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Scientists have long sought ways to sic the body's own immune system on cancer cells. But such immunotherapies, while elegant in theory, have proved elusive in practice. Part of the difficulty has come from trying to discover both if and how the immune system targets tumors for destruction, much as it attacks infectious pathogens. In today's issue of Nature, a trio of researchers describes the first conclusive evidence that the immune system does indeed prevent tumor formation, and their work also offers clues about the mechanism involved. Robert D. Schreiber and student Vijay Shankaran of the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louisalong with Lloyd J. Old, director and CEO of the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Centerperformed a series of experiments on mice engineered to lack certain key immune system components. In some mice, the RAG2 gene was knocked out so that these animals did not produce immune cells called lymphocytes. In others, the gene for Stat1a protein required by immune system gamma interferon (IFNg) receptorswas missing. And in some animals, both genes were absent. When they injected the mice with a chemical carcinogen MCA, they found that 58 percent of the RAG2-deficient subjects developed tumors, as did 72 percent of the animals lacking both RAG2 and Stat1. In contrast, tumors arose in only 19 percent of normal mice. Because there was little statistical difference in the incidence of tumors between the two knockout types, the researchers concluded that lymphocytes and IFNg receptors work in tandem to kill tumors. "IFNg makes tumor cells expose themselves to the immune system," Schreiber says. "After seeing the abnormal proteins in the tumor, the lymphocytes eliminate the tumor cells." The team also noted that after 15 months, two of 11 normal mice not exposed to MCA spontaneously developed noncancerous tumors; all 12 unexposed RAG2-deficient mice developed tumors, half of them malignant; and all 11 animals lacking both genes developed cancerous tumors in the same period. By transplanting tumor cells between animals, the scientists further discovered that immune defenses against cancer cells are choosy. Thus, they propose that the immune system does not catch cells on the verge of malignancy but rather edits out only some types of tumor cells and alters others after the fact. "Immunoediting could explain why the immune system can select for tumors that are more capable of escaping the immune system as they continue to develop," Schreiber says. "If this process is always occurring, it can have multiple outcomes, one of which is protection. But if you're unlucky, transformed tumor cells might alter themselves so the immune system can pick out only a few. The others continue growing." In one final experiment, the researchers added a protein called TAP1 to highly aggressive tumors harvested from healthy mice and transplanted them into other healthy mice. They found that tumors tagged in this way were rejected, whereas untagged tumors grew rapidly. RAG2-deficient mice did not, however, reject transplanted tagged tumors. "We showed that if a tumor is forced to reveal itself to the immune system, it often is rejected," Schreiber says. "We think that a tagged tumor could be used to train the immune system to reject others like it. This is very exciting because it indicates that immunotherapy has a significant potential use even for the treatment of tumors that are altered by the immunoediting process."
Focus: Odd Particle Out A new state of matter that combines the properties of a superfluid and a regular fluid may be within experimental reach. Critics have argued that this theoretical state is unstable, but researchers report in the 14 January PRL that it can exist if the forces holding the particles together have the right properties, which might happen in clumps of ultracold atoms. If found, this strange state could shed light on the behavior of neutron-star cores. Electrons in a solid can form a superfluid that flows without friction and is called a superconductor. In this state, electrons of opposite “spins” pair together. The two spins occur in equal numbers, so every electron can find a partner. But the small amount of heat that exists in even the coldest materials splits up some of the pairs, and the superfluid is corrupted by a flow of normal, unpaired electrons. About two years ago, Frank Wilczek, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Vincent Liu, now at the University of Pittsburgh, proposed a new state of matter which they called breached-pair superfluidity . Unlike conventional superfluids, unpaired particles are a fundamental component of this state, and they exist alongside paired particles, even theoretically at absolute zero. Breached-pair superfluids have unpaired particles because there is more of one type of particle than the other, so some are left over–like a college sorority dance where some of the young women have to dance on their own due to a lack of men. But the single women mix thoroughly with the dancing couples because breached-pair superfluidity is uniform throughout. In conventional superfluids, the normal component doesn’t completely mix. Some researchers criticized the theory, saying that the breached-pair superfluid state would not be stable [2,3]. Now Wilczek’s team has modified the theory, showing that the state can be stable if conditions are right. The original theory assumed for simplicity that the attraction existed only if the particles were touching, as if the dance partners needed to be cheek-to-cheek. But they found that the theory worked much better if instead they allowed the particles to interact at a moderate distance, about arm’s length for the couples. But if the forces act at a much greater distance, another problem arises: The unpaired women attract men from the fraternity next door–new particles enter the system–and then everyone is paired, as in a conventional superfluid. If the particles in the breached-pair superfluid are electrons, the paired particles will flow as a supercurrent, and the unpaired ones as a simultaneous regular current. If the particles are uncharged, the state could behave something like mixtures of helium-3 and helium-4, whose partial superfluidity is exploited in dilution refrigerators, which cool samples for low-temperature physics experiments. Extending the theory to quarks could help illuminate the nature of the insides of neutron stars. The researchers say this state could be seen in systems of ultracold lithium atoms prepared in two different spin states. Experimentalists can use laser light and other external fields to control the number of atoms in each state and the distances over which they interact through magnetic attraction and so-called van der Waals forces. “The cold-atom people have been making progress remarkably fast,” says Wilczek. “I wouldn’t be shocked if it were found within five years, and I’d be disappointed if it weren’t discovered within ten.” “It’s a pretty bizarre state, with a bunch of unusual properties,” says Paulo Bedaque of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, one of the researchers who criticized the original theory. He agrees that the new formulation is correct. “There’s a chance that experimentalists will be able to make it,” he says.
This artist's illustration shows an enormous halo of hot gas (in blue) around the Milky Way galaxy. Also shown, to the lower left of the Milky Way, are the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds, two small neighboring galaxies (roll your mouse over the image for labels). The halo of gas is shown with a radius of about 300,000 light years, although it may extend significantly further. Data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory was used to estimate [link to press release] that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of all the stars in the Milky Way galaxy. If the size and mass of this gas halo is confirmed, it could be the solution to the "missing-baryon" problem for the Galaxy. In a recent study, a team of five astronomers used data from Chandra, ESA's XMM-Newton, and Japan's Suzaku satellite to set limits on the temperature, extent and mass of the hot gas halo. Chandra observed eight bright X-ray sources located far beyond the Galaxy at distances of hundreds of millions of light years. The data revealed that X-rays from these distant sources are selectively absorbed by oxygen ions in the vicinity of the Galaxy. The nature of the absorption allowed the scientists to determine that the temperature of the absorbing halo is between 1 million and 2.5 million Kelvins. -Megan Watzke, CXC
Compare ritual and royal objects from the Yoruba and Edo peoples of Nigeria to learn how their rulers maintain worldly authority with the assistance of supernatural forces. Students will delight in examining a colorful beaded crown that empowers a Yoruba ruler and a 300-year-old bronze sculpture that establishes legitimacy for an Edo king. These and other stunning objects introduce divination, mythology, and communication with ancestors to your class. - Open with discussion on difference between supernatural and secular power. - Introduce sculptures and explain historical/cultural significance. - Compare and contrast Yoruba and Benin cultures. - Ask students how Americans honor historical figures. - Answer remaining questions. - Students will learn the similarities as well as differences among the Yoruba and Benin peoples-particularly in regards to attaining political power-which are reflected in their works of art. - Students will understand that secular power in both the Yoruba and Benin cultures is acquired and maintained through access to supernatural power. - Students will create a chart during the program which illustrates how Yoruba and Benin art relate to one of six categories: politics, religion, celebrations, trade, roles/representations of women, artistic styles, or materials.
The crux of this lesson is for students to identify characteristics from two works of literature from the same time period and examine how they treat similar themes. In The Great Gatsby, author F. Scott Fitzgerald presents class differences as a major stumbling block for Gatsby in his pursuit of Daisy. In "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," the speaker appears to face the same dilemma as he frets over missed opportunities in wooing a woman of some means. Additionally, both works reflect a realistic portrayal of unrequited love--although Gatsby seemingly has the affections of Daisy, their relationship takes on the appearance of affectations rather than affections. Essentially, both these units examine the sometimes misguided and hopeless pursuit of the American Dream--an overarching theme in Modernist works. In this short section of the lesson, we do some grammatical review. I call it the Daily Language Practice. I put two sentences with grammatical mistakes on the projector or overhead. The class writes the sentences on paper. I then solicit the class to volunteer which errors they see. This is a great activity to begin class. It allows for a smooth segue to English class, and it offers a great review of grammar for the SATs. This activity is CCSS aligned as it demonstrates command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking. Teacher uses the attached link to show the SAT Question of the Day on the projector. Teacher engages students in a whole-class discussion on finding strategies to answer the question. I assign students one vocabulary word from a list of words in the poetry unit, which I teach alongside the latter part of The Great Gatsby. The vocabulary list has words on one side and definitions and other information on the other. Students will find their word in the poetry as we read and determine the meaning through context. If needed, I will instruct students to look up the word in the dictionary if further clarification is necessary. As we come upon the selected vocabulary words in the poetry, the student assigned to the word will offer his or her definition. It should be noted that context may be difficult because this is poetry; however, we move forward anyway and use roots and connotations to arrive at meaning. To reinforce the meanings of words, I will instruct students to create flashcards of all words by writing the word and definition on one side of the flashcard. They also include the connotative meaning of the word or what the word sounds like as related to its definition. The also provide a synonym and antonym, and they use it in a sentence. On the other side of the flashcard, students create a graphic representation of the word's meaning. This assignment is done for homework. For the first 10 minutes of every class until the vocabulary test (given one week after distribution of vocabulary list), I will give students an opportunity to flip through their flashcards with a partner to reinforce definitions. I chose the selected words based on those words that I thought students would have trouble with. Many words are necessary to understand the poems or they are just words that we really don't use any more, such as, For homework, students read the poem and answered questions regarding "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock." I play the attached video of T.S Eliot reciting the poem with accompanying visuals to help students comprehend the events of the poem. Following a whole-class discussion with regard to the major points of the poem, I ask students to review the notes that they took on the T.S. Eliot the day before. (I simply go through the questions and randomly pull a popsicle stick to choose a student.) I then ask students to find four examples from Prufrock (text evidence) that exemplify the characteristics of modernism: break from the literary traditions of the past, reflect realities of twentieth century (non-romanticized version of life), and showcase the uncertainties of modern life. Depending on the level of the class, I may have to offer hints, but I want students to see that Prufrock has a very realistic view of himself and the women, "How is hair is growing thin!" (Prufrock) and "Arms that are braceleted and white and bear/ But in the lamplight, downed with light brown hair!" Structurally, the meter does not have a prescribed length, and there is no rhyme scheme, which demonstrates a break from the literary past. As far as expressing the uncertainties of modern life, Prufrock in the poem is lamenting his tendency to procrastinate and be overly cautious. Finally, I ask students to draw some parallels to Gatsby. Specifically, both men pursue a women out of their league and there appears to be a class difference. Prufrock is described as wearing "morning coat" and "collar mounting firmly to the chin" indicating that he may be a butler. These responses are recorded in a quick write. I may have students work with a partner if they seem to struggle finding answers.
Copyright: John Frost Newspapers The newspaper: The Independent The date: April 24, 1992 The news event: How the Universe began What you see This is a striking example of how The Independent re-defined the kind of stories that could be classed as news. The Independent’s designers would also have a major influence over the future of design in broadsheet front pages. During the 1980s and 1990s, as scientific knowledge increased, many more questions were asked about where and how the universe began. The main findings became known as the Big Bang Theory. Many people took a great interest in the subject, although the theory was so complex few ordinary people really understood it in much depth. The reason for this front page was explained in the 'strapline' or headline that runs at the top of the page: A NASA spacecraft has detected echoes of the galaxies' birth fourteen thousand million years ago. The discovery about the formation of the stars after the Big Bang has been hailed by excited scientists as the Holy Grail of Cosmology. The front page It was, and is, extremely unusual for a story about cosmology (the study of the nature of the universe) to become the main or ‘splash’ story on a newspaper. But this was an unmissable chance to show how The Independent could help set the news agenda. Science Editor Tom Wilkie and his deputy Susan Watts worked out a way of telling the story so that the average reader of The Independent could understand it. It was a good example of the role of a newspaper as a ‘teacher’. The dominant feature of this front page is the graphic which was remarkable for its time. Drawn up by graphic artist Michael Roscoe it dramatically told the story. It was produced on an Apple Mac computer using a drawing programme called Adobe Illustrator. It was the designer's job to make sure that the overall layout and design fitted together. The software used was an Atex newspaper typesetting system. The full-page make-up system did not like running text around cut-out images which is often done today. As a result, stepping blocks of text were used to accommodate the fan-shaped graphic. In the end the story was boxed off and an editor was able to write the headline of his or her life: 'How the universe began.' At the time it was printed it in black and white but later on it was printed it as a full colour graphic poster.
The Moon has been Earth’s constant companion for most of its history, even though the mechanism of its formation is still the subject of some debate in astronomical circles. However, the Moon is one of the main driving forces not only behind the oceanic tides on Earth, but also the tides that lift up dry land. If you did not know that, read on, and we will tell you about ten other things you probably did not know about the Moon. An Atmosphere After All Contrary to popular belief, the Moon does have an atmosphere of sorts. Findings obtained during NASA’s LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer) mission point to a tenuous atmosphere consisting of helium, neon and argon around the Moon. The helium and neon components derive from the solar wind, which is a continuous emission of energetic particles by the Sun, while the argon is generated by the radioactive decay of potassium in the Moon’s crust. Some Apollo astronauts noticed that during sunrises and sunsets on the Moon, moon dust seems to rise, and hover just above the surface. Exactly why and how this happens is still a mystery, but it is believed to be caused by dust particles being electrically charged at these times. One of the functions of the LADEE mission is to study the phenomenon, and results are expected soon. Instead of being round like a beach ball, the Moon is decidedly egg-shaped, and the only reason it appears to be round is because one pointed end is aimed right at Earth. Nor is the Moon’s center of mass located at its geometric center, and is instead located at a point roughly 2 miles (3.2 km) off-center. Regular quakes have been found to originate several miles below the Moon’s surface, which are believed to be caused by tidal effects due to Earth’s gravitational pull. Some moon quakes are even powerful enough to cause small cracks to appear on the surface, through which various gases are known to escape. However, the exact causes of the quakes are yet to be determined, but it seems unlikely to be the result of a molten core and plastic mantle in the Moon’s interior. By comparison, the Moon’s core accounts for only 2 to 4% of the Moon’s mass, whereas the iron core of the Earth accounts for roughly 30% of the Earth’s mass. Investigations are ongoing, but a definitive explanation of the Moon’s geological activity seems to be a long way off. Receding from Earth All actions have opposite and equal reactions as Newton demonstrated, but in the case of the Earth-Moon system, this reaction is causing the Moon to recede from Earth at a rate of roughly 3.8 cm (1.4 inches) every year. This is happening because the Moon is slowing Earth’s rotation, and as a result, the Moon “uses” the lost energy to propel itself away from Earth. The rate of recession is known precisely because astronomers regularly fire powerful lasers at the Moon, and some of the light is returned by mirrors placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts. The time the light takes to return to sensors on Earth is converted into distance measurements. Same Apparent Size as Sun We see solar eclipses the way we do only by a happy coincidence; although the Sun is 400 times bigger than the Moon, it is also 400 times further away, so when a solar eclipse occurs, the Moon very nearly covers the Sun’s disc. Flags on Moon Now White Many images of the Moon’s surface show that of the six flags planted on the Moon by Apollo astronauts, five are still upright. However, the harsh solar radiation on the Moon has caused the color on the flags to fade away leaving them a sparkling white, exactly like a flag fades on Earth if it is exposed to direct sunlight for extended periods. In case you did not know, the flags were made of Nylon by Annin Flagmakers, based in Roseland, New Jersey, and they cost the princely sum of $5.50 each at the time of delivery to NASA. High Speed Internet Available Using four satellites, NASA has established a faster internet connection to the Moon than you are likely to ever encounter at any WI-FI spot on Earth. However, instead of cabling, NASA uses high-powered lasers to transmit data at the rate of 19.44 megabytes p/sec, which is 4,800 times faster than any radio-based transmission. Demonstrating their Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD) technology in 2013, NASA obtained download speeds from the Moon of 622 megabytes p/sec, which is just a little faster than the 10 to 15 megabytes per second required for high-definition TV or video chats. So while it might be possible to use this superfast link to provide entertainment to bored future astronauts, more practical applications include the tracking of solar flares, forest fires, and weather conditions in close to real-time. Landing Conspiracy Theories Debunked High resolution images released by NASA in 2011 have finally, and conclusively proven that the Moon landings did indeed take place- just like NASA had been saying all along. The image below says it all. This image is courtesy of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter that has been surveying the Moon’s surface since 2009. This particular image of the Apollo 12, 14, and 17 missions has a resolution of 25 cm by 25 cm p/pixel, and was taken from an altitude of 15.5 miles (25 km). No Dark Side of Moon Contrary to what you may have heard or read somewhere, both sides of the Moon receive the same amount of sunlight. We only see one side of the Moon, and sometimes when it is illuminated by sunlight reflecting off Earth, the side furthest away from us is illuminated by the Sun, which is also where the light comes from that is reflected on the side of the Moon that is turned towards us.
As discussed in our article "What Is Energy Democracy?" traditional energy sources are profit driven and aggravate climate change. Climate change has been linked with severe weather events, which in turn jeopardize the grid’s reliability. Clean energy technologies can help lessen the damage a vulnerable community may experience following a severe climatic event or natural disaster. What is a “vulnerable community”? A community is labeled “vulnerable” when it is unable “to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard,” according to the International Federation of Red Cross and Crescent Societies. Vulnerability involves many factors that influence the quality of life for people in a community, including poverty, political instability, poor access to food and water, or social inequity. What is third-generation clean energy technology? The most commercially available forms of clean energy come from the sun, wind, and water. However, cutting-edge scientific research is developing new technologies that can collect energy from new places, like below the Earth’s crust, or from materials we usually don’t think of as energy sources, like what we flush down the toilet each day. These new methods are sometimes called third-generation technologies and include hot-dry-rock geothermal power, biomass gasification, and biorefining. Current and new sustainable technologies are better suited to help vulnerable communities achieve energy security than traditional electric grids that use coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power. Below are three reasons why: 1 - Clean energy technology adapts to a community’s environment. Many vulnerable communities around the world are situated in regions with unique geographical or biological features. Third-generation technologies take advantage of these features to create local power systems, thereby avoiding the need to build costly coal-, oil-, or uranium-powered stations, which often are easily damaged by severe weather events. Ocean energy, also called hydrokinetic energy, is an example of a potentially large and untapped source of energy for coastal communities. 2 - It allows people to store free energy for when they need it. Both current and new sustainable energy technologies all have something in common: you can charge a battery with free electricity. Solar panel and storage systems for affordable housing developments, shops, and public service facilities in a vulnerable community ensure electricity even if the traditional grid fails during a disaster. 3 - It can transform human and animal waste into energy. Third-generation technology makes use of what is already widely available. For vulnerable communities located in rural areas and far from any electric grid, converting natural forest and agricultural waste into energy through a process like biomass gasification is a win-win for everyone. With so many voices in the conversation on clean energy and climate change, it can be hard to get your head around just what it all means. The EESI blog puts the sometimes complex issues surrounding sustainability and renewable power into simple, plain language. Take part in the discussion–share your opinion in the comments section.
Agus P Sari Climate change happens due to the so-called 'greenhouse effect' (see picture). The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon necessary for life as we know it. If there were no greenhouse effect, the earth would be 32 degrees celsius colder than it is now, rendering it uninhabitable. Too much greenhouse effect, however, will lead to global warming and climate change, with disruptive effects on human well-being. The greenhouse effect occurs due to the presence of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. These gases - water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), nitrous oxide (N2O), and tropospheric ozone (O3) - act like a blanket that slows the loss of heat from the earth's atmosphere. The concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere are steadily increasing. Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere was about 350 parts per million (ppm, by volume) in 1990, already one-fourth higher than that in the preindustrial era (circa 1750 - 1850). The concentration of methane at 1.72 ppm in 1990 was more than twice that in the preindustrial era. CFCs are strictly of human origin. Carbon dioxide has contributed approximately 60 percent of increased global mean air-surface temperature 'forcing' by greenhouse gases over the last 200 years, followed by methane at 20 percent, CFCs at 10 percent, and other gases at 10 percent. Based on a modeling exercise, **IPCC expects that a doubling of greenhouse gas concentrations will increase the global mean temperature by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius. Thus, IPCC suggests cutting current emissions levels by 60 to 80 percent just to stabilise current atmospheric concentrations. Carbon dioxide, the most prominent anthropogenic gas, arises primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels and from the burning and clearing of forested land for agricultural purposes. Worldwide consumption of fossil fuels in the period of 1860 to 1949 is estimated to have released 187 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide. Between 1950 and 1990, fossil fuel use had accelerated and carbon dioxide emissions are estimated at an additional 559 billion metric tons. Agus P Sari ([email protected]) is executive director of Pelangi, a Jakarta-based environmental think tank. He has followed the climate change negotiations since their inception and has been part of the Indonesian official delegation the last three years.
Writing was developed by the Sumerians approximately 5,000 years ago. At the same time, the Sumerians developed some written notation for mathematics. Writing and mathematics are brain tools--they are powerful aids to the human mind. The abilities to use both written language and mathematics are so useful to people that these are "basics" in our formal educational system. Students study and practice the "three Rs" year after year in K-12 education and even on into higher education as they work to develop contemporary and more advanced knowledge and skills (expertise) in these areas. Our math education system pays some attention to the idea that math is a language. For example, many math teachers have their students do journaling on the math learning experiences and their math use experiences. Some math teachers make use of cooperative learning--an environment that encourages students to communicate mathematical ideas. Some math assessment instruments require that students explain what it is they are doing as they solve the math problems in the assessment. There has been a great deal of research on the teaching and learning of reading and writing in one's first (natural) language. In addition, there has been a great deal of research on the learning of a second language. It seems likely that some of the research findings and practical implementations of these findings would be applicable to teaching and learning of mathematics. In the early days of computer programming, there was quite a bit of research done how to identify people who might be good at computer programming. It turned out that music ability and math ability correlated well with computer programming ability. This is interesting from the point of view that in some sense music is a language, and computer programming requires learning programming languages and then solving problems using the languages. The following article provides some research on the value of directly teaching language skills in various disciplines, including math: The following email from Garry Taylor is a valuable resource in exploring mathematics as a language. Music as a language. Quoting Howard Gardner: Research on Learning Computer Programming and Software Engineering Mathematics as a Language Crannell gives writing assignments in the calculus classes she teaches at a university level. Her Website includes a 1994 booklet A Guide to Writing in Mathematics Classes. Quoting from the first part of that booklet:For most of your life so far, the only kind of writing you've done in math classes has been on homeworks and tests, and for most of your life you've explained your work to people that know more mathematics than you do (that is, to your teachers). But soon, this will change. Language and the Learning of Mathematics [Online]. Accessed 1/26/02: http://www.mathematicallycorrect.com/allen4.htm. A speech delivered at the NCTM Annual Meeting Chicago, April 1988 by Frank B. Allen, Emeritus Professor of Mathematics Elmhurst College. Quoting from the paper: This brings me to my major thesis that natural language, gradually expanded to include symbolism and logic, is the key to both the learning of mathematics and its effective application to problem situations. And above all, the use of appropriate language is the key to making mathematics intelligible. Indeed, in a very real sense, mathematics is a language. Proficiency in this language can be acquired only by long and carefully supervised experience in using it in situations involving argument and proof. Mathematics as a Language [Online]. Accessed 1/26/02: http://www.cut-the-knot.com/language/. Quoting from the Website: However, the language of Mathematics does not consist of formulas alone. The definitions and terms are verbalized often acquiring a meaning different from the customary one. Many students are inclined to hold this against mathematics. For example, one may wonder whether 0 is a number. As the argument goes, it is not, because when one says, I watched a number of movies, one does not mean 0 as a possibility. 1 is an unlikely candidate either. But do not forget that ambiguities exist in plain English (the number's number is one of them) and in other sciences as well. A a matter of fact, mathematical language is by far more accurate than any other one may think of. Do not forget also that every science and a human activity field has its own lingo and a word usage in many instances much different from that one may be more comfortable with. The Language of Mathematics [Online]. Accessed 1/26/02: http://www.math.montana.edu/~umsfwest/. This Website is based on a book by Warren Esty and a course at Montana State University by the same name. The first quote given below is from the Website, and the second is from the Warren Esty book.Jointly with Anne Teppo, Warren Esty published an article in the Mathematics Teacher (Nov. 1992, 616-618) entitled "Grade assignment based on progressive improvement" which was reprinted in the NCTM's Emphasis on Assessment. and posted on the web by the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education. In a language course, you can expect continual improvement. This article discusses why grading should not be based on averages of unit-exam scores and how a course like "The Language of Mathematics" can be graded. The Language of Mathematics [Online]. Accessed 1/26/02: http://www.chemistrycoach.com/language.htm. This Website contains a number of quotations that relate to the topic of mathematics as a language. Here are two examples:Ordinary language is totally unsuited for expressing what physics really asserts, since the words of everyday life are not sufficiently abstract. Only mathematics and mathematical logic can say as little as the physicist means to say. Bertrand Russell, (1872-1970) The Scientific Outlook, 1931.
First, lets look at the difference between theory and scientific theory. Definition of Theory An unproven conjecture; an expectation of what should happen, barring unforeseen circumstances In other words, you imagine something will happen and it may or may not, depending on circumstances you werent expecting. Definition of Scientific Theory: A well-tested concept that explains a wide range of observations. In other words, a well tested concept based on actual repeatable tests and observations. And how do we get to the scientific theory? We use a method known as, The Scientific Method. The following is a simplified description: Definition: The scientific method is a series of steps scientists take to acquire, test, and describe the natural world. Step 1: Ask questions in the form of a hypothesis Step 2: Look for patterns in observations Step 3: Formulate a theory Step 4: Design experiments to test theory So the question becomes, If you can observe it, then why is it only a theory? Appearances can be deceiving. Sometimes, there is no direct observation. Until we are able to create video such as this, we thought sea urchins and starfish were very slow moving and sedentary creatures. After speeding up the video, we now know they are extreme hunters with voracious appetites. Previously, this was only a "theory". [ame]http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3W4OCnHyCs[/ame] Some events are so slow moving, they cant be taped but only studied by looking and understanding the available evidence. Two examples are evolution and plate tectonics. Evidence proving plate tectonics are mountains and faults, ocean floors raised thousands of feet above sea level and the tiny observations from satellites, geology and many other bits of example. Evidence proving evolution are fossils, where the fossils (geological location) are found, genetics, Disease, birth defects and fetal development among others. Any alternate theories must be scrutinized by the methods listed above.
The Mental Survey The author has attempted to develop a method of tests for group purposes, in order to measure roughly the intelligence of large groups of children. The work began owing to the practical problem of finding the number of feeble-minded in a school or institution. To avoid needless testing of perfectly normal children some rough preliminary tests were made. These tests were those which had been fairly well standardized at the time. No claim is made that they are the best tests for such purposes. Doubtless better groups of tests will be devised in the future. The application of the mental survey to schools and the evaluation of school achievement in terms of mentality, is, the most important aspect of the present study. The book is divided into two parts. The first describes the method of standardization and gives some results. The second part is a guide for the use of the tests and has been written as clearly and simply as possible, so that the worker may follow, step by step, the procedure in giving, scoring and evaluating the tests. Part I: The Tests and Their Standardization - The Tests - The Computation of the Results - Surveys of Schools - The Survey Tests and Other Estimates of Intelligence - Educational Accomplishment and Mental Ability Part II: A Guide for the Use of the Survey Tests - Giving the Tests - Scoring the Tests - Evaluating the Results
Published Date : May 02, 2016 Organic farming refers to a particular way of crop cultivation and processing of agricultural products such as cereals, fruits, vegetables, meat, and dairy products. Organic farming practices are designed for soil and water conservation practices, and to curb pollution. This is achieved by utilizing natural fertilizers in place of chemical ones and employing crop rotation to manage weeds, as opposed to conventional methods for controlling the growth of weeds. Organic foods are produced in compliance with government regulations laid down by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. These norms regulate the practices in which food is grown, processed, and handled. Therefore, and food product or beverage that has an organic labeling need to be certified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The objective of organic regulatory agencies is to monitor and control farming practices so as to decreases chances of food contamination and for an improved quality of food and beverages. The health-conscious population alludes organic food to be natural and uses the term interchangeably. However, they are not the same. Organic foods are those that contain ingredients grown and processed in accordance with specifications laid down by the USDA. On the other hand, natural foods simply refer to food or beverages that have not been altered chemically and does not contain antibiotics, hormones, and artificial flavors.
Soil Does More Than Get You Dirty - Conservation of Soil and Water Play Conservation of Soil and Water Play In Kansas, the majority of our soils are used to grow crops. Sometimes our soils are not treated with enough care so they remain productive for crops in the future. In the past, land was considered to be a resource that would never end. When a piece of land became unproductive, the farmers simply moved and settled on another piece of land. Finally in the 1930s, these farming practices led to blowing of billions of tons of soil commonly known as the "Dust Bowl." When the clouds of dust reached Washington, D. C., the Congress acted to stop the erosion by starting conservation programs under the direction of the Soil Conservation Service. Today, part of the soil erosion problem has been corrected but much more still needs to be done. Conserving our soils will benefit all Americans by maintaining a resource which provides us food, as well as wildlife and a healthy environment in which to work and play. This activity is a great way to culminate the unit on soil at either the primary or intermediate level. As the students walk through this activity, they can have fan adding sound effects of rain and thunder. - 2 balls of yarn: one red, one green - Construct the following signs (use imagination to decorate): punch two holes in signs and attach a small length of yarn so that students can wear around neck - 1 - Rain (12"x8") can be posted on chair or board. Students could also have the sign around their neck. - 10 - Raindrops (circle) - 2 - Plant (8"x4") for two students - 1 - Conservation (8"x4") - 10 - Soil (circles) - 2 - Lake (8"x4") for two students - 1 - Ocean (12"x8") can be posted on chair or board. Students could also have the sign around their neck. - Two pint jars of water can be used to help explain the process of conservation on the green side and without conservation on the red side. In one jar, have only water to represent the green yarn side. In the other jar, mix some soil with the water. Shake the jar to represent the water running to the lake on the red yarn side. When the jar is allowed to sit, the soil will settle out just like in the lake. The following drawings show classroom set up and movements of students. Students who are the 10 "raindrops" move along paths as shown by the yarn down to the "ocean." It really works best if you have the red yarn side do their actions first. Be sure you have your jar of soil/water ready to shake when the raindrops, that have been moving quickly, picking up the "soil" people and carefully (be sure to remind them!) take the soil students with them. The water drops can also uproot the plant (again, carefully). The raindrop students and the soil students then move on to the lake, where the teacher needs to have the group pause while you shake the soil/water jar. Questions like, "How would you like to live in this environment?" (as you shake the jar) "What will happen to the lake when the soil and water stop moving?" (let the jar remain still for a few moments) Ask again, "How would you like to live in this? What will happen to the plants/fish/small organisms that live in the lake. What do you think will happen to the lake? Have you ever seen a place that used to be a lake and now it is all plants?" Now it time for the green yarn side to go through their actions. Ask, "Do you think the same thing will happen when it rains on this (the conservation) side? Why?" The group of five "raindrops" moves from the "rain" sign along the green yarn. They encounter a student wearing the "conservation" sign. They are let go one at a time, at intervals, to continue along the green yarn. "Why would conservation keep the water drops from moving fast? What kinds of things could keep the water from moving so fast and carrying soil with it?" (grass, trees, mulch) Because they are slowed down or held back by the "conservation," they are not able to pick up or take the "soil" signs from around the feet of the student who is wearing the "plant" sign. "How will this plant react differently to just a gentle rain drop compared to the rushing raindrops on the red side?" (plant could smile, hold up arms to indicate growth, any action that would indicate a happy plant) They continue along the green yarn to the "lake" student where they are again held back for a short time. This is when the teacher holds up the clear jar of water, shakes it and asks, "How does this water in this jar compare to the jar of water on the red side?" and "Which water would you rather live in if you were a fish, etc?" They then proceed to the "ocean" sign at the far end of the green yarn. At the end of the play you might use these questions for discussion: - What held back the raindrops at the "Conservation" student? - What are some examples of conservation practices? - What is the loss of soil called? (erosion) - On the green yarn side, what would happen if you removed the plants? - If you put lots of plants on the red yarn side, what would happen if you removed the plants? - What happens to plants that lose part of their soil? - How would the students like to swim or boat in the dirty lake? What would they do with it? Can the soil in the lake be reclaimed? - Which lake will have better fishing? The one on the green yarn or the one on the red yarn and why? - How can we keep from having erosion around the schoolyard and at home? Conservation. The protection or improvement of soil, air, and water. Common conservation practices which protect soil from erosion include grass, dead plants (residue), terraces, and minimum tillage. See the local Natural Resources Conservation Service office for pictures of these practices. Conservation practices which retard water for a short period of time can be illustrated by placing a sponge in a cup of water or in a trough of trickling water. Erosion. The wearing away of soil by wind or water. See Lesson 2, Activities 1 and 2. A way to help explain erosion could be to cut a small Styrofoam ball into eight to 10 irregular shapes. Then take these pieces and put them back together with toothpicks. To explain erosion or wearing away, pull pieces off one at a time as they are acted on by wind and water. Terraces. An embankment or combination of an embankment and channel constructed across a slope to control erosion by diverting and temporarily storing surface runoff instead of permitting it to flow down the slope. Minimum tillage. A practice which leaves the residue or dead plant of the previous crop on the surface at planting time. This is how the classroom and students will be positioned at the start of the activity. It works best if the red yarn group do their actions first, then have the green yarn group (conservation) do their actions. \|Step 1 \| (red yarn group) Raindrop students as a group start along red yarn. \|Step 2 \| Raindrop students pick up Soil signs from plant who cannot defend against the onslaught of Raindrop students. \|Step 3 \| Raindrop students with soil signs are held back at lake and must drop their soil as raindrop students must continue. \|Step 4 \| Raindrop students continue on to the ocean and the soil remains in the lake. \|Step 5 \| (green yarn group) Raindrop students move down the green yarn and stop at Conservation student. \|Step 6 \| Conservation student lets Raindrop students proceed along the green yarn - one at a time. They continue past the plant student but cannot pick up any Soil signs. \|Step 7 \| Raindrop students are held back for a short time by the Lake student. \|Step 8 \| Raindrop students continue to the Ocean sign.
A tree failure occurs when a tree or large part of a tree breaks and falls. Hazard Tree Management deals in probabilities of failure rather than certainties. Age, species (especially rooting and branching characteristics), site, and condition all influence the relative hazard of the tree. A high probability of failure does not make a tree a hazard; there also must be a “target” that could be damaged or injured if the tree fails. Trees become a potential hazard when there is a target. A target is a structure, vehicle or a person that would be struck by a falling tree or its parts. The target directly influences the degree of hazard. Consider the differences among a tree falling on a fence, a house or a person. A tree leaning over the bedroom is most hazardous. Trees near high-use areas are more of a risk than those near infrequently visited areas, as the probability of a person being hit is Tree age is important in hazard tree management. Every tree species has an inherent life span. Some trees inherently live longer than others. Risk of failure increases with age. A word about your liability. If you have a hazardous tree, you may be responsible for any damage it causes if it falls. If a tree in your yard fails and damages your neighbor’s property, and you have no prior knowledge of its condition as a hazard tree, your neighbor’s general policy may cover the damages. This determination however, may be disputed. Documenting the condition of your trees can be important in case of litigation involving the failure of a tree.
Food Miles: Background and Marketing NCAT Research Specialist Eggs loaded for trucking to market near Chesterfield, SC. Photo by Dave Warren. Courtesy of USDA. The term 'food miles' refers to the distance food travels from the location where it is grown to the location where it is consumed, or in other words, the distance food travels from farm to plate. Recent studies have shown that this distance has been steadily increasing over the last fifty years. Studies estimate that processed food in the United States travels over 1,300 miles, and fresh produce travels over 1,500 miles, before being consumed. This publication addresses how food miles are calculated, investigates how food miles affect producers and consumers, and evaluates methods for curbing the energy intensiveness of our food transportation system. \|Funding for the development of this publication was provided by the USDA Risk Management Agency.\| Table of Contents - The Energy Embedded In Our Food - Calculating Food Miles - Food Miles and Energy. - What Producers Should Know - Consumer Considerations - Food Miles Tools The food mile is a fairly new concept referring to the distance food travels from the location where it is produced to the location where it will eventually be consumed. Food miles have become one method for evaluating the sustainability of the global food system in terms of energy use. This concept has received an increasing amount of attention over the last decade as climate change patterns have become ever more apparent. This publication investigates the amount of energy invested in food transportation, addresses how food miles affect both producers and consumers and suggests possibilities for creating a more sustainable food system. The United States food system has changed substantially over the last fifty years due to a large variety of circumstances including the globalization and centralization of the food industry and the concentration of the food supply onto fewer, larger suppliers. A report released in 1998 by the USDA found that 80% of the meat industry is controlled by only four firms.(1) In his essay entitled "Food Democracy," Brian Halweil states that half of the food items in a typical supermarket are produced by no more than 10 multinational food and beverage companies.(2) The majority of food consumed today passes through a complex, indirect network of a few large, centralized producers, processors, transporters and distributors before reaching the consumer. An additional change in the food system is the increasing trend of these multinational firms sourcing food from outside of regional, state and even national boundaries in order to provide consistent products at low prices. Figure 1 illustrates the steady increase in world agricultural trade between 1961 and 2000.(3) The development of global food transport systems has resulted in higher consumer expectations. Consumers now have the ability to choose from a wide variety of food items, regardless of the season or their location, all at a low price. The ability to enjoy consistent produce and exotic ingredients at all times of the year is a luxury that, according to many food system analysts, has its price. The farther food travels and the longer it takes en route to the consumer, the more freshness declines and the more nutrients are lost. Many fruits and vegetables are engineered for a long shelf life, sacrificing taste and nutrition for preservation. As large multinational companies gain control over the food industry, small local farmers suffer. Since 1979, 300,000 farmers have gone out of business and those remaining are receiving 13% less for every consumer dollar for farm goods.(1) Large distributors are able to drive prices down on imported goods, forcing many small farms to either export their crop as a raw commodity or replace regional crops with something more profi table. For example, in 1870 100% of the apples consumed in Iowa were produced in Iowa. By 1999, Iowa farmers grew only 15% of the apples consumed in the state.(4) This phenomenon limits the potential for local self-sufficiency and increases dependency on outside sources. Changes in the food system have resulted in a broad range of social and economic implications, but the present food system also has an environmental cost. The farther food travels, the more fossil fuels are required for transport. The burning of fossil fuels leads to the emission of greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming. The following sections will investigate the extent to which food miles contribute to high energy consumption levels and CO2 emissions. Related ATTRA Publications The Carbon Footprint of the Food System While studies vary, a typical estimate is that the food industry accounts for 10% of all fossil fuel use in the United States.(5) Of all the energy consumed by the food system, only about 20% goes towards production; the remaining 80% is associated with processing, transport, home refrigeration and preparation. Recent research at the University of Chicago has investigated the energy consumption of the food system and compared it to the energy consumption associated with personal transportation in the United States. Personal transportation is often recognized as a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, as evident in the movement towards higher efficiency vehicles. This study found, however, that the average American uses between 170 and 680 million BTUs of energy in personal transportation annually and roughly 400 million BTUs in food consumption.(6) The food industry accounts for a considerable portion of energy consumption in the United States and merits closer evaluation. According to one study, food transportation accounts for 14% of energy use within the food system. Figure 2 demonstrates the energy use required for each step of the food industry process.(7) Food miles, although a fraction of the U.S. energy consumption as a whole, remain a considerable source of carbon emissions, especially when considering that the United States is the single largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world, accounting for 23% of the global total at nearly 1,600 million metric tons annually. The U.S. food system alone uses as much energy as France's total annual energy consumption.(8) How Far Does Food Travel? The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture has been the leading researcher of food miles in the United States and has conducted several studies comparing the distance food travels if it is sourced locally rather than conventionally. A 1998 study examined the distance that 30 conventional fresh produce items traveled to reach the Chicago Terminal Market. The Leopold Center found that only two food items, pumpkins and mushrooms, traveled less than 500 miles. Six food items including grapes, lettuce, spinach, broccoli, cauliflower and green peas traveled over 2,000 miles to reach the Chicago market. The average distance traveled amounted to 1,518 miles.(9) Figure 3 shows the distance that select produce items traveled before reaching their destination at the Chicago Terminal Market. Another study conducted in the Waterloo Region of Southwestern Ontario investigated the food miles associated with 58 commonly eaten, imported foods. The study found that each food item traveled an average of 4,497 kilometers or 2,811 miles, producing 51,709 tons of greenhouse gas emissions annually.(10) These calculated distances don't include the distance consumers travel to shop for food or the distance that waste food travels to be disposed of. It is apparent that food is traveling long distances, but the extent to which food miles have an effect on the environment is more complex. The following sections will cover the formulas used to calculate food miles and investigate the energy involved in the transportation of food. How Are Food Miles Calculated? A series of formulas for calculating food miles has been developed and has become widely accepted. Calculating the distance a food item has traveled varies in complexity depending on whether the item is made up of a single ingredient or multiple ingredients and the mode of transportation used to carry the item. The Weighted Average Source Distance (WASD) formula was developed by Annika Carlsson-Kanyama in 1997 and takes into account the amount of food transported in weight and the distance that it travels from the place of production to the place of sale. Fruits and vegetables and other items consisting of only one ingredient would utilize the WASD formula for calculating food miles. The Weighted Total Source Distance (WTSD) formula was developed by the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture and accounts for multiple-ingredient foods by calculating the weight and distance traveled for each ingredient. Foods like flavored yogurt, bread, and other processed foods would employ the WTSD formula for calculating food miles. While both WASD and WTSD convey an estimate of the distance food travels between the producer and consumer, neither formula addresses greenhouse gas emissions associated with this distance traveled. The Weighted Average Emissions Ratio (WAER) formula takes into account both distance and the associated greenhouse gas emissions for different modes of transportation. This formula was developed by the nonprofit organization LifeCycles, in 2004. For detailed information about food miles formulas and calculating food miles, see the Leopold Center's publication, Calculating food miles for a multiple ingredient food product [PDF/293KB]. Mode of Transportation As suggested by the Weighted Average Emissions Ratio formula, the mode by which food is transported is an important factor when considering the environmental impact of food miles. A food item traveling a short distance may produce more CO2 than an item with high food miles, depending on how it is transported. Figure 4 contains the estimated values of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions for four different transportation modes measured in the UK.(11) Air transportation is, by far, the most energy intensive means of transporting food and other goods. Fig.4: Energy use and emissions for different modes of freight transport. Source: Transport for a Sustainable Future: The Case for Europe. (11) A study released in the UK in 2005 found that air transport is the fastest growing mode of food distribution and although air transport accounts for only 1% of food transport in the UK, it results in 11% of the country's CO2 emissions. The UK report also estimated that the social and economic costs of food transport including accidents, noise and congestion amount to over 9 billion British pounds every year or 18 billion American dollars.(12) Is Local Food Less Energy Intensive? Proponents of reducing food miles often suggest that buying local food will reduce the amount of energy involved in the transportation process, as food sourced locally travels shorter distances. The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture has conducted several studies that compare the distance traveled by conventional versus local foods. Figure 5, compiled by the Leopold Center, compares food miles for local versus conventional produce traveling to Iowa. In all cases, the locally grown food travels a significantly shorter distance than the conventionally sourced food. Another study conducted by the Leopold Center in 2001 investigated the distance that food traveled to institutional markets such as hospitals and restaurants in Iowa using three different food sources: conventional, Iowa-based regional and Iowa-based local. The study found that food sourced from the conventional system used 4 to 17 times more fuel than the locally sourced food and emitted 5 to 17 times more CO2.(4) The Leopold Center used this information to estimate the distance, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions that could potentially be saved by replacing 10% of the Iowa's current food system with regional or locally sourced food. This information is displayed in Figure 6. It is interesting to note that when the transportation method was taken into account, the local food system required more energy and emitted more CO2 than the regional system. This is because the trucks supplying food locally had a smaller capacity, therefore requiring more trips and logging more miles. It has been shown that local food systems do reduce food miles, which in turn tend to reduce energy consumption, but there are exceptions. Local transportation systems may not always be as efficient as regional systems, depending on the mode of transport and load capacity. Fig.6: Estimated fuel consumption, CO2 emissions and distance traveled for conventional, Iowa-based regional, and Iowa-based local food systems for produce. Source: Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture. Does Reducing Food Miles Reduce Energy Use? A Japanese group, Daichio-Mamoru Kai (The Association to Preserve the Earth) conducted a study that found that a typical Japanese family could reduce their CO2emissions by 300 kilograms annually by eating locally.(13) The Canadian Waterloo Region study mentioned above estimated that sourcing the 58 food items in the study locally and regionally rather than globally could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 49,485 tons annually. This is the equivalent of removing 16,191 vehicles from the road.(11) The food miles issue becomes even more complex when considering factors besides distance traveled and mode of transportation. The energy required to grow some foods in unsuitable climates may override the energy of transporting food from locations where the food is more easily grown. For example, a Swedish study found that tomatoes traveling from Spain to Sweden were less energy intensive than tomatoes raised in Sweden, because of the process by which they were grown. The Spanish tomatoes were raised in the open ground, while the Scandinavian climate required tomatoes to be raised in heated greenhouses utilizing more fossil fuels.(4) A New Zealand report found that exporting some foods to the UK consumes less energy than producing the same food in the UK because the agricultural system in New Zealand tends to use less fertilizer and raises year round grass-fed livestock, which uses less energy than housing and feeding animals.(14) The UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) released a report in 2005, which determined that food miles alone are not a valid indicator of the sustainability of the food system. In some cases, reducing food miles may reduce energy use, but there may be other social, environmental or economic trade-offs. The consequences of food transport are complex and require a group of indicators to determine the global impact of food miles.(13) Life Cycle Assessment There is increasing significance in considering all stages of energy consumption in the food system. Many organizations have investigated the idea of life-cycle-based analysis to determine the sustainability of the food system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method used to analyze the consumption and environmental burdens associated with a product. LCA takes into account energy input and output involved in all stages of the life cycle including production, processing, packaging, transport and retirement. Life cycle evaluation accounts for a matrix of sustainability indicators beyond greenhouse gas emissions, including resource depletion, air and water pollution, human health impacts and waste generation. This method provides a more holistic approach to assessing the impact our food choices have on the environment.(7) Life cycle assessments of various conventional food products have found that the current food production and consumption patterns are unsustainable.(15) Adopting a "life cycle thinking" approach to food consumption would be a productive method for increasing the sustainability of the food system. Cranberries loaded on truck for shipment. Photo by Earl J. Otis. Courtesy of USDA. In general, the idea of reducing food miles is good news for producers. Reducing energy costs equates to saving money and consumers who are reducing food miles help to create local markets. There are many ways of reducing the energy intensiveness of your operation. Reducing fuel consumption, maintaining equipment and assessing field practices can have great impacts that will both reduce your energy use and save you money. The ATTRA Farm Energy Web pages contain a host of information about managing energy-related costs on the farm. You will find links to farm energy calculators, renewable energy information and links to food miles resources. For producers, reducing food miles means selling products to a more local or regional market. While, this may be an intimidating prospect for farmers who have no experience with alternative markets, the opportunities are significant and diverse, including farmers' markets, CSAs and farm-to-institution programs, all of which are looking for local producers. The following sections briefly examine some of the markets and methods available for a producer looking to reduce the energy involved in transporting food. Direct marketing allows farmers to compete with wholesale market channels and mass supermarket systems, thereby creating a local food network and reducing the distance that food travels. Direct marketing networks could include farmers' markets, wholesale food terminals and community-supported agriculture. The ATTRA publication Direct Marketing offers information about alternative marketing systems, with an emphasis on value-added crops. Farmers' Markets and CSAs Selling produce at farmers' markets is one alternative marketing strategy available for producers. By removing brokers from the distribution chain, farmers are able to reap a greater profit. Farmers' markets also benefit community interaction and economic development. For more information about how to join or start a farmers' market successfully, see the ATTRA publication Farmers' Markets: Marketing and Business Guide. Community supported agriculture (CSA) offers another option for marketing to a local or regional clientele. CSAs typically have members that are "share-holders" in the farm, paying for the anticipated costs of the farm operation. The ATTRA publication Community Supported Agriculture contains information about production considerations and using the Internet as a means of information dissemination to members. The number of farmers' markets and CSAs has grown substantially over the last decade indicating both the potential of success for the farmer and the growing demands of consumers for fresh, local food. Selling food directly to schools, hospitals, prisons and other institutions is becoming an increasingly popular option. Selling food to institutions creates a reliable market for the farmer and provides great health and economic benefits to the consumer. Farm-to-institution programs also reduce food miles. The University of Montana's Farm to College program estimated that replacing a year's supply of conventionally sourced hamburgers and French fries with local ingredients saved 43,000 gallons of fuel and the associated greenhouse gasses from being emitted.(16) For more information about setting up a farm-to-institution program in your area, see the ATTRA publication Bringing Local Foods to Local Institutions: A Resource Guide for Farm-to-School and Farm-to-Institution Programs. Ecolabels offer one method for educating consumers about locally grown, sustainably raised foods, and have proven effective in product marketing. An ecolabel is a seal or a logo indicating that a product has met a certain set of environmental and/or social standards or attributes. The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture has researched the impact that labeling food with ecolabels containing information such as food miles and CO2 emissions has on consumers. The study aimed to determine consumer opinion of locally produced food and food miles. Surveys found that consumers were more responsive to labels that focused on the food product's freshness and quality rather than environmental impact or CO2 emissions. Consumers perceive that locally grown food is fresher; therefore ecolabels that contain information such as "locally grown by family farmers" may be effective in influencing consumer food choices. The study also found that consumers are willing to pay more for food that has low environmental impacts.(17) Figure 7 is an example of a food label containing food miles information. The Western Montana Sustainable Growers Union is a group of 12 Missoula-area organic farms that has developed the "Homegrown" label, which informs consumers that the food item they are purchasing was grown within 150 miles. Producers in the group pledge "to grow naturally, protect air and water, maintain fair labor practices and, most importantly, to sell and buy in their communities." Groups such as this are jumping up across the country and having an impact on their markets.(18) Producers may question the extent to which consumers are using food miles as a basis for their food choices. In general food choices are no doubt based on price, taste and appearance and a large section of the public knows and cares little about climate change, especially with regard to food choices.(19) There has been increasing demand for food produced in accordance with ethical and environmental standards, however, such as organic and fair trade. Food mile concerns may grow as well. Increasing food security and the domestic supply chain may be other arguments for reducing food miles. Why Consumers Should Care About Food Miles For consumers, convenience and cost are often driving factors when purchasing food. The choices consumers make, however, can have a great deal of infl uence on the direction our food system is headed. Reducing the energy intensiveness of our food has several economic, social and environmental benefits. Consumers who are reducing their food mile footprint: - Enjoy fresher, healthier food - Support local farmers - Keep their money in the community - Know where their food comes from - Reduce their carbon footprint Diet and Energy Buying local and regional food is just one of many dietary choices with important environmental consequences. The FAO estimates that livestock are responsible for 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions.(20) A study at the University of Chicago compared the energy consumption associated with animal-based diets versus plant-based diets and found that consuming a typical American diet of both animals and plants results in 1,485 kg more CO2 than a diet based on plant sources only. This study concludes that "For a person consuming a red meat diet at 35% of calories from animal sources, the added GHG burden above that of a plant eater equals the difference between driving a Camry and an SUV. These results clearly demonstrate the primary effect of one's dietary choices on one's planetary footprint, an effect comparable in magnitude to the car one chooses to drive."(6) Local vs. Organic There has been a great amount of public interest over the last few years in organic food systems. This is an indication of consumers' increasing awareness of where their food is coming from. Organic food is grown without synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. Since these chemicals are usually made from natural gas and other fossil fuels, through a highly energy-intensive process, eliminating synthetic fertilizer and pesticides can significantly reduce the amount of energy required for production. However, increased demand for organics has resulted in retailers sourcing organically grown food from around the globe, creating increased emissions in the transportation process. Some locally grown nonorganic foods may be less energy intensive than organic foods traveling long distances. When evaluating our food options, the decisions are complex, especially if you want to make sustainable choices. Local, organic, fair-trade and other forms of sustainably produced food all play a role in creating sustainable food consumption patterns. The following table provides some guidelines for making ethical food decisions. \|Table 1. What individuals can do to reduce food miles. Adapted from Brian Halweil's Home Grown: the Case for Local Food in a Global Market. 2002.\| The Life Cycles food calculator determines the distance and amount of greenhouse gases saved if a certain food product is bought locally as opposed to imported. A tool for residents within the UK to calculate their food carbon footprint to better understand the extent to which food decisions impact global warming. A tool for acquiring an aggregated description of emissions, waste and the resource use from soil to kitchen per unit of different food items. This calculator was designed to help users determine expanding markets in Iowa if consumers ate more locally grown fresh fruits and vegetables rather than produce from conventional sources outside the state. \| Truck on highway near Petersburg, West Virginia. Photo by Ken Hammond. Courtesy of USDA. Food miles are a growing cause of concern due to the greenhouse gas emissions released through the transportation of our food—and rightly so, as food miles consume a considerable amount of energy. However, we must consider the many complexities of the food system besides just the distance our food is traveling. Other important issues include the mode of transportation, the production method, and packaging considerations, as well as our own personal dietary choices. Each consumer food decision provides an opportunity to make a difference (large or small) in the way energy is used and greenhouse gases are emitted. At the same time, growing consumer interest in local and regional foods is creating new marketing opportunities and new possibilities for partnerships with agricultural producers. - United States Department of Agriculture. 1998. A Time to Act: A Report on the USDA National Commission on Small Farms. www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/ag_systems/pdfs/time_to_act_1998.pdf [PDF/860KB] - Halweil, Brian. 2006. Food Democracy: Nourishing a Fundamental Freedom. Heifer International World Ark. Jan/Feb 2006: 6-13. - Halweil, Brian. 2002. Home Grown: The Case for Local Food in a Global Market. - Pirog, Rich, et al. 2001. Food Fuel, and Freeways: An Iowa Perspective on How Far Food Travels, Fuel Usage, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture. - Horrigan, Leo, et al. 2002. How Sustainable Agriculture can Address the Environment and Human Health Harms of Industrial Agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives. May - Eshel, Gidon and Pamela Martin. 2005. Diet, Energy and Global Warming. University of Chicago, Department of Geophysical Sciences. - Heller, Martin C., and Gregory A. Keoleian. Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Indicators for Assessment of the U.S. Food System. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan, 2000: 42. Report No. CSS00-04. http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf [PDF/853KB] - Murray, Danielle. 2005. Oil and Food: A Rising Security Challenge. www.earthpolicy.org/Updates/2005/Update48.htm - Pirog, Rich. 2002. How Far Do Your Fruit and Vegetables Travel? Leopold Center for - Xureb, Marc. 2005. Food Miles: Environmental Implication of Food Imports to Waterloo - Whitlegg, J. 1993. Transport for a Sustainable Future: The Case for Europe. Bellhaven Press, London. - Smith, A. et al. 2005. The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development. Oxon, United Kingdom: Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs. - Kyodo News. March 2, 2005. Biztrend: Consumption of Local Food Helps Cut CO2 - Saunders, Caroline, et al. 2006. Food Miles Comparative Energy/Emissions Performance of New Zealand's Agriculture Industry. www.beehive.govt.nz/Documents/Files/Food%20Miles%20Executive%20Summary.doc [MS Word/131KB] - Carlsson-Kanyama, Annika. 1998. Climate change and dietary choices – how can emissions of greenhouse gases from food consumption be reduced? http://seminar.mannlib.cornell.edu/topics/food_security/resources/FS01.pdf - Hassanein, Neva, et al. 2007. Tracing the Chain: An in Depth Look at the University of Montana's Farm to College Program. - Pirog, Rich, et al. 2003. Ecolabel Value Assessment: Consumer and Food Business Perceptions of Local Foods. - Sooter, Tad. 2006. Western Montana Growers Go Beyond Organics and Get Local. www.newwest.net/index.php/main/article/bringing_organics_home/ - Garnett, T. 2003. Wise moves. Exploring the relationship between food, road transport and - Steinfield, Henning et al. 2006. Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental issues and options. www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf (PDF/ 4.8MB] Food Miles: Background and Marketing By Holly Hill NCAT Research Specialist Tracy Mumma, HTML Production This page was last updated on: August 28, 2014
How the Spectrum is Used The chart below shows some different ways that the federal government uses the spectrum to help in the accomplishment of its tasks. These uses include Voice of America broadcasts, weather radio services, radars and voice communication systems used to control both commercial and private aeronautical and maritime traffic, weather satellite systems, flood warning and water control systems, and time signals. Almost 93 percent of the assignments authorizing government radio stations are below 3.1 gigahertz (GHz). The Department of Defense (DOD) uses a significant portion of the federal government spectrum for national security purposes. The federal government uses only the portions of the spectrum that it needs to provide critical public services, and seeks to deploy the most efficient technology consistent with available resources. Almost every agency of the federal government uses the spectrum in performing mandated missions. Two dominant themes are always present in the government's use of radio: - The requirement for telecommunication is placed upon the federal agencies by virtue of the missions and programs approved by the President consistent with congressional legislative and funding support. - The use of radio, rather than other forms of communications, is dictated by the type of service required and the inescapable elements of time and space. The law enforcement agencies (e.g., Department of Homeland Security, Justice, Treasury, and Interior Departments) use the spectrum for command and control of their forces, just as state and local police and fire departments do, with the exception that they must be able to operate throughout the United States. The Federal Aviation Administration uses it for safety services such as aeronautical radionavigation, precision landing systems for all weather operations, surveillance, and air/ground communications. The Department of Agriculture Forest Service rangers use the spectrum every time they use their transportable radios for control of crowds or forest fires. The Department of Energy uses it to transmit power control data and commands for their dams and power grids. The Department of Homeland Security uses it for the protection of the United States and for communications in disaster areas via emergency radio networks. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses it during satellite launches for communications with satellites to collect data and command them. NASA must also use the spectrum to track launch vehicles and satellites and destroy them if necessary. The DOD uses the spectrum extensively for tactical and nontactical uses. In the United States, tactical uses are generally limited to several specific testing sites and training areas and facilities. However, DOD's nontactical applications are extensive and include aircraft command and control, mobile communication at military bases and air fields, and long-distance communications using satellites. The distribution of frequency assignments reflects the federal government's use of the spectrum. Its investment in selected bands below 3650 megahertz (MHz) totals about $281 billion, as shown. This investment in technology affects the federal government's ability to relocate to new spectrum bands. The federal government reallocation of 235 MHz to the private sector, for example, will cost taxpayers an estimated $500 million to move the federal government users. (Please note that the $100 billion investment in the 1760-1850 and 2200-2290 MHz bands includes most federal space systems, but not the federal investments of $5.3 billion for fixed and mobile service operations in the 1710-1850 MHz band.) In understanding the federal government's use of the spectrum, one must appreciate the interplay between federal government and non-federal government use of the same spectrum. In addition to the shared use of the same sections of spectrum for unrelated purposes, there is a substantial interface between government and non-government radio operations. Government radio facilities provide-private sector ships and aircraft communications, navigation, and surveillance service; federal law enforcement agencies have intercommunication with their state and local government counterparts; federal electrical power systems interconnect with non-federal power systems, both domestic and international; Civil Air Patrol stations communicate with the military-and so forth. There can be little argument that some form of coordination of operating frequencies and transmitting powers is necessary; after all, the present structure was developed largely because of the interference problems resulting from uncoordinated broadcasting and long-distance (high frequency) transmissions common during the first two decades of the 20th century. While most radio spectrum is very congested, it is not normally necessary to regulate tightly spectrum in those portions of the spectrum that are not congested. Thus, as long as the spectrum is plentiful, merely assuring that two users do not operate in the same part of the spectrum in the same area is sufficient. As the spectrum becomes more crowded, efforts to ensure that the spectrum is used as efficiently as possible to maximize its availability to and use by all become more urgent.
President Barack Obama on Tuesday issued a proclamation commemorating Juneteenth, the annual remembrance of the formal end of slavery in the American south. Marked as an official holiday in some 42 states, June 19th is celebrated primarily by African-Americans. It marks the date in 1865 when — two and a half years after President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation (on September 22, 1862, to go into effect in January 1863) — and two months after the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee, Union General Gordon Granger marched into Galveston, Texas with 2,000 troops and announced General Order #3, which read: The people of Texas are informed that in accordance with a Proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and free laborer.” President Obama’s proclamation read: On this day in 1865, two years after President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, word finally reached the people of Galveston, Texas that the Civil War was over. All enslaved men, women and children were now free. Though it would take decades of struggle and collective effort before African Americans were granted equal treatment and protection under the law, Juneteenth is recognized by Americans everywhere as a symbolic milestone in our journey toward a more perfect union. With the recent ground breaking of the first Smithsonian Museum dedicated to African American History and Culture, and the dedication of a monument to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. on the National Mall, this Juneteenth offers another opportunity to reflect on how far we’ve come as a nation. And it’s also a chance to recommit ourselves to the ongoing work of guaranteeing liberty and equal rights for all Americans. One of 48 original copies of the Emancipation Proclamation, signed by President Lincoln, is set to go on auction later this month and is expected to fetch up to $2.4 million. For more on the Juneteenth tradition, click here.
Land associated with farms including fields, pastures, barns, and hedgerows. Deserts are locations where low (<30cm per year) rainfall results in a highly arid environment containing few plants and animals. Although vegetation is usually sparse, spectacular blooms can occur after adequate rainfall. Deserts can be warm or cold and may be sandy or icey. Forest biomes are dominated by trees but seasonality and rainfall can vary dramatically. Deciduous Forest: Forest dominated by deciduous trees that shed their leaves during one season of the year. Often associated with temperate locations but tropical forests also exist. Rainforest: Can be temperate or tropical, all dominated by trees forming a closed canopy meaning little sunlight reaches the forest floor. Typically lots of rain but dependent on season. Scrub forest: These forests develop in locations where a dry season occurs. As a result of this, most trees are stunted and shrub-like. Most other vegetation is also smaller than elsewhere on the globe. Area dominated by grasses. Includes meadows and prairies. Summits of high mountains covered in low tundra-like vegetation or no vegetation at all. Regions surrounding the North and South pole characterised by low temperatures. Usually contain large expanses of ice and large snowfalls. Grassland with scattered trees. Intermediate between grassland and forest. Areas close to human habitation and concrete structures.
The giant, complex sunspot group observed on Sept. 10, 1941. In September, 1941, one of the most prominent geomagnetic storms in history was triggered by a mammoth sunspot group of complex geometry. (See image) The monster group, first observed on Sept. 10, 1941, occurring at low heliographic latitude and at the eastern limb of the Sun. As I noted in previous posts on such large spots, they form via the gradual assembly of multiple, single flux tubes via convective downdrafts, ultimately leading to the buoyant emergence of a concentrated magnetic field structure with distinct features (umbra, umbral dots, penumbra). The multiple flux tube sunspot model was originally advanced by Eugene Parker (Astrophys. J, 1979) from the University of Chicago. A simple sketch showing the geometry of the model is illustrated below: Where v d represents the downdraft velocity and 'x' is the Wilson depression, denoting the gap between the spot 'surface' and the field -free regions. Parker estimated this to be about 1150 km. The downdraft velocity, meanwhile, he calculated to be roughly 2 km/sec. In more detail, the concentration of hundreds of flux elements or tubes at the solar surface prevented the underlying hot solar plasma from reaching the surface. This also accounted for why sunspots are darker than the surrounding photosphere, because they are some 1500 K cooler, Observations made over the next week (Sept. 10- 17, 1941) disclosed the spot group growing even as the solar rotation brought it near the center of the solar disk as seen from Earth. As we know today, this is also the configuration for meridian-centered CME (coronal mass ejection). By this stage, the sunspot group was large enough to be seen using the naked eye (using an appropriate filter, of course) Then at 8h 38m Universal time on Sept. 17th, a spectrohelioscope at the Royal Greenwich Observatory recorded a solar flare above this sunspot group. The instrument detected emissions of ultraviolet and x-ray radiation which - within 8 minutes (the time taken for radiant energy to reach Earth) enhanced the ionization of the Earth's atmosphere causing a sharp perturbation known as a "crochet". According to a subsequent paper published in The Astrophysical Journal (July 1, 1958) this is a "relatively minor disturbance of Earth's magnetic field which occurs concurrently with certain flares". It is associated with dayside perturbations of the geomagnetic field and affects high frequency radio communications. In this respect, it is analogous to a certain class of sudden ionospheric disturbances. On the basis of daily sunspot numbers supplied by the U.S. Naval Observatory the Dept. of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington formally issued a warning to radio operators to expect significant disturbances in ionosopheric and geomagnetic conditions. beginning on September 18th. This prediction turned out to be accurate so that within 20 hours of the flare a magnetic storm began at 4h 2m UT on Sept. 18th with the arrival of a CME. The latter abruptly compressed the magnetopause generating a magnetic impulse recorded by observatories around the world. In addition, a magnetic "superstorm" followed which was intense and of long duration. To fix ideas and perspective at least one magnetic observatory (run by U.S. Coast and Geodetic survey) registered six separate magnetic storms with a "K index" of 9 the most severe possible. Five occurred over a 24 hour period. The more direct physical effects followed including spectacular auroral displays as far south as New Mexico with some citizens wondering if an anti-aircraft search battery had been triggered. (Bear in mind the nation was on edge and this was barely three months before Pearl Harbor). Meanwhile, magnetic activity was found to abruptly increase by 19h 45 m on Sept. 18th and within 5 minutes the Pennsylvania Water and Power Company recorded uncontrolled voltage variations in transmission lines beginning two hours after the magnetic storm commenced. By Sept. 18-19 widespread interference in radio transmission was reported around the world. The events of September, 1941 are instructive in that they could occur again, say in the next solar cycle. Will we be ready? At least at that time, as my mother noted (she was then attending Wisconsin State Teachers' College) the newspapers regularly published brief scientific accounts such as that below : This appeared on Sept, 21st, days after the geomagnetic events, and in The Milwaukee Sentinel. Though mom was not big on physics or astronomy, she'd save these clippings to be able to use later on, perhaps even to show to her future kids - if she ever got married and had any. (Five years later, she would) Happily, some ten years later I was the chief beneficiary. Those clippings, along with the associated material in The Book Of Knowledge, drove me to pursue astronomy as a hobby by age 11 and later, a career in space and solar physics. Because of these same information- bearing cartoons, citizens of the 1940s and 50s were generally informed about natural events even if they lacked advanced degrees. Can the same be said of most citizens today? One wonders. The more critical question is whether we will be prepared when the next severe geomagnetic disturbance and magnetic superstorms erupt. Of course, in 1941 the basic model of the sunspot was of a magnetic "vortex" or "whirling magnet". Even Harvard astronomer Donald Menzel in is wonderful monograph, ''Mathematical Physics' (1961, pp. 274-75) asserted: "Observations suggest sunspots are vortices. He then set out to try to quantify this vortex model as a spinning disk with n electrons per cm2 and which rotates with uniform angular velocity.. n = 2 H/ e v o where v o is the tangential velocity at the periphery of the vortex-disk.. From these basics, Menzel computed: n = 10 15 electrons / cm2 Menzel then concluded that given the above, "an excess of protons would produce forces 6 x 10 15 as great" and "a sunspot with such an excess would break up with explosive violence". "An excess of one proton per sixty square centimeters on the solar surface would produce sufficient positive potential just to overcome the solar attraction by electrostatic repulsion of an electron" Thereby concluding "the Sun is practically neutral electrically" What about the magnetic aspect? "No alignment of the individual atom magnets could possibly be maintained in the presence of the turbulent motion and high temperatures existing on and in the Sun, The effect is undoubtedly electrical..." One can only marvel at how our understanding of sunspots has progressed since Menzel's book.
Within the main Caddo Homeland, the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to early history and the link to today's Caddo Nation of Oklahoma Ethnologist and famed explorer John Wesley Powell formally defined the Caddoan language family in 1891. Courtesy Smithsonian Institution. Arikara bison-scapula hoe. This type of tool was used in farming by main Plains groups. Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archives. Click Walter Ross, a Wichita, ca. 1927. Photograph by Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, Volume 19. Wichita grass house, ca. 1927. Photograph by Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, "Nasutoeas, Kichai Woman, Akahedik (Wichita)," ca. 1898. Photograph by F. A. Rinehart, courtesy Omaha Public Library. The Kitsai (Kichai) are the least known of the Caddoan language groups. The Kitsai tribe no longer exists as a separate entity; surviving members joined the Wichita in the mid-1800s. Small protected buffalo herd grazing near Wichita Mountains, southwest Oklahoma, 1908. "Buffalo Bull: A Grand Pawnee Warrior," by George Catlin, 1832. The Pawnee relied heavily on buffalo and, in early historic times, lived in what is today Nebraska. Pawnee earth lodges and corral, Nebraska Loup Fork Village, late 19th century. Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archive. Wichita Tribal center near Anadarko, Oklahoma. Photo by Steve Black. The rolling prairie in west-central Oklahoma where the Wichita and Caddo tribes in the 1860s were at last given small territories and allowed to settle in peace. Photo by Steve Black. Pawnee village, ca. 1875. In the background are two massive earth lodges. Photograph by William H. Jackson. The northernmost Caddoan groups, the Pawnee and their close relatives the Arikara, lived in earth lodges to survive the brutal winters of the Central and Northern Plains. The Caddoan languages are Caddo, Wichita, Pawnee, Arikara, and Kitsai, the latter four making up the Northern Caddoan languages. The speakers of the Northern Caddoan languages are also referred to as the Plains Caddoans because all four tribes (and their various bands) lived in the Southern and Central Plains during historic times. Caddo is the only Southern "Caddo" vs. "Caddoan" The words "Caddo" and "Caddoan" have been used to mean different things by different researchers and writers, adding considerable confusion to the complex and often impossible task of understanding the relationships among historic tribes and their ancestors. In the Tejas exhibits we have tried to use these terms consistently. In historical documents the word Caddo is sometimes used to refer just to the Cadohadacho, but today it is more commonly applied to all of the Caddo-speaking groups. Although there wasn't a united Caddo Tribe until 1874 when, under pressure from the U.S. government, the remnants of the groups speaking various dialects of the Caddo language formally joined together for survival, the term Caddo is still very useful to refer to (1) the united Caddo Tribe; (2) all of the groups known to have spoken Caddo dialects before 1859; (3) the Caddo language; and (4) the direct ancestors of the Caddo-speaking groups as inferred from archeological evidence. Further the word is used both as a singular (i.e., the Caddo village) and plural noun (i.e., the Caddo were corn farmers), although the plural form, Caddos, is also used. Fine so far: Caddo means anything to do with the Caddo Tribe and its direct ancestors. It is the term "Caddoan" that causes trouble. In normal English language usage, the word can correctly be used as the adjectival form of Caddo (i.e., the Caddoan village). But it took on another meaning in 1891 when ethnologist and famed explorer John Wesley Powell formally defined the Caddoan language family. Powell, like other scholars before him, recognized that the Caddo language was closely related to the Wichita, Pawnee, Arikara, and Kitsai languages and, rightly, lumped them together in one language family. Since the 1940s, archeologists have used the term Caddoan Area to refer to the southern and easternmost region containing prehistoric and historic sites linked to the ancestors of the Caddoan language family groups. The Caddoan Area was mainly the home of the Caddo-speaking groups; however, its northern part may have been occupied in prehistoric times by some of the ancestors of certain other Caddoan groups, notably the Wichita and Kitsai. This is uncertain because the ancestors of all Caddoan language groups appear to have migrated over hundreds of miles during their histories. (Except the ancestors of the Caddo-speakers, who seem to have stayed more or less in one general area throughout their known history.) In 1542 when the De Soto entrada traveled through parts of the Caddoan Area, all of the Caddoan groups who were encountered apparently spoke a Caddo dialect. Unfortunately, the Caddoan Area as traditionally defined includes both the main area that we will call the "Caddo Homeland" as well as what is often called the "Northern Caddoan Area." The main Caddo Homeland lies south of the Arkansas River in the valleys and tributaries of the Ouachita, Red, Sabine, and Neches rivers where the historically documented Caddo speakers lived until the 19th century. This area, sometimes referred to as the "Southern Caddoan Area," has abundant and unmistakable archeological evidence that the direct ancestors of Caddo-speaking peoples lived there for at least 1000 years and probably 3000-4000 years or longer, perhaps much longer. In other words, within the main Caddo Homeland, the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to early history and the link to today's Caddo Nation of Oklahoma In contrast, the cultural continuity of the Arkansas Basin (the so-called "Northern Caddoan Area"), the valleys of the Arkansas River and its tributaries and adjacent southern Ozark Highlands in northeastern Oklahoma and northwestern Arkansas, was broken prior to (or possibly just after) the arrival of the earliest European visitors. This circumstance is discussed elsewhere (see "Spiro and the Arkansas Basin"). Briefly, it is not known whether the area was occupied by the ancestors of Caddo-speaking peoples, the ancestors of the Kitsai, the ancestors of the Wichita, or perhaps even by the ancestors of the Tunica, a people linguistically unrelated to the Caddo. The Caddoan archeological tradition clearly represents the ancestors of the Caddo, but it may also, in part, include archeological sites occupied by the ancestors of the Wichita and Kitsai (or even by peoples who did not speak a Caddoan language). In fact, as explained below, thousands of years ago in Woodland and Archaic times it is likely that the ancestors of all the Caddoan language family lived in or near the Caddoan Area. To avoid the confusion between the Caddoan language family and the word Caddoan as the adjectival form of Caddo, throughout the Tejas exhibits we use the term "Caddo" to refer only to the Caddo speakers, their language, and their direct ancestors as identified archeologically. We use the term "Caddoan" only in the linguistic sense to refer to the Caddoan language family. Brief History of the Caddoan Language Family Before modern transportation and communication systems existed, languages spread and changed in similar, fairly predictable ways. When a people speaking a common language split apart, with one group migrating elsewhere and becoming geographically isolated from the other, the "mother" language as spoken by each group gradually changed over time. For instance, new words may be coined, old words may be dropped, and pronunciation changes. (Witness the differences in the English spoken by Britains, Americans, and Australians.) The mother language becomes two dialects that, over time, become more and more different until eventually the speakers of one dialect cannot understand the other. This is how new languages Linguists are the specialists who study languages and how they relate to one another. They have worked out the basic relationships among most of the world's surviving languages and have classified them into various families and branches. Linguists often use a branching tree as a metaphor for how languages are related. English, German, Dutch, and Yiddish, for instance, are all Germanic languages that represent the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Similarly, the Romance languages that developed out of Latin, such as Spanish, French, and Italian, form the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. By systematically studying how different and similar two related languages are, linguists can estimate how long ago they split apart, a technique called glottochronology. Glottochronology is controversial because, among other reasons, not all languages change at the same rate and because it is often difficult or impossible to compare languages that are poorly known. A great many languages have become extinct in the last few centuries including over half the languages spoken by Native American peoples 500 years ago. Still, studying the relationships among languages is a powerful way of reconstructing the early histories of different peoples across the world. Unfortunately, the last published glottochronology for all the Caddoan languages dates to the 1960s, before the technique was refined. According to this estimate, the Caddoan languages did not begin splitting apart until 3,000 to 3,500 years ago. Some Caddo archeological experts such as Timothy Perttula reject this estimate and suggest that the initial split between Southern and Northern Caddoan languages (see below) may have taken place thousands of years earlier. That said, as one goes back in time, confidently linking language and ethnicity with archeological evidence is increasingly difficult, if not impossible. Nonetheless, the linguistic estimate is that prior to about 3,500 years ago, the distant ancestors of all of the Caddoan groups were a single people who spoke an ancestral language that linguists call Proto-Caddoan. Of course, Proto-Caddoan has long been extinct or, rather, it evolved into the various Caddoan languages as the Proto-Caddoan ancestors split apart and went their separate ways. It is estimated that about 3,500 years ago (1500 B.C.) the ancestors of the Northern Caddoan groups split from the Caddo and the two languages began to change. Sometime after the time of Christ, the Proto-Northern-Caddoan speakers began splitting off from one another, first the Wichita, then the Kitsai, and finally the Pawnee. Still later, only 400-500 years ago, the Arikara split from the Pawnee. The Caddoan languages are distantly related to the Iroquoian languages (such as Iroquois and Cherokee) and even more distantly related to the Siouan languages (such as Dakota and Crow). Because of certain similarities, linguists theorize that these three language families have had a common origin (a shared ancestry) at some remote point in time, probably in the central part of the country, perhaps somewhere along the central valley of the Mississippi River. But this was so long ago (perhaps more than 10,000 years?) that any historical reconstruction is little more than a guess. Within the Caddoan language family, however, we can reconstruct at least the general patterns of movement over time. All of the groups that spoke a Caddoan language lived west of the Mississippi River, along its western tributaries. During historic times the Caddoan groups were spread across an area that spanned about 1200 miles north-south and almost 500 miles east-west. At historic contact, the latest groups that had split off among the Northern Caddoans lived the farthest north. The Arikara lived in what is now South and North Dakota, while the Pawnee lived in present day Nebraska. The Northern Caddoan groups that had split off earlier, the Witchita and Kitsai, lived between the Pawnee and the Caddo, in what is today Kansas and Oklahoma. Based on such geographical clues, linguists surmise that the original homeland of the Proto-Caddoan speakers was in the forested western fringe of the Eastern Woodlands, within or very near the Caddo Homeland. To replay the outlines of Caddoan history, we can guess that Proto-Caddoan ancestors lived in the Caddo Homeland, perhaps in or near the valleys of the Red and Arkansas rivers and the intervening Ouachita Mountatins. One group stayed on and became the Caddo and another split off and began moving north and west, probably up the Red and Arkansas river systems. The Proto-Northern Caddoan speakers gradually moved farther out onto the Plains and split apart as they moved west and north. The ancestors of the Pawnee and Arikara moved farther and farther north and west up the Missouri River and its tributaries, eventually losing all memory of the Caddo. The ancestors of the Wichita and Kichai stayed in the Southern Plains. Nonetheless, the Caddo were separated from all of the Northern Caddoan groups long enough ago that they had no tradition of a common ancestry, nor could they speak to By the end of the Plains Woodland era (about A.D. 900), if not before, the ancestors of most (all?) of the Northern Caddoan peoples were Plains villagers, farmers and buffalo hunters who lived in villages scattered through the wooded valleys across the Plains. Some archeologists think that Caddoan-speaking groups spread westward across Oklahoma, north Texas including the Panhandle, and Kansas, as far as the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in what is today northeastern New Mexico and southeastern Colorado. After A.D. 1350 in the 14th and 15th centuries, the "southwestern" Plains villagers abandoned that area and moved north and east, apparently in response to climatic changes and the encroachment from the west and northwest of Apachean peoples. The ethnic affiliations of the southwestern Plains villagers are not known, but some archeologists believe they may have included the ancestors of the Pawnee/Arikara and the Wichita. In contrast with the Caddo, who stayed put in their original homeland, all of the Northern Caddoan groups appear to have migrated hundreds of miles during the last two millennia. Their inferred early history makes ecological sense. The relatively dry climate of the southern and central Great Plains is prone to periodic drought and thus marginal for dry land farming. (The western Caddoan Homeland is also drought prone, but to a lesser extent.) And without modern machinery and irrigation, the great grasslands of the Plains could not be farmed. Hence the Plains villagers lived along the relatively narrow and well-watered river valleys where farming was possible. The bands of each group had to spread out along the narrow valleys and were susceptible to raids from enemy groups. Raiding and climatic change are two of the main factors that explain why the Plains Caddoans moved from place to place. The complex histories and migrations of the Wichita, Kitsai, Pawnee, and Arikara peoples reflect their precarious existence on the Plains. Northern Caddoan Peoples Sadly little can be said about the poorly known Kitsai tribe (also spelled Kichai). The Kitsai language is no longer spoken and only a bit of it was recorded before the last Kitsai speaker passed away in the 1930s. The tribe no longer exists as a separate entity; surviving members joined the Wichita in the mid-1800s. The Kitsai appear to have been farmers and hunters, like all Caddoan peoples, and are mentioned in various French and Spanish documents. Throughout their known history during the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Kitsai were relatively few in number and divided into two groups, a northern band allied with the Wichita, and a southern band allied with the Cadohadacho and other Caddo groups. Their known territory was in south-central Oklahoma and north-central Texas, just west of the Caddo, especially along the Red River. Several archeological sites in north Texas have been linked, speculatively, to the Kitsai, including the mid-18th century although the evidence is not compelling. Some archeologists believe that Kitsai ancestors were the prehistoric people of Spiro and the Arkansas Basin. The Wichita are much better known than the Kitsai, because they were a more numerous people, and because they survived as a tribe. Like the Caddo, the Wichita were made up of a number of related, but independent groups including the Tawakoni, Yscani, Hueco, and Wichita proper, that probably each spoke a separate dialect. The Wichita groups (along with the remaining Kitsai) became a single tribe in 1835 when they signed a treaty with the United States. Ancestral Wichita groups were first encountered in 1541 by Coronado's expedition in the vicinity of the Great Bend of the Arkansas River in present day south-central Kansas. The Spanish named the area Gran Quivara and reported visiting a series of large villages, some containing 200 large dome-shaped grass houses similar to those built by the Caddo. During the historic era, the Wichita groups moved southward through Oklahoma and into Texas as far south as Waco, which was named after the Wichita Hueco band whose village once stood where the city was built. Like the Caddo, the Wichita were resettled in Indian Territory after the Civil War and today maintain a tribal center near The Pawnee and Arikara had a shared history (i.e., were one people) until splitting apart perhaps 400-500 years ago, just before historic contact. Their ancestors have been identified archeologically as the Upper Republican phase of the Central Plains Village tradition in Kansas and Nebraska. After they split apart, the Arikara moved farther north into what is today South Dakota. Both groups lived in earthen lodges in compact villages that were sometimes fortified. Like other Caddoans, both groups had a mixed economy with farming and buffalo hunting being important. The Pawnee relied heavily on bison, while the Arikara were also fishermen as well as traders. Prior to consolidation during the 19th century, both the Arikara and Pawnee were made up of independent bands speaking their own dialects. Today the Arikara remain in North Dakota, where they settled on a reservation with the Sioux-speaking Mandan and Hidatsa. The Pawnee have a tribal center in north-central Oklahoma, where they were given land in 1876 in exchange for giving up much of Nebraska. "Arikara Village of Earth-covered Lodges, 1600 Miles above St. Louis," by George Catlin, 1832. The Arikara are the northernmost of the groups who spoke one of the Caddoan languages. Today they share a reservation with the Sioux-speaking Mandan and Hidatsa in North Dakota. Click images to enlarge John Tatum, a Wichita man, and six others, (on the left is Nasutoeas,a Kitsai woman), ca. 1898. Photograph by F. A. Rinehart, courtesy Omaha Public Throughout the Tejas exhibits we use the term "Caddo" to refer only to the Caddo speakers, their language, and their direct ancestors and only in the linguistic sense to refer to the Caddoan Fred Carruth, a young Wichita man, ca. 1898. Photograph by F. A. Rinehart, courtesy Omaha All of the Plains Caddoan groups depended on bison herds for food, clothing, and tools. The Pawnee, in particular, were famed bison hunters. Courtesy Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. This diagram shows the relationships among the various Caddoan languages and indicates the order in which the various language groups are thought to have split from one another. How long ago the various splits occurred is very poorly known. Linguistic estimates suggest that, prior to about 3,500 years ago, the ancestors of all of the groups were a single people who spoke an ancestral language that linguists call Proto-Caddoan. About 3,500 years ago (1500 B.C.) the ancestors of the Northern Caddoan groups split from the Caddo and the two languages began to diversify. (Some archeologists think the initial split may have occurred thousands of years earlier.) Sometime after the time of Christ, the Proto-Northern-Caddoan speakers began splitting off, first the Wichita, then the Kitsai, and finally the Pawnee. Still later (not long before Europeans arrived) the Arikara split from the Pawnee and Pawnee split into Pawnee Chief Boss Sun wearing bear claw necklace, peace medal, and holding feather fan. Late 19th century. Smithsonian Institution National "The Rush Gatherer," an Arikira woman, ca. 1908. Photograph by Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, Volume 5. The Arikara were the last of the Caddoan language groups to develop, they split apart from their close relatives, the Pawnee, about 400-500 years ago. All Caddoan groups were corn farmers to varying degrees. Corn was more important to the Caddo in large part because climatic conditions in the Caddo Homeland was much more favorable to growing corn than it was on the central Plains were the Pawnee and Arikara lived. Photograph by Frank Schambach. Kitsai Chief Knee-War-War in partial native dress with ornaments, 1872. Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archive. Wichita grass house on display at Indian City, Anadarko, Oklahoma. Photograph courtesy Dee Ann Story. Wichita grass-house ceremony, ca. 1927. Photograph by Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, Volume 19.
Bob Books: Sight Words - First Grade Basic literacy in a box! Ten cute mini books to teach 30 essential sight words for first graders, plus fun flashcards to test recognition. Get on top of those all-important words! Sight words are the most frequently used words in the English language; essential words that every young child needs to know. Presented in a smart boxed set, this lovely collection allows children to develop confidence with 30 common sight words through repetition and practice. Ten charming mini stories introduce three sight words each, illustrated with fantastic pictures by Sue Hendra. Then children can test themselves with double-sided flashcards that let them read each word alone or in the context of a whole sentence. - 10 funny, easy-to-read mini books - 30 double-sided flashcards - 30 new sight words in all – 3 introduced in each story - Context and picture clues to give hints - Consistent short vowels for easy decoding
A venogram is an X-ray test that takes pictures of blood flow through the veins in a certain area of the body. During a venogram, a special dye (contrast material) is put into your veins so they can be seen clearly on an X-ray picture. A venogram looks at the condition of your veins and the valves in your veins. A venogram can show the veins in your legs, pelvis, or arm; the veins leading to the heart; or the veins leaving your kidneys. Venography also may be done to find a blood clot (deep vein thrombosis, or DVT). Blood clots in the deep veins can be serious because the clot or part of it can break off and move through the blood vessels. A clot that blocks an artery in your lung (pulmonary embolus) can be life-threatening. Why It Is Done Venography is done to: - Find blood clots in the deep veins of your leg, arm, or pelvis (deep vein thrombosis, or DVT). - Find healthy veins to be used in coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. - Find the right placement in blood vessels for medical devices such as filters or stents. - Put a thin flexible tube (catheter) in your kidney (renal) vein to collect a blood sample. - Check the condition of the valves in the veins of your leg when surgery for varicose veins is being considered. - Guide the placement of a special intravenous (IV) line that is used for long-term medicine or fluid treatment. How To Prepare Do not eat for 4 hours before a venogram. You may drink only clear fluids for 4 hours before the test. Before a venogram, tell your doctor if you: - Are or might be pregnant. - Are allergic to any medicines, contrast material, or iodine dye. - Have bleeding problems or take blood-thinning medicines, such as aspirin, heparin, or warfarin (Coumadin). - Have asthma. - Have had a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis). - Have had kidney problems. - Have diabetes, especially if you take metformin (Glucophage). You will be asked to sign a consent form for this test. Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results may mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form(What is a PDF document?) . How It Is Done A venogram usually is done in a hospital X-ray department by a radiologist and an X-ray technologist. A nurse may also be present. Take off all jewelry and metal objects before the test. You will need to take off all or most of your clothes. You will be given a gown to use during the test. You may be asked to urinate just before the test begins. Arm, pelvis, or leg venogram You will lie on an X-ray table. A tilting X-ray table is usually used when studying the legs. Safety straps will help you lie still if the table is tilted. For a leg venogram, you will be asked to relax the leg and keep it still during the X-rays. An elastic band will be put around your leg or ankle to make the veins of the foot fill with blood. The dye will be put in a vein (IV) on the top of your foot. If the veins in your pelvis are studied, the dye may be placed in a vein in your groin. For an arm venogram, the dye will be put into a vein on the top of your hand or in your arm. After the dye is put in, a series of X-rays is taken of each section of the arm or leg or pelvis. Your arm or leg may be placed in several different positions so that X-rays from different views can be taken. If your doctor is placing an intravenous (IV) line, X-rays will be taken as the line is put in to help guide it to the correct position. After the X-rays are taken, your arm or leg will be raised. A sterile salt solution (saline) may be put into the vein to help flush out the dye. Heparin, a blood thinner, may be put into the vein to prevent a blood clot. A small bandage will be placed on the IV site. Drink extra fluids after the test to help flush the dye out of your body. This test usually takes 30 to 45 minutes. You will lie on the X-ray table and a numbing medicine (local anesthetic) will be put in the skin in your groin area. A small, thin tube (catheter) is put into the femoral vein in your groin. The catheter is guided through the blood vessels into the vein of one kidney and then the other. Blood samples may be taken from each kidney for more tests. The dye is put through the catheter into each vein and X-rays are taken. The dye may also be put into the large blood vessel (inferior vena cava) in your belly to check the blood flow in it. After the X-rays are taken, the catheter is removed and a bandage is put on the IV site. The test takes about 1 hour. When it is done, you will need to rest in bed for 2 to 3 hours. You will get IV fluids to flush the dye out of your body. You will usually be asked to drink lots of fluids for the next 24 hours. How It Feels You will feel a quick sting or pinch when the numbing medicine is given. When the dye is put into the vein, you may feel a warm flush or have a metallic taste in your mouth. You may feel like your arm or leg is going to sleep during the test. This goes away after the test. There is some risk of problems with a venogram. - There is a small risk of developing an allergic reaction to the dye. - There is a small risk of infection or damage to the veins being studied. In rare cases, a venogram can cause a deep vein thrombosis. - There is a risk of kidney problems if you take metformin (Glucophage) to control your diabetes. - There is always a slight chance of damage to cells or tissue from radiation, including the low levels of radiation used for this test. But the chance of damage from the X-rays is usually very low compared with the benefits of the test. After the test In rare cases, a venogram can cause an infection or a blood clot in the area studied. Call your doctor immediately if you have: - A fever. - Increasing pain, redness, or swelling in the arm or leg studied. A venogram is an X-ray test that takes pictures of the blood flow through the veins in a certain area of the body. The dye moves quickly and evenly through all the deep veins of the arm, leg, or pelvis. There are no enlarged veins or blood clots present. The valves in the veins look normal and work properly. The venogram shows blocked blood flow to one or more of the deep veins of the arm, leg, or pelvis. A blood clot may be blocking blood flow. The appearance of the clot may help tell if it is old or new. Veins in the arm, leg, or pelvis are enlarged (varicose veins). This can be caused by blocked blood flow or damage to the valves. The dye moves quickly and evenly through all of the veins of the kidneys (renal veins). There are no enlarged veins or blood clots present. A blocked vein from the kidney, a tumor, or a damaged kidney vein is present. What Affects the Test Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include: - Pregnancy. A venogram is not usually done during pregnancy because the radiation from the X-rays could harm the unborn baby (fetus). - The inability to stay still during the test. Arm or leg venogram - Putting any weight on the leg being tested may stop the dye from moving through the leg veins properly. - Moving your arm or leg may affect how the dye moves. - In rare cases, foot veins are too small to put the dye into for the test. - Stool (feces) or gas in the intestines (bowel) may make it hard to see the kidney veins clearly. What To Think About - Doppler ultrasound is often the first test done to look for blood clots in the veins of the arms or legs. Venography may be done when another test, such as ultrasound, cannot give a clear picture of the veins. - Some X-ray departments use computed tomography venography (CTV) or magnetic resonance venography (MRV) instead of the more standard X-ray venography. Other Works Consulted - Fischbach FT, Dunning MB III, eds. (2009). Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. - Pagana KD, Pagana TJ (2006). Mosby’s Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby. \|Editor\|\|Susan Van Houten, RN, BSN, MBA\| \|Associate Editor\|\|Tracy Landauer\| \|Primary Medical Reviewer\|\|Kathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine\| \|Specialist Medical Reviewer\|\|Howard Schaff, MD - Diagnostic Radiology\| \|Last Updated\|\|August 18, 2009\|
Getting the Day Name for a Date When developing software that displays dates, you may want to show the name of a day such as Monday, Tuesday, etc. The names should be shown in the user's preferred language. This is simple to achieve using either of the methods described in this tip. The DateTime structure includes a property named DayOfWeek. This property returns a value from an enumeration that is also called DayOfWeek. The returned value can be processed as an integer or can be converted to a string holding the English version of the day name. string day = DateTime.Now.DayOfWeek.ToString(); Console.WriteLine(day); // Outputs "Thursday" Applying a Language Using Culture Information The DayOfWeek property is useful but only returns a day of the week in English. To show the name is a different language, a culture information class from the Globalization namespace is used. The CultureInfo class contains information relating to the current culture or a named locale's regional settings including date and time formatting details. One of the properties, DayNames, is an array of strings containing the names of days. To run the following example of this property, ensure that you add using System.Globalization; to the top of your code. CultureInfo local = CultureInfo.CurrentCulture; CultureInfo germany = CultureInfo.GetCultureInfo("de-DE"); int day = (int)DateTime.Now.DayOfWeek; Getting a Day Name Using String Conversion The final method for retrieving a day name for a DateTime is to simply convert the date value into a string using a format specifier. For the full name the specifier should be 'dddd'. Using 'ddd' instead returns a shortened version of the day name. DateTime today = DateTime.Now; Console.WriteLine(today.ToString("dddd")); // Outputs "Thursday" Console.WriteLine(today.ToString("ddd")); // Outputs "Thu" 6 December 2007
Almost overnight, the mosquitoes came out in force across the Kenai Peninsula, leading to shortages of insect repellent and general discontent during outdoor activities. The rapid onset of cold temperatures last fall followed by an insulating snow blanket created ideal overwintering conditions for hibernating mosquito species. Combined with a late, cool spring, abundant standing water conditions, and a warm uptick in temperatures, the stage was set for an extreme (and annoying) mosquito boom this summer. Not all species appear at the same time — Alaska has around 35 species of mosquito that emerge in order throughout the season. The first species to emerge is one of the large “snow mosquitoes” that overwinter as adults and come out of hibernation with snow still on the ground. Adults hibernate in leaf litter, under downed trees, or in other protected natural places. Other species overwinter as eggs, with adults emerging in mid- to late summer. Worldwide, there are over 3,500 species of mosquitoes, of which only a couple of hundred or so bother humans. A mosquito can drink up to three times its weight in blood, but don’t fret — it would take about 1.2 million bites to drain all the blood from an average human body. Only the female sucks blood, and most mosquitoes require a blood meal to develop eggs. Some autogenous species can produce eggs with no blood, and others can lay up to three broods of eggs, becoming increasing voracious for blood with each brood. They pierce the skin with a serrated proboscis and draw blood through one of two tubes, while pumping fluid containing a mild painkiller and an anti-coagulant through the second tube. Most people have minor allergic reactions to the fluid, causing the area around the bite to swell and itch. Both female and male mosquitoes also feed on plant nectar. Eggs are deposited in clusters in stagnant water or forest floors with spring flooding, making much of the western Kenai Peninsula a paradise for breeding. In warm weather, eggs can hatch within 2 to 3 days into larvae, which feed on organic matter and breathe oxygen from the surface. Larvae stay in this stage from 4 days to 2 weeks, although they can survive for a month in near-freezing water. They develop into pupae, which are non-feeding and partially encased in cocoons. Over several days, the pupae change into adult mosquitoes. Mosquitoes buzz around best in calm weather, but can function in wind speeds up to ten miles per hour. They don’t roam far — a memorable study in 1997 released 3 million radioactive mosquito adults from a single spot. After a week, no specimens were found more than 600 feet from the point of release, and after a month only one was recovered from as far away as 5,000 feet. Natural predators include bats, fish, insect species such as dragonflies and water beetles, and birds — if you keep chickens, you can watch them enthusiastically devouring mosquitoes in your yard. Mosquitoes seem to prefer some victims over others. They cue in on carbon dioxide, which is produced at different levels by different people. Other signals include higher body temperatures, scents and odors, alcohol (even a 12-ounce beer can apparently make you tastier), and even pregnancy, as expectant mothers exhale more carbon dioxide and tend to have higher temperatures. Some studies show certain blood types exude chemical markers that attract more bites. These insects are feared not only for their dreadful whine and itchy bite, but for their capacity to carry and transmit diseases such as bird flu, West Nile virus, malaria, and encephalitis. Human disease carrying capacity is thought to be low up north. Researchers from San Francisco State University are currently testing thousands of mosquitoes captured in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Coldfoot for presence of malaria, after this disease was detected in non-migrating black-capped chickadees in Anchorage and Fairbanks in 2011 and 2012. Since these birds don’t migrate, they were been bitten by an Alaskan mosquito carrying the malaria parasite. The types of parasites that cause malaria in birds don’t infect humans, so there is currently no cause for alarm. After outbreaks of West Nile virus in other parts of the country, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game conducted extensive testing of birds for presence of the virus, which can be spread to humans by mosquitoes that first bite an infected bird. To date, no evidence of this virus has been found in Alaska. Fortunately, conditions are thought to be nearly impossible for this virus to exist up north because migratory birds are gone by the time major mosquito species hatch. The virus needs about 10 days to incubate in the bird before it can be spread to mosquitoes. The best way to minimize bites is to cover up and put on repellent — wear tight weave cotton shirts and pants in khaki or neutral colors, tuck in shirts and pants, and use a head net in severe conditions. We can also take comfort in that in a few short months, our mosquito friends will be back in hibernation, having fulfilled their ecological niche of bloodsucking dominance for the summer. Dr. Elizabeth (Libby) Bella is an ecologist at Kenai National Wildlife Refuge. You can find more information about the Refuge at http://kenai.fws.gov or http://www.facebook.com/kenainationalwildliferefuge.
One key distinction between Renaissance and Baroque instrumental music is in instrumentation; that is, the ways in which instruments are used or not used in a particular work. Closely tied to this concept is the idea of idiomatic writing, for if composers are unaware of or indifferent to the idiomatic capabilities of different instruments, then they will have little reason to specify which instruments they desire. Howard Brown, while acknowledging the importance of vocal transcriptions in Renaissance instrumental repertoire, has identified six categories of specifically instrumental music in the sixteenth century: While the first three could easily be performed vocally, the last three are clearly instrumental in nature, suggesting that even in the sixteenth century composers were writing with specifically instrumental capabilities in mind, as opposed to vocal. In contention of composers' supposed indifference to instrumental timbres, Brown has also pointed out that as early as 1533, Pierre Attaignant was already marking some vocal arrangements as more suitable for certain groups of like instruments than for others. Furthermore, Count Giovanni de' Bardi, host of a gathering of prominent 1580s scholars and artists known as the Florentine Camerata, was demonstrably aware of the timbral effects of different instruments and regarded different instruments as being suited to expressing particular moods. In the early Baroque, these melodic embellishments that had been improvised in the Renaissance began to be incorporated into compositions as standardized melodic gestures. With the Baroque's emphasis on a soloist as virtuoso, the range of pitches and characteristic techniques formerly found only in virtuosic improvisation, as well as the first dynamic markings, were now written as the expected standard. On the other hand, some of the instrumental genres listed above, such as the prelude, toccata, and intonation, were improvisation-based to begin with. Even in the early sixteenth century, these genres were truly, idiomatically instrumental; they could not be adapted for voices because they were not composed in a consistent polyphonic style. Thus, idiomatic instrumental effects were present in Renaissance performance, if not in writing. By the early Baroque, however, they had clearly found their way into writing when composers began specifying desired instrumentation, notably Claudio Monteverdi in his opera scores. The application of this principle to instrumental writing was partly an extension of the forces of change in vocal writing stemming from the Florentine Camerata and their head Count Giovanni de' Bardi, who deliberately sought to change the way music was written, and adopted an overarching goal of a music renascence. In a c. 1580 letter to Giulio Caccini, a composer and member of the Camerata, Bardi decried counterpoint's obscuring of the text in vocal settings and advocates a return to the music of the ancient Greeks, which he believed consisted of a single singing line and simple accompaniment, allowing direct, intelligible expression of the text. He instructed Caccini to "make it your chief aim to arrange the verse well and to declaim the words as intelligibly as you can." While Bardi's letter dealt with vocal music, the principle of a single, clear melody dominating a simple accompaniment easily carries over to the instrumental realm. This is seen in the proliferation of hitherto unknown solo instrumental sonatas beginning shortly after Caccini's Le Nuove Musiche in 1601. The rise of instrumental monody did not have its roots exclusively in vocal music. In part, it was based on the extant sixteenth-century practice of performing polyphonic madrigals with one voice singing the treble line, while the others were played by instruments or by a single keyboard instrument. Thus, while all voices were still theoretically equal in these polyphonic compositions, in practice the listener would have heard one voice as being a melody and the others as accompaniment. Furthermore, the new musical genres that appeared in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, especially the instrumental sonata, revealed a transition in ways of thinking about composition and performance, from a collaboration of equals to a soloist backed up by a relatively unimportant accompaniment. In addition, even in the mid sixteenth century, most works for voice and lute were conceived specifically as such. In the realm of English ayres, for instance, this meant that composers such as John Dowland and Adrian LeRoy were already thinking of a dichotomous melody and bass, filled in not with counterpoint but with chords "planned for harmonic effect." This necessarily led to a change in the types of instruments that were preferred by composers, for many instruments of the Renaissance were greatly limited in pitch range, being designed only to play a discreet role in a consort, as well as in dynamic scope. Entire families of instruments, such as racketts and shawms, were unsuited to carrying a solo melodic line with brilliance and expressivity because they were incapable of dynamic variation, and fell into disuse or at best provided color in string-dominated ensembles. The low instruments of the woodwind consorts were all but abandoned. Even in the string family, members of the viol family – except for the bass viol, which provided the necessary basso continuo – were gradually replaced by the new and highly virtuosic violin. The lute and viola da gamba continued being written for in an accompanimental role but could not compete with the violin in volume. The shawm was replaced by the oboe, which had a more refined sound and was capable of dynamic nuance. The cornett, which in the Renaissance tended to function as the soprano member of the sackbut family, survived in the early seventeenth century as a solo instrument, even having a large repertoire rivaling that of the violin, but eventually disappeared as well. However, Renaissance instruments did not vanish from use quickly; contemporary references indicate such instruments survived in chamber or military contexts well throughout the seventeenth century and even into the eighteenth. As a general rule, however, one can see in the Baroque an overwhelming preference for those instruments that were capable of carrying a melodic line alone: those that were louder and higher, that could achieve a variety of dynamics, and that lent themselves to virtuosic display and emotional expression, none of which the Renaissance instruments were designed to do. Lower-pitched instruments, those that could not vary dynamics, or those that were cumbersome, were deprecated. Thus, the supremacy of melody in the Baroque mind had wide-reaching consequences in the instrumental choices made by composers and makers. Such music allowed for highly dramatic effects, with sudden shifts in volume, articulation, timbre and texture, for not all of the choirs were the same size, and could be made up of radically different combinations of voices and instruments. With the addition of the basso continuo in the early seventeenth century, the concertato style (stile concertato) had essentially been developed, featuring a larger overarching ensemble out of which smaller groups were selected at will to play successive musical phrases in different styles, or to perform simultaneously in different manners. Thus one phrase might be soloistic, the next set in imitative polyphony, the next homophonic, the next an instrumental tutti, and so on. Alternatively, a chorus could declaim a text homophonically while violins played in an entirely different style at the same time – in a different register, in a different location in the church, all performed over a basso continuo. The stile concertato spread throughout Europe and was particularly dominant in Italy and Germany, later forming the basis of the Baroque concerto, the concerto grosso, and the German cantata.
General Zika Virus Information The Zika virus (Zika) is spread to people primarily through the bite of an infected Aedes aegypti or Aedes albopictus species of mosquito. Mosquito transmission of the Zika virus is found in over 50 countries and territories worldwide, including North, Central and South America, the Caribbean, Pacific Islands and Africa. There have been travel-related cases of Zika virus infection in Missouri, but there have been no reported cases of Zika infection due to a local mosquito bite. Surveys are being conducted to determine if the types of mosquitoes found in Missouri can carry and spread Zika virus. We know that mosquitoes that transmit West Nile virus are present in our state, so people should take precautions to protect themselves and their families even if Zika virus mosquitoes are not found. Zika at a Glance Missouri data regarding mosquito-borne infection can be found on DHSS’s Data and Statistical page (updated weekly). Continental United States Zika Data can be found at CDC’s Zika site. What We Know Prevention begins with you The two most effective methods of Zika prevention include reducing mosquito populations and using personal protection measures to prevent mosquito bites and sexual transmission. For more information regarding Zika prevention and personal protection measures, visit: - Controlling Mosquitoes - Personal Protection Measures - If You Have Zika - Zika and Pregnant Women - Zika and Travelers Mosquitoes like to bite day and night!
Fish, Fisheries and Queryomics Shark finning is the practice of removing and retaining the fins of sharks, while the remainder of the shark is tossed overboard. This is done at sea, so that only the valuable fins need to be transported to market. The practice is controversial as it contributes to overharvest of shark stocks, is seen as wasteful, and is often performed on live sharks, which then are doomed to die. Shark finning is regularly in the news of late, so Beel began wondering about the prevalence of this practice in different media. Let Beel present the results. Tweets involving shark finning have been common over the past month, with a few obvious peaks. This Twitter activity typically represents tweets and retweets of news stories about finning. One of the more popular, and most impressive, of these stories is a report by Dan Rather, whom Beel dislikes, that shows video of finned sharks laying about, and dying on, a coral reef. It is unclear how long this practice has been going on, however, the phrase, “shark finning” either did not occur, or was exceedingly rare, in English literature until the late 1980s, as indicated in this graph from the Google ngram Viewer. Since 1988, there has been a steady increase in the prevalence of the phrase “shark finning” in the English literature. While this may not indicate when the practice began, it does mark the ascent of finning to a fishery and conservation issue.
Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity,with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity. In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. There is an ongoing debate about the use of nuclear energy. Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association and IAEA, contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions. Opponents, such as Greenpeace International and NIRS, believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment. Nuclear power plant accidents include the Chernobyl disaster (1986), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979). There have also been some nuclear-powered submarine mishaps. However, the safety record of nuclear power is good when compared with many other energy technologies. Research into safety improvements is continuing and nuclear fusion may be used in the future. China has 25 nuclear power reactors under construction, with plans to build many more, while in the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have been extended to 60 years, and plans to build another dozen are under serious consideration. However, Japan's 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster prompted a rethink of nuclear energy policy in many countries. Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power. Following Fukushima, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035. Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 13–14% of the world's electricity demand. One factor in the nuclear power percentage decrease since 2007 has been the prolonged shutdown of large reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant in Japan following the Niigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake. The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—80% as of 2006. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs among European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, Ireland and Italy, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use. In the US, while the coal and gas electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by 2013, nuclear power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion. Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A. International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems.
\|\|LANGUAGE / LITERATURE \|\|MUSIC / ART The foundation for Crestview's core curriculum is the Core Knowledge Curriculum, developed by E.D. Hirsch and the Core Knowledge Foundation. It is built on the philosophy that every society has a common core of knowledge that is shared among its people, and that students need this fundamental knowledge to become successful, informed and productive citizens of a free society. Our curriculum, referred to as the Core Knowledge Sequence, has a rich and challenging content with a heavy emphasis on traditional, classical literature, history and fine arts. It is the basis for building the foundation for developing critical thinking, analysis and problem solving skills. It is also built on the philosophy that students, even very young students, should be introduced to challenging subjects (taught at their level) which stimulate their minds, rather than simplistic concepts that often do little to motivate the students or expand their thinking. Children as young as kindergarten and first grade learn about the lives and contributions of Bach, Mozart, Van Gogh, and Robert Frost. They study astronomy, matter, electricity, and the human body. They learn the contributions of important historical figures such as Columbus, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin and Abe Lincoln. They delve into early civilizations such as the Mayas, Aztecs, ancient Egypt, and early Africa, and learn significant concepts such as democracy and the meaning behind America's symbols of the Liberty Bell, the American flag, and the eagle. Children are very receptive to learning these concepts at an early age. Parents and students alike give our curriculum high marks! In most schools, the curriculum is defined in very general terms. The Core Knowledge curriculum is different, in that it provides very specific items and criteria. This allows you as a parent to know exactly what your child will be learning each year. In addition, it prevents gaps in instruction and repetition that is common to other curricula. The core curriculum is a carefully sequenced body of knowledge, and builds upon itself as it progresses through the grades. Children learn new knowledge by building upon what they already know, so it's important that all students have a firm foundation of knowledge in the early grades. This will help them throughout their academic career and later life. It's also important to note that most of the core curriculum is taught without the use of textbooks. Teachers use a wide variety of resources and ways to bring the core to life: source documents, maps, models, dramatizations, projects, research, writing, discussion and debate, hands-on activities, experiments, and journals. Teachers challenge the students to then use the information to acquire higher-level critical thinking skills. They encourage the students to learn the facts, apply them, question them, discuss them, doubt them, connect them, analyze them, verify or deny them, and solve problems with them. Without factual knowledge about an issue or problem, students can't think critically about it-they can only have an uninformed opinion. Our curriculum arms students with facts, knowledge, and concepts to help them be highly success. Examples of the core are in the following pages.
Use the Activities Putting It All Together Through several firsthand accounts, students have gained a better understanding of Montpelier and the way the Madisons lived there. Have them keep those impressions in mind as they complete the following activities. Activity 1: Researching the Madisons Dolley Madison was as colorful and vivacious as her husband was quiet and serious. Have students work in pairs, and have half the pairs research textbooks and library sources for more information on the personality and character of James Madison, and have the other half do research on Dolley Madison. Tell students that biographies found in the public library’s juvenile section are especially good to use as a first source. They are short, easy to read, and often include interesting anecdotes. After students have found sufficient data, have them meet with the other pairs of students who researched the same person. Ask each of the two groups to design a creative exhibit (using different visual, textual, or multimedia approaches) for the classroom that highlights the most interesting information they found about James and Dolley Madison. Ask students to discuss how their research contributed to their understanding of the Madisons and the time period in which they lived. Activity 2: Slavery and Freedom It is hard for people of the 20th century to understand how America’s founders, such as the "Father of the Constitution," James Madison, could write that document’s preamble and still deny liberty to the slaves. Have students consider these words: "We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." Then have students look again at Reading 2 and the excerpt from Paul Jennings’ writings in Reading 3. Hold a classroom discussion in which students try to put themselves into the mindset of James Madison, and try to justify the institution of slavery as they believe Madison would have done. Next, have the students try to discuss the institution of slavery from Paul Jennings’ point of view. Complete the activity by discussing the concepts of justice and fairness in different historical time periods. Make the point that people in the future may feel that some of our beliefs are as unjustifiable as we find the practice of slavery today. Activity 3: A Historic Place in Your Neighborhood Every community has a place that is historically and culturally significant. If students are unaware of the location of such a site in their community, have them contact the librarian of the local historical society or curator of a local museum. Those people will be able to help the students research the history of the place and the people who lived there. Have students find out as much as they can using primary source evidence that describes the place, the people, and their daily lives. Questions to which students should find answers include: Why is the place significant? How have geographic, economic, social, and political factors influenced the place? What people lived at the site? How were they described? How did they earn a living? What were their daily lives like? Who visited the place? Why? Additional research strategies to consider include touring the historic site or researching secondary sources that relate to the place. When students have gathered as much information as possible, have them work with their local historical society or other sources to develop a special exhibit for the community. Finally, have students compare and contrast the local historic site with Montpelier. Activity 4: Preservation or Restoration? A Great Debate The decision to restore Montpelier to its appearance in the 1830s was not made lightly. Two ideas about how to care for historic buildings were at odds with each other. On one side, people argued that changes made to buildings over time tell a worthy story on their own about the long history of the building. It is a core principle of historic preservation that “changes to a property that have acquired historic significance in their own right will be retained and preserved” (“Preservation as a Treatment,” The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties). On the other side, a modified building could weaken the site's ability to interpret an important, earlier period. What is a particular place’s most important historic association? In the case of Montpelier, advocates insisted that it was the story of James and Dolley Madison’s residency and Madison’s work on the creation of the U.S. Constitution. Have students research the history of Montpelier after Dolley Madison sold it. Who owned the house and when? Were any of the owners significant in the history of the local area, the Commonwealth of Virginia, or the nation? Did any important historical events occur at the house after the Madisons lived there? Would studying this house or the larger estate at any particular time in history help us better understand how people lived during that period? Were any of the alterations a significant reflection of an architectural style or period or method of construction? The National Register of Historic Places’ Criteria for Evaluation can help students make conclusions about the historical significance of Montpelier’s evolution over time. Next, explore the National Trust’s decision about Montpelier in a formal class debate over preservation vs. restoration at Montpelier. Break students into an even number of dueling teams of 2-4. Half the teams must argue for preservation and half must argue for restoration. Students should prepare for the debate by studying the preservation/restoration issues and arguments. They can find this information in case studies, scholarly or trade journals, blogs, newspaper articles, and the websites for their State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs). A list of current SHPOs is available on the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers website. Becoming familiar with The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties will also be helpful. Each team should develop a reference table of major points and counterpoints with a real-life example for each. Teams should submit a copy of their table to you at the start of the debate.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency rates coal ash ponds according to a National Inventory of Dams (NID) criteria that categorizes the ponds by the damage that would occur in the event of a dam failure. Coal ash dams are usually built from a combination of soil and ash and often impound millions of tons of toxic coal ash and wastewater. The majority are over 40 years old, and most do not have monitoring to detect leaks of toxic pollutants. There are 331 High and Significant hazard coal ash ponds in the United States. The NID hazard potential ratings refer to the potential for loss of life or damage if there is a dam failure: High Hazard (81 ponds) Failure or mis-operation of these dams will probably cause loss of human life. (Designations of * are based on state determinations. EPA considers the hazard potential of these dams to be significant.) Significant Hazard (250 ponds): Failure or mis-operation of these dams results in no probable loss of human life, but can cause economic loss, environment damage, disruption of lifeline facilities, or impact other concerns.
The full definition of metabolism is quite lengthy and scientific. In terms of weight management and/or weight loss, metabolism is the way the human body burns calories from the food that is consumed and converts it into the energy the body requires to function properly. It's a complex process that includes all of the chemical reactions taking place in the body to keep vital organs functioning. Metabolic rate is the speed at which your body burns calories. Many factors affect metabolic rate including height, weight, age, sex, lifestyle, genetics, and overall composition of the body. Metabolic rate is significant when managing weight. The faster our metabolism, the more calories we burn, and the less likely it is that we will become overweight. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the amount of energy your body uses while at rest. This means that while you are sitting in a chair, or even sleeping, you are still burning calories. The BMR is responsible for approximately 60% of all calories (energy) used in the body. Physical activity accounts for approximately 30%. The "thermic effect of food," which is a term that refers to the energy (calories) required to digest and process the food that is eaten, accounts for the remaining 10%. With your own metabolism as your guide, the following Do Not Skip Breakfast Skipping meals to eliminate calories? It seems like a simple concept; however, the repercussions of skipping a meal far out weigh the advantages of eliminating those calories. Skipping breakfast leads to intense hunger, making it difficult to make wise food choices. The result? Bad habits develop, such as eating convenient high-calorie snacks and meals. Eating breakfast jumpstarts your metabolism; so, you start burning calories earlier in the day. If you skip breakfast (or any meal), you are denying your body the calories it needs to function properly. The body is thrown into a "survival mode," which slows the metabolism, resulting in the storage of remaining energy as fat. Research also shows that skipping breakfast lowers mental performance in both youth and adults. Eat Throughout the Day Eating 4-6 smaller meals throughout the day, rather than 3 large meals, will prevent your metabolism from shutting down. The longer you go between meals the more your metabolism will slow down in order to conserve energy. Water is the body's most important nutrient. If the body is lacking in water, the metabolic rate will be slowed. The liver will begin to retain water rather than burn fat. Replace Fat with Muscle Muscle burns more calories than fat. We are able to maintain our weight more easily if we replace fat with muscle. Exercise using light weights to tone and firm muscle. Whether you walk, skip, jog, or dance, aerobic exercise burns calories. Although cleaning your house and walking the aisles of the grocery store counts, sustained activity that raises your heart rate will burn the most calories. An exercise program must be progressive in order to be productive. Providing a challenge for your body is what forces your body to make changes and improvements. For example, if you use a treadmill for 30 minutes/3 days a week, it is beneficial to challenge your body by increasing the time, resistance, and/or frequency that you use the treadmill. Age and Metabolism It is a fact: As we age our metabolic rate slows down, and our muscle transforms into fat more readily than when we were younger. To manage your weight as you age, you must either adjust your calorie intake or increase your physical activity level to burn more calories. Physical activity will also keep muscles toned and will slow the process of muscle turning to "flab." Match Eating to Activity Level The amount of calories you consume on any given day should coincide with how active you are on that same day. Lower your intake of calories if you lead a sedentary lifestyle. Before you try to burn off existing fat, you must first stop storing new fat.
Concussion, from the Latin concutere ("to shake violently") or the Latin concussus ("action of striking together"), is the most common type of traumatic brain injury. The terms mild brain injury, mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), mild head injury (MHI), minor head trauma, and concussion may be used interchangeably, although the latter is often treated as a narrower category. The term "concussion" has been used for centuries and is still commonly used in sports medicine, while "MTBI" is a technical term used more commonly nowadays in general medical contexts. Frequently defined as a head injury with a temporary loss of brain function, concussion can cause a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms. Treatment of concussion involves monitoring and rest. Symptoms usually go away entirely within three weeks, though they may persist, or complications may occur. Repeated concussions can cause cumulative brain damage such as dementia pugilistica or severe complications such as second-impact syndrome. Due to factors such as widely varying definitions and possible underreporting of concussion, the rate at which it occurs annually is not known; however it may be more than 6 per 1,000 people. Common causes include sports injuries, bicycle accidents, car accidents, and falls; the latter two are the most frequent causes among adults. Concussion may be caused by a blow to the head, or by acceleration forces without a direct impact. The forces involved disrupt cellular processes in the brain for days or weeks. On the battlefield, MTBI is a potential consequence of nearby explosions. It is not known whether the concussed brain is structurally damaged the way it is in other types of brain injury (albeit to a lesser extent) or whether concussion mainly entails a loss of function with physiological but not structural changes. Cellular damage has reportedly been found in concussed brains, but it may have been due to artifacts from the studies. It is now thought that structural and psychiatric factors may both be responsible for the effects of concussion.
The strangely intricate wrinkles and grooves around the nostrils of many bats apparently could help them "see" in the dark by focusing their sonar, scientists in China have found. The discovery could help scientists improve sonar and radio technology, the researchers said. Bats are famous for their ability to "see" in the dark by listening to the echoes of their ultrasonic calls. This is known as echolocation, or "biosonar." While most bats emit sonar from their mouths, roughly 300 species fire it from their noses. These bats often have bizarrely elaborate, intricately shaped flaps dubbed "noseleaves" around their nostrils that are adorned with grooves and spikes [image]. Scientists have long speculated these noseleaves might help shape bat sonar, but nobody knew for certain, explained biologist turned computational physicist Rolf Müller at Shandong University in Jinan, China. He and his doctoral student Qiao Zhuang have now discovered precisely how one kind of bat facial feature improves biosonar, solving "a 100-year-old riddle," Müller told LiveScience. The researchers employed X-ray scans to generate three-dimensional computer models of the noseleaves of the rufous horseshoe bat, native to southern Asia. Müller and Zhuang then simulated how ultrasound pulses the bats emit interact with the noseleaves. The bats send ultrasonic pulses that start at about 60 kilohertz in frequency, quickly rise to a constant frequency of roughly 80 kilohertz, and then fall back to 60 kilohertz at the end. Computer simulations revealed horizontal furrows along the top of the noseleaves behaved as cavities that resonate strongly with certain frequencies of sound, just as blowing into "a set of clarinets," can produce deep, resonant tones, Müller said. As a result, the grooves cause the different frequencies of sound to focus different ways. The lower frequency 60-kilohertz sound gets spread vertically, while the 80-kilohertz frequency continues to be focused ahead. The noseleaves essentially help the bats make the most of the ultrasound they emit, Müller explained. "For the bat, sound energy is like money to us—we usually only have a limited amount of it and we must make a choice on how to distribute it," he said. The furrows the researchers investigated help shape how the lower frequency sound "illuminates" the environment, while the other frequencies remain untouched and thus able to scan the world in different ways. The complexity the noseleaves add to the bat ultrasound beams could help "in performing difficult sonar tasks like navigating in complex environments such as dense forests or doing several things at once, such as looking for prey and avoiding obstacles," Müller speculated. More to study Facial grooves and flaps are even found on bats without noseleaves. Their findings suggested "all facial structures seen in bats are now candidates for acoustic 'beam-shaping devices,'" Müller said. Likewise, "the outer ears of most bats also have intriguing shape features," Müller said. "These features could act in similar ways as the noseleaves." The goal of this research is to not only better understand how bat echolocation works, but to apply the principles to improving antenna technology, for use in sonar, scanners and wireless communication, Müller said. Müller and Zhuang reported their findings in the Nov. 24 issue of the journal Physical Review Letters. is the Ugliest? You Decide >>>
The American Equal Rights Association Forms After the Civil War, Black and white abolitionists and suffragists in the North came together in an appeal for universal suffrage. The American Equal Rights Association (AERA) was formed and several Black women held leadership positions, including Harriet Purvis, Sarah Remond and Sojourner Truth, as well as white activists Abby Kelley Foster, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucy Stone. 15th Amendments Proposed - Tension Ripples Through the Movement In the late 1860s, the 14th and 15th Amendments were being proposed. These Amendments focused on citizenship rights for newly freed African Americans and voting rights for Black men. The movement quickly became less unified as politicians debated suffrage for African American men, and the divide exposed significant differences in experiences, needs and priorities of whites and of African Americans. Prominent leaders like Frederick Douglass called on women to temporarily hold off on the issue of women’s suffrage. This plea from Douglass caused tension among women’s suffrage advocates; some were committed to supporting Black men while others were impatient because it was clear that politicians had less interest in extending the vote to women. The argument (by politicians) was that women did not “need” the vote to protect themselves as African Americans did in the South. Below the surface, however, were political motivations. After the Civil War, the Republican Party of the North was in power, and party leaders saw African American men as a potential voting base in the South, but there were no obvious political reasons for them to fight for women’s right to vote. The Movement Divides Over 15th Amendment Some suffragists, like Stanton, were fearful of African American men gaining the vote before women, and they accused Black men of abandoning the women’s suffrage cause. There were often racist attitudes behind those frustrations, but there were also fears that momentum would dwindle if they redirected their energies toward African American male suffrage. In an effort to maintain energy toward women’s suffrage, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton led the charge for a new movement that broke away from the Republican Party and their abolitionist roots. Their new movement was radical and revolutionary in a lot of ways, but the strategy was based around pitting white women against Black men. THIS PUT BLACK WOMEN IN A PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT POSITION. For African American women, the right to vote was about more than gaining independence from men. African Americans, by and large, supported universal suffrage from the beginning because the right to vote meant a huge step toward freedom within the system in which they had no say. Many White suffragists, on the other hand, supported universal suffrage when it seemed like the best strategy for victory.
The Do’s And Don’ts Of Wearing A Mask Research shows that wearing a mask can reduce infection rates by 80%. Correctly wearing a cloth face covering can help prevent the spread of COVID-19. When to wear a mask: Wear masks in public settings when around people not living in your household and particularly where other social distancing measures are difficult to maintain, such as grocery stores, pharmacies, and gas stations. Who should not use cloth face coverings: Children under the age of two, or anyone who has trouble breathing, is unconscious, incapacitated, or otherwise unable to remove the mask without assistance should not use cloth face coverings. - Wear a face covering that covers your nose and mouth. - Wear a face covering in public settings, especially when it may be difficult to stay six feet apart. - Wear a covering correctly for maximum protection. - Wear the face covering around your neck or on your forehead. - Touch the face covering. If you do, wash your hands or use hand sanitizer to disinfect.
Good bugs are a natural army of pest control allies, so it is important to provide them with suitable living conditions to gain their help. In order to reproduce, beneficial insects need nectar and pollen. If they don’t find it in a garden (and they are very particular— just any old flowers won’t do), they leave and usually do not return. For example, syrphid (flower) flies must feed on pollen or nectar to mature their eggs. Many other insects use pollen and nectar to sustain them, which allows them to survive longer, produce more progeny, and provide a higher level of biological control. Having these flowering plants available to provide supplementary food can greatly increase the beneficial activities of these natural enemies. But the majority of plants produce flowers that are not accessible to insects whose mouthparts are shorter than other, more well known, nectar feeders (such as bees and butterflies). Nectar-producing flowers with short tubes (mint and cabbage families) or nectaries accessible from outside the flower (legumes and spurges) are two kinds that provide sustenance to a wide range of insects. Plants that produce many flowers in a single head (sunflower family and carrot family) are also very attractive to beneficial insects. Designing a beneficial insect planting entails providing them with a year-round, supplemental source of food (pollen, nectar, and sometimes, prey), even when pest populations are low. The goal is to create refuges for the natural enemies of garden pests. Gardeners in urban areas can have success by adding insect attracting plants to their gardens. Beneficial insects are also available for purchase and release in the garden. Careful fertilization and irrigation also help to grow healthy plants able to resist insect attacks. Just like beneficial insects, birds should be rewarded for their part in controlling insect numbers that have gotten out of hand. It is said that 96% of all birds feed insects to their young – making them vitally important to garden ecology. Luckily, creating insect habitat can double as ideal bird habitat for many species.
Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients (but not energy) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places with high light where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings. Charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants, the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875. True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants, and is represented by more than a dozen genera. This classification includes at least 583 species that attract, trap and kill prey, absorbing the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some but not all of these characteristics. Five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. - Pitfall traps (pitcher plants) trap prey in a rolled leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. - Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage. - Snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. - Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum. - Lobster-pots, also known as eel traps, force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs. These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey. For example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, which is an expansion of individual cells as opposed to cell division. The rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The sundew species Drosera glanduligera employs a unique trapping mechanism with features of both flypaper and snap traps; this has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap. Characterized by an internal chamber, pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently at least six times. This particular adaptation is found within the families Sarraceniaceae (Darlingtonia, Heliamphora, Sarracenia), Nepenthaceae (Nepenthes), Cephalotaceae (Cephalotus), and Eriocaulaceae (Paepalanthus). Within the family Bromeliaceae, pitcher morphology and carnivory evolved twice (Brocchinia and Catopsis). Because these families do not share a common ancestor who also had pitfall trap morphology, carnivorous pitchers are an example of convergent evolution. A passive trap, pitfall traps attract prey with nectar bribes secreted by the peristome and bright flower-like anthocyanin patterning within the pitcher. The linings of most pitcher plants are covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes which are slippery for insects, causing them to fall into the pitcher. Once within the pitcher structure, digestive enzymes or mutualistic species break down the prey into an absorbable form for the plant. Water can become trapped within the pitcher, making a habitat for other flora and fauna. This type of 'water body' is called a Phytotelma. The simplest pitcher plants are probably those of Heliamphora, the marsh pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are clearly derived from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of high rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima and consequently have a problem ensuring their pitchers do not overflow. To counteract this problem, natural selection has favoured the evolution of an overflow similar to that of a bathroom sink—a small gap in the zipped-up leaf margins allows excess water to flow out of the pitcher. Heliamphora is a member of the Sarraceniaceae, a New World family in the order Ericales (heathers and allies). Heliamphora is limited to South America, but the family contains two other genera, Sarracenia and Darlingtonia, which are endemic to the Southeastern United States (with the exception of one species) and California respectively. Sarracenia purpurea subsp. purpurea (the northern pitcher plant) can be found as far north as Canada. Sarracenia is the pitcher plant genus most commonly encountered in cultivation, because it is relatively hardy and easy to grow. In the genus Sarracenia, the problem of pitcher overflow is solved by an operculum, which is essentially a flared leaflet that covers the opening of the rolled-leaf tube and protects it from rain. Possibly because of this improved waterproofing, Sarracenia species secrete enzymes such as proteases and phosphatases into the digestive fluid at the bottom of the pitcher; Heliamphora relies on bacterial digestion alone. The enzymes digest the proteins and nucleic acids in the prey, releasing amino acids and phosphate ions, which the plant absorbs. Darlingtonia californica, the cobra plant, possesses an adaptation also found in Sarracenia psittacina and, to a lesser extent, in Sarracenia minor: the operculum is balloon-like and almost seals the opening to the tube. This balloon-like chamber is pitted with areolae, chlorophyll-free patches through which light can penetrate. Insects, mostly ants, enter the chamber via the opening underneath the balloon. Once inside, they tire themselves trying to escape from these false exits, until they eventually fall into the tube. Prey access is increased by the "fish tails", outgrowths of the operculum that give the plant its name. Some seedling Sarracenia species also have long, overhanging opercular outgrowths; Darlingtonia may therefore represent an example of neoteny. The second major group of pitcher plants are the monkey cups or tropical pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. In the hundred or so species of this genus, the pitcher is borne at the end of a tendril, which grows as an extension to the midrib of the leaf. Most species catch insects, although the larger ones, such as Nepenthes rajah, also occasionally take small mammals and reptiles. Nepenthes bicalcarata possesses two sharp thorns that project from the base of the operculum over the entrance to the pitcher. These likely serve to lure insects into a precarious position over the pitcher mouth, where they may lose their footing and fall into the fluid within. The pitfall trap has evolved independently in at least two other groups. The Albany pitcher plant Cephalotus follicularis is a small pitcher plant from Western Australia, with moccasin-like pitchers. The rim of its pitcher's opening (the peristome) is particularly pronounced (both secrete nectar) and provides a thorny overhang to the opening, preventing trapped insects from climbing out. In at least one species, Sarracenia flava, the nectar bribe is laced with coniine, a toxic alkaloid also found in hemlock, which probably increases the efficiency of the traps by intoxicating prey. The final carnivore with a pitfall-like trap is the bromeliad Brocchinia reducta. Like most relatives of the pineapple, the tightly packed, waxy leaf bases of the strap-like leaves of this species form an urn. In most bromeliads, water collects readily in this urn and may provide habitats for frogs, insects and, more useful for the plant, diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) bacteria. In Brocchinia, the urn is a specialised insect trap, with a loose, waxy lining and a population of digestive bacteria. The flypaper trap utilizes sticky mucilage, or glue. The leaf of flypaper traps is studded with mucilage-secreting glands, which may be short (like those of the butterworts), or long and mobile (like those of many sundews). Flypapers have evolved independently at least five times. There is evidence that some clades of flypaper traps have evolved from morphologically more complex traps such as pitchers. In the genus Pinguicula, the mucilage glands are quite short (sessile), and the leaf, while shiny (giving the genus its common name of 'butterwort'), does not appear carnivorous. However, this belies the fact that the leaf is an extremely effective trap of small flying insects (such as fungus gnats), and its surface responds to prey by relatively rapid growth. This thigmotropic growth may involve rolling of the leaf blade (to prevent rain from splashing the prey off the leaf surface) or dishing of the surface under the prey to form a shallow digestive pit. The sundew genus (Drosera) consists of over 100 species of active flypapers whose mucilage glands are borne at the end of long tentacles, which frequently grow fast enough in response to prey (thigmotropism) to aid the trapping process. The tentacles of D. burmanii can bend 180° in a minute or so. Sundews are extremely cosmopolitan and are found on all the continents except the Antarctic mainland. They are most diverse in Australia, the home to the large subgroup of pygmy sundews such as D. pygmaea and to a number of tuberous sundews such as D. peltata, which form tubers that aestivate during the dry summer months. These species are so dependent on insect sources of nitrogen that they generally lack the enzyme nitrate reductase, which most plants require to assimilate soil-borne nitrate into organic forms. Closely related to Drosera is the Portuguese dewy pine, Drosophyllum, which differs from the sundews in being passive. Its leaves are incapable of rapid movement or growth. Unrelated, but similar in habit, are the Australian rainbow plants (Byblis). Drosophyllum is unusual in that it grows under near-desert conditions; almost all other carnivores are either bog plants or grow in moist tropical areas. Recent molecular data (particularly the production of plumbagin) indicate that the remaining flypaper, Triphyophyllum peltatum, a member of the Dioncophyllaceae, is closely related to Drosophyllum and forms part of a larger clade of carnivorous and non-carnivorous plants with the Droseraceae, Nepenthaceae, Ancistrocladaceae and Plumbaginaceae. This plant is usually encountered as a liana, but in its juvenile phase, the plant is carnivorous. This may be related to a requirement for specific nutrients for flowering. The only two active snap traps—the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and the waterwheel plant (Aldrovanda vesiculosa) - had a common ancestor with the snap trap adaptation, which had evolved from an ancestral lineage that utilized flypaper traps. Their trapping mechanism has also been described as a "mouse trap", "bear trap" or "man trap", based on their shape and rapid movement. However, the term snap trap is preferred as other designations are misleading, particularly with respect to the intended prey. Aldrovanda is aquatic and specialised in catching small invertebrates; Dionaea is terrestrial and catches a variety of arthropods, including spiders. The traps are very similar, with leaves whose terminal section is divided into two lobes, hinged along the midrib. Trigger hairs (three on each lobe in Dionaea muscipula, many more in the case of Aldrovanda) inside the trap lobes are sensitive to touch. When a trigger hair is bent, stretch-gated ion channels in the membranes of cells at the base of the trigger hair open, generating an action potential that propagates to cells in the midrib. These cells respond by pumping out ions, which may either cause water to follow by osmosis (collapsing the cells in the midrib) or cause rapid acid growth. The mechanism is still debated, but in any case, changes in the shape of cells in the midrib allow the lobes, held under tension, to snap shut, flipping rapidly from convex to concave and interring the prey. This whole process takes less than a second. In the Venus flytrap, closure in response to raindrops and blown-in debris is prevented by the leaves having a simple memory: for the lobes to shut, two stimuli are required, 0.5 to 30 seconds apart. The snapping of the leaves is a case of thigmonasty (undirected movement in response to touch). Further stimulation of the lobe's internal surfaces by the struggling insects causes the lobes to close even tighter (thigmotropism), sealing the lobes hermetically and forming a stomach in which digestion occurs over a period of one to two weeks. Leaves can be reused three or four times before they become unresponsive to stimulation, depending on the growing conditions. Bladder traps are exclusive to the genus Utricularia, or bladderworts. The bladders (vesicula) pump ions out of their interiors. Water follows by osmosis, generating a partial vacuum inside the bladder. The bladder has a small opening, sealed by a hinged door. In aquatic species, the door has a pair of long trigger hairs. Aquatic invertebrates such as Daphnia touch these hairs and deform the door by lever action, releasing the vacuum. The invertebrate is sucked into the bladder, where it is digested. Many species of Utricularia (such as U. sandersonii) are terrestrial, growing in waterlogged soil, and their trapping mechanism is triggered in a slightly different manner. Bladderworts lack roots, but terrestrial species have anchoring stems that resemble roots. Temperate aquatic bladderworts generally die back to a resting turion during the winter months, and U. macrorhiza appears to regulate the number of bladders it bears in response to the prevailing nutrient content of its habitat. A lobster-pot trap is a chamber that is easy to enter, and whose exit is either difficult to find or obstructed by inward-pointing bristles. Lobster pots are the trapping mechanism in Genlisea, the corkscrew plants. These plants appear to specialise in aquatic protozoa. A Y-shaped modified leaf allows prey to enter but not exit. Inward-pointing hairs force the prey to move in a particular direction. Prey entering the spiral entrance that coils around the upper two arms of the Y are forced to move inexorably towards a stomach in the lower arm of the Y, where they are digested. Prey movement is also thought to be encouraged by water movement through the trap, produced in a similar way to the vacuum in bladder traps, and probably evolutionarily related to it. The trapping mechanism of the sundew Drosera glanduligera combines features of both flypaper and snap traps; it has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap. To be defined as carnivorous, a plant must first exhibit an adaptation of some trait specifically for the attraction, capture, or digestion of prey. Only one trait needs to have evolved that fits this adaptive requirement, as many current carnivorous plant genera lack some of the above-mentioned attributes. The second requirement is the ability to absorb nutrients from dead prey and gain a fitness advantage from the integration of these derived nutrients (mostly amino acids and ammonium ions) either through increased growth or pollen and/or seed production. However, plants that may opportunistically utilize nutrients from dead animals without specifically seeking and capturing fauna are excluded from the carnivorous definition. The second requirement also differentiates carnivory from defensive plant characteristics that may kill or incapacitate insects without the advantage of nutrient absorption. Due to the observation that many currently classified carnivores lack digestive enzymes for breaking down nutrients and instead rely upon mutualistic and symbiotic relationships with bacteria, ants, or insect, this adaptation has been added to the carnivorous definition. Despite this, are cases where plants appear carnivorous, in that they fulfill some of the above definition, but are not truly carnivorous. Some botanists argue that there is a spectrum of carnivory found in plants: from completely non-carnivorous plants like cabbages, to borderline carnivores, to unspecialised and simple traps, like Heliamphora, to extremely specialised and complex traps, like that of the Venus flytrap. A possible carnivore is the genus Roridula; the plants in this genus produce sticky leaves with resin-tipped glands and look extremely similar to some of the larger sundews. However, they do not directly benefit from the insects they catch. Instead, they form a mutualistic symbiosis with species of assassin bug (genus Pameridea), which eat the trapped insects. The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces. By some definitions this would still constitute botanical carnivory. A number of species in the Martyniaceae (previously Pedaliaceae), such as Ibicella lutea, have sticky leaves that trap insects. However, these plants have not been shown conclusively to be carnivorous. Likewise, the seeds of Shepherd's Purse, urns of Paepalanthus bromelioides, bracts of Passiflora foetida, and flower stalks and sepals of triggerplants (Stylidium) appear to trap and kill insects, but their classification as carnivores is contentious. The evolution of carnivorous plants is obscured by the paucity of their fossil record. Very few fossils have been found, and then usually only as seed or pollen. Carnivorous plants are generally herbs, and their traps are produced by primary growth. They generally do not form readily fossilisable structures such as thick bark or wood. Still, much can be deduced from the structure of current traps and their ecological interactions. It is widely believed that carnivory evolved as a method to increase nutrients in extremely nutrient poor conditions, leading to a cost-benefit model for botanical carnivory. Cost-benefit models are given under the assumption that there is a set amount of energy potentially available for an organism, which leads to trade-offs when energy is allocated to certain functions to maximize competitive ability and fitness. For carnivory, the trait could only evolve if the increase in nutrients from prey capture exceeded the cost of investment in carnivorous adaptations. Most carnivorous plants live in habitats with high light, waterlogged soils, and extremely low soil nitrogen and phosphorus, producing the ecological impetus to derive nitrogen from an alternate source. High light environments allowed for the trade off between photosynthetic leaves and prey capturing traps that are photosynthetically inefficient. To compensate for photosynthetically inefficient material, the nutrients obtained through carnivory would need to increase photosynthesis by investing in more leaf mass, i.e. growing. This means when there is a shortage of nutrients and enough light and water, prey capture and digestion has the greatest impact on photosynthetic gains, favoring the evolution of plant adaptations which allowed for more effective and efficient carnivory. Due to the large amount of energy and resources allocated to carnivorous adaptations. i.e. the production of lures, digestive enzymes, modified leaf structures, and the decreased rate of photosynthesis over total leaf area, some authors argue that carnivory is an evolutionary last resort when nitrogen and phosphorus are limited in an ecosystem. Pitfall traps are derived from rolled leaves, which evolved several independent times through convergent evolution. The vascular tissues of Sarracenia is a case in point. The keel along the front of the trap contains a mixture of leftward- and rightward-facing vascular bundles, as would be predicted from the fusion of the edges of an adaxial (stem-facing) leaf surface. Flypapers also show a simple evolutionary gradient from sticky, non-carnivorous leaves, through passive flypapers to active forms. Molecular data show the Dionaea–Aldrovanda clade is closely related to Drosera, and evolved from active flypaper traps into snap traps. It has been suggested that all trap types are modifications of a similar basic structure—the hairy leaf. Hairy (or more specifically, stalked-glandular) leaves can catch and retain drops of rainwater, especially if shield-shaped or peltate, thus promoting bacteria growth. Insects land on the leaf, become mired by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. Bacteria jumpstart decay, releasing from the corpse nutrients that the plant can absorb through its leaves. This foliar feeding can be observed in most non-carnivorous plants. Plants that were better at retaining insects or water therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, and pitfall traps may have evolved simply by selection pressure for the production of more deeply cupped leaves, followed by "zipping up" of the margins and subsequent loss of most of the hairs. Alternatively, insects can be retained by making the leaf stickier by the production of mucilage, leading to flypaper traps. The lobster-pot traps of Genlisea are difficult to interpret. They may have developed from bifurcated pitchers that later specialized on ground-dwelling prey; or, perhaps, the prey-guiding protrusions of bladder traps became more substantial than the net-like funnel found in most aquatic bladderworts. Whatever their origin, the helical shape of the lobster pot is an adaptation that displays as much trapping surface as possible in all directions when buried in moss. The traps of the bladderworts may have derived from pitchers that specialized in aquatic prey when flooded, like Sarracenia psittacina does today. Escaping prey in terrestrial pitchers have to climb or fly out of a trap, and both of these can be prevented by wax, gravity and narrow tubes. However, a flooded trap can be swum out of, so in Utricularia, a one-way lid may have developed to form the door of a proto-bladder. Later, this may have become active by the evolution of a partial vacuum inside the bladder, tripped by prey brushing against trigger hairs on the door of the bladder. The active glue traps use rapid plant movements to trap their prey. Rapid plant movement can result from actual growth, or from rapid changes in cell turgor, which allow cells to expand or contract by quickly altering their water content. Slow-moving flypapers like Pinguicula exploit growth, while the Venus flytrap uses such rapid turgor changes which make glue unnecessary. The stalked glands that once made glue became teeth and trigger hairs in Drosera —an example of natural selection hijacking preexisting structures for new functions. Recent taxonomic analysis of the relationships within the Caryophyllales indicate that the Droseraceae, Triphyophyllum, Nepenthaceae and Drosophyllum, while closely related, are embedded within a larger clade that includes non-carnivorous groups such as the tamarisks, Ancistrocladaceae, Polygonaceae and Plumbaginaceae. Interestingly, the tamarisks possess specialised salt-excreting glands on their leaves, as do several of the Plumbaginaceae (such as the sea lavender, Limonium), which may have been co-opted for the excretion of other chemicals, such as proteases and mucilage. Some of the Plumbaginaceae (e.g. Ceratostigma) also have stalked, vascularised glands that secrete mucilage on their calyces and aid in seed dispersal and possibly in protecting the flowers from crawling parasitic insects. The balsams (such as Impatiens), which are closely related to the Sarraceniaceae and Roridula, similarly possess stalked glands. The only traps that are unlikely to have descended from a hairy leaf or sepal are the carnivorous bromeliads (Brocchinia and Catopsis). These plants use the urn—a fundamental part of a bromeliad—for a new purpose and build on it by the production of wax and the other paraphernalia of carnivory. Botanical carnivory has evolved in several independent families peppered throughout the angiosperm phylogeny, showing that carnivorous traits underwent convergent evolution multiple times to create similar morphologies across disparate families. Ecology and modeling of carnivory Carnivorous plants are widespread but rather rare. They are almost entirely restricted to habitats such as bogs, where soil nutrients are extremely limiting, but where sunlight and water are readily available. Only under such extreme conditions is carnivory favored to an extent that makes the adaptations advantageous. The archetypal carnivore, the Venus flytrap, grows in soils with almost immeasurable nitrate and calcium levels. Plants need nitrogen for protein synthesis, calcium for cell wall stiffening, phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis, and iron for chlorophyll synthesis. The soil is often waterlogged, which favours the production of toxic ions such as ammonium, and its pH is an acidic 4 to 5. Ammonium can be used as a source of nitrogen by plants, but its high toxicity means that concentrations high enough to fertilise are also high enough to cause damage. However, the habitat is warm, sunny, constantly moist, and the plant experiences relatively little competition from low growing Sphagnum moss. Still, carnivores are also found in very atypical habitats. Drosophyllum lusitanicum is found around desert edges and Pinguicula valisneriifolia on limestone (calcium-rich) cliffs. In all the studied cases, carnivory allows plants to grow and reproduce using animals as a source of nitrogen, phosphorus and possibly potassium. However, there is a spectrum of dependency on animal prey. Pygmy sundews are unable to use nitrate from soil because they lack the necessary enzymes (nitrate reductase in particular). Common butterworts (Pinguicula vulgaris) can use inorganic sources of nitrogen better than organic sources, but a mixture of both is preferred. European bladderworts seem to use both sources equally well. Animal prey makes up for differing deficiencies in soil nutrients. Plants use their leaves to intercept sunlight. The energy is used to reduce carbon dioxide from the air with electrons from water to make sugars (and other biomass) and a waste product, oxygen, in the process of photosynthesis. Leaves also respire, in a similar way to animals, by burning their biomass to generate chemical energy. This energy is temporarily stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which acts as an energy currency for metabolism in all living things. As a waste product, respiration produces carbon dioxide. For a plant to grow, it must photosynthesise more than it respires. Otherwise, it will eventually exhaust its biomass and die. The potential for plant growth is net photosynthesis, the total gross gain of biomass by photosynthesis, minus the biomass lost by respiration. Understanding carnivory requires a cost-benefit analysis of these factors. In carnivorous plants, the leaf is not just used to photosynthesise, but also as a trap. Changing the leaf shape to make it a better trap generally makes it less efficient at photosynthesis. For example, pitchers have to be held upright, so that only their opercula directly intercept light. The plant also has to expend extra energy on non-photosynthetic structures like glands, hairs, glue and digestive enzymes. To produce such structures, the plant requires ATP and respires more of its biomass. Hence, a carnivorous plant will have both decreased photosynthesis and increased respiration, making the potential for growth small and the cost of carnivory high. Being carnivorous allows the plant to grow better when the soil contains little nitrate or phosphate. In particular, an increased supply of nitrogen and phosphorus makes photosynthesis more efficient, because photosynthesis depends on the plant being able to synthesise very large amounts of the nitrogen-rich enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bis-phosphate carboxylase/oxygenase), the most abundant protein on Earth. It is intuitively clear that the Venus flytrap is more carnivorous than Triphyophyllum peltatum. The former is a full-time moving snap-trap; the latter is a part-time, non-moving flypaper. The energy "wasted" by the plant in building and fuelling its trap is a suitable measure of the carnivory of the trap. Using this measure of investment in carnivory, a model can be proposed. Above is a graph of carbon dioxide uptake (potential for growth) against trap respiration (investment in carnivory) for a leaf in a sunny habitat containing no soil nutrients at all. Respiration is a straight line sloping down under the horizontal axis (respiration produces carbon dioxide). Gross photosynthesis is a curved line above the horizontal axis: as investment increases, so too does the photosynthesis of the trap, as the leaf receives a better supply of nitrogen and phosphorus. Eventually another factor (such as light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration) will become more limiting to photosynthesis than nitrogen or phosphorus supply. As a result, increasing the investment will not make the plant grow better. The net uptake of carbon dioxide, and therefore, the plant's potential for growth, must be positive for the plant to survive. There is a broad span of investment where this is the case, and there is also a non-zero optimum. Plants investing more or less than this optimum will take up less carbon dioxide than an optimal plant, and hence growing less well. These plants will be at a selective disadvantage. At zero investment the growth is zero, because a non-carnivorous plant cannot survive in a habitat with absolutely no soil-borne nutrients. Such habitats do not exist, so for example, Sphagnum absorbs the tiny amounts of nitrates and phosphates in rain very efficiently and also forms symbioses with diazotrophic cyanobacteria. In a habitat with abundant soil nutrients but little light (as shown above), the gross photosynthesis curve will be lower and flatter, because light will be more limiting than nutrients. A plant can grow at zero investment in carnivory; this is also the optimum investment for a plant, as any investment in traps reduces net photosynthesis (growth) to less than the net photosynthesis of a plant that obtains its nutrients from soil alone. Carnivorous plants exist between these two extremes: the less limiting light and water are, and the more limiting soil nutrients are, the higher the optimum investment in carnivory, and hence the more obvious the adaptations will be to the casual observer. The most obvious evidence for this model is that carnivorous plants tend to grow in habitats where water and light are abundant and where competition is relatively low: the typical bog. Those that do not tend to be even more fastidious in some other way. Drosophyllum lusitanicum grows where there is little water, but it is even more extreme in its requirement for bright light and low disturbance than most other carnivores. Pinguicula valisneriifolia grows in soils with high levels of calcium but requires strong illumination and lower competition than many butterworts. In general, carnivorous plants are poor competitors, because they invest too heavily in structures that have no selective advantage in nutrient-rich habitats. They succeed only where other plants fail. Carnivores are to nutrients what cacti are to water. Carnivory only pays off when the nutrient stress is high and where light is abundant. When these conditions are not met, some plants give up carnivory temporarily. Sarracenia spp. produce flat, non-carnivorous leaves (phyllodes) in winter. Light levels are lower than in summer, so light is more limiting than nutrients, and carnivory does not pay. The lack of insects in winter exacerbates the problem. Damage to growing pitcher leaves prevent them from forming proper pitchers, and again, the plant produces a phyllode instead. Many other carnivores shut down in some seasons. Tuberous sundews die back to tubers in the dry season, bladderworts to turions in winter, and non-carnivorous leaves are made by most butterworts and Cephalotus in the less favourable seasons. Utricularia macrorhiza varies the number of bladders it produces based on the expected density of prey. Part-time carnivory in Triphyophyllum peltatum may be due to an unusually high need for potassium at a certain point in the life cycle, just before flowering. The more carnivorous a plant is, the less conventional its habitat is likely to be. Venus flytraps live in a very specialised habitat, whereas less carnivorous plants (Byblis, Pinguicula) are found in less unusual habitats (i.e., those typical for non-carnivores). Byblis and Drosophyllum both come from relatively arid regions and are both passive flypapers, arguably the lowest maintenance form of trap. Venus flytraps filter their prey using the teeth around the trap's edge, so as not to waste energy on hard-to-digest prey. In evolution, laziness pays, because energy can be used for reproduction, and short-term benefits in reproduction will outweigh long-term benefits in anything else. Carnivory rarely pays, so even carnivorous plants avoid it when there is too little light or an easier source of nutrients, and they use as few carnivorous features as are required at a given time or for a given prey item. There are very few habitats stressful enough to make investing biomass and energy in trigger hairs and enzymes worthwhile. Many plants occasionally benefit from animal protein rotting on their leaves, but carnivory that is obvious enough for the casual observer to notice is rare. Bromeliads seem very well preadapted to carnivory, but only one or two species can be classified as truly carnivorous. By their very shape, bromeliads will benefit from increased prey-derived nutrient input. In this sense, bromeliads are probably carnivorous, but their habitats are too dark for more extreme, recognisable carnivory to evolve. Most bromeliads are epiphytes, and most epiphytes grow in partial shade on tree branches. Brocchinia reducta, on the other hand, is a ground dweller. Many carnivorous plants are not strongly competitive and rely on circumstances to suppress dominating vegetation. Accordingly, some of them rely on fire ecology for their continued survival. For the most part carnivorous plant populations are not dominant enough to be dramatically significant, ecologically speaking, but there is an impressive variety of organisms that interact with various carnivorous plants in sundry relationships of kleptoparasitism, commensalism, and mutualism. For example, small insectivores such as tree frogs often exploit the supply of prey to be found in pitcher plants, and the frog Microhyla nepenthicola actually specialises in such habitats. Certain crab spiders such as Misumenops nepenthicola live largely on the prey of Nepenthes, and other, less specialised, spiders may build webs where they trap insects attracted by the smell or appearance of the traps; some scavengers, detritivores, and also organisms that harvest or exploit those in turn, such as the mosquito Wyeomyia smithii are largely or totally dependent on particular carnivorous plants. Plants such as Roridula species combine with specialised bugs (Pameridea roridulae) in benefiting from insects trapped on their leaves. Associations with species of pitcher plants are so many and varied that the study of Nepenthes infauna is something of a discipline in its own right. Camponotus schmitzi, the diving ant, has an intimate degree of mutualism with the pitcher plant Nepenthes bicalcarata; it not only retrieves prey and detritus from beneath the surface of the liquid in the pitchers, but repels herbivores, and cleans the pitcher peristome, maintaining its slippery nature. The ants have been reported to attack struggling prey, hindering their escape, so there might be an element of myrmecotrophy to the relationship. Numerous species of mosquitoes lay their eggs in the liquid, where their larvae play various roles, depending on species; some eat microbes and detritus, as is common among mosquito larvae, whereas some species of Toxorhynchites also breed in pitchers, and their larvae are predators of other species of mosquito larvae. Apart from the crab spiders on pitchers, an actual small, red crab Geosesarma malayanum will enter the fluid, robbing and scavenging, though reputedly it does so at some risk of being captured and digested itself. Nepenthes rajah has a remarkable mutualism with two unrelated small mammals, the mountain treeshrew (Tupaia montana) and the summit rat (Rattus baluensis). The tree shrews and the rats defecate into the plant's traps while visiting them to feed on sweet, fruity secretions from glands on the pitcher lids. The tree shrew also has a similar relationship with at least two other giant species of Nepenthes. More subtly, Hardwicke's woolly bat (Kerivoula hardwickii), a small species, roosts beneath the operculum (lid) of Nepenthes hemsleyana. The bat's excretions that land in the pitcher pay for the shelter, as it were. To the plant the excreta are more readily assimilable than intact insects would be. Another important area of symbiosis between carnivorous plants and insects is pollination. While many species of carnivorous plant can reproduce asexually via self-pollination or vegetative propagation, many carnivorous plants are insect-pollinated. Outcross pollination is beneficial as it increases genetic diversity. This means that carnivorous plants undergo an evolutionary and ecological conflict often called the pollinator-prey conflict. There are several ways by which carnivorous plants reduce the strain of the pollinator-prey conflict. For long-lived plants, the short-term loss of reproduction may be offset by the future growth made possible by resources obtained from prey. Other plants might "target" different species of insect for pollination and prey using different olfactory and visual cues. The classification of all flowering plants is currently in a state of flux. In the Cronquist system, the Droseraceae and Nepenthaceae were placed in the order Nepenthales, based on the radial symmetry of their flowers and their possession of insect traps. The Sarraceniaceae was placed either in the Nepenthales, or in its own order, the Sarraceniales. The Byblidaceae, Cephalotaceae, and Roridulaceae were placed in the Saxifragales; and the Lentibulariaceae in the Scrophulariales (now subsumed into the Lamiales). In more modern classification, such as that of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, the families have been retained, but they have been redistributed amongst several disparate orders. It is also recommended that Drosophyllum be considered in a monotypic family outside the rest of the Droseraceae, probably more closely allied to the Dioncophyllaceae. The current recommendations are shown below (only carnivorous genera are listed): - Asterales (sunflower and daisy order) - Caryophyllales, (carnation order) - Drosophyllum (Portuguese dewy pine) - Droseraceae (sundew family) - Nepenthaceae (tropical pitcher-plant family) - Ericales (heather order) - Lamiales (mint order) - Lentibulariaceae (bladderwort family) - Martyniaceae (all borderline carnivores, related to the sesame plant) - Oxalidales (wood sorrel order) - Poales (grass order) In horticulture, carnivorous plants are considered a curiosity or a rarity, but are becoming more common in cultivation with the advent of mass-production tissue-culture propagation techniques. Venus flytraps are still the most commonly grown, usually available at garden centers and hardware stores, sometimes offered alongside other easy to grow varieties. Nurseries that specialize in growing carnivorous plants exclusively also exist, more uncommon or demanding varieties of carnivorous plants can be obtained from specialist nurseries. California Carnivores is a notable example of such a nursery that specializes in the cultivation of carnivorous plants. It is owned and operated by horticulturalist, Peter D'Amato. Although different species of carnivorous plants have different cultivation requirements in terms of sunlight, humidity, soil moisture, etc., there are commonalities. Most carnivorous plants require rainwater, or water that has been distilled, deionised by reverse osmosis, or acidified to around pH 6.5 using sulfuric acid. Common tap or drinking water contains minerals (particularly calcium salts) that will quickly build up and kill the plant. This is because most carnivorous plants have evolved in nutrient-poor, acidic soils and are consequently extreme calcifuges. They are therefore very sensitive to excessive soil-borne nutrients. Since most of these plants are found in bogs, almost all are very intolerant of drying. There are exceptions: tuberous sundews require a dry (summer) dormancy period, and Drosophyllum requires much drier conditions than most. Outdoor-grown carnivorous plants generally catch more than enough insects to keep themselves properly fed. Insects may be fed to the plants by hand to supplement their diet; however, carnivorous plants are generally unable to digest large non-insect food items; bits of hamburger, for example, will simply rot, and this may cause the trap, or even the whole plant, to die. A carnivorous plant that catches no insects at all will rarely die, although its growth may be impaired. In general, these plants are best left to their own devices: after underwatering with tap-water, the most common cause of Venus flytrap death is prodding the traps to watch them close and feeding them inappropriate items. Most carnivorous plants require bright light, and most will look better under such conditions, as this encourages them to synthesise red and purple anthocyanin pigments. Nepenthes and Pinguicula will do better out of full sun, but most other species are happy in direct sunlight. Carnivores mostly live in bogs, and those that do not are generally tropical. Hence, most require high humidity. On a small scale, this can be achieved by placing the plant in a wide saucer containing pebbles that are kept permanently wet. Small Nepenthes species grow well in large terraria. Many carnivores are native to cold temperate regions and can be grown outside in a bog garden year-round. Most Sarracenia can tolerate temperatures well below freezing, despite most species being native to the southeastern United States. Species of Drosera and Pinguicula also tolerate subfreezing temperatures. Nepenthes species, which are tropical, require temperatures from 20 to 30 °C to thrive. Carnivorous plants require appropriate nutrient-poor soil. Most appreciate a 3:1 mixture of Sphagnum peat to sharp horticultural sand (coir is an acceptable, and more ecofriendly substitute for peat). Nepenthes will grow in orchid compost or in pure Sphagnum moss. Ironically, carnivorous plants are themselves susceptible to infestation by parasites such as aphids or mealybugs. Although small infestations can be removed by hand, larger infestations necessitate use of an insecticide. Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) is effective as a topical insecticide, particularly on scale insects. Diazinon is an excellent systemic insecticide that is tolerated by most carnivorous plants. Malathion and Acephate (Orthene) have also been reported as tolerable by carnivorous plants. Although insects can be a problem, by far the biggest killer of carnivorous plants (besides human maltreatment) is grey mold (Botrytis cinerea). This thrives under warm, humid conditions and can be a real problem in winter. To some extent, temperate carnivorous plants can be protected from this pathogen by ensuring that they are kept cool and well ventilated in winter and that any dead leaves are removed promptly. If this fails, a fungicide is in order. The easiest carnivorous plants for beginners are those from the cool temperate zone. These plants will do well under cool greenhouse conditions (minimum 5 °C in winter, maximum 25 °C in summer) if kept in wide trays of acidified or rain water during summer and kept moist during winter: - Drosera capensis, the Cape sundew: attractive strap-leaved sundew, pink flowers, very tolerant of maltreatment. - Drosera binata, the fork-leaved sundew: large, Y-shaped leaves. - Sarracenia flava, the yellow trumpet pitcher: yellow, attractively veined leaves, yellow flowers in spring. - Pinguicula grandiflora, the common butterwort: purple flowers in spring, hibernates as a bud (hibernaculum) in winter. Fully hardy. - Pinguicula moranensis, the Mexican butterwort: pink flowers, non-carnivorous leaves in winter. Venus flytraps will do well under these conditions but are actually rather difficult to grow: even if treated well, they will often succumb to grey mold in winter unless well ventilated. Some of the lowland Nepenthes are very easy to grow as long as they are provided with relatively constant, hot and humid conditions. A study published in 2009 by researchers from Tel Aviv University indicates that secretions produced by carnivorous plants contain compounds that have anti-fungal properties and may lead to the development of a new class of anti-fungal drugs that will be effective against infections that are resistant to current anti-fungal drugs. Carnivorous plants have long been the subject of popular interest and exposition, much of it highly inaccurate. Fictional plants have been featured in a number of books, movies, television series, and video games. Typically, these fictional depictions include exaggerated characteristics, such as enormous size or possession of abilities beyond the realm of reality, and can be viewed as a kind of artistic license. Two of the most famous examples of fictional carnivorous plants in popular culture are the 1960s black comedy The Little Shop of Horrors and the triffids of John Wyndham's The Day of the Triffids. Other movies, such as The Hellstrom Chronicle (1971), and television series utilize accurate depictions of carnivorous plants for cinematic purposes. The earliest known depiction of carnivorous plants in popular culture was a case wherein a large man-eating tree was reported to have consumed a young woman in Madagascar in 1878. The South Australian Register carried the story in 1881. It was accompanied by an illustration of the tree consuming the woman, said to be a member from the "little known but cruel tribe" called the Mkodos. The story was attributed to a Dr. Carl Liche who supposedly witnessed the event. The account has been debunked as pure myth as it appears Dr. Liche, the Mkodos, and the tree were all fabrications. - Clarke C.M.; Bauer U.; Lee C.C.; Tuen A.A.; Rembold K.; Moran J.A. 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"A novel insight into the cost-benefit model for the evolution of botanical carnivory". Annals of Botany. 115 (7): 1075–1092. doi:10.1093/aob/mcv050. PMC 4648460. PMID 25948113. - Albert, V.A.; Williams, S.E.; Chase, M.W. (1992). "Carnivorous plants: Phylogeny and structural evolution". Science. 257 (5076): 1491–1495. Bibcode:1992Sci...257.1491A. doi:10.1126/science.1523408. PMID 1523408. - Ellison, A.M.; Gotelli, N.J. (2009). "Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants—Darwin's 'most wonderful plants in the world'.". Journal of Experimental Botany. 60 (1): 19–42. doi:10.1093/jxb/ern179. PMID 19213724. - Barthlott, W., S. Porembski, R. Seine & I. Theisen (translated by M. Ashdown) 2007. The Curious World of Carnivorous Plants: A Comprehensive Guide to Their Biology and Cultivation. Timber Press, Portland. - Williams, S. E. 2002. Comparative physiology of the Droseraceae sensu stricto—How do tentacles bend and traps close? Proceedings of the 4th International Carnivorous Plant Society Conference. Tokyo, Japan. pp. 77-81. - Poppinga S.; Hartmeyer S.R.H.; Seidel R.; Masselter T.; Hartmeyer I.; Speck T. (2012). "Catapulting tentacles in a sticky carnivorous plant". PLoS ONE. 7 (9): e45735. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...745735P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045735. PMC 3458893. PMID 23049849. - Mithofer, A (2011). "Carnivorous pitcher plants: Insights in an old topic". Phytochemistry. 72 (13): 1678–1682. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.11.024. PMID 21185041. - Clarke (1993). "The possible functions of the thorns of Nepenthes bicalcarata (Hook.f.) pitchers" (PDF). Carnivorous Plant Newsletter. 22 (1–2): 27–28. - Mody N. V.; Henson R.; Hedin P. A.; Kokpol U.; Miles D. H. (1976). "Isolation of the insect paralyzing agent coniine from Sarracenia flava". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 32 (7): 829–830. doi:10.1007/BF02003710. - Gibson, T.C.; Waller, D.M. (2009). 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Bibcode:2012PLoSO...745735P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045735. PMC 3458893. PMID 23049849. - Givnish TJ, Burkhardt EL, Happel RE, Weintraub JD (1984). "Carnivory in the bromeliad Brocchinia reducta, with a cost-benefit model for the general restriction of carnivorous plants to sunny, moist, nutrient-poor habitats". American Naturalist. 124 (4): 479–497. doi:10.1086/284289. JSTOR 00030147. (Requires JSTOR subscription) - Givnish, T., Burkhardt, E. L., Happel R. E., Weintraub, JD. (1984). "Carnivory in the bromeliad Brocchinia reducta with a cost/benefit model for the general restriction of carnivorous plants to sunny, moist, nutrient poor habitats". American Naturalist. 124: 479–497. doi:10.1086/284289. - Hartmeyer, S. (1998). "Carnivory in Byblis revisited II: The phenomenon of symbiosis on insect trapping plants". Carnivorous Plant Newsletter. 27 (4): 110–113. - Schnell, Donald E. (2002). Carnivorous plants of the United States and Canada. Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-540-3. - Rice, Barry A. (2006). Growing Carnivorous Plants. Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-807-0. - Radhamani, T.R.; Sudarshana, L.; Krishnan, R. (1995). "Defence and carnivory: Dual role of bracts in Passiflora foetida". Journal of Biosciences. 20 (5): 657–664. doi:10.1007/BF02703305. - Darnowski, D.W.; Carroll, D.M.; Płachno, B.; Kabanoff, E.; Cinnamon, E. (2006). "Evidence of protocarnivory in triggerplants (Stylidium spp.; Stylidiaceae)". Plant Biology. 8 (6): 805–812. doi:10.1055/s-2006-924472. PMID 17058181. - Ellison, A. M.; Farnsworth, E.J. (2005). "The cost of carnivory for Darlingtonia californica (Sarraceliaceae): Evidence from relationships among leaf traits". Journal of Botany. 92: 1085–1093. doi:10.3732/ajb.92.7.1085. PMID 21646130. - Cameron K, Wurdack KJ, Jobson RW (2002). "Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap-traps among carnivorous plants". American Journal of Botany. 89 (9): 1503–1509. doi:10.3732/ajb.89.9.1503. PMID 21665752. - Slack A (1988). Carnivorous plants. London: Alphabooks. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-7136-3079-5. - Cameron KM, Chase MW, Swensen SM (1995). "Molecular evidence for the relationships of Triphyophyllum and Ancistrocladus". American Journal of Botany. 83 (6): 117–118. doi:10.2307/2445804. JSTOR 2445804. Discussion of this paper at the International carnivorous plant society website (original paper requires JSTOR subscription). - Zamora R, Gomez JM, Hodar JA (1997). "Responses of a carnivorous plant to prey and inorganic nutrients in a Mediterranean environment". Oecologia. 111 (4): 443–451. doi:10.1007/s004420050257. - Thoren LM, Karlsson PS (1998). "Effects of supplementary feeding on growth and reproduction of three carnivorous plant species in a subarctic environment". Journal of Ecology. 86 (3): 501–510. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00276.x. - Hanslin HM, Karlsson PS (1996). "Nitrogen uptake from prey and substrate as affected by prey capture level and plant reproductive status in four carnivorous plant species". Oecologia. 106 (3): 370–375. doi:10.1007/BF00334564. - Deridder F, Dhondt AA (1992). "A positive correlation between naturally captured prey, growth and flowering in Drosera intermedia in two contrasting habitats". Belgian Journal of Botany. 125: 30–44. - Karlsson PS, Pate JS (1992). "Contrasting effects of supplementary feeding of insects or mineral nutrients on the growth and nitrogen and phosphorus economy of pygmy species of Drosera". Oecologia. 92 (1): 8–13. doi:10.1007/BF00317256. - Gallie, D. R.; Chang, S. C. (1997). "Signal transduction in the carnivorous plant Sarracenia purpurea - regulation of secretory hydrolase expression during development and in response to resources". Plant Physiology. 115 (4): 1461–1471. doi:10.1104/pp.115.4.1461. PMC 158611. PMID 9414556. - Zamora R, Gomez JM, Hodar JA (1988). "Fitness responses of a carnivorous plant in contrasting ecological scenarios". Ecology. 79 (5): 1630–1644. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[1630:FROACP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0012-9658. - Brewer JS (2002). "Why don't carnivorous pitcher plants compete with non-carnivorous plants for nutrients?". Ecology. 84 (2): 451–462. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0451:WDTCPP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0012-9658. - Knight SE, Frost TM (1991). "Bladder control in Utricularia macrorhiza - lake-specific variation in plant investment in carnivory". Ecology. Ecological Society of America. 72 (2): 728–734. doi:10.2307/2937212. JSTOR 2937212. - Greenwood M.; Clarke C.; Lee C.C.; Gunsalam A.; Clarke R.H. (2011). "A unique resource mutualism between the giant Bornean pitcher plant, Nepenthes rajah, and members of a small mammal community". PLoS ONE. 6 (6): e21114. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621114G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021114. - Scharmann M.; Grafe T.U. (2013). "Reinstatement of Nepenthes hemsleyana (Nepenthaceae), an endemic pitcher plant from Borneo, with a discussion of associated Nepenthes taxa". Blumea. 58: 8–12. doi:10.3767/000651913X668465. - Jürgens, Andreas; Sciligo, Amber; Witt, Taina; El-Sayed, Ashraf M.; Suckling, D. Max (2012). "Pollinator-prey conflict in carnivorous plants". Biological Reviews. 87: 602–615. - Muller K, Borsch T, Legendre L, Porembski S, Theisen I, Barthlott W (2004). "Evolution of carnivory in Lentibulariaceae and the Lamiales". Plant Biology (Stuttgart). 6 (4): 477–490. doi:10.1055/s-2004-817909. PMID 15248131. - Eilenberg, Haviva; Pnini-Cohen, Smadar; Rahamim, Yocheved; Sionov, Edward; Segal, Esther; Carmeli, Shmuel; Zilberstein, Aviah (December 2009). "Induced production of antifungal naphthoquinones in the pitchers of the carnivorous plant Nepenthes khasiana". Journal of Experimental Botany. Oxford University Press. 61 (3): 911–922. doi:10.1093/jxb/erp359. PMC 2814117. PMID 20018905. Retrieved 2010-04-22. - "Carnivorous plants may save people". Israel 21c Innovation News Service. April 11, 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-13. External link in - Ron Sullivan; Joe Eaton (2007-10-27). "The Dirt: Myths about man-eating plants - something to chew on". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2007-10-26. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carnivorous plants.\| \|Wikisource has several original texts related to: Carnivorous plants\| - Slack A (1986). Insect-eating Plants and How to Grow Them. Sherborne UK: Alphabooks. ISBN 0-906670-42-X. - Juniper BE, Robins RJ, Joel DM (1989). The Carnivorous Plants. Academic Press, San Diego. - Carnivorous Plant Database provides an up-to-date, searchable database of all the published species of carnivorous plants. - Carnivorous Plant FAQ at Sarracenia.com - List of films and TV shows that feature carnivorous plants-most of them fictional - Botanical Society of America - Carnivorous Plants Online - Inner World of Carnivorous Plants from the John Innes Centre - Ellison, A.M. 2006. "Nutrient Limitation and Stoichiometry of Carnivorous Plants." (PDF). (334 KB) Plant Biol. 8: 740–747. - Time Lapse Videos of Carnivorous Plants National Geographic
HOOK: Assign each sign to a student. Beginning with the student who has the “C” Have that student go up on stage where they think “center stage” would be. Ask for a volunteer with the letter ‘R’ to come on stage. Explain to the students that stage directions are from the reference point of the actor. Have the L student take their place. Explain that stages used to be raked at a slanted angle. Ask for the ‘U’ students to take their places followed by a ‘C’, ‘L’ and ‘R’ accordingly. Repeat with the ‘D’ students. When all the students have found their place have a sign-less student move around the stage and have the class shout where that student is on the stage. Act as director and tell the student specifically where to go on the stage. Let other students take turns being the director and telling the actor where to move. A small assessment could be made by either quizzing students verbally or having them return to their seats to fill out a stage diagram with the proper stage directions. STEP 1: Transition – Explain to the students the Do’s and Don’ts of blocking basics. Give or ask for examples as necessary. Cheat towards the audience Have a motivation to move Put your back to the audience Be a furniture magnet Upstage the action STEP 2: Instruction – Review the schedule with students so they are aware when they need to be memorized and when their preview performances are. Encourage students to incorporate the blocking techniques during their rehearsal today. Optional: you may choose to have students write down their blocking in their scripts as an assessment. STEP 3: Group Practice – allow students to get into their assigned scene groups and to rehearse their scenes. Teacher should be available to student if they have any questions or need ideas/help with blocking. CLOSURE: Review the calendar with the students. Remind them that next period they must come memorized. Review verbally with the class the basics of blocking. Ask students to give examples of how they incorporated the Do’s or avoided the Don’ts during their rehearsal today. ASSESSMENT: Students can be assessed by their stage directions worksheet and their participation.
\|Similar Diaphanopterodea, Palaeodictyoptera, Meganisoptera, Protorthoptera, Titanoptera\| Mischoptera woodwardi megasecoptera Megasecoptera is a paleozoic insect order. There are 22 known families of megasecopterans, with about 35 known genera. Like all other paleodictyopteroids, the megasecopterans had sucking mouthparts. The suctorial mouth parts were probably used to pierce plant casings and extract high-quality plant materials, such as spores and pollen. Unlike some earlier insects, megasecopterans bore two pairs of wings, which were nearly of the same size. The wings probably were held horizontally, as in dragonflies (Odonata, Anisoptera). The wing bases tend to be very slender and petiolated, as in damselflies (Odonata, Zygoptera). The body was usually long and thin, although the genus Protohymen was rather stouter and shorter than a typical megasecopteran. Another distinctive feature was the presence of a number of fine processes projecting from the body, which in some cases could be longer than the body itself, forming long fringes on the insect's underside. During their relatively brief period of existence, the Megasecoptera were rather successful. It has been estimated that this insect order accounted for 50% of the insect biomass in some locations, but the available evidence might be misleading..
3D Printing in Construction 3D printing, also known as Additive Manufacturing(AM) is the continuous layering of construction materials to create 3D shapes and structures. The complete process is computer controlled and can be better described as computer aided design. The 3D model can also be designed using 3D scanners. In the construction industry 3D printing can be used to create construction elements or print entire structures. Depending on the printing method used, different sets of materials and colours can be used to print individual or multiple components simultaneously. Accuracy of printing models can be increased by high resolution subtractive processes. Usage of computer aided design in the construction industry has existed for some time and the recent development of building information modelling(BIM) has facilitated better and greater use of 3D printing. Different Technologies used in Construction Some of the different 3D printing technologies that are being used in the construction industry are: - Robotic Arm Extruders- This technology is also known as contour crafting. Rails are arranged across and around the structure for the movement of the robotic arm that builds the house layer by layer by extruding concrete mixture from the nozzle attached to the robotic arm. Trowels are placed on the side and above the nozzle to flatten out the concrete and ensure design strength.Quick setting concrete is used for this technology as the consequent layers can be placed only after the previous layer of concrete has hardened. - Sand Layers Printing- The 3D printing machine used in this technology spreads a layer of sand powder and then from the print head pours binder droplets to harden the sand. This process is repeated and can be ultimately used to create structures of upto 6m3. - Metal Technology- This is based on a unique construction technique named Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing(WAAM). This method enables you to 3D print metal structured with a 6-axis robot that drops 2 kgs of material per hour. The very first trial in India was done when construction Giant L & T successfully 3D printed a 700 sq ft building(G+1 floor) with reinforcement. The building was printed at a location in Kanchipuram using a fully automated printer and locally developed concrete mix, using indigenously available materials. Both vertical reinforcements and horizontal distributors were used to print the building with the help of welded mesh laid according to the codal provisions. The entire building structure except the horizontal slab components was 3D printed cast in situ at the construction site in 106 hours. This is a landmark moment in Indian Construction history. Advantages of 3D Printing Usage of 3D printing in the construction industry is growing rapidly because of the various advantages and prominent functions. Some of the major advantages of using 3D printing in construction are: - Innovative and Flexible Design- Use of AMs create space of innovations as 3D structural visual models can be designed at the planning stage itself to satisfy the client's design requirements. 3D printing presents contractors with viable options to construct more complex designs than traditional manufacturing processes. - Rapid Production- Production time of structures are greatly reduced when 3D printing methods are used. Approximately a 500-800 sq ft house can be built within a day. 3D printing processes are fully automated and free of human error, the only effort that needs to be put in is monitoring of the printing process. It does not need any external assistance during the construction process as the design structure has been programmed and the printer itself can perform all functions ranging from printing of simultaneous layers to printing with different materials. - Minimal Wastage- There is almost zero waste produced during and after the 3D printing process. Recycled materials can also be used instead of traditional supplies in 3D printing that reduces the impact on the environment to a vast extent. Not only wastage of materials is prevented but also cost related to materials is greatly reduced. - Cost Effective- As mentioned above the costs are greatly reduced due to less material usage and also due to less demand of the workforce for printing. It is cost effective in terms of less time used for completing buildings also. - Strong and Lightweight Products- Most of the construction components built using 3D printing technology are lighter and stronger than their traditional counterparts. - Easy to Use- 3D printing technology is becoming more accessible to service providers aiding them in acquiring more projects and providing them with outsourcing opportunities. There is no need to put in extra effort for transportation of materials and equipments, thereby reducing transportation costs.
As one might expect, hoofed mammals are grouped together because they have hooves, unlike all other mammal species. Elk, deer, and mountain goats all have two-toed or cloven hooves. Hoofed mammals are part of a group sometimes know as "megaherbivores" because they tend to be the largest terrestrial herbivores. Deer - family Cervidae Black-tailed deer are a sub-species of mule deer (Odeocileus hemionus hemionus) found west of the Cascade Mountains. Black-tailed deer have all black tails, while mule deer have white tails with black tips. Otherwise black-tailed deer and mule deer are very similar, both in appearance and behavior. Black-tailed deer, like mule deer, have large, fuzzy, mule-like ears, red-brown coats, and white rumps. These deer are found widely in the park's forested regions. In summer, bucks will move to higher elevations while does and fawns stay at lower regions. Deer are most active at dawn and dusk and they eat a variety of grasses and vegetation. In winter their diet shifts to include more twigs and woody vegetation. Elk, also known as Wapiti, are some of the largest mammals found in the park. They can weigh between 400-1,100 pounds. Elk have gold-brown coats with darker-colored legs and necks, and large yellowish-white rump patches. Winter coats can be a darker grey-brown color. Bull elk have shaggy dark brown throat manes and begin growing antlers in their second year. Elk are found throughout the park, moving from lower elevations in fall to higher elevations in spring. They eat primarily grasses in summer, shifting to woody plants and fallen leaves in fall and winter. Additional Research: Schullery, Paul. A History of Native Elk in Mount Rainier National Park. 2004 Web Ed. Goats - family Bovidae In contrast to their shaggy all-white coats, mountain goats have black lips, eyes, noses, and hooves. A dense warm undercoat allows them to live comfortably at high elevations even during winter. Their hooves have a hard outer ring with a spongy center that helps them "stick" to rocks. Mountain goats are nimble climbers, easily traversing steep rock slopes and cliffs. Both males and females have slim black horns. In males, the horns thicken and curl backwards as the goat ages. Mountain goats will range between subalpine and alpine regions in the park. They eat mosses, lichens, shrubs, some grasses and other vegetation. Last updated: January 12, 2021
Physical and relational bullying can happen among children as young 3 years old, but a relatively short intervention program can lead to significant reductions in some of these behaviors, research shows. The intervention, called the Early Childhood Friendship Project (ECFP), lasts eight weeks and uses puppets, stories, and activities appropriate for preschoolers that can easily be folded into existing curriculums. “Our goal is to eventually give this program away to all those qualified to implement it,” says Jamie Ostrov, associate professor of psychology at the University at Buffalo. The current study, published in the journal School Psychology Review, is an extension of earlier research that demonstrated how the program reduced different types of aggression and peer victimization broadly at the classroom level. “We needed to show that the program worked to change the individual child’s behavior. We also expanded the study at the request of teachers, adding two weeks that addressed additional social skills and emphasized sharing, helping, and including other children.” “All bullying is aggression, but not all aggression is bullying.” While the previous research focused on general aggressive behavior, the follow up closely examines bullying behavior, Ostrov says. “All bullying is aggression, but not all aggression is bullying.” “Bullying’s starting point is aggressive behavior. But what makes bullying a subset of aggressive behavior is a power imbalance, where for example one child is older, physically bigger, or more popular than their victim. That’s followed by either repetition of the unwanted and intentional behavior or a fear the behavior will repeat itself.” The study developed a new measure that helps assess bullying behavior in an age group where it wasn’t previously thought to exist. It also expanded on its predecessor by examining different types of bullying, including relational bullying. “This is a form of social exclusion that uses the threat of the removal of the relationship as a means of harm,” says Ostrov. “It occurs when a child might say to another, ‘You can’t play with us’ or ‘you’re not my friend anymore.'” Researchers designed the program to be part of a preschool class’s circle time. It’s a 10-minute puppet show that emphasizes a different theme each of the eight weeks. The puppet presents a developmental problem the children are likely to encounter and asks their help to solve the problem. Interventionists are also in the classroom about three hours a week, reinforcing and praising positive behaviors. The children, meantime, are also looking for these behaviors and reporting when they see others doing good things. The program concludes with a graduation. “We’re seeing a significant effect for relational bullying that’s quite notable—and it doesn’t require a lot of time.” says Ostrov. “You can go into these classrooms and with minimal interaction with the kids see relatively big returns on your investment.” Other researchers from University at Buffalo and Rochester Institute of Technology contributed to the study. Source: University at Buffalo
This online course is designed for teachers in grades 6-8 who want to help their students become critical and logical mathematical thinkers. Information on the problem-solving process is shared together with distinct suggestions for incorporating specific problem-solving strategies such as thinking logically, predicting and estimating, using a model or diagram, creating a table to find a pattern, and using an algorithm or formula. Teachers will gain valuable classroom ideas including using manipulatives, developing real-world problems, checking and explaining solutions, how to differentiate within the math classroom, as well as how to appropriately assess students in the problem-solving process. Course Number: EDUC-40104 Credit: 5.00 unit(s)
The 16th century Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan and his crew had plenty of time to study the southern sky during the first circumnavigation of planet Earth. As a result, two fuzzy cloud-like objects easily visible to southern hemisphere skygazers are known as the Clouds of Magellan, now understood to be satellite galaxies of our much larger, spiral Milky Way galaxy. About 160,000 light-years distant in the constellation Dorado, the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is seen here in a remarkably deep, colorful, image. Spanning about 15,000 light-years or so, it is the most massive of the Milky Way's satellite galaxies and is the home of the closest supernova in modern times, SN 1987A. The prominent patch below center is 30 Doradus, also known as the magnificent Tarantula Nebula, is a giant star-forming region about 1,000 light-years across. The Milky Way was not created by an evaporating lake. The colorful pool of water, about 10 meters across, is known as Silex Spring and is located in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, USA. Illuminated artificially, the colors are caused by layers of bacteria that grow in the hot spring. Steam rises off the spring, heated by a magma chamber deep underneath known as the Yellowstone hotspot. Unrelated and far in the distance, the central band of our Milky Way Galaxy arches high overhead, a band lit by billions of stars. The above picture is a 16-image panorama taken late last month. If the Yellowstone hotspot causes another supervolcanic eruption as it did 640,000 years ago, a large part of North America would be affected. Video Credit: NASA, ESA, F. Summers, Z. Levay, L. Frattare, B. Mobasher, A. Koekemoer and the HUDF Team (STScI) What would it look like to fly through the distant universe? To find out, a team of astronomers estimated the relative distances to over 5,000 galaxies in one of the most distant fields of galaxies ever imaged: the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF). Because it takes light a long time to cross the universe, most galaxies visible in the above video are seen when the universe was only a fraction of its current age, were still forming, and have unusual shapes when compared to modern galaxies. No mature looking spiral galaxies such as our Milky Way or the Andromeda galaxy yet exist. Toward the end of the video the virtual observer flies past the farthest galaxies in the HUDF field, recorded to have a redshift past 8. This early class of low luminosity galaxies likely contained energetic stars emitting light that transformed much of the remaining normal matter in the universe from a cold gas to a hot ionized plasma. What's that on the horizon? The light peak is Mt. Sharp -- an eventual destination of the Curiosity rover. The above image mosaic was taken from Bradbury Landing, the landing spot of Curiosity, and shows in the foreground the rover's extended robotic arm. Curiosity's is already on the move crossing the intermediate gravel field toward an interesting terrain feature named Glenelg. Curiosity has also already started analyzing its surroundings by zapping a nearby rock with its laser to analyze the chemical composition of the resulting gas plume. If life ever existed on Mars it might well have been here in Gale crater, with the Curiosity rover being humanity's current best chance to find what remains. How does a hurricane form? Although a complete picture is still being researched, insight into this process might be gleaned by watching the above time lapse movie of the formation of Hurricane Irene, a large storm system currently threatening the eastern seaboard of the USA. Starting as a slight pressure difference visible as nondescript clouds on the lower right, Hurricane Irene is shown growing into large spiraling storm system of low pressure off the coast of South Carolina. A hurricane is powered by evaporating ocean water, and so typically gains strength over warm water and loses strength over land. Besides Earth, other planets that have hurricane-like storm systems include Venus, Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune. Much remains unknown about hurricanes and cyclones, including the exact path they will take. Even though you may have just read an email claiming Mars will be incredibly bright tonight, the brightest star on the horizon is not Mars. From central Iran on August 24th, the brightest star in this twilight desert skyview is Venus, aka the Evening Star. But a bright Mars is in the picture, just above and right of more brilliant Venus. Despite claims in the internet's annually returning Mars Hoax that Mars will be as big and bright as the Full Moon, this celestial scenario is very similar to the western sky you can see tonight. Along with Mars, the still beautiful vista includes Spica, alpha star of the constellation Virgo, above and left of Venus. Farther right of Venus, Saturn peeks through the sunset's fading glow just above the clouds. Near the opposite horizon, the Full Moon illuminating the desert is about 400,000 times brighter than Mars. Scroll right to take in the view from the highest summit in the contiguous USA. The above 360-degree digitally stitched panorama, taken in mid-July, shows the view from 4,400-meter high Mt. Whitney in Sequoia National Park, California. In the foreground, angular boulders populate Mt. Whitney's summit while in the distance, just below the horizon, peaks from the Sierra Nevada mountain range are visible. Sky sights include light pollution emanating from Los Angeles and Fresno, visible just above the horizon. Dark clouds, particularly evident on the image left well above the horizon, are the remnants of a recent thunderstorm near Death Valley. High above, the band of the Milky Way Galaxy arches across the image left. Bright airglow bands are visible all over the sky but are particularly prominent on the image right. The planet Jupiter appears as the brightest point on the image left. A discerning eye can also find a faint image of the far distant Andromeda galaxy, a satellite trail, and many constellations. Today marks the 100th anniversary of the completion of the historic stone shelter on Mt. Whitney, visible toward the image right. Inside the Cocoon Nebula is a newly developing cluster of stars. Cataloged as IC 5146, the beautiful nebula is nearly 15 light-years wide, located some 4,000 light years away toward the northern constellation Cygnus. Like other star forming regions, it stands out in red, glowing, hydrogen gas excited by young, hot stars and blue, dust-reflected starlight at the edge of an otherwise invisible molecular cloud. In fact, the bright star near the center of this nebula is likely only a few hundred thousand years old, powering the nebular glow as it clears out a cavity in the molecular cloud's star forming dust and gas. This color view of the Cocoon Nebula traces remarkably subtle features within and surrounding the dusty stellar nursery. What has created this huge empty volume in the universe? No one is yet sure, and even the extent of the estimated billion-light year void is being researched. The void is not a hole in space like a black hole, but rather a vast region of the universe that appears to be mostly devoid of normal matter and even dark matter. The void is still thought to contain dark energy, though, and is clearly traversable by light. The void's existence is being postulated following scientific curiosity about how unusually cold spots came to appear on WMAP's map of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. One possibility was that this CMB region was not actually very cold but light from the spot somehow became more cosmologically redshifted than normal along the way. Other voids in the universe are known to exist, but this void appears to have an unusually large gravitational effect, and so might possibly be the largest in our entire visible universe. Investigating this, a recent study found an unusually low number of cosmic radio sources between Earth and the CMB cold spot, which led to the inference of this giant void. An artist's depiction of the huge cosmic void is shown above. Big, beautiful, barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300 lies some 70 million light-years away on the banks of the constellation Eridanus. This Hubble Space Telescope composite view of the gorgeous island universe is one of the largest Hubble images ever made of a complete galaxy. NGC 1300 spans over 100,000 light-years and the Hubble image reveals striking details of the galaxy's dominant central bar and majestic spiral arms. In fact, on close inspection the nucleus of this classic barred spiral itself shows a remarkable region of spiral structure about 3,000 light-years across. Unlike other spiral galaxies, including our own Milky Way, NGC 1300 is not presently known to have a massive central black hole. Get out your red-blue glasses and float next to the International Space Station (ISS), planet Earth's largest artificial moon. This breathtaking stereo view was constructed from two separate images (S114-E-7245, S114-E-7246) recorded as the shuttle orbiter Discovery undocked from the ISS on August 6. As seen here, from left to right the ISS structure covers about 27 meters (90 feet). The span from the automated Progress supply ship docked in the foreground to the Destiny module hidden behind the station structure is about 52 meters (171 feet) long, while the full (top to bottom) reach of the solar arrays at the left would cover about 73 meters (240 feet). Resupplied by Discovery, the ISS is currently operated by the two member Expedition 11 crew, Sergei Krikalev and John Phillips. The discovery of Sedna (aka 2003 VB12), the most distant known object orbiting the Sun, presents a mystery. Pluto's orbit averages about 40 AU in radius, where an AU (Astronomical Unit) is the Earth-Sun distance. But the closest point in Sedna's eccentric orbit scarcely comes within 75 AU, while its farthest point extends to nearly 1,000 AU. So how did something as large as Sedna get so far out there? Exploring the problem with computer simulations, astronomers Alessandro Morbidelli and Harold Levison suggest that while Sedna was not formed in its current location, it was also not moved there by encounters with other solar system objects. Instead, they find it more likely that Sedna resides in its present orbit because of an encounter with another star. In one scenario, objects like Sedna are yanked out of closer orbits by the gravitational pull of a Sun-sized star passing near the solar system during its formative years. Alternatively Sedna could have formed of material from another system entirely, captured during an early encounter with a much smaller star. Both Sedna-forming stellar encounter scenarios are consistent with idea that the Sun itself was born in an ancient, dense, cluster of stars. At about 10 am Universal Time today, Mars and Earth will pass closer than in nearly 60,000 years. Mars, noticeably red, will be the brightest object in the eastern sky just after sunset. Tonight and through much of this week, many communities around the world are running a public Mars Watch 2003 campaign, where local telescopes will zoom in on the red planet. Pictured above is an image of Mars taken just last night from the Hubble Space Telescope in orbit around the Earth. This image is the most detailed view of Mars ever taken from Earth. Visible features include the south polar cap in white at the image bottom, circular Huygens crater just to the right of the image center, Hellas Impact Basin - the large light circular feature at the lower right, planet-wide light highlands dominated by many smaller craters and large sweeping dark areas dominated by relatively smooth lowlands. The largest canyon in the Solar System cuts a wide swath across the face of Mars. Named Valles Marineris, the grand valley extends over 3,000 kilometers long, spans as much as 600 kilometers across, and delves as much as 8 kilometers deep. By comparison, the Earth's Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA is 800 kilometers long, 30 kilometers across, and 1.8 kilometers deep. The origin of the Valles Marineris remains unknown, although a leading hypothesis holds that it started as a crack billions of years ago as the planet cooled. Recently, several geologic processes have been identified in the canyon. The above mosaic was created from over 100 images of Mars taken by Viking Orbiters in the 1970s. Where have all the dim stars gone? From many places on the Earth including major cities, the night sky has been reduced from a fascinating display of hundreds of stars to a diffuse glow through which only a handful of stars are visible. The above map indicates the relative amount of light pollution that occurs across the Earth. The cause of the pollution is artificial light reflecting off molecules and aerosols in the atmosphere. Parts of the Eastern United States and Western Europe colored red have an artificial night sky glow over nine times that of the natural sky. In any area marked orange or red, the central band of our Milky Way Galaxy is no longer visible. The International Dark Sky Association suggests common types of fixtures that provide relatively little amounts of light pollution. The Horsehead Nebula is one of the most famous nebulae on the sky. It is visible as the black indentation to the red emission nebula seen just to the right of center of the above photograph. The bright star near the center is located in the belt of the familiar constellation of Orion. The horse-head feature is dark because it is really an opaque dust cloud which lies in front of the bright red emission nebula. Like clouds in Earth's atmosphere, this cosmic cloud has assumed a recognizable shape by chance. After many thousands of years, the internal motions of the cloud will alter its appearance. The emission nebula's red color is caused by electrons recombining with protons to form hydrogen atoms. Also visible in the picture are blue reflection nebulae, which preferentially reflect the blue light from nearby stars. Cosmic wreckage from the detonation of a massive star is the subject of this official first image from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory. The supernova remnant, known as Cassiopeia A, was produced when a star exploded around 300 years ago in this northern sky constellation. It is revealed here in unprecedented detail in the light of X-rays - photons with thousands of times the energy of visible light. Shock waves expanding at 10 million miles-per-hour are seen to have heated this 10 light-year diameter bubble of stellar debris to X-ray emitting temperatures of 50 million kelvins. The tantalizing bright speck near the bubble's center could well be the dense, hot remnant of the stellar core collapsed to form a newborn neutron star. With this and other first light images, the Chandra Observatory is still undergoing check out operations in preparation for its much anticipated exploration of the X-ray sky. Chandra was launched aboard the space shuttle Columbia in July. These are galaxies of the Hercules Cluster, an archipelago of "island universes" a mere 650 million light-years distant. This cluster is loaded with gas and dust rich, star forming, spiral galaxies but has relatively few elliptical galaxies, which lack gas and dust and the associated newborn stars. Colors in the composite image show the star forming galaxies with a blue tint and ellipticals with a slightly yellowish cast. In this cosmic vista many galaxies seem to be colliding or merging while others seem distorted - clear evidence that cluster galaxies commonly interact. Over time, the galaxy interactions are likely to affect the the content of the cluster itself. Researchers believe that the Hercules Cluster is significantly similar to young galaxy clusters in the distant, early Universe and that exploring galaxy types and their interactions in nearby Hercules will help unravel the threads of galaxy and cluster evolution. A lunar eclipse can be viewed in a leisurely fashion. Visible to anyone on the night side of planet Earth (weather permitting), totality often lasts an hour or so as the moon glides through the Earth's shadow. But a solar eclipse is more fleeting. Totality can last a few minutes only for those fortunate enough to stand in the path of the Moon's shadow as it races across the Earth's surface. For the April 29, 1995 annular solar eclipse, photographer Olivier Staiger was standing in Macara, Ecuador under partially cloudy skies. Just before the maximum annular eclipse phase he recorded this dramatic moment as a bird flew near the sun. Very accurate predictions of eclipses have long been possible. The next solar eclipse will occur on September 2 and be visible from Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica. The next lunar eclipse on September 16 will be visible from the Eastern Hemisphere. What does the largest storm system ever recorded look like close-up? This storm system is Jupiter's Great Red Spot and it was captured recently in detail by the robot spacecraft Galileo now in orbit around Jupiter. Using real images from three color filters, the Galileo team was able to compute what a person would see if able to float just above this ancient rotating cloud system. But don't get too close - remember that Jupiter's Great Red Spot is a cold, high pressure area more than twice as wide as planet Earth. Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) pose one of the greatest mysteries of modern astronomy. About once a day, the gamma-ray sky lights up with a spectacular explosion. No one knows what causes these explosions or even how far away they are. The above map represents the entire sky in coordinates centered on our Galaxy, the Milky Way. It shows the positions of over 800 of these mysterious bursts of energy detected by the BATSE instrument on board NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Before BATSE, most astronomers thought that most GRBs occurred in the disk of our Galaxy, but the above sky map shows little sign of this. The distance scale of GRBs was the topic of a historic debate in April 1995. The positions in the above map are currently being studied in great detail in an effort to uncover a clue about the nature of GRBs. In the above 3B map created by Robert Nemiroff, spot size is proportional to peak flux and spot color is indicative of hardness. Click here for a postscript version of BATSE's latest map of 1122 GRB locations (3B Catalog).
As humans we live and work as groups. As a general rule, we exist peacefully in groups, but there are times when groups work as a collective and engage in threatening and dangerous behavior. For this discussion board, you will: Describe riots, lynch mobs, and vigilante groups. How can the law enforcement authorities tackle them? Use examples to explain how and why mob violence occurs. Present a real-world example of one of these types of mob violence (riot, lynch mob, or vigilante group) and explain the motivation behind the action. What was the rationale behind the action? What types of people were involved? What type of damage or violence occurred and was the action was justified?
What does any child do with food at this age? Ages 5-7 – Explores and ‘tries out’ different foods Unlike the toddler, the young school aged child wants to fit into the world around them. At the same time they feel more independent and peer pressure begins to shape their behaviour. Children start to explore their environment more, at home and at school. This includes food choices. It’s good for parents to continue to offer healthy foods and encourage acceptable eating behaviour but balance this with giving freedom of choice. Peer pressure will have an impact, especially with foods. Foods that are heavily advertised will be favourites and more often than not will be high in fat, salt or sugar. These types of foods are suitable from time to time as special occasion treats. Try to find healthy foods in packets, eg fruit in a bag is popular Low fat alternatives such as reduced fat milk and low fat cooking methods are appropriate at this age. The food choices of your child should be the same as the rest of the family – generally low in fat (especially saturated fats) and high in fibre. This keeps the whole family healthy and reduces the risk of long term health problems. Eating Meals Away From Home As your child reaches school age they begin to eat more meals away from the family home. This includes school lunches. This is when you may encounter things like swapped lunches (the grass is greener… in a friend’s lunch box) and missed meals (not enough time to eat and play!). - Prepare a lunch that looks good and is quick to eat. - Pack up snacks and lunches in different wraps or containers which makes it easy for your child to determine which food package is for which meal. - Freeze sandwiches and other freezable items the night before so that lunch tastes and looks fresh. - Children at this age like to learn new skills and can make simple items like sandwiches. Lunch may be more likely to be eaten if it has been made by the child themselves.
However, the Universe has a cosmic speed limit that is even lower than the speed of light. The only real speed of light that scientists commonly refer to as 299,792,458 m/s is the speed that is achieved in a vacuum medium. This means that this speed was measured only when there was no medium of particles or fields to slow the speed down. This speed is also only achieved when the particles have absolutely no mass. This can be waves, photons, or gluons as far as science is aware of. The reality is that there is no perfect vacuum. Even in space, there are things that influence the speed at which light travels. These particles are WHIM, or warm-hot intergalactic medium, CMB (cosmic microwave background), and CNB (cosmic neutrino background). Any light particle traveling through space will encounter these particles. When the energy particles with the highest energy and, therefore, speed in the universe are formed, they will originate from harsh conditions. These conditions are provided by high energies and strong fields like the ones present at black holes and neutron stars. Because every charged particle must be limited in speed due to external factors in space, it will have a speed limitthat is always below the speed of light. The leftover glow that occurs in all of space after the Big Bang makes the intergalactic medium a place that does not allow cosmic rays to travel at their full potential. That is why the particles in the Universe through which it expands have a speed limit that is not the speed of light. The value is lower than that and is determined by the energy from the Big Bang leftover glow. As the Universe is expanding and cooling, this speed limit will gradually rise and allow the particles to travel closer to the speed that light does. As long as a particle is made of matter, it will always have to adhere to the speed limit of the Universe.
Enter the wavelength and frequency into the calculator. The calculator will evaluate and display the total wave speed. - Photon Energy Calculator - Relative Frequency Calculator - Wavelength Calculator - Wavenumber Calculator - Wave Amplitude Calculator Wave Speed Formula The following formula is used to calculate the speed or velocity of a wave. V = f * w - Where V is the velocity (m/s) - f is the frequency (Hz) - w is the wavelength (m) Wave Speed Definition Wave speed, also known as wave velocity, is a term used in physics to describe the speed at which a wave is propagating. Most often this involves light in some kind of medium, whether it be air or a vacuum. Wave Speed Example How to calculate wave speed? First, determine the frequency of the wave. For this example, the wave frequency is measured to be 50 Hz. Next, determine the wavelength of the same wave. In this problem, the wavelength is found to be 3 meters. Finally, we can calculate the wave speed using the formula above. V = fw = 503 = 150 m/s. As done previously, first the frequency of the wave needs to be found. Using a spectrum analyzer, the frequency is determined to be 160 Hz. Next, the wavelength is measured to be 120 meters. Finally, using the formula, we find the wave speed to be 160*120 = 19,200 m/s. Wave Speed Units The standard SI units for wave speed are meters per second, denoted m/s. The English system uses feet per second, denoted ft/s, as the units for wave speed. In both of these cases, the units can be modified to other units such as inches per second and centimeters per second with a simple conversion. Radio Waves Speed Radio waves always travel at the speed of light which is approximately 186,000 miles per second. While the frequency and wavelength of the radio waves can change, the speed will not. So a lower frequency radio wave will have a longer wavelength. A wave speed is the velocity at which a wave is propagating through space.
The following behaviors are examples of innate behaviors: Web making in spiders. Nest building in birds. Fighting among male stickleback fish. What are the 4 types of learned behavior? Habituation, imprinting, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning. What is innate behavior quizlet? innate behavior. an inherited behavior that does not depend on the environment or experience. behavior. anything an animal does in response to a stimulus. fixed action pattern. What is an example of an instinctive behavior? What are Instinctive Behaviors? … Instincts are defined as non-learned, inherited (genetic) patterns of behavior generally ensuring the survival of a species. Common examples include spinning a web by a spider, nest building and other maternal activities, migration patterns of animals, social behavior in pack animals. What is the difference between innate and learned behavior? The difference between an innate behavior and a learned one is that innate behaviors are those an animal will engage in from birth without any intervention. Learned behavior is something an animal discovers through trial, error and observation. What are some examples of learned traits? People get some of their characteristics through choices or experiences. These characteristics are called learned characteristics, or sometimes acquired characteristics. Scars, tattoos, clothing, hairstyles, and pierced ears are acquired characteristics because they are not inherited from parents. What is the complex pattern of innate behavior? An instinct is a complex pattern of innate behavior. Which behavior is a learned behavior quizlet? Things that people get from their parents through their genes. I learned behavior is a new or changed behavior resulting from experience. For example a dog is not born knowing that it should run next to its owner. The dog must be taught by someone or must learn through experience. What are the 2 types of innate behaviors? There are two types of innate behavior reflex and instinct. A reflex is an automatic response that does not involve a message from the brain. Reflex Examples: Sneezing, shivering, yawning, quickly pulling your hand away from a hot surface, blinking your eyes. An instinct is a complex pattern of innate behaviors. What are three examples of instinctive? The following behaviors are examples of innate behaviors: - Web making in spiders. - Nest building in birds. - Fighting among male stickleback fish. - Cocoon spinning in insects such as moths. - Swimming in dolphins and other aquatic species. What are instinctive behaviors? stereotyped, unlearned, largely stimulus-bound adaptive behavior limited in its expression by the inherent properties of the nervous system and genetic factors. It is species specific and involves complex activity patterns rather than simple reflexes. Is Sleeping an innate behavior? Similarly, sleeping in humans is instinctive, but how much and when one sleeps is clearly subject to environmental factors. Whether a behaviour is instinctive or learned is common subject of nature versus nurture debates. What innate behaviors do humans have? The only innate behaviors in humans are reflexes. A reflex is a response that always occurs when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a human infant will grasp an object, such as a finger, that is placed in its palm. The infant has no control over this reaction because it is innate. Is love innate or learned? Love is a learned, emotional reaction. It is a response to a learned group of stimuli and behaviors. … To give love you must possess love.
Solar Panel Components The solar cell is the most basic component of a solar panel. Silicon cells that are connected together create a solar panel. A solar panel consists of a layer of silicon cells, a metal frame, a glass casing and wiring that allows current to flow from other silicon cells. Silicon has conductive properties that allow it to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. When light interacts with a silicon cell, it causes electrons to be set in motion, and that motion creates a flow of electric currents (photovoltaic effect). A solar panel also includes a glass casing that offers protection for the silicon cells. This tempered glass is tested under severe conditions to ensure it can withstand various environmental threats. The solar panel also has a layer for insulation and a protective back sheet, which helps against heat dissipation and humidity. The insulation is also important because an increase in temperature will lead to a decrease in efficiency, which can lower energy production.
Computer Adaptive Testing – challenging traditional thinking Achievement tests traditionally have been designed to assess all students’ performances on the same curriculum content, using the same test or examination, at the same time. The thinking behind this has been that, if every student attempts the same test questions under identical (‘standardised’) test conditions, then all students will be treated equally and can be compared fairly. Tests of this kind usually are conducted at specific times during the schooling process – for example, at the end of a topic, school term, school year or stage of school. Year 12 examinations are an example. The purpose is to establish how much of a body of taught content students are able to demonstrate, which is then converted to a percentage or other numerical mark or letter grade. In addition to grading and certifying students’ performances, tests of this kind sometimes determine entry into the next stage of education. In his 2019 article, The future of learning and the future of assessment, Harvard’s Richard Elmore describes traditional assessments as delivering ‘verdicts’ on students’ performances for the purposes of rationing and allocating scarce benefits. He argues that such assessments serve institutional interests rather than the interests of learning: The role of assessment in the existing institutional structure of education is to deliver a summary verdict on how competent students are, a verdict they will carry through their subsequent development as learners. This verdict is reinforced and legitimated by a merit-based attainment structure designed to ration and allocate social status, rather than to develop competency in learning. In the future, assessments will increasingly be formed around the radical idea that inquiry, measurement, and analysis should serve the interests of the individual learner, rather than the institutions that claim authority over the learner. (Elmore, 2019) Adaptive assessments have a very different starting point from traditional tests and examinations. They do not set out to assess and grade every student’s performance on the same body of taught content. Instead, they are designed to establish the points individuals have reached in their long-term progress in an area of learning. This usually means establishing what they know, understand and can do at the time of assessment – information that can then be used to identify next steps in teaching and learning and to monitor individual progress over time. Adaptive assessments are a response to the observation that students in the same year of school are at very different points in their learning. At any given time, some students are much more advanced than others. Adaptive assessments ‘adapt’ to these differences in students’ levels of attainment. Students who are less advanced, and so experience lower rates of success during an assessment, are automatically administered less difficult tasks. Students who are more advanced, and so experience higher rates of success, are administered more difficult tasks. In this way, each student is automatically administered a test tailored to where they are in their learning. Traditional achievement tests report results against a common body of taught content. Performance expectations or ‘standards’ may be set in relation to this content and every student’s performance reported against these standards – a practice sometimes referred to as ‘standard-based’ assessment. Adaptive assessments do not report students’ results against a common body of taught content, but against a described and illustrated continuum or progression of learning. The primary outcome of assessment is not a grade, but an estimate of the point an individual has reached in their learning, regardless of their age or year level. A well-constructed continuum of this kind is a requirement for all computer adaptive assessment and also enables the monitoring of individual progress over time –something that is not possible with assessments focused only on grading performances on defined bodies of taught content. As the OECD has noted, this fundamentally different approach to assessment is a central element of the new Welsh curriculum: As part of the new curriculum in Wales, student assessment has been associated with a new approach to learning progression itself. Wales describes progression as a continuum from ages 3 to 16 rather than a succession of ‘Key Stages’ (Wales’ groupings of Years of primary and secondary education). As a result, the system aims to move away from the standard-based assessment approach that measured how well each student fitted the attainment goals for each Year and Key Stage… An important step forward in this regard is the ongoing development of a system of adaptive online personalised assessments… Some OECD countries, including Denmark and the Netherlands, are using such computer-based adaptive technology, which presents students with test items sequentially according to their performance on previous test items. (OECD, 2020) Computer adaptive tests in mathematics and reading are now available to schools in the form of ACER’s Progressive Achievement (PAT Adaptive) assessments. These online adaptive assessments are alternatives to existing PAT Mathematics and PAT Reading test forms, which also continue to be available to schools. Each PAT Adaptive assessment analyses how each student performs during testing and automatically administers easier or harder sets of questions (‘testlets’) based on that student’s performances on prior questions. The result is an estimate of the point each student has reached on a progression of learning in mathematics or reading. These mathematics and reading progressions describe and illustrate increasing proficiency, enabling teachers to interpret each student’s test result in terms of the knowledge, skills and understandings typical of students at that level. Students are located on the progressions by their PAT scores, which have been adjusted for the difficulties of the questions they were administered. In this way, each student’s PAT score can be interpreted as a level of proficiency on a learning progression and also compared with the locations of other students on the same progression. Having established the points individuals have reached on learning progressions in mathematics and reading, online PAT Teaching Resources provide guidance on teaching strategies likely to be appropriate to individuals’ current levels of attainment. Teachers can then administer PAT Adaptive assessments later in the school year to measure students’ progress. Computer adaptive tests offer a glimpse into the future of learning, the curriculum and assessment. This future will be based on identifying and responding to individual progress and learning needs, rather than on traditional group-based solutions. Elmore, R. F. (2019). The future of learning and the future of assessment. ECNU Review of Education, 2(3), 328-341. OECD. (2020). Achieving the New Curriculum for Wales, Implementing Education Policies. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/4b483953-en
Get the basics. What is hydrogen? Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element on earth. It doesn't typically exist by itself in nature and must be produced from compounds that contain it, such as water, hydrocarbons, and other organic matter. Hydrogen is an energy carrier and is increasingly being considered a vital fuel of the future, primarily due to its high-energy density and zero-carbon emissions at the point of usage. It can store up to three times more energy than other common fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, or natural gas, and produces no carbon emissions when consumed to produce energy. Because it produces only water and energy when consumed, it is considered a “clean” energy. How is hydrogen produced? There are different categories of hydrogen based on the different methods of producing it and the amounts of carbon dioxide generated and released, or captured and stored. Grey hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, primarily natural gas, through a process called methane reforming. In this process, carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product and released into the atmosphere, which is believed to be a significant contributor to climate change. Grey hydrogen makes up about 95% of current global hydrogen production. Blue hydrogen is produced most commonly through steam methane reforming and auto thermal reforming, where either steam, or oxygen and carbon dioxide, react with methane to form hydrogen and carbon dioxide. These methods incorporate carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS) technologies to reduce carbon intensity, in many cases by up to 80 to 90 percent compared to grey hydrogen. Green hydrogen is produced by electrolysis, a process that breaks water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen when an electric current is run through the water. To be considered green hydrogen, the electricity used must come from renewable sources, such as wind, hydro, or solar. No carbon dioxide is produced thus making the hydrogen climate neutral. Currently, green hydrogen is the most costly of all the hydrogen categories to produce and accounts for less than 1% of the total hydrogen produced. Turquoise hydrogen involves decomposition of methane by pyrolysis at very high temperatures. It requires electricity, but 4–7.5 times less than electrolysis depending on the technology used, requires no water or oxygen, and uses approximately half the amount of energy required by steam reforming to produce the same amount of hydrogen. In addition, no carbon dioxide is generated and hence, no CCUS is necessary. Rather, the by-product is solid carbon, a product with high added value. Much fewer input requirements and no carbon emissions combined with a valuable by-product makes turquoise hydrogen a lower cost clean energy alternative. There are three types of methane pyrolysis: thermal, plasma and catalytic. Innova's technology produces turquoise hydrogen through both thermal and catalytic methane pyrolysis, with the incremental value-add of graphite and graphene by-products. What are the uses of hydrogen? Hydrogen can be used in many applications, such as a feedstock for industry, a fuel for vehicles or power plants, or burned for heat. Its use has the potential to drastically reduce carbon emissions. Industry: Several industries have been using hydrogen to create their end products for many years. Ammonia, which is used in fertilizer, is composed mostly of hydrogen atoms. Refineries use hydrogen to reduce the sulfur content in diesel fuel. It is also becoming a popular feedstock for reducing the carbon dioxide emissions from the steel production process, making it a ready alternative for metallurgical coal. Hydrogen itself can also be burned as a clean, high-temperature heat source for heavy industry applications that currently rely on natural gas. Natural Gas Blending: Research shows small proportions of hydrogen can be directly blended into our existing natural gas network. Today, this blend can be adopted into most natural gas applications such as home heating, high grade heat for industry, and fuel cells and turbines for power generation. Many natural gas power plant manufacturers are designing their systems with fuel optionality in mind. Fuel Cells: Fuel cells use hydrogen to make water and electricity. They are most familiarly used in vehicles but have many applications outside of the transportation sector. They can be used as back-up energy for emergencies, like a back-up generator for a hospital, or for clean, steady electricity, like for a data center. Some fuel cells can even work in two directions – they can both create and consume hydrogen. These “reversible” fuel cells are useful for energy storage. Energy Storage: Hydrogen is an emerging option for long-duration energy storage. Like natural gas, it can be stored for long periods of time and transported to different locations. It can be stored in different sized containers, from small tanks to large underground caverns. Large-scale hydrogen storage can be especially useful for industry because it provides a steady source of hydrogen as a feedstock even if the amount of hydrogen being added is irregular, such as when hydrogen is made during periods of excess electricity. Hydrogen has huge potential to move Canada (and other countries) toward its goal of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. It has great promise to be the great connector between energy and industry for decarbonization and is on the tipping point of massive market change. It has the potential to abate 6 Gt of carbon dioxide globally. The three biggest areas of impact for clean hydrogen are as a clean heat source for industry, a clean substitute for the grey hydrogen already used in industrial processes, and heavy-duty transportation. Cost reductions through technological advancements and increasing concern over mitigating the effects of climate change have caused more countries to pay attention. In July 2020, both the U.S. Office of Fossil Energy and the European Union released their Hydrogen Strategies. In September 2020, the U.S. Department of Energy released its Hydrogen Program Plan. In December 2020, Canada released its Hydrogen Strategy. The main goals of Canada's Hydrogen Strategy are: Canada will create regional hydrogen hubs to take advantage of different regional strengths for hydrogen production and utilization opportunities. In April 2021, Canada launched its first hydrogen hub just outside of Edmonton, Alberta. By 2050, clean hydrogen will deliver up to 30 percent of Canada's energy, reducing up to 190 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent per year. Canada will become one of the top three producers of clean hydrogen globally by 2050. Canada will capitalize on hydrogen export opportunities and become the world's hydrogen supplier of choice. Government of Canada Why is hydrogen a major opportunity for Canada? Canada is currently one of the top 10 hydrogen producers globally, with over 3 million tonnes of annual hydrogen production, providing an excellent base on which to build out clean hydrogen infrastructure. In addition, it has a remarkable mix of natural and energy resources that provide myriad opportunities for clean hydrogen using diversified technologies. These include: hydrogen from natural gas where geology supports CCUS, such as in northeast B.C., Alberta, and Saskatchewan; hydrogen from electrolysis using nuclear power particularly in Ontario; and hydrogen from electrolysis using renewable power where this is abundant, such as in B.C., Manitoba, and Quebec. Government of Canada The combined potential of Canada’s domestic hydrogen markets and export opportunities to the U.S., Asia and Europe could reach $100 billion per year, according to Transition Accelerator, a Canadian non-profit focused on net-zero solutions. Canada’s domestic hydrogen demand could rise by 14 MT to 25 MT per year, compared to current production of about three MT per year, according to BMO Capital Markets. Including export markets, potential could exceed 30 MT to 60 MT per year. Adding to the opportunity, Canada is already recognized as a competitive player in clean hydrogen production, with the second-lowest costs in Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum countries. The price to produce emissions-free hydrogen in Canada using natural gas and CCUS is second only to natural gas and CCUS in Russia, according to a 2018 report by the Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre.
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". \| \| Born: April 23, 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, United KingdomDied: April 23, 1616, Stratford-upon-Avon, United KingdomEducation: King Edward VI School, Stratford-upon-AvonBooks: First Folio, The Rape of LucreceMovies: Romeo + Juliet, 10 Things I Hate About You, Coriolanus\| \| Occupation:\| Playwright, poet, actor\| Nationality:\| English\| Period:\| English Renaissance\| Spouse(s):\| Anne Hathaway (m. 1582–1616)\| Children:Susanna Hall * Hamnet Shakespeare * Judith Quiney\| Relative(s):John Shakespeare (father) Mary Shakespeare (mother)\| William Shakespeare (26 April 1564 (baptized) – 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His extant works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, the authorship of some of which is uncertain. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnetand Judith. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as appearance, religious, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others. Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication and artistry by the end of the 16th century. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare, published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognized as Shakespeare's. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as "not of an age, but for all time". Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century. The Romantics, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians worshipped Shakespeare with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw called "bardolatry". In the 20th century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.
Chrysotile flooring is still present in many homes, schools, apartment complexes and office buildings. Depending on when the tile was manufactured, it can contain 7 percent to 20 percent asbestos. The adhesive used to attach these vinyl tiles to the floor often contains asbestos also. As these products age and decay, they can sometimes release chrysotile into the environment When a product that contains asbestos is disturbed, tiny fragments break free. Tile is considered nonfriable and often poses little or no risk when left undisturbed. However, if it is broken or damaged it can create a hazard. Some of the most frequent causes of exposure to loose chrysotile fibers are building renovation and repairs. Homeowners, construction workers, and asbestos abatement professionals can all be exposed to chrysotile from broken floor tiles. This occurs during activities such as scraping, sanding, drilling, cutting or removal. Chrysotile fragments can come into direct contact with the skin in these circumstances. These particles may also become airborne and be inhaled into the lungs Demolition activities can also release significant quantities of chrysotile into the air. The destruction of the World Trade Centers exposed thousands of individuals to dust and debris that was contaminated with to various forms of asbestos. Workers involved in the cleanup were also exposed to these dangerous substances. Skin contact with chrysotile fragments may cause irritation similar to that caused by fiberglass. Tiny splinters of asbestos can work their way into the skin and eventually the fibers will become overgrown with calluses. Broken pieces of chrysotile fiber are very light and can easily become airborne. Inhalation of such particles causes scarring of the lung tissue (asbestosis). It can also increase the likelihood of lung cancer. Smokers are much more likely than nonsmokers to develop lung cancer from asbestos exposureThe risks of serious health consequences increase with long exposure to significant quantities of the substance. Isolating or sealing off areas that contain damaged chrysotile is usually preferable to removing it. The removal or "abatement" process itself can create more of a hazard than the original damage. It stirs up a great deal of asbestos contaminated dust. Only trained abatement technicians should attempt to repair or replace damaged chrysotile flooring. They must wear protective gear to reduce exposure. The clothing worn during asbestos removal generally becomes contaminated and must be disposed of safely. Regular dust masks do not protect against inhalation. At a minimum, HEPA cartridge filtered masks are required. Rubber gloves, boots and clear goggles are required to prevent skin and eye contact with asbestos. In 2008, the US. imported more than 1,800 metric tons of chrysotile for domestic use in products such as building materials and brake pads. Manufacturers who make items that contain asbestos now fix the material in a matrix. This means the fibers are less likely to break free and cause contamination. Concern about the safety of such products is still prevalent.
Titan Weather: Storm Trackers \|Titan as seen from Cassini probe on Dec. 13, 2004 showing linear cloud features and dark Xanadu. Click image for larger view Astronomers had seen storms around Titan’s south pole before, but now they’ve been discovered at the moon’s mid-latitudes as well. The discovery was made using the Gemini North and Keck 2 observatories, which have adaptive optics systems capable of resolving Saturn’s largest moon with great detail. These storms could be created by surface activities, like cryovolcanoes which could spew an icy mix of chemicals into the atmosphere. It could also be caused by seasonal temperature changes, like the weather here on Earth. Using adaptive optics on the Gemini North and Keck 2 telescopes on Mauna Kea, Hawai’i, a U.S. team has discovered a new phenomenon in the atmosphere of Saturn’s largest moon Titan. Unlike previous observations showing storms at the south pole, these new images reveal atmospheric disturbances at Titan’s temperate mid latitudes about halfway between the equator and the poles. Explaining the unexpected activity has proven difficult, and the team speculates that the storms could be driven by anything from short-term surface events to shifts in global wind patterns. \|Titan on Dec. 13, 2004 highlighting clouds over Xandadu, the darker west region. Click image for larger view "We were fortunate to catch these new mid-latitude clouds when they first appeared in early 2004," said team leader Henry Roe (California Institute of Technology). "We are not yet certain how their formation is triggered. Continued observations over the next few years will show us whether these clouds are the result of a seasonal change in weather patterns or a surface-related phenomenon." The causes of these storms might include activities that disturb the atmosphere from the surface. It’s possible that geysers of methane "slush" are brewing from below, or a warm spot on Titan’s surface is heating the atmosphere. Cryovolcanism volcanic activity that spews an icy mix of chemicals has also been suggested as one mechanism that would cause disturbances. It’s also possible that the storms are driven by seasonal shifts in the global winds that circulate in the upper atmosphere. Hints about what is happening on this frigid world could be obtained as the Huygens probe from the Cassini mission drops through Titan’s atmosphere in mid-January, 2005. The Gemini-Keck II observations were the result of good timing and telescope availability. According to Gemini scientist Chad Trujillo, Titan’s weather patterns can be stable for many months, with only occasional bursts of unusual activity like these recently discovered atmospheric features. The chances of catching such occurrences depend largely on the availability of flexible scheduling like that used at Gemini. "This flexible scheduling is absolutely critical to Titan meteorology studies," he said. "Imagine how hard it would be to understand the Earth’s diverse meteorological phenomena if you only saw a weather report a few nights every year." \|Gemini Observatory which tracked the storm using powerful ground telescopes. Like Earth, Titan is surrounded by a thick atmosphere of mostly nitrogen. Conditions on Earth allow water to exist in liquid, solid, or vapor states, depending on localized temperatures and pressures. The phase changes of water between these states are an important factor in the formation of weather in our atmosphere. Titan’s atmosphere is so cold that any water is frozen solid, but conditions are such that methane can move between liquid, solid, and gaseous states. This leads to a methane meteorological cycle on Titan in analogy to the water-based weather cycle on Earth. As it does on Earth, seasonal solar heating can drive atmospheric activity on Titan, and this could be the mechanism behind the previously observed south polar clouds. However, the new temperate-latitude cloud formations cannot be explained by the same solar heating process If a seasonal circulation shift is causing the newly discovered features, the team theorizes that they will drift northward over the next few years as Titan’s year progresses through the southern summer and into autumn. If it is being caused by geological changes, such as methane geysers or a geologic "warm" spot on the surface, the feature should stay at the observed 40-degree latitude as the surface activity spurs changes in atmospheric convection and methane cloud formation. Continued storm formations will be easily distinguishable in future ground-based observations using Gemini, Keck and other adaptive-optics enabled telescopes. "Using adaptive optics from the Earth allows us to see things that just a few years ago would have been invisible," said Keck Scientist Antonin Bouchez. "These observations show that ground-based telescopes are a perfect complement to space missions like Cassini." This research is scheduled for publication in the January 1, 2005 issue of the Astrophysical Journal. Related Web Pages Saturn Edition, Astrobiology Magaz. Saturn’s Rings in UV Cassini Closes In on Saturn Saturn– JPL Cassini Main Page Lord of the Rings Space Science Institute, Imaging Team Boulder, Colorado Saturn: The Closest Pass Where is Cassini Now?
After reviewing this unit you will be able to: Another skill you need is the ability to match an equation with its graph. One way to do this is to use the information you have about the equation of a straight line. In the last unit you learned that the equation of a line is given on the right. One way to match an equation of a straight line with the graph of a straight line is to use the slope and y-intercept. Here is an example of the graph of an equation. Below is the graph of the equation y = 2 x + 10. We can prove to ourselves that this is the graph of the equation y = 2 x + 10 by checking for two things: By looking at the graph you should notice that the line does cross the y-axis at point A, (0, 10). Now, you need to just check for the slope. You can do this by using the points B, (10, 30), and C, (20, 50). Using these points, the slope is: Since the slope is found to be two, the graph of the line and the equation of the line match. Let's take a look at an example. Consider the following graph at the right. Is the equation of the line shown in the graph above: The things we need to check for are: If you examine the graph, you should notice that the line crosses the y-axis at the point (0, 6). Therefore, the y-intercept is 6. Using the points (4, 5) and (12, 3) from the graph (NOTE: you can use any two points from the graph), the slope is calculated to be: So the slope of the line is (-1/4) Given this, the equation of the line must be y = 6 - (1/4) x. You are now ready to try a practice problem. Move on to the first practice for this unit. If you have already completed the first problem try the additional pratice before moving on to the summary for this part of the tutorial. \|[practice]\|\|[additional practice]\|\|[table of contents]\|\|[next unit]\|
What occurred at the Congress of Vienna? The Congress of Vienna (1814– 1815) liquified the Napoleonic world and attempted to bring back the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown, ushering in a period of conservatism. Prussia added smaller sized German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania, and 40% of the Kingdom of Saxony; Austria got Venice and much of northern Italy. What did the Congress of Vienna do?The Congress of Vienna was the very first of a series of worldwide conferences that became called the Concert of Europe, an effort to create a serene balance of power in Europe. The goal was not merely to bring back old boundaries however to resize the primary powers so they could stabilize each other and remain at peace. What occurred at the Congress of Vienna quizlet?A series of conferences in 1814-1815, during which the European leaders sought to develop long-lasting peace and security after the defeat of Napoleon. Austria’s foreign minister who wanted a balance of power in a worldwide stability of political and military forces that would dissuade aggression. What took place at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 Class 10?To bring back those powers which Napoleon shooed away the Vienna Congress was formed and aimed to bring back peace in Europe after Napoleon lost. The occasion remade Europe after the failure of French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of Europe. It was headed by the Austrian chairman Klemens von Metternich. What happened at the Congress of Vienna?– Related Questions What were 3 results of the Congress of Vienna? Outcomes of the Congress of Vienna French returned areas gotten by Napoleon from 1795– 1810. Russia extended its powers and received souveranity over Poland and Finland. Saxony was punished for its alliance with France and lost some area to Prussia. Norway and Sweden were signed up with. Why did the Congress of Vienna fail? The Congress of Vienna stopped working due to the fact that the excellent powers didn’t handle rising nationalism throughout Europe, a force that would destabilize the continent Did the Congress of Vienna prosper? The Congress of Vienna was a success because the congress got a balance of power back to the European nations. The congress likewise restored peace among the countries. Europe had peace for about 40 years. What was the main goal of the Congress of Vienna quizlet? What was the goal of the Congress of Vienna? To develop long-lasting peace and stability in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon. What were the 2 main goals of the Congress of Vienna? 1) restore peace and stability to Europe. 2) penalize Napoleon for his actions. 3) help the Catholic Church gain back power. 4) join Europe under one ruler. What were 2 results of the Congress of Vienna? What were 2 results of the Congress of Vienna? France saw its royal family brought back, and Poland became part of Russia. What was the main objective of Vienna Congress 1815? Response: The objective of the Vienna Congress was to supply a long-lasting peace plan for Europe by settling critial problems occurring from the French Revolution wars and Napoleonic Wars. The Goal was resize the main powers so they could stabilize each other and remain at peace. What was the primary objective of the Vienna Congress of 1815 Class 10? The primary aim of the 1815’s treaty, “Treaty of Vienna” was to reverse a majority of the reforms that occurred in Europe after the Napoleonic wars in Napoleon’s rule. Other arrangements of the treaty included the facility of a peace method for Europe that would last for a very long time. Why was Treaty of Vienna happened Class 10? The Treaty of Vienna of was the formal arrangement of the allied powers– Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia– devoting them to wage war against Napoleon until he was defeated. What was the most substantial effect of the Congress of Vienna? The Congress of Vienna and subsequent Congresses constituted a major pivotal moment– the first authentic attempt to create an ‘global order’, to bring long-term peace to a bothered Europe, and to control the rate of political change through global supervision and intervention. What was the most considerable consequence of the Congress of Vienna? The Congress of Vienna and the resulting Concert of Europe, targeted at developing a stable and tranquil Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, succeeded in creating a balance of power and peaceful diplomacy for practically a decade. What were the 3 main goals of the Congress of Vienna? Metternich had 3 goals at the congress: first, he wanted to prevent future French hostility by surrounding France with strong countries; second, he wanted to restore a balance of power (see above), so that no nation would be a hazard to others; and 3rd, he wanted to restore Europe s royal families to the Why was the Congress of Vienna successful? The Congress of Vienna and the resulting Concert of Europe, aimed at producing a steady and tranquil Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, prospered in developing a balance of power and peaceful diplomacy for almost a decade. Who opposed the Congress of Vienna? In basic, Russia and Prussia were opposed by Austria, France, and England, which at one point () presumed regarding conclude a secret treaty of defensive alliance. Why the Congress system stopped working? The Congress System came to an end in 1823 due to different elements that included increasing suspicion and wonder about among the great powers. The system also failed due to the fact that its authors did not sufficiently consider the twin forces of liberalism and nationalism. Why did the Congress of Vienna fail to prevent future revolutions? The individuals in the Congress, were suspicious of nationalism as they associated it transformation, however by failing to address the increasing needs of nationalists in Europe, they were really fanning the flames of nationalism. Who was the leader of the Congress of Vienna? Leadership of the Congress of Vienna of Klemens von Metternich. The Congress of Vienna (September 1814– June 1815) was the climax of Metternich’s work of restoration. Why did the Congress of Vienna satisfy quizlet? A global conference (1814-15) held at Vienna after Napoleon’s banishment to Elba, with Metternich as the dominant figure, decide the fate of European countries. Goal to develop long-lasting peace and stability. What was one crucial impact arising from the political modifications made at the Congress of Vienna? What was one essential impact arising from the political modifications made at the Congress of Vienna? Russia and Prussia signed up with forces to manage France. Nationalistic feelings grew in nations put under foreign rule. Monarchs in Austria, Russia, and Prussia consented to share power with chosen officials. What is the best example of domino effect after the Congress of Vienna is? The best example of cause and effect after the Congress of Vienna is Napoleon was defeated, so France started a revolution. Austria won territory in Italy, so Italy adopted Austrian customs. What was the main goal of French revolutionaries? The primary goal of the French revolutionaries was to overthrow the monarchical guideline and the ‘Ancien routine’ in France and the facility of a republican government.
Nice work building your own insertionSort() function. An important point to remember about insertion sort is that the algorithm breaks our input array into two virtual lists. A sorted sub-list initially containing the first element in the array and an unsorted sub-list initially containing the remainder of the items in the input array. Let’s walk through what we actually coded. insertionSort() method, we have a for loop that runs left to right, running the insertion logic until the array is fully sorted. Inside the outer for loop, we have a while loop that iterates right to left through the sorted sub-list and checks whether the previous element(s) are greater than current element. If they are, we shift them one place to the right and insert our current element. The outer loop stops running after we have reached our last element in our array. The nested-loop structure of the algorithm makes the worst case runtime O(n^2). In the case of an already sorted array, insertion sort is able to cut out some of the work. We ultimately wind up with linear time of O(n) in the best-case scenario. Here we have our finished code from the last exercise. Go ahead and run the code again to see the results! Below you’ll find some more challenges: - Try changing the data provided to the input array. What happens when you provide just one or no values? - Change your algorithm so your array gets sorted in descending order rather than ascending order. - Change your algorithm to sort Stringvalues. You’ll have to do a few edits here. First, a few variables will need to be changed from Strings, including the type of the input array itself! Next, you’ll have to take a look at your if statement. We can’t use Strings. Instead, look into how the compareTo() method works. By using compareTo()and seeing if the value is greater than or less than 0, you can determine which Stringis “bigger” in value.
Not all plant problems are caused by disease and insects. Nutrient deficiencies in plants result in reduced growth, reduced yield, lower quality and aesthetics, reduced flowering and fruiting. Fertilizers correct nutrient deficiencies in plants. Following is a perhaps “dry” discussion about Magnesium and its’ role in plant growth yield and success. Often it is the little things in the background that seldom get noticed or recognized in life yet do the “Heavy Lifting” and are essential to success. In the life of a plant, Magnesium deserves more recognition. Magnesium (Mg) is considered a secondary element required for plant growth. The term “Secondary” describes relative nutrient quantity but not importance. As we know from “Liebig’s Law” (previous posts), a “Secondary” nutrient deficiency is just as destructive to plant growth, quality and yield as one of the three primary nutrients (N, P, K). Yet Magnesium is often overlooked and adversely affecting both quality and yield of ornamental and agronomic species. NO MAGNESIUM – NO LIFE Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the earth’s crust, and the fourth most abundant metal ion in cells. It is present in every cell type in every organism. Magnesium is essential to the well being of all organisms. So much for “Secondary”, right? It is the central atom in the chlorophyll molecule. Chlorophyll is a pigment that makes plants green and creates photosynthesis. Magnesium roles in the plant include: • The coordinating ion in the chlorophyll molecule, thus making photosynthesis possible. • ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy source in cells. ATP to be active and available must be bound to a Magnesium ion. • Magnesium regulates uptake of other materials in the plant. It acts as a carrier of Phosphorous to seeds. Magnesium aids in production of proteins, fats and vitamins. Magnesium plays a role in starch translocation or movement within the plant. Many factors affect Magnesium availability, and we should be aware of these variables. They include: • Soil Magnesium content – how much is already in the soil? • pH – Magnesium is more available at higher pH’s or less acid soils. • Other factors include Manganese/Magnesium ratio, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), Potassium (K) and Calcium (Ca) and cation competition, cool soil temperatures. Plants differ by species and variety in Magnesium needs. High response food crops include: blueberry, beet, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, corn, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, onion, spinach, squash, tomato and watermelon. Magnesium is a mobile nutrient taken up by the roots. The first observable sign is a depressed rate of photosynthesis or growth. Next is carbohydrate immobility. This is where sugars are produced in the leaves but cannot be transported throughout the plant. Sufficient Magnesium levels are required to maximize carbohydrate transport to “Sink” organs in the plant like seeds, roots and fruit. This promotes higher yields and growth. Due to the lack of mobility, visual symptoms of interveinal chlorosis (yellow leaves with green veins) occur in the older, lower leaves first. In citrus, this symptom is referred to as “Bronzing.” Soil testing is the best method to measure nutrient availability, determine crop needs and receive specific recommendations. Dolomitic Limestone is most commonly used to correct both Magnesium deficiency and acidity or pH levels. Other materials to correct Magnesium deficiency include: • Potassium Magnesium Sulfate (Sul-Po- Mag) • Magnesium Nitrate • Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salts) • Chelates – These are well suited for foliar application and often plants will respond more quickly. Talking to growers, farmers, nurserymen and garden center managers about nutrient management and plant nutrition I have noticed that the importance of Magnesium is often misunderstood. And here’s the thing – it is critical to all life, well being, health and appearance. Be it photosynthesis (not “Secondary” in anyone’s book), protein synthesis, carbohydrate transport to vital areas in the plant, and ATP or energy production within the plant cell. And plant species have different nutritional needs. All Plants require certain “Essential” nutrients in adequate, balanced and available amounts. BGI products are about providing these nutritional goals. Our products are designed to provide proper nutrition, so the plant and the grower can experience growth, beauty, yield and satisfaction. Let BGI help your plants reach their potential and allow you, or your customer to harvest satisfaction and joy in the process! P.S. It’s pretty cool I think that many of the human “Super Foods” just happen to be high in our stepchild, Magnesium like spinach (dark leafy greens!), almonds, avocados and dark chocolate! Maybe there is a message here…..? I think so.
SCIMAT / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY SCIMAT / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Coloured scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. These Gram-positive cocci (spherical bacteria) are found in humans and animals. They are found on the skin and the mucous membranes of the nose, throat and other regions. These bacteria are usually harmless, but infection can occur on broken skin or within a blocked sweat or sebaceous gland, resulting in boils, pustules and abscesses. S. aureus can also cause food poisoning, producing toxins that induce vomiting. Certain strains cause the potentially fatal toxic shock syndrome (TSS). Magnification: x9200 at 6x9cm size. Model release not required. Property release not required.
Insurance is a protection against risk. Insurance provides backup or security to anything you want to get. There are many companies that provide insurance on almost everything. Companies charge some amount in order to provide insurances and customers pay... (More) Shivon sabu 756 Student Do you have questions for Shivon sabu? Log in to ask Shivon sabu questions publicly or anonymously. - Anchoring the plant Roots help to anchor the plant firmly into the ground. - Absorption of water and nutrients from the soil They help plants to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for their survival. - Preventing soil... (More) - Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2 - CO2 is absorbed by autotrophs such as green plants - Animals consume plants, thereby they get carbon into their system - Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back into the atmosphere. Stomata are the structures through which gas exchange occurs in leaves. Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells, which can open and close depending on environmental conditions. When moisture is plentiful, the guard cells swell with water, forcing the... (More) - Photosynthesis: This is the most important function of a leaf. They contain chloroplasts which have the pigment chlorophyll that is responsible for helping in photosynthesis. - Helps the plant breathe: The epidermis of the leaf contains guard cells that control and... (More) - Stems supports leaves and branches. - Stems transport water and solutes between roots and leaves. - Stems in some plants are photosynthetic. - Stems may store materials necessary for life.(eg.water, starch sugar). - In some plants, stems have become adapted for specialised functions. Non-renewable energy resources, like coal, nuclear, oil, and natural gas, are available in limited supplies. This is usually due to the long time it takes for them to be replenished. Renewable resources are replenished naturally and over relatively short periods... (More) Three major types of plant tissues are dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. Epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called cuticle , which coats,... (More) An igneous rock is a rock that is formed from the magma found in the mantle just below the crust. When magma is forced up into the crust and becomes trapped, it begins to cool very slowly. Rocks formed... (More)
The bacteria surround us in this world. The humankind has basically lived with bacteria throughout the whole history. There are Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled prokaryotes. The bacteria were discovered by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. During the late 1600’s, Anthony was the first one to study bacteria.Cellular StructureThere are structures that benefit the bacteria. Capsule is the preservative covering, made of complex carbohydrates. Then there is the cell envelop. It is made of two to three layers, which are the inside of cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall, and sometimes the outer capsule. Cell wall gives shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane. It holds and attaches pili and flagella. Cytoplasm is where the functions for cell growth, metabolism and replications happens. Cytoplasm holds organelles in place. Cytoplasmic membrane, also known as the Plasma membrane, is a layer of phospholipids and proteins. It surrounds the inside of the bacterium and manages the flow of materials both in and out of the cell. Flagella is hair-like structures that helps the bacteria move around. Pili is small hair-like structure sticking out from the outside cell surface to help the bacteria attach to other cells and surfaces. Ribosome creates protein.MetabolismMetabolism is the term used to describe all the chemical reactions inside a cell. Organisms are able to be classified according to the source of carbon they use for metabolism as well as their energy source. Organisms that change inorganic carbon dioxide into organic carbon compounds are called autotrophs. Organisms that obtain fixed carbon from organic compounds created by other organisms are named heterotrophs. Furthermore, we can categorize organisms by where they obtain their energy. Organisms that use light as the source of energy are named phototrophs. Organisms that use chemicals as the source of energy are called chemotrophs.Growth and ReproductionBacteria reproduce asexually in a process named “Binary Fission”. Binary fission is when single celled organism divides into two identical single celled organisms. The binary fission steps start as the cell grows. Then the DNA is copied and attaches to the cell membrane. Next, the DNA and its copy separate, and the cell grows larger. Finally, the cell splits into two. Now the both cell has identical DNA. The growth of bacterial population happens in a geometric or exponential growth. With each division cycle, one cell ascends to 2 cells, then 4 cells, then 8 cells, and goes on. They are basically doubling themselves. There are the phases of bacterial growth. Lag phase, log (exponential) phase, stationary phase, and the death phase. During the lag phase, the bacteria are getting used to their surroundings. They synthesize enzymes, proteins, RNA and many more. They increase in metabolic activity. During the log (exponential) phase pattern of growth has rapidly increased. If the bacteria are pathogenic, this would be the time that disease symptoms occur. Next is the stationary phase. During this phase, the number of viable bacteria cells remains the same. The rate of bacterial growth is equal with bacterial cell death. After the tiring rapid cell division, nutrients would be consumed, and toxic products will be set free. The cell division cannot continue at the same pace if it is more difficult to find nutrients and face the toxins. The final phase is the death phase. During this phase, the decline in population occurs. The number of viable cells reduces exponentially.
In 2006 the organization responsible for classifying celestial bodies, the International Astronomical Union, decided that a new class of objects was needed. The solar system's erratic ninth planet, Pluto, was assigned to the new “dwarf planet” category along with four other bodies, all tinier than Earth’s moon. Some astronomers expect there may be as many as 50 dwarf planets in the solar system. Eris, the largest dwarf planet, is only slightly bigger than Pluto, at 1,445 miles in diameter (2,326 km). Discovered in 2003, Eris orbits at an average distance of 68 AU (that is, 68 times the Earth’s distance from the sun) and takes 561.4 Earth years to circle the sun. Eris has the orbit that is most highly inclined of all the dwarf planets, tilted nearly 47 degrees from the plane of the planets’ orbits. A day on Eris takes 25.9 hours. Eris has one moon, Dysnomia. Pluto, discovered in 1930, orbits the sun at an average of 39.5 times the Earth’s distance. Its diameter is 1,430 miles (2,302 km). Pluto takes 247.9 Earth years to orbit the sun, and its day is 6.39 times as long as Earth’s. Pluto has five known moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra and two that were recently discovered and have not yet been named. Haumea was discovered in 2003. This dwarf planet has an extremely elongated shape, with its longest dimension being about 1,218 miles long (1,960 km). Haumea rotates very rapidly and has the shortest day of all the dwarf planets, only 3.9 hours. Orbiting 43.1 times farther from the sun than Earth does, Haumea takes nearly 282 Earth years to complete one orbit. Haumea has two moons, Hi’iaka and Namaka. Makemake, discovered in 2005, has no known moons. Makemake orbits at 45.3 times Earth’s distance and takes more than 305 years to complete a circuit of the sun. Its day is 22.5 hours. Makemake’s average diameter is 882 miles (1,420 km). Ceres, first spotted by astronomers in 1801, was first called a planet and later an asteroid. In 2006 it was reclassified as a dwarf planet. Ceres is the closest dwarf planet to Earth, orbiting at only 2.8 times Earth’s distance from the sun. Its year takes 4.6 Earth years and its day is 9.1 hours. Ceres has no known moons. - Pluto Quiz! How Well Do You Know the Dwarf Planet?
Commas are something that everyone uses in their writing but are often uses incorrectly. Many people believe that a comma is interchangeable with a period or that it should be used whenever you would pause naturally while reading out loud. However, the grammatical rules that concern commas are more complicated than this. How can you tell if you are using a comma incorrectly or not? Incorrect use of commas can make your sentences difficult to understand and can detract from the meaning of your writing. Read on for a few grammar basics that will help you in your writing. When to Use Commas One of the most common ways to use a comma is to separate the items of a list. “I’m going to the supermarket to buy sugar, flour, eggs and milk.” Commas are also used to separate an introductory phrase from the main clause. “Smiling playfully, she pushed him away.” A comma can also be used to separate words and phrases which are nonessential from the main clause. In this usage, the sentence should still make sense if you were to take out all of the nonessential words. “The cheerleaders, who were warming up for the competition, practiced their human pyramid.” In this example, you could say “The cheerleaders practiced their human pyramid.” This would still be a complete sentence that makes sense. You can also use a comma when you are setting off words which are part of a direct address, including yes, no and proper names. “Lisa, would you like some more pie?” “No thanks, I’m trying to watch my figure.” Another usage of commas is to separate a direct quote from the rest of the sentence. Daniel shouted, “Be careful of the snakes in the woods!” When Not to Use Commas One of the most common mistakes is when people place a comma between the subject and a verb in an independent clause. “Driving in inclement weather, is especially challenging for an inexperienced driver.” This sentence has no need for a comma at all and would be correct without it. “Driving in inclement weather is especially challenging for an inexperienced driver.” You also should not add a comma before the last or the first item when you are making a list. For example, the following sentence is incorrect. “I have worked more hours this week in my free time on my kitchen renovation than, Mary, Josh, Oliver, or Sandra, have at their jobs.” The comma before Mary and the comma after Sandra should be eliminated to make the sentence correct. Most of the time, the common errors that you might make with commas will be caught by your software such as Microsoft Word. If you are writing an important essay, application, business letter or manuscript, you might want to have your work checked by an editor or give it an extra proofread with a specialized grammar check to make sure everything is correct.
Memristors have relatively simple behavior: they're a type of circuitry where the present resistance to current is a product of the currents that have flowed through them in the past. The more current that goes through, the easier it will travel through in the future. Interest in memristors comes in part from the fact that the resistance persists even after current is turned off, making them a possible option for non-volatile memory. But the behavior of memristors is also fairly similar to that of a radically different type of circuitry: the synapses of neurons. Synapses are sites where nerve cells establish connections. The more signals that pass through these connections, the stronger the link between the two neurons becomes. This behavior has raised the prospect of using memristors to implement the equivalent of synapses on a neural chip, where more traditional circuitry would control the logic of the neurons, and the memristors would control the links among them. Unfortunately, the best-behaved memristors can't be made with the CMOS processes that are used to create the circuitry, while memristors made using CMOS processes behave very erratically. Now, a team of researchers from Stony Brook University and the University of California Santa Barbara appear to have solved this problem. And they've done it in a fairly simple fashion: a systematic trial-and-error search. Memristors can be made of metal oxides (titanium dioxide is a favorite material). They work because the current influences the number of places in the material where oxygen atoms are missing, which in turn influences resistance. In this case, the authors used a combination of aluminum oxide and titanium dioxide (Al2O3 and TIO2) to form a memristor. They started with "an exhaustive experimental search over a range of titanium dioxide compositions and layer thicknesses (from 5 nm to 100 nm)" and then paired that with similar adjustments to the thickness of aluminum oxide. The titanium dioxide layer influenced how readily a memristor could be generated at the desired locations, while the aluminum oxide layer influenced the consistency and strength of its operation. The neural network was formed by linking traditional circuitry through a grid of wiring (technically a crossbar). Memristors were formed at each place the perpendicular wires crossed—first by placing the metal oxide layers at these locations and then by flowing current through to a ground. The neural network was trained to identify three letters (V, N, and Z), including the possibility of single-pixel errors. After a single time through the training set, the network was able to successfully identify all three letters, although performance continued to improve with further experience. Several aspects of the underlying calculations were performed by the traditional hardware, but the memristors handled the most computationally intense work. The system produced by the authors here involved only a 12-by-12 grid of memristors, so it's pretty limited in capacity. But Robert Legenstein, from Austria's Graz University of Technology, writes in an accompanying perspective that "If this design can be scaled up to large network sizes, it will affect the future of computing." That's because there are still many challenges where a neural network can easily outperform traditional computing hardware—and do so at a fraction of the energy cost. Even on a 30 nm process, it would be possible to place 25 million cells in a square centimeter, with 10,000 synapses on each cell. And all that would dissipate about a Watt.
What Are Isotopes? Isotopes are forms of an element which have nearly identical chemical and physical properties but different nuclear properties. The chemical properties of elements are fixed by the number of positively charged protons in their nuclei and by the corresponding number of negatively charged electrons that they carry. The isotopes of an element have nuclei containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Neutrons are electrically neutral, and they are important in causing the nucleus to fission, releasing a relatively large amount of energy. Many isotopes are radioactive. They emit several main kinds of radiation, including: alpha particles, which carry positive charges and consist of two protons and two neutrons (the helium 4 nucleus); beta particles which are energetic electrons (negatively charged) or positrons (positively charged); and gamma rays, electromagnetic radiation which has no charge and are highly penetrating. Neutrons and various subatomic particles can also be released. A key characteristic of a radioactive isotope is its half-life, which is the time taken for a quantity of an isotope to halve through radioactive decay. Half-lives can vary from fractions of seconds to hundreds of millions of years. Fissionable Isotopes (1) The most common isotopes in nuclear weapons are plutonium 239 and uranium 235, and each nuclear weapon in existence today uses at least several kilograms of these materials. These materials are fissile materials, which are defined technically as those isotopes that fission when irradiated with relatively low-energy, or thermal, neutrons. However, fissile materials are also commonly referred to as plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU). Uranium 233, which is a fissile material, is also widely recognized as a nuclear explosive material. However, it has been used only infrequently in nuclear explosives or weapons. The special role of these three isotopes has been recognized by the IAEA in its definition of "special fissionable materials," which is plutonium 239, uranium 233, uranium enriched in the isotopes uranium 233 and uranium 235, or any material containing one or more of the foregoing. These isotopes are subject to IAEA safeguards (see section V). To define the verification goal of safeguards, the IAEA in conjunction with the nuclear weapon states, has developed the concept of significant quantity (SQ). This is the approximate amount of nuclear material sufficient to make a nuclear explosive, taking into account any losses during processing. For plutonium, containing less than 80 percent plutonium 238, the SQ is 8 kilograms of total plutonium. For uranium 233, the SQ is 8 kilograms. For highly enriched uranium, the SQ is 25 kilograms of contained uranium 235. For example, 90 percent enriched HEU, containing 25 kilograms of uranium 235, would have a total mass of 27.8 kilograms. Other isotopes can be used to make nuclear explosives. Although they are not strictly speaking fissile materials, they are fissionable and can sustain a chain reaction. Attention among members of the international community is focusing increasingly on neptunium 237 and americium, leading to more controls of these materials (2). Although the IAEA's Board of Governors is considering applying more monitoring of these materials, it is unlikely to define these materials as special fissionable materials any time soon. Other isotopes can also be used in nuclear explosives, but they are too rare or radioactive to be worrisome. Uranium 235. Uranium (U) has 92 electrons and 92 protons (the atomic number). Of the 14 isotopes in the sequence uranium 227 to uranium 240 (the mass numbers), uranium 235 and uranium 238 are the most important. With half-lives of 700 million and 4,500 million years respectively, uranium 235 and uranium 238 are relatively stable isotopes. They are not strongly radioactive and can be handled without the need for substantial protection. Naturally occurring uranium consists of 99.283 percent (by weight) of uranium 238, 0.711 percent of uranium 235, and 0.0055 percent of uranium 234. Uranium 235 is a fissile isotope. Uranium 238 is not fissile, and no amount of it can sustain a chain reaction. It is fertile, which means it can be readily transformed into a fissile isotope by neutron irradiation. For nuclear weapons, and for fuel burned in many types of nuclear reactors, it is necessary to increase concentrations of uranium 235. This is the process known as "enrichment" (see section II). The following five grades of uranium are commonly recognized: 1. Depleted uranium, containing less than 0.71 percent uranium 2. Natural uranium, containing 0.71 percent uranium 235. 3. Low-enriched uranium (LEU), containing more than 0.71 percent and less than 20 percent uranium 235. 4. Highly enriched uranium (HEU), containing more than 20 percent uranium 235. 5. Weapon-grade uranium, HEU containing more than 90 percent uranium 235. LEU used to fuel commercial power reactors generally contains 2-6 percent uranium 235. Research and naval reactors use either LEU or HEU fuel. LEU cannot be used to make nuclear explosives; HEU can be used to make nuclear explosives. For fission-type nuclear weapons, weapon-grade uranium is usually desired. However, fission-type nuclear explosives can be made with any highly enriched uranium. For example, South Africa's nuclear weapons, since dismantled, used both 80 percent enriched uranium and weapon-grade uranium. In addition, the secondary in a thermonuclear weapon may also use HEU to trigger the thermonuclear explosion. Uranium 233. This isotope, which is created by irradiating thorium 232 with neutrons, has a half-life of 160,000 years. It is a fissile material that has been evaluated for use in nuclear weapons, although it has not become a common nuclear explosive material. It has also been evaluated as reactor fuel, via the thorium fuel cycle, but this fuel cycle has not advanced beyond the research and development stage. Plutonium isotopes. Unlike uranium, all but trace quantities of plutonium (Pu) are manufactured material. The most common plutonium isotopes are highly radioactive, complicating their handling. Plutonium 239 is produced in a nuclear reactor when uranium 238 is irradiated with neutrons. Its half-life is 24,000 years, and it is a fissile material. When it absorbs neutrons in a reactor, plutonium 240 is formed. Subsequent neutron captures lead to accumulations of plutonium 241 and plutonium 242. Plutonium 241 is fissile, but plutonium 240 and plutonium 242 are not. However, all of these plutonium isotopes are fissionable by fast neutrons, and thus can be used either in combination or alone in nuclear explosives. Although the weapon designer's preference is always for material with high concentrations of plutonium 239 and low fractions of other plutonium isotopes, militarily useful weapons can be made out of plutonium with low concentrations of plutonium 239 and high concentrations of plutonium 240, plutonium 241, or plutonium 242. The plutonium used in nuclear weapons typically contains mostly plutonium 239 and relatively small fractions of other plutonium isotopes. Plutonium discharged in power reactor fuel typically contains significantly less plutonium 239 and more of other plutonium isotopes. The following grades of plutonium are widely used: 1. Weapon-grade plutonium, containing less then 7 percent plutonium 2. Fuel-grade plutonium, containing from 7 to 18 percent plutonium 240. 3. Reactor-grade plutonium, containing over 18 percent plutonium 240. The term "super-grade plutonium" is sometimes used to describe plutonium containing less than 3 percent plutonium 240. The term "weapon-usable plutonium" is often used to describe plutonium that is in separated form and, thus able to be quickly turned into weapons components (see key terms). Neptunium 237. Neptunium 237 (Np 237) has a half-life of over 2 million years and has no heat or radiation properties that would complicate its use in a nuclear explosive. No country is known publicly to have used neptunium to make a nuclear explosive device, although it is considered usable in nuclear weapons. Neptunium 237 is routinely produced in nuclear reactors as a result of neutron irradiation of uranium 235 and uranium 238, the two most common constituents of nuclear fuel. It is also a decay product of americium 241. However, relatively little neptunium 237 has been extracted from irradiated fuel, unlike the case of plutonium. Americium. The common americium (Am) isotopes are generally less suitable than neptunium 237 for making nuclear explosives, because of their higher output of radiation and heat. The three most important isotopes are americium 241, americium 242m, and americium 243. Several americium isotopes originate as a result of neutron irradiation in reactors; americium 241 originates from the decay of plutonium 241. The total americium content of fresh spent fuel is modest, although over time considerable amounts of americium 241 accumulate. Other isotopes. Several other isotopes, such as curium (Cm) and californium (Cf), can be used to make nuclear explosives. However, these isotopes are too rare, particularly in separated form, or too radioactive to be considered as realistic materials for nuclear explosives for at least several decades. Some have suggested including tritium in a treaty, although it is neither fissile nor fissionable material. Tritium is the heaviest isotope of hydrogen, containing one proton and two neutrons. It has a half-life of 12.3 years. Although tritium is not essential to making nuclear weapons or explosives, it serves two purposes in designing nuclear weapons. In a fission weapon, tritium is used to increase the yield of the weapon in a process known as boosting. In a common form of boosting, tritium and deuterium are fused in the hollow sphere of the fissile core known as the "pit." When tritium and deuterium fuse, they produce many high-energy neutrons, which then set off additional fissions in the fissile core of the weapon. Using tritium in nuclear weapons can either lessen the amount of fissile material required or increase, or "boost," the yield of the weapon. Tritium is also created in the secondary stage of a thermonuclear weapon and is critical to creating the fusion explosion that distinguishes thermonuclear weapons from fission weapons. After the first, or fission, stage of a thermonuclear weapon detonates, tritium is produced in lithium 6 in the secondary stage of the weapon. The tritium then fuses with deuterium in the second stage to create a fusion explosion. In the nuclear weapon states, tritium has been commonly produced in nuclear reactors by bombarding lithium 6 with neutrons (see appendix III, figure III.A.1). Tritium can also be extracted from irradiated heavy water that has been used to moderate or cool certain types of reactors. In this case, tritium is produced by neutron irradiation of deuterium, which is a hydrogen isotope that contains one proton and one neutron and that substitutes for common hydrogen in water. (1) This section draws heavily from David Albright, Frans Berkhout, and William Walker, Plutonium and Highly Enriched Uranium 1996: World Inventories, Capabilities, and Policies (Oxford: SIPRI and Oxford University Press, 1997), chapter 2. (2) David Albright and Lauren Barbour, "Separated Neptumium and Americium," in The Challenges of Fissile Material Control (Washington D.C.: ISIS, 1999) chapter 5.
Researchers at MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory have developed a new algorithm that can accurately measure the heart rates of people depicted in ordinary digital video by analyzing imperceptibly small head movements that accompany the rush of blood caused by the heart’s contractions. In tests, the algorithm gave pulse measurements that were consistently within a few beats per minute of those produced by electrocardiograms (EKGs). It was also able to provide useful estimates of the time intervals between beats, a measurement that can be used to identify patients at risk for cardiac events. The algorithm works by combining several techniques common in the field of computer vision. First, it uses standard face recognition to distinguish the subject’s head from the rest of the image. Then it randomly selects 500 to 1,000 distinct points, clustered around the subjects’ mouths and noses, whose movement it tracks from frame to frame. A video-based pulse-measurement system could be useful for monitoring newborns or the elderly, whose sensitive skin could be damaged by frequent attachment and removal of EKG leads.
Autism is a developmental disability affecting the nervous system. Many autistic individuals experience problems with gross and fine motor skills. Some may also have poor coordination and muscle tone. Individuals with autism also can have sensory issues, from textures, taste and smells to bright lights, repetitive movements and noises. One occupational therapy technique known as sensory integration uses play to teach children to tolerate sounds, touch and smells. Research published in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders implies that this method can provide gains in less time than a different, more traditional therapy method that requires 40 hours a week. This study tracked the progress of 32 autistic children between the ages of 4 and 8. Of those, test subjects were given three hour-long sessions of sensory therapy for 10 weeks along with their existing therapy. Occupational therapists helped the children with sensory therapy to achieve objectives such as playing with others for 10 minutes or taking a shower to withstand the feel of water on skin. At the end of the study, it was determined that the children receiving the sensory integration approach in “goal attainment” were more independent with self-care and socialization. We should research all forms of therapy to find what works best to meet the child’s needs. Every child deserves to reach their fullest potential and be independent. Carrie Barrepski can be reached at [email protected]
Delayed growth is poor or abnormally slow height or weight gains in a child younger than age 5. See also: Short stature A child should have regular, well-baby check-ups with a health care provider. See the following for more information: Delayed or slower-than-expected growth can be caused by many different things, including: Many children with delayed growth also have delays in development. See also: Failure to thrive If slow weight gain is due to a lack of calories, try feeding the child on demand. Increase the amount offered to the child, and offer nutritional, high-calorie foods. Also, prepare formula exactly according to directions. Do not water down (dilute) ready-to-feed formula. Contact your health care provider if you think notice developmental delays or think eemotional issues may be contributing to a child's delayed growth. If your child is not growing due to lack of calories, your health care provider can refer you to a nutrition expert who can help you choose the right foods to offer your child. The health care provider will examine the child and measure height, weight, and head circumference. The parent or caregiver will be asked questions about the child's medical history, including: Ther health care provider may also ask questions about parenting habits and the child's social interactions. Tests may include: Growth - slow (child 0 - 5 years); Weight gain - slow (child 0 - 5 years); Slow rate of growth; Retarded growth and development
The Rallying Cry of Secession The appeal to states' rights is of the most potent symbols of the American Civil War, but confusion abounds as to the historical and present meaning of this federalist principle. The concept of states' rights had been an old idea by 1860. The original thirteen colonies in America in the 1700s, separated from the mother country in Europe by a vast ocean, were use to making many of their own decisions and ignoring quite a few of the rules imposed on them from abroad. During the American Revolution, the founding fathers were forced to compromise with the states to ensure ratification of the Constitution and the establishment of a united country. In fact, the original Constitution banned slavery, but Virginia would not accept it; and Massachusetts would not ratify the document without a Bill of Rights. The debate over which powers rightly belonged to the states and which to the Federal Government became heated again in the 1820s and 1830s fueled by the divisive issue of whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories forming as the nation expanded westward. The Missouri Compromise in 1820 tried to solve the problem but succeeded only temporarily. (It established lands west of the Mississippi and below latitude 36º30' as slave and north of the line—except Missouri—as free.) Abolitionist groups sprang up in the North, making Southerners feel that their way of life was under attack. A violent slave revolt in 1831 in Virginia, Nat Turner’s Rebellion, forced the South to close ranks against criticism out of fear for their lives. They began to argue that slavery was not only necessary, but in fact, it was a positive good. As the North and the South became more and more different, their goals and desires also separated. Arguments over national policy grew even fiercer. The North’s economic progress as the Southern economy began to stall fueled the fires of resentment. By the 1840s and 1850s, North and South had each evolved extreme positions that had as much to do with serving their own political interests as with the morality of slavery. As long as there were an equal number of slave-holding states in the South as non-slave-holding states in the North, the two regions had even representation in the Senate and neither could dictate to the other. However, each new territory that applied for statehood threatened to upset this balance of power. Southerners consistently argued for states rights and a weak federal government but it was not until the 1850s that they raised the issue of secession. Southerners argued that, having ratified the Constitution and having agreed to join the new nation in the late 1780s, they retained the power to cancel the agreement and they threatened to do just that unless, as South Carolinian John C. Calhoun put it, the Senate passed a constitutional amendment to give back to the South “the power she possessed of protecting herself before the equilibrium of the two sections was destroyed.” Controversial—but peaceful—attempts at a solution included legal compromises, arguments, and debates such as the Wilmot Proviso in 1846, Senator Lewis Cass’ idea of popular sovereignty in the late 1840s, the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, and the Lincoln-Douglas Debates in 1858. However well-meaning, Southerners felt that the laws favored the Northern economy and were designed to slowly stifle the South out of existence. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was one of the only pieces of legislation clearly in favor of the South. It meant that Northerners in free states were obligated, regardless of their feelings towards slavery, to turn escaped slaves who had made it North back over to their Southern masters. Northerners strongly resented the law and it was one of the inspirations for the publishing of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. Non-violent attempts at resolution culminated in violence in 1859 when Northern abolitionist John Brown abandoned discussion and took direct action in a raid on the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Though unsuccessful, the raid confirmed Southern fears of a Northern conspiracy to end slavery. When anti-slavery Republican Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election in 1860, Southerners were sure that the North meant to take away their right to govern themselves, abolish slavery, and destroy the Southern economy. Having exhausted their legal and political options, they felt that the only way to protect themselves from this Northern assault was to no longer be a part of the United States of America. Although the Southern states seceded separately, without intending to form a new nation, they soon banded together in a loose coalition. Northerners, however, led by Abraham Lincoln, viewed secession as an illegal act. The Confederate States of America was not a new country, they felt, but a group of treasonous rebels.
Goals: Students will learn the importance of the values of the Olympic Games by writing a personal motto and a newspaper article. Time Required: Two 45-minute class periods Materials: Olympic Values Student Reproducibles 3A and 3B, pencil or pen, access to reference materials, chart paper 1. Ask students if they know the meanings of the words “creed” and “motto” (a creed is a system of beliefs; a motto is a slogan). 2. Explain that the Olympic Games are as much about winning a medal as they are about participating. As the Olympic Creed states, athletes should be proud to participate and play well in the games regardless of whether they win. 3. Discuss the meaning of the Olympic motto “Swifter, Higher, Stronger” (all athletes attempt to perform to the best of their abilities). Explain that this motto is inspirational to athletes, and that all of the sporting events fall into at least one of these categories (e.g., speed skaters attempt to be swifter). If you have a school motto, discuss its meaning and the way in which people in your school live up to the motto. 4. Distribute copies of Olympic Values Student Reproducible 3A and read aloud with the class. Have students complete the activity individually. 5. Discuss the importance of the Opening Ceremony, during which athletes from around the world gather and march in a Parade of Nations, wearing clothing that reflects their nation’s cultures. One athlete from each country carries the nation’s flag in the Parade of Nations. Explain how this ceremony embodies the spirit of the Olympic Games (celebration, being the best, inspiration, friendship, optimism, respectful, global excellence, determination, festive) and showcases the pride that each athlete feels. 6. Distribute copies of Olympic Values Student Reproducible 3B and read the directions aloud. Allow time for students to complete this activity. Create your own classroom oath. Record it on chart paper and hang it in the classroom for all to follow.
Cartoon Analysis Guide Use this guide to identify the persuasive techniques used in political cartoons. Print guide (PDF, 10 KB) Cartoonists use simple objects, or symbols, to stand for larger concepts or ideas. After you identify the symbols in a cartoon, think about what the cartoonist intends each symbol to stand for. Sometimes cartoonists overdo, or exaggerate, the physical characteristics of people or things in order to make a point. When you study a cartoon, look for any characteristics that seem overdone or overblown. (Facial characteristics and clothing are some of the most commonly exaggerated characteristics.) Then, try to decide what point the cartoonist was trying to make through exaggeration. Cartoonists often label objects or people to make it clear exactly what they stand for. Watch out for the different labels that appear in a cartoon, and ask yourself why the cartoonist chose to label that particular person or object. Does the label make the meaning of the object more clear? An analogy is a comparison between two unlike things that share some characteristics. By comparing a complex issue or situation with a more familiar one, cartoonists can help their readers see it in a different light. After you’ve studied a cartoon for a while, try to decide what the cartoon’s main analogy is. What two situations does the cartoon compare? Once you understand the main analogy, decide if this comparison makes the cartoonist’s point more clear to you. Irony is the difference between the ways things are and the way things should be, or the way things are expected to be. Cartoonists often use irony to express their opinion on an issue. When you look at a cartoon, see if you can find any irony in the situation the cartoon depicts. If you can, think about what point the irony might be intended to emphasize. Does the irony help the cartoonist express his or her opinion more effectively? Once you’ve identified the persuasive techniques that the cartoonist used, ask yourself: - What issue is this political cartoon about? - What is the cartoonist’s opinion on this issue? - What other opinion can you imagine another person having on this issue? - Did you find this cartoon persuasive? Why or why not? - What other techniques could the cartoonist have used to make this cartoon more persuasive?
Presentation on theme: "Top 10 Strategies to differentiate instruction"— Presentation transcript: 1Top 10 Strategies to differentiate instruction Jacque Melin 2Thank you for being present today You can expect:conversationslearning 3I’m counting on you to… learn from one another actively participate commit to a partnership in this journey(cell)(office) 4A Definition of Differentiated Instruction (DI) Diane Ravitch defines differentiating instruction as a form of instruction that seeks to "maximize each student's growth by recognizing that students have different ways of learning, different interests, and different ways of responding to instruction.” 5(continued)"In practice, it involves offering several different learning experiences in response to students' varied needs. Educators may vary learning activities and materials by difficulty, so as to challenge students at different readiness levels; by topic, in response to students' interests; and by students' preferred ways of learning or expressing themselves" (p. 75). 6Dr. Carol Ann Tomlinson University of Virginia Distinguished Professor ASCD and Solution Tree Author 7Researcher Theodore Sizer says: “… while it may be inconvenient that students differ, it is an irrefutable fact of life in the classroom.”(Source of slide: Cornelius Watts, LF, GaDOE)30 sec.In 1984, Theodore Sizer founded the Coalition of Essential Schools and is currently serving as its Chair Emeritus.Professor Sizer received his B.A. from Yale, his doctorate from Harvard and held several teaching positions before becoming dean of the Graduate School of Education at Harvard and, subsequently, the headmaster of Phillips Academy in Andover, MA. He is the Founding Director of the Annenberg Institute for School Reform. 11# Pre-assessment Not the least important because it is number 10. You cannot differentiate for readiness until you pre-assess.Can be formal or informal.Use data to plan lessons for diverse readiness levels. 12Types of informal pre-assessments Quick Write - might sound very ordinary, but as a pre-assessment it can reveal a lot by asking a ‘big idea’ question; student answers can uncover what they understand, what misconceptions they may have, or the reasoning processes they are using. They are given only 1-3 minutes to write an answer (thus 'quick write') Example: "How do electrical devices work?" Graphic Organizer - there are so many - you might want to consider a Venn diagram, a word/idea web, a cause/effect chart, a flow-chart, a sequence chart; something you’ve used as a pre-write; (KWL is really common, so don’t use for this assignment please). Word Splash Activity - content vocabulary is placed on a board, chart, large paper in a random ‘splash’. Students are asked to use the words in sentences, a paragraph, captioned drawing, or diagram.Cloze Writing - fill in the blank using a vocabulary bank Line Continuum - usually used with 5-10 agree/disagree or true/false statements about the upcoming topic/unit; students place themselves on a continuum line about what level of comfort they may have with answering the question; for each question there usually is new movement. Graffiti Wall - Use large butcher paper and title it with a theme or big idea or topic from unit (i.e. Underground Railroad) Students over a certain amount of time (a day-a week) write thoughts/ideas/opinions that come to mind regarding the title. Have them initial each. Keep track of what students record. The graffiti wall then can be used throughout the unit by adding new information, correcting misconceptions, categorizing, developing vocabulary, etc. for you to listen to later. 13ScienceSequence/steps/cycles/processes Scientific principles Content-area vocabularyMathSteps in a processSocial StudiesImportant events/turning points/conflicts Elements of civilization Highlights of an era Content-area vocabularyELACharacter/key figures/attributes Setting/conflict/problems & solutions Beginning, middle, end Symbols/themes 14Types of informal pre-assessments Quick Write - might sound very ordinary, but as a pre-assessment it can reveal a lot by asking a ‘big idea’ question; student answers can uncover what they understand, what misconceptions they may have, or the reasoning processes they are using. They are given only 1-3 minutes to write an answer (thus 'quick write') Example: "How do electrical devices work?" Graphic Organizer - there are so many - you might want to consider a Venn diagram, a word/idea web, a cause/effect chart, a flow-chart, a sequence chart; something you’ve used as a pre-write; (KWL is really common, so don’t use for this assessment please). Word Splash Activity - content vocabulary is placed on a board, chart, large paper in a random ‘splash’. Students are asked to use the words in sentences, a paragraph, captioned drawing, or diagram.Cloze Writing - fill in the blank using a vocabulary bank Line Continuum - usually used with 5-10 agree/disagree or true/false statements about the upcoming topic/unit; students place themselves on a continuum line about what level of comfort they may have with answering the question; for each question there usually is new movement. Graffiti Wall - Use large butcher paper and title it with a theme or big idea or topic from unit (i.e. Underground Railroad) Students over a certain amount of time (a day-a week) write thoughts/ideas/opinions that come to mind regarding the title. Have them initial each. Keep track of what students record. The graffiti wall then can be used throughout the unit by adding new information, correcting misconceptions, categorizing, developing vocabulary, etc. for you to listen to later. 15conductor slavery Underground Railroad African-American freedom Write 2 sentences using the vocabulary words on this slide about Harriett Tubman; about Rosa Parks; about bothsegregationCivil rightswomen 16Types of informal pre-assessments Quick Write - might sound very ordinary, but as a pre-assessment it can reveal a lot by asking a ‘big idea’ question; student answers can uncover what they understand, what misconceptions they may have, or the reasoning processes they are using. They are given only 1-3 minutes to write an answer (thus 'quick write') Example: "How do electrical devices work?" Graphic Organizer - there are so many - you might want to consider a Venn diagram, a word/idea web, a cause/effect chart, a flow-chart, a sequence chart; something you’ve used as a pre-write; (KWL is really common, so don’t use for this assignment please). Word Splash Activity - content vocabulary is placed on a board, chart, large paper in a random ‘splash’. Students are asked to use the words in sentences, a paragraph, captioned drawing, or diagram.Cloze Writing - fill in the blank using a vocabulary bank Line Continuum - usually used with 5-10 agree/disagree or true/false statements about the upcoming topic/unit; students place themselves on a continuum line about what level of comfort they may have with answering the question; for each question there usually is new movement. Graffiti Wall - Use large butcher paper and title it with a theme or big idea or topic from unit (i.e. Underground Railroad) Students over a certain amount of time (a day-a week) write thoughts/ideas/opinions that come to mind regarding the title. Have them initial each. Keep track of what students record. The graffiti wall then can be used throughout the unit by adding new information, correcting misconceptions, categorizing, developing vocabulary, etc. for you to listen to later. 18Other types of pre-assessments Yes/No Cards - Students make a large index card with Yes (or "Got It") on one side, No ("No clue") on the other side. Teachers ask an introductory or review question. Students who know the answer hold up the Yes card, if they might have the answer they hold the No card. Then do a quick Think/Pair/Share. This short assessment can give a quick look at what the group is ready for/understands/'gets'. Example: Use when introducing vocabulary words that students need as a knowledge base for a specific unit of study. Entrance Cards- As students enter for the day give them a small index card and ask them to respond to a displayed sentence or short paragraph which shares a specific idea that will be taught during the unit displayed in the room. They might ask questions or add more information to the displayed statement. Square Off/or 4 Corners - Place a card in each corner of the room labeled as: No Path, Rocky Path, Smooth Path, and Paved Path. Teach them the meaning of the analogy of "path" in their learning. Make a statement or ask a question about the topic/unit of study (i.e. "The moon has no gravity.") Instruct the students to go to the corner of the room that matches their comfort level with what they are thinking or where they are with the statement. As a group, those in each corner discuss what they know about the statement/question. Briefly visit each corner to listen to their conversations or they can record the conversations onto an audio tape 19iPad Pre-assessment Apps Traffic LightScreen ChompShow Me 20Other technology tools for Pre-assessments SocrativeRoom 7615Poll Anywhere 22# Curriculum Compacting A three-step process that: a) assesses what a student knows about material to be studied,b) plans for learning what is not known,c) plans for freed-up time to be spent in enriched or accelerated study. 25#Learning ContractsWritten agreements between students and teachers that grant the student certain freedoms/choices about completing tasks yet require the student to meet certain specifications.They outline what the students will learn, how they will learn it, how long they will have to learn it, and how they will be graded or evaluated.Often times contain “working conditions” or rules to be followed. 26Learning Contract #2To demonstrate what I have learned about ____________________, I want to_ Write a report_ Put on a demonstration_ Set up an experiment_ Develop a computer presentation_ Build a model_ Design a mural_ Write a song_ Make a movie (Podcast)_ Create a graphic organizer or diagram_ OtherThis will be a good way to demonstrate understanding of this concept because______________________________________________________________To do this project, I will need help withMy Action Plan is________________________________________________The criteria/rubric which will be used to assess my final product is _________My project will be completed by this date _____________________________Student signature: ________________________________ Date __/__/__Teacher signature: ________________________________ Date __/__/__ 43#Open Ended TasksRequire more than remembering a fact or reproducing a skill,Students can learn from answering the questions; teachers can learn about the students,May be several acceptable answers. 44Project Based Learning (PBL) The Buck Institute for EducationWest Virginia Department of Education 45What were the major developments in the Renaissance? From “Google-able” to open-ended:What were the major developments in the Renaissance?Was the Renaissance a rebirth, or a whole new baby? 46How have humans changed the environment? From “too big” to answerable:How have humans changed the environment?How has our (state, city, etc.) changedin the past 50 years? 47How do architects use geometry? From too general to more concrete and challenging:How do architects use geometry?How can we design a theatre that meets specifications with the greatest number of seats?47 48Who are the heroes in my life? From too abstract to more relevant and engaging:What is a hero?Who are the heroes in my life?48 49From too general to more concrete and localized: What are the characteristics of healthy soil?Is our soil healthy enough to support a vegetable garden?Customize to audience if possible49 50From “sounds like a teacher” to student-friendly: How does the author use voice and perspective inThe House on Mango Street to reflect on herchildhood and community?How does our childhood shape who we areas teenagers? 53# Tiering Based on readiness level -Different work, not simply more or less work-Equally active-Equally interesting and engaging-Fair in terms of work expectations and time needed-Require the use of key concepts, skills, or ideas-Are used as practice or formative work, NOT as an assessment task to be graded.-Learn from each other – share work! 54Motivation to LearnStudents cannot learn when they are unmotivated by things far too difficult or things far too easy.Students learn more enthusiastically when they are motivated by those things that connect to their interests.--Tomlinson, The Differentiated ClassroomGaDOE1 min. 61# Choice Boards Help to manage a differentiated classroom Independent workUsed to extend and refine learning targets 62Motivation to LearnStudents cannot learn when they are unmotivated by things far too difficult or things far too easy.Students learn more enthusiastically when they are motivated by those things that connect to their interests.--Tomlinson, The Differentiated ClassroomGaDOE1 min. 64One way to design a TTT board in a “universal design” manner C 65Learning Targets – Industrialization and Urbanization The learning targets for this assignment:Students will be able to…Identify individuals who played a major role in expanding industry.Identify individuals who responded to the growth of industry through the organization of workers.Identify the reasons why the United States was able to turn into a major industrial power during this era.Identify the reasons why there was a growth in labor unions during this time period.Identify historical themes that are found throughout a historical era.Identify the cause and effect relationship of historical events. 66INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION (1) News StoryYou are a journalist during the Gilded Age and have been asked by your boss to write a front-page article about either the booming steel industry in Pittsburg, PA or the growth of oil. You must interview Andrew Carnegie or John D. Rockefeller, as well as a steel mill worker or oil refinery work. Other than these requirements, you are free to write what you want!(2) ObituaryA well-known industrial baron or union leader has passed away. Choose which figure you want to write an obituary about from the list below. Be sure to cover the impact that individual had on society, as well as his/her accomplishments and failures.-A. Carnegie -J. Rockefeller-C. Vanderbilt E. Debs-S. Gompers T. Powderly(3) Cause and Effect ChartCreate a cause and effect chart for two of the following events. Be sure to identify and explain each of your chosen events, and then identify and explain 3 impacts.-Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad-Bessemer Process-Electricity-Big Business(4) Primary Source AnalyzerFind a primary source that dates to the Gilded Age, specifically the growth of big business, and complete the APART handout. Be sure to answer each part of the acronym.(5) Recruiter AdvertisementHenry Fisk of Carnegie Steel. Co. has hired you to create an advertisement flyer to recruit new employees for the steel mill in Homestead, PA. He fears that a strike may be coming and wants to be able to recruit new employees if the current ones stop working.(6) Poem/Rap/SongWrite a poem/rap/song about the Gilded Age. It can be general about the era, or you can select a specific part of the era. Either way, it must be 5-6 stanzas in length, with each stanza have 4-5 lines of more than 8 words.(7) One PagerComplete a one-pager documenting one of the historical themes (BAGPIPE) from US History seen in the Gilded Age. Find the one-pager instructions for more information, or see me for an example.(8) TimelineCreate a timeline on either a poster-board or on the website Select what you believe to be the TOP 10 events of the Gilded Age. For each, provide a description and then explain why you chose it as a top 10 event from the era.(9) Schematic Drawing/ModelYou are an architect and your firm has just been hired to develop a new factory town outside of Chicago. A rival firm just complete George Pullman’s complex, and the people who hired you want a similar design. Create either a detail schematic drawing, or a 3 dimensional model of what your factory will look like and include.INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATIONTIC-TAC-TOE CHOICE BOARD 67The Pythagorean Theorem Rhyme Time(musical)Make a rhyme or chant to help you and others remember the formula to the Pythagorean Theorem. Write it down.Think-Aloud(verbal/linguistic & logical/mathematical)Create three story problems involving the Pythagorean Theorem. As you write and solve each problem, write a think-aloud, including your reasons as to why you chose the problems and numbers that you chose.Poster(visual/spatial & logical/mathematical)Create a poster for the class that shows examples of how to solve for the missing side of a right triangle by using the Pythagorean Theorem. You may take pictures, draw pictures, or use the internet.Game Time(interpersonal)With a partner, create a game about the Pythagorean Theorem. Agree on and write down directions so that you can explain the game to the class.Review TimeFree SpaceYou will find a creative way to review for the test. Make sure your review includes at least two items from each section that we’ve covered in our unit.Photo Book(naturalist & visual/spatial)Take photos of right triangles at home or around the classroom. Put the photos together to create a book about the Pythagorean Theorem. Then identify the legs, hypotenuse, and the right angle on the triangles.Family Time(interpersonal & visual/spatial & verbal/linguistic)Interview a family member or friend to see if they know how they use the Pythagorean Theorem. If he/she does not know how to use the Pythagorean Theorem, teach it to him/her on a piece of paper. If he/she does know the Pythagorean Theorem, have him/her teach it to you on a piece of paper.Formula Diagram(logical/mathematical & visual/spatial)Draw a diagram to support the formula of the Pythagorean Theorem: the sum of the area of the two squares on the legs of a right triangle equals the area of the square of the hypotenuse.Dance Time(body/kinesthetic & musical)Make up a rap or a dance that explains the Pythagorean Theorem. Write it down and be prepared to teach the class.Tic Tac Toe Board:The Pythagorean Theorem 68Locke/Demosthenes Research 1. Letter HomeYou are a “launchie” Write a letter to a family member back on earth. Explain what your new life is like in battle school by describing two activities the cadets do for training. Also, write about an encounter you had with one of the characters in the book; Ender, Petra, Bean, Bonzo, etc. This should give insight into their personality.In The NewsPretend you are a writer for the “Vids.” Write a half page news report praising or condemning Ender’s zenocide. This news report should give reasons why the world should treat Ender like a savior or a mass murderer.Locke/Demosthenes ResearchJump on a computer and research who Locke and Demosthenes were in real life. Create some kind of report (power point, poster, short paper, etc.) explaining who they were and why their names were chosen by Peter.Design a Battle ArenaSketch out a battle arena “star” plan. After sketching, write a brief explanation why the stars were placed where you placed them. What sort of strategy do you hope the cadets will come up with in your arena (best way to win).Continue the SeriesChoose to follow either Ender with Ender in Flight or Speaker of the Dead, Bean with Ender’s Shadow or back track to a young Mazer Rackham with Earth Unaware by reading the first chapter in any of those books. Write a brief response describing how it connects with an event in Ender’s Game.6. PosterIt is your chance to make a cheat sheet for your classroom! Design and make a poster that includes the important plot points, characters, and concepts from Ender’s Game. If all of your information is accurate and professional looking I may or may not allow this up as a cheat sheet! (I suggest a divide and conquer approach. Find what other classmates are doing and choose something different…maybe all of the test info will be on the walls!)You tell meFree box, if you can think of anything else, run it past me with point values and we will try to make it happenComic StripCreate a comic strip that illustrates your favorite scene in Ender’s Game. Be sure to use illustrations and captionsMovie NightWatch the movie Ender’s Game. Complete a Venn Diagram that illustrates the similarities (5) and differences (10) between the book and movie. Write 1 paragraph explaining which you like better.Novel Study:Ender’s Game 70The Pythagorean Theorem Choice Menu Main Dish (complete all):Create and write down a real-world two-dimensional problem to solve by using the Pythagorean Theorem. Make sure to create an answer key and show your work on how to solve it. Then have a friend solve it.Create and write down a real-world three-dimensional problem to solve by using the Pythagorean Theorem. Make sure to create an answer key and show your work on how to solve it. Then have a friend solve it.Side Dish (choose two):Create a rap or song about the Pythagorean Theorem. Please try to incorporate as many of the eight vocabulary words as possible (Pythagorean Theorem, Pythagorean Theorem Converse, proof, right angle, right triangle, square root, hypotenuse, and legs).Create a game to remember and practice the spelling of the eight vocabulary words (Pythagorean Theorem, Pythagorean Theorem Converse, proof, right angle, right triangle, square root, hypotenuse, and legs). Write instructions so other classmates can play it.Use a large piece of paper to write the letters pythagorean theorem. Use these letters to create new words by rearranging the letters. You do not need to use all of the letters. For example, the word “got” and “python” could be two possible words. See how many words you can make. Challenge your friends.Dessert (optional and can only be completed after the other two courses):Use the puzzlemaker.com website to create a crossword puzzle for the eight vocabulary words (Pythagorean Theorem, Pythagorean Theorem Converse, proof, right angle, right triangle, square root, hypotenuse, and legs). Then you or a friend can solve it.Use the computer to create a brochure using Publisher or create a PowerPoint presentation. You should explain the steps on how to solve for a missing side of a right triangle by using the Pythagorean Theorem. 71Pizza Builder Choice Board OrchestraTask: Build a ‘Pizza’ that represents a genre or style of music that is interesting to you 72Pizza Builder!! Crust Choices: (Select one) Thin Crust: A solo work for an unaccompanied instrument or voiceHand Tossed Crust: A work for a chamber ensemble of 2-15 performersDeep Dish Crust: A work for large ensemble, over 16 performersGluten Free Crust: A work for mechanical or computer based sound generators 73Pizza Builder! Sauce Choices: (Select one) Red Sauce: represents music created for no specific occasion but simply as entertainment.White Sauce: represents uplifting music created for a specific purpose or cultural event.Pesto Sauce: represents somber music created for a specific purpose or cultural event.Barbeque Sauce: represents music created for a festive occasion or cultural event. 74Pizza Builder! Toppings: (Select your favorite!) The Middle Ages: A delicious pizza topped with the sounds of singing Monks, recorders, shawms, and citterns. Note: peasants will be served on traditional wooden utensils; nobles will be served on gold plates.The Renaissance: A very festive pizza topped with the sounds of crumhorns, hurdy-gurdies, lutes, and essence of sackbut. Note: some toppings have been aged to preserve their potency. 75Pizza Builder! Toppings – Con’t: (Select your favorite!) The Baroque: More refined than the Renaissance, this pizza includes the sounds of the viol family and the harpsichord. Depending on your sauce, you may detect a note of certain brass instruments. Note: This pizza served by a celebrity impersonator dressed as J. S. BachThe Classical: Very formal in design, this square pizza features the sounds of strings and woodwinds with percussion and occasional brass instruments. You must wear a powdered wig when ordering this pizza. 76Pizza Builder! Toppings – Con’t: (Select your favorite!) The Romantic: A house favorite, this super-sized pizza features your traditional orchestral instrument family – but in twice the proportion. Earplugs recommended.The Modern: an unusual pizza, this pie pushes forms and shapes to an extreme. Order it with any combination of toppings. Note: crust will be asymmetrical.The Jazz: you may order the ‘big band’ or ‘combo’ version of this pizza. Each features excellent rhythm and improvised solos. Note: this pizza may not be available if the chef is between sets. 77Pizza Builder! Bake and Deliver Your Pizza: You may use the media center as your information ‘Oven’. Use the media sources available to you to find a piece of music that represents the pizza you have created. You will be preparing your pizza for consumption by the class. When you ‘Serve’ your pizza, be prepared to play either an audio or video with audio clip of the music. 78Pizza Builder! Assessment Rubric: Meets or exceeds expectations: Crust, sauce, and toppings well thought out to produce a representative piece of music with an example that includes the ingredients. Pizza well baked and arrives hot!Some expectations met:Crust, sauce, and toppings do not combine in a completely logical way – representative music difficult to categorize, and ingredients not well represented. Pizza may have been baked for too short a time. Expectations not met:Pizza was missing a major ingredient, or was not baked sufficiently. 80RAFT Writing Pythagorean Theorem ROLE AUDIENCE FORMAT TOPIC News ReporterTV AudienceScriptGive the audience directions on how to find the distance between two points in a coordinate system.Newspaper WriterNewspaper ReaderAdvice ColumnExplain the proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. Then explain the proof of the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem.YourselfAbsent Friend In ClassInstructionsExplain how to create a right triangle on a coordinate grid given two points.TeacherStudentExplain how to solve a real-world mathematical problem using the Pythagorean Theorem to find the missing side in a right triangle in three-dimensions.RAFT WritingPythagorean Theorem 81Other members of Congress ROLEAUDIENCEFORMATTOPICRobberBaronYour business’shareholdersReportYou are the head of a major industry and need to keep your shareholders happy by explaining to them how you are going to continue to make money. You need to outline your plan to them.Member ofCongressOther members of CongressLegislationYou and many of your colleagues are shareholders of several big companies making large profits. You want to make sure this continues. Draft a bill that will guarantee support for big business.ImmigrantWorkerFamily in HomelandLetterExplain what your life in America is like to your loved ones back home. Focus on your job and opportunities for work.Populist ReformerImmigrantsInvitationYou are beginning to see how immigrants are being taken advantage of in the work place as a source of cheap labor. You want to learn more about their situation in the factories. Invite them to a dinner to discuss their status as laborersInventorYour employeesInspirational SpeechThere is quick money to be made with every new invention that is created. Inspire your company workers to invent the next big one!INDUSTRIALIZATION ERA RAFT 82Role Audience Format Topic Role – What is your role as the artist?Audience – Who will be looking at your art?Format – What is the best way to present your art?Topic – Who or what is the subject of the artwork?Directions: Choose a role. Consider the audience. Complete the assignment in your sketchbook using the format and topic for that role. You may use colored pencil for this project. Use the checklist on the next page to make sure you are doing your best work.RoleAudienceFormatTopicPaintbrushPeersCartoonThe World is full of Color.Emotional ColorsElementary StudentsChildren’s Book CoverWeather.Warm or cool colorsThe PublicWarning AdWarning! Don’t……….Analogous Color SchemeDole & GabbanaPaper People WardrobeWhat to wear for the new fall design. 83Spanish: RAFTTARGET:I can use Spanish words and sentences to tell where things are located in the classroom. 86Thinking About the Sternberg Intelligences ANALYTICALLinear – Schoolhouse Smart - SequentialShow the parts of _________ and how they work.Explain why _______ works the way it does.Diagram how __________ affects __________________.Identify the key parts of _____________________.Present a step-by-step approach to _________________.PRACTICALStreetsmart – Contextual – Focus on UseDemonstrate how someone uses ________ in their life or work.Show how we could apply _____ to solve this real life problem ____.Based on your own experience, explain how _____ can be used.Here’s a problem at school, ________. Using your knowledge of ______________, develop a plan to address the problem.CREATIVEInnovator – Outside the Box – What If - ImproverFind a new way to show _____________.Use unusual materials to explain ________________.Use humor to show ____________________.Explain (show) a new and better way to ____________.Make connections between _____ and _____ to help us understand ____________.Become a ____ and use your “new” perspectives to help us think about ____________. 87Art and Color (Triarchic Intelligences) Target:I can analyze the use of color in painting. 88Analytical Practical Creative After you have looked at Monet’s Paintings 6.24 and 6.25 in your book. Select one painting and write a paragraph describing and analyzing it’s tone. Tone is associated with the feeling that Monet has about the scene, how he conveys the feeling to the viewer, and how he encourages the viewer to respond with emotions to the scene, First make a list of adjectives for the colors and forms in the painting. Then begin a paragraph using your list of words and make specific references to the painting.PracticalMake a painting or a collage that focuses on major events in your life. Use color to indicate the emotional connection you have with the specific event.CreativePoets use color in their poetry, sometimes to describe objects but also as metaphors of feelings, moods, or scenes. Look in Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations for literary references to each color. You will find under red, a reference to Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind.” Find a copy of the poem and locate his description of autumn leaves. Write your own color metaphors. 89Physical Education(Triarchic Intelligences)TARGET:I can communicate, cooperate, be a member of a team and enjoy participating in physical activity. 90Analytical Practical Creative Analyze the task you have ahead of you. What will you need to succeed? What obstacles are you likely to encounter? What is the best way to go about this task so that everyone participates/everyone exploits his or her strengths/you meet the lesson goals. Complete the task. Critique your performance – focus on team performance rather than individual. Compare this activity to other team endeavors. What this task a good way to learn about teamwork? Why or why not?PracticalPerform this task in a way which takes the: least physical effort; moderate physical effort; highest level of physical effort; relies on each member equally; relies on each member’s special strengths; uses the least/most equipment, expenses, etc.Discuss: When might you need to use each approach? What are the +/- of each? How can this exercise help you in real life?CreativeComplete the task to the best of your ability. Change the rules and try it again; repeat (make sure the task stays safe!). Design another such task that encourages cooperation and communication in a different way – perhaps nonverbal communication. What if you didn’t have the equipment you were given? How could you accomplish the task? What equipment is necessary? Nice to have? Unnecessary? 91Immigration(Triarchic Intelligences)TARGET:I can explain the meaning of “melting pot,” “mosaic,” and “salad bowl” as they relate to immigration in America. 92Analytic Practical Creative Analyze how and why the U.S. population has shifted from a melting pot to a salad bowl or mosaic as it has assimilated new immigrants. Show your analysis in a diagram.PracticalThink of the population of Grand Rapids and Kent County. Is it better for Grand Rapids to assimilate new people to this area like a melting pot or a salad bowl? Defend your position in a Podcast.CreativeCreate a different pair of metaphors to characterize how immigrants assimilated in the past and how they assimilate today. Write an explanation for each or create a visual to depict them. 94All students have the same TASK, but have a choice of SHOW AND TELL. Show-And-Tell BoardsAll students have the same TASK, but have a choice of SHOW AND TELL.Top row – what they could showBottom row – what they could tellNeed 1 SHOW & 1 TELL 95SHOW Charts and graphs TELL Newspaper article Video news interview TARGET: I can describe events that occurred during the civil rights movement TASK: Describe a significant event that occurred during the civil rights movement.SHOWCharts and graphsTimeline of incidents related to the eventIllustrations, photographs, graphics, or artifactsTELLNewspaper articleVideo news interviewSpeech 104Response to Big Business – Rise of Labor Unions Learning PreferenceTasksArtistCreate a poster that could be placed on the door of the union office at your job site. The goal of the poster is to communicate what workers want—higher pay and better conditions at the job site. The poster must be on an 11X14 piece of paper. See me once you complete a rough draft.BuilderYou have been asked by the union leader to build a model replica of your work site and to use it in a presentation at the next community meeting. The goal is to show others in the community what life in your work site is like, and to rally public support for the union. Draw out what your model will look like, and then it’ll have to be completed at home.Tour GuideA member of Congress is coming to your work site to examine the conditions. You have been selected to give the member of Congress a tour. Put together a tour itinerary of the places you want to show him (for this choice, assume you are working in a steel mill, dealing with hot molten iron-ore and other equipment). Make it your goal that this member of Congress goes back to Washington DC to fight for new legislation to help workers!MusicianLife in the factory can get pretty boring, and one of the things workers do to pass time is sing. Write a catchy song that you and your co-workers can sing that describes your working conditions and what improves you want as a laborer.WriterYou have been contacted by a local newspaper and been asked to write a opinion piece in the Sunday paper about working conditions at your job site. Write a work article about the conditions and what improvements you want to see. 105The Pythagorean Theorem: Profiler ArtistDraw a picture that explains the relationship of the areas of the squares on the sides of a right triangle for the Pythagorean Theorem.AnnouncerAnnounce the words and definitions of the Pythagorean Theorem, right triangle, right angle, legs a & b, hypotenuse, square root, proof, and the Pythagorean Theorem Converse like if you were announcing players at a professional basketball game. Write down what you would say.WriterWrite out the proof of the Pythagorean Theorem and the Pythagorean Theorem Converse. Then write down similarities and differences between the two proofs.ActorAct out what a right triangle is composed of and then create a rap about the Pythagorean Theorem.The Pythagorean Theorem: Profiler 106RoleLevel 1: On or Below Grade LevelLevel 2: On or Above Grade LevelArtistDraw or design an advertisement with descriptions of various clothing items, include the opinions of fashion experts.Draw or design an advertisement with descriptions of various clothing items, include opinions from fashion experts. Make up a new clothing item that is not invented yet.Singer/SongwriterWrite and perform a song or poem describing modern day clothing which includes public opinion of the clothing.Write and perform a song describing modern day clothing which includes public opinion of the clothing. Include a comparison to clothing worn when you were younger.Online Ad WriterWrite an “online” advertisement for clothes with descriptions and customer reviews.Write an “online” advertisement for clothes with descriptions and customer reviews. Include a respectful comparison to clothing from other stores.ActorAct out a fashion show which includes a complete description of the models’ clothing and critiques from journalists.Act out a fashion show which includes a complete description of the models’ clothing and critiques from journalists. Include a comparison of the models’ clothing to the previous model.
You are hereHome › Now showing results 1-6 of 6 This is a lesson about generating hypotheses and testable questions. Learners will use critical thinking and a collaborative approach to pose questions related to the study of Mars and evaluate the quality of their questions. They will explore... (View More) remote-sensing data collected by a camera orbiting Mars - the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) and develop a team science question. Students will practice critical thinking skills, use a collaborative approach to this first critical step of the scientific process. Exploring the images of the surface of Mars in Visible (VIS) images, students will come up with a topic of study, their team science question and hypotheses. The lesson models scientific inquiry using the 5E instructional model and includes teacher notes and vocabulary. (View Less) This is a game about planning what to take on a space trip to Mars. Learners will decide on the appropriateness of items to take on a long trip to Mars and take into consideration the effects of zero gravity, limited electrical power, etc. In this activity, students use different perspectives to gather information about an area, and discuss the advantages of this approach. It should be conducted in a grassy area, and requires a few pennies. The resource includes a set of images taken... (View More) from several perspectives, teacher notes, and Web links. This is Lesson 1 of Remote Sensing, part of IMAGERS, Interactive Media Adventures for Grade School Education using Remote Sensing. The website provides hands-on activities for the classroom supporting the science content in two interactive media books, The Adventures of Echo the Bat and Amelia the Pigeon. (View Less) In this data activity, students create maps of the snow cover of each continent, and determine the average global snow cover. Step-by-step instructions for use of the MY NASA DATA Live Access Server (LAS) guide students through selecting a data set,... (View More) importing the data into a spreadsheet, creating graphs, and analyzing data plots. The lesson provides detailed procedures, related links and sample graphs, follow-up questions, extensions, and teacher notes. Designed for student use, MY NASA DATA LAS samples micro datasets from large scientific data archives, and provides structured investigations engaging students in exploration of real data to answer real world questions. (View Less) This is a lesson where learners explore the process of decomposition and draw conclusions about the important role decomposers play in the flow of energy. The lesson models scientific inquiry using the 5E instructional model and includes teacher... (View More) notes, prerequisite concepts, common misconceptions, student journal and reading. This is lesson five in the Astro-Venture Biology Training Unit that were developed to increase students' awareness of and interest in astrobiology and the many career opportunities that utilize science, math and technology skills. The lessons are designed for educators to use with the Astro-Venture multimedia modules. (View Less) In this activity, learners will investigate and try to explain various lunar anomalies. They will present hypotheses (both written and oral) and then debate the merits of each hypothesis, with no right or wrong answers. This activity is in Unit 2 of... (View More) the teachers guide, Exploring the Moon, which is designed for use especially, but not exclusively, with the Lunar Sample Disk program. (View Less)
- Date: 1568 - 1 obsolete : an unfavorable aspect of a planet or star - 2 : a sudden calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction; broadly : a sudden or great misfortune or failure <the party was a disaster> A disaster is the tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard (a hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment) that negatively affects society or environment. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster, as is the case in uninhabited regions. Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries.
The day is a reminder that our treatment of others speaks volumes about our character and our moral fiber. Common courtesy refers to basic practices and behaviours that are considered to be acceptable and appropriate in a given social and cultural setting. Because of this, it is possible that what is considered common courtesy in one society, may be considered rude and unacceptable in another. Thank You is Universal Some common courtesies are still considered to be universal. These include: saying please and thank you when asking for a favor; maintaining hygiene standards; not making rude or obscene gestures; and respecting elders.. In most societies, not only is a person judged by their behavior towards other people, he or she is also treated the same way as they treat others. In this way, the practice of common courtesy creates a tight knot group, where every members follows the same practices and treats each other in the same way. Researchers have suggested that this need for group members to follow similar social and interpersonal etiquette serves an evolutionary purpose. People from other tribes and groups who follow different behavioral rules can be easily identified and denied in-group benefits. What Comes Around… People who are kind and polite tend to find themselves being treated in kind and with more friends and admirers. The bottom-line is: it pays to follow common courtesies. What comes around, goes around. How to Celebrate? - While most people practice common courtesy everyday, take this day to assess how you interact with others and perhaps change your behavior. - Start with simple things like saying please and thank you and sorry when appropriate. - Thank people who are courteous to you and appreciate them. Did You Know… …that the term curtsey, meaning to bow down in front of someone as a act of respect, originated in the late 1600s in England?
ON JULY 2, 1812, the schooner Cuyahoga, a private American vessel, sailed from Lake Erie into the mouth of the Detroit River and past Fort Amherstburg, a British stronghold on the Canadian side of the river. Unknown to those on board, the United States had formally declared war against Great Britain. But the British at Amherstburg knew. They seized the ship from the surprised crew and were rewarded with papers belonging to American brigadier general William Hull. Among them: correspondence outlining an invasion of Canada.
The Newfoundland landscape can be best described as a mixture of bogs, barrens, rock outcrops, water bodies and mineral soil. Much of the interior of the island portion of the province is covered by extensive bogs and barren lands. These sparsely forested heath and moss barrens result from wind exposure, humid conditions, temperature limitations and soil conditions. The soils found on these upland barrens are very coarse, usually very stony, have firm to compact subsoils and are often quite shallow. The boreal forest which surrounds these interior barrens is characterized by dominantly coniferous species and broad leaved deciduous trees. This natural vegetation is often indicative of deeper soils that may be suitable for agricultural use. The more favorable soils and better climatic conditions for agriculture are usually found on elevated ridges, along river terraces and on coastal lowlands. Newfoundland soils are very acid and the dominant soil limitation to crop growth is low fertility. The soils require regular applications of lime and fertilizers to supplement elements necessary for plant growth. Numerous other soil limitations also hinder the development of land for agricultural use. Limitations such as excessive stoniness create additional management problems and cost for land clearing. Wet soils require drainage improvements and add to the cost of putting land into production. Soils with compact subsoil layers resist penetration of plant roots and percolation of rainfall, leading to shallow rooting of crops and excessive moisture in the soil. Topography also restricts the use of land for agriculture. Steep slopes and complex topography often prevent use of farm machinery and create erosion hazards. However, soil conditions do vary quite rapidly across the landscape and some areas are better suited to agriculture than others. Knowledge of the distribution of various soil types and land distribution patterns is needed to channel agricultural activities into the most suitable areas. Soil surveys are required in order to provide adequate resource information for good land use and land management planning. They provide farmers with information on soil and land types that will help them manage their operations more efficiently. Decisions that must be made on amendment applications, planting and harvesting times, crop types and machinery requirements are related to soil conditions. During the course of a soil survey, the soil surveyors make numerous observations and descriptions in preparation for the compilation of the final map and report. Soil types are established according to specific characteristics. Each soil type in its particular environment has an expected response to crop suitability, soil management or engineering uses. Soil maps and technical grouping of soil types, therefore, become very important in classifying land and selecting suitable types of land use. Good soil survey interpretations will help the soil map user in evaluating the land for various purposes and serve as a very succinct educational tool. Soil survey provides information on the province’s soil resources to the farming community, the general public and the Branch. The principal activity is the characterization of soils, soil properties and soil suitability for agriculture and the spatial representation of the information by mapping. The information is instrumental in outlining potential agricultural areas, the development, planning and management of Agricultural Development Areas, and the expansion of the productive land base of individual farms. The program also provides technical advice to the farming community and agricultural staff on the adaptability of soils for various crops, their behaviors under use or treatment for plant production of for other purposes, such as waste disposal, their productivity under different management systems, and their susceptibility to soil degradation processes. The Soils and Mapping Services Section currently houses three levels of soils data – each level represents a different intensity of data collection. As such, the soil survey program has been tailored to coincide with the needs and priorities of the agricultural land and farm development. The three levels are Exploratory, Reconnaissance and Detailed. Each type of survey identifies in a general way the accuracy of a survey and the overall purpose of the survey. An Exploratory Soil Survey has a low survey intensity level and is designed to offer information for broad regional planning. The Newfoundland Exploratory Soil Survey Program ended in the mid 1990’s and provided the basis for the Canada Land Inventory (C.L.I.) Soil Capability Mapping. This type of survey is a very rapid type of survey that provides critical data necessary for planning and setting of long term agriculture priorities. Exploratory surveys give an overview as to the scope of problems involved in future agricultural development and lay the groundwork for ensuring land suitability and productivity studies. Exploratory type maps are used by the Agriculture Branch Land Use Section to set up broad boundaries for Agriculture Development Areas. These surveys give an estimate of the location, extent and quality of the land throughout the Island, thereby enabling agricultural planners to direct activities into the most viable areas. The survey maps also provide information for other interested groups such as foresters, engineers, park planners and wildlife officers. Reconnaissance soil surveys are of an intermediate intensity level and provide more information and interpretations than that gathered in exploratory work. A reconnaissance type of survey is designed to provide information for planning agricultural activities within Agricultural Development Areas and identifying areas for farm expansion and establishment of new farms. Reconnaissance soil mapping is usually based on land capability information derived from exploratory mapping and priorities of the Branch. Various parts of the Newfoundland Reconnaissance Program, have, however, been completed over the years without prior exploratory level information collection because of the immediate need for more precise information in some high priority agriculture areas. Information gathered at this survey level is used to formulate development plans within designated Agricultural Development Areas. The types and locations of agricultural enterprises together with the planning of compatible infrastructure, industry and residential development are also based on this soil survey program. Reconnaissance type surveys give major emphasis to physical attributes of the land and soil such as slopes, drainage, texture, and stoniness. They do not provide a great amount of detail on such features as soil productivity, fertilizer response or soil conservation. The third level of soil surveys are the Detailed Soil Surveys which is soils mapping at a 1:12,500 scale. It is characterized by a higher survey intensity level and deals with specific land management problems. These surveys are more time consuming and are usually done over smaller areas; they supply information for many purposes at the level of groups of farms down to the level of small farms. Detailed soil surveys are usually carried out in prime farming areas to provide information for increasing productivity and improving land management or to locate suitable land for farm expansion. Surveys at the highest survey intensity level give information on slope, drainage, texture and stoniness and interpretations relating to specific crops. Open file data, where available, can be requested by contacting the Manager of Soils and Mapping Services. Adobe® Acrobat® Reader software can be used for viewing PDF documents. Download Acrobat® Reader for free.
Uveitis is swelling of the middle layer of the eye, which is called the uvea. It may occur from both infectious and non-infectious causes. The uvea supplies blood to the retina. The retina is the light-sensitive part of the eye that focuses the images you see and sends them to the brain. It’s normally red due to its blood supply from the uvea. The condition usually isn’t serious. More severe cases of uveitis can cause vision loss if not treated early. The following symptoms may occur in one or both eyes: - severe redness in the eye - floaters, which are dark floating spots in your vision - light sensitivity - blurred vision The cause of uveitis is often unknown and frequently occurs in otherwise healthy people. It can sometimes be associated with another illness such as an autoimmune disorder or an infection from a virus or bacteria. An autoimmune disease occurs when your immune system attacks a part of your body. These conditions include: - rheumatoid arthritis - ankylosing spondylitis - ulcerative colitis - Kawasaki disease - Crohn’s disease Infections are another cause of uveitis, including - AIDS, which is caused by a virus - herpes, which is caused by a virus - CMV retinitis, which is a viral infection of the eye - West Nile, which is caused by a virus - syphilis, which is caused by sexually transmitted bacteria - toxoplasmosis, which is caused by a parasite - tuberculosis, which is caused by a bacteria - histoplasmosis, which is caused by a fungus Other potential causes of uveitis include: - exposure to a toxin that penetrates the eye Your eye surgeon, also called an ophthalmologist, will examine your eye and take a complete health history. They may also order certain laboratory tests to rule out an infection or autoimmune disorder. Your ophthalmologist may refer you to another specialist if they suspect an underlying condition is causing your uveitis. There are many types of uveitis. Each type is classified by where the inflammation occurs in the eye. Anterior Uveitis (Front of the Eye) Anterior uveitis is often referred to as “iritis” because it affects the iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye near the front. Iritis is the most common type of uveitis and generally occurs in healthy people. It can affect one eye, or it may affect both eyes at once. Iritis is usually the least serious type of uveitis. Intermediate Uveitis (Middle of the Eye) Intermediate uveitis involves the middle part of the eye and is also called iridocyclitis. The word “intermediate” in the name refers to the location of the inflammation and not the severity of the inflammation. The middle part of the eye includes the pars plana, which is the part of the eye between the iris and the choroid. This type of uveitis may occur in otherwise healthy people, but it has been linked to some autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Posterior Uveitis (Back of the Eye) Posterior uveitis may also be referred to as choroiditis because it affects the choroid. The tissue and blood vessels of the choroid are important because they deliver blood to the back of the eye. This type of uveitis usually occurs in people with an infection from a virus, parasite, or fungus. It can also occur in people with an autoimmune disease. Posterior uveitis tends to be more serious than anterior uveitis because it can cause scarring in the retina. The retina is a layer of cells in the back of the eye. Posterior uveitis is the least common form of uveitis. Pan-Uveitis (All Parts of the Eye) When the inflammation affects all major parts of the eye, it’s called pan-uveitis. It often involves a combination of features and symptoms from all three types of uveitis. Treatment for uveitis depends on the cause and the type of uveitis. Usually, it’s treated with eye drops. If uveitis is caused by another condition, treating that underlying condition may eliminate the uveitis. The goal of treatment is to reduce the inflammation in the eye. The following are treatment options for each type of uveitis: - Treatment for anterior uveitis, or iritis, includes dark glasses, eye drops to dilate the pupil and reduce pain, and steroid eye drops to reduce inflammation or irritation. - Treatment for posterior uveitis may include steroids taken by mouth and visits to additional specialists to treat the infection or autoimmune disease. A body-wide infection is usually treated with antibiotics - Treatment for intermediate uveitis includes steroid eye drops and steroids taken by mouth. Severe cases of uveitis may require drugs that suppress the immune system. Untreated uveitis can lead to serious complications, including: Uveitis will typically go away within a few days with treatment. Uveitis that affects the back of the eye, or posterior uveitis, typically heals more slowly than uveitis that affects the front of the eye. Relapses are common. Posterior uveitis due to another condition may last for months and can cause permanent vision damage. Seeking proper treatment for an autoimmune disease or infection can help to prevent uveitis. Uveitis in otherwise healthy people is difficult to prevent since the cause isn’t known. Early detection and treatment are important to reduce the risk of vision loss, which can be permanent.
A new study published by the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change has concluded that the impact of Global Warming on Earths natural resources is much less than predicted and is in fact responsible for improving plant growth and development. The study argues that the United Nations has lied to the public about claims that current temperature levels and changing precipitation patterns are beginning to stress Earth’s natural and agro-ecosystems by reducing plant growth and development. The study also argues that the United Nations has misled the public with its claims that the world needs to drastically reduce the ongoing rise in the air’s CO2 content because crops will fail, food shortages will become commonplace, and many species of plants (and the animals that depend on them for food) will be driven to extinction. Five-year smoothed rates of carbon transfer from land to air (+) or from air to land (-) vs. time. Specific findings from the study that examined hundreds of scientific studies on the subject include: - The productivity of the planet’s terrestrial biosphere, on the whole, has been increasing with time, revealing a great greening of the Earth that extends throughout the entire globe. - There is no empirical evidence to support the model-based claim that future carbon uptake by plants will diminish on a global scale due to rising temperatures. In fact, just the opposite situation has been observed in the real world. - The observed global greening has occurred in spite of all the many real and imagined assaults on Earth’s vegetation that have occurred over the past several decades, including wildfires, disease, pest outbreaks, deforestation, and climatic changes in temperature and precipitation, more than compensating for any of the negative effects these phenomena may have had on the global biosphere. - There is compelling evidence that the atmosphere’s rising CO2 content – which alarmists consider to be the chief culprit behind all of their concerns about the future of the biosphere is most likely the primary cause of the observed greening trends. - In the future, Earth’s plants should be able to successfully adjust their physiology to accommodate a warming of the magnitude and rate-of-rise that is typically predicted by climate models to accompany the projected future increase in the air’s CO2 content. Annual global net carbon (C) uptake by Earth’s lands and oceans (solid blue line) from 1959-2010. Given the above findings, the report also argues that the “greening of the earth” will continue for many years. The unfortunate reality of the propaganda that the United Nations frequently delivers to the world’s unsuspecting and gullible citizens is that governments are now beginning to implement initiatives such as carbon taxes that disadvantage economies and the people who are forced to pay such taxes in the name of saving the planet. Government leaders and policy makers should take notice of the findings of this important new assessment on the state of the earth’s terrestrial biosphere. To download a copy of the study, click here.
The aim of this session is for children to: - name a range of kitchen equipment; - explain how different pieces of kitchen equipment are used. You will need: - A range of kitchen equipment, e.g. measuring jug, chopping board, mixing bowl, kitchen scissors, rolling pin, cutters, oven gloves, grater. - Kitchen equipment cards - If you do not have kitchen equipment available, you could use these cards. - A box in which to hide the equipment - with a lid or piece of material to cover the contents. - Kitchen equipment jigsaws - cut out, laminated (optional) - Perky punch recipe - For Have a go - Idea 2. You will need equipment and ingredients to make this recipe. Alternative recipes are available from the Recipes area for children aged 3-5 years. Listen and respond Explain to the children that you have some equipment in the box and you are going to see if they can guess what they are. Slowly lift a piece of kitchen equipment from the box so the children can see a small part, e.g. a handle. Ask them to guess what the item is. Reveal the item and discuss it with the children using the following questions: - What is this called? - Have you seen it before? Where? - What does it do? - Does it have any sharp parts that we would need to be careful with? Choosing equipment that does not have any sharp parts, ask for a volunteer to come and mime how the piece of equipment would be used, e.g. stirring with a spoon. Ask them to explain what food they could prepare with this piece of equipment, e.g. I could stir cake mixture with a spoon. Repeat this with all the equipment asking different children to help. You could just use six pieces of equipment and repeat this activity another time with the rest or the equipment. Have a go Idea 1 - In small groups ask the children to complete the Kitchen equipment jigsaws. You may wish just to use 6 of the jigsaws at one time. Mix up the different parts of each piece of equipment and get the children to match the parts correctly. Question the children to reinforce what each piece of equipment is called, e.g. what do you think this jigsaw will be when you have found all the parts? As the children become more familiar with the equipment, you could use more jigsaws at one time. Idea 2 - Set-up a cooking activity so the children have the chance to use different pieces of kitchen equipment. You could start with Perky punch which uses a potato masher, juicer squeezer, mixing bowl and spoon. This simple recipe will give the children chance to practise naming some simple pieces of equipment and learn how they are used. Call a child to the front to choose a Kitchen equipment card, without showing the other children. Get the children to mime using the piece of equipment and see whether the other children can guess what the child is doing and the piece of equipment he or she is using.
What is the Cascadia fault? It is a product of plate tectonics, one of the primary causes of earthquakes, and volcanic activity across the globe. For those of us who don't remember all of our geology (I know I didn't), the earth's surface is made up of a series of different zones that compose its surface. \|A simple diagram of the earth's surface and core. The lithosphere- the uppermost layers of the earth's surface- are what cause tectonic activity to occur.\| The very upper layer, called the lithosphere, is what we most often think of as the earth's surface. It is composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. It is also incredibly thin when considering the earth's diameter as a whole. Because our earth's lithosphere is less dense than the asthenosphere found below it, it tends to float dynamically on top of it. The lithosphere can be divided into a series of tectonic plates- seven or eight relatively large, and several small. The total number is still somewhat under debate. \|A diagram of the earth's lithospheric plates as generally decided by the USGS. Arrows indicate ongoing motion. [Diagram: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/slabs.html]\| The plates are always slightly moving in generally consistent directions, as shown above. Plates moving together are creating mountains and ocean ridges- this is known as convergence. Plates moving apart are diverging- this can form features such as ocean trenches. The last type- transformative faults, neither create nor destroy, and are usually joined with one of the other two types of faults. In the case of our Cascadia fault, the North American Continental Plate (brown, above) is in fact overriding the Juan de Fuca plate (essentially the oceanic crust), shoving it under in a process called subduction. As a result, we have a very nice cascade mountain range with many amazing volcanic and mountainous features along it. This zone is approximately seven hundred miles long, and stretches from northern California onto Alaska. \|The thirteen volcanic giants of the Cascadia mountain range/faultline. In reality, there are more than 120 of these features of varying magnitude. Red triangles signify volcanoes that have erupted within the last 200 years. PNWers will certainly recognize almost all of these. [Maydamedia.com]\| Pacific Northwesterners may not know that a majority of our beautiful landmarks are in fact due to volcanic activity. From Mt. St. Helens to the Three Sisters, all of these giants have blown their top at some point. Even one of our proudest state symbols, Crater Lake, was formed approximately 7,700 years ago when the 12,000 foot tall Mount Mazama erupted and sank into the earth. The resultant caldera is the deepest lake in the US. \|The monumental Crater Lake in Oregon- a giant caldera. [vulcan.wr.usgs.gov]\| If you are looking into prehistoric times, you can always use geographic features to pinpoint times and locations of major events. Another neat way to do some detective work is through the oral or written histories of people who lived in the fault zone in the past. Approximately 12 events have happened in the last 7,000 years on the Cascadia fault line. On average, these events happened every 580 years, but varied from periods of hundreds to over a thousand years. Using geological evidence, these events can be determined within a resolution of a few decades, but can be pinpointed using oral and historical records. The most recent Cascadia earthquake was approximately 300 years ago, between 1699 and 1700 AD. Further examination of estuaries in the area of southern Oregon have shown evidence of tsunamis. (For full information, read "Great Cascadia earthquakes and tsunamis of the past 6700 years, Coquille River estuary, southern coastal Oregon" by Witter et al. 1950). \|A USGS simulation of the impacts of the 1700 Cascadia earthquake after 10 hours. Notice impacts all the way across the Pacific- much like the 2011 earthquake/tsunami event. [USGS]\| From Japanese fishermen's records, scientists were able to deduce the event of a smaller tsunami in 1700- but no evidence of an earthquake. Because of this, they assumed the epicenter of the event was elsewhere. Using modelling, deductive reasoning, and geology, they were able to narrow down the source as the Cascadia Fault in North America. In addition to the 1700 earthquake, there have been several confirmed records of similar events as early as the 9th century. Often geologic evidence correlates with indigenous legends of great floods, quakes, or natural disasters. Each culture of course interprets these events differently, and it is quite interesting how they fit into cultural beliefs. There are several books on the topic, including: “The Lisbon earthquake” by T.D. Kendrick, 1956 "Cascadia's Fault" by Jerry Thompson, 2011 In 869, a large earthquake/tsunami event (estimated 8.6 in magnitude) occurred in Japan, known as the 869 Jogan Sanriku earthquake. Interestingly, this event was directly recorded in a history text called Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, which was compiled in the year 901 AD. One more recent earthquake that some might remember is the 1964 Great Alaskan Earthquake, along the Cascadia Fault. Lasting four minutes, this was the strongest recorded earthquake in North American history at a magnitude of 9.2. The powerful nature of the quake caused soil liquefaction- a dangerous phenomenon in which water-saturated soils or sands vibrate apart and are filled in between with water- resulting in a much less stable surface, and often in the collapse of geologic features or buildings. Much like sifting flour, liquefaction creates a less dense and unstable substrate. \|The process of liquefaction- water fills gaps between sandy or loamy soils, making for unstable surfaces. [Figure: tulane.edu]\| \|Collapsed buildings after the 1964 Alaska Earthquake, due to the liquefaction of soils.\| Alaska had many earthquakes before this, but records are somewhat spotty prior to the 1700's. Most recorded earthquakes were magnitude 7 or above. Yakutat Bay is also an active area, and was the epicenter of two earthquakes on September 10, 1899. So what do Alaska, Oregon, Washington, and Japan all have in common? They are all found within the Ring of Fire- a ring of tectonic boundaries that is home to 452 of the world's active volcanoes and over 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes combined. Even better, 90% of the world's earthquakes occur within the Ring of Fire (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?termID=150). Where does this put us? Scientists are constantly trying to figure this out. Scientists at Oregon State University recently completed a 13-year study on the Cascadia fault. According to their findings, the southern boundary of the Cascadia Fault is much more active than the northern end (Newport, Oregon to Vancouver Island). The researchers concluded that there is quite a large probability (40%) of an earthquake in the southern Oregon region in the next 50 years. The massive report concludes with the fact that if a Cascadia earthquake doesn't occur by 2060, we have exceeded 85% of all gaps in earthquake occurrences along the Cascadia Fault in the last 10,000 years. So, quite frankly, we are overdue. But enough of the doom and gloom. This post was not meant to frighten anyone, just to present the facts. Perhaps the greatest empowerment of humankind is its capacity to understand, prepare for, and learn from natural disasters. Many studies are ongoing to better detect earthquakes, and we are miles ahead of where we were decades ago. We can now create models of evacuation, potential effects, and we can engineer structures that can withstand natural forces (to a degree). I'll leave you to digest these thoughts, and my next post will discuss some points on the proactive side of things: - Disaster preparedness: What can you do? How is the government preparing? - Oregon State University's Wave Lab, and modeling tsunami evacuation - Japan versus Cascadia - will we do better or worse? For more information on geology and earthquakes, visit USGS' FAQ page: \|The author at the summit of Mt. St. Helens.\|
Balancing demand for energy with timely production is a juggling act that is particularly relevant to renewable sources such as wind and solar. Because the wind isn't always blowing and the sun isn't always shining, the energy produced by these systems needs to be stored efficiently so it can be used when it's needed. While some scientists are looking into storing such energy by converting it to natural gas, Britain's Highview Power Storage has its own approach, which is already in use in a pilot project. In a nutshell, the company is storing excess energy as liquid air. Read the full article: CryoEnergy System uses liquid air to store energy
The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. A standard reference used for comparisons is the 35 mm format, which is a sensor of size 36×24 mm. A standard wide angle lens would have around 28 to 35 millimeters based on the 35 mm format. The smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. The native focal length of the sensor cannot be used for comparisons between different cameras unless they have the same size. Therefore, the focal length in 35 mm terms is a better reference. For the same sensor, the smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close Indicates the type of image stabilization this lens has: The horizontal field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close The vertical field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close Shows the magnification factor of this lens compared to the primary lens of the device (calculated by dividing the focal length of the current lens by the focal length of the primary lens). A magnification factor of 1 is shown for the primary camera, ultra-wide cameras have magnification factors less than 1, and telephoto cameras have magnification factors greater than 1.Close Physical size of the sensor behind the lens in millimeters. All other factors being equal (specially resolution), the larger the sensor the more light it can capture, as each physical pixel is bigger.Close The size (side) of an individual physical pixel of the sensor in micrometers. All other factors being equal, the larger the pixel size, the better the image quality is. In this case, each photoreceptor can capture more light and potencially can better differential the signal from the noise, yielding better image quality, specially in low-light.Close The maximum picture resolution this sensor outputs images in JPEG format. Sometimes, if the sensor can also provide images in RAW (DNG) format, they can be slightly larger because of an additional area used for calibration purposes (among others). Unfortunately, firmware restrictions for third-party apps also mean that the maximum picture resolution exposed to third-party apps might be considerably lower than the actual resolution of the sensor, therefore the resolution shown here is the maximum resolution third-party apps can access from this sensor.Close The available output picture formats this camera is able to deliver: The focusing capabilities of this camera: It displays whether this lens can be set to focus at infinity or not. Even if the camera supports autofocus and manual focus, it might happen that the focus range the lens is able to adjust to does not include the infinity position. This property is important for astrophotography, as in such low-light scenarios the automatic focus does not work reliably.Close The closest distance this lens is able to bring objects in focus. This is specially useful for macro photography.Close The distance from which objects that are further away from the camera always appear in focus. Therefore, if the camera is set to focus at infinity, any object further away from this distance will appear in focus.Close The range of supported manual exposure in seconds (minimum or shortest to maximum or longest). This camera might support exposures outside this range, but only in automatic mode and not in manual exposure mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer longer or shorter exposures times.Close The range of supported manual sensitivity (ISO). This camera might support ISO sensitivities outside this range in automatic mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer an extended manual sensitivity range.Close The maximum ISO sensitivity possible in manual mode is usually reached by using digital amplification of the signal from the maximum supported analog sensitivity. This information, if available, will let you know what is the maximum analog sensitivity of the sensor.Close The data on this database is provided "as is", and FGAE assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. The User assumes the entire risk associated with its use of these data. FGAE shall not be held liable for any use or misuse of the data described and/or contained herein. The User bears all responsibility in determining whether these data are fit for the User's intended use.
Women in Post-Revolution Ireland At the turn of the twentieth century Ireland appeared to be on the right track to achieving gender equality. Constance Markievicz, a prominent member of the Republican movement, was elected to the House of Commons in 1919, the first woman in both Ireland and the United Kingdom to do so. She later became the first ever female Minister to serve in cabinet under the newly formed Sinn Fein government in Dáil Éireann (Irish parliament). Women played a crucial role in the fight for Irish freedom both during the 1916 Easter Rising and later in the war for independence. The suffragette movement across both Ireland and the United Kingdom was successful and some women were granted the right to vote in 1918, all women aged 21 and over were granted suffrage four years later. However, after Ireland was granted independence, cultural expectations led to women stepping back from public life and predominantly staying at home as homemakers. The strong presence and power of the Roman Catholic Church was incredibly influential in maintaining this. The EU stood for social change and human (equal) rights and Ireland had to keep up. In the newly formed Irish Free State, Prime Minister Eamon De Valera and his Fianna Fáil (one of two main parties in Ireland) cabinet wrote the Irish constitution which was heavily influenced by the Roman Catholic Church and made many references to religion. This led to many restrictions placed on women and their autonomy. Divorce was made illegal and not until a public referenda in 1995 was it narrowly passed to give people the right to divorce. Most notably, is the controversial article 41.2.1° in the constitution that outlines that a woman’s right is in the home: ‘In particular, the State recognises that by her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support without which the common good cannot be achieved.’ Further restrictions were placed on women over the course of the century from various bills being passed in parliament that further restricted women’s rights to employment, bodily autonomy and personal rights. In 1927 an Act was passed exempting women from jury duty and allowing a woman to opt out if she chooses. The sale and importation of contraceptives was banned in 1932. This then led to the Marriage Bar in 1935 being extended to all parts of the civil service and granting the government power to limit the amount of women employed in any industry. This enforced that married female public servants could no longer work. Ireland joining the European Union Ireland joined the European Union in 1973, the same year that the Marriage Bar was lifted. Joining the EU was mainly due to economic reasons, Ireland was in a deep recession in the 1970s and was ever dependent on a struggling agricultural sector. But, the deal that Ireland got landed with when they joined went way further than just economics. The EU stood for social change and human (equal) rights and Ireland had to keep up. Due to Ireland joining the European Union, many amendments were made to the bills that had once prohibited women from participating in public life and this saw the slow but steady increase in women becoming involved in politics, the legal system and many other parts of society. The percentage of women in full time employment began to increase as well. The Equal Pay Directive in 1975 stated that sex discrimination on all bases of pay had to be eliminated; in 1976 another directive was passed that prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex and marital status in reference to promotion or dismissal. Other directives were the Social Security Directive in 1979 and later the Pregnant Workers Directive in 1992 that ensured that women had the statutory right to maternity leave for at least 14 weeks. The revival of feminist activism due to the recent referendum in Ireland is only the beginning of a new generations fight for gender equality. This led to a new found engagement from many women across the country in all aspects of public life. Máire Geoghegan-Quinn was appointed to a ministerial position in 1979, the first woman since Constance Markievicz sixty years later. In 1990 Mary Robinson was elected as the first female President of Ireland. Mary McAleese followed in 1997 and this was the first time in the world that another woman consecutively was elected as Head of State. During this time there was a major revival of the women’s movement in Ireland. In 1973, the Council for the Status of Women was established. In the 46 years that Ireland has been a member, the country has come a long way. From the Catholic archaic laws of the twentieth century to the 66.44% that voted yes to repealing the 8th amendment in the 2018 Referendum. This granted women the right to choice in regards to abortion. Without a lot of the external funding and legal rights the EU granted, Ireland would have struggled to keep up both socially and economically with their European counterparts. The European Union has been pivotal in progressing women’s rights in Ireland. The revival of feminist activism due to the recent referendum in Ireland is only the beginning of a new generations fight for gender equality. In this time of political unrest, now more than ever membership of the EU is important in protecting women’s rights and that is why we need to continue to support this by voting for feminist candidates in May. 2 thoughts on “A History of Women’s Rights in Ireland: What has the European Union done for us?” A Lucy, a chara Comhghairdeachas don alt seo. ACH na Dean dearmaid go bhuil na Se Contaethe faoi smacht Sasana go foill,nach bhfhuil ceart ag “gays” posadh, agus ta cosc ar ghinmhilleadh.Ni ceart go cuir la ceile.Adh mor […] A History of Women’s Rights in Ireland: What has the European Union done for us? […]
Educator's Guide to Eclipses\| Courtesy of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Eclipses have long been a source of mystery and spectacle. These events were viewed with fear and dread in the past and, even today, still thrill. There is a lot of special vocabulary involved in eclipses but there is a way to keep from being confused. The eclipse is named for the object that is being eclipsed, or obscured. In a you observe the Sun (using only safe methods, of course). You will see the Sun with a piece apparently cut out of it. In a you observe the Moon. A portion of its surface will be obscured. Another way to avoid confusion is to consider the time at which you will be viewing the eclipse. Because of the geometry described below, you can only view a solar eclipse when the Sun is up. You view lunar eclipses when the Moon is up. Eclipses occur when the Sun, Earth and Moon line up. They are rare because the Moon usually passes above or below the imaginary line connecting Earth and the Sun. In a solar eclipse the Moon passes directly in front of the Sun. This can only happen when the phase of the Moon is "new." That occurs because, for Earth-based observers, the far side of the Moon is illuminated while the side facing Earth is in darkness. The Moon, like any sphere, casts a shadow. A solar eclipse occurs when that shadow sweeps across Earth. The black cone is called the as in umbrella. An observer anywhere in that region is completely in shade. None of the Sun is visible from there. Surrounding the umbra is the An observer there will see some, but not all, of the Sun. Outside of these regions, all of the Sun is visible. Note that the tip of the umbra barely touches Earth. At the current time the position of the Moon relative to the Sun is such that the Moon, which is 400 times smaller that the Sun, is 400 times closer! This means that the two objects appear to be the same size in the sky. Only observers at the tip of the umbral cone will see a total solar eclipse. A large number of observers across the globe will see a partial solar eclipse if they are in the penumbra. An annular eclipse is a special partial solar eclipse. Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is an ellipse, not a circle, the Moon's distance from Earth varies. When the Moon is far from Earth it appears slightly smaller in the sky. (Earth's orbit around the Sun is also an ellipse, and during January, Earth is at its closest point to the Sun. The Sun's size is slightly larger than during the rest of the year.) With a "small" Moon and a "large" Sun the Moon will not completely block out the Sun. The umbra does not touch Earth. An observer would have to be above the surface of Earth to see a total eclipse. For individuals in just the right location, the Sun appears as a ring around the silhouetted Moon. In a lunar eclipse the Moon moves into Earth's shadow. They can only occur when the moon is "full." Observers on the night side of Earth see the Moon take on a reddish hue as it moves into Earth's umbra. If the entire disk of the Moon falls into the umbra it is total lunar eclipse. If only a portion does, then it is a partial lunar eclipse. Penumbral lunar eclipses are very difficult to detect because the Moon dims only slightly while moving through that region. Lunar eclipses are more common than solar eclipses. Total eclipses of the Sun and Moon are partial before and after totality. Popular astronomy magazines, available on many news stands, always give timely eclipse details.
Functional programming has been constantly growing and is a real option for solving problems that other paradigms have not been able to rectify. Here we talk about the advantages of functional programming and tackle the reasons behind its recent popularity. When I started teaching programming paradigms, functional programming was only studied for academic or research purposes and was hardly used in industry. However, this has changed. The industry looks favorably on this paradigm, and it is present in all modern programming languages. To analyze this change, we must understand what functional programming is. What is functional programming? Wikipedia tells us the following: “In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm where programs are constructed by applying and composing functions. It is a declarative programming paradigm in which function definitions are trees of expressions that map values to other values, rather than a sequence of imperative statements which update the running state of the program.” The main distinguishing features of software development with functional programming are: - Pure functions, which can compose new functions - Avoidance of shared state, mutable data, and side effects - The prevalence of a declarative rather than an imperative approach Now, let’s discuss these points in more detail. They are deterministic functions without side effects. A deterministic function means that for the same set of input values, it returns the same result. The properties of such functions are very important. For example, pure functions have referential transparency. You can replace a function call with its final value without changing the program value. Also, function composition refers to the process of combining two or more functions to create a new function or perform calculations. Avoiding shared state The main problem with shared state is that to understand the effects of a function, you must know the complete history of each shared variable used by the function. Therefore, functional programming avoids shared states, relying instead on immutable data structures and raw computation to extract new data from existing data. Another nuance that arises when working with shared states is that changing the order of function calls can lead to an avalanche of errors. Consequently, by avoiding shared states, you also avoid this problem. Underlying all functional programming is immutability. Immutable objects cannot be changed at all. This is achieved by the deep freezing of variables. With these tools, side effects are avoided, which means that in addition to returning a value, the function also interacts with the external mutable state. Why does functional programming avoid them? Because in this way, the effects of the program are much easier to understand and test. Haskell, for example, uses monads to isolate the side effects of pure functions. The point is that the imperative approach works on the principle of control flow and answers the question of how to do it. The declarative approach describes the flow of data and answers the question of what to do. In addition, imperative code often relies on instructions (operators), while declarative code relies on expressions. Why functional programming matters So, we have found out what functional programming is and what we need to know about it. Now, let’s look at the advantages of using it. One of the most obvious benefits is the high-level abstractions that hide many of the details of routine operations, such as iteration. Because of this, the code is shorter and as a result, guarantees fewer errors that may be made. In addition, functional programming contains fewer language primitives. Classes are simply not used, so instead of creating a single description of an object with operations in the form of methods, functional programming uses several basic language primitives that are well optimized internally. Furthermore, functional programming allows the developer to bring the language closer to the problem, rather than vice versa, all at the expense of the flexible structures and versatility of the language. Functional programming offers developers new tools for solving complex problems as well. To be honest, the list is too long to mention all the advantages of functional programming, and there really are many of them. However, I can say that working with functional languages provides accurate and fast code writing and makes testing and debugging easier. Programs are higher-level, and function signatures are more informative. Functional programming allows for writing code to be more concise and predictable and is easier to test (although learning it is not easy). Reasons behind its popularity In the IT world, nothing just happens. One thing is connected to another, and now, all the latest trends are interconnected. If we remember the most sensational trends of 2016-2017, these were AI, IoT, Big Data, and Blockchain. They were and are still on everyone’s minds, because everyone knows their potential and key features. It is some of these trends that have catalyzed the growing popularity of functional programming among developers. Today, the problem of parallel processing and working with large data streams has increased dramatically. By parallelizing the processing of this data, we can obtain the desired result in less time than with sequential processing. In addition, decentralized (distributed) computing, such as blockchains and others, are quite complex mechanisms. For such calculations, functional code is more suitable because of all the principles of functional programming (such as pure functions). The use of all basic techniques facilitates the execution and maintenance of parallel and distributed code. Moreover, functional programming was not only used to solve specific problems, given its increasing popularity, as it is now even applied to classical projects. As you have learned here, you should not be afraid of functional programming. Here are some tips for those who have decided to try a new paradigm and learn something radically new: - It will be very complicated at first, considering that you will have to leave behind what you know and learn new approaches and principles. - Start with microtasks. - If you come from Java, Scala is a great alloy to start with. We can split our solutions and think part functional, part object. In .NET, we have F#, which is a great language. Functional programming has been constantly growing and is a real option for solving problems that other paradigms have not been able to rectify. Comments? Contact us for more information. We’ll quickly get back to you with the information you need.
Chissano’s historic speech constituted the first time that the African body permitted the use of an African language in its meetings. Chissano said that he spoke in Swahili in order to urge African nations to promote and use indigenous African languages. Shortly afterward, the AU adopted Swahili as an official language. In a continent with more than 2,000 distinct languages, the role and importance of indigenous African languages in post-colonial modern societies has proved to be a contentious issue. Over the last few decades, the place of African languages has suffered negative consequences due to immigration, globalization, and the entrenchment of official languages like Arabic, French, and English. African languages have often been labeled as a hindrance to learning, and have suffered delegitimization at social, economic, and political spheres. Take Swahili for instance: a language spoken by almost 100 million people from the southern borders of Somalia to Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, to DR Congo, the Comoros Islands, Mozambique, and northern Zambia. Yet, despite the language’s wide application, it is barely used at high-level intergovernmental meetings, panels, or in scholarly conferences as a language of research and presentation. John Mugane, the director of African languages program at Harvard University and the author of the book The Story of Swahili, recently highlighted this problem saying that a lot of academic work was done with intellectuals not understanding or speaking African languages. Mugane said that he parted with his African language students by asking what he called “The Mugane Question”: “To everybody who talks about Africa and writes about Africa, do you speak in the language of the people you write about?” Another part of the problem is the status associated with African languages both at home and in school. Decades after independence, former colonial languages are still used as the primary languages of instruction and governance. According to the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, Africa is still the only continent where the majority of children start school using a foreign language. This creates a system where young people look at their own native languages as a burden rather than as a tool of expression and production. To this end, young Kenyans, for instance, have often expressed that speaking English was prestigious, and that ‘Swahili is for the poor.’ In Algeria, the debate over whether to use French or Arabic in classrooms is still a delicate matter, creating wrangles over what best expresses modern Algerian identity. And as more and more of these African languages fall out of daily use, some of them even teeter on the brink of extinction. But two years ago in Tanzania, became the first sub-Saharan African country to use an African language, Swahili, as the medium of instruction throughout the schooling years. And last month Nigeria’s education ministry announced a program to use local languages for instruction in science and mathematics in primary and secondary schools. Among immigrant communities, parents might also not teach children their heritage language, perceiving it as a potential obstacle to success. The reverse could also be true, where a spoken language in a given country is relegated to the background because of the lack of its immediate additional value. An example of this could be the Somali language, whose script was only standardized in 1972. But after the collapse of the central government in 1991, Arabic became the dominant language in professional, religious, and educational circles. A child growing up in Somalia during this period would have an emphasis placed on perfecting Arabic and English skills, which would mean not only success in school but also pave the way for full scholarships for higher learning abroad. One initiative that aims to promote the diversity and vitality of African languages is Jalada Africa, whose recent mobile literary festival visited 12 towns in five countries across East Africa. The Pan-African collective wants to explore the instrumentality of language in Africa and held panel discussions, performances, workshops, and film screenings to celebrate these cultures and languages. Last year, they also translated a short fable by Kenyan writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o—which probably broke the record for the most translated short story in history. Sign up for the Quartz Africa Weekly Brief — the most important and interesting news from across the continent, in your inbox.
Mars rover ‘Opportunity’ is part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Rover program. Two rovers were launched, the other one being Spirit, on board the Delta 2 Heavy on July 7, 2003. These Rovers landed on Mars in January 25, 2004 each on opposite sides of the planet. Opportunity was also called MER-B OR MER-1 while Spirit was MER-A. Although they were originally designed to operate for little over 90 earth days, Spirit functioned till getting stuck in 2009. Spirit ceased communication by 2010 but opportunity continued functioning. Opportunity has exceeded its intended lifespan by almost 15 years. Since landing on Mars, opportunity has covered 45 kilometres of the rough terrain. However, it went into hibernation after getting stuck in a planet wide sand-storm in July 2018. There hasn’t been any further communication from the rover. Opportunity and Spirit are solar powered robots that use six wheels to manoeuvre around the terrain. They weigh around 180 kilograms and can move at a maximum of 5 centimetres per second. Solar panels were used to produce the necessary energy to operate the rovers in the mornings, while lithium ion batteries stored energy for use during night-time. The power usage of the rovers was handled according to the environmental conditions. During winters or periods of dust storms, the rovers were designed to perform only the most necessary actions to consume limited amount of power. Sunlight during these periods would be scarce. During extreme weather conditions the rovers have even had to operate for mere few minutes each day. The landing site of Opportunity was an asteroid impacted crater. The rover made significant discoveries in the site. Presence of water in ancient Mars was discovered by Opportunity. The rover spent two years examining the surface of the crater. It was then programmed to go to another site called the Endurance crater. The rover identified and examined a completely intact meteorite. Towards the end of 2014 Opportunity started to experience memory loss or amnesia due to a fault in one of its power banks. This fault resulted in failure to write data onto the non-volatile memory. A temporary fix was used for a brief period, where the system was directed to ignore errors and warnings. Upon further damage to the memory, scientists decided to not use non-volatile memory at all. The rover was directed to use RAM only. Despite the numerous scientific achievements by the Opportunity rover, the program faces an uncertain future as there has been no communication from it’s side since the planet wide dust storm last year. Scientists believed that the rover would commence functioning after the dust storm cleared. They now think major damage could have been caused by the storm or large amounts of dust could have settled into the solar panels thereby preventing normal functioning of the rover. All hope may not be lost just yet as they believe another period of extreme winds could potentially clear the dust from the rover, after which they could restart it and commence normal function.
The cycle time is the time it takes to produce an item or provide a service. It is measured from the beginning of the first task until the end of the final task. It is the sum of both times that adds value and time that does not. Companies often use it to describe expected production ETA, but these are not always the same. People often confuse it with other time concepts, such as the lead and takt times. It is easy to understand the mathematical formula that calculates cycle time. Subtract the first task’s start time from the previous task’s end time. Cycle time for single piece flow item = Start Time – Finish Time The total cycle time of producing a toaster would be three hours if, for example, the first step in building a toaster starts at 8:45 a.m. and the finished toaster arrives at 11:30 am, packaged and ready to go. It can be used to describe specific parts of a process. For example, one could be for assembly, another for testing, and finally, a third for packaging. Instead of One Piece Flow when dealing with a batch of items, divide the total parts by the production runtime to determine the cycle times per part. Cycle time = (Finish time – Start time) / Units produced Imagine you are trying to understand the cycle time of painting the toasters in the previous example. A robot arm paints the toasters in waves using an automatic robotic arm. The toasters are then placed in a heated chamber to quickly dry the paint. The CT was less than 40 minutes because multiple products were being worked on simultaneously. Divide the number of parts produced (four) by the run-time production, 40, in order to get a cycle time per part of 10 minutes. Simple and straightforward formulae are used. Knowing what to do with cycle time data is the real value. Improve the timeliness Understanding your service or product will help you determine whether you can meet your customers’ needs in a timely fashion. Takt time is often used with cycle time and is sometimes confused. Takt is different from cycle time. It’s the amount of time it takes to produce a product in order to meet your customer’s deadline. For your company to deliver on ETA, you must set up your system so that the cycle time is lower than your takt. Install your system the ideal way Knowing your cycle time allows you to set up your processes properly. It allows the correct setup of the production floor in a manufacturing environment. Understanding how many machines, tools, and personnel you need is crucial. You can modify the line if you discover that your current cycle time is more significant than your takt. By adding the right tools, machines, and personnel to the line, you can reduce it. Identifying possible system improvements The cycle time can also be used to identify whether there are any improvements that could be made to a system. Changes in the environment can increase cycle times, even if it is lower than the takt. Monitoring your cycle times regularly will help you identify any unexpected increases in cycle time due to changes that were not anticipated. It may increase due to a lack of materials or unexpected machine downtime. Monitoring cycle times is essential to meet customer needs and identify cost-saving initiatives. A process that is less time-consuming may also be less expensive to manage.
Scientist Thinks He’s Proven Hawking’s Theory That Black Holes Glow Hawking radiation observed in a homemade black hole analogue You might think of black holes as evil interstellar whirlpools, massive balls of who-knows-what so dense that their gravity prevents even light from escaping. But in 1974, Stephen Hawking made waves (this is a physics joke) in the science world by theorizing that maybe black holes weren’t so dark; maybe they let out a faint glow of particles that barely escape the pull. A scientist thinks he’s recreated that glow. Jeff Steinhauer from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa, Israel created an analogue to a black hole in his lab, using the laws of sound, rather than light. His black hole let out a telltale signature providing compelling evidence for Hawking’s namesake theory, Hawking radiation. This research implies that black holes might not be the bottomless voids we thought they were. It also has broader implications in the field of physics as a whole, where a major goal is creating one theory that links the vast distances required by gravity theories and the tiny lengths studied in particle physics. “I think this work stands on its own as verification of Hawking’s calculations,” Steinhauer told Popular Science. Instead of a light-sucking behemoth, Steinhauer’s black hole is a line of cold rubidium atoms in a lab, as a form of matter called a Bose-Einstein condensate. Using lasers, he created a kind of waterfall: there’s a lot of atoms on one side moving slowly, but then pouring over the edge faster than the speed of sound to the other side. This means that phonons, individual units of sound, can’t escape past the boundary up the energy waterfall. This is like a black hole, except with space black holes, its light particles can’t escape gravity’s light-speed pull. Steinhauer published his results today in the journal Nature Physics. Quantum mechanics is strange, and on the smallest scales, particles will appear alongside their antiparticles and disappear. In real black holes, Stephen Hawking predicted that these particles might randomly appear on either side of the furthest extent of the black hole’s pull, so one particle gets sucked into the black hole and the other just manages to escape. Steinhauer observed this same effect on either side of his atomic waterfall; a stream of particles that fell into the black hole, and a matching stream that came out on the other side. Steinhauer was able to show that these two particles were entangled, meaning the properties are dependent on each other no matter how far away they were separated, which is a requirement of so-called Hawking radiation It’s important to emphasize that Steinhauer isn’t using real black holes, Grant Tremblay, astrophysicist and NASA Einstein Fellow at Yale University told Popular Science in an email. You can’t immediately translate the results to say that the black holes we see in space have the same behavior. However, physicists like Brain Greene frequently discuss uniting gravity with electromagnetism and the forces inside atoms with theories like the string theory and quantum gravity to make a theory of everything. Observing the interactions of particles with gravity in the case of the black hole would add further support that these theories can actually be united, noted Steinhauer. Seeing Hawking radiation in Steinhauer’s black holes show that his sound analogues are useful tools in making models of the real thing. “This result is an incredibly elegant example of how a Bose-Einstein condensate can act as a black hole analogue in a laboratory environment,” said Tremblay, “enabling experiments that could never be done on a real black hole.”
The hen harrier is a bird of prey which was once famous for predating fowl, giving the species its name. They are the one of the most endangered species of raptor in the UK. Males and females both have a white patch on their lower backs, but this is the only similarity. Males are pale grey, with slender wings that are tipped with black feathers. Females are mainly brown, with heavily streaked body, tail and wings, which are usually black or white. Juvenile hen harriers are bare similar colours and markings as the females. When a hen harrier spreads it wings you will see 5 distinct and separate tips also referred to as ‘fingers’. Hen harriers are raptors (birds of prey), meaning they primarily feed on vertebrates. They will hunt their prey by slowly flying low over an area, dividing it onto quarters and listening for prey. They feed primarily on small birds and mammals but can adapt to insects, reptiles and amphibians when other prey is not available. Hen harriers often hunt on grouse moors meaning young grouse are often a crucial part of their diet. Juvenile hen harriers roam widely in their adolescent years before settling in one spot to breed. - Length: 44-55cm - Wingspan: 1 – 1.2m - Weight: 300-500g (females are large than males) - Average life span: 7 years According to the Birds of Conservation Concern 4 (2015) the Hen Harrier is classified as red status. There is evidence that the numbers of hen harriers in Scotland and the UK more generally have been declining in recent decades. Hen harriers tend to be found on islands such as the Uists, Orkney and islands around Skye and Arran. There is also a small population on mainland Argyll. When to see January – December - Banding on a female hen harriers tail earned them the nickname ‘ringtails’ - Hen harriers, particularly those on Orkney, are known to practice polygyny. This means that one male hen harrier will mate with several females and bring food to their nests throughout the breeding season. - During the 19th century, the hen harriers were eradicated on mainland Scotland due to the expansion of game hunting estates. Despite the best efforts of changing legislation to protect the species and the decline of game estates, this relationship remains tumultuous leading to illegal persecution of the hen harrier.
General concepts and terminology for Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators Published by: Alyssa On: 04 Jun, 2017 Viewed:350 times - 3 day, 14 hour, 8 minute, 17 second ago Downloaded: 0 times - A transducer is a device that conve... A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding signal having a different physical form. Therefore it is an energy converter. This means that the input signal always has energy or power. But in measurement systems one of the two components of the measured signal, which is multiplied to yield power, is usually so small that it is negligible, and thus only the remaining component is measured. When measuring a force, for example, we assume that the displacement in the transducer is insignificant. That is, that there is no ‘loading” effect. Otherwise, it might happen that the measured force is unable to deliver the needed energy to allow the movement. But there is always a certain power taken by the transducer, so we must ensure that the measured system is not perturbed by the measuring action. Since there are six different kinds of signals—mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric, optical, and chemical—any device converting signals of one kind to signals of a different kind is considered to be a transducer. The output signals can be of any useful physical form. In practice, however, only devices offering an electric output are called transducers. This is because electric signals are used in most measurement systems. Some of the advantages of electronic measurement systems are the following: I. Electrical transducers can be designed for any nonelectric quantity, by selecting an appropriate material. Any variation in a nonelectric parameter yields a variation in an electric parameter because of the electronic structure of matter. 2. Energy is not drained from the process being measured because the transducer output signals can be amplified. With electronic amplifiers it is easy to obtain power gains exceeding 1010 in a single stage. 3. A large number of diverse integrated circuits are available for electric signal conditioning or modification. There are even transducers that incorporate these conditioners in a single package. 4. Many options exist for information display or recording by electronic means. These options permit us to handle not only numerical data but also text, graphics, and diagrams. 5. Signal transmission is more versatile for electric signals. Mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic signals may be more suitable in some circumstances, such as in environments where ionizing radiation or explosive atmospheres are present, but electric signals have replaced most non- electric signals. In fact in processing industries (chemicals, petroleum, gas, food, textile, paper, etc.) where automation was introduced some time ago, pneumatic systems are frequently found alongside more recent electric systems. However, in manufacturing industries (machinery, automotive, computing, and communication equipment, etc.) where automation is more recent and there are several discontinuous processes, we usually find only electronic systems used. A transducer is a device that takes energy from the system that it measures to give an output signal that can be transduced to an electric signal and that corresponds to the measured quantity. Sensor and transducer are sometimes used as synonymous terms. However, sensor suggests a broader meaning that includes the extension of our capacity to acquire information about physical quantities not perceived by human senses because of their subliminal nature or minuteness. Transducer suggests only that input and output quantities are not the same. The word modifier has been proposed for instances where input and output quantities are the same, but it has not been widely accepted. The distinction between input-transducer (physical signal/electric signal) and output-transducer (electric signal/display or actuation) is seldom used today. The trend, particularly in robotics is toward using sensor to refer to the input transducer while actuator refers to the output transducer. Sensors are intended to acquire information. Actuators are designed for power conversion. In this book we use sensor to refer to input transducers. Output transducers or actuators are beyond the scope of this work. Sometimes, particularly when mechanical quantities are being measured, an element called a primary sensor is introduced to convert the measured variable into a measuring signal. Then a sensor would convert that signal into an electric signal. For example, one would use a diaphragm as the primary sensor to measure a pressure difference hut measure deformation using a strain gage which serves as the sensor. In this book we will designate as sensor the whole device, including the package and leads. As the fastest growing demand of circuit and wiring diagram for automotive and electronics on internet based on different uses such as electronic hobbyists, students, technicians and engineers than we decided to provide free circuit and wiring diagram base on your needed. To find circuit and wiring diagram now a day its easy. E-learning through internet as a right place to search an exact circuit and wiring diagram of your choice and it's much fun and knowledgable. On internet you will find thousands of electronic circuit diagrams some are very good designed and some are not. So you have to modify them to make them according to your needs but some circuits are ready to make and require no changes. 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When studying human bones, there are any number of issues that arise, not the least of which is the procurement of the bones to be studied. This difficulty is exacerbated when dealing with samples that represent rare or unusual traits such as the presence of extra bones or those with abnormal openings, known as foramina (foramen sing). When such samples have been collected and preserved, they are often too rare or valuable to allow the students who need to examine them to have access to them. The introduction of 3D printing as a vital didactic tool is changing this through the creation of printed replicas that can be handled and examined often and replaced easily as necessary. Researchers from the University of Bourdeaux have been working to develop a virtual collection of paleo-specimens in order to facilitate their reproduction for study. This project is the result of an inter-disciplinary collaboration among four researchers from PACEA and LaBRI Laboratories: anthropologist Hélène Coqueugniot, computer science professor Pascal Desbarats, computer engineer Bruno Dutailly, and paleopathologist Olivier Dutour. The resulting patented operating chain, Vircopal (virtual collection of paleo specimens), represents an important coming together to make these paleo-resources available. The first step in the addition of specimens to the database is the utilization of x-ray to scan the internal structures of the bones. That data is combined with other data gathered through an image processing software, developed specifically for this by Dutailly. This image processing allows for the separation of various tissues and the creation of sufficiently detailed digital models that can then be turned into high quality 3D prints. These prints can be created at a variety of scales depending on the aspects to be emphasized and can include reproduction of internal structures in the form of a section to allow students to observe them up close. There is more to this than just the production of models for students. Hélène Coqueugniot explained the broader implications of the abilities to produce these models: “This methodology allows us to have a better understanding of past and present populations by studying, for example, developmental and growth processes. Moreover, in paleopathology (the study of diseases affecting ancient populations), this method provides quantitative results for some infectious diseases.” We’ve seen an explosion of uses for 3D printed models in the medical field ranging from models to prepare for delicate surgery to models of animal skeletal systems in veterinary education. In addition, more and more museums and scientists are using the production of 3D printed models as a way to allow rare specimens to become the object of common study and as a method for sharing samples around the world as easily as emailing a digital file. So it seems only natural to find yet another area in which this process makes a significant contribution. With the study of the bones of the past comes information about the present, as diseases that were once thought to be residents of ancient history make a resurgence these models can be important tools for current medical research. However, even if the bones present a situation that will never again be replicated, understanding it unlocks clues to the history of human kind that are too valuable to ignore. What are your thoughts on educational specimen? Let us know in the 3D Printed Bone Specimen forum thread on 3DPB.com. You May Also Like 3D Printing Webinar and Virtual Event Roundup, August 9, 2020 We’ve only got four online events to tell you about this week—a summit and a few webinars, one of which is on-demand. Read on to learn more! AM Industry Virtual... Additive Manufacturing Strategies 2021 Moves Online, Adds Extra 3D Printing Vertical Additive Manufacturing Strategies (AMS), the annual summit co-hosted by 3DPrint.com and SmarTech Analysis, is a conference focused on business intelligence for the additive manufacturing industry. The first year, AMS was... 3DEXPERIENCE: A Virtual Journey, Part 1 Due to the ongoing COVID-19 crisis, this year’s 3DEXPERIENCE Forum by Dassault Systèmes had to be re-imagined as a virtual event, just like so many other conferences. At 1 pm... 3D Printing Webinar and Virtual Event Roundup, August 2, 2020 It’s another busy week in the 3D printing industry that’s packed full of webinars and virtual events, ranging in topics from medical materials and flexible electronics to polypropylene and market... View our broad assortment of in house and third party products.
In view of the current controversies surrounding stem cell research, it would be appropriate to try to present some information regarding stem cells. I will try to answer some common questions regarding embryonic stem cell research as well as other alternatives such as adult stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. 1) What are stem cells? Stem cells are undifferentiated cells(ie. a cell that has not yet specialized into a particular type of cell like a liver cell or muscle cell or brain cell). They have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. In addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing essentially without limit to replenish other cells. A stem cell can divide into daughter cells identical with itself or it can become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell. 2) Why are stem cells unique? Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics. First, they are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Second, under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions. 3) What is a stem cell’s potency? Potency refers to its capacity to differentiate into particular type of human cells. a) Totipotent stem cells: Totipotent stem cells can differentiate into every tissue in the human body including the extraembryonic support tissues like placenta, umbilical cord and amniotic sac, Such cells can construct a complete, viable, organism. A single celled embryo(also called a zygote) is totipotent These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent. b) Pluripotent stem cells: Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers but not the extra embryonic support tissues. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent. c) Multipotent stem cells: Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells e.g. blood cells. d) Oligopotent stem cells: Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells. e) Unipotent stem cells: Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g. muscle stem cells). 4) What is the difference between embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells? Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of an embryo usually during the blastocyst stage (around 5 days old). In the process of harvesting these cells, the embryo will be destroyed. Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated, self renewing, pluripotent cells. Adult stem cells too have the ability of self proliferation and differentiation. They are derived from adults cells but not from embryo. They are also found in newborn tissues e.g. the cord blood of new born babies. Although some adult stem cells have been found with the capacity for pluripotency, most are only capable of differentiating into the tissue type or related cell type of the tissue they were found. 5)What are the ethical concerns surrounding stem cell research? The objective of stem cell research is indeed noble. It has the potential ability to treat a host of diseases such as Alzeimers / Parkinsons disease, spinal cord regeneration stroke, diabetes, heart failure, liver failure, inflammatory bowel disease, short bowel syndrome, GI motility disorders. It is currently being used in haemopoietic stem cell replacement. The nobility of such objectives should not justify the means. Is it justifiable to kill embryos to achieve such objectives? Those who judge human embryos to be human beings think that embryonic stem cell research is wrong. There are those who believe that embryos are “pre human entities” and that such research are justified. The Catholic church does not condone embryonic stem cell research. The Vatican and the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops have consistently supported stem cell research that does not exploit or destroy embryos. (Please refer to the following references: i)Pontifical Academy for Life, Declaration on the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells (August 25, 2000); Catholic Online, “American Bishops Reaffirm Church Support for Adult Stem-Cell Research,” http://www.catholic.org, June 26, 2006, http://www.catholic.org/national/national_story.php?id=20275. ii)Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Instruction Dignitas Personae (On Certain Bioethical Questions) (2008), nos. 24, 31, 32.) Adult stem cell research avoids this ethical problem by avoiding research on embryos altogether. Adult stem cell research has made remarkable progress in its ability to treat serious diseases. In contrast, embryonic stem cell research despite all the millions of dollars spent have produce nothing but failures. 6) What are induced pluripotent stem cells(IPSC)? This latest research which was pioneered by researchers in late 2007 shows great promise as it avoids the ethical controversy surrounding embryonic stem cell altogether. Here an adult somatic cells(usually a fibroblast) is induced to become like an embryonic stem cell through a process whereby certain genes are inserted into the somatic cell via the help of viral vectors. The resulting stem cell which is pluripotent will have similar properties to embryonic stem cells. These cells can then be allowed to develop into tissues to be used for transplantation and other therapeutic uses.
The Basics of Exciter Technology What is an exciter? Quite simply, an sound exciter is a loudspeaker without the membrane. It mainly consists of three components: the oscillating mass, the contact pins to connect to the amplifier, and the mounting plate which is attached to the surface being excited. 1. Oscillating mass 2. Contact pins 3. Mounting Plate When a signal is transmitted to the contact pins, the oscillating mass starts to vibrate with the frequency of the applied signal. This vibration or oscillation is transmitted to the mounting plate and from there to the surface the plate is mounted to, thus emitting sound from the surface. Sound exciters or conventional loudspeakers? Unlike conventional loudspeakers which have a very consistent, defined specification, there are various factors which affect how an exciter will react in an individual application. As exciters work by vibrating against the surface that they are mounted to, it is inevitable that the surfaces themselves affect the end result, causing variation in sound reproduction. Although it is difficult to get exact specifications from an exciter, there are still many advantages to using them. Exciter technology provides a cost effective way to create sound reproduction in various different locations. Due to its versatile nature, exciters can be mounted onto a variety of different surfaces and still produce good quality sound. Exciters are extremely beneficial for use in areas where issues such as water, cleaning agents, weather, lack of space, vandalism or visibility are present. Public transport, for example, is an ideal location for exciters to be used, as the risk of the exciter being damaged in much lower than that of a conventional loudspeaker. Other areas where exciters are being used successfully include; - Home cinemas where visibility is an issue - Cash machines - Retail product displays - School and office white boards - Outdoors where weather is an issue - Kitchens and bathrooms where water is present The ideal mounting surface? As you can imagine the quality of the reproduced sound is strongly dependent on the characteristics of the excited surface, such as material, shape and dimensions. So what are some of the best surfaces to mount exciters to? In the following, some examples of materials are listed that give a good sound output: - Sandwich panels with honeycomb structures (e.g. hexagon-structure) - Thin particle boards (e.g. HDF / MDF) - Plexiglas plates - Glass plates / windows (even heavy duty types like compound windowpanes) - The plate ought to be rigid, and made up of a non-magnetic material. Larger mounting surfaces tend to create greater amplitude and also wider frequency response in the base area. As well as taking into consideration what material and size board to used for mounting, it is also important to consider the mounting position of the exciter. A slightly off-centre position gives the best results. However due to the acoustics being strongly dependent on material properties and the shape of the excited surface, it is important to perform listening tests and take measurements to determine the optimal mounting position. Here are some images and a short video of a Visaton EX 45 S mounted on 2mm thick perspex board, in the second image you can see the slightly off-centre positioning of the exciter. You can also shop Visaton exciters and adhesive pads today, click the links below to be directed to the products on our website If you are interested in reading more about Visaton exciter principles, mode of mounting and mounting positions, click the link bellow Any questions about exciters? Leave them in the comments section and we will be sure to get back to you. - Joe Harris
The Real Cause of World War II Was the Allies Deception of Germany with the 1918 Armistice and the Subsequent Versailles Treaty Paul Craig Roberts John Wear and many other historians including David Irving have shown Churchill and Roosevelt’s guilt for World War II. Suvorov has made a strong case that Stalin also was guilty. https://www.paulcraigroberts.org/2020/01/13/rescuing-the-history-of-world-war-ii-wear-vs-suvorov/ The guilt of these three notwithstanding, it was the allied deception that coerced Germany into the Versailles Treaty that made WWII inevitable. The British economist John Maynard Keynes clearly understood this as did Lenin who described the Versailles Treaty as a bomb waiting to explode Europe, an event of which Soviet Russia intended to take advantage. Germany did not lose WW I on the battlefield. When the war ended, Germany occupied enemy territory. The war ended when Germany, believing American President Woodrew Wilson’s promise of no territorial loss and no reparations, asked for an armistice. Germany requested an armistice for two reasons: The entry of the US into the war, which brought fresh troops into the conflict, and rebellion at home. German sailors mutinied and leading German cities, such as Cologne and Hamburg established soviets demanding the end of the war and the abdication of the Kaiser. The German military concluded that these conditions precluded a successful continuation of the war. Once Germany put down her arms, the British used a food blockade to force Germany into accepting the Versailles Treaty that violated President Wilson’s promises or starve. Wilson was unable or unwilling to stand up to the British and French. Suvorov and many other historians have reported the massive reparations extracted from Germany. Here is Suvorov’s account: Germany lost “one-eight of its territory with a population of 5,138,000 people. Germany lost all her colonies. All merchant ships with a capacity over 1,600 tons displacement were confiscated, as well as one-half of the merchant ships exceeding 1,000 tons displacement, a quarter of the fishing fleet, and one-fifth of the river fleet. Germany was also required, for the next five years, to build for the Allies merchant ships, totaling 200,000 tons dispacement per year. Germany was obligated to supply France with up to 140 million tons of coal, Belgium 80 million tons, and Italy 77 million tons. Also, Germany was required to transfer half of its paints and non-military chemicals and to provide up to a quarter of the future production through 1925. The Allies received the right to use German ports, railroads, and waterways on very beneficial terms. On top of all this, Germany was forced into paying astronomical amounts of retribution.” Germany was a new nation unified in 1871, and only 47 years later it had ceased to be a sovereign state, denied an army, artillery, tanks, submarines, and aviation, with German arms production placed under international control. The country was dismembered with its territory scattered into France, Denmark, Poland, and Czechslovakia. The immense economic hardship imposed on the German people by reparations and the abuse of Germans by the Polish and Czech governments produced the rise of Adolf Hitler whose goal was to reunite Germany. It was the greed and stupidity of England and France, and the weakness of President Wilson, that created the conditions for the personal ambitions of Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin twenty years later. Corrupt and venal historians blame Germany for starting World War II just as they blame Germany for starting World War I despite the undeniable fact that Germany was the last combatant to mobilize for WW I. Wars have never been started by the last country to mobilize. Stalin militarized the Soviet economy years before Hitler militarized the German economy. Churchill’s plan to use war as his path to power was put into effect years prior to Hitler’s reunification of Germany. Historians who overlook these facts, are not historians. They are propagandists. Versailles Treaty: https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000002-0043.pdf
Facts about Nobelium Facts about Nobelium - Element included on the Periodic Table Facts about the Definition of the Element Nobelium The Element Nobelium is defined as... A Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belonging to the actinoids. Also known as unnilbium Interesting Facts about the Origin and Meaning of the element name Nobelium What are the origins of the word Nobelium ? Named in honour of Alfred Nobel. Facts about the Classification of the Element Nobelium Nobelium classified as an element in the Actinide series as one of the "Rare Earth Elements" which can located in Group 3 elements of the Periodic Table and in the 6th and 7th periods. The Rare Earth Elements are of the Lanthanide and Actinide series. Most of the elements in the Actinide series are synthetic or man-made. Brief Facts about the Discovery and History of the Element Nobelium Nobelium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, John R. Walton and Torborn Sikkeland in 1958 at the University of California, Berkeley. Occurrence of the element Nobelium in the Atmosphere Common Uses of Nobelium No known use The Properties of the Element Nobelium Name of Element : Nobelium Symbol of Element : No Atomic Number: 102 Atomic Mass: (259.0) amu Melting Point: Unknown Boiling Point: Unknown Number of Protons/Electrons: 102 Number of Neutrons: 157 Crystal Structure: Unknown Density @ 293 K: Unknown The element Nobelium and the Periodic Table Find out more facts about Nobelium on the Periodic Table which arranges every chemical element according to its atomic number, as based on the periodic law, so that chemical elements with similar properties are in the same column. Our Periodic Table is simple to use - just click on the symbol for Nobelium for additional facts and info and for an instant comparison of the Atomic Weight, Melting Point, Boiling Point and Mass - G/cc of Nobelium with any other element. An invaluable source for more interesting facts and information about the Nobelium element and as a Chemistry reference guide. Facts and Info about the element Nobelium - IUPAC and the Modern Standardised Periodic Table The Standardised Periodic Table in use today was agreed by the International Union of Pure Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, in 1985 which includes the Nobelium element. The famous Russian Scientist, Dimitri Mendeleev, perceived the correct classification method of "the periodic table" for the 65 elements which were known in his time. Nobelium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, John R. Walton and Torborn Sikkeland in 1958 at the University of California, Berkeley. The Standardised Periodic Table now recognises more periods and elements than Dimitri Mendeleev knew in his day but still all fitting into his concept of the "Periodic Table" in which Nobelium is just one element that can be found. Facts and Info about the Element Nobelium Information Facts about the Nobelium Element

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