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Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization are "those drugs that satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population; they should therefore be available at all times in adequate amounts and in appropriate dosage forms, at a price the community can afford." The WHO has published a model list of essential medicines. Each country is encouraged to prepare their own lists taking into consideration local priorities. At present over 150 countries have published an official essential medicines list.The WHO List contains a core list and a complementary list. The core list presents a list of minimum medicine needs for a basic health care system, listing the most efficacious, safe and cost-effective medicines for priority conditions. Priority conditions are selected on the basis of current and estimated future public health relevance, and potential for safe and cost-effective treatment. The complementary list presents essential medicines for priority diseases, for which specialized diagnostic or monitoring facilities are needed. In case of doubt medicines may also be listed as complementary on the basis of consistent higher costs or less attractive cost-effectiveness in a variety of settings. The compilation of an essential medicines list enables health authorities, especially in developing countries, to optimize pharmaceutical resources. - WHO Model List of Essential Medicines - World Health Organization - Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines - Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines - Universities Allied for Essential Medicines
2. Using role play to explore gender differences Role playing can be a very powerful teaching and learning method – especially when dealing with sensitive topics in life skills or citizenship lessons. It is particularly useful when exploring issues of gender with your pupils. It can help pupils to speak more freely because they are talking about the behaviour of other people rather than their own behaviour. (See Key Resource: Using role play/dialogue/drama in the classroom.) It is important to explore where gender stereotypes come from. Pupils need to recognise when stereotypical behaviour is reinforced. Much of this happens in the family, but you may want to look at your own behaviour. Do you reinforce gender stereotypes in your classroom? Were gender stereotypes reinforced in your own family? Case Study 2 shows how one teacher used his own experience to explore gender with his class. Case Study 2: Using childhood experience to discuss gender Mr Daasa wanted to work with his class on gender issues. He spent some time thinking about what to do. He remembered that when he was a child, his father used to tell him to ‘act like a man’. He also remembered that his two sisters were often told off for not ‘being ladylike’. He decided to use these examples to introduce his lesson. He prepared two sheets with the following titles: ‘Act like a man’ and ‘Be ladylike’. He asked the boys to say what it means to act like a man. When the boys ran out of ideas, he asked the girls. He did the same for the girls, asking what words or expectations they had of someone who is ladylike. He wrote all their ideas on the sheets. He drew boxes around certain words on the lists and explained that behaving in this way can stop pupils wanting to succeed. They talked about how it is alright for boys to like machines and sport and for girls to like cooking and looking after children, but the problem comes when we feel we must fulfil these roles ‘to fit in’. Some girls may wish to work with machines etc. and some boys may want to look after children or be cooks, but they don’t say so because they might be laughed at. In small groups, the pupils discussed when they had felt under pressure to act in certain ways and did not want to. They discussed what they could do to be accepted as they were and perhaps do things differently to their parents or carers. Activity 2: Reverse role play In this activity, we want you to prepare some role plays where the ‘normal’ roles are reversed (see Resource 3: Reverse role play for an example). This may help you to think about different situations where you can swap the traditional roles played by men and women. Read Key Resource: Using role play/dialogue/drama in the classroom. Explain to your class about the activities and their purpose and about not laughing at people, but to think about the issues raised as they watch. After each role play, ask pupils to discuss, in mixed-gender groups, the following questions: - What do you think about this situation? - How did you feel when you were watching the role play, and why? - What do our feelings show about how we see the roles of men and women in society? - If the role play were the other way around, would you have felt differently? If you have younger pupils, you will need to make your role plays quite simple. Also, you may feel you need to guide their discussion afterwards, rather than asking them to discuss the questions in groups.
Wounds on palms do not close. Feb 24, Tree pruning is a horticultural practice in which trees are carefully trimmed to remove branches and foliage. There are a number of reasons to engage in tree pruning, ranging from a desire to cut back foliage to increase the flow of light into an area, to a need to trim trees for fire safety reasons. Most trees require regular pruning to grow in a healthy and normal manner, and tree pruning. Feb 27, Pruning is the process of cutting away dead or overgrown branches or stems to promote healthy plant growth. Most plants, including trees, shrubs and garden plants like roses benefit from different methods of pruning and bushcleanup.barted Reading Time: 10 mins. Learn why people trust wikiHow. Sep 12, Pruning is when you selectively remove branches from a tree. The goal is to remove unwanted branches, improve the tree’s structure, and direct new, healthy growth. What are the benefits of pruning? Pruning is one of best things you can do for your trees. Pruning Trees Pruning is the most common tree maintenance procedure. Unlike forest trees, landscape trees need a higher level of care to maintain structural integrity and aesthetics. Pruning must be done with an understanding of tree biology because improper pruning can create lasting damage or shorten the tree’s life. Philosophy of pruning trees A properly pruned tree looks as natural as possible; the tree’s appearance reflects its fundamental form and character. The pruner must maintain this structural integrity and know a little tree biology and proper pruning bushcleanup.barted Reading Time: portland statutes tree removal conservation area mins. Pruning is a horticultural and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. It is important when pruning that the tree's limbs are kept intact, as this is what helps the tree stay upright. Jul 04, In machine learning and data mining, pruning is a technique associated with decision trees. Pruning reduces the size of decision trees by removing parts of the tree that do not provide power to classify instances. Decision trees are the most susceptible out of all the machine learning algorithms to overfitting and effective pruning can reduce this bushcleanup.barted Reading Time: 7 mins. Sep 10, As long as you keep it to a minimum, cutting into a tree sends a signal to stimulate growth, so pruning and trimming can help your trees grow faster. To Improve Fruit Production. When you prune a fruit tree, more spurs can grow. Fruits are produced from spurs, so more spurs mean more fruits for the following bushcleanup.barted Reading Time: 8 mins.
Overview of dyslexia People with dyslexia process information differently, which generally results in difficulties with reading and spelling. They may take longer to process information (both spoken and written). In addition, their difficulties with working memory make it harder for them to retain and manipulate information. On the plus side, many people with dyslexia are creative, ‘big picture’ thinkers with strong visual skills. Common challenges faced by students with dyslexia - Keeping up in lectures and taking accurate, concise notes. - Maintaining concentration in lectures and when reading. - Extracting the main points from lectures and texts, especially if abstract or complex. - Working out what assignment briefs mean and how to tackle them. - Getting their ideas down on paper in a logical, well-structured way. - Phrasing their ideas clearly and concisely. - Proof reading their writing for mistakes in spelling, punctuation and grammar. - Completing reading and writing tasks as quickly as their peers. - Organising their time and meeting deadlines. - Remembering appointments and tasks. - Responding quickly to spoken questions in seminars and discussions. - Demonstrating their full potential in exams. Find out more - Understanding Dyslexia - an introduction for dyslexic students in Higher Education (free online book). - Dyslexia and Technology (online factsheet explaining how technology can help).
Lesson One: Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives - Before Teaching - Lesson Plan - Activities, Materials & Presentations - Curriculum Standards - Download Lesson Plan [PDF format] - Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives: Distance Learning Video Archives are facilities that house physical collections, where records and materials are organized and protected. Archival materials are used to write history. Through the internet, digital archives make those records more accessible to students, researchers, and the general public. Students learn to navigate a digital archive by browsing and performing effective keyword searches. Through this process, students learn how to use the Helen Keller Archive. They also learn the value of preserving information. - Understand the function and significance of an archive. - Describe the different capabilities of a physical and a digital archive. - Know more about how archives can increase accessibility for people with visual and/or hearing impairments. - Navigate the digital Helen Keller Archive using the Search and Browse tools. - What is an archive? - How do I use a digital archive? - Why are archives important? - Computer, laptop, or tablet - Internet connection - Projector or Smartboard (if available) - Worksheets (provided, print for students) - Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive - American Foundation for the Blind: http://www.afb.org The Library of Congress images below can be used to illustrate and explain the Define an archive section of this lesson. Library of Congress: The Library of Congress Manuscript Reading Room Courtesy of the LOC Manuscript Division. The digital Helen Keller Archive homepage. Other Digital Archive Examples - Sports: Baseball Hall of Fame; primarily physical archive with partial photographic digital collection (https://baseballhall.org/about-the-hall/477) (https://collection.baseballhall.org) - Politics: United Nations; primarily physical archive with online exhibits (https://archives.un.org/content/about-archives) (https://archives.un.org/content/exhibits - Comics: Stan Lee Archives (https://rmoa.unm.edu/docviewer.php?docId=wyu-ah08302.xml) - History: Buffalo Bill Collection (https://digitalcollections.uwyo.edu/luna/servlet/uwydbuwy~60~60) - Dogs: American Kennel Club; primarily physical archive with partial digital collection (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/) (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/digital-collections/) - Art: Metropolitan Museum of Art Archives; physical archive with separate digital collections and library (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/libraries-and-research-centers/museum-archives) - Travel: National Geographic Society Museum and Archives (https://nglibrary.ngs.org/public_home) - National Geographic digital exhibits (https://openexplorer.nationalgeographic.com/ng-library-archives) - Space travel: NASA Archive; partially digitized (https://www.archives.gov/space) - Music: Blues Archive; partially digitized (http://guides.lib.olemiss.edu/blues) - Books: J.R.R.Tolkien; physical archive (https://www.marquette.edu/library/archives/tolkien.php) Ask and Discuss - Do you have a collection? Baseball cards, rocks, seashells, gel pens, shoes, vacation souvenirs? - Do you and/or your parents save your schoolwork or art projects? - Where and how do you store old photos? Text messages? - Personal collections are a kind of archive. - Things that you store and organize (to look at later) make up a basic archive. - If you wrote a guide for your friend to use when searching through your [vacation photos/baseball cards/drafts of your papers], you would be running an archive like the pros! - Optional: Select a sample archive to show students; options provided in resource section. Define an Archive - Optional: Use the definitions provided in the lesson definitions. - To be an archive, a collection must be: - Composed of unique documents, objects, and other artifacts; and - Organized to make sense of a collection so that people can find what they are looking for. - An archive is sometimes also: - Organized by an institution, managed by archivists, and made available to researchers. - Tells us about a person, organization, or physical things. - Typically held and protected in a physical repository, but may be made accessible electronically in a digital platform. What are the advantages of a physical archive, where you can have the materials right in front of you, versus seeing them on a screen? - Hands-on encounter with the past. For example, how would it feel to see/read from the original Declaration of Independence at the National Archives? - Analyze material properties of objects and manuscripts. - Wider range of access to all the items held in the archive (not all items are digitized). - Can flip through a physical folder rather than load a new page for every document. - What do you think is “easier”? - Have any students experienced something like this? What are the advantages of a digital archive, where you can have the materials available to you in digital format, on a website? - Accessible worldwide on the internet—you don’t have to travel to see what’s in the archive. - Keyword searchable. - Useful information in the format of transcriptions and metadata often included. - Accessible to people with disabilities, including those with impaired vision/hearing. - For example, the digital Helen Keller Archive allows users to change the text size and color of text and provides description for multimedia including photographs, film, and audio. Who is Archiving Information About You Right Now? - How is the public able to access that information now? In the future? - Is there information you would not want them to access now? In the future? Why? Using the Helen Keller Archive Open the digital Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive Note: The digital Helen Keller Archive team strongly recommends that this or similar demonstration be included in the lesson, unless the teacher has formally taught these students browse and search techniques. We find that students are used to “Google” style searches, which are not as effective on specialized sites like digital archives. We are going to use the digital Helen Keller Archive. Who has heard of Helen Keller? Why is she famous? What did she do? - Keller lost her sight and hearing at a young age but learned to sign, read, write, speak, and graduated college. - She used her fame to advocate on behalf of blind and deaf communities, fought for education/employment for blind people and the inclusion of people with disabilities in society. - She was politically active: Anti-war, advocated for socialism and workers’ rights, as well as the suffrage movement and women’s rights. - Distribute student version of How to Search [download PDF] and How to Browse [download PDF] and explain that you will be going through a few sample searches as a class. Invite the class to follow along if feasible. - Pull up the Helen Keller Archive home page and ask the class to explain the difference between search and browse. For example: - The Browse tool follows the structure and order of the physical collection. Browse is the best way to see how an archive is organized and what it contains. - The Search tool uses a keyword search term or terms. Search is the best way to find a specific item. Show the Browse Function - Click the Browse tab. - Click Browse by Series; point out the series titles and ask students to explain what each “series” contains. - In this archive, series are organized based on the type of materials (letters, photographs, and more). - Explain that this is how a physical archive is organized (in series, subseries, boxes, and folders). - Browse for a type of item. Guide students through the choices they have at each level. - For example: “Browse the photographs in this archive. This series is divided into photographs and photo albums. Let’s explore the photographs. How are these organized? It looks like they are organized alphabetically by subject matter. Wow, there are two folders here just for Helen Keller’s dogs! Let’s take a peek.” - Optional: Ask students to browse for “boomerang given to Helen in Australia”. Show the Search Function - Click the Simple Search tab. - Ask the class to pick a word to search based on either their knowledge of Helen Keller or class curriculum on late 19th/early 20th century. - For example: Let’s search for documents related to the women’s suffrage movement. The best way to start a keyword search is with a simple keyword. Let’s use “suffrage.” - Point out the filters in the left hand column and explain how they are used narrow search results. Ask students to choose one area to refine search to narrow their results for a specific reason. - For example: “Let’s select 1910-1920 so we can find material written before the 19th Amendment was passed.” - Works like a library or e-commerce website. - Optional: Ask students to search for a speech given by Helen Keller while she was traveling abroad. She gave many – they can choose any one. Brainstorm effective search terms and ways they might refine their results, and warn students it will take more than one step to find a speech that qualifies. - Show the Browse by subject functions and ask how they are similar to, or different from, searching by Keyword(s). - Use same topic as keyword search (or as close as possible). For example: Can you find “suffrage” in this subject list? - Explain that not all topics will be present. For example, there is no subject header for “computers”. - Break students into working groups. - Assign each group a “scavenger hunt” item (see in class worksheet). - Optional: Collect scavenger hunt items in a private list to be shared with the whole class. Sample Scavenger Hunt List - Flyer for a 1981 dance production “Two In One” - Film of Helen Keller testing a new communication device in 1953 - Medal from the Lebanese government - Photograph of Helen Keller at a United Nations meeting in 1949 - Or choose your own … Activities & Presentations for Teachers Activities for Students - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive [PDF format] - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive – The Needle in the Haystack [PDF format] Materials (Students & Teachers) - Definitions: [PDF format] - Frequently Asked Questions [PDF format] - How to Search [PDF format] - How to Browse [PDF format] This Lesson Meets the Following Curriculum Standards: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using different mediums (e.g., print or digital text, video, multimedia) to present a particular topic or idea. Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Empire State Information Fluency Continuum - Uses organizational systems and electronic search strategies (keywords, subject headings) to locate appropriate resources. - Participates in supervised use of search engines and pre-selected web resources to access appropriate information for research. - Uses the structure and navigation tools of a website to find the most relevant information.
Here’s your dismal fact of the day: if the world’s cement industry was a country, it would sit just behind China and the US as the third leading producer of carbon pollution. It doesn’t need to be that way, though. We just might be able to change that ugly statistic by producing the ingredients for this ubiquitous building material in a way that would allow for an easier capture of its emissions. Engineers from MIT have come up with an environmentally friendly method for transforming calcium carbonate into the most widely manufactured material in the world: Portland cement. The process for making cement currently involves crushing up limestone rocks and dumping the debris into a kiln. The pebbles are then mixed with clay and roasted to somewhere around 1,500 degrees Celsius thanks to a generous blast of heat from burning fossil fuels. That incineration alone would pump out plenty of CO2. But the chemical reconfigurations taking place inside the kiln also release a significant amount of gas. It all adds up to a shocking amount of carbon emissions we rarely give much thought to. “About one kilogram of carbon dioxide is released for every kilogram of cement made today,” says MIT engineer and materials scientist Yet-Ming Chiang. Given all of the cement being poured across the land each day, our love of solid grey structures contributes around 8 percent of global greenhouse emissions. Finding another way to loosen the bonds on the limestone’s calcium carbonate so it can incorporate into the binding agent known as ‘clinker‘ – chunks of di and tri calcium silicate mixed with some aluminate and ferrite – could potentially make for a vastly more sustainable solution. So instead of using heat, the team turned to the chemistry of acids and bases to convert calcium carbonate into a stepping stone of calcium hydroxide. To make this process as economical as possible, they made clever use of the way electricity can be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. If you stick two electrodes into a container filled with water and run a current through it, the atomic components of H2O will divorce from one another and form hydrogen gas at one electrode, and oxygen gas at the other. Significantly, the solution surrounding the oxygen-producing electrode will be slightly acidic, while the mix at the hydrogen-producing end will be more basic. Throw your crushed-up limestone into this pH gradient and the calcium carbonate will react to produce bubbles of carbon dioxide at one end, and solid particles of calcium hydroxide will precipitate out at the other. From there, turning your freshly made batch of calcium hydroxide into clinker – and the clinker into the grey powder you mix with water and sand – is a pretty straight-forward process. Of course, you’re still left with clouds of carbon dioxide billowing out of the electrochemical cell. So it’s not exactly emissions-free, but this relatively clean stream of gas should be fairly easy to collect and sequester away in theory. In any case, it’s a far cry from the ugly mass of combustion fumes and toxic mess of products that traditional processes belch out. As an added bonus, you’re left with the hydrogen and oxygen from split water molecules, which can be reunited and reused, or collected for another purpose. Essentially, the process has the potential to be cheap enough to have a hope of competing with kiln-based clinker production. “In many geographies, renewable electricity is the lowest-cost electricity we have today, and its cost is still dropping,” says Chiang. While the team have conducted a neat proof-of-concept, they can only estimate roughly how an industrialised version might stack up. Back-of-the-envelope calculations suggest a process like this one could amount to as little as $US35 per tonne, based on cheap electricity. At around $US28 a tonne for cement produced the old fashioned way, this carbon-light approach isn’t quite at a competitive level yet. Chiang agrees: “It’s an important first step, but not yet a fully developed solution”. This research was published in PNAS.
Biography Research: Preview Day! (Day 1 of 11) Lesson 1 of 11 Objective: SWBAT participate in book presentations and choose a biography for research. Welcome to a series of lessons I've created to accomplish Common Core Standards relating to reading biographies, taking relevant notes, and publishing a collaborative technology slide presentation. This is a culminating project to finish up the last two weeks of a six week unit on creative, inventive, and notable people of the turn-of-the-century. This set of lessons could be easily adapted to meet the needs of other biographical subjects in a different time period, or used with other types of informational text. I chose to use the Who Was? series of books for my researchers. This series worked very well into the upper range of our Lexile band, provided text feature support, had many biographical subjects of the time period we are studying, and were just the right length to read in a week. One advantage of choosing to use books within the same series is the text structure. This made it easy when completing my daily lessons on reading and note taking. Please watch this short introduction video to hear more about this lesson. Thank you! It's All In the Hook! I completed the activities in this lesson to get my students excited about reading a biography for our two week research unit. It's important to have them engaged, successfully taking notes, reading, reading, reading, and mastering the standards! Our class completed this lesson the week before we kicked off our biography unit. This gave me time to prepare materials based on student choices, record any books for students needing support, and arrange the desks in groups of the same biography for a kick-off of the unit on Monday. Introduction: I began by telling students we are going to be beginning a two week biography unit next week. I tell them that many of the creative, inventive, and notable people we've been studying are subjects of the biographies they'll get to choose from. I also explain that they'll get to practice their close reading and note taking skills, similar to what we've been working on with the question stems who, when, where, why, what, and how. They'll also create a Google slide show presentation with other students reading the same biography. Book Talks: I did a quick book talk about each of the Who Was? turn-of-the-century biography choices. My book talks included the biographical subject, what they were famous for, and a short excerpt from the book to hook students. The purpose of giving the students book talks is to get them excited and interested in books that they might not have normally read. Other Ideas: You could also show short clips from YouTube, other media resources, or a slide presentation to introduce your students to unfamiliar biographical subjects. Book Around Activity: After my book talks, I had students preview the books by completing a "Book Around". During a book around, I pass out one copy to each student of the different books available, spreading the different books out throughout the room. Students browse the books for about 20-30 seconds, and then rotate to preview a new book. This gives them time to browse through the book, read chapter titles, and examine text features to see if the book would interest them. In the video I noticed a lot of excitement as new books were passed! I additionally left the books out on my table for students to view throughout the day. (See Resource Files: Book Around Activity) Time to Choose! Choosing a Biography: After students had a chance to preview the books, they completed a choice sheet, noting their first through fourth choices. I know that giving students choices makes them feel invested in what they're doing, and luckily I was able to give all of my students their first or second choice! Whoo-hoo! (See Resource File: Who Was Series Choice Sheet) My Groups: I'll begin planning for next week right away. After I go through the student choice sheets, I have the following groups for next week: Who Was Annie Oakley? (2 girls, 1 boy) Who Was Amelia Earhart? (2 girls, 2 boys) Who Was Walt Disney? (1 girl, 1 boy) Who Was Dr. Seuss? (1 girl, 2 boys) Who Was Harry Houdini? (1 girl, 2 boys) Who Was Harry Houdini? (3 boys) Who Was Maria Tallchief? (3 girls) Who Was Albert Einstein? (1 girl, 2 boys) Who Was Roald Dahl? (2 boys) Who Was Louis Armstrong? (Teacher will use as sample)
Library instruction (also called Bibliographic instruction) is the process of teaching users how to find information in the library and on the Web. It is closely allied to the field of information literacy. Instructional services provided by an instruction librarian to a group of users designed to teach them how to locate the information they need quickly and effectively. Library instruction usually covers the library's system of organization, the structure of the literature of the field or topic, research methodology appropriate to the discipline, and increasingly involves hands-on practice using computerized search tools. Synonymous with bibliographic instruction or BI. Compare with user education. Library instruction is important, particularly at the college level, as students become familar with the research process. Analyzing the credibility of sources and resources is an important cognitive skill (Jackson 2007, 30). Library instruction can be provided in different formats, usually face-to-face or online. Many academic libraries have developed online courses, similar to pathfinders, which teach students to navigate databases (Tenopir, 2002). Librarians should remember the following when designing or conducting library instruction courses: Students may be a different levels of cognitive development,this may be their first experience with bibliographic instruction, even if students are familar with the web, they may not understand the nuances of key-word search or advanced search options. Students may believe that the first hits on a results list are the best and may not be able to analze complex ideas in order to determine the credibility of a source (Jackson 2007, 28-32). Jackson,Rebecca. 2007. Cognitive Development the missing link in teaching information literacy skills. Reference and User Services Quarterly. 46, no.4: 28-32. Tenopir, Carol. 2002. The age of online instruction. Library Jourmal. online.
\|Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions\| LINKING SCIENCE TO MANNED SPACE FLIGHT Manned Space Flight and Science When the engineers of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group began work on Project Mercury in 1958, they could not - as the space scientists could - draw on 10 years of experience in designing their spacecraft and conducting their missions. Aviation experience was helpful in some aspects of manned space flight, but in many others they faced new problems. Apollo posed many more. The engineers did not lack confidence that the President's goal could be met, but they knew only too well how much they had to learn to achieve it. A sense of urgency pervaded the manned space flight program from the beginning right up to the return of Apollo 11 - an urgency that determined priorities for engineers at the centers. Every ounce of effort went into rocket and spacecraft development and operations planning. Science was considerably farther down the list, and for the first five years they gave it little thought. Manned space flight projects were ruled by constraints that were less important to science projects. One was safety. Space flight was a risky business, obviously, but the risks had to be minimized. No matter that the astronauts themselves (all experienced test pilots in the beginning, accustomed to taking risks) understood and accepted the risks. From the administrator down to the rank-and-file engineer, everyone knew that the loss of an astronaut's life could mean indefinite postponement of man's venture into space. Moreover, NASA was in a race, competing against a competent adversary and working in the public eye, where its failures as well as its successes were immediately and widely publicized. Reliability was one key to safety, and spacecraft engineers strove for reliability by design and by testing. With few exceptions, critical systems - those that could endanger mission success or crew safety if they failed - were duplicated. If redundancy was not feasible, systems were built with the best available parts under strict quality control, and tested under simulated mission conditions to assure reliability.10 The measures taken to ensure reliability and safety contributed to the fact that manned spacecraft invariably tended to grow heavier as they matured, making weight control a continuing worry. Those constraints were not so vital in the unmanned programs. Instruments needed no life-support systems and required no protection from reentry heat; scientific satellites were usually expendable. Being smaller than manned spacecraft, they required smaller and less expensive launch vehicles. Furthermore, those vehicles could be less reliable. More science could be produced for the money if experimenters would accept less than 100-percent success in launches, and space scientists were content with this.11 The loss of a scientific payload, though serious to the investigators whose instruments were aboard, did not cost a life. On the whole the engineers were content to go their way while the scientists went theirs. But the scientists were not [see Chapter 1], and their protests seemed to require a response. Manned space flight enthusiasts spoke of the superiority of humans as scientific investigators and of the benefits to science that would result from putting trained crews in space or on the moon to make scientific observations. No existing instrument, they said, could approach a human's innate ability to react to unexpected observations and change a preplanned experimental program; if such an instrument could be built, it would be far more expensive than putting people into space.12 This argument did not move the space scientists, most of whom worked in disciplines where human senses were useless in gathering the primary scientific data. The role of a person in space science was not to make the observations but to conceive the experiment, design the instruments to carry it out, and interpret the results.13 Cleverness in these aspects of investigation was the mark of eminence in scientific research. The early manned programs offered space scientists no opportunities that could not be provided more cheaply by the unmanned programs. The relationship between the manned and unmanned programs - essentially one of independence - took quite a different turn with the Apollo decision. Within two weeks of President Kennedy's proposal to Congress, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden told the Senate space committee that Apollo planners would have to draw heavily on the unmanned lunar programs for information about the lunar surface. Knowledge of lunar topography and the physical characteristics of the surface layer was vital to the design of a lunar landing craft. Ranger was the only active project that could obtain this information, and to provide it, NASA asked Congress for funds to support four additional Ranger missions. The day after Dryden testified, NASA Headquarters directed the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to examine how to reorient Ranger to satisfy Apollo's needs.14 This directive was received with mixed feelings by the participants in Ranger. JPL's project managers favored a narrower focus, because the scientific experiments were giving them technical headaches that threatened project schedules. They proposed to equip the four new Rangers with high-resolution television cameras and to leave off the science experiments, using the payload space to add systems that would improve the reliability of the spacecraft. Scientists who had experiments on the Ranger spacecraft, however, were upset by the proposed change. When they complained to Newell, he and his Lunar and Planetary Programs director reasserted the primacy of science in Ranger and did everything they could to keep the experiments on all the flights. But the difficulties with the Ranger hardware and the pressure of schedules proved too much. In the end, the problem-plagued Ranger carried no space science experiments on its successful flights, but did return photographs showing lunar craters and surface debris less than a meter* across.15 Apollo could command enough influence to affect the unmanned lunar programs, but science had no such leverage on manned flights. For that matter, scientists had little interest in Mercury; its cramped spacecraft and severe weight limits, plus the short duration of its flights, made it unattractive to most experimenters. Still, the Mercury astronauts conducted a few scientific exercises, mostly visual and photographic observations of astronomical phenomena.16 Comparatively unimportant in themselves, these experiments pointed up the need for close coordination between the scientists (and the Office of Space Sciences) and the manned space flight engineers. After John Glenn's first three-orbit flight on February 28, 1962, the Office of Space Sciences and the Office of Manned Space Flight began to look toward the moon and what humans should and could do there.17 Apollo managers had spent the second half of 1961 making the critical decisions about launch vehicle and spacecraft design; in the spring of 1962 they were wrestling with the question of mission mode. Should they plan to go directly from earth to the moon, landing the whole crew along with the return vehicle and all its fuel on the lunar surface? Or would it be better to assemble the lunar vehicle in earth orbit - which would require smaller launch vehicles but would entail closely spaced multiple launches, rendezvous of spacecraft and lunar rocket, and the unexplored problems of transferring fuel in zero gravity from earth-orbiting tankers to the lunar booster? Or was the third possible method, lunar-orbit rendezvous, preferable: building a separate landing craft to descend from lunar orbit to the moon, leaving the earth-return vehicle circling the moon to await their return?18 Apart from its essential impact on the booster rocket and spacecraft, the mission mode would determine how much scientific equipment could be landed on the moon, how many men would land to deploy and operate it, and how long they would be able to stay. Until the decision was made it was pointless to try to design equipment, but by early 1962 the mission planners needed to know in general terms what the scientists hoped to do on the moon and some important questions of responsibility and authority had to be settled. * Ranger's results came too late (1964-1966) to affect the design of the Apollo lunar module; they did confirm that the designers' assumptions about the lunar surface were satisfactory and that the lunar module needed no modification. 10. For a discussion of some of the problems faced by the engineers in ensuring reliability, see Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington, 1966), pp. 167-213. 11. Newell, Beyond the Atmosphere, p. 163. 12. Scientists' Testimony on Space Goals, pp. 1 10, 244; Newell, "The Mission of Man in Space," address to Symposium on Protection Against Radiation Hazards in Space, Gatlinburg, Tenn., Nov. 5, 1962, text. 13. R. L. F. Boyd, "In Space: Instruments or Man?" International Science and Technology, May 1965, pp. 64-75. Boyd, a British astronomer with substantial experience in unmanned space science projects, presents the archetypal sky scientist's view - supremely confident of the potential of computerized systems and condescendingly contemptuous of the capability of man. 14. Hall, Lunar Impact, p. 114. 15. Ibid., pp. 289-96. 16. Swenson, Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, pp. 414-15. 17. Joseph F. Shea to Dir., Aerospace Medicine and Dir., Spacecraft & Flight Missions, "Selection and Training of Apollo Crew Members," Mar. 29, 1962. 18. Courtney G. Brooks, James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft, NASA SP-4205 (Washington, 1979), chap. 3.
To learn this little bit of Vedic multiplication you must be become familiar with the idea of a "Significant Digit" and the Idea of a "Base 10 number" "Significant Digit"-usually the first digit of any number...but if you comfortable with larger numbers you can take the first few digits as the significant digit. for Example: 27: the 2 is the significant digit 300054: the 3 is the significant digit, or if you prefer it could be 30 or 300 or 3000. It all depends on how you're willing to look at it. "Base 10" any number comprised only of 10's as it's only factors. 10 is base ten it's just 1x10 (I know I said just tens but every number has 1 as one of it's factors) And now we eat cookies. If you remember your grade school multiplication tables then you know it's 81 but suppose I said phooey to your multiplication tables and said try this instead: write down the numbers and next to them write down how far they are away from the nearest base 10 number. For example: Now to get the "significant digit" of your answer just SUBTRACT crosswise. Crosswise is VERY important don't subtract the one from the nine in it's own row you subtract the one from the other row. 9 - 1 =8 (this is the first digit of our answer) and to get the last digit(s) of our answer we multiply the last digits in each row by each other (also known as vertically) 1 x 1 = 1(this is the last digit of our answer) so we get 81 how about 9x8 No matter which way you subtract crosswise you'll get the same first digit 7 and multiply the 1x2 to get the last digit of your answer thus we have: I know I know you learned these answers from your grade school times tables but that's where the handy dandy "Base 10" numbers come in: Hah!!! I bet your times tables didn't go that high! well 100 is a base 10 number too, so we can use this method with it: cross subtracting gives us 98 as our significant digit and the 1x1 gives us our last digit but we have to be careful here because a two digit number times another two digit number usually gives us a four digit number so we write the 1 as 01. So our answer is 9801 Easy as eating cookies. cross subtraction gives us 96 as the significant digit of our answer and 2x2 gives us 04 so we know the answer is try a few: Now with some of these above example you realize you may have to carry for example 80x80 cross subtraction gives us 60 as our first digit, we know the answer should be 4 digits long and multiplying 20x20 gives us 400 which is three digits so we write the for in the zero after 60 thus what about 999x998 well 1000 is base 10 so, cross subtraction tells us the significant digit of our answer will be 997 but we also know a three digit number times another three digit number of this size should give us a 6 digit number so we write the 1x2 as 002 Some teachers will swear by the times tables but if you get used to this method soon you should be able to multiply PHONE numbers together or even credit card size numbers. What about 49x47? Well that's a long ways off from the nearest base 10 number but lets use 50 and see how it comes out. Remember 50 is HALF our base ten number so we must remember to HALF the significant digit of our answer also. (Just the significant digit only nothing else) cross subtraction tells us that our significant digit is going to be BUT we must HALF it before we write it down as our final answer thus 1x3 gives us 03 so the answer is How about 199x197? well the nearest base 10 number is 1000 but what if we used 200 instead? Well 200 is DOUBLE the base 10 number 100, so we must remember to DOUBLE the significant digit of our answer. cross subtraction shows our significant digit to be 196 but we must double that so we get 392_ _ _ 1x3 gives us 3 but we write it as 03 try a few: be sure to be careful where you put the digits. Practice Practice Practice. Another Vedic Multiplication trick: crosswise and vertical multiplication: write down the digits like so to get the significant digit of our answer just multiply the significant digits (blue) 5x4 so we get 20, then the next digit of our answer will be the sum of cross multiplying (blue 5 x red 1)+(blue 4 x other red 1)= 5+4=9. so far we have 209_ we get the last digit by multiplying the 1's vertically (red x red) which is 1 This method is useful but it involves a lot of carrying over into the next digits place so be careful. more to come ;-)
A website, also written Web site, web site, or simply site, is a collection of related web pages containing images, videos or other digital assets. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an Internet address known as a Uniform Resource Locator. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. A web page is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). A web page may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors. Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which may optionally employ encryption (HTTP Secure, HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user of the web page content. The user's application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. The pages of a website can usually be accessed from a simple Uniform Resource Locator (URL) called the homepage. The URLs of the pages organize them into a hierarchy, although hyperlinking between them conveys the reader's perceived site structure and guides the reader's navigation of the site.
CPU, or Central Processing Unit, is that part of a PC or a server that runs all of the calculations. Each CPU operates at a certain speed and the bigger it is, the speedier everything will be processed, so in case you host resource-demanding web applications on a server, for example, an effective processor shall allow them to be executed more quickly, which will considerably contribute to the overall user experience. The more recent generations of CPUs have two and more cores, each of them working at a specific speed to ensure a better and quicker performance. Such architecture permits the processor to control different processes concurrently or a number of cores to manage one process if it requires additional computing power to be executed. However, additional factors like the amount of RAM or the connection a specific web server uses could also affect the efficiency of the Internet sites hosted on it.
The latest chip in the iPhone 7 has 3.3 billion transistors packed into a piece of silicon around the size of a small coin. But the trend for smaller, increasingly powerful computers could be coming to an end. Silicon-based chips are rapidly reaching a point at which the laws of physics prevent them being any smaller. There are also some important limitations to what silicon-based devices can do that mean there is a strong argument for looking at other ways to power computers. Perhaps the most well-known alternative researchers are looking at is quantum computers, which manipulate the properties of the chips in a different way to traditional digital machines. But there is also the possibilty of using alternative materials – potentially any material or physical system – as computers to perform calculations, without the need to manipulate electrons like silicon chips do. And it turns out these could be even better for developing artificial intelligence than existing computers. The idea is commonly known as “reservoir computing” and came from attempts to develop computer networks modelled on the brain. It involves the idea that we can tap into the behaviour of physical systems – anything from a bucket of water to blobs of plastic laced with carbon nanotubes – in order to harness their natural computing power. Input and output Reservoir computers exploit the physical properties of a material in its natural state to do part of a computation. This contrasts with the current digital computing model of changing a material’s properties to perform computations. For example, to create modern microchips we alter the crystal structure of silicon. A reservoir computer could, in principle, be made from a piece of silicon (or any number of other materials) without these design modifications. The basic idea is to stimulate a material in some way and learn to measure how this affects it. If you can work out how you get from the input stimulation to the output change, you will effectively have a calculation that you can then use as part of a range of computations. Unlike with traditional computer chips that depend on the position of electrons, the specific arrangement of the particles in the material isn’t important. Instead we just need to observe certain overall properties that let us measure the output change in the material. For example, one team of researchers has built a simple reservoir computer out of a bucket of water. They demonstrated that, after stimulating the water with mechanical probes, they could train a camera watching the water’s surface to read the distinctive ripple patterns that formed. They then worked out the calculation that linked the probe movements with the ripple pattern, and then used it to perform some simple logical operations. Fundamentally, the water itself was transforming the input from the probes into a useful output –- and that is the great insight. General purpose brain cells It turns out that this idea of reservoir computing aligns with recent neuroscience research that discovered parts of the brain appear to be “general-purpose”. These areas are predominantly made up of collections of neurons that are only loosely ordered yet can still support cognitive function in more specialised parts of the brain, helping to make it more efficient. As with the computer, if this reservoir of neurons is stimulated with a specific signal it will respond in a very characteristic way, and this response can help perform computations. For example, recent work suggests that when we hear or see something, one general part of the brain is stimulated by sound or light. The response of the neurons in that area of the brain is then read by another more specialised area of the brain. Research indicates that reservoir computers could be extremely robust and computationally powerful and, in theory, could effectively carry out an infinite number of functions. In fact, simulated reservoirs have already become very popular in some aspects of artificial intelligence thanks to precisely these properties. For example, systems using reservoir methods for making stock-market predictions have indicated that they outperform many conventional artificial intelligence technologies. In part, this is because it turns out to be much easier to train AI that harnesses the power of a reservoir than one that does not. Ultimately, this is still a relatively new technology and a good deal of research remains to be done into its capabilities and implications. But it is already clear that there are a huge number of potential applications of this type of technology both in AI and more broadly. This could include anything from analysing and processing real-time data to image/pattern recognition and controlling robots.
Biblical archaeology encompasses archaeological investigations of cultures and peoples described in Jewish and Christian religious texts (including the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testaments) from roughly 3200 BC to the first century AD. It combines archaeological investigations with textual analysis to aid in understanding everyday life and events from the time. A famous example of historical analysis combining biblical texts with archaeology is the inclusion of domestic camels in the biblical depictions of Abraham. Discrepancies between the date when camels first appear at archaeological sites and the supposed dates of Abraham's life have led to debates about when the stories were first recorded and the degree of later editing that may have occurred since they were originally composed, either in written or oral form. Get help on Anthropology with Chegg Study Answers from experts Send any homework question to our team of experts View the step-by-step solutions for thousands of textbooks In social sciences there are many key concepts and terms that are crucial for students to know and understand. Often it can be hard to determine what the most important social sciences concepts and terms are, and even once you’ve identified them you still need to understand what they mean. To help you learn and understand key social sciences terms and concepts, we’ve identified some of the most important ones and provided detailed definitions for them, written and compiled by Chegg experts.
Humans cause pollution in several ways, including burning fossil fuels, driving cars and trucks, manufacturing, mining and engaging in agricultural activities. Some types of pollution, such as oil spills and mining disasters, produce immediate negative impacts on surrounding environments and ecosystems. Others, such as generating electricity and driving vehicles, produce pollution over longer periods of time.Continue Reading Pollution stems from many sources and takes various shapes. It exists in air, water and in land. Air pollution derives from toxic emittants, such as fossil fuels escaping into the atmosphere. Air pollution arises from the bio accumulation of certain contaminants in the air. These noxious particles include particulate matter, ozone in the lowest levels of Earth's atmosphere, nitrogen and sulfur oxides and carbon monoxide. These particles reduce air quality in local and regional atmospheres. They also increase local quantities of smog and trap heat, ultimately contributing to global warming. On land, human sources of pollution include improper removal and disposal of waste from livestock and farming operations. Humans produce light and noise pollution too, which exist primarily in cities and urban centers. Light pollution refers to a high volume of artificial light, such as large lighting fixtures. Noise pollution comes from traffic and man-made structures, such as refineries and production facilities.Learn more about Pollution
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) conducts periodic national surveys of learning achievement of children in classes III, V, VIII and X. Four rounds of National Achievement Survey (NAS) for class V, three rounds for classes III and VIII and one round for class X, have been conducted so far. These surveys reveal improvement in learning achievement levels of pupils, in identified subjects from first round to fourth round. As per results of third round of National Achievement Survey (NAS) in class-III 73% children achieved above 50% in language and 76% children achieved more than 50% in Maths. In class-V 36% children achieved more than 50% in language and 37% children achieved more than 50% in Mathematics. In class VIII the achievement in Maths was low as only 14% children could achieve more than 50% marks. In science similar positions persisted as only 17 % children could answer more than 50% questions correctly. In class X the 16% children achieved more than 50% marks in maths and in science 22% children achieved more than 50% scores. From current year onwards, Government has decided to conduct Survey of Learning Outcomes as National Achievement Survey with district as the sampling unit. The Survey will assess the competencies developed in the students studying in grades III, V and VIII in government and government aided schools. In order to focus on quality of education, the Central Rules to the RTE Act, 2009 have been amended on 20th February, 2017 to include reference on class-wise and subject-wise Learning Outcomes. The Learning Outcomes for each class in Languages (Hindi, English and Urdu), Mathematics, Environmental Studies, Science and Social Science up to the elementary level have, accordingly, been finalized and shared with all States and UTs. These would serve as a guideline for States and UTs to ensure that all children acquire appropriate learning level. The students learning assessment will be according to the Learning Outcomes developed by NCERT. This information was given by the Minister of State (HRD), Shri Upendra Kushwaha today in a written reply to a Rajya Sabha question.
Definition, Concept, Meaning, What is Honesty 1. Concept of honestyOn this occasion, as in so many previous ones, again engages us with a feminine noun that, etymologically speaking, comes from the latin. Concrete and promptly derives from honestitas, which keeps the same meaning. Yes, in this article we will be referencing the word honesty. If one starts looking for it in the Manual Sopeña illustrated encyclopedic dictionary, you will find the following definition: poise, decency, moderation. Insofar as, if it does the same but in the Diccionario de la Lengua Española (Editorial Larousse), in its first meaning see: quality of the honest person. I.e., in relation to the previously explained, well you could say that honesty would be a quality of human beings based on speak and behave with consistency and sincerity, always taking into account the values of Justice and truth. Perhaps, in your sense first, it is understood as a simple respect for the truth in relation to persons, facts and the world itself. On the other hand, it is important to not lose sight that honesty as such cannot be based on the wishes of individuals. I.e. Act honest accurate inevitably an attachment to the truth that surpasses any kind of personal intent. This is to say that a person may not act based on their own interests, for example hiding important information if it were ruling, and being honest. In another order, now heading the field of philosophy, was Socrates who devoted much time of his life to attempting to parse the real meaning of honesty. Then, this concept went on to be included in the search for ethical principles of a general nature that are capable of justifying moral behavior. Linked to this, typical examples would be the consensus of Habermas theory, and the categorical imperative of Kant. On the other hand, Confucius, another philosopher, distinguished levels of honesty for his ethics, which he called Li, Yi and Ren. Synonym of honesty As well, us review now synonyms boasts the word addressed in this article: justice, austerity, awareness, kindness, dignity, righteousness, integrity, honesty, selflessness; diffident, honor, virtue, modesty and honour. 2 Meaning of honestyThe word honesty comes from the latin honestĭtas, and it is a quality that those individuals that Act have fairly congruent with what you feel and think. Honest people, therefore, express things in the same way they feel them, even though if this carries unpleasant consequences. Otherwise the dishonesty is dishonesty. Honesty is closely related to not lie, and tell the truth at all times. But honesty is not only applied to the verbal expression, but also how to act of an individual, because being honest also implies the not mislead other persons to perform harmful actions. The latter, for example, is applicable to the case of politicians, which to be honest should not do things that they promised to do, or marriages, where many times being honest means to stay with one partner. Similarly, honesty is also applicable to material goods, in a way that an honest person should not take what does not belong, or much less try to remove it by force or coercion. The application of honesty is vital for healthy coexistence among people, and involves respect not only to the individual who is honest, but to all persons to its around. Living honestly requires a detachment to personal desires, since many times the truth cannot be entirely beneficial to our person. However, this detachment toward personal gain is needed to maintain good relationships family, social and even work. Characters like Confucio made analysis of honesty in his time, separating this quality in three parts: Li, Yi and Ren, being the shallowest Li and Ren deepest, based on the understanding of the situation of others. 3. Definition of honestyThe word honesty comes from the latin honestitas (honor, dignity, consideration that one enjoys); It is the virtue that characterizes people respect good manners, morals and the goods. It is the constant action to avoid appropriating of what belongs to us. Just as honesty is harmonize the words with deeds, have identity and coherence to be proud of itself. Honesty is a way of life consistent between what you think and what you do, conduct that is observed towards others and are required to each person what is due. Honesty is a value, vital and core to be able to live in society, orients all actions and strategies of our activity, is to be honored in the words, in intention and in acts. Be honest makes us beings of honor; aspire to honesty is to seek greatness. When someone lies, steals, deceives or cheats, his spirit comes into conflict, peace of mind disappears and this is something that others perceive because it is not easy to hide. Dishonest people can be recognized easily because they deceive others to improperly get a benefit, thus generating mistrust. It can be concluded that when a human being is honest it behaves in a manner transparent with their peers; i.e., it does not hide anything, and that gives you peace of mind. Who is honest does not take anything alien, neither material nor spiritual: is an honest person. When you are honest people any human project can be and collective confidence turns into a force of great value. Be honest requires courage to always tell the truth and act in a straight and clear way.
THE STORY OF PEANUTS Peanuts are one of the world’s oldest crops – let’s discover their interesting history! Did you know the peanut is not a nut at all? It’s a legume – just like peas! Around the world the peanut is called by different names including ground nuts, goobers (from the Congo word “nguba”), pinders and guinea seed. Peanuts have been cultivated by humans for an amazing 7600 years! Anthropologists believe the earliest domesticated peanuts were grown on the slopes of the Andes mountains in South America. In 2007, a team of scientists led by Prof Tom Dillehay from Vanderbilt University in Tennessee discovered the earliest-known evidence of peanut farming in the Ñanchoc Valley in Northern Peru. Wild peanuts do not occur in the region naturally so the scientists believe they were domesticated elsewhere and then brought into the Ñanchoc Valley by traders or mobile farmers. After the colonisation of the New World, Portuguese and Spanish sailers (who valued peanuts as they were easy to store on board ships) carried peanuts to Africa where they became common in the western tropical region. They were also introduced into East Asia from where they made their way into China in the 1600s. When Africans were brought to North America as slaves, the peanut came with them. Slave traders carried peanuts as a food source because they were cheap but nutritious. An 1860 report in a Milwaukee newspaper, describing the British seizure of a slave ship, noted that it was “half-loaded” with peanuts. Africa continued to be a major source of peanuts for many years. In 1858 it was reported that “from 50,000 to 60,000 tons a year” of peanuts were being shipped from Africa to the United States, Great Britain and France. African exports dwindled in the 1880s after the southern states of the United States increased production. SOME FACINATING PEANUT FACTS - The Incas of Peru and Ecuador (1200-1532AD) were peanut farmers. They cultivated peanuts on large community farms and used irrigation ditches to transport water from streams and lakes to their crops. Llamas were used to transport the harvested peanuts. - The people who lived at Ancon on the coast of Peru from 500 to 750BC buried their dead with peanuts so they wouldn’t become hungry in the afterlife! - The Moche people from Peru decorated pottery with peanut shells from about 100AD to 800AD. A magnificent silver and gold peanut necklace was found in a Moche tomb near the city of Chiclayo. - Only the women among many Brazilian Indian tribes were allowed to plant and harvest peanuts because they believed that women would ensure good harvests. The peanuts were traded with other tribal groups in Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean Islands. - The peanut was introduced into China by Portuguese traders in the 1600s and another variety by American missionaries in the 1800s. They quickly became popular and are featured in many Chinese dishes. Dr George Washington Carver - The Portuguese also spread peanuts from South America to many other countries around the world, including Europe. This was because from the 17th century onwards peanuts were carried aboard their ships as an essential food that was easy to store over long periods at sea. - Peanuts were used extensively during the American Civil War when soldiers on both sides carried them as food. - Peanut butter was apparently invented by a St Louis (United States) doctor in the 1890s. Shortly afterwards Dr John Harvey Kellogg patented a “Process of Preparing Nut Meal” and in 1903 Dr Ambrose Straub patented a peanut butter-making machine. - Many people wrongly believe that famous US botanist Dr George Washington Carver, who died in 1943, invented peanut butter. Dr Carver was keen to encourage poor Southern US cotton farmers to rotate their crops with peanuts to improve crop yields. He set out to find more commercial uses for peanuts and although he didn’t invent peanut butter, he promoted 300 other uses for peanuts in the United States including glue, printer’s ink, dyes, varnish and massage oil. THE AUSTRALIAN STORY - Chinese gold miners are credited with bringing the first peanuts to Australia during the Gold Rush. - The first recorded planting in Queensland occurred near Cooktown in Far North Queensland. - In 1901 Samuel Long planted the first peanut crop in the South Burnett. Soon many other farmers in the region were growing peanuts too. - In 1924, the Peanut Marketing Board was established with its headquarters in Kingaroy. Kingaroy is now regarded as the Peanut Capital of Australia. - By 1991, the Growers Co-Operative became a company to compete in a global economy. The Peanut Company of Australia was amalgamated and has grown from strength to strength, now supplying more than half of the Australian market.
President Johnson and Congress’s views on Reconstruction grew even further apart as Johnson’s presidency progressed. Congress repeatedly pushed for greater rights for freed people and a far more thorough reconstruction of the South, while Johnson pushed for leniency and a swifter reintegration. President Johnson lacked Lincoln’s political skills and instead exhibited a stubbornness and confrontational approach that aggravated an already difficult situation. THE FREEDMEN’S BUREAU Freed people everywhere celebrated the end of slavery and immediately began to take steps to improve their own condition by seeking what had long been denied to them: land, financial security, education, and the ability to participate in the political process. They wanted to be reunited with family members, grasp the opportunity to make their own independent living, and exercise their right to have a say in their own government. However, they faced the wrath of defeated but un-reconciled southerners who were determined to keep blacks an impoverished and despised underclass. Recognizing the widespread devastation in the South and the dire situation of freed people, Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands in March 1865, popularly known as the Freedmen’s Bureau. Lincoln had approved of the bureau, giving it a charter for one year. The Freedmen’s Bureau engaged in many initiatives to ease the transition from slavery to freedom. It delivered food to blacks and whites alike in the South. It helped freed people gain labor contracts, a significant step in the creation of wage labor in place of slavery. It helped reunite families of freedmen, and it also devoted much energy to education, establishing scores of public schools where freed people and poor whites could receive both elementary and higher education. Respected institutions such as Fisk University, Hampton University, and Dillard University are part of the legacy of the Freedmen’s Bureau. In this endeavor, the Freedmen’s Bureau received support from Christian organizations that had long advocated for abolition, such as the American Missionary Association (AMA). The AMA used the knowledge and skill it had acquired while working in missions in Africa and with American Indian groups to establish and run schools for freed slaves in the postwar South. While men and women, white and black, taught in these schools, the opportunity was crucially important for participating women (Figure 16.2.1). At the time, many opportunities, including admission to most institutes of higher learning, remained closed to women. Participating in these schools afforded these women the opportunities they otherwise may have been denied. Additionally, the fact they often risked life and limb to work in these schools in the South demonstrated to the nation that women could play a vital role in American civic life. Figure 16.2.1: The Freedmen’s Bureau, as shown in this 1866 illustration from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, created many schools for black elementary school students. Many of the teachers who provided instruction in these southern schools, though by no means all, came from northern states. The schools that the Freedmen’s Bureau and the AMA established inspired great dismay and resentment among the white populations in the South and were sometimes targets of violence. Indeed, the Freedmen’s Bureau’s programs and its very existence were sources of controversy. Racists and others who resisted this type of federal government activism denounced it as both a waste of federal money and a foolish effort that encouraged laziness among blacks. Congress renewed the bureau’s charter in 1866, but President Johnson, who steadfastly believed that the work of restoring the Union had been completed, vetoed the re-chartering. Radical Republicans continued to support the bureau, igniting a contest between Congress and the president that intensified during the next several years. Part of this dispute involved conflicting visions of the proper role of the federal government. Radical Republicans believed in the constructive power of the federal government to ensure a better day for freed people. Others, including Johnson, denied that the government had any such role to play. In 1865 and 1866, as Johnson announced the end of Reconstruction, southern states began to pass a series of discriminatory state laws collectively known asblack codes. While the laws varied in both content and severity from state to state, the goal of the laws remained largely consistent. In effect, these codes were designed to maintain the social and economic structure of racial slavery in the absence of slavery itself. The laws codified white supremacy by restricting the civic participation of freed slaves—depriving them of the right to vote, the right to serve on juries, the right to own or carry weapons, and, in some cases, even the right to rent or lease land. A chief component of the black codes was designed to fulfill an important economic need in the postwar South. Slavery had been a pillar of economic stability in the region before the war. To maintain agricultural production, the South had relied on slaves to work the land. Now the region was faced with the daunting prospect of making the transition from a slave economy to one where labor was purchased on the open market. Not surprisingly, planters in the southern states were reluctant to make such a transition. Instead, they drafted black laws that would re-create the antebellum economic structure with the façade of a free-labor system. Black codes used a variety of tactics to tie freed slaves to the land. To work, the freed slaves were forced to sign contracts with their employer. These contracts prevented blacks from working for more than one employer. This meant that, unlike in a free labor market, blacks could not positively influence wages and conditions by choosing to work for the employer who gave them the best terms. The predictable outcome was that freed slaves were forced to work for very low wages. With such low wages, and no ability to supplement income with additional work, workers were reduced to relying on loans from their employers. The debt that these workers incurred ensured that they could never escape from their condition. Those former slaves who attempt to violate these contracts could be fined or beaten. Those who refused to sign contracts at all could be arrested for vagrancy and then made to work for no wages, essentially being reduced to the very definition of a slave. The black codes left no doubt that the former breakaway Confederate states intended to maintain white supremacy at all costs. These draconian state laws helped spur the congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction into action. Its members felt that ending slavery with the Thirteenth Amendment did not go far enough. Congress extended the life of the Freedmen’s Bureau to combat the black codes and in April 1866 passed the first Civil Rights Act, which established the citizenship of African Americans. This was a significant step that contradicted the Supreme Court’s 1857 Dred Scott decision, which declared that blacks could never be citizens. The law also gave the federal government the right to intervene in state affairs to protect the rights of citizens, and thus, of African Americans. President Johnson, who continued to insist that restoration of the United States had already been accomplished, vetoed the 1866 Civil Rights Act. However, Congress mustered the necessary votes to override his veto. Despite the Civil Rights Act, the black codes endured, forming the foundation of the racially discriminatory Jim Crow segregation policies that impoverished generations of African Americans. THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT Questions swirled about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. The Supreme Court, in its 1857 decision forbidding black citizenship, had interpreted the Constitution in a certain way; many argued that the 1866 statute, alone, could not alter that interpretation. Seeking to overcome all legal questions, Radical Republicans drafted another constitutional amendment with provisions that followed those of the 1866 Civil Rights Act. In July 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment went to state legislatures for ratification. The Fourteenth Amendment stated, “All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” It gave citizens equal protection under both the state and federal law, overturning the Dred Scott decision. It eliminated the three-fifths compromise of the 1787 Constitution, whereby slaves had been counted as three-fifths of a free white person, and it reduced the number of House representatives and Electoral College electors for any state that denied suffrage to any adult male inhabitant, black or white. As Radical Republicans had proposed in the Wade-Davis bill, individuals who had “engaged in insurrection or rebellion [against] . . . or given aid or comfort to the enemies [of]” the United States were barred from holding political (state or federal) or military office unless pardoned by two-thirds of Congress. The amendment also answered the question of debts arising from the Civil War by specifying that all debts incurred by fighting to defeat the Confederacy would be honored. Confederate debts, however, would not: “[N]either the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.” Thus, claims by former slaveholders requesting compensation for slave property had no standing. Any state that ratified the Fourteenth Amendment would automatically be readmitted. Yet, all former Confederate states refused to ratify the amendment in 1866. President Johnson called openly for the rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment, a move that drove a further wedge between him and congressional Republicans. In late summer of 1866, he gave a series of speeches, known as the “swing around the circle,” designed to gather support for his mild version of Reconstruction. Johnson felt that ending slavery went far enough; extending the rights and protections of citizenship to freed people, he believed, went much too far. He continued to believe that blacks were inferior to whites. The president’s “swing around the circle” speeches to gain support for his program and derail the Radical Republicans proved to be a disaster, as hecklers provoked Johnson to make damaging statements. Radical Republicans charged that Johnson had been drunk when he made his speeches. As a result, Johnson’s reputation plummeted. The conflict between President Johnson and the Republican-controlled Congress over the proper steps to be taken with the defeated Confederacy grew in intensity in the years immediately following the Civil War. While the president concluded that all that needed to be done in the South had been done by early 1866, Congress forged ahead to stabilize the defeated Confederacy and extend to freed people citizenship and equality before the law. Congress prevailed over Johnson’s vetoes as the friction between the president and the Republicans increased. Which of the following was not one of the functions of the Freedmen’s Bureau? - collecting taxes - reuniting families - establishing schools - helping workers secure labor contracts Which person or group was most responsible for the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment? - President Johnson - northern voters - southern voters - Radical Republicans in Congress What was the goal of the black codes? The black codes in southern states had the goal of keeping blacks impoverished and in debt. Black codes outlawed vagrancy and required all black men to have an annual labor contract, which gave southern states an excuse to arrest those who failed to meet these requirements and put them to hard labor. - black codes - laws some southern states designed to maintain white supremacy by keeping freed people impoverished and in debt - Freedmen’s Bureau - the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, which was created in 1865 to ease blacks’ transition from slavery to freedom
Mediterranean anemia; Cooley anemia; Beta thalassemia; Alpha thalassemia Thalassemia is a blood disorder passed down through families (inherited) in which the body makes an abnormal form of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The disorder results in large numbers of red blood cells being destroyed, which leads to anemia. Hemoglobin is made of 2 proteins: Thalassemia occurs when there is a defect in a gene that helps control production of 1 of these proteins. There are 2 main types of thalassemia: - Alpha thalassemia occurs when a gene or genes related to the alpha globin protein are missing or changed (mutated). - Beta thalassemia occurs when similar gene defects affect production of the beta globin protein. Alpha thalassemias occur most often in people from Southeast Asia, the Middle East, China, and in those of African descent. Beta thalassemias occur most often in people of Mediterranean origin. To a lesser extent, Chinese, other Asians, and African Americans can be affected. There are many forms of thalassemia. Each type has many different subtypes. Both alpha and beta thalassemia include the following 2 forms: - Thalassemia major - Thalassemia minor You must inherit the gene defect from both parents to develop thalassemia major. Thalassemia minor occurs if you receive the faulty gene from only 1 parent. People with this form of the disorder are carriers of the disease. Most of the time, they do not have symptoms. Beta thalassemia major is also called Cooley anemia. Risk factors for thalassemia include: - Asian, Chinese, Mediterranean, or African American ethnicity - Family history of the disorder The most severe form of alpha thalassemia major causes stillbirth (death of the unborn baby during birth or the late stages of pregnancy). Children born with beta thalassemia major (Cooley anemia) are normal at birth, but develop severe anemia during the first year of life. Other symptoms can include: People with the minor form of alpha and beta thalassemia have small red blood cells but no symptoms. Exams and Tests Your health care provider will do a physical exam to look for an enlarged spleen. A blood sample will be sent to a laboratory to be tested. - Red blood cells will appear small and abnormally shaped when looked at under a microscope. - A complete blood count (CBC) reveals anemia. - A test called hemoglobin electrophoresis shows the presence of an abnormal form of hemoglobin. - A test called mutational analysis can help detect alpha thalassemia. Treatment for thalassemia major often involves regular blood transfusions and folate supplements. If you receive blood transfusions, you should not take iron supplements. Doing so can cause a high amount of iron to build up in the body, which can be harmful. People who receive a lot of blood transfusions need a treatment called chelation therapy. This is done to remove excess iron from the body. A bone marrow transplant may help treat the disease in some people, especially children. Severe thalassemia can cause early death (between ages 20 and 30) due to heart failure. Getting regular blood transfusions and therapy to remove iron from the body helps improve the outcome. Less severe forms of thalassemia often do not shorten lifespan. You may want to seek genetic counseling if you have a family history of the condition and are thinking of having children. Untreated, thalassemia major leads to heart failure and liver problems. It also makes a person more likely to develop infections. Blood transfusions can help control some symptoms, but carry a risk of side effects from too much iron. When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your provider if: - You or your child has symptoms of thalassemia. - You are being treated for the disorder and new symptoms develop. Cappellini MD. The thalassemias. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 25th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 162. DeBaun MR, Frei-Jones MJ, Vichinsky EP. Hemoglobinopatiies. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St Geme JW, Schor NF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 462. Giardina PJ, Rivella S. Thalassemia syndromes. In: Hoffman R, Benz EJ Jr, Silberstein LE, Heslop HE, Weitz JI, Anastasi J, eds. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2013:chap 38.
In the 1930s Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler was at the height of his power. Hitler envisioned Berlin as the capital of a new global empire, and - together with his favorite architect, Alber Speer - he embarked on a massive urban redesign project. The centerpiece of this project was to be the massive Volkshalle, a dome so immense it could have comfortably housed St. Peter's Basilica inside it. Construction of such a gigantic structure presented numerous problems, the biggest one being that Berlin was founded on a swamp. In order to estimate the ability of its soft underlying soil to sustain the weight of their planned dome, the Nazis decided to conduct an experiment. In 1941, they built a huge concrete cylinder, 18 meters high and weighing about 12,650 metric tons. If this "Schwerbelastungskörper" (German for "heavy loading body") sunk less then 6 centimeters, the soil would be deemed solid enough to sustain the dome. In fact, the cylinder sank over 18 centimeters in three years. Never one to let empirical evidence stand in his way, Hitler decided to disregard the results and build the enormous Volkshalle anyway. But weight wouldn't have been the only problem with the dome. It is believed that the hall's acoustics would have made communication within it almost impossible, and that the building would have had its own "weather," including indoor rain. In the end, Hitler's defeat prevented this doomed project from even being started. The enormous cylinder stood too close to several blocks of apartments to safely demolish after the war. So the Schwerbelastungskörper stood where it was. Since 1995, it has been protected as a historic monument.
In rocket science, the fuel efficiency of a rocket engine is measured by its specific impulse. Specific impulse refers to the units of thrust per units of propellant consumed over time. Because a solar-sail spacecraft carries no fuel, it has infinite specific impulse. Future of Solar Sails The major advantage of a solar-sail spacecraft is its ability to travel between the planets and to the stars without carrying fuel. Solar-sail spacecraft need only a conventional launch vehicle to get into Earth orbit, where the solar sails can be deployed and the spacecraft sent on its way. These spacecraft accelerate gradually, unlike conventional chemical rockets, which offer extremely quick acceleration. So for a fast trip to Mars, a solar-sail spacecraft offers no advantage over a conventional chemical rocket. However, if you need to carry a large payload to Mars and you're not in a hurry, a solar-sail spacecraft is ideal. As for traveling the greater distances necessary to reach the stars, solar-sail spacecraft, which have gradual but constant acceleration, can achieve greater velocities than conventional chemical rockets and so can span the distance in less time. Ultimately, solar-sail technology will make interstellar flights and shuttling between planets less expensive and therefore more practical than conventional chemical rockets.
Earth's ozone hole, shown here (in blue) in 2006, could be negatively affected by some efforts to mitigate climate change. Three British scientists shocked the world when they revealed on May 16th, 1985 — 25 years ago — that aerosol chemicals, among other factors, had torn a hole in the ozone layer over the South Pole. The ozone layer, which protects life on Earth from damaging solar radiation, became an overnight sensation. And the hole in the ozone layer became the poster-child for mankind’s impact on the planet. Today, the ozone hole — actually a region of thinned ozone, not actually a pure hole — doesn’t make headlines like it used to. The size of the hole has stabilized, thanks to decades of aerosol-banning legislation. But, scientists warn, some danger still remains. First, the good news: Since the 1989 Montreal Protocol banned the use of ozone-depleting chemicals worldwide, the ozone hole has stopped growing. Additionally, the ozone layer is blocking more cancer-causing radiation than any time in a decade because its average thickness has increased, according to a 2006 United Nations report. Atmospheric levels of ozone-depleting chemicals have reached their lowest levels since peaking in the 1990s, and the hole has begun to shrink. Now the bad news: The ozone layer has also thinned over the North Pole. This thinning is predicted to continue for the next 15 years due to weather-related phenomena that scientists still cannot fully explain, according to the same UN report . And, repairing the ozone hole over the South Pole will take longer than previously expected, and won’t finish until between 2060 and 2075. Scientists now understand that the size of the ozone hole varies dramatically from year to year, which complicates attempts to accurately predict the hole's future size. Interestingly, recent studies have shown that the size of the ozone hole affects the global temperature. Closing the ozone hole actually speeds up the melting of the polar ice caps, according to a 2009 study from Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. So even though environmentally friendly laws have successfully reversed the trend of ozone depletion, the lingering effects of aerosol use, and the link between the ozone hole and global warming, virtually ensure that this problem will persist until the end of the century. - What's the Deadliest Natural Phenomenon? - North vs. South Poles: 10 Wild Differences - Top 10 Surprising Results of Global Warming
A New Medium to Allow Urban Trees to Grow in Pavement The fact that trees have difficulties surviving amid the conditions of urban and suburban environments is not a surprise. Urban areas for the most part are not designed with trees in mind. Trees are often treated as if they were afterthoughts to an environment built for cars, pedestrians, buildings, roadways, sidewalks and utilities. Studies point out that trees surrounded by pavement in the most urban downtown centers live for an average of 7 years (Moll, 1989; Craul, 1992), while those in tree lawns, those narrow strips of green running between the curb and sidewalk, live for up to 32 years. These same species might be expected to live anywhere from 60 to 200 years in a more hospitable setting. Why is this so? Urban trees experience a virtual litany of environmental insults such as increased heat loads, de-icing salts, soil and air pollution and interference from utilities, vehicles and buildings (Bassuk and Whitlow, 1985; Craul, 1992). Yet the most significant problem that urban trees face is the scarce quantity of useable soil for root growth (Lindsey and Bassuk, 1992). A large volume of uncompacted soil, with adequate drainage, aeration, and reasonable fertility, is the key to the healthy growth of trees (Perry, 1982; Craul, 1992). The investment in soil for a healthy tree is paid back by fulfilling the functions for which it was planted. These functions may include shade, beauty, noise reduction, wind abatement, pollution reduction, stormwater mitigation, wildlife habitat and the creation of civic identity. An adequate soil volume is key considering soils are where nutrients, water and air are held in a balance that allows for root growth, water and nutrient acquisition. Simply put, when soils are inadequate, plant growth suffers and trees die prematurely. The usefulness of any given soil is largely dictated by its texture, structure and fertility. Soil texture or the percentage of sand, silt and clay in a given soil type, is an important parameter to define. Several soil characteristics, including sand, silt, clay and organic matter make up the solid portion of soil, while water and air make up the rest. Nutrient-holding capability is regulated by the proportional amount of clays and organic material in the soil. A soil’s susceptibility to compaction will be determined by the soil’s particle size distribution and the total amounts of silts and clays in the soil. Soil hydraulic characteristics, including moisture-holding, aeration and drainage, will be determined, in part, by the types of soil particles present in the soil matrix. The compacted bearing capacity, frost heave potential, and other engineering characteristics are intrinsically tied to the soil texture. Beyond soil texture, soil structure, and the aggregation of individual sand, silt and clay particles into larger clumps called peds, heavily influences the agricultural viability of a soil. Within these aggregates, water may be held against the force of gravity, making it available to the plant’s roots. Good structure or well aggregated soils provides pores that allow water to drain and aeration of the root zone to take place. Human activities can severely damage soil structure. The process of building in a city, or even installation of a sidewalk in an otherwise rural area, necessarily dictates a high level of soil disturbance. Any construction effort requires soil excavation, cut and fill, re-grading and soil compaction. Often highly efficient heavy machinery is brought on site to accomplish this work increasing the potential for compaction of soils. There are two critical effects of soil compaction which directly impact plant growth: - Soil structure is destroyed, crushing the majority of large interconnected pores (macro pores) which restrict water drainage and subsequent aeration - As the macro pores are crushed, soils become denser, eventually posing a physical barrier to root penetration. There are numerous accounts of urban soils being literally as “dense as bricks” (Patterson, 1980). One method of evaluating relative compactness, or the severity of soil compaction, is to measure the soil’s weight per volume, or its density. This measurement is communicated either by bulk density or by dry density. Dry density is the dry weight of soil per a given volume, often expressed as grams dry weight/cm³ (g/cm³ or Mg/m³). Soils, depending on their texture, become limiting to root growth when their dry density approaches 1.4 g cubic cm for clayey soils to 1.7 g cubic cm for sandy soils (Morris and Lowry, 1988). When roots encounter a soil so dense that they cannot penetrate it, the roots may change direction if that is possible, or be stopped from growing altogether. Very often in the urban environment, roots coming out of a newly planted root ball into compacted soil will grow from a depth of 12 or 18 inches upwards where they remain just below the surface. This superficial rooting tends to make urban trees more sensitive to drought as soils dry out in the summer (Bassuk and Whitlow, 1985). Conversely, when a tree is planted into compacted soil and drainage is impeded through the crushing of soil macro pores, water may remain around the root zone depriving the roots of needed oxygen. This can lead to root death and an impaired ability to take up water and nutrients that are necessary for tree growth. In urban soils that are not covered by pavement, it is possible to cultivate, amend or replace compacted soils to make them more conducive to root growth. However, where soils are covered by pavement, the needs of the tree come in direct opposition to specifications that call for a highly compacted base on which to lay pavement. All pavements must be laid on well-draining compacted bases so that the pavement will not subside, frost heave, or otherwise prematurely require replacement. What is Proctor density? In order to create predictably compacted base course materials, a test that is typically used called ‘Proctor density’ or ‘peak density’ assures that the base below the pavement is compacted sufficiently to meet the wear that it will receive. For any type of soil or aggregate, Proctor density is defined by ASTM D 698-91 method D protocol. The soil type to be used is tested with the same amount of compactive effort, 56 blows from a 5.5 pound hammer free-falling 12 inches for each 3 layers in a 6 inch diameter mold of 4.6 inch depth, at different moisture content. As the soil moisture content increases, the standard Proctor effort will result in a higher soil dry density as water in the soil acts as a lubricant, allowing soil particles to pack and nest closer to one another. The end result is an increase in dry density, or dry-weight per volume, of the sample. Eventually, there will come a moisture level where the water in the soil actually holds the soil solids apart, resulting in a lower dry density after the standardized compaction effort. This relationship of soil dry density resultant from a standardized compact effort, over a range of moisture contents, can be graphed as a moisture-density curve. The maximum estimated dry density from the moisture-density curve is defined as 100% Proctor density (see graph below). The actual dry density at 100% Proctor will vary depending on soil texture or stone aggregate size distribution. In the field, it is often required that soils or bases under pavement be compacted to within 95% Proctor density. This means that soils are at dry densities greater than 1.8 or 1.9 g cm³. Thus, soils that must support pavement are often too dense for root growth. It is not surprising then that urban trees surrounded by pavement have the shortest life span in cities (Moll, 1989 Craul, 1992). These paved areas also tend to be those that need trees the most to mitigate the heat island microclimate that exist in downtown areas. How much soil does a tree need? If it is recognized that urban trees are desired and necessary to the health and livability of our cities, how much useable soil is necessary to allow them to fulfill their design functions? Research at Cornell’s Urban Horticulture Institute (UHI) has shown that a reasonable ‘rule of thumb’ for most of the United States, except for the desert southwest, is to plan for two cubic feet of soil per every square foot of crown projection. The crown projection is the area under the drip line of the tree (Lindsey and Bassuk, 1992). If the tree canopy is viewed as symmetrical, the crown projection can be calculated as the area of a circle (Pi x radius squared). For example: for a tree with a canopy diameter of 20 feet, the crown projection would be, 3.14 (10 squared), or 3.14 (100) = 314 square feet. Using the ‘rule of thumb,’ an estimate can be calculated that the tree needs approximately 600 cubic feet of soil to support it. Assuming a useable rooting depth of 3 feet, one way of dimensioning the space needed for this tree would be 20′ x 10′ x 3′, or 600 cubic feet. It is clear that the typical 4′ x 5′ tree opening in the sidewalks, or the 6′ x 6′ tree pit, is inadequate to allow the tree to fulfill its function in the landscape. Where can one find enough soil? Under the sidewalk there is a potential for a large volume of soil that would be adequate to allow trees to reach their ‘design size’ as long as the soil volume for each tree was connected and continuous, giving each tree a chance to share soil with its neighboring tree. Looking at the forest as a model, trees may be spaced reasonably close together as long as they share a large common soil volume to support their needs. Therefore, the task is to find a soil that meets a pavements design requirements while simultaneously allowing for unimpeded root growth under the pavement. To do this, the authors envisioned a gap graded soil system that could be compacted to 100% Proctor density while still allowing roots to grow through it. The primary component of this soil system is a uniformly sized, highly angular crushed stone or crushed gravel ranging from 3/4 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter with no fine materials. If this single-sized stone is compacted, the stones would form an open stone structure with about a 40 percent porosity. For a similar single-sized spherical stone, a structure with 33 percent porosity would be produced. Friction between the stones at contact points would “lock in” forming the load-bearing structure of the mixture. The second component of this mixture is a soil which fills the stone voids. As long as we do not prevent the stone structure from forming by adding too much soil, the soil in the voids will remain largely non-compacted and root penetrable. Bassuk, N. L. and T. H. Whitlow. “Evaluating street tree microclimates in New York City.” Proc. 5th METRIA Conference (May 1985): 18-27. Craul, P. J. Urban Soil in Landscape Design. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992. Grabosky, J. Identification and testing of load bearing media to accommodate sustained root growth in urban street tree plantings. M.S. Thesis, Cornell University, 1995. Grabosky, Jason, Edward Haffner, and Nina Bassuk. “Plant Available Moisture in Stone-soil Media for Use Under Pavement While Allowing Urban Tree Root Growth.” Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 35, no. 5 (2009): 271-278. Lindsey, P. and N. Bassuk. “Redesigning the urban forest from the ground below: A new approach to specifying adequate soil volumes for street trees.” Arboricultural Journal 16 (1992): 25-39. Moll, G. “The State of our Urban Forests.” American Forests, November/December 1989. Morris, L.A., and R.F. Lowry. “Influence of Site Preparation on Soil Conditions Affecting Stand Establishment and Tree Growth.” Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 12, no. 3 (1988): 170-178. Patterson, J. C., J. J. Murray, and J. R. Short. “The impact of urban soils on vegetation.” Proc. 3rd METRIA Conference (1980): 33-56. Perry, T. O. “The ecology of tree roots and the practical significance thereof.” Arboricultural Journal 8 (1982): 197-211. by Nina Bassuk, Cornell University; Peter Trowbridge, FASLA, Cornell University; and Jason Grabosky, PhD, Rutgers University
In the laboratory, accurate measurement of samples is essential for getting valid, reproducible results. Taking the time to carefully weigh out a sample could be the difference between an experiment that works and one that doesn’t. The following laboratory exercise will familiarize you with the many different ways to measure your sample and the advantages and limitations of each method. Measurement of a Solid: The most common way to measure a solid is by using a balance. The major drawback here is there are several different types of balances that can be used. The first type is the triple beam balance. This balances uses a series of counter weights to determine the weight of the sample that is placed on a weighing pan. This is the least accurate of the balances that are available for sample weighing, because a triple beam balance can only measure to the ones place (no decimal measurement). This can give you a very rough determination of the weight of your sample. Triple beam balances are also useful for measuring heavy objects because they often can measure up to several hundred pounds. The second type of balance is the digital top loading balance. These are more accurate than the triple beam balance because they can usually measure to several decimal places. The top loading balances in this chemistry laboratory measures to two decimal places. Top loading balances are useful for measuring chemicals for large quantity solutions. Top loading balances can usually measure to 400 – 600 grams, but anything heavier would max out the balance and you wouldn’t be able to get a measurement. The third type of balance that can be used to measure a solid is the analytical balance. This is the most accurate balance available in our chemistry lab. Most analytical balances can measure to four or more decimal places. Analytical balances are used to measure small quantities for solutions and for research experiments where the high degree of accuracy that can be achieved by this balance is important. When weighing a solid sample, you should use a weighing bottle to get the most accurate measurement. Occasionally, weighing paper or a weigh boat may be used, but both of these require additional handling that may skew your sample weight. When you weighing a sample, the weighing bottle should be clean and dry. You should never handle the weighing bottle with your hands once it has been cleaned and dried – the oils from your skin could add to the weight of the sample. You should handle the weighing bottle with tongs or a test tube holder (depending on the size of the weighing bottle). You can also use the paper method for handling a weighing bottle. In the paper method, take a piece of weighing paper and fold it lengthwise several times until you have a long, thin strap of paper. Wrap the paper around the weighing bottle and use the two overlapping pieces as a handle. When carrying a weighing bottle to and from your workstation, you should also rest the weighing bottle on a wire gauze to prevent contact with your skin. Between wire gauze and the tongs / paper, you should be able to safely carry the weighing bottle to your workstation from the balance. (See Figure 1). Measurement of a Liquid: There are many different ways to measure a liquid also. Here to, the degree of accuracy varies based on what method you use. The least accurate measurement is achieved by using the marked gradations on a beaker or flask. These marks are approximate and usually have a 5% error margin. This is fine if you need 300 ml of water to rinse a buret – accuracy here isn’t important to the experiment. Next, there is the graduated cylinder. Graduated cylinders are accurate for large whole number measurements. They are not useful for decimal measurements, as the markings are not that detailed. Graduated cylinders are fine if you need to add 255 ml of acetone to your reaction vessel, as most graduated cylinders are divided in whole number gradations. When measuring with a sample with a graduated cylinder, you should choose a cylinder that is no larger than 10 times the volume you want to measure. For example, if you need to measure 1 ml of liquid, you should use a 10 ml graduated cylinder instead of a 1 liter graduated cylinder. Look at your graduated cylinder. At the top of most graduated cylinders, there is a small TC20O stamped on the glass. This tells you that the graduated cylinder is manufactured to measure a liquid accurately at 20O C. If you are measuring a liquid that is hotter or colder than this temperature, your measurement may not be completely accurate. Another type of liquid measuring device is the volumetric flask. This type of flask comes in varying sizes, but they only have one gradation. They are specifically designed to make solutions of a particular quantity. For example, if you wanted to make one liter of a 0.9% salt solution, you would add 9 grams of sodium chloride to enough water to fill the one liter volumetric flask to the gradation. This would give you an accurate measure of the solution you just made. However, you can only use these flasks to make solutions in the amounts that the flasks are manufactured for – usually 1 liter, 500 ml, 250 ml, 100 ml, 50 ml, and 25 ml. You couldn’t use them to make 750 ml of solution. Pipettes can also be used to accurately measure liquids. There are two types of pipettes that can be used to accurately measure a liquid. The first is the standard pipette or a Mohr pipet. They generally come is varying sizes (from 1 ml to 50 ml) with different size gradations marked on them. They are stamped at the top with their accuracy (usually +/- so many milliliters) and TD20O, which means total delivery at 20O Celcius. When using a pipette, some type of additional device is necessary to draw the liquid up into the chamber. There are several different types of pipetting devices available. Some are shown in Figure 2. The other type of pipette is the volumetric pipette. It is made the same way the volumetric flask is made – there is only one gradation marked on the pipette. This type of pipette is used to measure a specific amount of liquid only. They usually come in varying sizes – from 1 ml to 50 ml. As long as you measure accurately to the line, you will have the marked amount of liquid. Other pipettes are used to transfer liquids, but can’t be used to accurately measure how much liquid you are transferring (unless you just need to count drops). The most accurate method to measure liquids is by using a micropipettor. Micropipettors are generally used to measure liquids in units smaller than the milliliter, although there is a micropipettor that can measure up to 1 milliliter. These devices generally measure in the micrometer range and are used in biotechnology labs to measure very small quantities. Micropipettors require special tips that are placed on the end of the pipette before liquid dispersal. The tips are usually sterilized prior to use and are disposed of after one use. The last liquid measurement device is the buret. Burets are useful for dispensing liquids while performing an experiment. Burets usually consist of a small diameter graduated tube with a capillary tip and a flow device called a stopcock. This allows for the dispensing of varying amounts of liquid into a reaction tube. The scale is commonly 0 – 50 ml with 0.1 ml divisions. We will discuss the use of a buret in later experiments. When a liquid is placed into any glass container, the surface of the liquid appears curved. This curve is called the meniscus and requires special attention when reading the volume of the liquid. When the curve is concave, the bottom of the meniscus is read. Reading the meniscus is done by placing the glass container on a flat surface and bringing the eyes level with the gradations. The volume can accurately be read from this angle. If the liquid is clear, it sometimes helps to put a lined paper behind the container to use as a reference point. When the curve is convex, the top of the meniscus is read in the same manner as the concave liquid. Triple beam balance Lead Shot Digital top loading balance Steel Shot Analytical balance Water Beaker (50 ml, 100 ml) Volumetric Flask (50 ml) Graduated cylinder (100 ml) Volumetric Pipette (10 ml) Pipette (10 ml) Mechanical Pipettors (green) Rubber bulb (blue) Test Tube Holder Measurement of a Solid Sample: Measurement of a Liquid Sample: Measurement of a Solid Sample: Measurement of a Liquid Sample:
The use of plasma is an effective way to clean without using hazardous solvents. Plasma is an ionized gas capable of conducting electricity and absorbing energy from an electrical supply. Manmade plasma is generally created in a low-pressure environment. (Lightning and the Aurora Borealis are naturally occurring examples of plasma.) When a gas absorbs electrical energy, its temperature increases causing the ions to vibrate faster and “scrub” a surface. In semiconductor processing, plasma cleaning is commonly used to prepare a wafer surface prior to wire bonding. Removing contamination (flux) strengthens the bond adhesion, which helps extend device reliability and longevity. In biomedical applications, plasma cleaning is useful for achieving compatibility between synthetic biomaterials and natural tissues. Surface modification minimizes adverse reactions such as inflammation, infection, and thrombosis formation. When a gas absorbs electrical energy, its temperature increases causing the ions to vibrate faster. In an inert gas, such as argon, the excited ions can bombard a surface and remove a small amount of material. In the case of an active gas, such as oxygen, ion bombardment as well as chemical reactions occur. As a result, organic compounds and residues volatilize and are removed. Radio frequency (RF), microwaves, and alternating or direct current can energize gas plasma. Energetic species in gas plasma include ions, electrons, radicals, metastables, and photons in short-wave ultraviolet (UV) range. The energetic species bombard substrates resulting in an energy transfer from the plasma to the surface. Energy transfers are dissipated throughout the substrate through chemical and physical processes to attain a desirable surface modification – one that reacts with surface depths from several hundred angstroms to 10µm without changing the material's bulk properties.
What are gross motor skills gross motor (physical) skills are those which require whole body movement and which involve the large (core stabilising) muscles of the body to perform everyday functions, such as standing, walking, running, and sitting upright. The effect of disabilities on play skills also delay the development of play skills children to confirm these findings other studies have. What research says about science process skills: of process skills in young children contribute to the development of other operations basic to t he. School readiness and transitions 1 purpose, to help young children reach their full other children and engaging in learning. The first five years of life are critical for child development other skills your child’s most can affect your child’s development these include. Read all of the posts by gladys briggs on 21 explain how children and young people’s and this may affect other aspects of their development. Children learn social skills by interacting with other children these affect all aspects of young children young children physical activity and mivement. Young children physical activity and mivement skills 12 explain the development of movement skills in young children and how these skills affect other. What communication, language and literacy means for babies and young children need to be with people these skills develop as children interact with others. Tda 21 chid and young person development 11 explain language is needed to communicate with the other children or young essay about tda 21 chid and young. Child development and early for young children, these responses by parents and other caregivers encourage children so they become well. Child development 2-3 the most important thing to remember about your children at this age is that they are still very young and they know very little about. Facilitate the learning and development of children and young people 12 explain how this unit has been developed by skills for care and development in. 8qlw 7lwoh cypop4 promote young children’s physical activity and movement skills /hyho &uhglw ydoxh xlghg ohduqlqj krxuv. 11 identify and monitor children's physical skills and development 12 plan and movement skills 23 and young children's development. What do we know about the movement abilities of children with this may explain why many young people with the movement skills of children with down. Physical development physical development: age 0–2 and early sickness can affect later physical and mental health but usually only if these children grow. Developmental psychology ch 1&4 them to an uncommitted state so they can support the development of future skills explain how independent movement,. Promote creativity and creative learning in young children essay sample learning outcomes: 1 understand the concepts of creativity and creative learning and how these affect all aspects of young children’s learning and development 11 analyse the differences between creative learning and creativity 12 explain current. 21 explain how children and young people’s development is speech and other motor skills babies and which will affect many parts of their development 32. Use it to improve your understanding of other people and to engage with them positively body language is a mix of thank you for these, body language is sometimes.
The Project is named for Lemon, a man who was once enslaved by the College of William & Mary. Though he was, legally, the property of the College, his relationship with William & Mary was complex and often ambiguous. As an enslaved man in Virginia, he owned neither his work nor his own person. But he grew and sold produce to the College, and received a monetary Christmas bonus from the faculty at least once. Even from scant evidence, we can tell that Lemon was an actor on the stage of history, using ingenuity to help mitigate the circumstances of his enslavement. We do not know why the faculty gave Lemon a Christmas bonus in 1808, but there is evidence that the white professors took Lemon’s well-being into some consideration. In 1815, an aging Lemon was given an allowance to purchase his own food, and the College paid for his medicine in 1816. Finally, in 1817 the College paid for the coffin in which Lemon was buried. The faculty might have made these provisions for Lemon out of a sense of obligation; their motivations for doing so will almost certainly never be known. But from this small snapshot of early-nineteenth-century life at the College, we know that enslaved workers maintained their humanity in the face of brutal dehumanization, and it was a humanity that the institutional master was forced to recognize on occasion. The above information was taken from a report prepared by the late Dr. Robert Engs, who proposed the title for the Lemon Project.
5.2: Inventors of the Age - Page ID By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how the ideas and products of late nineteenth-century inventors contributed to the rise of big business - Explain how the inventions of the late nineteenth century changed everyday American life The late nineteenth century was an energetic era of inventions and entrepreneurial spirit. Building upon the mid-century Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, as well as answering the increasing call from Americans for efficiency and comfort, the country found itself in the grip of invention fever, with more people working on their big ideas than ever before. In retrospect, harnessing the power of steam and then electricity in the nineteenth century vastly increased the power of man and machine, thus making other advances possible as the century progressed. Facing an increasingly complex everyday life, Americans sought the means by which to cope with it. Inventions often provided the answers, even as the inventors themselves remained largely unaware of the life-changing nature of their ideas. To understand the scope of this zeal for creation, consider the U.S. Patent Office, which, in 1790—its first decade of existence—recorded only 276 inventions. By 1860, the office had issued a total of 60,000 patents. But between 1860 and 1890, that number exploded to nearly 450,000, with another 235,000 in the last decade of the century. While many of these patents came to naught, some inventions became lynchpins in the rise of big business and the country’s move towards an industrial-based economy, in which the desire for efficiency, comfort, and abundance could be more fully realized by most Americans. AN EXPLOSION OF INVENTIVE ENERGY From corrugated rollers that could crack hard, homestead-grown wheat into flour to refrigerated train cars and garment-sewing machines, new inventions fueled industrial growth around the country. As late as 1880, fully one-half of all Americans still lived and worked on farms, whereas fewer than one in seven—mostly men, except for long-established textile factories in which female employees tended to dominate—were employed in factories. However, the development of commercial electricity by the close of the century, to complement the steam engines that already existed in many larger factories, permitted more industries to concentrate in cities, away from the previously essential water power. In turn, newly arrived immigrants sought employment in new urban factories. Immigration, urbanization, and industrialization coincided to transform the face of American society from primarily rural to significantly urban. From 1880 to 1920, the number of industrial workers in the nation quadrupled from 2.5 million to over 10 million, while over the same period urban populations doubled, to reach one-half of the country’s total population. In offices, worker productivity benefited from the typewriter, invented in 1867, the cash register, invented in 1879, and the adding machine, invented in 1885. These tools made it easier than ever to keep up with the rapid pace of business growth. Inventions also slowly transformed home life. The vacuum cleaner arrived during this era, as well as the flush toilet. These indoor “water closets” improved public health through the reduction in contamination associated with outhouses and their proximity to water supplies and homes. Tin cans and, later, Clarence Birdseye’s experiments with frozen food, eventually changed how women shopped for, and prepared, food for their families, despite initial health concerns over preserved foods. With the advent of more easily prepared food, women gained valuable time in their daily schedules, a step that partially laid the groundwork for the modern women’s movement. Women who had the means to purchase such items could use their time to seek other employment outside of the home, as well as broaden their knowledge through education and reading. Such a transformation did not occur overnight, as these inventions also increased expectations for women to remain tied to the home and their domestic chores; slowly, the culture of domesticity changed. Perhaps the most important industrial advancement of the era came in the production of steel. Manufacturers and builders preferred steel to iron, due to its increased strength and durability. After the Civil War, two new processes allowed for the creation of furnaces large enough and hot enough to melt the wrought iron needed to produce large quantities of steel at increasingly cheaper prices. The Bessemer process, named for English inventor Henry Bessemer, and the open-hearth process, changed the way the United States produced steel and, in doing so, led the country into a new industrialized age. As the new material became more available, builders eagerly sought it out, a demand that steel mill owners were happy to supply. In 1860, the country produced thirteen thousand tons of steel. By 1879, American furnaces were producing over one million tons per year; by 1900, this figure had risen to ten million. Just ten years later, the United States was the top steel producer in the world, at over twenty-four million tons annually. As production increased to match the overwhelming demand, the price of steel dropped by over 80 percent. When quality steel became cheaper and more readily available, other industries relied upon it more heavily as a key to their growth and development, including construction and, later, the automotive industry. As a result, the steel industry rapidly became the cornerstone of the American economy, remaining the primary indicator of industrial growth and stability through the end of World War II. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AND THE TELEPHONE Advancements in communications matched the pace of growth seen in industry and home life. Communication technologies were changing quickly, and they brought with them new ways for information to travel. In 1858, British and American crews laid the first transatlantic cable lines, enabling messages to pass between the United States and Europe in a matter of hours, rather than waiting the few weeks it could take for a letter to arrive by steamship. Although these initial cables worked for barely a month, they generated great interest in developing a more efficient telecommunications industry. Within twenty years, over 100,000 miles of cable crisscrossed the ocean floors, connecting all the continents. Domestically, Western Union, which controlled 80 percent of the country’s telegraph lines, operated nearly 200,000 miles of telegraph routes from coast to coast. In short, people were connected like never before, able to relay messages in minutes and hours rather than days and weeks. One of the greatest advancements was the telephone, which Alexander Graham Bell patented in 1876. While he was not the first to invent the concept, Bell was the first one to capitalize on it; after securing the patent, he worked with financiers and businessmen to create the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union, which had originally turned down Bell’s machine, went on to commission Thomas Edison to invent an improved version of the telephone. It is actually Edison’s version that is most like the modern telephone used today. However, Western Union, fearing a costly legal battle they were likely to lose due to Bell’s patent, ultimately sold Edison’s idea to the Bell Company. With the communications industry now largely in their control, along with an agreement from the federal government to permit such control, the Bell Company was transformed into the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, which still exists today as AT&T. By 1880, fifty thousand telephones were in use in the United States, including one at the White House. By 1900, that number had increased to 1.35 million, and hundreds of American cities had obtained local service for their citizens. Quickly and inexorably, technology was bringing the country into closer contact, changing forever the rural isolation that had defined America since its beginnings. THOMAS EDISON AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING Although Thomas Alva Edison is best known for his contributions to the electrical industry, his experimentation went far beyond the light bulb. Edison was quite possibly the greatest inventor of the turn of the century, saying famously that he “hoped to have a minor invention every ten days and a big thing every month or so.” He registered 1,093 patents over his lifetime and ran a world-famous laboratory, Menlo Park, which housed a rotating group of up to twenty-five scientists from around the globe. Edison became interested in the telegraph industry as a boy, when he worked aboard trains selling candy and newspapers. He soon began tinkering with telegraph technology and, by 1876, had devoted himself full time to lab work as an inventor. He then proceeded to invent a string of items that are still used today: the phonograph, the mimeograph machine, the motion picture projector, the dictaphone, and the storage battery, all using a factory-oriented assembly line process that made the rapid production of inventions possible. In 1879, Edison invented the item that has led to his greatest fame: the incandescent light bulb. He allegedly explored over six thousand different materials for the filament, before stumbling upon tungsten as the ideal substance. By 1882, with financial backing largely from financier J. P. Morgan, he had created the Edison Electric Illuminating Company, which began supplying electrical current to a small number of customers in New York City. Morgan guided subsequent mergers of Edison’s other enterprises, including a machine works firm and a lamp company, resulting in the creation of the Edison General Electric Company in 1889. The next stage of invention in electric power came about with the contribution of George Westinghouse. Westinghouse was responsible for making electric lighting possible on a national scale. While Edison used “direct current” or DC power, which could only extend two miles from the power source, in 1886, Westinghouse invented “alternating current” or AC power, which allowed for delivery over greater distances due to its wavelike patterns. The Westinghouse Electric Company delivered AC power, which meant that factories, homes, and farms—in short, anything that needed power—could be served, regardless of their proximity to the power source. A public relations battle ensued between the Westinghouse and Edison camps, coinciding with the invention of the electric chair as a form of prisoner execution. Edison publicly proclaimed AC power to be best adapted for use in the chair, in the hope that such a smear campaign would result in homeowners becoming reluctant to use AC power in their houses. Although Edison originally fought the use of AC power in other devices, he reluctantly adapted to it as its popularity increased. Inventors in the late nineteenth century flooded the market with new technological advances. Encouraged by Great Britain’s Industrial Revolution, and eager for economic development in the wake of the Civil War, business investors sought the latest ideas upon which they could capitalize, both to transform the nation as well as to make a personal profit. These inventions were a key piece of the massive shift towards industrialization that followed. For both families and businesses, these inventions eventually represented a fundamental change in their way of life. Although the technology spread slowly, it did spread across the country. Whether it was a company that could now produce ten times more products with new factories, or a household that could communicate with distant relations, the old way of doing things was disappearing. Communication technologies, electric power production, and steel production were perhaps the three most significant developments of the time. While the first two affected both personal lives and business development, the latter influenced business growth first and foremost, as the ability to produce large steel elements efficiently and cost-effectively led to permanently changes in the direction of industrial growth. - How did the burst of new inventions during this era fuel the process of urbanization? Answer to Review Question - New inventions fueled industrial growth, and the development of commercial electricity—along with the use of steam engines—allowed industries that had previously situated themselves close to sources of water power to shift away from those areas and move their production into cities. Immigrants sought employment in these urban factories and settled nearby, transforming the country’s population from mostly rural to largely urban. - US History. Authored by: P. Scott Corbett, Volker Janssen, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, Paul Vickery, and Sylvie Waskiewicz. Provided by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/us-history. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11740/latest/
My students worked together to research current news sources in our school library. This is a great idea to engage students in the process of informative writing. It also provides students with opportunities to use research methods about a topic and use critical thinking to filter through topic material. Here is a short video explaining our Breaking News Project: Students worked on the following worksheet for our library visit so they could plan for their own news story: \|Media 1 (2 Images):Please write down ideas about the images you want to use.\|\|Supporting Idea 1:\| \|Media 2 (Video Clip under 2 minutes):Please write down ideas about the video you want to use.\|\|Supporting Idea 2:\| For your PPT: - Organize your topic and supporting ideas in sequential order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.). - Insert your images. - Insert your video (not more than 2 minutes). - Check your slides and writing for sentence and grammar structure. For your Media Speech: - The leader of your group for this project will present your project. - Choose the English statements you want to use: - This just in…. - Breaking news…. - This story is developing…. Choose the tone of voice you want to use that matches how News Reporters talk. Students worked in groups of three to compile a written copy of their news story. We reviewed and evaluated their writing using a rubric to provide them with relevant and meaningful feedback. Once they completed their writing and had a final draft edited and revised for corrections and direction of their news story, they started working on the digital media to present their news. Their creativity is astounding and I am overjoyed and impressed with the amount of work they put into this project. Here are two examples of Breaking News Stories from my grade 10 English class: Teaching with the SIOP Model If you are an educator, parent, or grandparent and looking for practical strategies to use with children, concepts to understand, and ideas that can be easily implemented about how to create space for self and others, you have landed in the right spot. Children learn how to solve problems the same way they learn how to read, write, and add. Like reading, writing, and adding, there are three specific components to solving problems. These are teachable skills children can learn at any age.
The American bumblebee is an important species vital in pollinating the nation’s wild flowers and agricultural crops, but they’re now heading towards extinction due to habitat loss, pesticides and climate change. What is Happening? - American bumblebees have completely disappeared from eight states and its population in the country has declined by 90%, according to a study. - An ongoing petition is advocating for the species to be protected under the Endangered Species Act. One of the most common bumblebee species in the US, the American bumblebee (Bombus pensylvanicus) has vanished from at least eight states and its population has declined by nearly 90% within the last 20 years. According to the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD), the bumblebee has been completely absent from eight states, namely Maine, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, Idaho, North Dakota, Wyoming, and Oregon. In 16 other states in the Northeast and Northwest, the species has become very rare or “possibly extirpated”. The study concluded that the “American bumblebee population has experienced declines of over 90% in the upper Midwest and 19 other states in the Southeast and Midwest have seen declines of over 50%.” The bumblebee’s sharp decline is attributed to a combination of factors. This includes habitat loss caused by human activity, climate change, competition with non-native honeybees, the loss of genetic diversity, and exposure to diseases and pesticides. In regards to the latter, the study pointed out that the the largest declines in bumblebee numbers “are [in] the same states that have seen the largest quantified increase in pesticide use, including neonicotinoid insecticides and fungicides.” Research has shown that chemical pesticides that are commonly used across agricultural land can disrupt bees’ natural homing systems, which makes them more susceptible to parasites. The American bumblebee are vitally important pollinators for wild flowers and food crops in the country, as well as maintaining plant biodiversity. The staggering loss of the species could have long-term impacts on the quality and quantity of food crops, which in turn, affect national food security. You might also be interested: Driven By the Climate Crisis, Bumblebee Numbers Have Plummeted The alarming population drop has prompted the US Fish and Wildlife Service to consider listing the American bumblebee as an “endangered species”, which just a week earlier, declared 23 birds, fish and other species to be extinct. There’s also growing pressure from the public when a petition was launched by the CBD and the Bombus Pollinators Association of Law Students of Albany Law School in August urging for the species to be protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). “This is an important first step in preventing the extinction of this fuzzy black-and-yellow beauty that was once a familiar sight,” said petition co-author Jess Tyler in a statement. “To survive unchecked threats of disease, habitat loss, and pesticide poisoning, American bumblebees need the full protection of the Endangered Species Act right now.” The petition is also pushing for greater regulations and public land protections, especially in the use of pesticides, to prevent the American bumblebee from becoming extinct. The US Fish and Wildlife Service will conduct a year-long review, evaluating the potential threats to the species, before making its decision to place it under the ESA, a protection act that provides rules and measures to conserving the species before population declines become irreversible. Should the petition be successful, developers and farmers who kill the insects could face legal consequences and receive fines up to a maximum of $13,000 for every protected animal killed. Featured image by: Pixabay
Updated: Dec 22, 2020 Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause illnesses such as the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). In 2019, a new coronavirus was identified as the cause of a disease outbreak in China. The virus is now known as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The disease it causes is called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). On January 30, 2020, the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee of the World Health Organization declared the outbreak a “public health emergency of international concern”. On January 31, 2020, Health and Human Services Secretary Alex M. Azar II declared a public health emergency (PHE) for the United States to aid the nation’s healthcare community in responding to COVID-19. What We Know Now Diseases can make anyone sick regardless of their race or ethnicity The risk of getting COVID-19 in the U.S. is currently low Someone who has completed quarantine or has been released from isolation does not pose a risk of infection to other people There are simple things you can do to help keep yourself and others healthy: Avoid close contact with people who are sick Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth Stay home when you are sick Cover your cough or sneeze with a tissue, then throw the tissue in the trash Clean and disinfect frequently touched objects and surfaces using a regular household cleaning spray or wipe CDC does not recommend that people who are well wear a face mask to protect themselves from respiratory diseases including COVID-19 Face masks should be used by people who show symptoms to help prevent the spread of the diseases to others. The use of face masks is crucial for health workers and people who are taking care of someone in close settings WHO recommends that you avoid eating raw or under cooked meat or animal organs and contact with live animals and surfaces they may have touched if you are visiting live markets in areas that have recently had new coronavirus cases Wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds especially after going to the bathroom; before eating; and after blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing. If soap and water is not readily available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol If you are sick, stay home from work, school, public areas and avoid crowded spaces If you are planning to travel internationally, first check travel advisories. You may also want to talk with your doctor if you have health conditions that make you more susceptible to respiratory infections and complications Symptoms may appear 2-14 days after exposure however, some patients may still be asymptomatic during this time. Infection individuals are still contagious despite a lack of symptoms. Be aware of the following signs and symptoms: Mild-Moderate Symptoms (ex. Common cold) Not feeling well overall Severe Symptoms (ex. Bronchitis/Pneumonia) Cough with mucus Shortness of Breath Chest pain or tightness when you breath and cough What To-Do When You Are Sick Call ahead before visiting your doctor if you develop symptoms and have been in close contact with a person known to have COVID-19. This way your provider’s office can take steps to keep other people from getting infected or exposed. Put on a face mask before you enter the facility and ask your provider to call the local/state health department * Information regarding the coronavirus is still developing and as such we will inform you of the most updated news as soon as it is made known to us*
Protecting Ocean Species and Their Habitats In celebration of Avatar: The Way of Water, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has partnered with Disney and Avatar to protect 10 of our ocean’s amazing animals and their habitats, connected to the beauty of Pandora. Together, we can keep our oceans amazing and help TNC protect 10 percent of the ocean by 2030. Why is the ocean so important? No matter where we live, the ocean is essential to our lives. It supplies 50% of the oxygen we breathe and is the home to fish and other species that provide food and income for more than three billion people. Its coral reefs and oyster beds shelter marine life and protect our shores by breaking up wave energy and storm surges. On the edges of the ocean, coastal wetlands—such as mangroves, salt marshes and seagrass meadows—protect our shores, too. They also draw in carbon as they grow and transfer it into their leaves, stems and the rich soils held by their roots. This “blue carbon” can remain in the soil for thousands of years. In fact, coastal wetlands store five times more carbon per hectare than rainforests, helping to limit further climate change. But the world is changing fast. We’re seeing rapidly growing demand for food, energy and water for the more than 7 billion people on our planet—and that means more pressure on the ocean and its resources. Meanwhile, our changing climate is leading to hotter seas, more intense storms and more frequent flooding. With half the world’s population living on or near coastlines, these changes are affecting our food, livelihoods and safety. We need to act now to restore the ocean’s health while also meeting the growing demand for seafood and jobs. And we need to safeguard coastal villages and cities while reducing the risks from climate change. The stakes have never been higher. The World's Goal: Protect 30% of the Ocean by 2030 TNC supports the global goal of protecting 30% of the planet’s ocean, lands and freshwater over the next decade. To contribute to that goal, by 2030 TNC intends to conserve 4 billion hectares (more than 10% of the world’s ocean area) while benefitting 100 million people at severe risk of climate-related emergencies. Our Ocean Conservation Strategies 1. We Protect and Restore Ocean Habitats We help protect, restore and improve the management of ocean habitats by: - Helping coastal countries create sustainable funding to protect their ocean areas (such as by refinancing billions of dollars in debt to secure conservation funds) - Establishing new protected areas, rebuilding lost reefs and reseeding mangroves, seagrasses and kelp forests - Sharing the latest science through online and in-person learning platforms, such as the Reef Resilience Network and Global Mangrove Watch, that reach nearly 1 million people and help them to better manage and restore critical marine ecosystems How Radical Collaboration Can Save Coral Reefs We've already lost half the ocean's reefs—now the fate of the other half depends on governments, local communities and the private sector. Our window of opportunity is open. Life Depends on Marine Conservation Ensuring our ocean remains resilient is no easy task, but protecting it is too important to the future of the planet for us not to succeed. And it is too urgent to wait any longer. We need to talk about the ocean. Blue Bonds: Unlocking Funding for Conservation Smarter decisions about how we use and invest in nature for marine conservation and climate change adaptation will make a profound difference for the more than 2 billion people living in coastal regions. Our audacious plan. 2. We Reduce the Impacts of Climate Change on the Ocean We tackle climate risks and build coastal resilience by: - Helping coastal communities plan for and adapt to our changing climate through nature-based solutions, such as restoring reefs, mangroves, salt marshes and other habitats that guard against storms and flooding - Teaming up with Stanford University and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to identify and protect “Super Reefs” that can survive hotter temperatures, and use them to seed new generations of resilient corals - Financing coastal conservation through cutting-edge projects, such as blue carbon resilience credits and insurance policies for reefs and mangroves that pay out when natural disasters strike Insuring Nature to Ensure a Resilient Future How and why the world’s first coral reef insurance policy is paying to repair hurricane damages. The Reef Brigades to the rescue. The State of the World's Mangroves A comprehensive new report shows the benefits of mangroves and how they can be saved. It's not too late for mangroves. Investing in Blue Carbon for a Resilient Future How coastal wetlands can protect communities and store a level of carbon equivalent to stopping the burning of over 2 billion barrels of oil. The enormous impact of wetlands. Global Reefs Impact Report 2022 Coral and shellfish reefs are in danger, but the extent of damage varies based on local conditions and whether reefs are being managed effectively. The good news is that some reefs are showing remarkable signs of recovery. View the 2022 Global Reefs Impact Report > 3. We Support Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture We work with partners to promote responsible fishing and farming, including: - Applying the latest science to make fish and shrimp farming more sustainable and supporting seaweed and shellfish farms that benefit farmers and restore ocean health - Using our FishPath engagement process and tool to help fisheries managers in at least 15 countries set their coastal fisheries on the path to sustainability - Partnering with the Marshall Islands and Walmart to transform the global canned tuna supply chain, including by using technology (such as on-board video cameras and sensors) to prevent illegal fishing and limit bycatch of turtles, sharks and dolphins A healthy ocean depends on sustainably managed fisheries How TNC brings innovative solutions and science to global fisheries challenges, ensuring healthy marine and freshwater ecosystems and thriving communities. Discover our approach. Restorative aquaculture helps nature and communities New research shows that aquaculture can help restore ocean health, as well as support economic development and food production in coastal communities worldwide—if it's done right. Uncover the opportunity. Supporting Oyster Aquaculture and Restoration (SOAR) Why we purchased more than 5 million surplus farmed oysters to use in nearby oyster restoration projects. A win for oceans and business. Global Insights in Your Inbox A monthly newsletter for those who believe that, together, we can build a better future for people and the planet. We address the sustainability issues of the moment and explore potential solutions—all in a five-minute read or less.
ScienceDaily (Mar. 21, 2008) — Researchers at Boston College and MIT have used nanotechnology to achieve a major increase in thermoelectric efficiency, a milestone that paves the way for a new generation of products -- from semiconductors and air conditioners to car exhaust systems and solar power technology -- that run cleaner. The team's low-cost approach, details of which are published in the journal Science, involves building tiny alloy nanostructures that can serve as micro-coolers and power generators. The researchers said that in addition to being inexpensive, their method will likely result in practical, near-term enhancements to make products consume less energy or capture energy that would otherwise be wasted. The findings represent a key milestone in the quest to harness the thermoelectric effect, which has both enticed and frustrated scientists since its discovery in the early 19th century. The effect refers to certain materials that can convert heat into electricity and vice versa. But there has been a hitch in trying to exploit the effect: most materials that conduct electricity also conduct heat, so their temperature equalizes quickly. In order to improve efficiency, scientists have sought materials that will conduct electricity but not similarly conduct heat. Using nanotechnology, the researchers at BC and MIT produced a big increase in the thermoelectric efficiency of bismuth antimony telluride -- a semiconductor alloy that has been commonly used in commercial devices since the 1950s -- in bulk form. Specifically, the team realized a 40 percent increase in the alloy's figure of merit, a term scientists use to measure a material's relative performance. The achievement marks the first such gain in a half-century using the cost-effective material that functions at room temperatures and up to 250 degrees Celsius. The success using the relatively inexpensive and environmentally friendly alloy means the discovery can quickly be applied to a range of uses, leading to higher cooling and power generation efficiency. "By using nanotechnology, we have found a way to improve an old material by breaking it up and then rebuilding it in a composite of nanostructures in bulk form," said Boston College physicist Zhifeng Ren, one of the leaders of the project. "This method is low cost and can be scaled for mass production. This represents an exciting opportunity to improve the performance of thermoelectric materials in a cost-effective manner." "These thermoelectric materials are already used in many applications, but this better material can have a bigger impact," said Gang Chen, the Warren and Towneley Rohsenow Professor of Mechanical Engineering at MIT and another leader of the project. At its core, thermoelectricity is the "hot and cool" issue of physics. Heating one end of a wire, for example, causes electrons to move to the cooler end, producing an electric current. In reverse, applying a current to the same wire will carry heat away from a hot section to a cool section. Phonons, a quantum mode of vibration, play a key role because they are the primary means by which heat conduction takes place in insulating solids. Bismuth antimony telluride is a material commonly used in thermoelectric products, and the researchers crushed it into a nanoscopic dust and then reconstituted it in bulk form, albeit with nanoscale constituents. The grains and irregularities of the reconstituted alloy dramatically slowed the passage of phonons through the material, radically transforming the thermoelectric performance by blocking heat flow while allowing the electrical flow. In addition to Ren and six researchers at his BC lab, the international team involved MIT researchers, including Chen and Institute Professor Mildred S. Dresselhaus; research scientist Bed Poudel at GMZ Energy, Inc, a Newton, Mass.-based company formed by Ren, Chen, and CEO Mike Clary; as well as BC visiting Professor Junming Liu, a physicist from Nanjing University in China. Thermoelectric materials have been used by NASA to generate power for far-away spacecraft. These materials have been used by specialty automobile seat makers to keep drivers cool during the summer. The auto industry has been experimenting with ways to use thermoelectric materials to convert waste heat from a car exhaust systems into electric current to help power vehicles. This research will be published online in Science Express on March 20, 2008. The research was supported by the Department of Energy and by the National Science Foundation. Adapted from materials provided by Boston College.
Rotation matrix for rotations around x-axis Rotation Matrix for 30° Rotation Construct the matrix for a rotation of a vector around the x-axis by 30°. Then let the matrix operate on a vector. R = rotx(30) R = 3×3 1.0000 0 0 0 0.8660 -0.5000 0 0.5000 0.8660 x = [2;-2;4]; y = R*x y = 3×1 2.0000 -3.7321 2.4641 Under a rotation around the x-axis, the x-component of a vector is invariant. ang — Rotation angle Rotation angle specified as a real-valued scalar. The rotation angle is positive if the rotation is in the counter-clockwise direction when viewed by an observer looking along the x-axis towards the origin. Angle units are in degrees. R — Rotation matrix real-valued orthogonal matrix 3-by-3 rotation matrix returned as for a rotation angle α. Rotation matrices are used to rotate a vector into a new direction. In transforming vectors in three-dimensional space, rotation matrices are often encountered. Rotation matrices are used in two senses: they can be used to rotate a vector into a new position or they can be used to rotate a coordinate basis (or coordinate system) into a new one. In this case, the vector is left alone but its components in the new basis will be different from those in the original basis. In Euclidean space, there are three basic rotations: one each around the x, y and z axes. Each rotation is specified by an angle of rotation. The rotation angle is defined to be positive for a rotation that is counterclockwise when viewed by an observer looking along the rotation axis towards the origin. Any arbitrary rotation can be composed of a combination of these three (Euler’s rotation theorem). For example, you can rotate a vector in any direction using a sequence of three rotations: . The rotation matrices that rotate a vector around the x, y, and z-axes are given by: Counterclockwise rotation around x-axis Counterclockwise rotation around y-axis Counterclockwise rotation around z-axis The following three figures show what positive rotations look like for each rotation axis: For any rotation, there is an inverse rotation satisfying . For example, the inverse of the x-axis rotation matrix is obtained by changing the sign of the angle: This example illustrates a basic property: the inverse rotation matrix is the transpose of the original. Rotation matrices satisfy A’A = 1, and consequently det(A) = 1. Under rotations, vector lengths are preserved as well as the angles between vectors. We can think of rotations in another way. Consider the original set of basis vectors, , and rotate them all using the rotation matrix A. This produces a new set of basis vectors related to the original by: Using the transpose, you can write the new basis vectors as a linear combinations of the old basis vectors: Now any vector can be written as a linear combination of either set of basis vectors: Using algebraic manipulation, you can derive the transformation of components for a fixed vector when the basis (or coordinate system) rotates. This transformation uses the transpose of the rotation matrix. The next figure illustrates how a vector is transformed as the coordinate system rotates around the x-axis. The figure after shows how this transformation can be interpreted as a rotation of the vector in the opposite direction. Goldstein, H., C. Poole and J. Safko, Classical Mechanics, 3rd Edition, San Francisco: Addison Wesley, 2002, pp. 142–144. C/C++ Code Generation Generate C and C++ code using MATLAB® Coder™. Usage notes and limitations: Does not support variable-size inputs. Introduced in R2013a
Carbon, fossils fuels and CO2 Carbon is one of the building blocks of life. Humans, animals and plants are made up of organic compounds. We burn wood and fossil fuels to produce energy and power transport, inadvertently releasing the greenhouse gas, CO2 into the atmosphere. Students will become more aware of the facts and figures that link the carbon cycle with CO2 emissions and the jargon that is used in the news and in global climate politics. Chemistry curriculum links: AQA GCSE 3.2.1 Use of amount of substance in relation to masses of pure substances (Moles) 7.1 Carbon compounds as fuels and feedstock 9.2 Carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse gases 9.2.4 The carbon footprint and its reduction Chemistry in the activity Calculating the energy from combustion of different fuels is related to the number of Carbon atoms these hydrocarbons contain. The amount of CO2 produced upon combustion is our way of measuring the Carbon footprint of energy sources. Electricity is generated from various forms of energy in each country´s electricity mix and the more renewables and the fewer inefficient coal power plants there are, the less CO2 is released per kWh electricity used. The UK is trying to go below 100 g of CO2 released per kWh by 2030 and is likely to achieve this before that date. In the associated worksheet the students will carry out calculations based on a range of information they will find in the corresponding information sheet. They will become familiar with conversions between tons of Carbon and tons of CO2, the volume of CO2 and other factors they may hear in the news or that relate to their personal, a country´s or organisation´s carbon emissions. They will go to websites that provide current global CO2 levels and a breakdown of the UK´s electricity supply, with the corresponding kg of CO2 this will emit per unit electricity used. Questions 1&2 use numeracy skills to evaluate and compare different forms of energy and different technologies. Question 3 is best used as a classroom discussion and covers carbon neutrality, achieving the UK´s Carbon neutrality goals and calculate how many trees they would have to plant to neutralise this year´s CO2 emissions. 1. Which fuels or activities produce more CO2? Which of these activities produces more CO2 emissions? (calculate them in kg of CO2) - Driving 100 miles? (Using 13 litres of petrol or 10 litres of diesel) Petrol = 2.3 x 13, Diesel = 2.7 x 10 = 29.9 kg CO2 for petrol and 27 kg for diesel - Using your LED TV for 5 hours a day during a week? (A 50” LED TV uses 100 watts, to convert to kWh, multiply kW by number of hours) 5 x 7 hours at 100 watts = 3.5 kWh = 3.5 kg CO2 - Boiling water in the electric kettle for a family for a week? (A kettle uses 1200 W and it takes 3 minutes to boil water and this is done 10 times a day – or does your family drink more tea?) 1200 x 10 x 3 x 7 = 210 minutes (3.5 hours) or 4.2 kWh x 0.283 = 1.19 kg CO2 - Heating the water with natural gas for a week of daily 5 minute showers? (Heating 30 litre of water to 40°C uses 1.1 kWh in the form of gas, where emissions from natural gas are 0.2 kg CO2/ kWh burned) Heating the water for a week uses 7.7 kWh so 0.2 x 7.7 is 1.54 kg CO2 - Mobile phone usage for the family in a week. Assume the family does an average of two full charges a day. (Typical phone charges at 0.015 kWh and takes 2 hours to charge fully) 4 x 7 x 0.005 = 0.014 kWh x 0.283 = 0.396 kg CO2 - Play station for 20 hours a week (A Playstation 4 Pro uses 139 W) 139 x 20 = 2.4 kWh = 7.87 kg CO2 2. How to quantify CO2 emissions in terms of volume and mass? - How many cubic metres of CO2 would 5000 kg CO2 occupy? 2500 m3 - A factory states that it releases 10 tons C per year (for its greenhouse gas emissions). How many m3 of CO2e is this? 10,000 kg x 44/12 = 36,667 kg CO2, so ½ x this is 18,333 m3 - If UK car emissions released 3 GtC in a year and all the CO2 remained in the atmosphere, by how much would the CO2 concentration increase? 0.47 x 3 = 1.41 ppmv - Go to see last year´s UK Carbon emissions published by the government (Provisional GHG emissions). In 2019 it was 351.5 Mt CO2 Considering the UK population is 63 million and world population is 8.3 billion, are our carbon emissions representative of global average emissions? ((World emissions in 2017 were 36 Bt) 63m/8.3b =0.81 % of population and CO2 emissions are 351.5Mt/36000Mt = 0.98 %, so the population of the UK creates more CO2 than their population dictates, we produce 0.98/0.81 =1.21 times more CO2 than the average world population - What is today´s CO2 concentration at Mauna Loa (https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)? How much has it increased since 1950? How much has it increased since the same month in 2018? (figures for 2020) 500 ppm; increase of 100 ppm between 1950 and 2020 (in 70 years), that is a 0.7 ppm average increase; it has increased 4 ppm since 2018 (in 2 years), 2 ppm increase per year. The rate of increase of CO2 concentration has increased since the 1950s. - Why has CO2 concentration not decreased in 2020 if CO2 emissions have dropped? The lifetime of CO2 means that it stays around in the atmosphere for many years and you will not see a decrease in the CO2 from the year that you stop releasing it, it will gradually level off, that is why we need to reach our CO2 emission peak as early as possible, to see the results a few years later. 3. Steps towards reaching carbon neutrality QUESTIONS to discuss as a class - Do you think the UK is on its way to becoming a low carbon economy? Why do you think some countries like Estonia are way behind the UK and countries like Sweden are way ahead? (http://www.globalcarbonatlas.org/en/CO2-emissions is a useful information source) Estonia still burns a lot of coal, hence its high CO2 emissions. Sweden has 80 % of its electricity from nuclear and renewables - The UK has a goal of reaching Carbon neutrality by 2050- do you think we are on our way to reaching that? - What percentage of our anthropogenic (human) CO2 emissions are absorbed by the oceans? - If a fully grown tree absorbs 22 kg of CO2 per year and an acre of forest, 2.5 tons of Carbon, if we wanted to neutralize our country-wide annual emissions of 351.5Mt* CO2, how many more trees or acres of forest would we need?** 351500/2.5 = 140600 acres. There are 60 million acres in the UK, so actually, only adding 0.234 % of the land as forests would do this! The latest government statistics on UK annual CO2 emissions (for 2019) was 351.5 Mt CO2 equivalent *UK forests absorbed 21 million tonnes CO2 in total in 2020, so they are working away continuously at helping to neutralise our emissions!
An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. The English word epic comes from Latinepicus, which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective ἐπικός (epikos), from ἔπος (epos), "word, story, poem." In ancient Greek, 'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic hexameter (epea), which included not only Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod, the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the strange theological verses attributed to Orpheus. Later tradition, however, has restricted the term 'epic' to heroic epic, as described in this article. Originating before the invention of writing, primary epics, such as those of Homer, were composed by bards who used complex rhetorical and metrical schemes by which they could memorize the epic as received in tradition and add to the epic in their performances. Later writers like Virgil, Apollonius of Rhodes, Dante, Camões, and Milton adopted and adapted Homer's style and subject matter, but used devices available only to those who write. The oldest epic recognized is the Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2500–1300 BCE), which was recorded in ancient Sumer during the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure. The longest epic written is the ancient Indian Mahabharata (c. 3rd century BC–3rd century AD), which consists of 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), as well as long prose passages, so that at ~1.8 million words it is roughly twice the length of Shahnameh, four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa, and roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. The first epics were products of preliteratesocieties and oral history poetic traditions.Oral tradition was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early 20th-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance. Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics, the earliest works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral poetic form. These works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all of Western epic (including Virgil's Aeneid and Dante's Divine Comedy) self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems. In his work Poetics, Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry and with drama in the form of tragedy and comedy. Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse of characters of a higher type. They differ in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of meter and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in their length: for Tragedy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit, whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is a second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry. Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to Tragedy: whoever, therefore knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found in Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic poem. – Aristotle, Poetics Part V Harmon & Holman (1999) define an epic: A long narrative poem in elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a central heroic figure and through their development of episodes important to the history of a nation or race. The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home significantly transformed by his journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native cultures. Classical epic poetry recounts a journey, either physical (as typified by Odysseus in the Odyssey) or mental (as typified by Achilles in the Iliad) or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism. These conventions are largely restricted to European classical culture and its imitators. The Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, or the Bhagavata Purana do not contain such elements, nor do early medieval Western epics that are not strongly shaped by the classical traditions, such as the Chanson de Roland or the Poem of the Cid. Narrative opens "in the middle of things", with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story. For example, the Iliad does not tell the entire story of the Trojan War, starting with the judgment of Paris, but instead opens abruptly on the rage of Achilles and its immediate causes. So too, Orlando Furioso is not a complete biography of Roland, but picks up from the plot of Orlando Innamorato, which in turn presupposes a knowledge of the romance and oral traditions. Epic catalogues and genealogies are given, called enumeratio. These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context, such as the catalog of ships. Often, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members. Examples: Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita (A) mi ritrovai per una selva oscura (B) ché la diritta via era smarrita. (A) Ahi quanto a dir qual era è cosa dura (B) esta selva selvaggia e aspra e forte (C) che nel pensier rinnova la paura! (B) In ottava rima, each stanza consists of three alternate rhymes and one double rhyme, following the ABABABCC rhyme scheme. Example: Canto l’arme pietose, e 'l Capitano Che 'l gran sepolcro liberò di Cristo. Molto egli oprò col senno e con la mano; Molto soffrì nel glorioso acquisto: E invan l’Inferno a lui s’oppose; e invano s’armò d’Asia e di Libia il popol misto: Chè 'l Ciel gli diè favore, e sotto ai santi Segni ridusse i suoi compagni erranti. The sacred armies, and the godly knight, That the great sepulchre of Christ did free, I sing; much wrought his valor and foresight, And in that glorious war much suffered he; In vain 'gainst him did Hell oppose her might, In vain the Turks and Morians armèd be: His soldiers wild, to brawls and mutines prest, Reducèd he to peace, so Heaven him blest. Long poetic narratives that do not fit the traditional European definition of the heroic epic are sometimes known as folk epics. Indian folk epics have been investigated by Lauri Honko (1998), Brenda Beck (1982) and John Smith, amongst others. Folk epics are an important part of community identities. For example, in Egypt, the folk genre known as al-sira relates the saga of the Hilālī tribe and their migrations across the Middle East and north Africa, see Bridget Connelly (1986). In India, folk epics reflect the caste system of Indian society and the life of the lower levels of society, such as cobblers and shepherds, see C.N. Ramachandran, “Ambivalence and Angst: A Note on Indian folk epics,” in Lauri Honko (2002. p. 295). Some Indian oral epics feature strong women who actively pursue personal freedom in their choice of a romantic partner (Stuart, Claus, Flueckiger and Wadley, eds, 1989, p. 5). Japanese traditional performed narratives were sung by blind singers. One of the most famous, The Tale of the Heike, deals with historical wars and had a ritual function to placate the souls of the dead (Tokita 2015, p. 7). A variety of epic forms are found in Africa. Some have a linear, unified style while others have a more cyclical, episodic style (Barber 2007, p. 50). People in the rice cultivation zones of south China sang long narrative songs about the origin of rice growing, rebel heroes, and transgressive love affairs (McLaren 2022). The borderland ethnic populations of China sang heroic epics, such as the Epic of King Gesar of the Mongols, and the creation-myth epics of the Yao people of south China. It springs from a historical incident or is otherwise based on some fact; it turns upon the fruition of the fourfold ends and its hero is clever and noble; By descriptions of cities, oceans, mountains, seasons and risings of the moon or the sun; through sportings in garden or water, and festivities of drinking and love; Through sentiments-of-love-in-separation and through marriages, by descriptions of the birth-and-rise of princes, and likewise through state-counsel, embassy, advance, battle, and the hero’s triumph; Embellished; not too condensed, and pervaded all through with poetic sentiments and emotions; with cantos none too lengthy and having agreeable metres and well-formed joints, And in each case furnished with an ending in a different metre – such a poem possessing good figures-of-speech wins the people’s heart and endures longer than even a kalpa. ^Battles, Paul (2014). "Toward a theory of Old English poetic genres: Epic, elegy, wisdom poetry, and the "traditional opening"". Studies in Philosophy. 111 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1353/sip.2014.0001. S2CID161613381. Heinsdorff, Cornel (2003). Christus, Nikodemus und die Samaritanerin bei Juvencus. Mit einem Anhang zur lateinischen Evangelienvorlage. Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte. Vol. 67. Berlin, DE / New York, NY. ISBN3-11-017851-6. Jansen, Jan; Henk, J; Maier, M.J., eds. (2004). Epic Adventures: Heroic narrative in the oral performance traditions of four continents. Literatur: Forschung und Wissenschaft (in German). Vol. 3. LIT Verlag.
The Second Jewish Revolt was a rebellion by Jews in Judaea, in the region of Palestine, against Roman rule. It occurred in ad 132–135. The region had been part of the Roman Empire since the 1st century bc. Some groups of Jews had long wanted to overthrow the Romans and reestablish an independent Jewish kingdom. An earlier rebellion, the First Jewish Revolt (ad 66–70), had been unsuccessful, and the Romans had burned the Jews’ sacred Temple of Jerusalem. Years of clashes between Jews and Romans in Judaea preceded the Second Jewish Revolt. The misrule of Tinnius Rufus, the Roman governor of Judaea, helped lead to the rebellion. In addition, the Jews were outraged at the Roman emperor Hadrian’s restrictions on Jewish religious freedom and observances, including a ban on the practice of male circumcision. The emperor also announced plans to found a Roman colony in Jerusalem. The rebellion broke out in 132 and became a bitter struggle. The leader of the Jewish revolt was Bar Kokhba. The greatest rabbi of the time, Akiba ben Joseph, hailed Bar Kokhba as the messiah—the king the Jews awaited who would free them from foreign rule and restore God’s kingdom. Historians are not sure whether Akiba ben Joseph participated in the revolt. At first, Bar Kokhba’s forces enjoyed great success, routing a Roman army in Jerusalem. In the summer of 134, however, Hadrian sent the Roman governor of Britain, Gaius Julius Severus, to lead the fight against the Jews with an army of 35,000 men. The Jewish forces proved no match against the methodical and ruthless tactics of this Roman general. The Romans retook Jerusalem, and Severus gradually wore the rebels down. In 135 the Romans captured Bethar, the Jews’ stronghold on the seacoast south of Caesarea. At Bethar the revolt was crushed; Bar Kokhba was slain, along with a large number of other Jews. It is estimated that more than a half million Jews were killed in the Second Jewish Revolt; virtually all the Jews of Judaea died or were exiled. After the Jews’ defeat, the Romans changed the name of Judaea to Syria Palaestina and made Jerusalem into the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina. They built a temple to the Roman god Jupiter over the ruins of the Jewish Temple. After the revolt, Jews were generally forbidden to enter Jerusalem until the 4th century.
What Exactly is Heart Failure and How is it Treated? Heart failure is a bit of an oxymoron. When we hear the medical term “heart failure” it does not mean that the heart has necessarily stopped beating. Rather, the heart has begun to pump less effectively, meaning that it cannot oxygenate the body. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that about 5.7 million adults in the United States have heart failure. Unfortunately, half of those diagnosed with heart failure die within five years of diagnosis. In addition, heart failure is costly – it costs our nation $30.7 billion annually. This value includes health care, medications, and missed workdays. What Exactly is Heart Failure? The heart doesn’t randomly weaken to the point of heart failure; other conditions typically precipitate the condition. When someone has heart failure, the ventricles of the heart, which are the main pumping chambers, stiffen and are unable to fill with blood completely between heartbeats. The heart may become weakened and the ventricles may stretch; when this happens, the ventricles are also unable to pump blood effectively. The term ejection fraction is important when discussing heart failure; ejection fraction measures how well the heart is pumping. It can help to diagnose heart failure and guide treatment decisions. Healthy hearts have an ejection fraction (EF) of 50% or higher, though someone with heart failure can still have a normal EF. Types of Heart Failure Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, also commonly known as systolic heart failure or dilated cardiomyopathy, is the most common type of heart failure. This type of heart failure occurs when the left ventricle becomes weak and is unable to pump properly. Systolic heart failure occurs most frequently in those who are middle aged and older and occurs most frequently in those who have prior heart damage due to a heart attack. Other causes include excessive alcohol intake, prior use of certain chemotherapy medications, and inflammation of the heart due to infections. This specific type of heart failure also has a familial tendency. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, also commonly known as diastolic heart failure or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, occurs when the heart can’t relax; this means that the heart is less efficient at pumping the blood throughout the body. Typically, diastolic heart failure occurs in those who are over age 65 and who have underlying comorbidities, such as hypertension and diabetes as they can lead to heart disease. Heart disease leads to thickening of the walls of the heart. When diastolic heart failure is related to genetics, it is then known as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Symptoms of Heart Failure One of the most common symptoms of heart failure is shortness of breath. Shortness of breath occurs when fluid backs up into the lungs because the heart isn’t pumping effectively. As the lungs fill with fluid, shortness of breath occurs. Fatigue is also common. Because the heart is not circulating an adequate amount of blood, the organs and muscles are not getting enough oxygen, causing fatigue. Swelling and weight gain are likely to occur. Swelling is common in the lower extremities and abdomen. The kidneys are not filtering enough blood, so the body attempts to protect itself by holding onto excess fluid. Unfortunately, this causes uncomfortable weight gain and edema. Other symptoms that may occur include frequent urination, a dry cough, heart palpitations, and dizziness and confusion. Treatment of Heart Failure There are various treatment options for heart failure. It is very important that a treatment plan is addressed immediately as occasionally, heart failure can be reversed by treating the underlying cause. However, it is important that compliance with a treatment regimen is stressed. Proper treatment and adherence can increase quality of life, as well as length of life. Medications are typically prescribed, and a combination is typically used: - Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: ACE inhibitors act as a vasodilator, thus they reduce blood pressure, improve blood flow, and overall, reduce the workload of the heart. Examples include captopril (Capoten), lisinopril (Zestril), and enalapril (Vasotec). - Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs): ARBs work similarly to ACE inhibitors and are used if ACE inhibitors cannot be tolerated. Examples include losartan (Cozaar) and valsartan (Diovan). - Beta blockers: beta blockers are a powerful medication; they have many functions – they reduce heart rate, reduce blood pressure, and limit damage to the heart for those with systolic heart failure. Examples include metoprolol (Lopressor), bisoprolol (Zebeta), and carvedilol (Coreg). - Diuretics: diuretics are commonly prescribed because they help remove excess fluid from the body. - Potassium-wasting diuretics are diuretics that remove the excess fluids, but they may also remove potassium and magnesium. It is common practice to monitor these electrolytes and supplement with potassium while taking this medication. - Potassium-sparing diuretics are diuretics that do not cause depletion of potassium while removing fluid. Unfortunately, potassium can become too high while taking them. - Digoxin: digoxin is known to help strengthen the heart contractions. It is often given to those who have heart failure as well as heart rhythm irregularities, such as atrial fibrillation, as it slows the heartbeat. Implantable devices can treat heart failure as well: - Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD): an ICD is implanted into the chest and wires are led to the heart. The ICD reads the heart rhythms. If the heart beats irregularly or stops, it shocks the heart until it is back into a normal rhythm. It also acts as a pacemaker. - Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker sends electrical impulses to the left and right ventricles so that they pump more efficiently. Occasionally, an ICD and a biventricular pacemaker are used together so that they heart can pump optimally. - Ventricular assist device (VAD): a VAD is a mechanical circulatory device that assists the lower ventricles pump blood to the rest of the body. It is implanted into the abdomen, then attached to the heart. Surgery, such as a heart valve replacement or even a heart transplant, may be required in those who have severe heart failure. Lifestyle modifications are also important: - Smoking cessation can improve quality of life. Smoking damages the anatomy of the heart, increases blood pressure, and reduces the amount of oxygen that is available in the blood. - Monitor weight. Most people with heart failure should monitor weight daily, reporting weight gains to their healthcare provider. - Restrict sodium. Most people should also restrict sodium as excess sodium can cause fluid retention. A healthcare provider or dietitian can recommend the proper amount of sodium. Heart failure – diagnosis. (2017, December 23). Retrieved July 5, 2019. Heart failure fact sheet. (2019, January 8). Retrieved July 3, 2019, from https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_heart_failure.htm Heart failure: Understanding heart failure. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2019, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17069-heart-failure-understanding-heart-failure Types of Cardiomyopathy & Heart failure. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2019, from https://nyulangone.org/conditions/cardiomyopathy-heart-failure-in-adults/types
Using an Transistor to Control a Motor Power Requirements for Motors Motors need about 200 milliamps to work. But a microcontroller like the Raspberry Pi Pico only can switch about 18 milliamps. So we need a way to control more power. The Pico has 26 general purpose input and output pins. However, each pin's power is designed to digitally communicate with other devices and has a limited current capacity of around 17 milliamps according to the Raspberry Pi Pico Datasheet Table 5. The solution is to either use the digital output signal to turn on and off a switch such as a transistor of to use a motor driver chip such as an L293D chip. Basic Transistor Circuit - Transistor NPN 2222A - Diode: 1N1448 - Motor: 3-6 volt hobby motor Set the frequency to 50Hz (one cycle per 20ms) and the duty value to between 51 (51/1023 * 20ms = 1ms) and 102 (102/1023 * 20ms = 2ms) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Wyoming Content and Performance Standards WY.SS5.5. People, Places, and Environments: Students apply their knowledge of the geographic themes (location, place, movement, region, and human/environment interactions) and skills to demonstrate an understanding of interrelationships among people, places, and environment. SS5.5.1. Spatial: Apply mental mapping skills and use different representations of the Earth to demonstrate an understanding of human and physical patterns and how local decisions may create global impacts. SS5.5.2. Physical Place and Region: Explain how physical features, patterns, and systems impact different regions and how these features may help us generalize and compare areas within the state, nation, or world.
The idea of the heat island — that densely built-up urban areas are considerably hotter than the rural and semi-rural landscapes that surround them — has been extensively studied and is widely accepted by academics and the public. But a new study by a Concordia researcher takes a closer look at the phenomenon and what can be done to mitigate it. According to Carly Ziter, an assistant professor of biology in the Faculty of Arts and Science, extensive tree canopy cover in an urban area can dramatically reduce the temperatures of their immediate environs — enough to make a significant difference even within a few city blocks. Subscribe to our Newsletter! Receive selected content straight into your inbox. In a new paper published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Ziter argues that there is a non-linear relationship between canopy cover and temperature reduction: When canopy cover reaches a certain threshold, temperatures will begin to drop far more dramatically than they do below that point. “We found that to get the most cooling, you have to have about 40 per cent canopy cover, and this was strongest around the scale of a city block. “So if your neighbourhood has less than 40 per cent canopy cover, you’ll get a little bit of cooling, but not very much. Once you tip over that threshold, you really see large increases in how much you can cool areas off.” She adds that the difference between areas with heavy canopy cover and those that are treeless can be as high as 4° or 5° C, even within just a few hundred meters of each other. The effects of shading contribute to that decrease but are not the only factor: “Trees transpire, they give off water vapour, almost like a little air conditioner.” This transpiration occurs mainly during the day. Her research shows that during nighttime there is a much smaller difference in temperature between areas with significant canopy cover and those without. To get her readings, Ziter — at the time completing her Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin-Madison — and her colleagues built small, battery-powered mobile weather stations and mounted them on bicycles. They would cycle around the city taking readings every second, translating roughly into every 5 meters. This data allowed them to do a fine reading of what the temperature was at specific locations throughout the city and compare this to the amount of tree canopy, pavement, and built structures present. Their method gave them enough high-quality, real-time data to allow them to carry out fine-scale studies of the relationship between tree cover, impervious surface cover, and temperature. She explained: “By doing this over the course of a summer, we found that temperatures vary just as much within the city itself as they do between the city and the surrounding countryside. “We’re not seeing so much of a ‘heat island’ as a ‘heat archipelago.’” Ziter believes her findings can have an impact on public policy and planning. She says that planting efforts would most effectively reduce temperatures in neighborhoods that are near the 40 percent threshold, and that urban authorities need to work to keep what tree canopy already exists. However, she also notes that the leafiest areas tend to be disproportionately in wealthier neighborhoods. She would like to see planting distributed more equitably as well as rationally. Planting trees in lower-income neighborhoods would not only help lower temperatures, but it would also contribute to the physical and mental health of the people living there. She added: “We know that something as simple as having one nice big tree nearby can have a huge host of benefits on people who live in the city. “Once you have a certain critical mass of canopy, then each tree becomes more important when it comes to cooling temperatures. That has serious implications for how we design our cities and plan our neighbourhoods.” Provided by: Patrick Lejtenyi, Concordia University [Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.] Like this article? Subscribe to our weekly email for more!
You may have heard the term “blue economy” recently given the news that the Canadian government has committed to growing it. But what does this term mean and what exactly is the blue economy? What is the Blue Economy? There is no one clear definition of the blue economy. In general, the blue economy refers to the ways the ocean can contribute to an economy in a sustainable way. Sometimes you may see it referred to as the “ocean economy”. The World Bank defines the blue economy as: “a concept that seeks to promote economic growth, social inclusion and the preservation of livelihoods while at the same time ensuring environmental sustainability of the oceans and coastal areas.” The idea of oceans contributing to the economy isn’t new; oceans have been contributing to the global economy for years. What has changed is the focus from profit to sustainability. The Ocean Foundation says the ‘new’ blue economy focuses on “economic activities both based in and which are actively good for, the ocean”. The Blue Economy and Canada Canada has the longest coastline in the world, the 4th largest ocean territory and its lakes and rivers make up a fifth of the world’s surface freshwater. These natural, aquatic resources are the backbone of many Canadian communities and provincial territories. Furthermore, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), estimates the value of the world’s ocean economy (the blue economy) will reach $300bn by 2030 and, some sources state, this could provide 350 million jobs worldwide. Embracing the blue economy in Canada looks set to help create employment and contribute to the economy. In addition, the whole concept of the blue economy is centred on preserving the oceans’ resources to ensure that they’re around for a long time to come. This focus on preservation lies in contrast to the current ocean economy where exploitation of marine resources is done with little to no attention paid to the oceans’ future health and productivity. Benefits of the Blue Economy Presently, the ocean economy is focused on transport (cargo and ferries), fisheries and offshore oil and gas. These industries aren’t typically focused on sustainability and shouldn’t be relied on for economic growth in the future. Supporters of this new blue economy cite several areas for sustainable development which are explained in more detail below. Sustainable marine energy could play a vital role in social and economic development. This includes harnessing the ocean’s wind, tidal and wave energies to step away from oil and gas which we know to be contributing greatly to climate change. Fisheries contribute greatly to the economy in Canada. However, their operations are not always sustainable and focusing on improving this would lead to improved longevity in their operations. The government’s announcement about a reformed Fisheries and Aquaculture Act looks set to improve sustainability in this area. Coastal tourism brings jobs and economic growth. For tourism to grow and continue to be successful, the oceans and waterways must be well preserved to maintain their intrinsic value which brings tourists. A focus on ocean preservation wouldn’t only benefit the economy. A more sustainable approach would help the oceans maintain their ecosystem services (benefits we obtain from a healthy ecosystem). Marine ecosystem services include carbon storage, protection of coastal communities from flooding, supporting biodiversity and providing recreation and amenity options. While there is no single definition of the blue economy, what’s clear is that it relates to improving the sustainability of the economic activities involving the world’s ocean. BY focusing on this blue economy, it’s hoped that the longevity of fishing, tourism, and energy sources from the ocean is increased. If successful, the blue economy looks set to provide economic and social benefits, while reducing its impact on climate change.
Biotin (Vitamin B7) Biotin is also known as Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H and is classified as a water-soluble vitamin. It occurs in a wide variety of foods such as egg yolk, liver, and some cereals. The vitamin is also synthesized by bacteria found in the human gut. It is considered readily available and, therefore, Biotin deficiency rarely occurs unless for individuals who are severely malnourished, and sometimes late on in pregnancy. There are also intestinal conditions that can make Biotin unavailable for use by inhibiting its absorption in the digestive tract. Active Components in Biotin Biotin is a heterocyclic compound that consists of an Imidazole ring that is joined to a Tetrahydrothiophene ring. Tetrahydrothiophene possesses a Valeric Acid side chain. There are eight theoretically possible Biotin stereoisomers. From amongst the eight, only the D-(+)-Biotin stereoisomer is found in nature. It is known as an enzyme cofactor as it binds to and activates the five carboxylase enzymes found in humans. Effects of Biotin Deficiency As mentioned, Biotin acts as a coenzyme in our bodies, supporting the function of the carboxylase enzymes. Since carboxylase enzymes are involved in gluconeogenesis, amino acid metabolism and fatty acid synthesis, Biotin deficiency affect energy metabolism and other physiological processes in the body. Biotin deficiency also compromises the immune system and reduces the synthesis of collagen tissue. Collagen tissue is known for its role in skin elasticity among other functions. Biotin deficiency, therefore, is associated with dermatological conditions such as Psoriasis, seborrheic Eczema, Neuritis and the occurrence of opportunistic infections. Recent reports indicate that Biotin levels in pregnant women seem to decrease as pregnancy progresses, hence, Biotin deficiency can be found in heavily pregnant women. Biotin deficiency in pregnant women can affect fetal development, as can malnutrition in general. Symptoms of Biotin Deficiency Biotin deficiency in both children and adults manifests in various forms that include: · Hair loss · Dry and scaly skin · Scaly rashes around the mouth and the eyes · Brittle nails Infants and Biotin In most cases, children born with milk allergies or those who can’t be breastfed, are usually fed with special therapeutic milk. Most of the therapeutic milk formulations contain tiny amounts of Biotin and others don’t contain any Biotin at all. This means that infants feeding on these formulas don’t get the required amount and may develop Biotin deficiency. The digestive system of the infants is also immature and may not have developed the bacteria necessary to synthesize Biotin. It has been found that the serum Biotin levels for children with milk allergies are usually half that of the normal infants. Biotin deficiency in children is associated with reduced skin formation resulting in skin that is susceptible to external stimuli. This explains why some children are more vulnerable to diaper rashes than others. Diabetes and Biotin Palmoplantar pustular osteoarthropathy and palmoplantar pustulosis are two skin conditions characterized by pustules and rashes on the palms and soles of the feet. According to research, 60% of the individuals suffering from these conditions were diagnosed with diabetes. Increased oral administration of Biotin not only eliminated the rashes and pustules, but it also lowered blood sugar significantly. Biotin as a Supplement In Europe and the USA, Biotin supplements are available in the form of capsules or tablets and the product has gained a lot of popularity over the years. Some other countries are yet to approve the use of Biotin as a food supplement. Most of these countries have denied approval not because of its toxicity but because of doubts about its importance as a supplement. The recommended dietary intake of Biotin for infants and children is between 10 to 30 (mcg) while that for adults is between 30 to 100 (mcg). There is no maximum amount set for daily Biotin intake since studies show no side effects for variations of up to 100 (mcg). Biotin warnings and side effects Biotin has been classified as a safe and non-toxic vitamin that can be used by any group of individuals. No side effect has been associated with biotin even at higher doses. However, just like any other supplement, it is advisable to consult with your doctor before you start on any supplement especially when you: · Have been in long-term treatment with antibiotics · Smoke cigarettes · Take medication for seizures · On dialysis · Eat more than two raw egg whites Vitamin B7 – The B might stand for the buzz of energy you get when you supplement with Vitamin B. In fact, Vitamin B is not just one single vitamin; it is a family of vitamins, the functionality of each differing with effects ranging from fat burning to mood enhancement. Working with both the brain and the body, there are many benefits to having a sufficient supply of B Vitamins. B vitamins enable your brain to function better. Vitamin B2 can help migraine sufferers while B6 works with the brain’s neurotransmitters, particularly those that release serotonin. This can enhance your mood and relieve symptoms of premenstrual syndrome. Inositol also has mood-altering capabilities said to reduce depression and anxiety. Vitamin B12 and Choline may also help you reduce brain fogginess and improve memory. B vitamins also speed up healing. B3 is used to increase a person’s energy to help with DNA repair and bodily healing. Pantothenic Acid works similarly to B3 but is more involved with actual wound healing. Biotin, when used in combination with chromium, shows promise to help blood-sugar control. The B vitamins have so many uses that taking a supplement can really improve your overall health. B Vitamins Explained Most of the B vitamins are recognized by their numbers: B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, and B12. Others have names that people may also recognize, namely: Biotin, Choline, Inositol, Pantothenic Acid, and Para-Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA). B vitamins work in conjunction with each other but also have unique benefits on their own. Folic acid, otherwise known as B9, is famous for preventing birth defects in pregnant women. Less well known is the fact that it is also useful for preventing cancer and lowering the risk of heart disease. The B vitamins are actually a group of eight water-soluble vitamins that often coexist in the same foods. When referring to all eight vitamins at once, it is known as the vitamin B complex. Each B vitamin plays a distinct role in metabolism and energy production. Eating a well-balanced diet containing whole-grain foods, meat, dairy, and vegetables is the best way to achieve a healthy balance of B vitamins. Oral Supplements are only partially absorbed but are sometimes medically necessary when absorption problems or malnutrition occur. Thiamine (Vitamin B1) Thiamine can be found in cereal, meat, bread, rice, nuts, yeast, and corn. It plays a vital role in metabolism, nerve function, and generation of energy from carbohydrates. It is involved in RNA and DNA production and also plays an active role in the Krebs cycle by converting carbohydrates to glucose. Thiamine can be used to treat anemia, paralysis, movement and memory disorders, energy loss and depression. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Riboflavin can be found in grains, meat, milk, peas, cheese, and eggs. Riboflavin plays an important role in maintaining mucous membranes, nerve sheaths, eyes, and skin. Riboflavin deficiency can lead to oral and skin problems as well as anemia. Riboflavin supplements can be used for preventing migraine headaches and cataracts and to treat blood disorders such as red blood cell aplasia and congenital methemoglobinemia. Riboflavin can cause the urine to turn a yellow-orange color, and large doses can cause diarrhea. Niacin (Vitamin B3) Niacin can be found in meat, potatoes, legumes, milk, eggs, and fish. Niacin plays a vital role in metabolism and helps to maintain the gastrointestinal tract, skin, and nerves. Niacin insufficiency can lead to a disease called pellagra which is defined as a set of symptoms that includes dementia, dermatitis, and diarrhea. Niacin is generally used for reducing high cholesterol and treating pellagra. However, cramps, nausea, itching, flushing and skin breakouts can occur if too much niacin is taken. Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) Pantothenic acid can be found in legumes, meats, and whole-grain cereals. Pantothenic acid helps in the breakdown of carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids. There is very little scientific evidence to support the use of vitamin B5 as a supplement. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) Pyridoxine can be found in organ meats, fish, soybeans, butter, and brown rice. Pyridoxine plays an important role in metabolism and the production of amino acids. Low pyridoxine levels can lead to mouth irritation, skin and nerve damage, and confusion. Pyridoxine can be used to treat sideroblastic anemia and reduce high levels of homocysteine which is a substance thought to play a role in heart disease. An IV injection of pyridoxine can also treat some types of infant seizures. Overdoses of pyridoxine can cause nerve damage. Biotin (Vitamin B7) Biotin can be found in egg yolks, mushrooms, brewer’s yeast, and beef liver. Biotin is a critical coenzyme in the carboxylation reactions of the Krebs cycle. It plays a vital role in the conversion of carbohydrates to glucose. Biotin is used to treat scaly dermatitis which is a skin disorder affecting mainly the scalp, face, and torso. It is also used to treat hair loss, depression and exhaustion. Folic Acid (Vitamin B9) Folic Acid can be found in the liver, green vegetables, yeast, and whole-grain cereal. Folic acid is a very important vitamin for pregnant women because it plays a vital role in fetal brain and nerve development. It also helps with protein metabolism, DNA and hemoglobin synthesis, and red blood cell formation. Low folic acid levels can lead to birth defects, poor growth, mouth irritation, and anemia. Folic acid can be used for reducing homocysteine levels in people with renal disease and to reduce the harmful effects of methotrexate. Large amounts of folic acid can result in poor zinc absorption and convulsions. Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) Cobalamin can be found in meat, liver, eggs, milk, and poultry. It is the only B vitamin that does not exist in plants which can be a major concern for vegans. Like other B vitamins, Cobalamin plays a critical role in blood cell formation, the metabolism of food, and DNA synthesis. Pernicious anemia, mouth irritation, and brain damage are all major side effects of a Cobalamin deficiency. Most vitamin B12 deficiencies are due to the stomach’s inability to produce intrinsic factor which is an enzyme that helps the intestines absorb vitamin B12. Therefore, if vitamin B12 is administered it must be accompanied by intrinsic factors. Vitamin B Deficiency Vitamin B is available in dark green vegetables, grains, and meat, but the problem is getting enough in your regular diet. Deficiencies of vitamin B6 and B12 are very common in the general population. In addition, as one age the ability to absorb vitamin B can become compromised, such as by stomach disorders or other prescribed medications. Pregnancy also draws heavily on your body’s vitamin stores. This is where supplementation is often considered. Supplementation with B vitamins is usually done via a complex formula that has all 11 B vitamins in it; however, you can get just a single B vitamin if you prefer. For extreme deficiencies, shots of B12 may be recommended by a physician who wants to bypass the absorption mechanism altogether. Most people only need supplementation with capsules, tablets or liquids. B vitamins shouldn’t be ingested on an empty stomach. They can make you nauseous if they are not taken with food. Ideally, the tablet should be taken after a meal and earlier in the day, not later. Since B vitamins boost energy levels, they can act as a stimulant and also cause restless sleep. Look for supplements that have the recommended daily value and do not try to overload your system unless under a doctor’s orders to increase the levels substantially. B vitamins tend to be very safe at recommended levels. However, they do turn the urine a strong yellow color, which is not harmful. However, if you take too much Niacin (B3), then you could cause some flushing and liver damage. You won’t be overloading your system with a regular multivitamin supplement, but sometimes doctor’s prescribed much higher doses of Niacin when they are trying to help patients control their cholesterol levels. One other vitamin with a serious side effect, when taken in large doses, is vitamin B6. It will cause nerve damage if taken in excessive dosages. To remain safe make sure that your vitamin B6 is only 200 mg or less each day.
Don't have an account? Sign up According to researchers, kids who eat lots of fast food have lower test scores in science, math and reading. Fast food is already known to cause obesity and skin problems in kids. Kelly Purtell, lead author of the study, and her team from Ohio State University conducted a nationwide study that examined the habits of over 11,700 young American 10 year olds. They also accounted for factors like socioeconomic indicators, such as family income and place of living, as well as physical activity and TV watching. They found that fast food lacks sufficient amount of iron. Regular intake of such food slows down certain process of the brain. These foods also contain a high amount of fat and added sugar, which affects the brain’s ability to focus and be attentive. “Research has been focused on how children’s food consumption contributes to the child obesity epidemic. Our findings provide evidence that eating fast food is linked to another problem: poorer academic outcomes,” said Kelly Purtell. The researchers analyzed the rates of fast-food consumption among children. They found that 10% of children eat it every day. Another 10% eat it four to six times in a week. More than 8,500 children or 52% eat fast food one to three times in a week. The researchers then analyzed their test results. They found daily fast food eaters got an average of 79%, but those who never ate fast food scored an average of 83%. The same results were seen in the scores of math and reading. The report also goes on to state that consistent consumption of fast food steadily decreases mental ability. “Our results show clear and consistent associations between children’s fast food consumption in 5th grade and academic growth between 5th and 8th grade,” added Purtell. “These results provide initial evidence that fast food consumption is associated with deleterious academic outcomes among children.” Fast food accounts for 13% of the total diet of Americans from 2 to 18 years of age. Nearly a third of American kids between the ages of 2 and 11, and nearly half of those aged 12 to 19 eat or drink something from a fast food restaurant each day. The findings were published in the Clinical Pediatrics journal.
The best tips for A-level revision are for one to set a revision schedule, use mnemonics and other techniques to aid memory and use revision material and practice tests where possible. As well as this, notes made in class can be invaluable for remembering what was discussed in lessons in greater detail. There are many different techniques and tips available online to aid A-level revision, and many websites have detailed subject guides that can help students come to grips with the key modules that will appear on the exams. A-levels are qualifications taken by British students who generally are age 16-18. The mark for most courses is made up of a combination of coursework and examination scores, but exams often account for a significant majority of the grade. This makes revision very important, because the grades that students gain on their A-levels are directly used to determine eligibility for university degree programs. Using classroom notes is a vital part of A-level revision. The work done in classes throughout the year should be enough to prepare students for their exams, and referring to notes can help jog more detailed memories of the content of classes. This obviously depends on the quality of notes taken, but if the student has paid attention throughout the lessons, he or she can revise the course content based on work that they have already done. Revision schedules are extremely useful during A-level revision. A revision schedule enables students to stay on top of their workload and helps avoid last-minute revision binges that generally result in overworking and tiredness. Students should make a manageable schedule that covers all of their revision and leaves spare time to relax each day. Overworking is likely to affect morale and comprehension of the entire course of revision. Students can use memory techniques and mnemonics to aid memory. Mnemonics are word-replacement devices that can be extremely useful during A-level revision. For example, the names of the planets can easily be remembered using the mnemonic “my vet eats moldy jam sandwiches under newspaper,” which can help jog the memory of the actual list of planets by giving the first letters of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Devices like this and other memory techniques such as cue cards, rhymes and mind maps can help revision. There is a wealth of information that can help with A-level revision available online. For most courses, there is a detailed rundown of the content of the course, which can be combined with students’ own notes for better comprehension of the material. There are also many practice tests that can be used to check understanding. It is also important for students to think about themselves during the revision process. The panic of an impending exam can drive many students to lose sleep, not eat or drink enough and never give themselves a break. A great tip for revision is for students to make time for breaks and be sure to get enough sleep.
This booklet is for students who are preparing for Trinity Skills for Life Entry 1 Speaking and Listening exam. These are the additional tasks that can be used when practising describing pictures: - To introduce new vocabulary: print the pictures on A4 and ask the students to make a list of useful words/phrases. - Reverse it! Give students cards with sentences describing actions. Ask the student to make poses. You can take pictures as long as your students give their consent (available to download here). - To practice accuracy: write a short description of a picture and do the running dictation task (rules here). Once the text is copied, ask students to draw a picture according to the description. - For formative assessment: ask students to record or video themselves when describing a photo. When plan peer assessment, explain what constructive feedback is beforehand ;-).
Scan Line Algorithm It is an image space algorithm. It processes one line at a time rather than one pixel at a time. It uses the concept area of coherence. This algorithm records edge list, active edge list. So accurate bookkeeping is necessary. The edge list or edge table contains the coordinate of two endpoints. Active Edge List (AEL) contain edges a given scan line intersects during its sweep. The active edge list (AEL) should be sorted in increasing order of x. The AEL is dynamic, growing and shrinking. Following figures shown edges and active edge list. The active edge list for scan line AC1contain e1,e2,e5,e6 edges. The active edge list for scan line AC2contain e5,e6,e1. Scan line can deal with multiple surfaces. As each scan line is processed, this line will intersect many surfaces. The intersecting line will determine which surface is visible. Depth calculation for each surface is done. The surface rear to view plane is defined. When the visibility of a surface is determined, then intensity value is entered into refresh buffer. Step1: Start algorithm Step2: Initialize the desired data structure Step3: Perform the following steps for all scan lines Step4: Stop Algorithm
Infection, bacteremia, and sepsis are frequent complications in critically ill patients. Ideally, the infectious agent is readily identified to facilitate timely treatment to promote the patient's recovery. Use of blood cultures is one method of identifying the pathogen. Fever is the primary indicator for obtaining blood samples for culture, but other indicators may be considered, depending on the patient's medical history and condition. Use of appropriate techniques when collecting blood samples for culture will decrease contamination and improve the likelihood of identification of the infectious agent. One new technique being tested for the identification of pathogens that cause bacteremia involves genetic technology and the polymerase chain reaction. The polymerase chain reaction is used to identify the DNA of bacteria that are present in the blood. Blood cultures may not always result in identification of the pathogen because the organism may not grow once placed in culture medium. This new method that uses the polymerase chain reaction may be more sensitive than blood cultures because it requires only DNA from bacteria. Although early studies have not been conclusive in terms of the benefits of this new technology, additional research will improve methods for identification of pathogens in critically ill patients. Skip Nav Destination - Views Icon Views - Share Icon Share R Henker; Use of blood cultures in critically ill patients. Crit Care Nurse 1 February 2000; 20 (1): 45–50. doi: https://doi.org/10.4037/ccn2000.20.1.45 Download citation file:
The horizontal drilling method called hydraulic fracturing helps the United States produce close to 4 billion barrels of oil and natural gas per year, rocketing the U.S. to the top of oil-producing nations in the world. The highly profitable practice comes with a steep price: For every barrel of oil, oil and gas extraction also produces about seven barrels of wastewater, consisting mainly of naturally occurring subsurface water extracted along with the fossil fuels. That’s about 2 billion gallons of wastewater a day. Companies, policymakers and scientists are on the lookout for new strategies for dealing with that wastewater. Among the most tantalizing ideas is recycling it to irrigate food crops, given water scarcity issues in the West. A new Colorado State University study gives pause to that idea. The team led by Professor Thomas Borch of the Department of Soil and Crop Sciences conducted a greenhouse study using produced water from oil and gas extraction to irrigate common wheat crops. Their study, published in Environmental Science and Technology Letters, showed that these crops had weakened immune systems, leading to the question of whether using such wastewater for irrigation would leave crop systems more vulnerable to bacterial and fungal pathogens. “The big question is, is it safe?” said Borch, a biogeochemist who has joint academic appointments in the Department of Chemistry and Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. “Have we considered every single thing we need to consider before we do this?” Typically, oil and gas wastewater, also known as produced water, is trucked away from drilling sites and reinjected into the Earth via deep disposal wells. Such practices have been documented to induce earthquakes and may lead to contamination of surface water and groundwater aquifers. The idea for using such water for irrigation has prompted studies testing things like crop yield, soil health, and contaminant uptake by plants, especially since produced water is often high in salts, and its chemistry varies greatly from region to region. Borch, who has conducted numerous oil and gas-related studies, including how soils fare during accidental spills, wondered if anyone had tried to determine whether irrigation water quality impacts crops’ inherent ability to protect themselves from disease. The experiments were conducted in collaboration with plant microbiome expert Pankaj Trivedi, a CSU assistant professor in the Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, and researchers at Colorado School of Mines. The team irrigated wheat plants with tap water, two dilutions of produced water, and a salt water control. They exposed the plants to common bacterial and fungal pathogens and sampled the leaves after the pathogens were verified to have taken hold. Using state-of-the-art quantitative genetic sequencing, the scientists determined that the plants watered with the highest concentration of produced water had significant changes in expression of genes plants normally use to fight infections. Their study didn’t determine exactly which substances in the produced water correlated with suppressed immunity. But they hypothesized that a combination of contaminants like boron, petroleum hydrocarbons and salt caused the plants to reallocate metabolic resources to fight stress, making it more challenging for them to produce disease-fighting genes. “Findings from this work suggest that plant immune response impacts must be assessed before reusing treated oil and gas wastewater for agricultural irrigation,” the study authors wrote.
For centuries, the narwhal has been shrouded in mystery and mythology. Dating back to the Middle Ages, teeth of the "sea unicorn" were coveted for alleged medicinal powers. Today, indigenous cultures depend on the animals for their livelihoods. But comparatively little is known of the biology of the beluga's splotchy and elusive cousin. What is clear is that the narwhal, like no other mammal, has uniquely evolved to live in the dark and icy depths of the high arctic. Basking in an Icy Realm With 3 to 4 inches of blubber, narwhals are uniquely adapted to the extreme cold of year-round arctic living. Narwhals evolved during the late Pleistocene at roughly the time polar bears diverged from brown bears. During the last glaciation 50,000 years ago, narwhals followed the ice cover as far south as England. As the ice retreated, they followed it northward to their current range of Greenland and northeastern Canada. Like other Arctic-dwelling whales such as the bowhead and their cousin, the beluga, narwhals are about 50 percent fat. Other whales are only 20 percent to 30 percent. Birthed in icy waters, narwhal calves are born nearly one-third the size of their 12-foot long, 2,000-pound parents. While remote and harsh, the narwhals' icy realm provides protection from predatory killer whales, who are unable to navigate their dorsal fins in the dense ice pack, and gives the narwhals nearly exclusive access to bottom-dwelling prey. For more than a decade, scientists have utilized a variety of electronic sensors to study narwhal distribution, migration routes and diving behavior. A pioneer of narwhal tagging techniques, Mads Peter Heide-Jorgensen, lost many of his early transmitters when whales exceeded the devices' depth limits, breaking them. At extreme depths -- more than a mile deep -- that narwhals gorge on their preferred foods of Greenland halibut, Arctic cod and squid. To withstand the pressure, often exceeding 2,200 pounds per square inch, narwhals have evolved flexible and compressible rib cages that can be squeezed as water pressure increases. Their muscles contain an enormous concentration of oxygen-carrying myoglobin, one of the highest levels measured for a marine mammal and nearly eight times the concentration in terrestrial animals. It's an important advantage for prolonged dives and endurance swimming: They can swim longer than 20 minutes without a breath. Swimming Belly Up Advances in non-invasive tracking technologies have provided scientists with additional insights into the movements of individual narwhals, including diving and feeding behavior. In a 2007 study, scientists outfitted five free-ranging narwhals with underwater camera pods and/or digital archival tags. Data recorded from the two devices indicated that narwhals spent roughly 12 percent of their time along the bottom of the sea floor. And when on the bottom, the animals were swimming upside down nearly 80 percent of the time. Dietz and his colleagues hypothesize that such behavior may be an adaptation to protecting the animal's lower jaw, which is hollow and thin-boned, probably used for sound reception, and may be facilitated by the animals lack of dorsal fin. Swimming upside down may improve their sonic ranging. The Elephant in the Room No discussion of narwhals would be complete without addressing the giant tusks that erupt from some of the animals' upper jaws. During the Middle Ages, they were pedaled as unicorn horn allegedly capable of curing diseases ranging from the plague to rabies. It is in fact a giant, spiraled tooth, filled with dental pulp and nerves, and often covered with algae and sea lice. Most juvenile and adult male narwhals have one, some have two; but only 3 percent of females have a tusk. How or why this feature evolved is unclear. It may serve for foraging, as a weapon or an ice pick; but since the vast majority of females survive without one, the tusk's function must be nonessential. In fact ,most believe it's a secondary sex characteristic -- similar to the antlers on elk -- used by males for establishing dominance hierarchies. In a 2008 special supplement, the Ecological Society of America published analyses by some of the world’s leading researchers on Arctic marine mammals and climate change. Of the seven mammals examined, narwhals -- along with the polar bears and hooded seals -- appear most vulnerable to climate change. As a species uniquely adapted to spending half their lives in dense ice, they may not be flexible enough to survive a warming climate. - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: The Biology and Ecology of Narwhals - Ecological Applications: Volume 18, Supplement: Arctic Marine Mammals - Science: Sink or Swim - Strategies for Cost-Efficient Diving by Marine Mammals - BMC Ecology: Upside-Down Swimming Behaviour of Free-Ranging Narwhals - Narwhal.org: Narwhal Tusk Discoveries Uriel Sinai/Getty Images News/Getty Images Barbara Cozzens has been writing for more than 20 years. Her work has appeared in publications of the Nature Conservancy, the World Bank Group, National Geographic Society, Duke University and others. Cozzens holds a Bachelor of Arts in biology from Colgate University and a Master of Environmental Management from Duke University's Nicholas School of the Environment.
Treaties: Words & Leaders That Shaped Our Nation Years of warfare between colonizers further escalated tensions between the tribes of the Great Lakes, their Indian neighbors and settlers because European colonial forces pressured Native communities to choose sides. The Potawatomi and their Neshnabek brethren were accomplished warriors. During the fighting at the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century, colonial military forces sought out Potawatomi warriors to serve as mercenaries and reached out to village leaders to form alliances. These village leaders consistently made decisions about alliances based on the potential advantages each colonial entity could provide them and their kinsmen. The winners and losers in these battles eventually came together to determine the post-war terms of their relationships. The Constitution dictated that the federal government, not those of states or municipalities, had the authority to negotiate treaties with tribal governments. The prevalence of violence and hunger for tribal land that followed the American Revolution resulted in the U.S. entering into more than 200 peace and land cession treaties with tribes in the first few decades of the new nation’s independence. The Potawatomi were signatories to more treaties with the United States than any other tribe. Despite signing more than 40 treaties during this time, the period between 1700 and 1900 was a time of conflict and removal for the Potawatomi people. The Citizen Potawatomi Nation Cultural Heritage Center’s Treaties: Words & Leaders That Shaped Our Nation gallery features several documents from this era that defined Tribal relationships with the government, including peace, reservation and removal treaties.
The primary surface current along the east coast of the United States is the Gulf Stream, which was first mapped by Benjamin Franklin in the 18th century (Figure 9.2.1). As a strong, fast current, it reduced the sailing time for ships traveling from the United States back to Europe, so sailors would use thermometers to locate its warm water and stay within the current. The Gulf Stream is formed from the convergence of the North Atlantic Equatorial Current bringing tropical water from the east, and the Florida Current that brings warm water from the Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf Stream takes this warm water and transports it northwards along the U.S. east coast (Figure 9.2.2). As a western boundary current, the Gulf Stream experiences western intensification (section 9.4), making the current narrow (50-100 km wide), deep (to depths of 1.5 km) and fast. With an average speed of 6.4 km/hr, and a maximum speed of about 9 km/hr, it is the fastest current in the world ocean. It also transports huge amounts of water, more than 100 times greater than the combined flow of all of the rivers on Earth. As the Gulf Stream approaches Canada, the current becomes wider and slower as the flow dissipates and it encounters the cold Labrador Current moving in from the north. At this point, the current begins to meander, or change from a fast, straight flow to a slower, looping current (Figure 9.2.2). Often these meanders loop so much that they pinch off and form large rotating water masses called rings or eddies, that separate from the Gulf Stream. If an eddy pinches off from the north side of the Gulf Stream, it entraps a mass of warm water and moves it north into the surrounding cold water of the North Atlantic. These warm core rings are shallow, bowl-shaped water masses about 1 km deep, and about 100 km across, that rotate clockwise as they carry warm water in to the North Atlantic (Figure 9.2.3). If the meanders pinch off at the southern boundary of the Gulf Stream, they form cold core rings that rotate counterclockwise and move to the south. Cold core rings are cone-shaped water masses extending down to over 3.5 km deep, and may be over 500 km wide at the surface. After the Gulf Stream meets the cold Labrador Current, it joins the North Atlantic Current, which transports the warm water towards Europe, where it moderates the European climate. It is estimated that Northern Europe is up to 9o C warmer than expected because of the Gulf Stream, and the warm water helps to keep many northern European ports ice-free in the winter. In the east, the Gulf Stream merges into the Sargasso Sea, which is the area of the ocean within the rotation center of the North Atlantic gyre. The Sargasso Sea gets its name from the large floating mats of the marine algae Sargassum that are abundant on the surface (Figure 9.2.4). These Sargassum mats may play an important role in the early life stages of sea turtles, who may live and feed within the algae for many years before reaching adulthood.
What We Do Because weight problems are common and can impact on a person's health and wellbeing, our aim is to find better ways to prevent and treat weight problems such as obesity. We are interested in finding out why some people gain weight more easily than others and why some people find it very hard to lose weight despite changing their diet and levels of activity. Genes and environment For most people, weight remains stable over long periods of time. This means they are in energy balance: that is the number of calories they consume matches the number of calories they burn. However, there is a wide variety of high calorie food available to us and because we are less active at work and at home, it is very easy to take in more calories than we burn (this is called "positive energy balance"). If we stay in a positive energy balance for a period of time, then weight increases. Reducing the number of calories we consume and increasing the number of calories we burn can address this imbalance and help with weight loss. However, there are other important factors to take into account. Some people put on weight more easily than others. Some people find it very hard to lose weight whatever they try. We are interested in understanding this variability between people. Research into identical twins has shown that weight differences between people are strongly influenced by genetic/inherited factors. Weight problems can often run in families. For this reason, finding the genes that influence weight can be a useful way of understanding how weight is regulated. This is the aim of our research. There are many hundreds of genes that regulate weight and tracking them down is complicated. The particular approach that we take involves looking for genes that are having a major effect (are highly penetrant) by investigating children who become severely obese at a very young age. It is very unusual for children under the age of 10 years to become very heavy. One reason can be that a particular gene/group of genes is not working because there is a defect/mutation in the gene. When we identify a gene that we think is likely to be the cause of someone's weight problem, we have to find out what it does and why it is not working. This involves our team in the laboratory who test the function of the protein made by the gene. It is also why we often ask patients to come to Cambridge to help us with our investigations. Some of our scientists investigate how the genes work in the brain, how they send chemical signals that regulate our weight, and test out potential ways to rescue the genes that aren't functioning to find new treatments.
This lesson is an add-on to a math lesson about graphing the ways that the kids in our class get to school. This will go in the beginning of the main lesson to introduce the idea that other people around the world get to school in ways other than the typical ones that we in Portland think of (walking, biking, car, or bus). While showing these pictures to the class, I will ask them what other ways do they know of that kids could get to school? Then I will read the book This Is the Way We Go to School: A Book About Children Around the World by Edith Bauer. This will add to the children’s knowledge about modes of transportation, before continuing on to the rest of the lesson.
Improved public school teaching of racial oppression could enable U.S. society to grasp the roots and effects of racial and economic inequality Every February for the past 45 years the United States commemorates African American history—a month dedicated to learning about and celebrating the accomplishments and stories of black Americans throughout our nation’s history. Typically, Black History Month is observed through various activities and lessons in school. In our public school systems in particular, teachers add elements to their curriculum about famous African American authors, scientists, politicians, and innovators. In history classes, many teachers explore the clash over slavery leading up to the Civil War, the passage of the 13th and 14th Amendments to the Constitution, and the civil rights movement of the 1960s, perhaps discussing the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and almost always distributing passages written by the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. and perhaps Maya Angelou, too. It’s great that all of these topics are being discussed in public schools. But there is a lot more to black history than what our schools showcase during the shortest month of the year. Many Americans don’t ever truly discover the depths of the African American experience in ways that fully convey the harm inflicted upon those enslaved before the Civil War and the generations of blacks who continued to suffer from blatant and pervasive racial discrimination over the next 150-odd years. Public schools tend to gloss over the details of enslavement. And most teachers are not properly equipped to handle discussions of this sordid past in their classrooms or to teach their students about the violent resubjugation of blacks in the South after the Civil War via race riots, lynchings, mass incarceration, voter disenfranchisement, and segregation—actions that spread across the nation as African Americans embarked on the Great Migration out of the South beginning in the late 19th century and continuing well into the post-WWII era. Because these particular lessons of American history go largely untaught in our public schools, the cascading ill-effects of these discriminatory, state-sanctioned actions on African Americans’ opportunities to succeed and thrive amid the growth of the wealthiest and most powerful nation on earth also goes untaught. The missing chapters in our nation’s history of racial discrimination and the ensuing economic consequences over generations mask the social costs of inequality and the ways in which it obstructs, subverts, and distorts our economy, and society’s ability to stimulate unbiased economic growth as the Washington Center for Equitable Growth’s Heather Boushey explains in her book Unbound: How Inequality Constricts Our Economy and What We Can Do About It. Indeed, evidence-based research demonstrates that racial economic inequality, driven by opportunity-hoarding and discrimination, obstructs the supply of talent, ideas, and capital in our economy, slowing productivity growth. Our racialized criminal justice system and unresponsive political institutions subvert the ability of the vast majority of African American individuals, families, and communities to thrive. And discrimination in our credit, housing, and labor markets across generations slows wealth creation among African Americans and distorts the macroeconomy by undermining consumer spending. In short, those omitted chapters in U.S. history have wide-ranging policy implications today. And because many Americans do not study the consequences of historical discrimination, they also fail to recognize the profound costs, including social exclusion and marginalization of African Americans, racial economic disparities and the racial wealth gap, lower rates of innovation among minority communities, higher rates of incarceration, poorer health outcomes, and more. What’s more, white supremacy and related violence and vitriol are rising at an alarming pace such that the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, in 2019, acknowledged its serious threat to society. Even the Black Lives Matter movement—which merely asks society to acknowledge the disparities faced by African Americans and the fact that their lives are valued less than other demographic groups (not that black lives should be valued more than others)—sparked an outcry from people who likely don’t understand the depths of injustice that black Americans have endured for centuries. We have both advocated extensively for improving the public education system’s ability to teach our students about the baleful historical consequences for African Americans of enslavement, Jim Crow, and ongoing racial discrimination, as well as the ramifications that continue to this day. Most recently, in Equitable Growth’s newly released book, Vision 2020: Evidence for a stronger economy, we each urge in our separate essays—“Overcoming social exclusion: Addressing race and criminal justice policy in the United States” and “The logistics of a reparations program in the United States”—that the next presidential administration consider new ways to elevate this largely untaught aspect of American history and the African American experience in public schools. Our ideas include: - Allocating funding to local and state-level governments to establish programs and initiatives across subjects within the public Kindergarten through 12th-grade school system that would educate the public about the history of race in the United States and how this history affects social outcomes and our society’s beliefs about race - Beginning the necessary work to implement a reparations program that would elevate the full history of the African American experience and improve public education around these topics as a means to acknowledge this complete history and attempt to repair the damage done - Educating people about racial biases and implicit biases, as well as systemic racism, and how these structures and perceptions shape society and the African American experience within it Perhaps if our public school systems were given the tools and the encouragement to really teach the atrocities and outcomes of slavery, Jim Crow, and ongoing racial discrimination, the African American experience would be better understood by everyone. Improving education around these topics would provide much-needed context to the lived experiences of black Americans and their ancestors, opening up the possibility for understanding around the past and how its legacy continues to affect the present. Maybe then, our society could garner the mainstream support needed to create the targeted policies needed to close the gaps in educational attainment, innovation, economic standing, and the criminal justice system between African Americans and their white counterparts. Maybe then, all Americans could observe Black History Month fully conscious of the plight of black Americans throughout our history, how much they have achieved despite being held back at every turn—and how much more they could do if they weren’t. —Robynn Cox is an assistant professor at the University of Southern California Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work. Dania V. Francis is an assistant professor of economics at the University of Massachusetts Boston.
How do you get photos to become entangled? And is this even possible, or just a theory? Photons are usually entangled using SPDC (Spontaneous Parametric Down conversion), in which basically a photon of higher energy is split into 2 photons of lower energies using a non-linear crystal. The photons are entangled under certain conditions. You can check wikipedia about this. There have been lot of experiments to violate Bell/CHSH inequality starting from the one by Alain Aspect. All of these prove the presence of entanglement by separating the particles over larger and larger distance. So it is not just a theory (at least for most of the scientific community although there are still some who doubt it). Can you explain how photons can get entangled by SPDC, as well as the CHSH inequality? I cannot understand the Wikipedia explanation. SPDC: A high energy photon traveling through certain kinds of nonlinear materials can split into two lower energy photons. This would mean that a blue photon (high energy) could split into two red photons (low energy). In this process, just like in classical physics, energy and momentum must both be conserved (mostly). If you only consider the case where the two red photons are both half the energy of the blue photon, then you can mostly consider the conservation of momentum part. You can design your nonlinear crystal in such a way that you take advantage of the required momentum conservation to force one of the red photons to be polarized in the same direction as the blue photon (we'll say V for vertically polarized) and the other to be polarized in the orthogonal direction (H for horizontal). Also, if you so choose, you can design it such that the photons move away from each other, in order to conserve momentum. Thus, if one photon goes right, the other goes left. In designing the crystal, you take advantage of what is called anisotropy, which means that the index of refraction is different for different polarizations. The final step is to realize that each photon, going left or right, can have either polarization, as long as the other photon has the other polarization. But which photon has which polarization is not determined until you do your measurement. The pair of photons is thus in the state \|H,V> + \|V,H>, which is an entangled state. CHSH: CHSH is a revision of the Bell inequality. It technically has nothing to do with quantum mechanics (although it is pretty much always discussed in this context), it is just a contrived inequality that has two assumptions: that space is both real and local. If those assumptions are true, then the inequality must always be less than 2. There are certain types of quantum states (producible by SPDC, among other things) that violate that inequality and thus show that one of the assumptions is false. I suggest you concentrate on the interesting philosophical implications of this, and not the form or derivation of the inequality itself. It is not trivial and is also not terribly satisfying once you work it out. Separate names with a comma.
Radiation Sickness? Causes of Radiation SicknessLogin to Health February 20, 2021 Lifestyle Diseases 27 Views What is Radiation Sickness? Radiation sickness disease occurs when a large dose of high-energy radiation passes through your body to reach the internal organs. It takes as much radiation as possible from any medical treatment. This disease is technically known as acute radiation syndrome. Radiation sickness was seen in many wars where several people died due to radiation. Let me tell you, due to prolonged exposure to the gray unit, people may develop radiation sickness. If immediate treatment is not given upon exposure, then the person may die. Most people do not know about radiation sickness, so let us try to explain in detail about symptoms, treatment and causes of radiation sickness in today’s article. - Causes of Radiation Sickness - Symptoms of Radiation Sickness - Diagnosis of Radiation Sickness - Treatment of Radiation Sickness Causes of Radiation Sickness Radiation is the energy emitted from atoms either as a wave or a small particle of matter. Radiation sickness is caused by exposure to a high dose of radiation, such as the impact of high doses of radiation received during an industrial accident. Possible sources of high dose radiation sickness may include the following reasons. - Such as an accident at a nuclear industrial facility. - Attack on a nuclear industrial facility. - A small radioactive device explodes. - The explosion of a conventional explosive device that spreads radioactive material (dirty bomb) - The explosion of a standard nuclear weapon As mentioned previously, radiation sickness occurs when high-energy radiation damages or destroys some cells in your body. The areas of the body most vulnerable to high-energy radiation are the cells in the lining of your intestinal tract, including your stomach and the blood cell-forming cells of bone marrow.(Read more – What is Acardi syndrome?) Symptoms of Radiation Sickness In the early signs of radiation sickness, a person may have problems like nausea and vomiting. Symptoms are seen in a person due to radiation exposure. You may also have skin damage, such as bad sunburn, blisters, or sores. Radiation can also damage the hair-forming cells, causing your hair to fall out. In some cases, hair loss may be permanent. In such a situation, a person needs a medical check-up immediately. Apart from this, other symptoms of radiation sickness can be seen. - E.g., Infections - Hair loss - Headache (Read more – What are the causes of headache?) - Low BP - Nausea and vomiting Diagnosis of Radiation Sickness To diagnose radiation sickness, the doctor determines the amount of radiation that the person has absorbed. Many tests can be done for this. - To check the cells of the immune system, the blood is tested for a few days. - A medical counter device is used to find out how much amount of radiation particles are present in which part of the body. - A dosimeter is used to measure the amount of radiation.(Read more – Why is chemotherapy done?) Treatment of Radiation Sickness - Radiation sickness damages a person’s stomach, intestines, blood vessels, and bone marrow, which produces blood cells. Due to damage to the bone marrow, the number of disease-fighting white blood cells starts decreasing in a person’s body. It means that most people who die from radiation sickness are killed by infection or internal bleeding. - However, doctors try to help you fight infection. Also, blood transfusion can be given to replace the lost blood cells of the person, or the doctors may give medications to help the person heal the bone marrow. In some cases, bone marrow transplantation may be done. - Doctors may also give fluid to a person and treat other injuries like burns. It can take up to 2 years to recover from radiation sickness. But even after recovering, you are at risk of other health problems. For example, a person may be more likely to develop cancer.(Read more – What is lung cancer and why does it occur?) We hope your question, what is radiation sickness, have been answered through this article. For the treatment of radiation sickness, you can contact Emergency Medicine Specialists. We only aim to give you information through the article. We do not recommend medication or treatment in any way. Only a doctor can give you good advice because no one else is better than them.
In 1868, German physician Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich started to popularize what’s become the most recognizable number in all of medicine: 98.6°F or 37°C, which is thought to be the normal average human body temperature. Though his methods later came under scrutiny—Wunderlich stuck an enormous thermometer under the armpits of patients for 20 minutes, a less-than-accurate technique—this baseline has helped physicians identify fevers as well as abnormally low body temperatures, along with corresponding illnesses or diseases. More than 150 years later, 98.6° may no longer be the standard. Humans seem to be getting cooler. Researchers at Stanford University School of Medicine, in a paper published in the journal eLife, compared three large datasets from different time periods: American Civil War records, a national health survey from the 1970s, and a Stanford database from 2007-2017. By comparing recorded body temperatures, the researchers founds that men are now averaging a temperature .58°C less than what's long been considered normal, while women are .32°C lower. On average, each has decreased roughly .03°C every decade since the 1860s. What drove us to chill out? Scientists have a few theories. A number of advances in human comfort have been ushered in since the 1800s, including better hygiene and readily available food, which may have slowed our metabolic rate (temperature is an indication of that rate). Chronic inflammation, which also raises body temperature, has decreased with the advent of vaccines, antibiotics, and better healthcare. The researchers propose that, on average, our bodies are healthier and slightly less warm. After all, the average life expectancy in Wunderlich’s era was just 38 years. [h/t The Independent]
Arts & Humanities Use pipe cleaners and colorful tissue paper to make eye-catching fall leaf sun catchers. (Grades K-8) Students will follow simple directions to create a colorful fall display. tissue paper, fall, autumn, leaves, pipe cleaners, chenille stems Bring the colors of fall -- reds, oranges, and golds -- into the classroom with this simple activity. Provide students with a variety of coloring pages of leaf shapes. You can find a variety of pages by using your favorite search engine to search for leaf coloring pages. Here are a few sample pages: Alternate idea: Have students collect leaves from the playground and trace the outline of those leaves onto sheets of drawing paper. (Note: Coloring pages present larger images of leaves than tracing the actual leaves would produce. The larger the leaves, the more dramatic your display will be.) Next, instruct students to bend the chenille stems (pipe cleaners) to match up with the outline of the printed leaf. Where two or more chenille stems are needed to form the entire leaf outline, use white liquid glue to glue the stem ends together where they meet. Allow to dry. Then cut squares of colorful tissue paper that are slightly larger than the leaf shapes formed from the chenille stems. Spread white liquid glue along the exposed top surface of the chenille stems. Press the sheet of tissue paper onto the chenille stems. When the tissue paper has dried onto the chenille-stem leaf outline, use scissors to trim the excess tissue paper away from the leaf outline. Display on a window so light passes through the colorful leaves. Assess students based on their ability to follow directions. Lesson Plan Source FINE ARTS: Visual Arts GRADES K - 4 NA-VA.K-4.1 Understanding and Applying Media, Techniques, and Processes GRADES 5 - 8 NA-VA.5-8.1 Understanding and Applying Media, Techniques, and Processes GRADES 9 - 12 NA-VA.9-12.1 Understanding and Applying Media, Techniques, and Processes Find links to more art lesson ideas in these Education World archives: Copyright© 2010 Education World
Nuclear Fusion Animation Nuclear fusion is the joining (or fusing) of the nuclei of two atoms to form a single heavier atom. At extremely high temperatures in the range of tens of millions of degrees the nuclei of isotopes of hydrogen (and some other light elements) can readily combine to form heavier elements and in the process release considerable energy. For fusion to occur, the electrostatic repulsion between the atoms must be overcome. Creating these conditions is one of the major problems in triggering a fusion reaction.
Library Skills Teacher Resources Find Library Skills educational lesson plans and worksheets Showing 1 - 24 of 110 resources We’re a Family: English Language Development Lessons (Theme 3) Teach your English language learners how to talk about their families with three weeks of lessons. Over the course of the thematic unit, learners pick up new vocabulary so that they can talk about families and relationships, clothing,... K CCSS: Adaptable Sea Lions, Tigers, and Bears, Oh My, Research Can Be Fun Digital pictures from a field trip to the zoo launch a research unit for 3rd through 6th graders. Over 6 weeks, your young researchers develop skills at locating information from various resources -- with keyword searches, in magazines... 3rd - 6th
The jet stream is a core of strong winds around 5 to 7 miles above the Earth’s surface, blowing from west to east. The jet stream flows high overhead and causes changes in the wind and pressure at that level. This affects things nearer the surface, such as areas of high and low pressure, and therefore helps shape the weather we see. Sometimes, like in a fast-moving river, the jet stream’s movement is very straight and smooth. However, its movement can buckle and loop, like a river’s meander. This will slow things up, making areas of low pressure move less predictably. The jet stream can also change the strength of an area of low pressure. It acts a bit like a vacuum cleaner, sucking air out of the top and causing it to become more intense, lowering the pressure system. The lower the pressure within a system, generally the stronger the wind, and more stormy the result. On the other hand, a slower, more buckled jet stream can cause areas of higher pressure to take charge, which typically brings less stormy weather, light winds and dry skies. Earth is split into two hemispheres, and air is constantly moving around to spread heat and energy from the equator to the poles. Three large groups, or cells, in each hemisphere help to circulate this air within the lowest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere. Therefore, the jet stream exists largely because of a difference in heat, which in the northern hemisphere means cold air on the northern side of the jet stream and warm air to the south. The seasons also affect the position of the jet stream. In winter, there is more of a temperature difference between the equator and poles, so the jet stream is stronger and flows over the UK. This is why we tend to see wetter weather. The reverse is true in summer, where there tends to be a smaller temperature difference. The position of the jet stream typically ends up to the north of the UK and we see calmer, drier weather. Met Office meteorologists work in one of only two centres in the world that produce weather charts for global aviation. They detail the location, height and strength of forecast jet streams and the turbulence associated with them. Although the position and height of the jet stream changes, it essentially moves around at a similar level to that of transatlantic aircraft. If you were to fly along the flow of the jet stream it would be quicker and save fuel. However, if you arrive too early you’ll just end up circling and waiting to land. If the jet stream is weak then this can cause delays, and if you’re flying against the flow then it’ll be expensive on fuel and make you late. Flight planning is, therefore, quite a skill. Jet streams can get rather bumpy as well, especially where the wind changes its speed, or when the stream isn’t straight. This churns up the air a bit like changes in a river’s flow, so turbulence is another, often unwelcome aspect of air travel. From a technical perspective, flying on the side of the jet stream where there is cold air makes the aircraft’s engines operate and burn fuel more efficiently.
On the left side of an easel pad, write the word BATS vertically. Explain to children that an acrostic is a kind of poem in which each letter of a word begins a line of poetry. Tell children that together you will create an acrostic using the word BATS. Remind children that the line of poetry can be a sentence, a short phrase, or just a single word. Explain that this kind of poem does not need to rhyme. When you have completed the poem, let children draw a picture to illustrate it. Click here to see some sample BATS acrostics written by students in Susan Stein's class. Find more activities for early childhood classrooms in these archives: Sue LaBella, Education World's former early childhood editor, is a former teacher who loves writing activities and poems for young children. She lives in Connecticut with her family and her bulldog named Daisy. Activities by Sue LaBella Copyright © 2009, 2015 Education World
A mainframe is a standalone set of computing hardware, while a server is a type of data transfer system working in conjunction with one or more separate client machines. However, a mainframe can also be considered a server if it is configured as such. Comprised of several dozens of central processing units, terminals and communications channels daisy-chained together, mainframes are centralized juggernauts of information storage and processing power capable of handling complex tasks simultaneously. They host and execute all their own applications and serve their own user terminals. Servers, on the other hand, are typically software applications running on dedicated, or shared, machines, acting as recipients of client requests, or posts, to a particular database located on a local area network or a wide area network. Historically, “mainframe” was the name given to the office-sized computers of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Before personal computers became ubiquitous, these mainframes were the most common type of computing system. Since then, the term has been reserved for the large, centralized systems of complex organizations and businesses. Mainframes are designed for massive computing power as well as reliability and scalability when handling data across multiple communication channels. In contrast, servers have historically been used in external data transfer, such as between hosts and clients communicating online.
New York State Common Core 3 Mathematics Curriculum GRADE GRADE 3 • MODULE 2 Topic C Rounding to the Nearest Ten and Hundred 3.NBT.1, 3.MD.1, 3.MD.2 Focus Standards: 3.NBT.1 Use place value understanding to round whole numbers to the nearest 10 or 100. 3.MD.1 Tell and write time to the nearest minute and measure time intervals in minutes. Solve word problems involving addition and subtraction of time intervals in minutes, e.g., by representing the problem on a number line diagram. 3.MD.2 Measure and estimate liquid volumes and masses of objects using standard units of grams (g), kilograms (kg), and liters (l). Add, subtract, multiply, or divide to solve onestep word problems involving masses or volumes that are given in the same units, e.g., by using drawings (such as a beaker with a measurement scale) to represent the problem. Instructional Days: 3 Coherence -Links from: G2–M2 Addition and Subtraction of Length Units G4–M2 Unit Conversions and Problem Solving with Metric Measurement -Links to: Topic C builds on students’ Grade 2 work with comparing numbers according to the value of digits in the hundreds, tens, and ones places (2.NBT.4). Lesson 12 formally introduces rounding two-digit numbers to the nearest ten. Rounding to the leftmost unit usually presents the least challenging type of estimate for students, and so here the sequence begins. Students measure two-digit intervals of minutes and metric measurements, and then use place value understanding to round. They understand that when moving to the right across the places in a number, the digits represent smaller units. Intervals of minutes and metric measurements provide natural contexts for estimation. The number line, presented vertically, provides a new perspective on a familiar tool. Students continue to use the vertical number line in Lessons 13 and 14. Their confidence with this tool by the end of Topic C lays the foundation for further work in Grades 4 and 5 (4.NBT.3, 5.NBT.4). In Lesson 13, the inclusion of rounding three-digit numbers to the nearest ten adds new complexity to the previous day’s learning. Lesson 14 concludes the module as students round three- and four-digit numbers to the nearest hundred. Topic C: Rounding to the Nearest Ten and Hundred This work is derived from Eureka Math ™ and licensed by Great Minds. ©2015 -Great Minds. eureka math.org This file derived from G3-M2-TE-1.3.0-07.2015 147 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. Topic C 3•2 NYS COMMON CORE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM A Teaching Sequence Toward Mastery of Rounding to the Nearest Ten and Hundred Objective 1: Round two-digit measurements to the nearest ten on the vertical number line. (Lesson 12) Objective 2: Round two- and three-digit numbers to the nearest ten on the vertical number line. (Lesson 13) Objective 3: Round to the nearest hundred on the vertical number line. (Lesson 14) Topic C: Rounding to the Nearest Ten and Hundred This work is derived from Eureka Math ™ and licensed by Great Minds. ©2015 -Great Minds. eureka math.org This file derived from G3-M2-TE-1.3.0-07.2015 148 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
LECTURE 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO MINERALS, ORE AND EXPLORATION This first lecture covers basic geology and introduces terms such as minerals, mineralization and ore. It also introduces exploration, how it is done and why. We use metals in most of our everyday items, such as phones, computers, cars, cutlery and infrastructure. Metals such as iron and copper are common and used in many things, while others such as rare earth elements or indium are less common. All metals have one thing in common – they are extracted from the ground. One rule is that “what can’t be grown, must be mined”. Mineralizations and ore Metals are extracted from minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid chemical compounds, which often forms crystals. A rock is composed of one or several minerals. While all rocks contain metals, not all rocks are considered valuable enough to mine. It is possible for rocks to contain so called mineralizations, which is a deposition of valuable minerals in a large quantity. These depositions occur due to various geological processes. If a mineralization can be mined with profit, considering all costs of mining and the value of the minerals on the market, it is called an ore. Ore is rare in the crust. The geological formation processes are several and often complex, and no ore body is the same. Trying to find ore is called mineral exploration, or just exploration. Exploration is done in many steps, and often takes several years or even decades before an ore body can be defined and potentially mined. Few exploration projects lead to mining. Exploration usually starts in the office, by reviewing an area of interest. A literature study is often made, trying to collect all the available data to get to know the area. Field work is then done to further increase the knowledge about the area by mapping the surface, as well as trying to find anomalies such as high metal contents in soils, water or rocks. After gathering enough information, and if the area is deemed interesting enough for investment, drilling can be done to find out more about the rocks. By drilling the exploration geologists can take out cores of rock from the ground, which can be examined in the search for valuable minerals. Drilling continues until the project is deemed a failure and then abandoned, or until an ore body can be defined enough to start planning and starting the mine. The exploration project is dependent on if the mineralization can be deemed profitable, but also on permitting from a governmental institution. In most legislations, the company that wants to open a mine needs to show how the mine will impact the environment and how prevention and mitigation of these effects will be managed. This step is called an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIAs will be covered in lecture 3. Cores of rock from drilling. The economical outcome of the exploration project is dependent on many things. The grade of the ore, meaning the amount of valuable minerals (often given in percentage or similar), and the size of the ore body (often given in million tonnes), gives information on how much can be sold to the market. How much that is extracted and processes each year will impact the economical calculation. Many other things also impact the outcome, such as taxes in the country, infrastructure available (such as railroads etc.), available processing techniques for the ore, the price of the minerals on the market, average worker cost, distance to smelter or harbour and so on. The feasibility of the mine is explained in a feasibility study, often presented to investors by the company. Starting a mining project impacts the local communities in many ways. As the ore body cannot be moved, the mine’s position will be predetermined by the location of the ore body. This means that, if a mine project is started and approved by all instances, local communities will be impacted in different ways. The social impacts from mining is discussed in lecture 6.
C++ Programming/Software Internationalization/Text Encoding< C++ Programming \| Software Internationalization Text, in particular the characters are used to generate readable text consists on the use of a character encoding scheme that pairs a sequence of characters from a given character set (sometimes referred to as code page) with something else, such as a sequence of natural numbers, octets or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the use of its digital representation. A easy to understand example would be Morse code, which encodes letters of the Latin alphabet as series of long and short depressions of a telegraph key; this is similar to how ASCII, encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols, as integers. Text and dataEdit Probably the most important use for a byte is holding a character code. Characters typed at the keyboard, displayed on the screen, and printed on the printer all have numeric values. To allow it to communicate with the rest of the world, the IBM PC uses a variant of the ASCII character set. There are 128 defined codes in the ASCII character set. IBM uses the remaining 128 possible values for extended character codes including European characters, graphic symbols, Greek letters, and math symbols. In earlier days of computing, the introduction of coded character sets such as ASCII (1963) and EBCDIC (1964) began the process of standardization. The limitations of such sets soon became apparent, and a number of ad-hoc methods developed to extend them. The need to support multiple writing systems (Languages), including the CJK family of East Asian scripts, required support for a far larger number of characters and demanded a systematic approach to character encoding rather than the previous ad hoc approaches. What's this about UNICODE?Edit Unicode is an industry standard whose goal is to provide the means by which text of all forms and languages can be encoded for use by computers. Unicode 6.1 was released in January 2012 and is the current version. It currently comprises over 109,000 characters from 93 scripts. Since Unicode is just a standard that assigns numbers to characters, there also needs to be methods for encoding these numbers as bytes. The three most common character encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32, of which UTF-8 is by far the most frequently used. In the Unicode standard, planes are groups of numerical values (code points) that point to specific characters. Unicode code points are logically divided into 17 planes, each with 65,536 (= 216) code points. Planes are identified by the numbers 0 to 16decimal, which corresponds with the possible values 00-10hexadecimal of the first two positions in six position format (hhhhhh). As of version 6.1, six of these planes have assigned code points (characters), and are named. Plane 0 - Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) Plane 1 - Supplementary Multilingual Plane (SMP) Plane 2 - Supplementary Ideographic Plane (SIP) Planes 3–13 - Unassigned Plane 14 - Supplementary Special-purpose Plane (SSP) Planes 15–16 - Supplementary Private Use Area (S PUA A/B) BMP and SMPEdit ISP and SSPEdit Currently, about ten percent of the potential space is used. Furthermore, ranges of characters have been tentatively mapped out for every current and ancient writing system (script) the Unicode consortium has been able to identify. While Unicode may eventually need to use another of the spare 11 planes for ideographic characters, other planes remain. Even if previously unknown scripts with tens of thousands of characters are discovered, the limit of 1,114,112 code points is unlikely to be reached in the near future. The Unicode consortium has stated that limit will never be changed. The odd-looking limit (it is not a power of 2), is not due to UTF-8, which was designed with a limit of 231 code points (32768 planes), and can encode 221 code points (32 planes) even if limited to 4 bytes but is due to the design of UTF-16. In UTF-16 a "surrogate pair" of two 16-bit words is used to encode 220 code points 1 to 16, in addition to the use of single words to encode plane 0. UTF-8 is a variable-length encoding of Unicode, using from 1 to 4 bytes for each character. It was designed for compatibility with ASCII, and as such, single-byte values represent the same character in UTF-8 as they do in ASCII. Because a UTF-8 stream doesn't contain '\0's, you may use it directly in your existing C++ code without any porting (except when counting the 'actual' number of character in it). UTF-16 is also variable-length, but works in 16 bit units instead of 8, so each character is represented by either 2 or 4 bytes. This means that it is not compatible with ASCII. Unlike the previous two encodings, UTF-32 is not variable-length: every character is represented by exactly 32-bits. This makes encoding and decoding easier, because the 4-byte value maps directly to the Unicode code space. The disadvantage is in space efficiency, as each character takes 4 bytes, no matter what it is.
DNA linkers allow different kinds of nanoparticles to self-assemble and form relatively large-scale nanocomposite arrays. This approach allows for mixing and matching components for the design of multifunctional materials. \| Image courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory. DNA may be history's most successful matchmaker. And recently, researchers at the Energy Department's Brookhaven National Laboratory coupled the complementary chemistry of DNA with some serious science savvy to create a new method for pairing up particles; a technique that may lead to the creation of new materials with great potential. DNA consists of four chemical bases, which match up in pairs of A-T and G-C. The matches are complementary and quite specific -- for instance, A only pairs with T, almost never C or G. The same is true for the others. Brookhaven Lab researchers, led by physicist Oleg Gang in its Center for Functional Nanomaterials, used that precise pairing ability to match up materials in new and predictable ways. Namely, the team attached single strands of synthetic DNA to tiny particles (nanoparticles) of a few different substances -- including gold with palladium, iron oxide and others -- trying a variety of different pairings. Those DNA strands (linkers) could only pair up with their complements -- for instance, a strand of A, G, G, T would only pair with a strand of T, C, C, A -- which meant that the particles to which those strands were attached would also be precisely matched. That technique allowed researchers to pair up even seemingly incompatible particles. For example, ones that might typically experience competing forces such as electrical or magnetic repulsion. The attractive force drawing complementary DNA strands together overcame the resistance, causing the particles to assemble themselves into large, three-dimensional lattices. This approach allowed researchers to build new materials with specificity and predictability, and altering the length of the DNA linkers also allowed researchers to control other properties of the new materials, such as surface density. As a consequence, the new technique might save researchers some of the errors of a typical scientific trial -- especially those involved with the search for new materials. Even more importantly, as Dr. Gang said, "It offers routes for the fabrication of new materials with combined, enhanced, or even brand new functions." For instance, researchers might use the method to develop new switches and sensors, which could be used in everything from chemical detectors to combustion engines. Scientists at Brookhaven Lab are already developing nanoparticles that could serve as better catalysts for hydrogen fuel vehicles and reduce the carbon monoxide emissions of conventional fuels. Ultimately, researchers at Brookhaven Lab -- and those across the Energy Department -- hope to solve the grand challenge of designing and then creating new forms of matter with precisely tailored properties. Will they succeed? Perhaps one day. Discovery and innovation is what they do: You might say it's in their DNA.
In today's world, technology is the key to problem solving. From the earliest inventions to today's constant upgrades, inventors, designers, and creators start with a problem and develop ways to solve the problem efficiently. However, technology and inventions do not stop at efficient: people continue to find easier and more convenient solutions. For example, communication moved from hieroglyphics and word-of-mouth to mail, telephone, cell phone, email, and even video capture or webcam. We use technology in nearly every aspect of life and our children need to be prepared to enter a nation that requires knowledgeable being in not only the three R's but also the ever-rapidly changing and growing field of technology. Our education system must determine the most beneficial methods of applying and integrating technologies into our schools. One current debate is the placement of computers in the classroom or in a lab environment. Even though computers in the classroom promotes the benefit of maximum computer usage, computer lab setting are more efficient in building essential skills necessary for the integration of using technology in academic tasks. More than two decades of research has shown decisive evidence that the use of technology in education leads to positive effects on student achievement. During testimony before Senate Subcommittee, Margaret Honey (2001) indicated "Ã¢ÂÂ¦technology implementationsÃ¢ÂÂ¦increases students' performance on standardized tests, software supporting the acquisition of early literacy skills can support learning gains, and scientific simulations, microcomputer-based laboratories, and scientific visualization tools have all been shown to result in students' increased understanding of core science concepts." Furthermore, software designed to support problem-solving enables students to grasp key mathematical concepts and language software such as Rosetta Stone permit students to learn at a more rapid pace and facilitate a sufficient learning environment. Internet access provides opportunities for numerous exploration, communication, and research. Internet access, computer software, and other educational technologies have improved the quality of education and strengthened skills in subjects such as math, science, and language. Technology has not only improved the quality and skills in student education, but technology has also proved to be a valuable asset for teachers and their professional environment. Software developed to collect data, chart student progress, identify student trouble areas, and modify instruction for student success is an example of a diagnostic assessment tool that teachers can use to perform work effectively especially with the onset of NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act). Technology enables teachers to collaborate and work together to develop lesson plans and curriculum where in the past, teachers were largely isolated from colleagues throughout the workday. The range of archival materials available on the web has given teachers and their students access to materials that would otherwise be available only to specialized scholars or academic researchers. There are many benefits of technology that increase opportunities and efficiency of the teaching profession and student achievement. The improvement on student achievement due to technology is also appealing to employers who require computer skills and to students entering the workforce with computer and technology education. Richard W. Riley (1997), the former secretary of the Department of Education, described the future of technology by saying, "The wealth built by our forebears from coal, steel, oil, concrete, and brawn can be built tomorrow from silicon chips, integrated circuits, digital networks, computers, and raw intelligence." This statement was given over 10 years ago and now is the time Riley was referencing. Among others, Riley was aware of the need to educate our country's children with a variety of technology and techniques because of the rapid growth and development of new products, gadgets, software, and hardware designed to help businesses run more efficiently. Performing a job search in today's market will prove how different technology skills - from typing 40 words per minute to operating specific software - are necessary for career competence and obtaining a job. Technology has been proved useful and essential in the education system of the United States in many different aspects. Integration of technology improves student achievement, work efficiency, and is important for students' futures. Now we must tackle the question of how to integrate technology and apply meaningful techniques that are going to lead to capable students. In the past, computer labs have been the primary source for students to learn technology applications and labs are still in full use today, but one side of the debate argues that computer labs are isolated causing difficulty integrating technology into other areas of curriculum. Advocates for computers in the classroom argue that access to computer labs is far from the critical level needed to impact learning experiences of children. Many advocates believe that computers in the classroom promote more interactive styles of teaching. Barbara Barr (2005), a 24 year teaching veteran, is convinced that computer labs are disadvantageous because labs "[do not] allow ample time to work on projects" whereas computers in the classroom provide convenience, efficiency, and proper integration. Not only are computers beneficial to improving student achievement, but they are a crucial component of technology integration in our education system. Proponents of computer labs suggest that computer labs offer many more advantages over computers in the classroom and labs should not be phased out of educational activities. Ferdi Serim (2005), computer lab teacher, coauthor of the book Net learning: Why Teachers Use the Internet, and editor of Multimedia Schools Magazine, describes computer labs as "effective places to give all students adequate access to technology to perform meaningful work." Other proponents including teachers, educators, and even students express that the computer lab environment has usually has more space to work and fewer distractions from other activities that go on in the regular classroom. In one study comparing technology skill development in computer labs versus classroom settings the findings were obvious. Results from the study proved that compared to classroom integration, using the computer lab had higher overall scores in computer skills (Rule, Barrera, & Dockstader, 2001). This decisive study is valuable in determining the importance of computer labs and maintaining a positive outlook on the value they provide. Both sides of the debate have valid arguments but many of the disagreements are direct contradictions. Proponents of phasing out computer labs believe that classroom integration allows adequate time for computer access and opponents of extinguishing the computer lab use the same argument. They believe that the lab environment provides the time and space needed to gain essential computer skills. A second contradicting argument involves the environment surrounding technology usage. One side of the debate is in favor of integrating computers and technology in the classroom to promote maximum benefits of computer usage while the other side believes computer labs provide necessary skills in basic computing that cannot be obtained as easily in a classroom environment. Both opponents and proponents of phasing out computer labs can agree that technology is a necessary and important component in today's education but these opposing viewpoints lead one to believe that a different underlying issue is being ignored. What is emerging from this debate is not that computer labs are better or worse for technological education, but that both computer labs and computers in the classroom have potential benefits that cannot be ignored. Most of the views from both sides argue the positive effects of their particular side but neither has come up with enormous substantial evidence proving that one way is better than the other is. We must begin looking at the benefits of having computer labs where students are able to focus at the single task at hand and integration of computers in the classroom where the teacher has full control of usage. Ideally, students should have access to computers and other technologies on a daily basis for the purpose of research, word processing, communication, and many other real-world applications. Perhaps someday our nation's students will each have a laptop computer that check out at the beginning of the school year and check back in at the end of the school. Students would be able to use the computer for their personal educational needs similar to a textbook but until then teachers must figure out ways to enrich the skills of students with the technology at hand. A last topic that needs to be addressed is the role of the Federal Government in technology education. The Federal Government has taken huge steps to ensure the equal education of all United States students. The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Technologies has provided leadership by defining and administering programs, brought together state and local technology leaders, and promoting a vision for effective technology use in our schools (Honey, 2004). The Federal Government has funded 35% of all educational technology, which is outstanding compared to the 6.6 percent of overall contribution to education funding. Leadership and funding are two of the largest and most important aspects in progressing technology education and the Federal Government is extremely important for maintaining these critical roles. In education, it is not always the physical location of where the learning takes place that makes the difference. It is the teacher's intuitivism, nurturing, and caring that matters. It is the teacher's creativity, understanding, and support that bring forth the full potential of students. These teachers must work in a context that is supportive and receptive to the use of technology in order to have an impact on students' learning. Individual schools and school districts must be well organized for technology use. The federal government must continue to provide funding and leadership while playing a role in educational technology. All these components lead me to believe that phasing out computer labs is not an option. Leadership and context need to be put in place so computer labs can be used, maintained, and updated properly to ensure quality learning experiences and essential skills that will lead students to higher achievements. I believe that computer labs still fit the bill for education. Ã¢ÂÂWorks CitedHoney, M. (2004). Technology Has Improved Education. Opposing Viewpoints: The Information Revolution. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. Retrieved from Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center on October 29, 2008. Hess, Frederick M. "Technical difficulties: information technology could help schools do more with less. If only educators knew how to use it (Forum)." Education next. 4. 4 (Fall 2004): 15(5). Retrieved from Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. Apollo Library. 30 Oct. 2008. Johnson, J. A., Musial, D., Halle, G. E., Gollnick, D. M., & Dupuis, V. L. (2005). Introduction to the Foundations of American Education (13th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Riley, R.W. (1997). Computer Education is Vital for Students of the Future. Current Controversies: Computers and Society. San Diego: GreenhavenPress. Retrieved from Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center on October 29, 2008. Rule, A. C., Barrera, M. T., & Dockstader, C. J. (2001). Comparing Technology Skill Development in Computer Lab versus Classroom Settings. Retrieved October 25, 2008, from NCOLR: http://www.ncolr.org/ /issues/PDF /1.1.5.pdf
Eight Standards Established by National Association for Sport & Physical Education (NASPE) - Philosophy and Ethics - Sport coaches and programs should adopt a philosophy that places a premium on the well-being of the athletes. In addition, coaches must demonstrate appropriate behaviors at all times as they are role models for athletes, parents, and community members. - Safety and Injury Prevention - Safety and emergency care must be provided to those participating in sport. Coaches are often the first responder to injuries; therefore, they must have a plan to take care of emergencies. This plan includes ensuring a safe environment as well as providing immediate care when it is needed. - Physical Conditioning - Coaches are responsible for training their athletes in an appropriate manner. This requires coaches to maintain current knowledge about how to effectively develop and implement training programs, while promoting healthy lifestyles. - Growth and Development - Coaches must know their athletes. Athletes mature at varying rates an coaches must be able to recognize physical, mental and emotional stages of their athletes in order to provide appropriate practice plans, training regiments, and appropriate goal setting opportunities. - Teaching and Communication - Coaching is teaching. Coaches must use effective teaching practices in order to provide the most successful learning opportunities for athletes. Coaches must know their sport, but they must also be able to instruct athletes about their sport. - Sport Skills and Tactics - Coaches must know how to put athletes in positions that positively impact performance. Knowledge of sport skills, strategies, and rules is critical to successful coaching. - Organization and Administration - In administering sport programs, coaches must be able to maintain effective records. In addition, coaches are responsible for sharing and maintaining policies, rules and regulations. - Evaluation - Constant assessment and evaluation are critical to achieve and maintain an effective sport program. Coaches are called upon to evaluate athletes, strategies, other coaches, as well as themselves.
Viking ship is a collective term for ships used during the Viking Age (800?1100) in Northern Europe. The ships are normally divided into classes based on size and function. Longship – These were the most versatile of the Viking ships, with a length of about 100 feet (30m), a 20-foot (6m) beam, up to 60 oars, and a crew of about 70-80. These could carry up to 20 tons of supplies. A large type of longship, known only from historical sources, is the Drekkar. These are said to have been the pride of Viking war-fleets, and were known as “Dragon Ships”. The largest longship ever found however, is the Roskilde 6 discovered in Roskilde harbour, in Denmark, in 1996/7. This ship is approximately 36m long and was built in the mid-11th century. Longships were ships primarily used by the Scandinavian Vikings and the Saxons to raid coastal and inland settlements during the European Middle Ages. They are often called “longboats”, but “longship” is more accurate. The vessels were also used for long distance trade and commerce, and for exploratory voyages to Iceland, Greenland, and beyond. Longship design evolved over several centuries and was fully developed by about the 9th century. In Norway traditional longships were used until the 13th century, and the character and appearance of these ships were reflected in western Norwegian boat-building traditions until the early 20th century. Knarr – The Knarr was a cargo vessel with a length of about 54 feet (16m), a beam of 15 feet (4.5m), and a hull capable of carrying 15 tons. Knarrs routinely crossed the North Atlantic centuries ago carrying livestock and stores to Iceland and Greenland. The vessel also influenced the design of the cog, used in the Baltic Sea by the Hanseatic League. The Karve was a Viking ship unlike the longships, with a length of 70 feet (20m), a 17-foot (5m) beam, 16 oars, and a draft of about 3 feet (1m). The Faering was a small boat resembling a dinghy used to travel up and down rivers. I have been informed these files work fine in Daz Studio 3 & 4.5
A team of researchers led by the Ruhr-Universität Bochum investigated how the meltwater from the ice sheet in North America produced a massive impact on climate conditions in northwest Europe and northwest Africa by the end of the most recent ice age, about 10 000 years ago (early Holocene period). The ice sheet melted in the way similar to Greenland ice today, and the scientists think it may provide them with an insight into how the current melting may affect our current climate. The scientists analyzed dripstones from the caves, called the speleothems and used computer simulations to reconstruct what happened in the period between 11 700 and 8 000 years ago. During present day, a negative correlation in the rainfall amount from northwestern Africa and northwestern Europe was observed. The climate in African region is dry while the humid winter conditions are present in the European region. This correlation was reversed during the early Holocene, meaning both areas were simultaneously dry and a radical climate change occurred. The winter climate conditions in northwestern Europe and the Mediterranean are ruled by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the variation in the atmospheric pressure difference between the Azores high pressure field in the south and the Icelandic low pressure field in the north. The goal of the research was to determine how this oscillation will respond to ice melting in the North Atlantic. Research indicates the ratio of the 18O and 16O oxygen isotopes from speleothems is also affected by the rainfall amount. On a scale of several decades to several centuries, a negative correlation between the rainfall in both regions between 8 000 to 5 900 and 4 700 and 2 500 years ago has been established, based on the speleothems from northwestern Morocco and western Germany. The results mean that one area had less rainfall than the other, just like the present day. But, during the early Holocene, a positive correlation has been observed between the regions and it reversed in the period from the mid to the late Holocene. To find out what is causing such a behavior, the scientists used a coupled atmosphere and ocean model to carry out the climate simulations. “A possible explanation for the negative correlation is the melting of the North American ice sheet in the early Holocene period,” explained Jasper Wassenburg, who conducted the analyses in collaboration with Prof Dr. Adrian Immenhauser at the Department of Sediment and Isotope, Geology at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum. During the most recent ice age, this ice sheet covered large areas of Canada and massive amounts of meltwater flowed into the North Atlantic, changing the circulation pattern. “Using the simulations of our climate model, we demonstrated that the positive correlation of rainfall in Morocco and Germany is caused by a combination of effects: namely the impact of the North American ice shield on the atmospheric circulation and the impact of its meltwater on the oceanic circulation,” said Dr. Stephan Dietrich, who evaluated the simulations at the Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung and is now at the Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde in Koblenz. Oscillations such as the NAO, result from the heating and cooling of air which affect the atmospheric pressure field. Ocean currents affect the heat distribution, and thus, also the atmospheric circulation. The North American ice sheet produced a strong cooling effect, as it reflects the solar radiation, and a stable high-pressure field develops above the ice sheet. The meltwater impacts the strength of ocean currents, in particular the North Atlantic Current. “Even though the precise mechanisms have not yet been fully understood, it is very likely that these effects were essential factors that caused the positive correlation of rainfall in Morocco and Germany to reverse into a negative one, due to the melting of the North American ice sheet,” said Jasper Wassenburg. A similar case to the one which induced the NAO change during the early Holocene may be possible, researchers concluded. “However, the climate conditions in the early and late Holocene differed considerably. This is why it is difficult to predict if and how NAO will be affected. We suggest that it all depends on the speed at which the ice in Greenland will melt and on the volume of meltwater. Detailed reconstructions of the climate and precise measurements of the changes in Greenland ice are necessary in order to understand the mechanisms that contribute to the changes in correlation patterns. - "Reorganization of the North Atlantic Oscillation during early Holocene deglaciation" - Jasper A. Wassenburg, Stephan Dietrich, Jan Fietzke, Jens Fohlmeister, Klaus Peter Jochum, Denis Scholz, Detlev K. Richter, Abdellah Sabaoui, Christoph Spötl, Gerrit Lohmann, Meinrat O. Andreae and Adrian Immenhauser - Nature Geoscience (2016) - doi:10.1038/ngeo2767 Featured image: Icebergs spilling out of Jakobshavn Fiord from the Greenland Ice Sheet, seen on the horizon, December 4, 2009. Image credit: Oregon State University (Flickr-CC)
Independence and Fluency By: Lauren Keasal Fluent readers are able to decode words rapidly and automatically. It is important when reading that the reader is able comprehend the text instead of having to focus on individual words and letters. "Being a good reader requires being able to decode and being able to decode automatically—that is, with little overt attention…being a good reader also involves knowing the meaning of lots of words and dealing with the ideas in a text" (Beck, 2006, pp.79-80). Overall, to learn to read fluently, students need practice through reading appropriate texts. Copy of The Deep Sea for each student (Sims, Matt. The Deep Sea. High Noon Books. 1999. pp. 1-22.) Stopwatch for each pair of students Pencil and a few sticky notes for each student Sentence strip: "Dave and Bill like to sail."( Copy of The Deep Sea for each student- Sims, Matt. The Deep Sea. High Noon Books. 1999. pp. 1.) List of Comprehension Questions based on each of the six chapters Checklist for teacher- Includes the following three questions for the teacher to fill out for each child: "Can the student identify which sentence is read with fluency?", "Can the student read the story to the teacher smoothly and quickly?" and "Can the student comprehend the text and answer the questions for comprehension?" 1. Can the student identify a sentence read with fluency? 2. Can the student read the story smoothly and quickly? 3. Can the student comprehend the text and answer the comprehension questions? Fluency Sheet- There will be a place for both the reader and the timer’s names. There will then be three lines for recording the number of words the first, second and third times they read the text in a minute. Next there will be four lines where each partner with rate each other by either placing a checkmark in the circle or leaving it blank on a basis of if they: remembered more words, read faster, read smoother, and read with expression. (Ellis, Alicia. Crabs Can't Nap But You Can Read. http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/sightings/ellisgf.html) Name of Reader: Name of Partner: Words read 1st time: Words read 2nd time: Words read 3rd time: I noticed that my partner: 2nd time 3rd time O O Remembered more words O O Read faster O O Read smoother O O Read with expression 1. First I will explain to the student the purpose of our lesson, which is to read fluently. Today we will work on improving our fluency. Fluency is our ability to read a book rapidly, without having to sound out each of the words. Once you become fluent readers the books you read will make more sense and you will be able to read all kinds of books. We will work together on becoming more fluent by reading a book more than once. Each time you read the book you will understand the text better and you will slowly be able to read faster and faster. So, today we will practice our fluency by reading the text more than once and see how much better you can get! 2. During each of the readings make sure that the students crosscheck themselves if they do not recognize the word they are reading automatically. Don’t forget to crosscheck while reading if you don’t recognize a word automatically, use the cover up critter to make it easier to sound out the word. Once you know the word re-read the sentence that the word was in and continue with the story. If the word still does not make sense, don’t give up, try to crosscheck again. Finally, if you still need help raise your hand and I will come help you out. 3. Model for the students how to read with fluency. Display a sentence strip with the following sentence: "Dave and Bill like to sail". First, I am going to show you what it sounds like to read without fluency. " D-a-a-v-v-v…D-A-v-e and B-i-i-i-l-l-l l-i-i-k… to s-a-a-i-i-l-l…". After I had trouble with the tricky words, I crosschecked so that I could read the words correctly. “Dave and Bill like to sail”. Now tell the students, Now I am going to read the sentence like a fluent reader. "Dave and Bill like to sail". Could you hear the difference between the first reading and the second? The second time I did not have to spend time sounding out any of the words. That's what it sounds like to read fluently, which makes reading faster. When you are a fluent reader you also read with expression. This means that you read the sentence with an emotion like: sad, angry, frustrated, happy, excited and many more. I'll read another sentence and you tell me if I sound like a beginning reader or a fluent reader. "Bill has a little boat." Yep! A fluent reader, great job! 4. We are going to be reading the book The Deep Sea to practice improving our fluency. The book is divided up into 6 Chapters: The Rip Tide, The Seal, The Log, Save the Boat, The Little Boat and Gull Rock. The lesson will take multiple days or extended time for the students to read through the whole book. They should begin in Chapter 1 and be tested on fluency for that chapter. As they grow in fluency they will move through each of the chapters until they are able to read the entire book themselves, fluently. 5. Give the following book talk for The Deep Sea: Dave and Bill are friends that like to sail on their boat. The like to travel to see a place called Gull Rock. One day they are out at sea when they hit a log. Their boat begins to sink, what will they do? You will have to read the book to find out what happens! 6. Next break the students into groups of two and give each student a copy of the book The Deep Sea. The teacher should also supply a stopwatch for each pair of students. One student will be the reader and one will be the time keeper and they will switch after the reader is done reading the first chapter of the book. "When it is your turn to read, I want you to read as many words as you can in a minute smoothly and fast. Do not skip any words! When the timer goes off place the sticky note where you left off reading which is where you can stop counting. Count each of the words after the time goes off and record the number on your fluency sheet. Read the chapter three times. When you have finished reading a chapter three times and have recorded all the information you can bring your sheets to me and I will let each of you read individually to me. After you work with me you can move onto the next chapter. Now you can start! 7. While the students are reading, the teacher should walk around the classroom listening to their reading. The teacher should also be prepared to help the students with their reading and any other assistance they made need with the lesson if needed. To assess each of the students, the teacher should have the students turn in their own fluency sheet and the teacher should have one of their own. Each child should be called up to the desk one by one. Then the students will read the chapter they read with their partner . As the student reads the teacher should time a minute and make notes. At the very end she should add up the words and record the data. Such data will include whether they are reading fast and fluent or stumbling over their words, along with any miscues. Finally, when they are done reading, the teacher will assess their comprehension of the text with the following questions. Chapter 1 Questions: 1. What is The Rip Tide? 2. What were the two boy’s names that were friends? 3. Where were they headed? Chapter 2 Questions: 1. What did animal did Dave and Bill see in the ocean? 2. What did they do when they saw the seal? 3. What happened to the seal? Chapter 3 Questions: 1. What did the boat run over in the water? 2. What did they think the log looked like in the water? 3. What happened to the boat? Chapter 4 Questions: 1. How did they try to save the boat? 2. What happened to the rag in the whole? 3. What did they do when the water would not stop coming into the boat? Chapter 5 Questions: 1. Where did they go in the small boat? 2. What happened to Dave in the boat? 3. What did Bill throw to Dave to save him? Chapter 6 Questions: 1. How did they know it was Gull Rock? 2. How did they get back? 3. What did Dave say he had to get a new one of? For further assessment, I will allow the students to take the book home and practice their fluency individually or with their parents. They will also be able to record their results on their own fluency sheet. I will then let them read the book to me as a whole to see how much they have improved. Beck, I. Making Sense of Phonics: The Hows and Whys. New York, NY. The Guilford Press. 2006. pp. 79-80. Sims, Matt. The Deep Sea. High Noon Books. 1999. pp. 1-22. Alicia. Crabs Can’t Nap But You Can Read. Holzapfel. The Buzzing Bumble Bee.
Effects of Fireworks in Diwali Effects of Diwali on Environment Due to large scale of bursting firecrackers during this festival it releases harmful gases and toxic substances into the atmosphere, loud noises from loudspeakers and firecrackers, dry waste causing health problems for children, patients and senior citizens. They also cause Burns, deafness, Nausea and mental impairment. Many people die in explosions in factories which manufactures firecrackers. From Darkness to Light or from light to Darkness Diwali is called as festival of lights. It is very widely celebrated festival in India. Usually Diwali festival falls between October-November of Gregorian calendar. It has been celebrated from ancient time as mentioned in Ramayana and Mahabharata mythologies. Diwali Celebration (from Darkness to Light) Effects of Fireworks in Diwali It is celebrated by cleaning and decorating homes, visiting relatives and exchanging gifts, Sweets etc. It is believed that Buying gold in Diwali is a good sign. Many people do pooja in these days in their homes. Roads and homes are lighted /decorated by oil lamps and festive lights. And most importantly fireworks are set off by children for celebrations. The commonly used types of fireworks in celebrations are Rockets, Roman Candles, Sparkles, and Wheels etc. Effects of Fireworks on Environment (from light to darkness) On this auspicious occasion unknowingly harmful gases and toxic substances released to environment by bursting fireworks such as Barium, Cadmium, Sodium, Mercury, Nitrate and Nitrite. These are called as Air pollutants. Also RSPM level goes high as small particles emitted by bursting of fireworks. RSPM means Respirable Suspended Particulate Material. Also need of electricity goes high in this period. To overcome shortage of electricity majorly electricity generated by using diesel, Coal etc. that also causes air pollution. Bursting of fireworks not only causes air pollution but also Noise pollution. Also because of happiest festival many people use loudspeakers, loud musical instruments and advertisements that causes noise pollution. Level of noise level can go beyond 125 dB which is as loud as Military jet aircraft take-off, whereas government limits Noise level at 55dB in daytime and 45dB at night for residential area. These type of noises are very harmful for new-born babies. With happiness it also brings Dry waste like papers, plastics, firework covers. Massive amount of non-degradable dry waste generated in Diwali celebration. It causes Soil pollution as less space for dumping ground in major cities. Health effects of Fireworks In these five days Fireworks are handled by kids and due to their poisonous nature many children fall ill. Poisonous gases may cause fever, Skin irritation, vomiting, Effects of Fireworks on lungs, insomnia, heart, asthma and bronchitis. Also many children face accidents due to mishandling of fireworks and it causes burning, cutting. Also it has been observed that mortality and morbidity rate increased in Diwali period because of SPM, RSPM and other harmful gases released in environment. Loud noise of fireworks causes Temporary deafness, permanent Eardrum rupture, trauma and hypertension. Other effects of Fireworks Also these fireworks made by people and children are exposed to poisonous metals like lead, mercury, Nitrate and Nitrite. Due to this they face health issues and die in early stage of their lives. Also due to high demand of fireworks small kids are also work for 12 hrs in a day for fireworks companies before Diwali. Alternate ways to celebrate Diwali We should think twice before buying fireworks in Diwali. Is this the only way to celebrate Diwali? Instead of spending too much on fireworks and considering effects of fireworks on health and environment we can buy gifts, books, gadgets or cloths which are less harmful for nature as compared to firecrackers. We can donate books or clothes for poor students. Also can conduct various competitions on environmental awareness. Pollution free firecrackers are available but they are very costly and can’t fulfil the demand. In U.S. after studying effects of it on human health they have shifted to laser shows instead of using traditional firecrackers . From darkness to light or from light to darkness Before using fireworks we should ask ourselves that are we actually going from darkness to light by using them or from light to darkness? Share this Article with your Friends: Let’s go green by saving our mother earth. You would like to read about Effects of Ganapati festival on Environment Also read Environmental Impact Assessment to know about impact of new projects on environmental with respect to Air, Water, Noise and Soil.
Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles) Guide for the Perplexed 1. The US covenant with the Jewish State dates back to Columbus Day, which is celebrated around Sukkot (October 8). According to “Columbus Then and Now” (Miles Davidson, 1997, p. 268), Columbus arrived in America on Friday afternoon, October 12, 1492, the 21st day of the Jewish month of Tishrey, the Jewish year 5235, the 7th day of Sukkot, Hoshaa’na’ Rabbah, which is a day of universal deliverance and miracles. Hosha’ (×”×•×©×¢) is the Hebrew word for “deliverance” and Na’ (× ×) is the Hebrew word for “please.” The numerical value of Na’ is 51, which corresponds to the celebration of Hoshaa’na’ Rabbah on the 51st day following Moses’ ascension to Mt. Sinai. 2. Sukkot is the 3rd Jewish holiday – following Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur – in the month of Tishrey, the most significant Jewish month. According to Judaism, the number 3 represents divine wisdom, stability, permanence, integration and peace. 3 is the total sum of the basic odd (1) and even (2) numbers. The 3rd day of the Creation was blessed twice; God appeared on Mt. Sinai on the 3rd day; there are 3 parts to the Bible, 3 Patriarchs, 3 pilgrimages to Jerusalem, etc. 3. The Book of Ecclesiastes, written by King Solomon – one of the greatest philosophical documents – is read during Sukkot. It amplifies Solomon’s philosophy on the centrality of God and the importance of morality, humility, family, friendship, historical memory and perspective, patience, long-term thinking, proper-timing, realism and knowledge. Ecclesiastes 4:12: “A 3-ply cord is not easily severed.”The Hebrew name of Ecclesiastes is Kohelet (×§×”×œ×ª), which is similar to the commandment to celebrate Sukkot – Hakhel (×”×§×”×œ), to assemble. 4. Sukkot starts on the 15th day of the Jewish month of Tishrey, commemorating the Exodus and the beginning of the construction of the Holy Tabernacle in Sinai. Sukkah (×¡×›×”) and Sukkot (×¡×›×•×ª) are named after the first stop of The Exodus – Sukkota (×¡×›×•×ª×”). The Hebrew root of Sukkah (×¡×›×”) is “wholesomeness” and “totality” (×¡×š), “shelter” (×¡×›×š), “to anoint” (×¡×•×š), “divine curtain/shelter” (×ž×¡×š) and “attentiveness” (×¡×›×ª). 5. The Sukkah symbolizes the Chuppah – the Jewish wedding canopy – of the renewed vows between God and the Jewish People. While Yom Kippur represents God’s forgiveness of the Golden Calf Sin, Sukkot represents the reinstatement of Divine Providence over the Jewish People. Sukkot is called Zman Simchatenou – time of our joy- and mandates Jews to rejoice (“×•×”×™×™×ª ××š ×©×ž×—”). It is the first of the three Pilgrimages to Jerusalem: Passover – the holiday of Liberty, Shavuot (Pentecost) – the holiday of the Torah and Sukkot – the holiday of Joy. 6. “The House of David” is defined as a Sukkah (Amos 9:11), representing the permanent vision of the ingathering of Jews to the Land of Israel, Zion. Sukkot is the holiday of harvesting – Assif ( (××¡×™×£- which also means “ingathering” (××¡×•×£) in Hebrew. The four sides of the Sukkah represent the global Jewish community, which ingathers under the same roof. The construction of the Sukkah and Zion are two of the 248 Jewish Do’s (next to the 365 Don’ts). Sukkot – just like Passover – commemorates Jewish sovereignty and liberty. Sukkot highlights the collective responsibility of the Jewish people, complementing Yom Kippur’s and Rosh Hashanah’s individual responsibility. Humility – as a national and personal prerequisite – is accentuated by the humble Sukkah. Sukkot provides the last opportunity for repentance. 7. Sukkot honors the Torah, as the foundation of Judaism and the Jewish people. Sukkot reflects the 3 inter-related and mutually-inclusive pillars of Judaism: The Torah of Israel, the People of Israel and the Land of Israel. The day following Sukkot (Simchat Torah- Torah-joy in Hebrew) is dedicated to the conclusion of the annual Torah reading and to the beginning of next year’s Torah reading. On Simchat Torah, the People of the Book are dancing with the Book. 8. The seven days of Sukkot are dedicated to the 7 Ushpizin, distinguished guests (origin of the words Hospes and hospitality): Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron and David. They defied immense odds in their determined pursuit of ground- breaking initiatives. The Ushpizin constitute role models to contemporary leadership. 9. The seven day duration of Sukkot – celebrated during the 7th Jewish month, Tishrey – highlights the appreciation to God for blessing the Promised Land with the 7 species (Deuteronomy 8:8): wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olive oil, and dates’ honey – 3 fruit of the tree, 2 kinds of bread, 1 product of olives, 1 product of dates = 4 categories. The duration of Sukkot corresponds, also, to the 7 day week (the Creation), the 7 divine clouds which sheltered the Jewish People in the desert, the 7 blessings which are read during a Jewish wedding, the 7 rounds of dancing with the Torah during Simchat Torah, the 7 readings of the Torah on Sabbath, etc.. 10. Sukkot’s four Species (1 citron, 1 palm branch, 3 myrtle branches and 2 willow branches = 7 items) – which are bonded together – represent four types of human-beings: people who possess positive odor and taste (values and action); positive taste but no odor (action but no values); positive odor but no taste (values but no action); and those who are devoid of taste and odor (no values and no action). However, all are bonded (and dependent upon each other) by shared roots/history. The Four Species reflect prerequisites forgenuine leadership: the palm branch (Lulav in Hebrew) symbolizes the backbone, the willow (Arava in Hebrew) reflects humility, the citron (Etrog in Hebrew) represents the heart and the myrtle (Hadas in Hebrew) stands for the eyes. The four species represent thevitality of water: willow – stream water, palm – spring water, myrtle – rain, and citron – irrigation. Sukkot in general, and a day following Sukkot – Shmini Atzeret – in particular, are dedicated to thanking God for water and praying for the rain. The four species symbolize the roadmap or the Exodus: palm – the Sinai Desert, willow – the Jordan Valley, myrtle – the mountains and the citron – the coastal plain. 11. The Sukkah must remain unlocked, and owners are urged to invite (especially underprivileged) strangers in the best tradition of Abraham, who royally welcomed to his tent three miserable-looking strangers/angels. 12. Sukkot is a universal holiday, inviting all peoples to come on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, as expressed in the reading (Haftarah) of Zechariah 14: 16-19 on Sukkot’s first day. It is a holiday of peace -The Sukkah of Shalom (×©×œ×•×). Shalom is one of the names of God. Shalem (×©×œ×) – wholesome and complete in Hebrew – is one of the names of Jerusalem (Salem).
Course Syllabus for "ENGL203: Cultural and Literary Expression in the 18th and 19th Centuries" Please note: this legacy course does not offer a certificate and may contain broken links and outdated information. Although archived, it is open for learning without registration or enrollment. Please consider contributing updates to this course on GitHub (you can also adopt, adapt, and distribute this course under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license). To find fully-supported, current courses, visit our Learn site. Scholars tend to label the period between the Renaissance and the modern era as the long 18th and 19th centuries, meaning that they span from around 1680 - 1830 and 1775 - 1910, respectively, and that so many literary movements and cultural changes took place during these interim years that a narrower title is difficult to come by. In this course, we will examine these formative cultural and literary developments chronologically, dividing the course into four roughly sequential periods: The Enlightenment and Restoration Literature; The Rise of the Novel; Romanticism; and the Victorian Period. We will identify and contextualize the principal characteristics of each of these movements/periods, reading representative texts and examining their relationship to those texts that preceded or were contemporaneous with them. As such, this course foregrounds the movement, the changes, and the continuities from the neoclassicism of authors such as John Dryden and Alexander Pope through the emergence of the novel in the writings of Aphra Behn, Daniel Defoe, and Samuel Richardson to the Romanticism of William Blake, William Wordsworth, and John Keats to the Victorian era developments of prose and poetry by writers such as Alfred Tennyson, Charles Dickens, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning. At the same time, the course places these literary developments alongside the transformation of the English nation. Over the course of this period, the modern United Kingdom emerged. From a monarchical government, it shifted to a parliamentary democracy, as its borders expanded formally to include Scotland and as its empire grew to its height at the end of the 19th century. At the same time, the British Isles were the site of unprecedented social and economic upheaval through processes of industrialization and urbanization. Intellectually and philosophically, this era saw the emergence of modern science and the displacement, to a large extent, of Christianity and tradition as the foundations of truth. In a variety of ways, writers responded to and helped to spur and foster these changes that define modernity, and in the process of doing so, they helped to create literature as a new discipline distinct from yet parallel to religious, philosophical, and scientific pursuits. Upon successful completion of this course, you will be able to: - identify the major literary trends of the 18th and 19th centuries from Restoration comedy and satires through Victorian poetry and prose; - outline the major developments in philosophical thought during the Enlightenment; - describe some of the ways that Enlightenment philosophy intersected with and influenced literary developments such as neoclassical poetics, novelistic description, and Romanticism; - identify the factors that led to the rise of the novel as a literary form; - identify the specific traits that characterize early sentimental, Gothic, and picaresque novels; - describe the political factors that led to the popularity of Romanticism; - describe the shift in thought that led to the split between Romanticism and Enlightenment; - identify the themes, conventions, and tropes of Romantic poetry; - define and explain the significance of the concept of the Romantic imagination; - identify and analyze the political, social, and economic factors that led to the surge in popular Victorian fiction; and - explain the significance of poetic experimentation in the 19th century works of writers like Tennyson, Hopkins, and Browning. In order to take this course, you must: √ have access to a computer; √ have continuous broadband Internet access; √ have the ability/permission to install plug-ins or software (e.g., Adobe Reader or Flash); √ have the ability to download and save files and documents to a computer; √ have the ability to open Microsoft files and documents (.doc, .ppt, .xls, etc.); √ be competent in the English language; and √ have read the Saylor Student Handbook. Welcome to ENGL203: Cultural and Literary Expression in the 18th and 19th Centuries. General information about this course and its requirements can be found below. Primary Resources: This course comprises a range of different free, online materials. However, the course makes primary use of the following materials: - The Open University: “The Enlightenment” - iTunes U: University of California, Davis: Dr. Timothy Morton’s “Romanticism Lectures” Requirements for Completion: In order to complete this course, you will need to work through each unit and all of its assigned materials. As mentioned in the introduction to the course, the units develop chronologically with four roughly sequential periods: The Enlightenment and Restoration Literature; The Rise of the Novel; Romanticism; and the Victorian Period. You will also need to complete: - Subunit 1.1.3 Activity - Subunit 1.3.2 Activity - Subunit 2.2.2 Activity - Subunit 4.2.2 Activity - The Final Exam Note that you will only receive an official grade on your final exam. However, in order to adequately prepare for this exam, you will need to work through all of the resources in each unit and the activities listed above. In order to pass the course, you will need to earn a 70% or higher on the final exam. Your score on the exam will be tabulated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam, you may take it again. Time Commitment: Completing this course should take you a total of 136.5 hours. Each unit includes a time advisory that lists the amount of time you are expected to spend on each subunit. These should help you plan your time accordingly. It may be useful to take a look at these time advisories, to determine how much time you have over the next few weeks to complete each unit, and then to set goals for yourself. For example, unit 1 should take you 30.5 hours. Perhaps you can sit down with your calendar and decide to complete Subunit 1.1.1 and Subunit 1.1.2 (a total of 5.5 hours) on Monday and Tuesday nights; Subunit 1.1.3 (a total of 6.5 hours) on Wednesday and Thursday nights; etc. Table of Contents: You can find the course's units at the links below.
Fact sheets on environmental sanitation Introduction to fact sheets on sanitation Human excreta always contain large numbers of germs, some of which may cause diarrhoea. When people become infected with diseases such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis A, their excreta will contain large amounts of the germs which cause the disease. Fact Sheet 3.1 discusses excreta disposal options. When people defecate in the open, flies will feed on the excreta and can carry small amounts of the excreta away on their bodies and feet. When they touch food, the excreta and the germs in the excreta are passed onto the food, which may later be eaten by another person. Some germs can grow on food and in a few hours their numbers can increase very quickly. Where there are germs there is always a risk of disease. Download the fact sheets 3.1: Excreta disposal options 3.2: Open-air defecation 3.4: Simple pit latrines 3.5: VIP and ROEC latrines 3.6: Pour flush latrines 3.7: Composting latrines 3.9: Septic tanks 3.10: Disposal of sullage and drainage 3.11: Sewerage and sewage treatment 3.12: Solid waste disposal 3.13: Reuse of sewage in agriculture and aquaculture 3.14: Sanitation in public places 3.15: Sanitation in hospitals and health centres During the rainy season, excreta may be washed away by rain-water and can run into wells and streams. The germs in the excreta will then contaminate the water which may be used for drinking. Many common diseases that can give diarrhoea can spread from one person to another when people defecate in the open air. Disposing of excreta safely, isolating excreta from flies and other insects, and preventing faecal contamination of water supplies would greatly reduce the spread of diseases. Fact Sheet 3.2 deals with open-air defecation, while Fact Sheet 3.3 covers cartage. In many cultures it is believed that children's faeces are harmless and do not cause disease. This is not true. A child's faeces contain as many germs as an adult's, and it is very important to collect and dispose of children's faeces quickly and safely. Fact Sheets 3.4 to 3.8 describe the construction of different types of latrines, and Fact Sheet 3.9 provides information on septic tanks. The disposal of excreta alone is, however, not enough to control the spread of cholera and other diarrhoea1 diseases. Personal hygiene is very important, particularly washing hands after defecation and before eating and cooking. Wastewater disposal and reuse Wherever crops are grown, they always need nutrients and water. Wastewater is often used in agriculture as it contains water, minerals, nutrients and its disposal is often expensive. Where effluent is used for irrigation, good quality water can be reserved exclusively for drinking water. Wastewater can also be used as a fertilizer, thus minimizing the need for chemical fertilizers. This reduces costs, energy, expenditure and industrial pollution. Wastewater is also commonly used in aquaculture, or fish farming. Fact Sheet 3.10 deals with disposal of sullage and drainage, while Fact Sheet 3.1 1 covers sewerage and sewage treatment. The reuse of sewage in agriculture and aquaculture is addressed in Fact Sheet 3.13. Solid waste disposal The disposal of refuse can have a significant effect on the health of communities. Where refuse is not disposed of properly, it can lead to pollution of surface water, as rain washes refuse into rivers and streams. There may also be a significant risk of groundwater contamination. Refuse disposed of in storm drains may cause blockages and encourage fly and mosquito breeding. It is therefore very important that household waste is disposed of properly. Fact Sheet 3.12 deals with solid waste disposal but does not cover industrial solid waste disposal, as this is complex and requires specialist techniques. It is, however, important that industrial waste is disposed of safely, as it is sometimes toxic and highly dangerous to human health. Sanitation in public places Where a large number of people are using one area, such as a bus station or school, especially when they are eating food from the same source, there is a greater risk of the spread of diseases such as cholera, hepatitis A, typhoid and other diarrhoea1 diseases. These places vary in the number of people using them, the amount of time that people spend there and the type of activity that occurs in the area, but all public places need to have adequate sanitation and hygiene facilities. Fact Sheet 3.14 covers sanitation in public places. Responsibility for the provision of sanitation facilities in public places is not always obvious, especially where these are informal gathering places. It is vital, however, that an agency monitors the sanitation facilities in public places on behalf of the users. Ideally, this should be part of the role of the ministry of health, or its equivalent. Special attention should be paid to the adequacy of facilities, their availability to the public, and the conditions of their operation. There are several basic rules for sanitation in public places : - There should be sufficient toilet facilities for the maximum number of people using the area during the day. This normally means one toilet compartment for every 25 users. The toilet facilities should be arranged in separate blocks for men and women. The men's toilet block should have urinals and toilet compartments ; the women's block, toilet compartments only. The total number of urinals plus compartments in the men's block should equal the total number of compartments in the women's block. - Toilet facilities should not be connected directly to kitchens. This is in order to reduce the number of flies entering the kitchen and to reduce odours reaching the kitchen. It is important that people using the toilet facilities cannot pass directly through the kitchen. - There must be a handwashing basin with clean water and soap close to the toilet facilities. There should be separate, similar facilities near to kitchens or where food is handled. - There must be a clean and reliable water supply for handwashing, personal hygiene and flushing of toilet facilities. The water supply should meet quality standards and be regularly tested to ensure that any contamination is discovered quickly and that appropriate remedial action is taken. - Refuse must be disposed of properly and not allowed to build up, as it will attract flies and vermin. Responsibilities for cleaning sanitation facilities should be very clearly defined. Dirty facilities make it more likely that people will continue to use the facilities badly or not at all. Clean facilities set a good example to users. It is important to make sure that information about health is available in public places. Such information should be displayed in an eye-catching, simple and accurate way. Where appropriate, large posters with bright colours and well chosen messages, put up in obvious places, are effective. Health and hygiene messages may be passed on to the public using such posters in public places. These messages should include the promotion of : - Use of refuse bins. - Care of toilet facilities. - Protection of water supplies. Local school children and college students can be involved in preparing educational posters and notices for public places. Hygiene education is covered in Fact Sheets 4.1 to 4.12.
The flow of blood pumped by the heart is controlled by one-way valves. These valves assure that blood moves in only one direction. When the heart's mitral valve leaks blood into the upper chamber from the lower chamber, it is called mitral regurgitation. If the amount of blood that leaks is severe, mitral regurgitation can be serious. The sooner it is treated, the better the outcome. Mitral regurgitation may be caused by: - Mitral valve prolapse—Abnormal closure of the valve with protrusion of a leaflet tip backward into the left atrium, causing it to leak. - Infections that cause scarring of the heart valve, such as rheumatic fever or bacterial endocarditis. - Damage from a heart attack. - Several different types of congenital heart defects, which can affect mitral valve function. - Cardiomyopathies—Diseases that weaken the heart muscle and stretch the mitral valve. Factors that may increase your chance of developing mitral regurgitation include: - A history of rheumatic fever or other serious infectious disease - Autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis - Storage diseases such as hemochromatosis and glycogen storage disease - Cardiovascular disease - Muscle disease - Alcohol use disorder - Radiation exposure - Exposure to certain drugs such as lithium, sulfonamides, chemotherapy, and phenothiazines The speed with which symptoms progress closely follows the cause of mitral disease. Acute diseases cause rapid decline, while more chronic diseases lead to slower onset of symptoms. Mitral regurgitation may cause: - Chronic, progressive fatigue - Shortness of breath, especially with exertion - Worsening shortness of breath when you lie down - New, associated palpitations or racing heart rate, which may suggest the development of a heart arrhythmia Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. Leaking heart valves usually make sounds called murmurs that can be heard through a stethoscope. You will likely be referred to a cardiologist. Imaging tests evaluate the heart and surrounding structures. These can be done with: An electrocardiogram (EKG) can measure your heart's electrical activity. Treatment options depend on the severity and history of the valve leakage and its effects on the heart’s size and function. Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following: Treat Underlying Disease Correcting the underlying problem may help the mitral valve function. The treatment depends on the symptoms. In chronic and slowly progressive mitral regurgitation, medications may help reverse effects on the heart’s size. Ultimately, surgery will likely be needed. In acute and rapidly declining disease, the benefit of medications is limited to short term stabilization until emergency surgery occurs. There are several open heart surgical procedures that can fix leaking valves. The type chosen will depend on the valve and the expert recommendation of the surgeon. The valve may be repaired, if it is an option, or it will be replaced. To help reduce your chance of getting mitral regurgitation: - Prevent cardiovascular disease by controlling weight and blood pressure, exercising, eating heart-healthy foods, and watching your cholesterol levels - Avoid contact with streptococcal diseases including strep throat, pharyngitis, and scarlet fever - Get prompt treatment for infections - Avoid IV drug use - Limit alcohol intake - Reviewer: Michael J. Fucci, DO, FACC - Review Date: 09/2016 - - Update Date: 05/02/2014 -
\|R a i n f o r e s t C l i m a t e s Rainforests are definedas you would expectby rainfall, and in fact they are literally created by it. (Rain foresttwo wordsis the older usage: both are accepted, but most modern authors and researchers combine the two, as does PTK, as in Rainforest.) They can be found where rain exceeds 80 inches per year, and can appear in temperate as well as tropical zones, so long as the rainfall is sufficiently plentiful. Tropical rainforests often have from 160 to 400 inches of rain a year. But they arent the wettest or even the hottest places on Earth. (The wettest is Mount Waialeale, in Hawaii, USA, and the hottest is Libya in North Africa.) But just as important as the amount of rain in shaping the unique character of rainforests is the constant humidity and high average temperature. In the Amazon basin you can expect at least 130 days of rain a year and, in many places, up to 250 days. The relative humidity never falls below 80%, and temperatures vary little between daytime averages of 31 degrees Centigrade (88 Fahrenheit) and night-time lows of 22 degrees C (72 F). Sometimes this constancy of temperature and humidity leads people to argue that rainforests have no seasons, but in the tropics this is only partially correct. There may not be a cold winter and a hot summer, but there are DRY seasons and WET seasons. Plants and trees flower at these different times of year, profoundly influencing the lives of the creatures who inhabit them. And our contemporary understanding of rainforests (see ECOsystem) quickly dispels the misconception that this is a changeless Eden, where Natures endless bounty means things are always the same. In fact theres a constant fight for light, water and nutrients, one of the reasons natural selection has had such a powerful effect in creating the great numbers of species which make tropical rainforests the richest places for biodiversity on Earth.
In general, lymphocytopenia (a low lymphocyte count) occurs because: - The body doesn't make enough lymphocytes. - The body makes enough lymphocytes, but they’re destroyed. - The lymphocytes get stuck in the spleen or lymph nodes. A combination of these factors also may cause a low lymphocyte count. Many diseases, conditions, and factors can lead to a low lymphocyte count. These conditions can be acquired or inherited. "Acquired" means you aren't born with the condition, but you develop it. "Inherited" means your parents passed the gene for the condition on to you. Exactly how each disease, condition, or factor affects your lymphocyte count isn't known. Some people have low lymphocyte counts with no underlying cause. Many acquired diseases, conditions, and factors can cause lymphocytopenia. Examples include: - Infectious diseases, such as AIDS, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever. - Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus. (Autoimmune disorders occur if the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s cells and tissues.) - Steroid therapy. - Blood cancer and other blood diseases, such as Hodgkin's disease and aplastic anemia. - Radiation and chemotherapy (treatments for cancer). Certain inherited diseases and conditions can lead to lymphocytopenia. Examples include DiGeorge anomaly, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome, and ataxia-telangiectasia. These inherited conditions are rare.
The set out norms and regulations governing a city, or a state referred to as law. Strict adherence to the established rules expected and people who break them are punished by the same law. The law dictates how individuals and various branches of the should carry out their duties. There are civil jurisdiction of the law and ordinary authority of the law. Everyone should appreciate the role played by existence of standards that govern them. Rules and regulations are set out for the existing people and generations to come. Violence is well taken care of by the existing rules and regulations in a country. There are strong legal systems that are put to ensure that no one intends to harm us physically. Any The physical violence could lead to wars and some extent death. Status of law is the best way of maintaining peace among the various communities of the world. Everyone is protected from possible violence that is commonly propagated by incitement and there negative values and the community. Democracy of a country made and maintained by the rules governing the country. The The rule of law has assisted in ensuring that a community is progressive and well maintained. Law taught to everyone and the values of education in a nation are well protected by the same rules. Increase of technology is regulated by the rules set out in a nation. different laws have played a significant role in ensuring that community growth is protected. Patients and doctors are protected by the government of laws. Doctors make sure that they adhere to rules pertaining the use of different medical equipment’s for the safety of patients. Laws have helped in achieving an orderly society. Its necessary to protect the environment and the same is captured in the laws set out in different nations of the world. The environment is protected for people living in it and generations to come. Were it not for the various rules and regulations pertaining the deadly diseases persons could be at significant risk for the same diseases. Nuclear weapons have been disqualified by the law as a war weapon in the world for its adverse effects on human lives. Set out rules have played a significant role in ensuring that human rights are protected. These rights are well protected by the existing laws to make sure that a community lives in peace. People can carry out their private issues without interference. These rules have ensured that people get no interference in their matters. Union of two people, is protected by the existing legislation. This has ensured that families continue being respected in all the parts of the globe as the single fundamental units of a particular communities. Community thrives well where there is the rule of law.
There are many different types of machines with varying capabilities and functions. This section is about common simple machines which are everywhere around us. inclined plane is a simple machine with no moving parts. It is simply a straight slanted surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface used to raise an object. Examples of inclined planes include ramp, slanted road, slide, and path up a hill. following figure shows an inclined plane. The length A is the base, length B is the height, and length C is the inclined plane. With the use of the inclined plane a given resistance can be overcome with a smaller force than if the plane is not used. For example, in the figure, suppose we wish to raise a weight of 100 kg through the vertical distance B = 2 m. If this weight were raised vertically and without the use of the inclined plane the force 100 kg would have to be exerted through the distance B. However, if the inclined plane is used and the weight is moved over the inclined plane C, a force of only 2/3 of 100 kg or 66.7 kg is required. Remember, this force is exerted through a distance C which is greater than distance Using an inclined plane requires a smaller force exerted through a greater distance to do a certain amount of work. Letting F represent the force required to raise a given weight on the inclined plane, and W the weight to be raised, we have the proportion: In our daily life, lifting an object straight up is heavier than pulling it up an incline plane, we do not need to use as much force. However, the inclined plane is longer. Inclined planes can also be used in reverse to slow things down to a stop. It is easy to find applications of inclined planes everywhere: Ramps for wheelchairs, steps, a ski jump, car ramps, playground slide, boat ramps, etc. See this simulation gear, the wheel and axle, and the pulley are all kinds of wheels, with small alterations. A gear is a wheel with accurately machined teeth round its edge. Its purpose is to transmit rotary motion and force. Basic relationships for a gear are the number of teeth, the diameter, and the rotary velocity of gears. Gears being an important part of a machine have many applications within various industries. These industries include automotive industries, steel plants industry, paper industry, in mining and many more. They are used as conveyors, elevators, separators, cranes and lubrication The following figure shows the ends of two shafts A and B connected by 2 gears of 12 and 24 teeth respectively. The larger gear will make only one-half turn while the smaller makes a complete turn. That is, the ratio of speeds (velocity ratio) of the large to the smaller is as 1 to 2. The gear that is closer to the source of power is called the driver, and the gear that receives power from the driver is called the driven gear. The ratio between the rotation speed of the driven gear and the rotation speed of the driver is called the gear ratio. basic mechanism is the lever, a bar which rests, or pivots, on a fulcrum. A seesaw is a familiar example of a lever in which one weight balances the other. The hammer is another example of lever when it is used to pull a nail out of a piece of wood. have at least two basic purposes. One is to lift or move a load at one place on the lever by making an effort at another location of the bar. The second is to apply a force to an object by exerting the force elsewhere. Levers can be used to change the distance and power of All levers have three basic parts: the fulcrum, a force or effort, and a There are three types of levers as shown in the figure. The location of the fulcrum in the resistance (or weight) and the effort determine the Common examples of first-class levers include crowbars, scissors, pliers, tin snips and playground seesaws. Examples of second-class levers include nut crackers, wheel barrows, and certain types of bottle openers. The human bicep muscle is an example of a third class lever. A screw is a shaft with a thread or groove wrapped around it to form a helix. While turning, a screw converts a rotary motion into a forward or backward motion. By rotating the screw (applying a torque), the force is applied perpendicular to the groove, therefore translating a rotational force into a linear one. It is frequently used to fasten objects The wedge allows motion from objects such as hammers to be transferred into a breaking, cutting, or splitting motion. The force is perpendicular to the inclined surfaces, so it pushes two objects (or portions of a single object) apart. A wedge converts motion in one direction into a splitting motion that acts at right angles to the blade. Nearly all cutting machines use the wedge including knifes. A lifting machine may use a wedge to get under a load. and pulleys are an important part of most machines. Pulleys are gears without teeth and instead of running together directly they are made to drive one another by cords, ropes, cables, or belting of some kinds. As with gears, the velocities of pulleys are inversely proportional to their diameters. Examples of where pulleys can be used include flag poles, sailboats, blinds, and cranes. The following figure shows belt and pulleys. Pulleys can also be arranged as a block and tackle. are common today in the form of various tools . The same physical principles and mechanical application of simple machines used by ancient engineers to build pyramids are employed by modern engineers to construct various structures such as houses, roads, bridges, and
Infrared observations have uncovered a cool brown dwarf that’s only about 7 light-years away. The object is one of the closest stellar systems to the Sun and the coolest brown dwarf yet discovered. Astronomy is a science pursued at a distance. Most of the light we see from distant stars and galaxies takes thousands to millions of years to reach us. That makes our solar neighborhood a valuable place for detailed observations: the closest companions to the Sun are benchmarks, because they are the easiest stars to study in detail. While the census of the solar neighborhood has tallied more stellar citizens over time, most of the newly discovered neighbors have been relatively distant, usually at least 30 to 60 light-years away. But recently, an astronomer from Penn State discovered a solar neighbor about 7 light-years away, and it’s a "cool" result in more ways than one! Using data from NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) and Spitzer Space Telescope, Kevin Luhman recently discovered an object known as WISE J085510.83−071442.5. The object is special for quite a few reasons. First, it is right next door, in astronomical terms. At 7.2 light-years away (6.5 to 8 is the error range), this is likely the fourth closest stellar system ever detected, farther only than the Alpha Centauri triple system (4.2 light-years), Barnard’s star (5.9 light-years) and the brown dwarf binary WISE J104915.57−531906.1 (6.6 light-years). (It displaces Wolf 359, which lies 7.8 light-years away). Second, it’s moving fast. Using infrared images obtained by WISE and Spitzer, Luhman noticed the object was traveling extremely quickly across the sky in between images. Part of this motion is from parallax, the apparent back-and-forth change in position with respect to background objects. This motion is caused by Earth orbiting around the Sun: the closer a star is to the Sun, the larger its apparent shift in position as we look at it from different sides of our orbit. It’s the same effect you see if you hold your finger up at arm's length and blink your eyes one at a time: you will notice your finger appears to move back and forth as you blink each eye. If you move your finger closer to your face, that effect increases. WISE J0855−0714’s parallax allowed Luhman to infer that WISE J0855−0714 was close to the Sun. But the object’s parallax is small compared with its proper motion, which is its apparent motion across the sky from point A to point B over time. The object is traversing 8.1 arcseconds per year, the third largest proper motion of any object outside the solar system (second only to Barnard’s star and Kapteyn’s star). In comparison, most of the brightest stars have a proper motion of a few tenths of an arcsecond per year or less — for example, Rigel only moves 0.004 arcsecond per year. The other thing that makes WISE J0855−0714 "cool" is that it really is cold! Using images of the object taken in different filters, Luhman estimated its temperature to be about 250 kelvin, or about 10 degrees below zero in Fahrenheit. This makes WISE J0855−0714 not only the coldest neighbor to the Sun but also the coldest brown dwarf ever discovered. This combination of close, fast, and cold makes WISE J0855−0714 unique among all of the solar neighborhood members. As Luhman states in a press release, “It is very exciting to discover a new neighbor of our solar system that is so close. In addition, its extreme temperature should tell us a lot about the atmospheres of planets, which often have similarly cold temperatures.” The discovery of WISE J0855−0714 points out just how important large-scale surveys of the sky, such as WISE, really are. This cold brown dwarf was discovered relatively close to the plane of our Milky Way, which astronomers often avoid because "crowding" can occur — that is, there are so many stars along the galactic plane that it can be tough to tell one from the other, especially when they are moving. (Luhman actually had to use multiple filters to separate WISE J0855−0714 from the signals of two stationary background objects in order to study it.) But as Luhman has shown, this may be a fertile hunting ground for finding more close companions to the Sun. Reference: K. Luhman. "Discovery of a ~250 K Brown Dwarf at 2 pc from the Sun." Astrophysical Journal Letters, May 10, 2014.
Brazil's earliest national capitals - Salvador and Rio de Janeiro - were coastal cities. Although these sites were well suited to trade, they were vulnerable to maritime raids. In the late 19th century, Brazilian leaders resolved to move the capital city inland. Large-scale construction of a new site, however, did not begin until the 1950s. On 22 April 1960, the nearly complete capital city of Brasilia opened. The city's pioneer status in urban planning prompted UNESCO to name Brasilia a World Heritage Site in 1987. This natural-color satellite image of Brasilia taken during the summer dry season - with just 3 cm (1 in) of rain - displays earth tones characteristic of non-irrigated dormant vegetation. Buildings and roads appear off-white, gray, or pale tan. The city, whose overall design has been compared to a bird or an airplane, among other shapes, sits west of an artificial lake, Lago Paranoa. The branching lake sends its tendrils deep into the city, helping separate the downtown area (image center) from residential areas to the north and southeast. Northwest of the city lies Brasilia National Park, protecting a large expanse of cerrado, the tropical savanna ecosystem natural to the area. Image courtesy of NASA.
biological determinism, also called biologism or biodeterminism, the idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are determined at conception by hereditary factors passed from parent to offspring. Although all human traits ultimately are based in a material nature (e.g., memorizing a poem involves changing molecular configurations at synapses, where nerve cells interact), the term biological determinism has come to imply a rigid causation largely unaffected by environmental factors. Prior to the 20th century and the rediscovery of Austrian botanist Gregor Mendel’s work on heredity, a wide variety of factors were believed to influence hereditary traits. For example, environmental agents were thought to act directly on the mother’s or father’s germ cells (eggs or sperm, respectively) or indirectly on the fetus via the mother during pregnancy. After the rediscovery of Mendel’s work, theories of biological determinism became increasingly formulated in terms of the then new science of genetics. Thus, biological determinism became synonymous with genetic determinism, though some researchers later considered the two to be distinct. Early theories and applications In the 18th and 19th centuries, theories of biological determinism were based on vague, often highly controversial ideas about the nature of heredity. Since the concepts and tools were not available during that period to study heredity directly, biologists and anthropologists measured physical features of humans, trying to associate mental and personality traits with anatomical (and occasionally physiological) features, such as facial angle (angle of slope of the face from chin to forehead) or cranial index (ratio of lateral to vertical circumference of the head). Certain physical features, such as high cheekbones or a prominent eyebrow ridge, were often said to be indicative of criminal tendencies. With the growing acceptance of Mendelian genetics in the first half of the 20th century, most theories of biological determinism viewed undesirable traits as originating in defective genes. With the revolution in molecular genetics during the second half of the century, defective genes became identified with altered sequences of the molecule of heredity, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). For much of its history, biological determinism was applied to what were widely perceived to be negative traits. Examples included physical traits such as cleft palate, clubfoot, dwarfism, and gigantism as well as social and psychological conditions such as criminality, feeblemindedness, pauperism, shiftlessness, promiscuity, bipolar disorder, and hyperactivity. Whereas many researchers agreed that physical defects likely arise from genetic anomalies, the claim that all psychological disorders and socially unacceptable behaviours are inherited was controversial. That was partly due to the difficulty of obtaining rigorous data about the genetics of such traits. However, it was also due to an increasing knowledge of the abilities of various factors, such as chemicals in the environment, to interact with genetic elements. Teasing apart the genetic and environmental causes of psychological and behavioral conditions remains an exceptionally challenging task. The eugenics movement One of the most prominent movements to apply genetics to understanding social and personality traits was the eugenics movement, which originated in the late 19th century. Eugenics was coined in 1883 by British explorer and naturalist Francis Galton, who was influenced by the theory of natural selection developed by his cousin, Charles Darwin. Galton used the term to refer to “more suitable races,” or essentially those individuals who were well born. He argued for planned breeding among the “good” of the human population along with various methods to discourage or prevent breeding among defective individuals. It was the belief of eugenicists such as Galton, British statistician Karl Pearson, and American zoologist Charles B. Davenport that most social problems were due to the accumulation of genetic defects, which were producing an increasingly disabled, or “degenerate,” population. Eugenicists believed that society was deteriorating through the increased reproduction of the disabled, particularly the mentally disabled. Various forms of inherited mental disability were said to be the root cause of social problems as varied as crime, alcoholism, and pauperism (in all cases, it was claimed that low mental ability led to an inability to cope in a complex society, resulting in a turn to antisocial behaviours). Using IQ tests developed in the 1920s and ’30s, eugenicists proceeded to rank people and place them in categories based on quantitative scores; the categories ranged from normal to high-grade moron, idiot, and imbecile. Individuals with slightly below average IQ scores typically were ranked as genetically disabled, even though they were not actually disabled at all; many, rather, were disadvantaged. In the absence of genetic testing, little sound evidence could be provided in support of the notion that such cases were genetically determined. Sterilization laws were introduced in the 1920s in the United States and in the 1930s in Germany. More than half of U.S. states eventually adopted sterilization laws, which were aimed primarily at compulsory sterilization of those deemed to be genetically unfit in state and federal institutions, such as mental hospitals, asylums, and prisons. In the early 1970s it was revealed that thousands of people had been subjected to involuntary sterilization in the United States. Many more had experienced the same in Germany and other countries. One of the major consequences of widespread belief in biological determinism is the underlying assumption that if a trait or condition is genetic, it cannot be changed. However, the relationship between genotype (the actual genes an individual inherits) and phenotype (what traits are observable) is complex. For example, cystic fibrosis (CF) is a multifaceted disease that is present in about 1 in every 2,000 live births of individuals of European ancestry. The disease is recessive, meaning that in order for it to show up phenotypically, the individual must inherit the defective gene, known as CFTR, from both parents. More than 1,000 mutation sites have been identified in CFTR, and most have been related to different manifestations of the disease. However, individuals with the same genotype can show remarkably different phenotypes. Some will show early onset, others later onset; in some the kidney is most afflicted, whereas in others it is the lungs. In some individuals with the most common mutation the effects are severe, whereas in others they are mild to nonexistent. Although the reasons for those differences are not understood, their existence suggests that both genetic background and environmental factors (such as diet) play important roles. In other words, genes are not destiny, particularly when the genetic basis of a condition is unclear or circumstantial but also even in cases where the genetic basis of a disability can be well understood, such as in cystic fibrosis. With modern genomics (the science of understanding complex genetic interactions at the molecular and biochemical levels), unique opportunities have emerged concerning the treatment of genetically based disabilities, such as type I diabetes, cystic fibrosis, and sickle-cell anemia. Those opportunities have centred primarily on gene therapy, in which a functional gene is introduced into the genome to repair the defect, and pharmacological intervention, involving drugs that can carry out the normal biochemical function of the defective gene. Influence on disability Social attitudes about what constitutes a disability, and how economic and social resources are to be allocated to deal with disabilities, change over time. In hard economic times the disabled are often written off as “too expensive,” a trend often justified on the basis of genetic determinism (whether scientifically valid or not). Arguments for biological determinism have long been employed more to restrict than to expand human potential.
Water is the basis of life everywhere, but few things drive that fact home like visiting the arid western and northern parts of China, where grasslands are turning into desert, wells are emptying and rivers are running dry because of lack of water. Water availability per capita is among the lowest in the world. The dilemma facing the local governments of the region is that these arid areas hold most of China’s remaining coal resources, but mining and using that coal uses water. A lot of it. However, China’s coal companies want to develop massive coal mining and utilization complexes in these areas, known as coal bases, each of which can use more water than several million urban dwellers. Developing this water thirsty industry could endanger the water supply to the Yellow River, leave thousands of farmers unable to grow crops, and prevent these areas from developing modern, urbanized economies, as their water resources would be depleted virtually forever. Greenpeace’s research and field work has drawn attention to the major water impacts and risks of China’s planned coal expansion. You can experience some of the things that we have seen on the field by watching this video: There are already signs that China’s coal consumption is slowing down with rapid development of renewable energy and the demand for energy intensive products like concrete and steel saturating. The devastating local impacts of the coal industry show why it is urgent to move away from coal, in China and elsewhere. Background information on the video Yellow River’s three important tributaries under coal threat: In 2013, we investigated three tributaries of the Yellow River located in the Erdos City of Inner Mongolia and Yulin City of Shaanxi Province. This region is a fragile and important water resource region for the Yellow River, but regardless this region needs to supply water for a giant coal base expansion. In our field investigations, we have seen many old temples along the river course. These temples were built by local people to pray for water and harvest. But now, these temples are bearing witness of how the rivers are being destroyed. Coal industry destroys ground water: Ground water is an important water source for the rivers. In one of the tributaries, years of coal mining has destroyed the land, and result in the decline of ground water. Dozens of natural wells in this region went dry. These wells supply water for the river. As a result, there is less and less water supply for the river. Coal industry destroys the river bed: Since there is less water in the river bed, some coal plants are taking advantage of this and build the plant in the river bed. Meanwhile, in order to save costs, waste dust is directly left in the river bed. These activities narrowed the river bed, and destroyed the important water channel. Coal industry pollution: Water pollution is also one of the ways that the coal industry threatens the river. Take Jinjie Coal Industry Park in Yulin city as an example. This coal industry park is just next to one of the Yellow River main tributaries, with a distance of less than 5km. Colorful waste water from this industry park goes directly to the natural water course, and finally meets the river. Through testing, over 150 kinds of hazardous components including 2,4 – dichlorophenol, naphthalene, and chloroform were identified in the wastewater. Despite the water crisis, the coal expansion in this region is now still on fire. This will bring more pressure on the Yellow River tributaries, and endanger an important water supply for the Yellow River. It’s time that the Chinese government issues clear regulations and exercises strict enforcement on western coal expansion. April 25, 2013 (Yulin, Shaanxi) - A dry riverbed outside the Jinjie Industrial Park. Large-scale industrial development and the resulting over-extraction of groundwater have caused the environment to deteriorate. Surface desertification is very obvious. ©Greenpeace / Qiu Bo Deng Ping is a Climate & Energy Campaigner at Greenpeace China.
"Chief Little Crow" With pen and pencil on the frontier in 1851; the diary and sketches of Frank Blackwell Mayer, by Francis Blackwell Mayer (Saint Paul, 1932). Bibliographic Information \| Page Image Viewer (Viewer linked to image 130) The Indians at the Time of Contact, 1600-1850 Native American cultures had occupied the Upper Midwest for centuries before whites arrived in the region. The invading whites were properly impressed by the thousands of burial mounds then to be found in the southern portions of the region, left behind by the extinct Hopewellian and Mississippian cultures. The Indians encountered by the whites at the time of contact depended upon fishing and hunting for a livelihood and spoke the Iroquois, Algonquin and Siouan languages. The European presence to the east had by then transformed Indian life. Indians became dependent upon guns and other western goods (and, often, got western diseases in the bargain). They warred with each other for primacy in their trade with the Europeans. Huron dominance of the Upper Great Lakes and eastern trade, and the Hurons themselves, were destroyed by the Iroquois in the mid-seventeenth century. The Sioux had been forced to move west by the Chippewa. Indians formed alliances with one and then another colonial power as power shifted from one to another. Charles Langlade, a half-white Indian leader known as the father of Wisconsin, helped the French defeat Braddock and the British; then fought with Burgoyne and the British against the Americans, and then lived out the balance of his life as an American. Remnant tribes huddled together. Stockbridge Indians, moving west from Massachusetts, lived with the Oneidas in central New York, before moving (with some Oneidas) to Green Bay, where they negotiated with resident Winnebago and Menominee Indians to win the right to establish a settlement. There was talk of setting aside part of what became the Northwest Territory as an Indian reserve or even as a state with all the perquisites of other states. Such talk ceased as white settlement approached the area. In each of the Upper Midwest states, whites assumed title to one stretch of Indian land after another, in breathtakingly short order, as that land became accessible to them. The white advance often culminated in a final desperate stand on the part of the Indians, as seen on a large scale in the uprising led by Pontiac (1763-66) and again in that led by Tecumseh (1811-13), and on a lesser scale in the Black Hawk War (1832) in Wisconsin and the Sioux Uprising (1862) in Minnesota. Often friends among the whites, in applying one or another "white" remedy to the Indian "problem," were as destructive to Indian ways of life as were their avowed enemies. The defeated Indians were finally exiled from territory coveted by the whites, to reservations within the Upper Midwest states or to remote western areas devoid of white settlers. Once the wars and resettlements were over, significant numbers of Indians remained in each of the three states, on the reservations and in the cities. In fact, in the recent past their numbers have increased dramatically. The white debt to the Indians in the exploration and settlement of the region is indirectly evidenced in the abundance of Indian place names for every feature of the landscape. The Land \| The Indians \| The French \| The British \| The Northwest and the Ordinances The Yankee Empire \| The Pineries and the Mines \| American But More So
P.E. Central Lesson Plan: Getting To Know You Purpose of Activity:To help teachers get to know students names quickly. (Also a good way to assess throwing skills) Suggested Grade Level:K-5 Materials Needed:Bean bags or ball that can be thrown and caught; Lesson Plan:Description of Idea Have students form a circle either in a standing or by sitting position. (For the younger students you may want to have them sit down so they can roll a ball to each other). Give one student an object they can throw and catch (i.e., beanbag or yarnball). Have the student with the object state there first name and then they throw the object to a person of their choice. As the next person throws they say their name so everyone can hear it. After going through this a few times have the entire group say the name of the person that is catching the object. This should allow the teacher (and the other students) a chance to get to know some of the students names. It should also allow teacher to see the catching and throwing skills of the students. Feel free to have a check list ready to record their throwing and catching skills. 1. Have the students say their name and the previous students names. Then maybe on the second time around the previous two names. 2. For the older students, they could throw and catch an object that may be a little harder to manipulate (i.e., a nerf football, or a basketball). Author:Darci Starr. Posted on PEC: 10/7/2001. This lesson plan was provided courtesy of P.E. Central (www.pecentral.org). Products for This Lesson:
Garnet is a more complex orthosilicate (than olivine, for example) in which the SiO4 tetrahedra are still independent. Garnets have the general chemical formula A3B2Si3O12, where A is a divalent cation (Fe2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn2+) and B is a trivalent cation (Fe3+, Al3+, Cr3+). The end-members pyrope, almandine, and spessartine form one solid solution series, while the end-members grossular, andradite and uvarovite form another. Although valued as a gem stone, garnet is generally of low monetary value because of its relatively common occurrence. Garnet is commonly found in highly metamorphosed rocks and in some igneous rocks. They form under the same high temperatures and / or pressures that form those types of rocks. Garnets can be used by geologists to gauge the temperature and pressure under which a particular garnet-bearing rock formed. Chemical composition - Fe3Al2Si3O12 (almandine) Other specimens - Click the thumbnails to enlarge
Children practice adding and subtracting hundredths and thousandths less than 10 without regrouping with this worksheet. Students know the significance of aligning the decimal points and using zeros as placeholders while adding or subtracting decimals. They do not need to regroup to get the answer. In this worksheet, numbers are laid one on top of another (vertical format). This encourages students to use the inherent place value structure to solve the problems.
What is File Transfer Protocol (FTP)? FTP means "File Transfer Protocol" and refers to a group of rules that govern how computers transfer files from one system to another over the internet. Businesses use FTP to send files between computers, while websites use FTP for the uploading and downloading of files from their website's servers. FTP works by opening two connections that link the computers trying to communicate with each other. One connection is designated for the commands and replies that get sent between the two clients, and the other channel handles the transfer of data. During an FTP transmission, there are four commands used by the computers, servers, or proxy servers that are communicating. These are “send,” “get,” “change directory,” and “transfer.” While transferring files, FTP uses three different modes: block, stream, and compressed. The stream mode enables FTP to manage information in a string of data without any boundaries between them. The block mode separates the data into blocks, and in the compress mode, FTP uses an algorithm called the Lempel-Ziv to compress the data. What is FTP Useful For? One of the main reasons why modern businesses and individuals need FTP is its ability to perform large file size transfers. When sending a relatively small file, like a Word document, most methods will do, but with FTP, you can send hundreds of gigabytes at once and still get a smooth transmission. The ability to send larger amounts of data, in turn, improves workflow. Because FTP allows you to send multiple files at once, you can select several and then send them all at the same time. Without FTP services, you may have to send them one by one, when you could be accomplishing other work. For example, if you have to transfer a large collection of important documents from headquarters to a satellite office but have a meeting to attend in five minutes, you can use FTP to send them all at once. Even if it takes 15 minutes for the transfer to complete, FTP can handle it, freeing you up to attend the meeting. How Many Types of FTP Are There? While FTP can be used to accomplish several kinds of tasks, there are three primary categories of FTPs. FTP Plain refers to normal FTP without encryption. By default, it uses port 21, and it is supported by the majority of web browsers. FTPS refers to FTP Secure or FTP secure sockets layer (SSL) because this kind of FTP server uses SSL encryption, which is slightly different than traditional FTP. The primary difference is the security that comes with FTPS, which was the first type of encrypted FTP invented. The “E” in FTPES means “explicit,” making the acronym stand for File Transfer Protocol over explicit transport layer security (TLS)/SSL. This type of FTP begins like regular FTP, using port 21, but then special commands upgrade it to a TLS/SSL-encrypted transmission. Because it tends to work well with firewalls, some prefer to use FTPES over FTPS. How to Use FTP The three most common ways of using FTP include: - Via a web browser: With a web browser, you do not need any special software or a client to download files from servers that provide for FTP sites. - A general user interface (GUI) FTP client: These third-party applications enable users to connect and then send files over FTP. - Command-line FTP: Major operating systems come equipped with FTP client capabilities as a command line. What is an FTP Port? An FTP port is a communication endpoint and allows data transfer between a computer and a server. A computer's operating system only uses a specific number of ports, which are necessary for software to connect through a network. An FTP port is required for the client and server to quickly exchange files. FTP vs. SFTP FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol, while SFTP refers to Secure Shell (SSH) File Transfer Protocol. This gives you file transfers that are secured via SSH, which provides full access to shell accounts. A shell account is one that sits on a remote server. FTP is different from SFTP in that it does not give users a secure channel for transferring files. Also, FTP makes use of two channels for transferring data, but SFTP only uses a single channel. The inbound connections that each protocol uses are different as well. FTP defaults to port 21, but SFTP allows inbound communication on port 22. The manner in which data is transferred is also significantly different. SFTP uses a tunneling method to transfer data. With the benefit of additional security, FTP, which is less secure, uses direct transfer. FTP vs. HTTP Even though Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and FTP are similar in that they are application-layer protocols that enable you to send files between systems, there are some key differences. HTTP can support multiple sessions at the same time because it is a stateless protocol. This means it does not save the data used in a session to employ it in the next one. FTP, on the other hand, is stateful, which means it collects data about the client and uses it in the next request the client makes. Because FTP performs this function, it is limited in the number of sessions it can support simultaneously. Regardless of the bandwidth of a network, HTTP has the potential to be a much more efficient method of data transmission. Another key difference is that with FTP, there needs to be client authentication before information is transferred. With HTTP, no client authentication is needed. HTTP uses a well-known, common port, making it easy for firewalls to work with. In some cases, FTP can be more difficult for a firewall to manage. FTP vs. MFT In some ways, managed file transfer (MFT) is the new kid on the block when compared to FTP. FTP, while effective in many settings, was not designed to accommodate the complex threat landscape people are forced to deal with today. In fact, there has even been an official warning issued by the FBI regarding the potential pitfalls of using FTP—even that which is secured with SSL and SSH. As the name suggests, managed file transfer comes with management and various compliance and security features. It is important for these to be in place, not just to make data transfer safer but to appease the authorities that require secure data transfer, particularly in companies that handle sensitive data such as patient medical records. Normal FTP leaves data transfers open to an eavesdropping attack or a banker Trojan, which targets financial institutions. Even though you could manually program the security and management features necessary for safer FTP transmissions, MFT saves you the time and energy. If, for example, two people were using the Mist Browser to configure dapps on Ethereum, a hacker could intercept their communications before they reached the FTP port. The hacker could then sell what was intercepted to a competitor, who could use it to make a similar dapp and release it sooner, thus gaining a strategic advantage. How To Change FTP Port Numbers Application servers are assigned default port numbers, but if you want to change them, there are two ways you can do so: - Go to your FTP application's settings page, and change the port number from there. - Add the port number to the FTP server address. To do this, add a colon plus the new port number to the end of the FTP server address—before "/" if there is one. For example: ftp:/mydomain.com:####/—where each “#” is a digit. Security Challenges of FTP FTP was not designed to provide a secure tunnel through which information could travel. Hence, there is no encryption. If a hacker is able to intercept an FTP transmission, they would not have to muddle through encryption to view or make changes to the data usable. Even if you use FTP cloud storage, if the service provider has their system compromised, the data could be intercepted and exploited. Therefore, data transmitted through FTP is a relatively slow-moving target for spoofing, sniffing, brute force, and other kinds of attacks. Through simple port scanning, a hacker could check an FTP transmission and attempt to exploit its vulnerabilities. One of the primary vulnerabilities of FTP is its use of clear-text passwords, which are passwords that do not undergo an encryption process. In other words, “Jerry1992” looks exactly like “Jerry1992.” In more secure protocols, an algorithm is used to mask the actual password. Therefore, “Jerry1992” may end up looking like “dj18387saksng8937d9d8d7s6a8d89.” FTP does not secure passwords like this, making them easier to figure out by bad actors. How Fortinet Can Help? FTP servers are frequently positioned within a demilitarized zone (DMZ). A DMZ is a network set up on the perimeter of an organization’s local-area network (LAN) to protect it from potentially dangerous traffic. One of the best ways to protect FTP transmissions is by using FortiGate, the Fortinet next-generation firewall (NGFW). There are different ways of using FortiGate to safeguard your FTP-based communications. You could use a single NGFW. With one NGFW in place, it can control and monitor traffic, and only approved data packets are allowed to enter the DMZ. You can also use a dual firewall, which offers more safety than a single NGFW solution. With a dual firewall setup, you deploy two firewalls, one on either side of the DMZ. The first NGFW monitors and controls traffic attempting to enter the network from outside the DMZ. The second firewall provides a shield between the DMZ and your organization’s internal network. An attacker would have to find a way to compromise two NGFWs to gain access to your internal network. FortiGate gives you the ability to only grant specific users access to a web server that the DMZ protects. With this solution in place, you can handpick who is allowed to see and work with sensitive information. This provides sensitive data, even that which is sent using FTP, with an enhanced layer of security that would otherwise be unachievable. Do you wish to protect your network, network traffic, and network-connected assets from cyber-attacks, unwanted access, and data loss? Check out our available network security services
PAKISTAN is known for its biodiversity, including endemic wildlife species, and is home to spectacular wild animals and birds. Unfortunately, many exotic animals are on the brink of extinction. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Pakistani Ministry of Climate Change have compiled a list of critically endangered species. More than 50 species on the list are on the verge of extinction. These include snow leopards, bengal horned markhors, Marco Polo sheep, Ladakh urial, musk deer, brown bear, woolly squirrel, Indus river dolphin, tigers, cheetahs, golden mahaseer, green sea turtles, beaked vultures long, yellow-eyed doves, voles, caracals and mountain gorillas. Climate change, anthropogenic activities such as habitat fragmentation, poaching, hunting, killing, and anti-environmental practices lead to extinction. The population in general must be aware of the importance of wildlife conservation. The extinction of animals must be treated seriously. If these endangered species continue to disappear at the current rate, Pakistan will lose the magnificence of its landscape. Posted in Alba, September 3, 2022
Tips & Tricks in the IR Market Aren't you amazed at how a human eye works? These two small spheres in your head manage to do effortlessly what even the biggest, most sophisticated cameras cannot do. They can aim your view and focus to get a sharp image (not an easy task as the signals from both eyes need to be combined), they can adjust to changing light intensities, detect even the smallest changes in color and shape, and your brain can process this information on the fly. You often take your ability to see for granted, but if you think about it for a while, it is very extraordinary. Infrared temperature sensors or IR Sensors function in a similar way: they detect infrared radiation and convert it into a signal to process. Only infrared temperature sensors don't pick up the visible light. The invisible light is heat. The analogy between eyes and non-contact temperature sensors can be extended a little further to provide you with some tips and tricks that will help you to get a better and more accurate temperature measurement: 1) Do you ever read a newspaper from 6 meters? It would be possible if you are an eagle, or if you have a set of binoculars. It's much easier to read the paper from a smaller distance. The same holds for measuring temperatures of objects with a sensor: it is possible to do it from a large distance, but it is better and easier if you can get the sensor close to the object. Note that it is not always possible to get close to the object, for instance, if there are mechanical obstructions or the target is too hot. 2) Have you ever wondered what a mirror looks like? If you look “into a mirror,” you don't really see the mirror, you see a reflection of yourself. Nobody knows what a mirror surface really looks like, it is invisible! This also holds for infrared radiation: If your target is mirror-like surface (like metal), it reflects heat from the surroundings, without emitting heat itself. So, if you think you measure the temperature of a mirror, you measure the temperature of the surrounding objects. The ability of a surface to reflect radiation is called emissivity, and you always need to consider the emissivity when installing an infrared sensor. 3) Sometimes you get tired. So tired you don't see clearly anymore. Some sensor types also get tired, but these are only the sensors that have a relatively high energy consumption. Sensors that require input power can get tired, and in the electronic world, this is called drift. If sensors drift, they don't see clearly anymore and need a good night sleep – in other words they need to get calibrated again. Unpowered sensors do not drift and don't require regular calibration. You will get reliable and stable measurements for many years and therefore these are the preferred sensor type for many applications. 4) Whether it's out of joy, or out of sadness if you start to cry your view is blurred. Your eyes and brains are not able to create a clear image. This is because the tears in your eyes affect the light that enters the lens (therefore some people start crying automatically if they see something truly hideous). It is difficult to see clearly if a fly decides to reside on your lens, as the fly completely blocks your view. It is unlikely for an infrared sensor to cry, but water can cover the lens of the sensor (often in the form of condensing). A fly can block the sensor lens, but it's more likely that it will be dust or dirt that blocks the view. Either way, for reliable temperature measurements it is important to keep the lens dry and clean for a ‘clear view'. You see how the analogy between a human eye and an infrared sensor holds in many cases. Off course there are differences, but the similarities can help you when you start working with an infrared temperature sensor.
New research from Cambridge provides evidence that a man's ability to run long distances is associated with his ultimate reproductive capacity. Researchers hypothesize that ancient women considered a man's ability to cover long distances easily a trait which showed that they had a lot to offer as a mate. If a man could run quickly and effortlessly, this was a sign that they were in good health and could act as a sufficient provider for a potential family. Human beings are one of the only animals that are capable of traversing long distances in a single session, which is one of our primary evolutionary advantages. Unlike animals such as cheetahs or lions which rely on sprinting and overpowering their prey, ancient humans relied heavily upon exhausting their prey. Chasing them at a steady and consistent pace until they just had no more energy to escape, a point at which ancient humans used their tools to finish off their prey and return to their communities. Furthermore, the study also provides evidence that men's hands are an important indicator of their promise as a mate. Being a good distance runner is one of the most critical characteristics of early man's ability to hunt and feed his family. Intelligence also plays a role and is a sought-after trait in addition to overall physical fitness. Smarter men were more able to outwit and outlast their prey, leading them to be more effective as fathers and providers. In this sense, it is likely that sport has played a significant role in human culture from the beginning, and it is expected that foot-races were among the earliest form of competition among males. There is still some debate regarding how adult males in ancient tribes fulfilled the needs and obligations of their kin. Some argue that men provided primarily for their families, while others say that men worked together to meet the needs of the entire tribe. It is likely that a combination of these two factors has long been at play in human culture. Along with physical fitness and intelligence, a male's willingness to give and share is also considered an essential aspect of desirability, as men willing to offer that which they have to their potential partner means that they will likely provide those same benefits to the offspring. Prenatal Testosterone Exposure Associated with Increased Evolutionary Viability The body of research today suggests that males that are exposed to high levels of Testosterone as they develop in the womb are more likely to have healthier hearts, stronger libidos, and more viable sperm than their counterparts. Men with more Testosterone are also stronger, more confident, and more open to risk than their peers, which provides a further evolutionary advantage. Testosterone and Hand Structure Interestingly enough, one of the most reliable indicators of Prenatal Testosterone Exposure is the length of one's fingers. In particular, the length of the second and fourth fingers in comparison to one another is in direct correlation to the level of Testosterone received by the male in the womb. Men that were exposed to higher levels of Testosterone in the womb have longer ring fingers as compared to their index fingers. This measurement is often used by fertility specialists as a non-invasive means to gauge the odds and potential rate of successful reproduction in men. This measurement is referred to as the 2D:4D Ratio. 2D:4D Ratio Associated with Sexual Viability and Long-Distance Running Capacity In this particular study, researchers collected data from 542 participants, all of which ran a half-marathon after their digit ratio was recorded. Out of these participants, 103 of those selected were female, and 542 were male. Their hands were assessed by capturing an image via photocopy. To gauge how prenatal Testosterone affected long-distance running performance, the researchers compared those in the top tenth of 2D:4D ratio to those in the bottom tenth of 2D:4D ratio. The results were pronounced: Men with smaller proportions were much slower than their counterparts. Those with the lowest ratios took 24:33 more time to complete the half-marathon on-average as compared to those with the largest ratios. In fact, this comparison was significant among both sexes, but the difference among women was much less extreme, indicating that the ability to run long distances was a sex-characteristic that evolved specifically among males. What Does this Testosterone Research Mean? By showing how Testosterone Exposure benefits men throughout their lives, and specifically in the womb, it demonstrates the importance of prenatal care and how exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and other factors which suppress healthy hormone production during pregnancy can have long-lasting effects upon the child. This study is also one of many which shine a light on the history of human sexual selection, and what traits are ingrained in the human brain as attractive to the opposite sex. Contact Us Today Word Count: 819
The heterogeneity of ASD poses both challenges and opportunities to researchers: challenges, because there are likely to be many different causal factors and trajectories for ASD subtypes, and opportunities, because recognition of the variety of ASD phenotypes can lead to more appropriate diagnosis, more precisely targeted treatments and supports, and can increase public awareness about the diversity inherent in ASD. We know that not all cases of ASD are the same. Researchers have learned that there are many factors that vary amongst the symptoms and the severity of the symptoms associated with ASDs. Other factors such as the age-of-onset, as well as the strengths and weaknesses that individuals with an ASD possess, also vary a great deal. ASD-CARC researchers believe that by identifying and studying these variable characteristics, also called “profiling”, we will be able to classify distinct subgroups of ASDs – subgroups that will have similar etiologies and respond to the same therapies or have the same support needs. By studying Autism Profiles, we hope to identify different subgroups of ASD. These subgroups will provide clues that will help us understand some of the very earliest signs of developmental differences or anomalies. We believe that the distinctive subgroups of ASDs may respond differently to a variety of treatments (e.g., dietary, ABA, educational strategies). Very careful clinical assessments will hopefully lead to our separating families into different subgroups based on subtle differences in the behaviour/symptoms and/or physical features of the affected individuals (i.e. through the creation of Autism Profiles). It is important to learn whether genetic or environmental differences exist that could account for subgroups of ASDs, and the different responses to the variety of treatments and supports used with individuals with an ASD. Since some characteristics are familial, rather than specific to an ASD, we encourage all family members to take part in all of our studies. This includes the individuals with ASD, parents and typically developing siblings or other family members. In terms of physical features, researchers have found that abnormalities of ears are common in autism, but we know that not all children with autism have abnormal ears. If we study a subgroup of children with these ear anomalies, will these children have other characteristics in common that, together, might constitute a clinical subgroup or "Autism Profile"? Studying groups of children with ASD who share physical or behavioural features is more likely to give us a clearer picture of ASD "subgroups" than if we combine our findings on all children with ASD. In order to identify physical differences that are not evident to the naked eye, we are using 3D-facial imaging to study the faces of individuals with ASDs and their family members. These cameras are located at some of our sites, as well as within the Mobile Labs. We have identified some differences in the faces of individuals with ASDs that are not detectable except through this technology and believe that this will lead us to better understanding early developmental differences that occur in the formation of the brain and facial features of persons with ASDs and related disorders. It is also true that there are marked differences in the behavioural or neurophysiological characteristics in children and adults with ASDs. One subgroup of children may have, for example, gastrointestinal problems or sleep disorders. Ultimately, we want to compare each "subgroup" (defined on behavioural or physical features) using genetic studies, to determine whether there is a common clinical/behavioural profile associated with each set of genetic differences ("genotype") or environmental exposures. Some of the behavioural characteristics we are interested in measuring in children with ASD are those being assessed through our on-line questionnaire studies (sleep problems, gastrointestinal and diet problems). All families are encouraged to participate in these on-line studies! \|SITE MAP STUDIES\|\| \|\|Q–GLO LOOKING FOR SOMETHING?\|
What Do Dentists Do? Dentists: Doctors of Oral Health Most Americans today enjoy excellent oral health and are keeping their natural teeth throughout their lives. But this is not the case for everyone. Cavities are still the most prevalent chronic disease of childhood and millions of Americans did not see a dentist in the past year, even though regular dental examinations and good oral hygiene can prevent most dental disease. Too many people mistakenly believe that they need to see a dentist only if they are in pain or think something is wrong, but they’re missing the bigger picture. A dental visit means being examined by a doctor of oral health capable of diagnosing and treating conditions that can range from routine to extremely complex. The American Dental Association believes that a better understanding of the intensive academic and clinical education that dentists undergo, their role in delivering oral health care and, most important, the degree to which dental disease is almost entirely preventable is essential to ensuring that more Americans enjoy the lifelong benefits of good oral health. The Dentist’s Role Dentists are doctors who specialize in oral health. Their responsibilities include: - Diagnosing oral diseases - Creating Treatment Plans to maintain or restore the oral health of their patients. - Interpreting x-rays and diagnostic tests - Ensuring the safe administration of anesthetics - Monitoring growth and development of the teeth and jaws - Performing surgical procedures on the teeth, bone and soft tissues of the oral cavity. - Managing oral trauma and other emergency situations A Team Approach The team approach to dentistry promotes continuity of care that is comprehensive, convenient, cost effective and efficient. Members of the team include dental assistants, lab technicians and dental hygienists. Leading the team is the dentist, a doctor specializing in oral health who has earned either a Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) degree or a Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) degree, which are essentially the same. Dentists’ oversight of the clinical team is critical to ensuring safe and effective oral care. Education and Clinical Training The level of education and clinical training required to earn a dental degree, and the high academic standards of dental schools, are on par with those of medical schools, and are essential to preparing dentists for the safe and effective practice of modern oral health care. Most dental students have earned Bachelor of Science Degrees or the equivalent, and all have passed rigorous admissions examinations. The curricula during the first two years of dental and medical schools are essentially the same – students must complete such biomedical science courses as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, microbiology, immunology and pathology. During the second two years, dental students’ coursework focuses on clinical practice – diagnosing and treating oral diseases. After earning their undergraduate and dental degrees (eight years for most) many dentists continue their education and training to achieve certification in one of nine recognized dental specialties. Upon completing their training, dentists must pass both a rigorous national written examination and a state or regional clinical licensing exam in order to practice. As a condition of licensure, they must meet continuing education requirements for the remainder to their careers, to keep them up-to-date on the latest scientific and clinical developments. As doctors of oral health, dentists must be able to diagnose and treat a range of conditions and know how to deal with complications – some of which are potentially life-threatening. More than Just Teeth and Gums Dentists’ areas of care include not only their patients’ teeth and gums but also the muscles of the head, neck and jaw, the tongue, salivary glands, and the nervous system of the head and neck. During a comprehensive exam, dentists examine the teeth and gums, but they also look for lumps, swellings, discolorations, ulcerations – any abnormality. When appropriate, they perform procedures such as biopsies, diagnostic tests for chronic or infectious diseases, salivary gland function, and screening tests for oral cancer. In addition, dentists can spot early warning signs in the mouth that may indicate disease elsewhere in the body. Dentists’ training also enables them to recognize situations that warrant referring patients for care by dental specialists or physicians. Why Oral Health Matters Numerous recent scientific studies indicate associations between oral health and a variety of general health conditions – including diabetes and heart disease. In response, the World Health Organization has integrated oral health into its chronic disease prevention efforts “as the risks to health are linked” The American Dental Association recommends that dental visits begin no later than a child’s first birthday to establish a “dental home”. Dentists can provide guidance to children and parents, deliver preventive oral health services, and diagnose and treat dental disease in its earliest stages. This ongoing dental care will help b oth children and adults maintain optimal oral health throughout their lifetimes. Together, we can work to improve America's oral health and give all of us something to smile about. Years of Specialty Training Beyond a Four-Year Dental Degree - Pediatric Dentistry - Oral health care needs of infants and children through adolescence – Schooling lasts 25 months after dental school - Endodontics - Health of dental pulp, the soft core of teeth, specializes in performing root canals – Schooling lasts 26 months after dental school - Periodontics – Treats diseases of the gum tissue and bone supporting the teeth – Schooling lasts 35 months after dental school - Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics – Correcting dental and facial irregularities – Schooling lasts 30 months after dental school - Prosthodontics – Restoring natural teeth or replacing missing teeth or oral structures with artificial devices, such as dentures – Schooling lasts 32 months after dental school - Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery – Surgical Treatment of disease and injuries of the mouth – Schooling lasts 54 months to 72 months after dental school - Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology – Diseases of the mouth, teeth and surrounding regions – Schooling lasts 37 months after dental school - Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology – X-rays and other forms of imaging used for diagnosis and management of oral diseases and disorders – Schooling lasts 30 months after dental school - Dental Public Health – Preventing dental disease through organized community efforts – Schooling lasts 15 months after dental school
Microplastics In human blood: A study by researchers from The Netherlands found the presence of Microplastics in human blood. - Microplastics are tiny bits of various types of plastic found in the environment. - The name is used to differentiate them from “macroplastics” such as bottles and bags made of plastic. - There is no universal agreement on the size that fits this bill — the U.S. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and the European Chemical Agency define microplastic as less than 5mm in length. - However, for the purposes of this study, since the authors were interested in measuring the quantities of plastic that can cross the membranes and diffuse into the body via the blood stream, the authors have an upper limit on the size of the particles as 0.0007 millimetre. - The study looked at the most commonly used plastic polymers. - These were polyethylene tetraphthalate (PET), polyethylene (used in making plastic carry bags), polymers of styrene (used in food packaging), poly (methyl methylacrylate) and poly propylene. They found a presence of the first four types.
Access to Accelerometers The Piezoelectric Effect The Piezo Effect The piezo effect was discovered in the year 1880 by the brothers Jacques and Pierre Curie. During experiments with Tourmaline crystals they found that electrical charges appeared on the surface when the crystal was mechanically deformed. The quantity of the electrical charge was exactly proportional to the load applied. When a piezoelectric material is mechanically deformed the electric charges contained within the elementary cells get displaced and form an electrical field over the entire body. The so produced charge can be collected on the respective surfaces of the piezoelectric body. This is called the direct piezo effect. The piezo effect is also invertible. If we apply a voltage across the same surfaces, the piezoelectric body will deform itself in a similar way. This phenomenon is called the inverse (or converse) piezo effect. Piezoelectric materials are extremely sensitive to mechanical deformation. The relation between charge output and input force is strictly linear (the amount of charge follows exactly the force). The charge is produced due to the deformation of the piezo however this deformation is extremely small. Most of the piezo materials are quite rigid, in many cases comparable to a material like aluminum. If we talk about piezoelectric crystals we normally mean a single crystal. I.e. a body made from only one continuous crystal. Probably the most famous piezoelectric crystal is the quartz. Quartz can be found in the nature but for technical applications it is normally man-made. Chemically speaking the quartz is made of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O). The arrangement of silicon and oxygen is in the form of a so called tetrahedron like shown in the picture. The oxygen atoms are forming a tetrahedron around each silicon atom meaning that each silicon is surrounded by four oxygens. Silicon - oxygen tetrahedron (the size of the atoms is not to scale) The structure of a quartz crystal is highly complex. The picture shows an impression of how it would look inside a quartz when we could visualize the Si-O tetrahedrons. However we don't need to be afraid of this complexity. Instead we are going back to the basic and simple tetrahedron. Structure of quartz built up with silicon - oxygen tetrahedrons The silicon and oxygens carry an electric charge. The oxygens are negatively and the silicon is positively charged. In the illustration the respective charges are shown in blue (-) and red (+). When such a tetrahedron element is deformed mechanically the positive charge of the silicon is shifted downwards and so the tetrahedron will become positively at the bottom and more negatively at the top. ( hover with the mouse pointer over the picture to apply a vertical load.) This picture shows a simplified model of the quartz structure. Every dot repesents a tetrahedron which are arranged in hexagons. In reality, as we have seen, the situation is far more complex. Although the real orientation of the tetrahedrons is somewhat different all of them will be affected with their central Si atom pushed downwards when a vertical load is applied. The Si-O units are producing an electric charge in the same direction which means that as a result a net charge appears at the top and bottom surface of the body. Simplified model of a quarz structure showing the charge distribution. Blue (-) red (+). Note that the pink colour is due to blue and red overlapping Change of the net electric dipole moment by mechanical deformation Another group of piezoelectric materials are the piezo ceramics. All the piezo ceramics are man-made. One of the world’s most widely used piezoelectric ceramic material is lead zirconate titanate or PZT. PZT is a mixture of lead zirconate and lead titanate. The material is not a single crystal but is a conglomerate of little crystals or crystallits. The base unit of such a crystallite is a cube built with lead (Pb) atoms in the corners and oxygen (O) atoms in the center of each face. Inside this structure we find a smaller atom either titanium (Ti) or zirconium (Zr). Over the temperature range this structure can take two slightly different states. Above a certain temperature, called Curie-temperature, the crystal structure is a simple cube. It is completely symmetric and is not piezoelectric. Ti ⁴⁺ or Zr ⁴⁺ Above the Curie point: Cubic structure with symmetric arrangement of positive and negative charges. Not piezo electric. However, when the crystal is cooled down below the Curie-temperature the crystal cube is stretched a bit in one direction and the Ti or Zr atom is squeezed out of the center. This happens by itself and is called spontaneous polarization. Now we recognize a similar structure as we had on the quartz. In fact the Ti or Zr atom has a strong positive charge while the oxygens are negatively charged and we find the same mechanism that makes the material piezo electric. The polarization can happen in the direction of any face of the cube so there are 6 possible directions. Below the Curie point: Polarized structure with the central positive atom shifted up, creating an asymmetric distribution of the positive and negative charges. Shows piezo electricity. Poling of Piezo Ceramic A piezo ceramic is a conglomerate of crystallites which stick together due to a kind of baking process called sintering. During the cooling the spontaneous polarization occurs and adjoining elements align themselves forming domains with parallel orientation. The alignment provides an individual but uniform polarization to each domain. The direction of polarization in the different domains is completely random so the ceramic element has no overall polarization. However there is a possibility to align the domains in a ceramic element. By heating it close to the Curie temperature and exposing it to a strong electric field the polarization of the domains are aligned and “freeze up” when the electric field is removed. To create an electric field we need to place electrodes on opposite surfaces and apply a high voltage. The negative voltage or electric charge on the top will attract the positively chreged Zr and Ti atoms and pull them upwards which aligns the individual domains. This treatment called poling. Random orientation of different Weiss domains Polarization in a strong DC electric field When the electric field is removed most of the polarizations are locked into a configuration of near alignment. However the alignment will not be perfectly straight because each domain has distinctly allowed directions. The element now has a permanent or remnant polarization and is piezoelectric. We can now understand that heating of a piezo element above the Curie temperature will destroy the alignment of the polarization and thereby the integral piezo effect of the element. Remnant polarization after removal of the electric field
Sleep deprivation, resulting in sleepiness, is common in teenagers. There is growing evidence that insufficient sleep significantly and negatively affects learning, emotion, and behavior. This sleep loss can be due to physiological changes, undiagnosed sleep disorders, poor sleep hygiene, or societal demands. Adolescents require 9 hours sleep on average, yet almost 50% get less than 8 hours. Adolescence is a vulnerable stage in development during which individuals need to attain social competence and acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to become self-sufficient members of society. For adolescents who do not get enough sleep, daytime sleepiness increases and performance decreases. For instance, grades may drop, (in an Ontario survey of 3200 adolescent students, 24% of the students reported that their grades had dropped because of “sleepiness”)1, there may be an increase in tardiness and sleepiness at school and work, and social activities may be affected. While there are many causes for disturbed sleep, the following problems are the most common for adolescents. This guide is intended to help identify those who may require help. 1. Normal Physiological Change Delayed Sleep Phase – There is a common and normal change in circadian rhythms (sleep/wake cycle) in adolescents that may delay their sleep onset time by as much as 2 hours. This delayed sleep onset, in conjunction with early wake times required by society, such as school start times or work schedules, results in sleep times that are less than adequate. The survey of adolescent students showed that, for 60-70%, the sleepiest time of day was between 8 and 10 A.M. Adolescents with a delayed sleep phase typically stay up late at night and are difficult to awaken in the morning. Individuals may attempt to make up for lost sleep by sleeping in on weekends, however, this behavior will result in later bedtimes on the next night, which reinforces the underlying phase delay. 2. Sleep Disorders The following medical and sleep disorders are very often unrecognized in adolescents and can result in long-term problems with achievement and quality of life. Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) – This condition is caused by intermittent collapsing of the upper airway during sleep, and is often associated with snoring. To get a breath, there is increased breathing effort to open the airway often ending with a typical “snort” or snore and fragmented sleep. These adolescents will be sleepy during the day. At school, grades tend to drop and homework and projects tend to be less satisfactory. In the workplace, they will tend to make more mistakes and be late for shifts. They may also seem irritable and/or depressed. Movement Disorders – Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS), and Periodic Limb Movements (PLM). RLS is usually worse in the evening and night and is described as a “creepy” or “crawly” feeling in the legs. PLM is characterized by small repetitive leg twitches during sleep. Although not recognized by the sleeper, PLMs cause fragmented, unrefreshing sleep leading to daytime sleepiness and/or restlessness. In younger children these disorders are sometimes attributed to “growing pains”. The symptoms of RLS are relieved by movement and during the day may cause a degree of restlessness that is sometimes misdiagnosed as Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Narcolepsy – Although uncommon, the symptoms of narcolepsy are regularly misinterpreted. These adolescents tend to fall asleep while doing routine activities, like eating, playing or while in class or at work. With the sleep attacks, they may experience sudden muscle weakness, particularly when surprised, excited, or laughing. During these episodes, they may experience vivid, realistic dreams that may be interpreted as hallucinations. As a result, individuals with narcolepsy have occasionally been misdiagnosed as having schizophrenia. Their academic performance is usually affected and they are often labeled as inattentive, lazy, or dull. In addition, they tend to isolate themselves from their peers. Insomnia – Insomnia is characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, early morning awakenings, or non-restorative sleep. It can be transient (days), short-term (weeks), or chronic (months or years). Non-restorative sleep leads to daytime fatigue, impairs everyday performance and cognitive function, affects mood and motivation, and decreases attention and alertness. Recent research indicates that insomnia in adolescents can lead to depression. Depression – Adolescents may suffer from unrecognized depression that often affects their academic performance. Depressed mood (especially in the morning), daytime sleepiness, lethargy, loss of appetite, poor concentration and irritability may also be signs of depression. Lifestyle factors, such as poor sleep habits and shift work may also contribute to insufficient sleep in adolescents. Poor Sleep Hygiene – Some examples of bad sleep habits include: insufficient sleep, irregular bed and rise times, pushing back bedtime to socialize, watching TV or playing computer games late at night, etc. Other problems include vigorous exercise just before bed, and smoking, alcohol or caffeine use at bedtime. Shift Work – Disrupted biological rhythms can affect the quality and duration of sleep. Students who work evening shifts can be excessively sleepy during classes, develop mood changes, or experience cognitive difficulties. There is some indication that part-time work over 15 hours per week in students may affect their curricular performance. The “Why” and “How” of a Good Night’s Sleep Sleep deprivation is responsible for more than just falling asleep in class. • Sleepiness: leads to poor concentration. • Microsleeps: are extremely short sleep spells that lead to lapses in attention. • Tiredness: leads to decreased motivation. • Behavior: sleep deprivation increases irritability and decreases self-control. • Impairment: sleep deprivation can impair performance of critical tasks such as driving, and it acts synergistically with alcohol to increase impairment. • Learning: sleep after a learning exposure is critical to the consolidation of its memory. • Brain development: sleep deprivation can slow the secondary development of the brain in adolescence that is responsible for self-control and affect regulation. • Adequate sleep: adolescents need about 9 hours sleep, on average. If you are getting enough sleep you will awaken feeling refreshed, not tired. • Regular sleep: it is important to maintain a regular sleep routine. It is important to go to bed and to wake at the same time every day. On weekends try to keep the same schedule. • Comfort: your bedroom should be quiet, dark and at a comfortable temperature. • Relaxation: avoid strenuous exercise, studying, and computer games before bedtime. The flickering light from television can delay falling asleep. • Avoid stimulants: avoid caffeine after 2 P.M. (coffee, tea, colas); the stimulant effect of caffeine can last up to 10-12 hours. Alcohol might help onset of sleep, but later withdrawal effects can lead to sleep disruption. • Avoid all-nighters: remember that memory is very dependent on adequate sleep. Studying late into the night can be detrimental to learning if sleep is reduced. The best preparation for an exam is a good night’s sleep. • Light: Bright light in the morning helps you to be “awake”; darkness at night helps you to sleep. Some signs of a sleep disorder: • Often fall asleep during the day or in class • Take over 30 minutes to get to sleep • Often go to sleep after midnight • Often have great difficulty in getting up in time for school or work • Snore a lot with intermittent pauses in breathing • Complain of odd feelings or jumpiness in the legs • Have decreased concentration or attention • Score more than 10 on the Epworth Scale While these symptoms can occur in everyone on occasion, persistent symptoms may indicate a sleep problem that should be investigated. If you have concerns discuss them with your physician.

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