom, the dogwoods to flower, and the crocuses to appear. At Mammoth Cave National Park in Kentucky, officials hope you'll alert everyone when you see that first bud burst into color. Mammoth Cave National Park as a Project Budburst Partner is asking the public to watch and record the leafing, flowering, and fruiting cycles of ten plant species. Project Budburst is a network of people -- citizen scientists -- across the United States who monitor plants and collect ecological data as the seasons change. “Project Budburst allows data to be collected in a consistent manner across the country so it can be used by citizens, researchers, scientists, and educators to learn how plants react to changes over time,” said Shannon Trimboli, education coordinator for the Mammoth Cave International Center for Science and Learning. “For instance, we can compare the flowering time of dogwoods from year to year, on a local, regional and national basis. You can record information from here in the park or observe plants in your own backyard. This is a great project that anyone can participate in as individuals, families, or classes.” The ten species that Mammoth Cave staff are most interested in learning about are: mayapple, Virginia bluebells, flowering dogwood, garlic mustard, eastern redbud, Virginia creeper, beefsteak plant, spicebush, tulip poplar, and eastern serviceberry. Two on the list (garlic mustard and beefsteak plant) are invasive alien species that if left unchecked will crowd out native plants; on a farm, the beefsteak plant can out compete other plants that cattle prefer to eat. “Mammoth Cave National Park recognizes the valuable contributions that citizen scientists can make towards better understanding the natural resources we are charged with protecting,” said Superintendent Sarah Craighead. “We are pleased to be a Project Budburst at the Parks partner. Working together we will gain detailed data on our plant communities and how climate change may affect them.” How do you participate? Go to the Project Budburst website and download a data form. Observe plant activity in your yard, on a farm, or in a park and record what you find. Enter your data on the Project Budburst website. If you want to collect data on plants that aren’t one of Mammoth Cave’s ten focus species, then check out the other plant lists that can be found on the Project Budburst website. Information gathered on those plants will be used by other scientists and researchers.
Some Obstacles to Vocabulary Development A strong vocabulary, both written and spoken, requires more than a dictionary. In fact, it requires an educational commitment to overcoming four obstacles: the size of the task (the number of words students need to learn is exceedingly large), the differences between spoken and written English, the limitations of information sources including dictionaries, and the complexity of word knowledge (simple memorization is not enough). Learn more about these challenges to acquiring the 2,500 words a student needs to add each year to their reading vocabulary. - The size of the task. The number of words that students need to learn is exceedingly large. - The differences between spoken English and written, or "literate" English. The vocabulary of written English, particularly the "literate" English that students encounter in textbooks and other school materials, differs greatly from that of spoken, especially conversational, English. Students-both English language learners and those for whom English is the first language-may have limited exposure to literate English outside of school. - The limitations of sources of information about words. The sources of information about words that are readily available to students-dictionaries, word parts, and context-pose their own problems. Each can be difficult to use, uninformative, or even misleading. - The complexity of word knowledge. Knowing a word involves much more than knowing its dictionary definition, and simply memorizing a dictionary definition does not guarantee the ability to use a word in reading or writing. Adding to the complexity is the fact that different kinds of words place different demands on learners. The Size of the Task Although there is still debate over exactly how many and what words are essential for students to learn so as to become skillful readers, there is no question that skillful readers learn words by the thousands. There is also no doubt that without instructional intervention, the vocabulary gap between more and less skillful readers continues to widen over time. We know that, on average, students add 2,000-3,000 words a year to their reading vocabularies. This means that they learn from six to eight new words each day — an enormous achievement. Individual differences in vocabulary size also involve large numbers. Some fifth-grade students may know thousands more words than other students in the same classroom. As a teacher, you know the difference this can make: students who know the meanings of many words catch on to and understand new ideas and concepts much faster than do those students with limited vocabularies. Early in children's lives, differences in word knowledge levels begin to appear. This, in part, is due to the varying range of words children are exposed to within their homes and communities. Exposure to new words can differ dramatically among the children of families from different socioeconomic classes. It has been shown, for example, that young children of parents with jobs classified as "professional" can be exposed to 50 percent more words than are children of parents classified as "working class," and to twice as many words as children of parents who receive welfare support. This finding does not mean that all, or even most children from low sES backgrounds are condemned to lives of linguistic poverty. Rather, it underscores the importance of finding ways to provide children with more activities that promote language development and vocabulary growth, beginning in the earliest days of school. Children whose homes have not prepared them for the variety of English necessary for educational success can learn to master this language through well-designed school experiences. The Differences Between Spoken English and Written English Most spoken language, and especially the language of face-to-face conversation, is less rich and varied in vocabulary use than is written language. This is partly because speakers have a variety of communicative tools at their disposal — gestures, tone of voice, and facial expression — that are not available to writers. In addition, conversations between friends involve shared knowledge, which makes precise communication possible without precision in wording; "You know who" can identify the subject of a remark as precisely as a detailed physical description. In conversation, accuracy of communication depends more on feedback from listeners than on getting what is said exactly right. In writing, and especially in literate writing, the primary communicative tool is precision in word choice. In fact, a conversation among college-educated adults contains, on average, less rich and varied vocabulary than does a typical children's book. The language of television is sometimes more varied than everyday conversation, but it seldom matches the level of language used in children's books. The differences between spoken and written English can pose major problems for students learning English, whose vocabulary difficulties sometimes can be disguised by their conversational fluency. For example, children of immigrant parents can become proficient in everyday conversation in less than two years. However, it may take a longer period of time for these children to become proficient in literate English. If teachers are not aware of the difference in the time it takes to achieve conversational fluency and proficiency with written English, they might diagnose as learning or reading disabled a conversationally proficient English language learner who has trouble understanding textbooks. Learning the vocabulary of literate English can be a problem as well for students for whom English is the first language. Words such as renovate, restore, delve, and elude, which might appear in a story from a fifth-grade textbook, are rarely encountered in everyday speech. We cannot assume that children will be familiar with all the words they encounter in school and in textbooks just because they come from English-speaking homes or just because they are proficient in conversational English. Limitations of the Sources of Information About Words Learning on their own or as part of a lesson, students have three main sources of information about words: dictionaries, word parts, and context. All of these are important, but each is also problematic. Dictionaries. Although dictionary use is a main feature of most vocabulary instruction, many students do not receive the kind of instruction they need to learn how to use a dictionary effectively. Traditional instruction in dictionary use focuses on having students look up words and use information from the definitions they find to write sentences. This kind of instruction appears to produce only a superficial understanding and rapid forgetting of a word. Young students often have difficulty interpreting the information in definitions, especially when it comes to how the word is used in a sentence. This is true even when the definitions have been rewritten to make them more user-friendly. In fact, after examining the errors made by students who wrote sentences based on dictionary definitions of new words, the examiners concluded that this activity is "pedagogically useless." Young students also often have difficulty choosing the appropriate meanings from a dictionary entry for an unknown word. Dictionary definitions that might be accurate for adults are often too convoluted for children to understand, and the simplified definitions found in school dictionaries and glossaries often fail to adequately describe the word's meaning. Word parts. Students' ability to use word parts — prefixes, suffixes, and roots — to interpret new words can contribute greatly to their vocabulary growth. Nevertheless, word parts are not a completely reliable source of information about word meanings. To illustrate, consider pairs of words such as the following, which share recognizable parts, but which are not clearly related in meaning: casual/casualty, emerge/emergency, sign/resign, sign/design, awe/awful. Context. Students can acquire a great deal of vocabulary knowledge as they pick up the meanings of words from context as they read widely in appropriately challenging texts. However, the benefits of context are primarily long-term-a matter of gradually accumulating partial information about words as they are encountered repeatedly; the chance of learning the meaning of any particular word from one encounter with that word in context is rather slim. Finally, to use dictionary definitions, word parts, and context effectively requires awareness of words and flexible thinking-metacognitive and metalinguistic sophistication that many students do not possess. In fact, the students who are most in need of vocabulary growth are likely to be the ones least effective at using these sources of information. The Complexity of Word Knowledge What does it mean to know a word? Conventionally, when we talk about knowing a word, we mean knowing its definition. But knowing a word's definition is not the same thing as being able to use that word in speech and writing or to understand a text in which the word appears. People are able to use and to recognize in print words such as at, the, and so, but very few can give a formal definition for them. Definitions are ways we talk about word meanings, but are different from word meanings. In the conventional form of a definition, the definition first identifies the category to which a word belongs, and then describes how the word differs from other members of that category. A conventional definition of fissure, taken from a widely used dictionary, reads as follows: "a narrow opening [class] produced by cleavage [differentiation]." The problem with conventional definitions is that they do not always help students to learn word meanings. Indeed, the shortcomings of using such definitions to learn words can be seen in the sentences students write after they have read them. Given the following definition of redress: "set right; repair, remedy," one student wrote the following sentence: "The redress for getting well [when] you're sick is to stay in bed." Subtle misunderstandings such as this one suggest that for many students, a word's "meaning" is not captured fully in a description of its logical relations to other words. To know a word, students need to encounter it in context and see how its meaning relates to the words around it, and how it relates to the other words that might have been used in its place. They need to understand that worry and fret are ways of showing concern, or that galleon, schooner, and dinghy are all types of boats. In addition, they need to understand how the meaning of words shift and change as they are used in different contexts. For example, look at changes in meaning for the word gave, as it appears in different contexts: John gave Frank five dollars. John gave Mary a kiss. The doctor gave the child an injection. The orchestra gave a stunning performance. Although all of these examples involve an act of transmitting, with a giver, a recipient, and something given, each act differs greatly from the others. Students cannot learn this information from a dictionary definition alone. Instead, they need to see the word in many different contexts, to see how the word's meaning changes and shifts. Adding to the complexity of word knowledge is the fact that all words are not the same. Vocabulary contains function words and content words. Function words are words that have a syntactic function, that are used to alert a reader or speaker to the structure of the sentence. The previous sentence without the words are, that, a, to, or, the, and of reads as follows: Function words have syntactic function, used cue reader speaker structure sentence. Without function words the sentence is unintelligible. Most speakers of English learn function words readily, in the first stages of language development. There are a relatively small number of such words, with approximately 100 accounting for almost 50 percent of the words used in written English. However, the number of content words is virtually unlimited. Content words are the nouns, verbs, and adjectives that carry information in a text. Content words can be more or less concrete or abstract. Concrete words have a perceptible referent-for example, things, colors, sounds. Abstract words are more difficult to picture, feel, or hear. Not surprisingly, abstract words are more difficult to learn than are concrete words. In vocabulary instruction, the meanings of concrete words can be tied to an object, or shown, whereas the meanings of abstract words have to be taught through examples and non-examples. Other content words are infrequently used synonyms for words that are already known, such as longevous (long-lived), abattoir (slaughterhouse), and paranomasia (pun). These words may represent different shades of meaning from their synonyms, but knowing the meaning of the more frequent synonym usually gets a reader through a text containing the less frequent word. The reader learns the different shades of meaning though continued exposure. More often than not, content words represent not just a new term, but a new concept, a new way of organizing ideas and experiences. For example, concepts such as logarithm or photosynthesis need to be learned in the context of other mathematical or biological concepts. We learn concepts through repeated encounters with them in a number of different contexts. Learning word meanings as concepts is vital to vocabulary development-and content-area learning. Click the "References" link above to hide these references. Irvin, J. L. (1997). Reading and the middle school student (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Anderson, R. C., & Nagy, W. E. (1992). The vocabulary conundrum. American Educator, (16), 14–18, 44–46. Anglin, J. M. (1993). Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58 (Serial No. 238). Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G. (1991). Conditions of vocabulary acquisition. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (vol. 2, pp. 789–814). New York: Longman.; Nagy, W. E., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19–36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.; White, Graves, & Slater, 1990. Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children: The everyday experience of one and two year old American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. For example, Snow, C. E., Barnes, W., Chandler, J., Goodman, I., & Hemphill, L. (1992). Unfulfilled expectations: Home and school influences on literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. American Educator, 22, 8–15.; Hayes, D. P. (1988). Speaking and writing: Distinct patterns of word choice. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 572–585 Collier, V. P. (1989). How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 509–631. Miller, G., & Gildea, P. (1987). How children learn words. Scientific American, 27, 94–99. McKeown, M. G. (1993). Creating effective definitions for young word learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 16–31.; Scott, J. A., & Nagy, W. E. (1997). Understanding the definitions of unfamiliar verbs. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 184–200. Nagy, W. E., Anderson, R. C., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Learning word meanings from context during normal reading. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237–270.; Schatz, E. K., & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meaning. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 439-453. Nagy, W. E. (1988). Vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension (Tech. Rep. No. 431). Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading. Anderson, R. C., & Nagy, W. E. (1991). Word meaning. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (vol. 2, pp. 690–724). New York: Longman. 20 Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Excerpt from: Texas Education Agency. (2002). Promoting Vocabulary Development: Components of Effective Vocabulary Instruction, 2002 Online Revisited Edition (pp. 4-9). Retrieved October 11, 2007, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/reading/practives/redbk5.pdf. Comments and Recommendations
It ain’t easy being a bee in the modern world or a bat or a hummingbird, for that matter — according to a new report from the National Research Council. The Council, which is the research arm of the National Academies, has found that the bees and critters that pollinate flowers and fruit in North America are in noticeable decline. Last year, for example, was the first since 1922 that honeybees had to be imported from outside North America to pollinate crops. While most people look on honeybees as a mild nuisance, they play a big role in the country’s agriculture. For instance, “it takes about 1.4 million colonies of honeybees to pollinate 550,000 acres of almond trees in California,” according to the Council. A number of factors seem to be contributing to the decline of pollinators, including the loss of habitat and the arrival of invasive species that compete with native pollinators. But the decline of the honeybee can be tracked to the mid 1980s, when the blood-sucking mite called the Varroa destructor first appeared in this country and began ravaging honeybee populations. What’s the solution? Here’s the Research Council’s take, as stated in its prepared release: “Effective conservation and restoration of pollinator populations requires a level of knowledge that does not yet exist, the committee determined. It urged USDA and other federal agencies to support research aimed at the sustainable management of these populations. In the meantime, landowners can take simple and relatively inexpensive steps to make habitats more “pollinator friendly,” for instance by growing native plants. Encouraging such practices will require active public outreach, the committee pointed out.” For more on pollinators and what you can do, check the Pollinator Partnership.
Metalworking involves the intricate process of casting, cutting, forming, and joining metals to create components, assemblies, and large structures. Metalworkers use a variety of tools, skills, and processes to create a wide range of objects and infrastructure, such as bridges, buildings, engine parts, jewelry, and even large shipping vessels. Metalworking has existed for thousands of years as an exact science, hobby, art, and trade. In fact, metalworking evolved from the act of smelting ores to a full-blown industry. Metalworkers report to a machine shop equipped with hundreds of tools capable of creating an array of items. Types of Metal The art of metalworking has existed for thousands of years, insomuch that the ancients knew of seven metals that would work to form objects and structures for utilitarian and aesthetic value. These metals include gold, silver, mercury, copper, tin, lead, and iron. Modern metalworking and fabrication processes use steel shapes and forms, such as carbon steel bars, sheets, strips, plates, wire, wire products, and tin plates. In addition, the metalworking industry uses stainless steel, alloy steel, iron, and aluminum to create a variety of castings, forms, cuts, and joints. Metalworkers use a variety of tools to cut, shape, bore, and thread numerous types of metals. In addition, metalworkers may use manual or electrically powered tools to perform different tasks. Hand operated tools include shears, files, hammers, and hacksaws. Electrically powered tools include drills, taps, band saws, grinders, and dies. Metalworkers use hacksaws, tools designed with multiple fine teeth, to make precise cuts in metal. Hacksaws cut through almost any type of metal, including copper, aluminum, brass, hardened steel, and cast iron. Metalworkers employ hammers to straighten or create indentations in metal. Files serve to smooth out rough edges after cutting the main pieces of metal. In addition, files add shape to an existing workpiece. Metalworkers use grinders to smooth out very large edges in a metal workpiece, oftentimes on a table mount. Grinders feature abrasive wheels that rapidly turn to sand, polish, cut, and sharpen metal. Metalworkers may also use mechanically powered band saws to quickly cut large pieces of metal, usually on a bench mount. Drills serve to bore holes of various diameters into an existing workpiece. Taps and dies create a threaded surface on the inside and outside of a metal workpiece. Metalworkers employ casting processes when they want to create an object from liquid metal. They achieve this by pouring the liquefied metal into a pre-shaped, hollow mold and then giving it time to cool and solidify prior to removal. Metalworkers refer to the solidified object as a casting, which gets ejected from the mold to complete the process. Metalworkers employ casting when they want to create complex shapes unattainable by other methods. Metalworkers typically use casting for sculpture, especially when using precious metals and bronze to create jewelry, weapons, and tools. Metalworkers define casting in two different categories, including expendable and non-expendable processes. Metalworkers employ forming processes in order to modify metal, nd existing workpieces without removing any material. Metalworkers use a heated mechanical system to deform metal or workpieces into a desirable shape, especially with bulk-forming. Metalworkers use mechanical systems that apply force to metal and workpieces at room temperature to create a desirable shape, a process referred to as sheet forming. Modern industrial processes may involve heating dies and other components when forming metal. Metalworkers employ cutting processes when they want to create geometric shapes in metal and existing workpieces. Cutting may require numerous kinds of tools that will create a finished product that meets the metalworker’s specifications. Cutting may involve various technologies that produce the desired finished product, including machining, burning, drilling, turning, milling, grinding, sawing, welding, plasma, oxy-fuel burning, laser, water jet, and electric discharge. Machining, also known as milling, involves the process of creating complex shapes of metal and other raw materials to form a final product. Metalworkers typically use milling machines or electrically powered devices that rotates on a spindle axis, to create complex three-dimensional objects. Milling machines perform a variety of complex operations, such as threading, rabbeting, planning, drilling, and routing. Metalworkers can mill a wide range of metals, including aluminum and stainless steel. Turning involves the intricate process of cutting metals to produce cylindrical surfaces with a single-pointed tool. Metalworkers use lathes to rotate the workpiece on a spindle that spins axially and radially. Lathes can create round ended objects, such as camshafts, bearing mounts, baseball bats, table legs, bowls, and candlestick holders. Metalworkers use a variety of softer metals while turning. Other cutting methods include threading, grinding, and filing. Threading involves cutting threads of metal with a tape or die. Grinding involves cutting metal with an abrasive wheel, usually to smooth out rough edges. Filing combines grinding, and saw-tooth cutting to flatten out metal surfaces Metalworkers also specialize in joining metal together after shaping it through a series of fabrication processes, such as welding, soldering, brazing, and riveting. Welding involves the act of enjoining metals together by inducing coalescence. Metalworkers cause coalescence by melting the existing workpieces and then adding filler to form molten material. The molten material eventually cools to form a strong joint. Welders employ a gas flame, electric arc, lasers, friction, ultrasound, and electron beams to join workpieces together. Brazing involves enjoining work pieces by drawing liquefied filler metal into a capillary of multiple workpieces. As the filler metal enters the capillary, it causes a metallurgical reaction with the workpieces and solidifies to form a strong joint. Metalworkers do not melt the workpiece when brazing, and it produces minimal thermal stresses compared with welding. Metalworkers employ several brazing techniques, including resistance brazing, furnace brazing, inductive brazing, flame brazing, and diffusion brazing. Soldering involves the process of enjoining metal at temperatures below 842 degrees Fahrenheit. Soldering functions in the same way as brazing, except it occurs at a lower temperature; however, the minimal metallurgical reaction that occurs while soldering results in a weaker joint. Riveting, an ancient metalworking joining process, involves the assembling of two workpieces with an unthreaded bolt. The metalworker drills or punches holes through two pieces of metal and then aligns before joining them together. In order to remove a rivet, a metalworker must use a hammer to drive it out. Metalworkers may also employ nontraditional metalworking processes before or after the primary construction of workpieces. For instance, metalworkers may apply a heat source to two enjoined pieces of metal to alter its strength, toughness, hardness, and ductility. Metalworkers identify these heat treatment processes as quenching, tempering, annealing, and precipitation strengthening. Plating involves treating the surface layer of metal by bonding two workpieces with another metal, such as chromium, zinc, gold, and silver. Plating reduces corrosion; therefore, improving the product’s overall aesthetic appeal. Metalworkers also apply thermal spraying techniques to promote proper finishing to the product.

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